t\ i JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1910natiuoft .^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION '" OF THE UNITED STATES Journal OF Proceedings and Addresses OF THE FORTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS JULY 2-8 1910 1910 publiebeD bs tbe Hssoclatlon SECRETARY'S OFFICE, WINONA, MINN. L Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicago, 111., U.S.A. CONTENTS Act of Incorporation By-Laws Certificate of Incorporati Calendar of Meetings Officers for 1909-10 Officers for 19 10- 11 Report of Treasurer Report of Board of Trustees Secretary's Minutes of General Sessions Annual Meeting of Active Members Annual Report of Committee on Resoluti Minutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1909-10 Adjourned Meeting of Board of Directors for 1909-10 Minutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1910-11 PAGE I 5 8 10 12 16 20 23 27 30 35 38 44 48 GENERAL SESSIONS Addresses of Welcome: I. Draper 11. Fitzgerald Response to Addresses of Welcome — Blair Education and American Independence — Kiichin War and Manhood — Jordan .... The Relation of Education to Democratic Government — Taft . Some Dominant Tendencies in American Education — Joyner A Message from the United States Bureau of Education — Brown William Torrey Harris — Greenwood ..... The Criticisms of the Public Schools by the Laity — CraUree Value of Demonstrative Methods in the Agricultural Education Population — Russell ....... Public Health and Public Education — Orr .... Training for Teaching — Miss Johnston ..... The Education of Women for Home-Making — Mrs. Hutt . The Value During Education of the Life-Career Motive — Eliot . of the Rural S3 S3 S4 S7 61 71 78 87 92 99 107 III "S 122 133 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE (Indianapolis Meeting, 1910) Secretary's Minutes — Keating Topic: Children Differ in Mental Alertness I. What Constitutes Retardation ? How May It be Corrected? — Ayres . II. Provision for Gifted Children in Public Schools — Van Sickle III. What Consideration Should be Given to Subnormal Pupils? — Grosz- mann ........... Topic: Children Differ in Moral Responsibility I. The Variable Factors in Moral Responsibility — Horn .... II. Discipline as Affected by Differences in Moral Responsibility — Lewis III. Methods of Reducing Moral Truths to Practice — Cummings 143 149 155 160 169 174 180 vi NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Topic: In Memoriam — William Torrey Harris I. Brown, G. P 185 II. Gary 190 III. Brown, E. E. . . iQS Topic: Children Differ in Mental Attitudes, Tastes, and Tendencies I. Dangers and Advantages of Specialization Prior to the High-School Age — StripUn i99 II. The Effects of Electives Upon the Future Welfare of Secondary Educa- tion— Brown .'......... 203 III. Do Present College-Entrance Requirements Sufficiently Recognize Different Tastes and Tendencies of Pupils ? — Hill .208 Topic: Children Differ in Physical Condition I. Health and Education — Harrington . . .' . 214 II. Competition and Culture — Sargent 223 III. The Principle Underlying Modern Physical Education — Horn 228 Topic: Children Differ in Environments L Southern Educational Problems — Weber . . .234 II. The Effect of Industrial Environment — Connelley .242 III. Education in the Country for the Country — Zeller .245 Topic: Children Differ in Vocational Aims I. Industrial Education in the Elementary School — Johnson . 253 II. Vocational Education in Secondary Schools — Webster . 260 III. Trade Unions and Industrial Education — Prescott .... 265 round tables Round Table of State and County Superintendents: Topic: The Country Child I. The Necessary One-Room School — Gass . . .275 II. The Consolidation of Schools — Aley . . . . .276 III. Industrial Work: In the One-Room School, Its Kind and Scope — Byrd 277 IV. Teachers for the Country School: Kind Wanted; How to Secure Them — Alleman ......... 280 Round Table of Superintendents of Larger Cities Art as a Necessary Factor in Industrial Education — Sargent . . . 284 Round Table of Superintendents of Smaller Cities: I. The Purpose and Content of the Elementary Curriculum — Chamber- lain ........... 286 II. The Grading and Promotion of Pupils — H art-well . . . . 294 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Constitution. ............ 307 Officers and Members ........... 309 Secretary's Minutes . . . . . .312 President's Address — Swain . . . . . . . . . .317 Report of Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools — Van Sickle ............ 321 The Economical Use of School Buildings — Maxwell 326 Report on Educational Progress During the Year — Strong 336 CONTENTS Vll Physical Education: I. Physical Education in its Various Phases — Elementary, Secondary, and Higher — Sargent . . . . . . . . .341 11. Physical Education from the Standpoint of Health — Gulick 346 III. Fundamental Education — Hetherington . . . . • 35© IV. The American Game of Football as Related to Physical Education — Jordan ........... 357 The Vocational and Industrial School — Fish ....... 363 The Need of Industrial Education in Our Public Schools — Robinson . 369 DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes . . . -377 The Principle of Development as the Basis for Kindergarten Method — Miss Palmer ............ 378 The Child as the Center of Correlation in the Kindergarten — Miss Tanner . 384 Aesthetic Development of Children at the Kindergarten Period — Miss Crawford . 388 The Test of the Child's Kindergarten Training — Miss Harris .... 396 The Kindergarten Out of Doors: I. Gardens — Miss Harvey . . . • . . 402 II. Walks and Excursions — Mrs. Ware ....... 404 III. Open-Air Sessions — Miss Colton ....... 410 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes . . 417 The Motivation of the Children's Work in the Elementary Schools — Wilson 418 English in the Elementary Schools — Miss Baylor ...... 430 Strengthening the Work in the Elementary Grades — Greenwood .... 436 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes .......... School Activities as an Educational Factor in Secondary Schools — Lasher The High School Itself — Mc Andrew ....... The Opportunities of the Modern High School — Cary .... Preliminary Report of the Committee on Cosmopolitan High School — Smith The Practical Aspects of Science in Secondary Education: I. The Pedagogical Viewpoint — Hart 11. The Scientific Viewpoint — Osterhaut A. Physics — Orr . B. Chemistry — Mills . C. Zoology — Mathews on D. Physiology and Hygiene — Murbach Report of Committee on Encouraging College Entrance Credit in High-School Agriculture — Graham .......... ROUND-TABLE CONFERENCES A. English — Rebuilding an English Course — Miller . : Essential Principles in Teaching English — Thomas . . C. Latin — The Oral Method of Teaching Latin — Lodge Natural and Artificial Stimuli in Teaching Latin — Riess . . . . 443 445 450 457 462 466 472 472 474 476 478 480 483 487 493 499 VIU NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION A Philosophical and Historical Retro D. Mathematics — Why Do We Study Mathematics spect — McCormack The Practical Limitations of an Ideal Course in Secondary Mathematics French Preliminary Report of the "National Geometry Syllabus Committee" and its Practical Pedagogical Implications — Betz Applied Problems — Breckenridge .... E. Modern Foreign Languages — Modern-Language Teaching in New England — Tuckerman The Direct Method of Teaching Modern Languages, and Present Conditions in our Schools — Monteser Writing in German — Bole SOS S" S" SIS S19 S23 S29 DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes ........... S3S President's Address: Department Problems — Fellows 53^ University Administrative Problems Outside of Teaching — Baker . . • S37 College and University Administration: The Office Side of the Question— Kep pel 542 The Relation of the College Faculty to Fraternities — Faunce . . . • S48 College Discipline — Clark SS7 DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS Secretary's Minutes 5^3 The Distinctively Professional Content of Normal-School and College Courses —Hill S64 Legitimate Spheres of Influence for the Normal School in Public Education — Maxwell 5^9 The Special Preparation of Teachers for the Rural Schools: A. Thru Secondary Schools — Picken. . . . . . . • S7S B. Thru the County Normal ScYiool-^Larson . . . . .578 C. Thru Courses in State Normal Schools — Burnham .... 583 Report of the Progress of Simplified Spelling in America S88 Report of the National Committee on Agricultural Education . .590 DEPARTMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING AND ART EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes S9S Aims and Methods in Modern Education — Monaghan . • S97 Ovu: Public Schools as Preparatory Schools for Practical Life — Rumely 603 A Practical System for General Training in Industrial Education — Dean 612 The Conservation of Educational Methods — Connelley ..... 616 The Training of Teachers for Industrial Work — Murray 621 Art as a Medium for Liberal Education — Kirby 626 The Advancement of Drawing and Art Teaching in our Public Schools — Miss Snow ............ 630 Drawing and its Relation to the Arts and Crafts of the Public Schools — Hammel 635 The Vocational Value of the Household Arts — Miss Kinne .... 642 The Scientific Department of the Secondary Schools and its Relationship to the Household Arts — Miss McDermott ....... 646 CONTENTS IX Report of the Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Education: Introduction — Burks ......... ' The Industrial Factor in Social Progress — Carlton .... The Industrial Factor in Education — Henderson .... Some Notes on the History of Industrial Education in the United States — Richards ........... I. Report of Sub-Committee on the Place of Industries in the Elementary School .......... Further Suggestions Regarding Course of Study II. Report of Sub-Committee on Intermediate Industrial Schools III. Report of Sub-Committee on Industrial and Technical Education i the Secondary School ....... Minority Report .......... A Selected Bibliography on Industrial Education .... Report of Committee on the Place of Industries in PubUc Education: A. Introductory Address — Richards B. Manual Activities in the Elementary School — Burks C. Intermediate Industrial Schools — Snedden ..... DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes .......... Boston, the Cradle of Public-School Music in America — Rice The Study of the Appreciation of Music in the High School of Springfield, Mass.- Miss Regal The Automatic Player in Schools — Thompson . . . . Harmony Courses in High Schools — McConathy ..... High School Orchestras — Birge ........ The Educational Value of the Folk-Song — Mrs. Barlow-Smith . • . Some of the E£fects of Music Instruction in Public Schools — Cook Success in Public-School Music — Marshall ...... 652 654 659 666 67s 680 692 710 731 76s 766 774 778 782 789 798 803 808 811 8iS 8i8 822 826 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 833 Past, Present, and Future of Commercial Education — Curry .... 835 How to Make Commercial Courses More EflScient — Lakey .... 839 The Education and Professional Training of Commercial Teachers — Pitman . 847 What Business Men Demand of Graduates of Commercial Schools — Healey . 854 Commercial Education as a Branch of Vocational Training — Herrick . . . 861 The Attitude of Academic High-School Teachers Toward Students of Commer- cial Departments — Green ......... 868 DEPARTMENT OF CHILD STUDY Secretary's Minutes ........... 873 Danger-Signals in Young Children — Groszmann ...... 874 Care of Exceptional Children in the Grades — Aley 881 The Exceptional Child: The Influence of Environment and Education Upon his Development Beginning with the Kindergarten Years — Goodhart . . 886 The National Child Welfare Conference: Its Work and Relations to Child-Study —Hall 893 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION How Every School may be a Child Welfare Conference — Allen . The Hygiene of Instruction — Burn ham ...... Child Study and School Organization and Administration — Spaulding What Can the Public School Do for Subnormal Children — Goddard 899 900 906 912 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes ......... The Deeper Significance of the School-Hygiene Movement — Cabot Psychological Aspects of Physical Education — Hall Physical Education of Girls During Childhood and Pubescent Period- Stoneroad .......... The Physical Training of Post-Adolescent Girls — Miss Wright . Mouth Hygiene in Public Schools — Potter ..... -Miss 921 922 927 936 942 948 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Secretary's Minutes ........... 949 Science in the Small High School — Terry ....... 950 Science Instruction in the Small High School — Russell . -955 Relation of Departments of Science in Secondary Schools to Teachers of Elemen- tary Schools — Robison .......... 960 Practical Aspects of Biologic Science in School Administration: The Problem of Janitor Service — Miss Putnam ........ 964 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Secretary's Minutes The Outlook for Educational Administration — Stoddart The Need for Better School Reports and Publicity — Snedden The Standardization of School Statistics — Cook A Decade of School Administration in Boston — Ellis . . 969 970 977 980 987 LIBRARY DEPARTMENT Secretary's Minutes ....... The High-School Librarian — Mc Andrew .... The Training of Teachers in the Use of Books and the Library- -Sturges 993 994 1003 ROUND-TABLE CONFERENCE Elementary-School Class Reference Work in Public Libraries— iWr^. Maltby The Use of the Public Library for Reference Purposes by the Elementary Schools — Chadsey .... Uses of the Public Library in the Teaching of History in the Schools— JWw5 Baylor Co-operation with the Schools: I. Miss Jordan ........... 11. Mrs. Root Some Results of Elementary School Class Reference Work in Public Libraries— Miss Bayles •••........ The School and the Library — Judd 1014 1014 1015 1016 1018 1022 1026 CONTENTS xi DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes ........... 1033 The State's Obligation to Provide Educational Opportunities for All Children, Normal or Otherwise — Jones . . . . . . .1035 Provisions for Education of Non-Normal Children— Their Efficiency and Cost: The Deaf Schools, Day and Institutional — Miss Adams .... 1039 The Blind in Schools With the Seeing — Bruner ..... 1044 Institutional Care and Training of the Blind — Ray .... 1050 Schools for Backward Children— Mw5 Farrell ..... 1054 Conservation of Vision and the Prevention of Blindness — Lewis 1055 What Kind of Quahfications and Training Should the Teacher of the Special Class Have ? — Miller . . . . . . . . . .1061 Oralism in Oral Schools — Taylor ......... 1067 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS Secretary's Minutes 1073 The Work of the Department of School Patrons, 1909-1910 — Miss Gill . 1075 The Work of the Coming Year — Mrs. Barnum ...... 1078 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes ........... 1081 Field Laboratory Work Accompanying College Courses in Horticulture — Watts 1082 Field Laboratory Work — Davis 1087 Laboratory and Field Work in the Agricultural High School — Crocker on . 1089 Report of the National Committee on Agricultural Education — . . . 1094 Agriculture in the Public School System: I. The Place of Agriculture in the Public High 'School— W arr en . . 1094 II. The Place of the Agricultural High School in the System of Public Education — Crosby ......... 1103 III. How the Schools and the United States Department of Agriculture can Co-operate — Hays . . . . . . . .1108 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES I 857-1870 The National Teachers Association Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Purpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. The name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the "National Educational Association." I 870-1907 National Educational Association Inporporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, "National Education Association," which was changed to "National Educational Association," by certificate filed No- vember 6, 1886. 1907- National Education Association of the United States Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the "National Educational Association." The charter was accepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Con- vention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA- TION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: Section i. That the following named persons, who are now ofl&cers and directors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. Schaeffer, Eliphalet Oram Lyte, John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews, of Arizona; John H. Hineman, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, of Delaware; J. Ormond Wilson, *William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of * Deceased. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whitte- more, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; Warren Easton, of Louisi- ana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot, ♦Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri; Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of Nebraska; Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; *James H. Can- field, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; Charles Car- roll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert Lange, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas; David H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths, of Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by the name of the "National Education Association of the United States," and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child-Study; twelfth, of Physical Education: thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties and the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its By-Laws. Sec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws not inconsistent with the provisions of wis act or of the constitution of the United States; to take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal estate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorpora- tion; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation. Sec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia, * Deceased. ACT OF INCORPORATION which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the cor- poration as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal prop- erty and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes afore- said, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation; provided, however. That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corporation; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year. Sec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members — viz., active, associate, and corresponding — whose quaHfications, terms of membership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the corporation. Sec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vice- Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and a Board of Trustees. The Board of Directors shall consist of a President, the First Vice-President, the Sec- retary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional tnember from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Edu- cational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former Presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the By-Laws of the corporation. The Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of the Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, to serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for, the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be given by said board. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio, during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect one trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unex- pired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership. Sec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the "Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association," when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trus- tees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two- thirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon the recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall other- wise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treas- urer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his oflBce for a period not to exceed four years. Sec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Wash- ington, District of Columbia, provided that the meetings of the corporation, its officers, committees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the By-Laws. Sec. 9. That the Charter, Constitution, and By-Laws of the National Educational Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new By-Laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Association shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this Act and adopt By-Laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the "National Educa- tion Association of the United States;" and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this Act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association, incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Educational Association shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, pro- vided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Associa- tion and its corporate existence shall be, and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District of Columbia. Sec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obli- gations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, ACT OF INCORPORATION and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corpora- tion had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discon- tinued by reason of this act. Sec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Approved June 30, 1906. Accepted and adopted as the Constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual session at Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907. BY-LAWS (Adopted at meeting of active members held in Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907.) ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP ACTIVE MEMBERS Section i. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of educational institutions, including libraries and educational publications, may become active members. Sec. 2. Any eligible person may become an active member upon application indorsed by two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. Sec. 3. Active members only shall have the right to vote and to hold office in the Association, in the National Council of Education, or in the several departments. Sec. 4. All active members shall pay annual dues of two dollars, and shall be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without "coupon" or other conditions. Sec. 5. The annual membership fee shall be payable at the time of the annual con- vention, or by remittance to the Secretary before September first of each year. Sec. 6. Any active member may discontinue membership by giving written notice to the Secretary before September first in any year, and may restore the same only on pay- ment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. A written application for active membership shall constitute an agreement to continue such membership and pay annual dues, unless written notice of discontinuance is sent to the Secretary before September first of the fiscal year for which such discontinuance shall apply. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS Sec. 7. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board of Directors to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time exceed fifty. Sec. 8. Corresponding members shall be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without the payment of fees or other conditions. ASSOCIATE MEMBERS Sec. 9. Any person on paying an annual membership of two dollars may become an associate member. Sec. 10. Associate members may receive the volume of Proceedings in accordance with the usual "coupon" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate. LIFE MEMBERS Sec. II. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members and shall enjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual dues. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ROLL OF MEMBERS Sec. 12. The names of active, life, and corresponding members only shall be printed in the annual Yearbook, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses, and the list shall be revised annually by the Secretary of the Association. ARTICLE II— OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES Section i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Directors, and Treasurer shall be chosen by the active members of the Association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided. COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Sec. 2. At the first session of each annual meeting of the Association the President shall appoint a Committee on Resolutions. committee on NOMINATIONS Sec. 3. At the third session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be appointed by the President a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one member from each state and territory represented. Such a committee shall be appointed by the President on the nomination of a majority of the active members from such state or territory present at the meeting called for the purpose of making such nomination; provided, however, That such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination, when the active members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a nomination. Sec. 4. The meetings of the active members of the several states to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held at 5:30 P. M. on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such places as shall be announced in the general program. ARTICLE III— DUTIES OF OFFICERS THE PRESIDENT Section i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer. In his absence the first Vice-President in order, who is present, shall preside; and in the absence of all the Vice-Presidents, a pro tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomina- tion, the Secretary putting the question. THE SECRETARY Sec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and of all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall conduct such correspondence and transact such other business of the Association as the directors or Executive Committee may assign, and shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association and the Board of Directors. THE treasurer Sec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trustees hold in safekeeping, the current income of the Association; shall expend the same only upon order of said board; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; which accounts, ending the first day of July in each year, he shall render to the Board of Trustees and, when approved by said board, he shall report to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees; and he shall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the Association next succeeding that at which he is elected, and until his successor has been elected and has qualified. ACT OF INCORPORATION AUDITOR OF ACCOUNTS Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the Asso- ciation to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Perma- nent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the said fund, shall be attached to the annual report of the Board of Trustees. CERTIFICATION OF BILLS Sec. 5. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills approved by the Board of Directors. , ARTICLE IV— THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS Section i. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular annual meeting at the place of the annual convention, and not less than two hours before the assembling of the Associa- tion. Sec. 2. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board or the President shall determine. Sec. 3. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election. ARTICLE V— THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION OBJECTS AND DUTIES Section i. The National Cteuncil of Education shall have for its object the con- sideration and discussion of educational questions of public and professional interest; the proposal to the Board of Directors, from time to time, of suitable subjects for investi- gation and research, and the recommendation of the amount of appropriations that should be made for such purposes; the appointment and general supervision of such special com- mittees of investigation and research as may be provided for and authorized by the Board of Directors of the Association; the consideration, discussion, and recommendation to the Board of Directors for disposition of all reports by such special committees of research as may have been appointed on its recommendation or by its authority; the annual prepara- tion and presentation to the Association at its annual convention of a report on " Educational Progress during the Past Year;" and in other ways shall use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general. MEMBERSHIP OF THE COUNCIL Sec. 2.* The Council shall consist of one hundred and twenty members, selected from the membership of the Association. Any member of the Association identified with educa- tional work is eligible to membership in the Council. Sec. 3.* The Board of Directors shall annually elect ten members, and the Council shall elect ten members, each member to serve for six years, or until his successor is elected. At the meeting of 1908 enough additional members shall be elected in the same manner to make the total number of members one hundred and twenty. The terms of the members so elected shall expire as follows: one-sixth in one year, one-sixth in two years, one-sixth in three years, one-sixth in four years, one-sixth in five years, one-sixth in six years. Sec. 4. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with the annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any reason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by the Council. Sec. 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies * As amended at meeting of active members held at Cleveland, Ohio, July i, iqo8. 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION caused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged to the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members, with the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions. No state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members. BY-LAWS OF THE COUNCIL Sec. 6. The Council may establish by-laws for its government not inconsistent with the Act of Incorporation or with the By-Laws of the Association, provided such by-laws shall be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall become operative, ARTICLE VI— DEPARTMENTS Section i. A department shall consist of those members of the Association who are especially interested in the consideration of a particular group of educational problems. Each department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, secretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its aSairs. Sec. 2. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time of the annual con- vention of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may hold its annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined by the oflQcers of said department. Sec. 3. The objects of the annual department meetipgs shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educallpnal work. The programs of these meetings shall be organized and conducted by the respective presidents, in conference with, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each depart- ment shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, at the time of the annual con- vention, except that a third session for business or informal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the department officers. Sec. 4 Upon the written request of twenty active members of the Association for permission to establish a new department, the Board of Directors may grant such permis- sion. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privi- leges as the departments named in the Act of Incorporation. ARTICLE VII— MEETINGS Section i. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five directors. Sec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time and place as by its own regulations it shall appoint. Sec. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of its departments, in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the volume of Proceedings, without the consent of the Association, upon the approval of the Executive Committee. ARTICLE VIII— AMENDMENTS Section i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by the unanimous vote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided that the substance of the alteration or amendment has been proposed in writing at a previous annual meeting. ACT OF INCORPORATION NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding oflficer, and Irwin Shepard, the secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Asso- ciation held next after the passage of an Act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States;" Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the Charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said Act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said Charter granted by said Act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907. Nathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer Irwin Shepard, Secretary VERIFICATION resolutions adopted by the active members, JULY 10, 1907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the Charter granted by an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States," passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file" with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the Association of the Charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meet- ing of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title "National Education Association of the United States," and the dates "1857-1907." 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize under the Charter granted by the Act of Congress. Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4, 1907. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION 1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) James L. Enos, Chairman. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. 1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO Z. Richards, President. J. W. BoLKLEY, Secretary. A. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer. 1859— WASHINGTON, D.C. A. J. RiCKOFF, President. J. W. Bui.KLEY, Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. i860— BUFFALO, N.V. J. W. BuLKLEY, President. Z. Richards, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1.86 1, 1862 — No session. 1863— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Cruikshank, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1864— OGDENSBURG, N.Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, I'reasurer. i86s— HARRISBURG. PA. S. S. Greenleaf, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1866— INDIANAPOLIS, TND. J. P. Wickersham, President. S. H. White, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867 — No session. 1868— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L. Van Bokkei,en, Secretary. James Cruikshank, Treasurer. 1869— TRENTON, N.J. L. Van Bokkelen, President. W. E. CRbsBY, Secretary. A. L. Barber, Treasurer. 1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO Daniel B. Hagar, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W. E. Crosby, Treasurer. NAME CHANGED TO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [871— ST. LOUIS. MO. J. L. PiCKARD, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873— ELMIRA, N.Y B. G. Northrop, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1875— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. M. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876— BALTIMORE. MD. W. F. Phelps, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1877— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. a. Newell, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878 — No session. 1879— PHILADELPHIA. PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson. Treasurer. 1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N.Y. J. Ormond Wilson, Pre.sident. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 188 1— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. G. J. Orr, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. Tarbell, Treasurer. 1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS. N.Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon. Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. I CALENDAR OF MEETINGS II 1884- 1885- 1887- 1800- 1891-' 1892- 1894- -MADISON, WIS. Thomas \V. Bicknell, President. H. S. Tarbei.l, Secretary. N. A. Cai.kins, Treasurer. -SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. F. Louis SoLDAN, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. -TOPEKA, KAN. N. A. Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E C. Hewett, Treasurer. -CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. -SAN FRANCISCO. CAL. Aaron Gove, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. -NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. -ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canfield, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. TORONTO, ONT. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. -SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. -CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education.) Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. -ASBURY PARK, N.J. Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1895— DENVER. COLO. Nicholas Murray Butler, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1896— BUFFALO, N. Y. Newton C. Dougherty. President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1898— WASHINGTON, D.C. J. M. Greenwood, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. ■'.• C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1899— LOS ANGELES, CAL. E. Ora-m Lyte, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1900— CHARLESTON. S C. Oscar T. Corson, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Carroll G. Pearse, Treasurer. 1901— DETROIT, MICH. James M. Green, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer. 1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Willlam M. Beardshear, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer. 1903— BOSTON, MASS. Charles W. Eliot, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. W. M. Davidson, Treasurer. 1904— ST. LOUIS, MO. John W. Cook, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. McHenry Rhoads, Treasurer. 1905— ASBURY PARK AND OCEAN GROVE, N.J. William H. Maxwell, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. James W. Crabtree, Treasurer. J906 — No session. 1907— LOS ANGELES, CAL. Nathan C. Schaeffer, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer. NAME CHANGED TO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1908- -CLEVELAND, OHIO Edwin G. Cooley, President. Irwln Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer. -DENVER, COLO. Lorenzo D. Harvey, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer. 1910— BOSTON, MASS. James Y. Joyner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain. Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS FOR 1909-10 James Y. Joyner Irwin Shepard Arthur H. Chamberlain. GENERAL ASSOCIATION President Raleigh, N.C. Secretary Winona, Minn. Treasurer Pasadena, Cal. VICE-PRESIDENTS Lorenzo D, Harvey, President of Stout Institute Menomonie, Wis. G. W. A. LucKEY, Professor of Education, University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebr. William M. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Tallahassee, Fla. M. Bates Stephens, State Superintendent of Public Education Annapolis, Md. Frank B. Dyer, Superintendent of Schools Cincinnati, Ohio Thomas H. Harris, State Superintendent of Education Baton Rouge, La. William J. Kerr, President of Oregon Agricultural College Corvallis, Ore. Mrs. Katherene M. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Denver, Colo. Hervey B. Work, Superintendent of Schools Wheeling, W. Va. William A. Millis, President of Hanover College Hanover, Ind. Lloyd E. Wolfe, Principal of Vocational School for Boys San Antonio, Tex. BOARD OF TRUSTEES Nicholas Murray Butler, Chairman New York, N.Y Term expires July, igio Henry B. Brown Valparaiso, Ind Term expires July, igii Carroll G. Pearse Milwaukee, Wis Term expires July, igi2 James M. Greenwood, Secretary Kansas City, Mo Term expires July, 1913 James Y. Joyner Raleigh, N.C Ex officio EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE James Y. Joyner President Raleigh, N.C. Lorenzo D. Harvey First Vice-President Menomonie, Wis. Arthur H. Chamberlain Treasurer Pasadena, Cal. Nicholas Murray Butler Chairman, Board of Trustees New York, N.Y. John H. Phillips Member by Election Birmingham, Ala. Irwin Shepard Secretary . Winona, Minn. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ex officio James Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal. Lorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis. Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N.Y. Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn. Life Directors Bicknell, Thomas W., Providence, R.I. Board of Education, Nashville, Tenn. Brown, Elmer Ellsworth, Washington, D.C. Butler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y. Cook, John W., DeKalb, 111. CooLEY, Edwin G., La Grange, 111. Corson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio Eliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass. Gove, Aaron, Denver, Colo. Graham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Green, James M., Trenton, N.J. * Deceased. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo. • Harris, W. T., Providence, R.I. Harvey, Lorenzo D., Menomonie, Wis. Jewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans. Lyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W. Va. Maxwell, William H., New York, N.Y. Parker, Charles I., Chicago, 111. PiCKARD, Josiah L., Cupertino, Cal. Pike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111. ScHAEFFER, Nathan C, Harrisburg, Pa. DIRECTORS 13 Life Directors — continued Skinner, Charles R., New York, N.Y. Taylor, A. R., Decatur, 111. State Teachers' Association, Illinois. Teachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. •Stratton, C. C, St. Johns, Ore. White, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich. Wilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D.C. • Deceased Directors by Election Alabama Samuel S. Murphy, Superintendent of Schools Mobile Arizona A. J. Matthews, President, Territorial Normal School Tempe Arkansas George B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Little Rock California Duncan MacKinnon, Superintendent of Schools San Diego Colorado Charles E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools Denver Conne ticut Charles H. Keyes, Superintendent of South District Schools.. . . Hartford Delaware George W. Twitmyer, Superintendent of Schools Wilmington Dist. of Col Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Com'r of Education.. . Washington Florida Miss Clem Hampton, Department of Education Tallahassee Georgia Jere M. Pound, State Commissioner of Schools Atlanta Idaho Miss S. Belle Chamberlain, State Supt. of Public Instr Boise Illinois J. Stanley Brown, Principal of Township High School Joliet Indiana Thomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools Richmond Iowa Frank L. Smart, Superintendent of Schools Davenport Kansas John MacDonald, Editor, Western School Journal Topeka Kentucky W. H. Bartholomew, Principal of Grls' High School Louisville Louisiana Warren Easton, Superintendent of Schools New Orleans Maine Payson Smith, State Superintendent of Schools Augusta Maryland A. C. Willison, County Superintendent of Schools Cumberland Massachusetts Irving O. Palmer, Science Master, Newton High School Newtonville Michigan E. E. Scribner, Superintendent of Schools Ishpeming Minnesota S. L. Heeter, Superintendent of Schools St. Paul Mississippi E. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools Greenville Missouri Howard A. Gass, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . . . Jefferson City Montana W. E. Harmon, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Helena Nebraska A. H. Waterhouse, Superintendent of Schools Fremont Nevada Romanzo Adams, Professor of Education, University of Nevada. . Reno New Hampshire Henry C. Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instr Concord New Jersey M. H. Kinsley, Superintendent of County Schools Hoboken New Mexico James E. Clark, Territorial Supt. of Public Instruction Santa F6 New York Augustus S. Downing, First Assistant Com'r of Education Albany North Carolina W. S. Snipes, Superintendent of Schools Winston-Salem North Dakota Thomas Hillyer, President of State Normal School Mayville Ohio J. W. MacKinnon, Superintendent of Schools Bellefontaine Oklahoma Lynn Glover, Professor of Polit. Econ., Slate Normal School . . . Weatherford Oregon Edwin D. Ressler, President of State Normal School Monmouth Pennsylvania." Reed B. Teitrick, Deputy State Sup't of Public Instruction Harrisburg Rhode Island Herbert W. Lull, Superintendent of Schools Newport South Carolina David B. Johnson, President of Winthrop Nor. and Indust. Coll. Rock Hill South Dakota Freeman H. Hoff, Superintendent of Schools Mitchell Tennessee I. C. McNeill, Superintendent of Schools Memphis Texas George H. Carpenter, Superintendent of Schools Brownwood Utah W. S. Rawlings, Superintendent of Schools Provo Vermont Mason S. Stone, State Superintendent of Education Montpelier Virginia Joseph Eggleston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . Richmond Washington Henry B. Dewey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . . . Olympia West Virginia Morris P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools Charleston Wisconsin Carroll G. Pearse, Superintendent of Schools Milwaukee Wyoming A. D. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Cheyenne DEPARTMENT OFFICERS National Council President Joseph Swain, President of Swarthmore College Swarthmore, Pa. Vice-President W. M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools Omaha, Nebr. Secretary John W. Carr, Superintendent of Schools Bayonne, N.J. Executive Committee *W. T. Harris, ex-Com'r of Education of the U.S Providence, R.I. Executive Committee James M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools Kansas City, Mo. Executive Committee Elmer Ellsworth Brown, U.S. Com'r of Education Washington, D.C. * Deceased. 14 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Kindergarten President Miss Luella A. Palmer, Public School No. 63 New York, N.Y. Vice-President Miss Willette Allen, Principal of Kindergarten Normal Atlanta, Ga. Secretary Miss Lucy Ellis, Principal of Kindergartens Phoenix, Ariz. Elementary President Thomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools Richmond, Ind. Vice-President John A. Welch, Supervisor of Grammar Grades Salt Lake City,Utah Secretary Miss Margaret Canty, Supervisor of Grammar Grades Milwaukee, Wis. Secondary President David E. Mackenzie, Principal of Central High School Detroit, Mich. Vice-President W. H. Bartholomew, Principal of Girls' High School Louisville, Ky. Secretary Ellis U. Graff, Principal of High School Omaha, Nebr. Higher President George E. Fellows, President of University of Maine Orono, Maine Vice-President Charles E. Bessey, Dean of Coll. of Science, Univ. of Nebr Lincoln, Nebr. Secretary Frank E. Thompson, Professor of Education, Univ. of Colo Boulder, Colo. Normal President Joseph H. Hill, President of State Normal School Emporia, Kans. Vice-President D. McGregor, Resident Regent, State Normal School Platteville, Wis. Secretary W. S. Dearmont, President of State Normal School Cape Girardeau, Mo. Superintendence President Stratton D. Brooks, Superintendent of Schools Boston, Mass. First Vice-President Wales C. Martindale, Superintendent of Schools Detroit, Mich. Second Vice-Pres.. . . Miss Julia A. Richman, District Superintendent of Schools New York, N.Y. Secretary John F. Keating, Superintendent of Schools Pueblo, Colo. Manual and Art President J. C. Monaghan, Sec. of Nat'l Soc. for Prom, of Indus. Tr'g New York, N.Y. Vice-President Miss Ednah A. Rich, Prin. of State Nor. School of Man. Arts. . . Santa Barbara, Cal. Secretary C. Valentine Kirby, Director of Art Education, Public Schools. Buffalo, N. Y. Music President Charles I. Rice, Director of Music Worcester, Mass. Vice-President Miss Elsie M. Shawe, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools St. Paul, Minn. Secretary Miss Birdie Alexander, Supervisor of Music Dallas, Tex. Business President James S. Curry, Commercial Dept., Central High School Cleveland, Ohio Vice-President Harry C. Spillman, Commercial Dept., South Div. High School Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary W. N. Clifford, Commerce Dept., Southern High School Philadelphia, Pa. Child-Study President Will Grant Chambers, Prof, of Educ, Univ. of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pa. Vice-President A. H. Yoder, Superintendent of Schools Tacoma, Wash. Secretary C. B. Robertson, Supt. of Training, State Normal School Cortland, N.Y. Physical President. Clark W. Hetherington, Dir. of Phys. Educ, Univ. of Mo Columbia, Mo. Vice-President Robert J. Aley, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Indianapolis, Ind. Secretary Miss A. M. Homans, Nor. Dept., Phys. Educ, Wellesley Coll. . . Wellesley, Mass. Science President B. M. Davis, Professor of Agriculture, Miami University Oxford, Ohio Vice-President E. L. Brown, Principal of North Side High School Den' er, Colo. ^^'^''etary George A. Cowen, West Roxbury High School Boston,' Mass. School Administration President J. J. Stoddart, President of Board of Education Columbus, Ohio Vice-President J. S. Bowers, President of Board of Education . Moberly, Mo. Secretary W. G. Bruce, Editor, American School Board Journal Milwaukee, Wis. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 15 Library President E'Win White Gaillard, Public Library New York, N.Y. Vice-President Chari es E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools Denver, Colo. Secretary Miss Mary Hannah Johnson, Librarian, Public Library Nashville, Term. Special President Edward M. Van Cleve, Supt., State School for the Blind Columbus, Ohio Vice-President Frank G. Bruner, Child-Study Dept., Board of Education Chicago, 111. Secretary Miss Martha Bell, State School for Deaf, Mt. Airy Philadelphia, Pa. Rural and Agricultural President Kenyon L. Butterfield, President of State Agri. College Amherst, Mass. Vice-President. ..... Charles A. Lory, President of State Agri. College Ft. Collins, Colo. Secretary Ernest E. Balcomb, Dept. of Science, State Normal School Providence, R.I. Organizations of "Women President Miss Laura Drake Gill, Pres. of Ass'n of Coll. Alumnae Washington, D.C. Vice-President Mrs. Hugo Rosenberg, Pres. of Council of Jewish Women Pittsburgh, Pa. • Secretary Mrs. Orville T. Bright, Pres. of 111. Congress of Mothers Chicrgo, 111. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS FOR 1910-11 Ella Flagg Young. . . Irwin Shepard DoRAND W. Springer. GENERAL ASSOCIATION President Chicago, 111. Secretary Winona, Minn. Treasurer Detroit, Mich. VICE-PRESIDENTS James Y. Joyner, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Raleigh, N.C. Julia Richman, District Superintendent of City Schools New York, N.Y. Fayette L. Cook, President, South Dakota State Normal School Spearfish, S. Dak. George A. McFarland, Principal, State Normal School Valley City, N. Dak, Thomas C. Miller, Principal of Shepherd College Shepherdstown, W. Va. Charles S. Foos, Superintendent of Schools Reading, Pa. Homer H. Seerley, President, Iowa State Teachers' College Cedar Falls, Iowa Franklin O Hays. Superintendent of Schools Alva, Okla. Edward T. Fairchild, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Topeka, Kans. Samuel Avery, Chancellor. University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebr. C. A. DuNiw.\Y, President, University of Montana Missoula, Mont. BOARD OF TRUSTEES Henry B. Brown Valparaiso, Ind Term expires igii Carroll G. Pearse Milwaukee, Wis Term expires 1912 James M. Greenwood, Secretary Kansas City. Mo Term expires 1913 Nicholas Murray Butler, Chairman. . . New York, N.Y Term expires 1914 Ella Flagg Young Chicago, 111 Ex officio EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Ella Flagg Young President Chicago. 111. James Y. Joyner First Vice-President Raleigh, N.C. Durand W. Springer Treasurer Detroit. Mich. Nicholas Murray Butler Chairman, Board of Trustees New York, N.Y. John H. Phillips Member by Election Birmingham, Ala. Irwin Shepard < . . . Secretary . Winona, Minn. Ella Flagg Young, Chicago, 111. James Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ex oflacio Durand W. Springer, Detroit, Mich. Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N.Y. Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn. Life Directors BiCKNELL, Thomas W.. Providence, R.I. Board of Education, Nashville, Tenn. Brown, Elmer Ellsworth, Washington, D.C. Butler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y. Cook, John W., DeKalb, 111. CooLEY, Edwin G., LaGrange, 111. Corson, Oscar T.. Columbus, Ohio. Eliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass. GovE, Aaron, Denver, Colo. Graham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Green, James M., Trenton, N.J. Greenwood, James M., Kansas City, Mo. Harvey, Lorenzo D., Menomonie, Wis. Jewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans. Joyner, James Y., Raleigh, N.C. Lyte, Eliphalet 0«am, Millersville, Pa. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W. Va. Maxwell, William H., New York, N.Y. Parker, Charles I., Chicago, 111. Pickard, Joslah L., Cupertino, Cal. 16 • DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 17 Pike, Joshua, Jerseyville III. Taylor, A. R., Decatur, III. ScHAEFFER, Nathan C, Harrisburg, Pa. Teachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. Skinner, Charles R., New York, N.Y. White, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich. State Teachers' Association, 111. Wilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D.C. Directors by Election Alabama John W. Abercrosibie, President, University of Alabama University Arizona A. J. Matthews, President, Territorial Normal School Tempe Arkansas George B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Little Rock California Duncan MacKinnon, Superintendent of Schools San Diego Colorado Charles E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools Denver Connecticut Frederick A. Verplanck, Superintendent of Schools. So. Manchester Delaware George W. Twitmyer, Superintendent of Schools Wilmington Dist. of Col P. M. HaoHES. Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools Wa.shington Florida Miss Clem Hampton, State Department of Education Tallahasse Georgia Mas. F. S. Whiteside, 46 Columbia Avenue Atlanta Idaho Charles S. Meek, Superintendent of Schools Boise Illinois J. Stanley Brown. Principal of High School Joliet Indiana Thojias A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools Richmond Iowa O. P. BosTWiCK, Superintendent of Schools Clinton Kansas John MacDonald. Editor, Western School Journal Topeka Kentucky W. H. Bartholomew, Principal, Girls' High School Louisville Louisiana Miss Mary Stevens. Teacher of English, Ouachita Parish H. S.. . Stevensdale M line Payson Smith, State Superintendent of Public Schools Augusta Mxryland A. C. Willison, County Superintendent of Schools Cumberland Missachusetts Irving O. Palmer. High School Newtonville Michigan E. E. Scribner, Superintendent of Schools Ishpeming Minnesota S. L. Heeter. Superintendent of Schools St. Paul Mississippi E. E. Bass. Superintendent of Schools Greenville Missouri Howard A. Gass, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .... Jefferson City Montana James M. Hamilton, Bozeman Nebraska A. A. Reeo, Professor of Sec. Education, Univ. of Nebraska Lincoln Nevada Mis. L. C. Booth. 421 Sierra Street Reno Naw Himpshire. . . Hsjjry C. Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Concord New Jersey M H. Kinsley, Superintendent of County Schools Hoboken New Mexico James E. Clark, Territorial Superintendent of Public Instruction. Santa Fe New York Auoustus S. Downing, First Assistant Commissioner of Education Albany North Carolina W. S. Snipes, Superintendent of Schools Winston-Salem North Dakota Nelson Sauvain, Superintendent of Schools Casselton Ohio J0E[N W. Zeller, State Commissioner of Common Schools Columbus Oklahoma W. C. Canterbury, Superintendent of Schools Marietta Oregon Edwin D. Ressler, Professor, Oregon .\gri. College Corvallis Pennsylvania Reed B Teitrick, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction. Harrisburg Rhode Island George F. Weston, Principal of High School Providence South Carolina D B. JOHNSONf. President, Winthrop Nor., and Indust. College . . . Rock Hill South Dakota Freeman H. Hoff, Superintendent of Schools '. Mitchell Tennessee J. J. Keyes, Superintendent of Schools Nashville Texas George H. Carpenter, Superintendent of Schools Brownwood Utah G. N. Child, Superintendent, Utah County Schools Lehi Vermont Mason S. Stone, State Superintendent of Education Montpelier Virginia Joseph D. Eggleston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Richmond Washington Henry B. Dewey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Olympia West Virginia Morris P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools Charleston Wisconsin Carroll G. Pearse, Superintendent of Schools Milwaukee Wyoming A. D. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Cheyenne Hawaii Perley L. Horne, President, Kamehameha Schools Honolulu DEPARTMENT OFFICERS National Council President Charles H. Keyes, Research Student, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Vice-President W. M. Davidson, Superintendent of Instruction, Public Schools. . Omaha, Nebr. Secretary John W Carr, Superintendent of Schools Bayonne, N.J. Executive Committee Joseph Swain, President of Swarthmore College Swarthmore, Pa. Executive Committee James M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools Kansas City, Mo. Executive Committee Elmer Ellsworth Brown, U.S. Com'r of Education Washington, D.C. 1 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Kindergarten President Miss Jane L. Hoxie, Supervisor of Kindergartens Berkeley, Cal. Vke-Preiident Miss Mary E. Gamble, Garfield School Kindergarten East Oakland, Cal. Secretary Miss Harriet E. Huggins, Director Kindergarten Training Class Oakland, Cal. Elementary President Miss Adelaide Steele Baylor, Superintendent of Schools Wabash, Ind. Vice-President H. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools Decatur, III. Secretary Miss Nellie O'Keefe, Principal, McClellan School St. Paul, Minn. Secondary President H. M. Barrett, Principal of High School Pueblo, Colo. Vice-President Waltex F. Lewis, Superintendent of Schools Port Huron, Mich. Secretary Thomas J. McCormack, Principal, LaSalle-Peru T'w'p High School LaSalle, 111. Higher President James H. Baker, .President, University of Colorado Boulder, Colo. Vice-President J. A. McLean, President, University of Idaho Moscow, Idaho Secretary Frederick P. Keppel, Dean, Columbia College New York, N.Y. Normal President David B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Nor. and Indust. College . Rock Hill, S.C. Vice-President William J. HawkIns, President, State Normal School Warrensburg, Mo. Secretary Guy E. Maxwell, President, State Normal School Winona, Minn. Superintendence President W. M. Davidson, Superintendent of Instruction Omaha, Nebr. First Vice-Pres. ... J, A. Shawan, Superintendent of Schools Columbus, Ohio Second. Vice-Pres... C. G. Schulz, State Superintendent of Public Instruction St. Paul, Minn. Secretary Arthur D. Call, Supervising Principal of Schools Hartford, Conn. Manual Training and Art President Clifford B. Connelley, Dean, Carnegie Technical Schools Pittsburgh, Pa. Vice-Presiden Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Massachusetts Institute of Tech Boston, Mass. Secrdary Miss May Gearhart, Supervisor of Drawing Los Angeles, Cal. Music President Miss Elsie M. Shawe, Supervisor of Music St. Paul. Minn. Vice-President C. A. Fullerton, Professor of Music, State Normal School Cedar Falls, la. Secretary. Miss Estelle Carpenter, Supervisor of Music San Francisco, Cal. Business President Frank E. Lakey, English High School Boston, Mass. Vice-President W. S. McKinney, Englewood High School Chicago, 111. Secretary Sherwin W. Cody, Author of Educational Text-Books Chicago, 111. Child-Study President Will Grant Chambers, Dean, Sch. of Educ, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh, Pa. Vice-President Louis M. Terman, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Jr. Univ. Palo Alto, Cal. Secretary C. B. Robertson, Superintendent of Training School Cortland, N.Y. Physical President Clark W. Hetherington, Joseph Fels Fellowship, Univ. of Chicago Chicago, 111. Vice-President Miss Amy Morris Homans, Dept. of Phys. Educ.,Wellesley College Wellesley, Mass. Secretary Miss Clara G. Baer, Dept. of Phys. Educ, Sophie Newcomb CoU. New Orleans, La. Science President George A. Cowen, West Roxbury High School Boston, Mass. Vice-President W. J. V. Osterhaut, Professor, Harvard University Cambridge, Mass. Secretary Harry T. Clifton, Throop Polytechnic Institute Pasadena, Cal. School Administration President Linnaeus N. Htnes, Superintendent of Schools Crawfordsville, Ind. Vice-President Wii.i.ard S. Small, Principal, Eastern High School Washington, D.C. Secretary William G. Bruce, Editor, American School Board Journal Milwaukee, W is. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 19 Library President Edwin White Gaillard, Sup\T. of Work with Schools, Pub. Lib. . . New York, N.Y. Vics-Presiient James Louis Gillis, Librarian, California State Library Sacramento, Cal. Secretary Gilbert O. Ward, Librarian, Technical High School Cleveland, Ohio Special President Frank G. Bruner, Department of Child Study, Public Schools. . . Chicago, 111. Vice-President Elizabeth E. Farrell, Insp'r of Ungraded Classes, Pub. Schools. . New York, N.Y. Secretary Edward Allen Fay. Vice-President, Callaudet College Washington, D.C. School Patrons President Mrs. O. Shepard Barniim, Principal Academic Dept., Cumnock Sch . Los Angeles, Cal. Vice-President Mrs. Hugo Rosenberg, President of Council of Jewish Women. . Pittsburgh, Pa. Secretary Mrs. Orville T. Bright, President of Illinois Congress of Mothers . Chicago, 111. Kural and Agricultural President James A. Barr, Superintendent of Schools Stockton, Cal. Vice-President B. M. Davis, Professor of Agricultural Educ, Miami University. . Oxford, Ohio Secretary Ernest E. Balcomb, State Normal School Providence, R.I. TREASURER'S^^REPORT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION July i, 1909, to June 30, 1910 Arthur H. Chamberlain, in Account with the National Education Association BALANCE ON HAND JULY I, 1 909 Balance brought forward from Treasurer's Report for year ending June 30, 1909 $3,809.00 RECEIPTS FOR THE YEAR From Annual Meeting: Advance Enrollment — From W. F. R. Mjlls $5,240.00 Convention Registration 6,046 . 00 $11,286.00 From Memberships, Indianapolis Meeting of Department of Superin- tendence 1,550.00 From Secretary's Office during the year: Membership fees $9,861 . 85 Enrollment fees _ 412.00 Exchange * 9.37 Sale of back volumes 755-15 Sale of Committee Reports, Etc 90.03 Miscellaneous 14 . 00 $11,142.40 From interest on Permanent Fund 6,761 . 73 From royalty on sale of Reports of Committees of Ten and Fifteen 56 . 10 From interest on deposits in First National Bank of Chicago 182.74 Total receipts for the year $30,978 .97 Total receipts including balance brought forward $34,787.97 DISBURSEMENTS Board of Trustees: For expenses $295 . 80 Executive Committee expenses: President $154.40 First Vice-President 139.70 Treasurer 398. 21 Chairman, Board of Trustees 104.80 Member by election 200.00 General Secretary's office: Salary of Secretary $4,000.00 Postage 2,098.85 Telegrams 398.90 Freight and express 36 .05 Clerical services 2,676.46 Exchange 23.50 Stationery and office supplies 138.94 Traveling m.^i Rent 600 00 Miscellaneous 97 . 59 10,848.10 forward $12,141 .01 20 TREASURER'S REPORT 21 Brought forward $12,141 .01 Volumes of Proceedings (q,3oo) $6,016 . 66 Yearbooks (6,500 copies) 1,211 .27 $7,227.93 Reprints from volume 224 . 50 Special Reports 641 .09 Executive Committee Bulletins 1,864.09 Miscellaneous (letterheads, blanks, envelopes, etc.) 856.17 Express and Freight: Distribution of volumes and reports $2,802 . 28 Miscellaneous 210 . 21 $10,813.78 Special Appropriations: Committee on Industrial Education $10.00 Committee on Place of Industries 96 . 73 $3,012.49 $106.73 Conventions: Department of Superintendence: Clerical service — Registration and Typewriting, including Miscellaneous expense $320.45 Badges 100.00 Printing — Programs for the Convention 70.00 $490.45 Annual Convention: Department expenses $312.52 State directors and managers 529 . 30 Clerical Services: Registration Bureau $590 . 80 Stenographers and typewriter operators 420.43 Printing: Programs •. $51430 Stationery 55 -65 Miscellaneous (Expense of speaker — Denver Meeting) 10.00 Unclassified disbursements: Examination of Securities $ 3. 00 Bonds of Secretary and Treasurer 50.00 Official Seal and Seal Press 67 .50 Auditing books of Secretarj' and Treasurer 30.00 Exchange of two typewriters 60.00 Conference of Department Presidents 908 . 30 Miscellaneous: Press Clippings $60.00 Refunds of duplicate payments 24 . 00 Reports of Committees of Ten and Fifteen 5 .00 Purchase of back volumes 30 . 66 $119.66 $2,433.00 $1,238.46 $30,235-92 SUMMARY Receipts Balance brought forward from the Treasurer's report for year ending June 30, 1909 $ 3 809 00 Receipts for year July i, 1909, to June 30, 1910 30,978.97 $34,787-97 Disbursements Total expenses for the year $30,235.92 Balance in treasury, June 30, iqio $ 4 ,552.05 Respectfully submitted, Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer 22 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Boston, Mass., July 2, 1910 The undersigned, Trustees of the National Education Association, have this day examined and approved the foregoing accounts of Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer, with all statements of receipts and vouchers for disbursements. J. M. Greenwood, Acting Chairman Henry B. Brown James Y. Joyner THE INTERNATIONAL AUDIT COMPANY Merchants' Loan and Trust Building Chicago, November 25, igio Board of Trustees, National Education Association of the United States Gentlemen: We have audited the books and accounts of the National Education Association of the United States, kept by the Secretary, Dr. Irwin Shepard, and the Treasurer, Mr. Arthur H. Chamberlain, for the period from ist July, igog to 30th June, igio, and compared them with the relative vouchers and cheques, and find the books to be correct. We compared the Treasurer's records with those kept by the Secretary and find them to be in accord. We annex herewith a statement of the Receipts and Disbursements for the period under review, which we have checked with the books. We certify it to be in accordance therewith. Yours very truly, THE INTERNATIONAL AUDIT COMPANY. By (Signed) Robert Nelson, C. A. Manager TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION FOR THE YEAR JULY i, 1909, TO JUNE 30, 1910 Boston, Massachusetts, July 5, 1910 To the Board of Directors of the National Education Association: The Board of Trustees of the National Education Association has the honor to sub- mit its report on the Permanent Fund of the Association for the year ending June 30, 1910. The amounts collected as income from the Permanent Fund and the disposition made of the income are shown in the following Income Account. There have been no additions to the principal of the fund during the year, which remains, therefore, at $170,100. During the year one Chicago real estate mortgage and one Lemont, Illinois, school bond have been paid off, and the proceeds invested, as shown, in $3,000 Atlantic Coast Line, first mortgage bonds, due July i, 1952. The present state of the investments held for the Permanent Fund is shown in the following Statement of Securities held for the Permanent Fund. Statement A shows the net income of the property at 4762 Lake Avenue, Chicago, lUinois, title to which, as has been noted in earlier reports, was taken by the Trustees under proceedings for foreclosure of mortgage. The Trustees hope to dispose of this property in the near future. The financial operations of the year, and the present state of the Permanent Fund, are set out in detail in the accounts and statements which follow: INCOME ACCOUNT RECEIPTS % 7,000 St. Louis and San Francisco R. R. Co. refunding bonds, 1951, at 4 per cent. $ 280.00 15.000 Terminal Association of St. Louis general refunding bonds, 1953, at 4 per cent. 600.00 20,000 Pittsburg, Lake Erie, and West Virginia System refunding bonds, 1941, at 4 per cent 800.00 10,000 Oregon Short Line R. R. Co. refunding bonds, 1929, at 4 per cent 400.00 17,000 City of New York registered bonds, 1957, at 4^ per cent 765.00 2,500 Village of Morgan Park gold bonds, 191 1, at 4^ per cent. \ 1,000 Village of Morgan Park gold bonds, 1912, at 4^ per cent. / 1,500 Lemont, 111., school bonds, 1912-13, at 5 per cent 50.00 1916 \. 40.000 Chicago drainage bonds, 1917 J ' s, ioi8"l 10,000 West Chicago park bonds, 1919/' 10,000 Pennsylvania R. R. Co. convertible bonds, 1915, at 3^ per cent 350.00 3,000 Atlantic Coast Line bonds, 1952, at 4 per cent 120.00 10,000 Chicago, Indiana and Southern Railway Co. guaranteed bonds 1956, at 4 per cent 400 . 00 2,500 Bond and mortgage on 5603 Madison Avenue, Chicago, (Lewis), 1909, at s per cent 62 . 50 Interest to date of payment of principal on Lemont, Illinois, school bond, $500 at 5 per cent 12 . 50 Interest on cash balance in First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago 73.76 Net income of property 4762 Lake Ave., Chicago (see Statement A) 203.35 ■■^^"— ■$7,034-61 DISBXJRSEMENTS Fee of First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, Illinois, on new investment of $3,000 — i of I per cent $ 15 .00 Fee of First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, Illinois, for care of principal of Permanent Fund 206 . 88 Accrued interest on $3,000 .\tlantic Coast Line bonds purchased 51. 00 Net income paid to Treasurer National Education Association 6,761 .73 ■—^i-^ $7,034.61 23 10,000 Chicago drainage bonds, 1916 , > at 4 per cent .... 2,000 . 00 9,000 West Chicago park bonds, 19 1„ , •-at 4 per cent 760.00 24 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PRINCIPAL ACCOUNT BECEIPTS Cash on hand for investment July i, igog $ Q97 • 5° Mortgage, 5603 Madison Ave. (Lewis), paid July i, 1909 2,500.00 Lemont, Illinois, school bond, paid December i, 1909 5oo-oo '' ' ' 1 • <* ^ "^ DISBURSEMENTS 1,000 Atlantic Coast Line, 4 per cent, bonds at 96 $ 960.00 1,000 Atlantic Coast Line, 4 per cent, bonds at 96I 963-75 1,000 Atlantic Coast Line, 4 per cent bonds at 96J 96s -oo Cash on hand for investment June 30, 1910 1 ,108 . 75 $3,997.50 $3,997.50 STATEMENT OF SECURITIES HELD FOR THE PERMANENT FUND JUNE 30, 1910 MUNICIPAL AND SCHOOL BONDS Par Value Security Acquired Interest Book Value $ 8,000 City of New York registered gold bonds, due November 1, io57, Nos. 554 to 561 Feb. 29, 1908 4i% May and Nov. $8,510.00 9,000 City of New York »?old bonds, due \o vember i, 1957, Nos. 26,816 to 26.824 June 12, 1908 4i% May and Nov. 9,810.00 2,500 Village of Morgan Park, 111. gold bonds ~\ due November i, 1911, Nos 1 to s . . . f 1805 4*% May and Nov. 2,500.00 1,000 Village of Morgan Park. 111., gold h..nd«; due July i, 1913, Nos 4and s, SeriesO } 4i% Jan. and July 1,000.00 1,000 Lemont, 111., school bonds. Nos. 30 and 32. payable S-^oo December i, 1912, 1897 5% June and Dec. 10,000 Sanitary Di.strict of Chicago, drainage bonds, Nos. 24,516-24,525, due Decem- ber I, 1916 1905 4% June and Dec. 10,000 . 00 40,000 Sanitary District of Chicago, drainage bonds, Nos. 24,«;9i-24,62 5, 24,636- 24,640, due December i, 191 7 1904 4% June and Dec. 9,000 West Chicago park bonds, Nos. i,ioi- 1,109, due .\pril I, T918 July 31, 1906 4% April and Oct. 9,045 00 10,000 West Chicago park bonds, Nos. 615,629- 631, 1,243-1 248, due April I, 1909 July 31, 1906 4% April and Oct. 10,075.00 $90,500 $91,940.00 RAILROAD BONDS Par Value Security Acquired Interest Book Value $ 7.000 St. Louis and San Francisco R. R. Co. refunding gold bonds, Nos. 47-435, 47,457, 47,537, 49.012. 49,670, 57,373. Jan. 3, 1907 Jan. 30, 1905 Jan. 13, 1906 Feb. 3, 1908 Jan. II, igog Jan. 18, T909 Aug. 3, 1909 4% Jan. and July 4% Jan. and July 4% May and Nov. 4% June and Dec. Z\% June and Dec. 3% Jan. and July 4% March and Sept. 15,000 Terminal .\ssotiation of St. Louis gen- eral refunding sinking fund gold bonds, Nos 16,311-16,325, due January i, 20,000 Pittsburg, Lake Erie, and West Virginia System refunding gold bonds, Nos. 13,496-13,500, .i 1,236-2 1,250. due No- vember I, 1941 19,942 .50 10,000 Oregon Short Line R. R. Co. guaranteed refunding gold bonds, Nos. 4,013- 4,017, 4,025-4,027, 4,976, 13,810, due December i, 1929 8 895 00 10,000 10,000 3,000 Pennsylvania R. R. Co. convertible bonds, Nos. B-22,823 to B-22,838, in- clu-^ive. B-27,65S, B 27,671, B-27,672, and B-i 1.258, due October 1. 1915 Chicago, Indiana and Southern Railway Co. bonds. Nos. 1 1 .386 to 1 1 .394 inclu- sive, and ix,7«A, due Innunrv i, in<;6 . Atlantic Coast Line 1st Cons. Bonds. Nos. 5,130, 6,494, 24,601, due July i, 1952 . 9,500.00 9,500.00 a,888.7S $7S,ooo $71,551.25 REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES 25 REAL ESTATE Par Value Security Acquired Interest Book Value $S,5oo 4762 Lake Ave., Chicago, 111. (Hord property) 1907 Rent $30 monthly $5,500.00 Total $171,000 Cash on hand awaiting investment $1,108 75 Total STATEMENT A RECEIPTS Rents received by First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, Illinois. .$170,100.00 $330.00 DISBURSEMENTS Taxes for 1909 Spec'al assessment (paving 47th Street) Repairs Fees of 5 per cent, of First Trust and Savings Bank on $330.00 rents collected. Net income $101 . 60 I 84 6.71 16.50 203 35 $330.00 At a meeting of the Trustees held on April 13, 1910, Irwin Shepard was re-elected Secretary of the National Education Association for a term of four years, from August i, 1910, at an annual salary of $4,000, and was given authority to employ such person as may be approved by the Trustees to serve as Assistant Secretary, and to receive as compensation therefor such sum, chargeable to the appropriation for the salary of the Secretary, as may be proposed by Secretary Shepard and approved by the Trustees. Respectfully submitted Nicholas Murray Butler, Chairman James M. Greenwood Henry B. Brown James Y. Joyner Carroll G. Pearse Trustees Chicago, HI. To the Trustees of the National Education Association: Gentlemen : The above and foregoing is a correct statement of the account of the funds of the National Education Association of the United States from July i, 1909. to July i, 1910, as the same appears on the books of this bank. First Trust and Savings Bank. By Louis Boisot, Trust Officer To the Board of Directors of the National Education A ssociation: I have this day examined the securities in the foregoing statement made by the Board of Trustees, and find all bonds and securities therein named in the custody of Louis Boisot, Trust Officer of the First Trust and Sav- ings Bank, of Chicago, 111. Chaei,es_H. Judd JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE FORTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES BOSTON, MASS., JULY 2-8, 19 10 FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS Opening Session — Monday Afternoon, July 4, 3:30 o'clock The forty-eighth annual convention of the National Education Association was opened in the Stadium of Harvard University at Cambridge, Mass., at 3 130 p.m. on July 4. A. Lawrence Lowell, president of Harvard University, chairman of the Advisory Com- mittee of the local organization of the National Education Association, presided. The hymn ''America" was sung by the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston ard by the great audience of fifteen thousand, under the leadership of Director Emil Mollen- hauer, accompanied by Stewart's Military Band. Rzv. Paul Revere Frothingham, minister of the Arlington Street Church of Boston, led the audience in prayer. Brief addresses of welcome were delivered by Hon. Eben Sumner Draper, governor of the commonwealth of Massachusetts, and Hon. John Francis Fitzgerald, mayor of the city of Boston. At this point President Lowell introduced as the presiding ofiicer of the remainder of the exercises the President of the National Education Association, Hon. James Yadkin Joyner, state superintendent of pubhc instruction, Raleigh, N.C. President Joyner introduced Hon. Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction for the state of Illinois, who responded to the addresses of welcome. The hymn "To Thee, Oh Country!" by Julius Eickberg, was sung by the Har.del and Haydn Society, accompanied by Stewart's Military Band. WiUiam Howard Taft, President of the United States, was then introduced and delivered an address on " The Relation of Education to Democratic Government " The President's address was followed by the hymn "Unfold, Ye Portals Everlasting!" from "The Redemption," by Gounod. An address was given by Hon. William Walton Kitchin, governor of the state of North Carolina, on "Education and American Independence," which was followed by an address on "War and Manhood" by David Starr Jordan, president of Leland Stanford Junior University, of California. "The Star Spangled Banner" was then sung by the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston, accompanied by Stewart's Military Band. The following Committee on Resolutions was appointed by President Joyner: COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Julius I. Foust, of North Carolina, Chairman Joseph Swain, of Pennsylvania George B. Cook, of Arkansas Homer H. Seerley, of Iowa Katherine D. Blake, of New York 27 28 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION By previous arrangement, the sessions of the active members by states for the elec- tion of members of the nominating committee were held immediately after the close of the Stadium exercises, at designated sections of the Colonnade of the Stadium. The convention adjourned to Tuesday evening, July 5. • SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS Second Session — Tuesday Evening, July 5, 8 o'clock The convention was called to order in Tremont Temple in the city of Boston by President Joyner at 8 o'clock p.m. Music by a band of pupils of the Thomas N. Hart Grammar School — Mr. Fred W. Lewis, director. The annual presidential address was delivered by James Y. Joyner, state superin- tendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N.C. The subject of the address was "Some Dominant Tendencies in American Education." "A Message from the United States Bureau of Education" was given by Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C. A memorial address on Dr. William Torrey Harris was delivered by James M. Green- wood, superintendent of city schools, Kansas City, Mo. After announcements, adjournment was taken to Wednesday evening, July 6. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS Third Session — ^Wednesday Evening, July 6, 8 o'clock The convention assembled at 8 o'clock p.m. and was called to order by President Joyner. Music by the Oliver Ames High School Band — H. E. Brenton, director. The following Committee on Nominations was announced by President Joyner: COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS David B. Johnson, of South Carolina, Chairman John H. Phillips Alabama W. M. Davidson Nebraska A. J. Matthews Arizona Mrs. L. C. Booth Nevada B. A. Spradlin Arkansas Clark T. Falknor New Hampshire J. W. McClymonds. . . . California J. M. Green New Jersey James H. Baker Colorado Inez Cosgrove New Mexico Edwin C. Andrews ... . Connecticut Katherine D. Blake. . . New York Alice O. Johnson Delaware E. C. Brooks North Carolina Harlan Updegraef. . . . Dist. of Col. Clyde R. Travis North Dakota W. M. HoLLOWAY Florida O. T. Corson Ohio Mrs. F. S. Whiteside. . Georgia J. B. Taylor Oklahoma I. B. Warner Idaho W. J. Kerr Oregon Francis G. Blair Illinois Charles S. Foos Pennsylvania Robert J. Aley Indiana Walter E. Ranger Rhode Island W. O. RiDDELL Iowa Daved B. Johnson. ..... South Carolina Joseph H. Hill Kansas H. A. Ustrud South Dakota E. H. Mark Kentucky J. J. Keyes Tennessee T. H. Harris Louisiana J. D. Sandefer Texas H. H. Randall Maine Horace H. Cummings. . . Utah M. Bates Stephens . . . Maryland Merritt D. Chittenden Vermont Albert E. Winship. . . . Massachusetts J. D. Eggleston Virginia Fred L. Keeler Michigan Miss S. M. Hummel Washington Guy E. Maxwell Minnesota Thomas C. Miller West Virginia M. Rose Mississippi Emma J. Gardner Wisconsin W. J. Hawkins Missouri Kate Smith Wyoming C. A. DuNiWAY Montana An address on "Criticisms of the Public Schools by the Laity" was delivered by James W. Crabtree, president of the State Normal School at Peru, Nebr. "The Effect of Electives Chosen in College" was the subject of an address by A. Lawrence Lowell, president of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 29 "The Value of Demonstrative Methods in the Agricultural Education of the Rural Population" was the subject of an address by H. L, Russell, dean of the College of Agri- culture and director of Experiment Station, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. This address was illustrated by stereopticon views. The session was adjourned to Thursday evening. FOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS Fourth Session — ^Thursday Evening, July 7, 8 o'clock The convention was called to order at 8 o'clock p.m. by President Joyner. Music by the Thomas N. Hart Grammar School Band — Fred W. Lewis, director. A paper on "Public Health and Public Education" was read by William Orr, deputy commissioner of education, Boston, Mass. "Universal Education and International Peace" was the subject of an address by P. P. Claxton, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. An address on "Training for Teaching" was delivered by Miss Emma L. Johnston, principal of Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, New York, N.Y. The session was adjourned to Friday evening. FIFTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS Fifth Session — Friday, July 8, 8 o'clock The convention assembled at 8 o'clock p.m. and was called to order by President Joyner. Music by the Oliver Ames High School Band — H. E. Brenton, director. The first paper was "Education of Women for Home-making," by Mrs. W. N. Hutt, Chairman of Woman's Branch of the Farmer's Institute Work of North Carolina, Raleigh, N.C. Then followed a paper on "The Value during Education of a Life-Career Motive," by Charles W. Eliot, president emeritus of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. President Joyner then introduced the President-elect, Ella Flagg Young, of Chicago, 111., who spoke as follows: It is with a deep sense of the honor you have conferred upon me, and of the responsi- bility I assume in accepting the presidency of this Association that I enter upon the duties of the position to which you have elected me. I am well aware that in one short year a president may not influence the character of the Association in a marked degree. The president may, however, conserve the good which has been developed in the past and assure one advance step in the future. I hope to assist in abolishing the distinction in membership between those who can, and those who cannot, pay comparatively high dues. This will never be a truly demo- cratic organization while it shuts out from active membership the men and the women who receive small salaries, teaching in a cramped environment where people have not yet learned the value of a teacher. Something certainly can be accomplished toward advancing the spirit of fellowship among teachers so that all will be interested in educa- tion not only in the rural district, the village, or the town in which their personal work is carried on, but thruout the land. The Forty-eighth Convention was adjourned sine die by President Joyner. Irwin Shepard, Secretary MINUTES OF MEETING OF THE ACTIVE MEMBERS OF THE ASSOCIATION BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS— Thursday, July 7, 1910 The meeting was called to order at the New Old South Church at 12 m. by Presi- dent James Y. Joyner. On motion of John W. Cook, of Illinois, the minutes of the last annual meeting of the active members were approved as printed in the Yearbook for 1909. James M Greenwood, Acting Chairman of the Board of Trustees, then presented the Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees. Printed copies of the report had previously been distributed to the active members present. On motion of Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut, the Report of the Board of Trustees as presented by James M. Greenwood, Vice-Chairman, was accepted and approved as printed. Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin: Thru an error the name of Trustee Pearse does not appear on the Report of the Board of Trustees, but it will be duly appended thereto. On motion, duly seconded, it was voted to receive the report subject to that amendment. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer of the Association, presented his report as Treasurer, for the year ending June o, 190. Printed copies of the report had been distributed to the active members present. On motion of Miss Katherine D. Blake, of New York, the report of the Treasurer, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California, which was also in printed form, was received and approved as printed. President Joyner: The next business in order is the report of the Committee on the Revision of By-Laws, of which E. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania, is chairman. That committee was appointed by resolution at the last meeting, when the following motion was passed: Resolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the President to formulate desired amendments to the By-Laws so that the same may be submitted at the next annual meet- ing and be finally considered at the meeting of Active Members in 191 1. You will understand that your committee was appointed by my predecessor, President L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin. The report is quite a long one, and as it is not to be acted upon finally until the Annual Meeting in 1911, and as opportunity will be given for full discussion of it at that time, I suggest that, since it is to be printed before the next meeting, you can order that the report be received and the committee continued in accordance with the resolution for final report at the regular business meeting in 191 1. If this is not your pleasure. Chairman Lyte is ready to read the report to the body. Augustus S. Downing, of New York: I move that the report be accepted for print- ing and distribution to the members prior to the meeting in 191 1, when full considera- tion may be had. The motion was duly seconded and carried without dissent. President Joyner: Next in order is the report of your Committee on the Bureau of Education. Jo EN W. Cook, of Illinois, chairman of the committee: Two years ago the Associa- tion provided for the appointment of a committee of five whose special work was to 30 MINUTES OF MEETING OF ACTIVE MEMBERS 31 endeavor to secure additional appropriations for the United States Bureau of Education, and to co-operate with that Bureau in such ways as seemed practicable. I have here a brief report, which it is not necessary for me to read. I will, with your consent, present it to the Secretary that it may be made a matter of record. I move the adoption and publication of this report. The motion was seconded and carried. Mr. Cook: I now move the appointment by the President of a similar committee of five members for the succeeding year. The motion was seconded and carried. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED IN igo8 FOR THE PURPOSE OF AIDING IN SECUR- ING FAVORABLE ACTION ON THE PART OF CONGRESS FOR THE BETTER EQUIPMENT OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION Members of the National Education Association: Your committee has endeavored to the best of its ability to serve the purposes for which it was created. This it has aimed to do by inducing educational men thruout the country to use such influence as they possess in urging members of Congress to favor more generous appropriations for the National Bureau of Education. Your Committee is of the opinion that something has been accomplished in this direction. Many other agencies have been active in endeavoring to secure the same result. It is very evident that there is a greatly increased interest in the welfare of the Bureau. This interest is manifested by active co-operation in the form of letters of indorsement and resolutions to congressmen and senators from all parts of the country. Among the individuals and organizations that have come to the support of the Bureau, the following may be noted: State Association of School Boards and School Superintendents of Michigan. State Association of Superintendents of California. Teachers Association of North Carolina. Teachers Association of Georgia. Summer School of the South, Knoxville, Tenn. Business Msn's Club, Memphis, Tenn. Civic Progess League, Memphis, Tenn. Three Hundred School Boards and Boards of Education. Fifteen Hundred individual indorsements. Columbia Teachers College. Department of Education, University of Chicago. Department of Education, Cornell University. Department of Child Hygiene of Russell Sage Foundation. These organizations, and many others, have unqualifiedly indorsed the Bureau and have had no small degree of influence in the marked change of sentiment which is observ- able among members of Congress. A very large number of personal appeals have been made to congressmen by superintendents of public instruction, superintendents of city systems, business men on boards of education, and leading private citizens who are greatly interested in the welfare of the school. It is believed that your committee has accomplished something in the way of awaken- ing public opinion and possibly enough to warrant the continuance of such an organiza- tion, although it must be understood as laying no claim for having achieved anything like the totality of results mentioned above. This report is now submitted for the consideration of the members at this business meeting of the Association as it is the opinion of the committee that its term of ofiice has expired by limitation. Respectfully submitted, / John W. Cook, of Illinois, Chairman 1 James H. Baker, of Colorado Committee / Calvin N. Kendall, of Indiana ] James Y. Toynee, of North Carolina \ Thomas M. Balliet, of New York President Joyner: Next in order is the report of the Committee on Nominations. Mr. D. B. Johnson, of South Carolina, chairman of the committee, will be recognized to make the report of the Committee on Nominations. The following report was read by Chairman Johnson: 32 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION To the Active Members of the National Education Association: The Committee on Nominations duly appointed in accordance with the By-Laws of the Association, presents the following nominations for officers of the Association for the ensuing year, viz. : For President Z. X. Snyder Colorado For Treasurer D. W. Springer , . . . Michigan For Vice-Presidents James Y. Joyner Raleigh, N.C. Mrs. Ella Flagg Young Chicago, 111. Fayette L. Cook Spearfish, S. Dak. George A. McFarland Valley City, N. Dak, Thomas C. Miller Shepherdstown, W.Va. Charles S. Foos Reading, Pa. Homer H. Seerley Cedar Falls, Iowa F. O. Hays Alva, Okla. E. T. Fairchild Topeka, Kans. Samuel Avery Lincoln, Nebr. C. A. DuNiwAY Bozeman, Mont. And for directors for the states and territories the following: STATE DIRECTORS Alabama John W. Abercrombie University Arizona A. J. Matthews Tempe Arkansas George B. Cook Little Rock California Duncan MacKjnnon San Diego Colorado Charles E. Chadsey Denver Connecticut Frederick A. Verplanck South Manchester Delaware George W. Twitmyer Wilmington District of Columbia P. M. Hughes Washington Florida Miss Clem Hampton Tallahassee Georgia Mrs. F. S. Whiteside Atlanta Idaho Charles S. Meek Boise City Illinois J. Stanley Brown Joliet Indiana Thomas A. Mott Richmond Iowa O. P. BosTWiCK Clinton Kansas John MacDonald Topeka Kentucky W. H. Bartholomew Louisville Louisiana Miss Mary Stevens Monroe Maine Payson Smith Augusta Maryland A. C. Willison Cumberland Massachusetts Irving O. Palmer Newton Michigan E. E. Scribner Ishpeming Minnesota S. L. Heeter St. Paul Mississippi E. E. Bass Greenville Missouri Howard A. Gass Jefferson City Montana James M. Hamilton Bozeman Nebraska A. A. Reed Lincoln Nevada Mrs. L. C. Booth Reno New Hampshire Henry C. Morrison Concord New Jersey M. H. Kinsley Hoboken New Mexico J. E. Clark Santa Fe New York Augustus S. Downing Albany North Carolina W. S. Snipes Fayetteville North Dakota Nelson Sauvain Casselton Ohio John W. Zeller Columbus Oklahoma W. C. Canterbury Marietta Oregon Edwin D. Ressler Corvallis Pennsylvania Reed B. Teitrick Harrisburg Rhode Island H. W. Lull Newport South Carolina David B. Johnson Rock Hill South Dakota Freeman H. Hoff Mitchell Tennessee J. J. Keyes Nashville Texas George H. Carpenter Brownwood Utah G.N. Child Provo Vermont Mason S. Stone Montpelier MINUTES OF MEETING OF ACTIVE MEMBERS ZZ Virginia Joseph Eggleston Richmond Washington H. B. Dewey Olympia West Virginia Morris P. Shawkey Charleston Wisconsin Carroll G. Pearse Milwaukee Wyoming A. D. Cook Cheyenne Respectfully submitted, D. B. Johnson, Chairman Kate Smith, Secretary Miss Katherine D. Blake, of New York: Mr. President and Members of the National Education Association: As a member of the nominating committee in which the vote for nominee for President was comparatively close, I have the honor of present- ing as a minority report to this convention the name of Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, of lUinois, as nominee for President for the ensuing year, in place of Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado, named for that office in the report just presented. I understand that the presentation of such a report as I am making is without precedent in the annals of this Association, and I am glad that this woman, who has been breaking records ever since she started, is breaking the record of this Association now. I know of no healthier sign in an organization than a contest for the presidency. It means that it is of value; that the members are alive and active. Therefore I welcome this chance to make a minority report. I think all of us feel earnestly and sacredly the trust that is imposed in us. We are every one of us more or less delegated by the people from our own states. The question of the presidency has been talked over in every hamlet of this country. For the first time in the history of this organization a woman has been mentioned for the high office that has been filled for so many years by so many distinguished men, and for the first time we have a woman who stands, frail and little as she is, towering above those that are about her. She has not merely a national reputation. She has an international reputation. I regret any mention of a sex line in any contest, Mr. President. We are presenting the name of Mrs. Young as the best human being for this position. She has the record of having taught from the rural school to the university. She has done something that thrills every one of us; when you can say that man or woman past fifty starts in and obtains a university education, it is something to thrill one with admiration. I do not know but I will try to do it myself. Mrs. Young merits everything that has been said of her. She has taken a place that was so difficult, as I learned from a gentleman from Illinois this morning, that two dis- tinguished men have failed before her. I beg your pardon, I should not have said that. I did not mean that. They did not fail. I mean that she has succeeded more wonderfully than they did. You must forgive me if I make mistakes. It is my first attempt at a campaign, and I expect to make mistakes. I am an amateur at it, and can only speak from my heart. We women have been criticized for our methods. They have said that we ought not to have done certain things. You men have been working for years in this organization, while we have been taking meekly and quietly the seat in the back of the room. We have come here year after year, many of us, paid our money and listened, and it may seem to you surprising that we now ask to be heard. If our first accents tremble and we say words wrong, you must forgive us. We have a woman to speak for us in Mrs. Young who will not speak the word wrong, and I beg your suffrages for her. It has been said that too many of the presidents have come from Illinois. I am not from Illinois; I am fromNew York. I think the question of too many presidents coming from one place is too trivial to be considered. We do not stop to count where the presidents of the United States come from. A good many of them have come from a western state. Besides that, Mrs. Young comes not from Chicago, but from this whole country. There are women and men from north and south, from east and west, and from center, all anxious to see her given a chance to do in this Association what she has done already in Chicago. Mr. President, I move the substitution of the minority report for the majority report. The motion was seconded. President Joyner: The motion of Miss Blake is not in order at this point, but the Chair will recognize her to make that motion as an amendment after a motion has been made to adopt the report of the committee. Augustus S. Downing, of New York: I move the adoption of the majority report of the Committee on Nominations as presented by the Chairman. 34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION John W. Cook, of Illinois: I second the motion that the majority report of the com- mittee be adopted. Miss Blake: I now move the substitution of the minority report for the majority report. Miss Isabel A. Ennis, of New York: I second the motion. President Joyner: We have before us the report of a majority of the nominating committee, which has been read in your presence, and a motion for the adoption of the same. You also have before you the report of a minority of the Committee on Nomina- tions, dissenting from the report of the majority, and a substitute motion for the adoption of the minority report. The motion which has been made to substitute the report of the minority of the committee for that of the majority takes precedence of the motion to adopt the report of the majority of the committee, and will be voted upon first. Miss Grace C. Strachan, of New York: I wish to speak in support of the substi- tute motion. I have been attending conventions of the National Education Association for many years, and as is well known the women do not fail to attend the lectures and the evening meetings, but they frequently do fail to attend the business meetings. For forty-eight years the presidency has fallen each year to a man. This time we have found a woman whom we would like to see President of the National Education Association. There have been some objections made to the tactics used by the women interested in Mrs. Young's election. I am very glad to have you know and have you all see that there are many men also who desire the election of Mrs. Young; but when one considers the objections as to tactics one feels that they are very trifling. For instance, I asked somebody what the objections were, and he said, "Well, in the matter of these badges; never before has the candidate for the presidency had a personal badge passed around." This is the age of badges and buttons. We whom I represent wear this red badge. I represent fourteen thousand women. For several years we have used this badge I.A.W.T., and we did not think of any interpretation for it except Interborough Association of Women Teachers, until a man saw it and read it, "I Am With Thee." Since then, we prefer that interpretation. So much for the badges. Another objection is that some of the advocates of Mrs. Young began several weeks ago writing around the country with reference to Mrs. Young. Now, it may be a matter for thanksgiving that they did not begin earlier, because if they had there would have been so many women from the city of New York that we would have had to go to the Stadium for the election. We have known only for a very short time that Mrs. Young would permit her name to be used as a candidate for the presidency, and in that very short time we have had the oppor- tunity to reach only a few of the women who are interested in Mrs. Young as an educator. That objection, like the one about the badges, seems to me not important in this discus- sion. This is a matter of choosing a prominent educator for the most responsible office in our Association, and I must confess that of the two names presented to us this morn- ing, those of Mr. Snyder and Mrs. Young, my knowledge of the career of both makes me believe that Mrs. Young is not the second in the matter of record or ability. I hope that the women who have formed so large a part of this Association for so many years, and have asked for nothing, will find that this time the Association will recognize their request for this high office, and that the election of Mrs. Young this morning will be unanimous. C. A. DuNiWAY, of Montana: I move that debate be closed, and that we proceed to vote on the substitute motion. Seconded and carried. President Joyner: Now we are prepared to vote first on the substitute motion. The Chair desires to appoint tellers to take the vote in this matter. A discussion followed as to the proper method of taking the vote on the substitute motion and the Chair was called upon for a ruling. President Joyner: The Chair rules that as debate has been closed by motion of this house, a vote upon the substitute motion comes first, and that this vote is to be taken by a rising vote. The vote will now occur upon the minority report of the commit- tee to substitute Mrs. Young's name in place of Mr. Snyder's, in the report. If that should be adopted by this house, then the question to come before the house would still MINUTES OF MEETING OF ACTIVE MEMBERS 35 be to elect by ballot the amended list of the majority report; the adoption of that amended list by ballot would amount to an election. At the request of President Joyner six tellers were selected by the majority of the nominating committee thru the chairman of the committee, D. B. Johnson, and six tellers by the minority, represented by Miss Katherine D. Blake, as follows: TELLERS FOR THE MINORITY Francis G. Blair, of Illinois Charles Zueblin, of Massachusetts A. E. Winship, of Massachusetts Emma J. Gardner, of Wisconsin Mrs. F. S. Whiteside, of Georgia Isabel A. Ennis, of New York TELLERS FOR THE MAJORITY Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut Augustus S. Downing, of New York E. H. Marks, of Kentucky J. George Becht, of Pennsylvania James M. Greenwood, of Missouri James H. Baker, of Colorado President Joyner accepted the tellers nominated and assigned them in pairs to different sections of the church to take the vote. President Joyner: The Chair decides that the vote shall be taken as follows: The tellers will go thru the cHurch and take the vote seat by seat, first those voting for the substitute motion to adopt the minority report rising and standing until counted, and then those voting against the substitute motion report rising and standing until counted. The vote was then taken by the tellers and the result counted and handed to Presi- dent Joyner. President Joyner: The result of the vote is, as reported by the tellers, that 993 votes were cast; 617 in favor of the substitute motion naming Mrs. Ella Flagg Young as nominee for the presidency, and 376 in opposition to said motion. The substitute motion is therefore carried and the majority report of the Committee on Nominations is amended accordingly, substituting the name of Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, of lUinois, for that of Mr. Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado. It is now in order to vote by ballot unless otherwise ordered on the adoption of the majority report of the nominating committee as amended by the substitute motion. James M. Greenwood, of Missouri: I wish to move as an amendment to the report, before vote is taken, that the name of Miss Julia Richman, of New York, be substituted for second Vice-President in place of the name of Mrs. Ella Flagg Young. The motion being duly seconded was carried. Mr. Greenwood: I now move that the Secretary be instructed to cast the ballot of the members present for the election of the nominees as named in the amended report now before the house, A. E. Winship, of Massachusetts: I second the motion. President Joyner: The motion now before the house is that the Secretary be instructed to cast the ballot of this body for the minority report, as amended. Vote was taken and carried unanimously. President Joyner: The motion prevails and it is so ordered. The Secretary reports that the vote is so cast. I therefore declare the nominees of the majority report, as amended in two particulars, elected as officers of the Association for the ensuing year. The next thing in order is the report of the Committee on Resolutions. I recognize Julius I. Foust, of North Carolina, chairman of that committee. Chairman Foust presented the following: DECLARATION The National Education Association, now holding its Forty-eighth Annual Conven- tion in the city of Boston, representing every educational interest of the nation, makes the following declaration of principles: W I. We affirm our faith in the schools of the Republic, believing that it is impossible 36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION for the citizens of a great democracy to develop power and efficiency without the public schools, owned and controlled by the people. 2. A Federal Office of Education is necessary to the best development of education in the several states. The National Bureau of Education has for many years rendered a splendid service in disseminating information and developing educational ideals. Dur- ing the past few years its increasing service and enhanced efficiency have been marked and stimulating. The plans which are now projected have the earnest approval and the enthusiastic indorsement of the educational interests of the entire country. The members of this Association hereby express their appreciation of the provision made for the better housing of the Bureau and the enlargement of its staff. We further respectfully urge on the Congress an increased appropriation for its support. In particular we urge that in addition to the usual appropriations the sum of %1SPOO be made available at the next session of Congress for the organization of a more adequate staff of speciahsts with par- ticular reference to work in the field. 3. In the judgment of the National Education Association, the time has arrived for the formation of an International Council of Education, to be composed of leading educators from all the principal nations of the globe; the first meeting of the Council to be held in Washington, D.C., at some time during the year iqii. The Association hereby appoints the United States Commissioner of Education, the President, and all living ex-Presidents of the National Education Association, and seven others, to be chosen by the above-designated persons, as a committee to formulate plans for such an International Council and to attend to their execution. 4. The fundamental consideration in any system of schools is the development of inflexible integrity and strong moral character in those receiving instruction. The Repub- lic cannot survive without a citizenship with high ideals of patriotism, duty, and service. This Association, therefore, commends most heartily the growing interest in the moral development of the children of the nation. 5. While the members of this Association are of the opinion that the old courses of study, which had as their chief object the giving of culture to the individual and of trans- mitting to him the best ideas and ideals of the past, should in no manner be weakened, we, nevertheless, very sincerely indorse the movement to make the course of study offered in our schools more democratic, that they may meet the conditions of our modern com- mercial and industrial life. However, to meet adequately these new demands imposes upon the schools of the country additional financial responsibilities, and this Association appeals to the nation and to the states for more liberal appropriations for educational purposes in order that this additional work in agriculture, in the trades and industries, and in home economics may be effectively undertaken. 6. No country that is physically weak or physically diseased can attain its possible greatness. All efforts, therefore, to make the condition of our educational plants more sanitary and to impress upon the minds of the children and the citizens of the nation the importance of the proper observance of the laws of health — public and individual — should receive the support and hearty co-operation of American teachers. 7. The abuses attending the employment of children in industrial occupations tend to hmit their educational opportunities, and this Association, therefore, indorses all such wise and humane legislation as shall make possible the broadest development of all the children, 8. The character and efficiency of the schools depend in the future, as in the past, upon the character and efficiency of the teachers. The profession of teaching should, therefore, attract men and women of the highest intellectual attainments, broadest culture, most thoro training, and loftiest ideals; to this end the salaries paid American teachers should be commensurate with salaries paid in other professions and in commercial and industrial pursuits. 9. The Association reaffirms its declaration in the year of the last Hague Conference of the pre-eminent duty of the teachers of the United States, and of all the nations, to advance this commanding movement of our time for the world's peace; and we record our profound satisfaction at the noteworthy development of attention to this high interest in our schools and colleges, and the rapid progress of the cause among all peoples. We herewith express our special satisfaction in the recent declaration of the President of the United States in behalf of the settlement by arbitration of all differences whatever between nations. With equal gratitude we indorse the resolution adopted by the Congress of the United States for the appointment of a commission to consider measures for the reduc- tion of the burdensome armaments of the nations. 10. The National Education Association reaffirms its unalterable opposition to any division of the public school funds among private or sectarian schools and believes that MINUTES OF MEETING OF ACTIVE MEMBERS 37 any appropriation from the federal or state treasuries in support of private educational institutions is in direct contravention of the fundamental principles upon which our system of American public-school education has been founded. Respectfully submitted, / Julius I. Fousx, of North Carolina, Chairman Committee | Joseph Swain, of Pennsylvania • on > Homer H. Seerley, of Iowa Resolutions \ George B. Cook, of Arkansas \ Katherine D. Blake, of New York President Joyner: The report of the Committee on Resolutions is before you. What will you do with it ? Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin : I move that it be adopted as read. Motion seconded and carried. Charles I. Rice, of Massachusetts: In behalf of the Department of Music Educa- tion, which was in consultation on this matter at the time the Committee on Resolutions was also in session, I was instructed to come to this meeting with a resolution as follows : Whereas, The manner of singing our national songs, "America" and "The Star Spangled Banner," differs widely in various cities and even in different schools of the same city; and Whereas, There is therefore a great need of some agreement upon a uniform rendi- tion of these songs; Be it resolved^ That the National Education Association heartily indorses the forms agreed upon by the Department of Music Education during the present convention and recommends the use of these forms in all the public schools. E. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania: I move that the resolution be referred to the Com- mittee on Resolutions. Motion seconded and carried. After announcements, the meeting adjourned. Irwin Shepard, Secretary Approved, James Y. Joyner, President MINUTES OF MEETING OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION FOR THE YEAR 1909-10 The annual meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order by President James Y. Joyner in the Parish House of Trinity Church, at 9:30 a.m., July 4, 1910. The following members responded to roll-call: James Y. Joyner, North Carolina; Lorenzo D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Arthur H. Chamberlain, California; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; Thomas W. Bicknell, Rhode Island; A. W. Akers, representing the Board of Education of Nashville, Tennessee; Elmer Ellsworth Brown, District of Columbia; Edwin G. Cooley, lUinois; Oscar T. Corson, Ohio; James M. Green, New Jersey; James M. Greenwood, Missouri; Eli- phalet Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; Nathan C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania; Geoffrey Buck- waiter, representing the Teachers' Institute of Philadelphia, Pa.; A. J. Matthews, Ari- zona; George B. Cook, Arkansas; Duncan MacKinnon, California; Charles E. Chadsey, Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut; Miss Clem Hampton, Florida; J. Stanley Brown, Illinois; Thomas A, Mott, Indiana; John MacDonald, Kansas; W. H. Bartho- lomew, Kentucky; A. C. Willison, Maryland; Irving O. Palmer, Massachusetts; E. E. Scribner, Michigan; S. L. Heeter, Minnesota; E. E. Bass, Mississippi; Howard A. Gass, Missouri; W. E. Harmon, Montana; M. H. Kinsley, New Jersey; James E. Clark, New Mexico; Augustus S. Downing, New York; W. S. Snipes, North Carolina; J. W. MacKinnon, Ohio; Arthur Grant Evans, Oklahoma; Herbert W. Lull, Rhode Island; David B, Johnson, South Carolina; Freeman H. Hoff, South Dakota; George H. Car- penter, Texas; Joseph Eggleston, Virginia; Henry B. Dewey, Washington; Morris P. Shawkey, West Virginia; Carroll G. Pearse, Wisconsin. Directors answering to roll-call, forty-five. The Secretary reported that several state directors who were unable to attend the meeting had written asking to have other active members from their respective states appointed in their places. Upon motion, duly seconded, the following appointments to fill vacancies were made: John W. Abercrombie, of Alabama, to succeed Director Samuel S. Murphy, absent. Charles S. Meek, of Idaho, to succeed Director S. Belle Chamberlain, absent. O. P. Bostwick, of Iowa, to succeed Director Frank L. Smart, absent. Mrs. L. C. Booth, of Nevada, to succeed Director Romanzo Adams, absent. C. R. Travis, of North Dakota, to succeed Director Thomas A. Hillyer, absent. Gerard Taillandier, of Oregon, to succeed Director E. D. Ressler, absent. G. N. Child, of Utah, to succeed Director W. S. Rawlings, absent. T. P. Bailey, of Tennessee, to succeed Director I. C. McNeill, absent. W. M. Davidson, of Nebraska, to succeed Director A. H. Waterhouse, absent. Arthur Grant Evans, of Oklahoma, to succeed Director Lynn Glover, absent. The following newly elected members responded to roll-call: J. W. Abercrombie, Alabama; 0. P. Bostwick, Iowa; W. M. Davidson, Nebraska; C. R. Travis, North Dakota; Gerard Taillandier, Oregon; Mrs. L. C. Booth, Nevada. The total number of directors present at the meeting, fifty-one. The Secretary stated that the minutes of the last meeting had been published in the Denver volume, and asked if the directors desired to have them read. Upon motion by Director L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, duly seconded, the reading of the minutes was dispensed with, and they were approved as printed in the Denver volume of Proceedings. In the absence of the chairman of the Board of Trustees, the President requested the vice-chairman, James M. Greenwood, to read the report of the Board of Trustees. The report was read and printed copies distributed to the directors present. 38 MINUTES OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS 39 On motion of Director E. E. Scribner, of Michigan, the report of the Board of Trustees, was accepted and adopted, and referred to the active members of the Association. The report of the Treasurer was read by Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California, and upon motion duly seconded was received, approved, and referred to the business meeting of the active members. Printed copies of the same were distributed to the members present. Secretary Irwin Shepard reported that, in accordance with instructions by the Board of Directors July 5, 1909 (see p. 39 of the Denver volume) the report of the Committee on the Place of Industries in Education had been printed and copies distributed to the active members. On motion duly seconded the action of the Secretary was approved. • SPECIAL REPORT BY THE SECRETARY ON THE CONSOLIDATION OF DEPARTMENTS The members of this Board will doubtless remember their action at the meeting held in Denver, Colo., July 8, 1909, in adopting with slight amendments the Report of the Committee on Reorganization of Departments. After the convention was closed many letters of protest came to the members of the Executive Committee which was charged with the execution of the provisions of the report. It was urged in these letters that notice of the proposed report should have been published in order that officers and members of the various departments of the Asso- ciation might have been present and heard in behalf of the departments in which they were respectively interested. Other difficulties appeared to the Executive Committee to the immediate execution of the plan for consolidation. At a meeting of the Executive Committee in New York City, October 9, 1909, the following resolution was presented and its adoption moved by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler: Whereas, The execution of the plan for consolidating the departments was com- mitted by the Board of Directors to the Executive Committee; and Whereas, The departments as heretofore existing had organized for the year 1909- 10 before the action of the Board of Directors was taken consolidating certain depart- ments and discontinuing others, and the officers-elect feel that they should be permitted to hold their usual meetings in 1910; therefore be it Resolved, That the Executive Committee do hereby request the Board of Directors to vote, by correspondence, on or before November i, on the question whether the Execu- tive Committee shall be empowered to postpone the execution of the new plan of con- solidated departments until after the meeting of 1910 is held. Seconded, and adopted by unanimous vote. The following motion was also adopted by a unanimous vote: Resolved, That, in case of a vote of approval by the Board of Directors, we, as the Executive Committee, do hereby agree to postpone the execution of the plan of consoli- dation until after the convention of 1910. Will you, therefore, kindly vote on the question submitted by filling out the inclosed blank memorandum, and mail the same in the accompanying postpaid return envelope at an early date, certainly before October 31 ? This action was duly transmitted by the Secretary to the members of the Board of Directors in a circular letter dated October 16, 1909, with a blank form for the desired vote by correspondence. The vote of the Board of Directors resulted as follows: Total number of directors of the National Education Association . 78 Number of directors voting 66 Number of directors voting in favor of postponement of consolida- tion 62 Number of directors voting against postponement of consolidation 4 66 Number of directors not voting 12 Accordingly the Secretary, under instructions of the Executive Committee, trans- mitted llie result of the vote to the officers of the various departments, with the result that all departments are represented on the program for the Forty-eighth Annual Con- vention, excepting the following: I. The Art Education and Manual Training departments had formally requested the Board of Directors to authorize them to consolidate and to be known as the Depart- ment of Manual Training and Art Education. This union was authorized by special 40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION action of the Directors at Denver and was not included in the vote for postponing the plan for consoUdation. , t i- -r-j • i j j 2. The Departments of Technical Education and of Indian Education had made formal requests for discontinuance, which requests were granted. These departments have ceased to exist and are not represented on the program of the convention. Respectfully submitted, Irwin Shepard, Secretary Upon motion duly seconded the action of the Executive Committee was approved, and it was agreed that the Board should adjourn to meet at 2 : 30 Tuesday afternoon, July 5, to hear representatives of the various departments making complaint, and take final action thereon; and the Secretary was instructed to notify the ofl&cers of all depart- ments of the Association of this action. Secretary Shepard made announcement that at 3 : 30 this afternoon (July 4) the first general session of the convention would be held at the Stadium, Cambridge, and that as the state meetings of active members to elect members of the nominating committee are fixed by the By-Laws for 5 : 30 this afternoon, it had been decided by the Executive Committee that these meetings be held in the Colonnade of the Harvard Stadium imme- diately after the close of the session. Director A. S. Downing, of New York: In order that there may be no question of the procedure as to the holding of these meetings at other places than at the various state headquarters, I move that this Board of Directors authorize each director for his own state to designate the headquarters temporarily for that state at the Stadium under the arch of the Colonnade labeled with the state's name. (Seconded and carried.) President Joyner: It has been suggested that I call the attention of the directors to the fact that none but active members can vote at the state meetings and that the direc- tors would do well to call the attention of the members meeting this afternoon to that fact before the voting begins, as it might save embarrassment on the part of some associate members who might not know that fact. We will now hear a report by Vice-Chairman James M. Greenwood, of the Board of Trustees. James M. Greenwood, of Missouri, Vice-Chairman of the Board of Trustees: Mr. President and Members of the Board of Directors: A new question has arisen in the Board of Trustees that has never been passed upon, and my object is to present the facts at this time. The Board of Trustees is composed of five members, four of whom are elected by the Board of Directors; the fifth member being the President of the Association, ex officio. A situation confronts us, concerning which we cannot agree unanimously in regard to^ a question of law; as to the question of facts we are agreed. The situation is simply this: At the Los Angeles meeting Superintendent Carroll G. Pearse, of Milwaukee, was elected for one year to fill an unexpired term in the Board of Trustees. The annual meeting following this election was held in Cleveland, Ohio. The members of the Board of Trus- tees received notice of this annual meeting and the meeting was held at the HoUenden Hotel. Superintendent Pearse was not present, but when the Board of Directors met later in the week Superintendent Pearse was re-elected for the full term of four years. The next annual meeting was held in Denver last year. At the time that the Board of Trustees were to meet. Superintendent Pearse and myself were engaged in committee work in connection with the National Council. The other three members of the Board of Trustees went out at the hour appointed and held the meeting of the Board of Trustees. It was not the intention of Trustee Pearse and myself to be absent, but we were absent. Our Articles of Incorporation, Section 6, reads as follows: "The absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership." A meeting of the Trustees was held in Chicago on the 13th day of April, 1910. Of the members of the Board of Trustees, the following were present: Trustee Butler, Trus- tee Brown, and Trustee Greenwood. Absent: Trustee Joyner. Chairman Butler had obtained legal advice from Mr. John B. Pine, of New York City, who had been the attorney of the Board of Trustees, that the matter should go to the Board of Directors and the question of a vacancy be determined by them; but in a subsequent statement, copy of which I have, he expressed the opinion that it belonged primarily to the Board of Trustees to determine and declare a vacancy within its own body; that is, when vacancies occur, MINUTES OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS 41 by resignation or otherwise, the Trustees had the authority to declare that a vacancy exists. President Joyner and Trustee Pearse hold that a vacancy does not exist, because they believe that the two absences were not cumulative. Others of us hold that the Board of Trustees is a continuous body and that the absences were cumulative. This is the case as briefly as I can state it Trustee Brown also questions whether these two absences ought to be considered cumulative absences. Without going into a lengthy discussion and detaining you, I will say that we are trying to sell a piece of property in Chicago that belongs to the National Education Association, and I think that it would be better, and safer in a legal sense, either to re-elect Mr. Pearse, or to elect somebody else, to fill the unexpired term, so that there can be no shadow of doubt in regard to the legal membership of the board. Under Section 6 of the Act of Incorporation you will find that the Board of Direc- tors has a clear right to fill vacancies in the Board of Trustees. That section reads in part as follows: "All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership." President Joyner: I am going to ask Vice-President Harvey to take the chair. Vice-President Harvey takes the chair. PREsroENT Joyner: It was agreed to lay this whole matter before the Board of Directors and let them take the responsibiUty of a decision. A statement of the facts has been made, and as it was agreed that a statement of the views entertained by the members of the Board of Trustees who could not agree should also be made, I come before you to make a statement here. I want to say at the outset, gentlemen, that the Board of Trustees ever since its arrival has labored over this matter, with the earnest hope that three honest men enter- taining different views when they started out might after a full discussion agree, render- ing it unnecessary to trouble you gentlemen with it. We finally failed to do so, and then declared that the only thing to do was to come before you and make a calm, honest statement of the facts and throw the responsibility of the whole matter upon you. I trust that the decision of this matter will be approached in exactly the same spirit that the members of this Board of Trustees have tried to approach it and decide it, and if, in the final outcome, we cannot agree here we will differ honestly, but do it charitably and bow to the will of the majority, whatever that may be. You have had the facts stated before you. The record shows two absences on the part of Trustee Pearse, one occurring in the term of office of one year to which he was elected to fill an unexpired term, the other occurring in his new term of office, to which he was elected for four years, subsequent to the first absence. The first point of conflict among the members of the Board was on the question whether these absences in different terms of office should be cumulative and thereby cause a forfeiture of office. You have had Mr. Greenwood's view of the matter, honestly stated. I want to state the view of Mr, Brown and myself on that matter — I believe Mr. Brown finally came to the same conclusion. My view from the first was, before I had had any legal counsel or any advice from Attorney Pine or anybody else, that no vacancy existed: but, if any vacancy had arisen, that the Board of Directors in whom was vested the power to elect a Board of Trustees would alone have the power to declare a vacancy as well as to elect a successor, and that, therefore, the Board of Trustees had no power, even if Trustee Pearse had been absent, within the meaning of the Act of Incorporation, from two successive annual meetings, to act upon the matter themselves, but should refer it to the Board of Directors for final decision. That was my view of that matter, Mr. Brown did not agree to that. Now, as to that second point: the record showed that one of these absences occurred in one term of Trustee Pearse's office, and the other occurred in another term of his office. My view was that those absences could in no sense be cumulative, and that as the record showed that Superintendent Pearse had been absent but once during his pre- sent term of ofl5ce, to which he was newly elected for a four-year term, he had not for- feited his membership under this article of the Constitution, which says that if a member is absent from two consecutive annual meetings he shall forfeit his membership. That was my view, and entertaining that view I felt that any declaration on the part of the Board of Trustees that Trustee Pearse's seat was vacant was not correct, on account of the fact that these absences occurred in different terms of Trustee Pearse's office, that they were not cumulative, and therefore did not operate under this article of the Consti- tution as a forfeiture of his membership in the Board of Trustees, That was the point about which we differed, Trustee Brown and myself entertaining the same view for the 42 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION reasons which I have stated, Trustee Butler and Trustee Greenwood taking the other view of the matter. There was another question of fact also on which we did not pass because we could not agree upon the other points, viz., What constitutes an annual meeting? Whether in the correct meaning of the word "annual" Superintendent Pearse had been absent from two "annual meetings." I think President Brown was of the opinion that the meet- ings referred to were annual meetings. • There was a doubt in my mind as to what was the annual meeting in the absence of any declaration or definition of what an annual meet- ing is. President Joyner resumed the chair. Then followed a general discussion of the question whether the clause of the Act of Incorporation referring to this matter should be or should not be interpreted to mean that the two absences should occur within one and the same term of office to constitute forfeiture of membership. President Joyner recognized Director A. C. Willison, of Maryland, who ofifered a motion reading as follows: I move that it is the sense of this body that the phrase of the Act of Incorporation at the close of Section 6 refers to a single term of office and that the two successive absences should occur within a single term of office to constitute a forfeiture of membership. Seconded by Director George H. Carpenter, of Texas. Several conflicting motions and substitutes were offered in the general discussion that followed, but were declared out of order by President Joyner, who held that no action could be taken to elect a successor to Mr. Pearse as a member of the Board of Trustees, or to re-elect him, until the directors had officially declared that a vacancy exists in the said board. Director L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, called attention to the fact that Section 5 of Article IV of the By-Laws provides for forfeiture of membership in the National Council in almost precisely the same language as that clause of the Act of Incorporation under consideration, viz. : The absence of a member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered as equivalent to resignation of membership and the Council shall fill vacan- cies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined. Director Harvey stated that this By-Law had been construed for many years as cumulative and that many prominent members of the Council had lost their membership when one of two consecutive absences had occurred in a previous consecutive term. He urged that this fact had an important bearing on the question under consideration and that the same interpretation should be appHed to the language of the Act of Incor- poration as has long prevailed without question in the case of the quoted By-Law apply- ing to membership in the National Council. Director Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin: I have been embarrassed for some time. I cannot conceive that I am not a member of the Board of Trustees to which I was elected two years ago. However, I wish to save you all embarrassment in this matter. It is not vital that I be a member of the Board of Trustees. There are many others who are as capable of filling that office as I am. Therefore I ask you to permit me to offer my resignation as such member, and trust that you will formally accept the same, after which you will be free to elect to that office any member whom you may choose. Director Willison: I beg leave, with the consent of the gentleman who seconded it, to withdraw my motion in order that the resignation of Mr. Pearse may be considered. President Joyner: There is now nothing before this house but the tendered resig- nation of Mr. Pearse. Director E. E. Scribner, of Michigan: I move that Mr. Pearse's resignation be accepted. The motion was duly seconded and carried. MINUTES OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS 43 Director W. H. Bartholomew, of Kentucky: I move that Director Carroll G. Pearse be elected to fill the \ acancy in the Board of Trustees for the unexpired term. This motion was duly seconded and carried, and President Joyner announced that Mr. Pearse was unanimously elected a member of the Board of Trustees for the unexpired term of office caused by his resignation. Meeting adjourned until 2:30 p.m.; Tuesday, July 5, 1910, at Parish House, Trinity Church, Boston, Mass. Irwin Shepard, Secretary Approved, James Y. Joyner, President MINUTES OF ADJOURNED MEETING OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION FOR THE YEAR 1909-10 The adjourned meeting of the Board of Directors for 1909-10 was called to order by President James Y. Joyner in the Parish House'of Trinity Church, at 2: 30 p.m., July 5, 1910. The following directors responded to roll-call: James Y. Joyner, North Carolina; Lorenzo D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Arthur H. Chamberlain, California; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; John W. Cook, Illinois; James M. Green, New Jersey; J. M. Greenwood, Missouri; John W. Abercrombie, Alabama; George B. Cook, Arkansas; Charles E. Chadsey, Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, Connec- ticut; Miss Clem Hampton, Florida; J. Stanley Brown, lUinois; Thomas A. Mott, Indiana; John MacDonald, Kansas; Payson Smith, Maine; A. C. Willison, Maryland; Irving O. Palmer, Massachusetts; E. E. Scribner, Michigan; E. E. Bass, Mississippi; W. M. Davidson, Nebraska; Augustus S. Downing, New York; Gerard Taillandier, Oregon; Reed B. Teitrick, Pennsylvania; David B. Johnson, South Carolina; T. P. Bailey, Tennessee; Henry B. Dewey, Washington; Morris P. Shawkey, West Virginia; Carroll G. Pearse, Wisconsin. Directors present, twenty-nine. The Secretary stated that every effort had been made to reach all the different heads of departments to inform them of this meeting, and he believed all of them had received notice of the meeting. The Report of the Committee on Reorganization of Departments, which was adopted at the Denver meeting, was read by the Secretary. (This report appears on p. 43 of the Yearbook for 1909-10.) Attention was called to the Special Report of the Secretary presented at the meeting of the previous day. Director T. A. Mott, of Indiana: Would a motion be in order to suspend for another year the action of the Board of Directors at Denver consolidating departments, which was suspended for one year by a correspondence vote of the Directors? President Joyner: I think so. We have the same right to do that, I assimie, as we had by referendum vote to suspend for one year. Director James M. Green, of New Jersey: If there is no vote to that effect, then the action taken at Denver goes into effect at this time ? President Joyner: If no action to the contrary is taken at this meeting, the report of the Committee on Consolidation goes into effect now and will be in effect next year. It now becomes operative unless this Board of Directors, who have the power to do so, shall suspend it again or reverse its action of a year ago. Director James M. Green, of New Jersey: As a member of the Committee on Reorganization of Departments, I desire to state some of the reasons which guided the committee in making its report. I was President of the Association in 1901 and it was owing to certain recommendations in my address as President that this committee was created. The debate on the question in the committee at Denver was long and earnest. It was believed by the committee that we had too many departments, some of which were logically related to other departments, as Art to Manual Training, Business Education to Secondary Education, etc. It was not the thought of the Committee to suppress, cut off, or discourage the consideration of the problems of business education, art education, physical training, or any other Une of educational work, but to bring about such unifica- tion of departments as to prevent much of the duplication and confusion which now exists, and more clearly define the field of each department. A general discussion followed reviewing the conditions which led to the appointment of a Committee on Reorganization of Departments at the Detroit Convention in 1901; MINUTES OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS 45 and the advantages of the plan for consolidation as proposed by the committee and adopted by the directors at their meeting in Denver, July 8, 1909. Attention was also called to the opposition to the action of the Board of Directors thereon, which was caused in part by the general interest of the members in the various departments as related to their respective lines of school work, and in part by the fact that no notice of such a report had been given in advance and no opportunity extended to the oflScers and others interested in the several departments to be heard in behalf of the continuance of the same. Director Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana, presented the following resolutions which were duly seconded: Resolved, That the action of this Board taken at the Denver meeting on the recom- mendation of the Committee on the Reorganization of Departments of the National Education Association be and is hereby suspended for one year; and Resolved, That the heads of departments affected by the report of the committee be invited to a conference to be held in this room, at 8:30 a.m., July 6, 1910, for the purpose of effecting such consolidations as may appear advisable at this time. A brief discussion of these resolutions followed, tmtil President Joyner suggested that the representatives of the several departments who were present by invitation of the Board of Directors should be heard. A motion was then made and carried to the effect that the department representatives be heard. In accordance with this motion President Joyner introduced the following: Kenyon L. Butterfield, President of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education: Five years ago, at a meeting of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, which is made up of representatives of all the agricul- tural colleges in the country, I introduced a resolution asking the National Education Association to establish a Department of Rural and Agricultural Education. I felt at that time, as I feel today, that the National Education Association is the proper body to head the unified movement for agricultural education in this country. The Association of the American Agricultural Colleges has developed very largely as a meeting of demonstrators to consider questions of general policy, and does not bring together as a rule the teachers of agriculture even in the colleges themselves, and has no connection with that growing body of men and women who are teaching agriculture in the public schools. I take it that was the beginning for the Association of this department. It was organ- ized soon after that thru the efforts of Mr. D. J. Crosby, of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D.C., who is here, and who I hope may be allowed to say a word on this same subject. I feel today, just as I did then, that this Association ought to recognize definitely the whole movement for the upbuilding of the rural community thru the schools. The department includes the whole field of the rural schools. It is the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education. The rural-school problem involves nearly half the public-school interests in the country. Furthermore, the work in agricultural education is going forward by leaps and bounds. It was reported a year ago at Portland that there were three hundred agricultural high schools already established, and the number will soon be legion. These facts show, I think, the significance of the work which is represented by this department. Whether that work has been adequately represented by the department in the meetings that have been held, I cannot say. At our meeting this morning we had only about a hundred people. Perhaps that is not a suflacient attendance to justify a separate department, but those one hundred people came from Maine to Montana, and from Michigan to South Carolina. They represented agricultural high schools, colleges, and normal schools; I think the largest attendance of agricultural-college men that has ever been gathered at an agricultural association was present at this meeting this morning. It is not very long since the rural-school movement as a definite thing has come to the front — not more than eight or ten years. The problems are not by any means all solved. This year we gave particular attention to two or three large questions that are coming up before our colleges and high schools. The discussion this morning was of intense interest, and I think the meeting thoroly justified itself. Now, if the National Education Association wants to represent the total agricultural interests, if it wants to be the gathering-place of men and women especially interested in this phase of education, then it seems to me it would be extremely unwise definitely to tie this department up with any other. By the report of the committee, our department 46 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION is to be tied up with the Department of Manual Training, and the new department is to be called the Department of Industrial Education. That is perfectly logical. Agricul- tural education is definitely a part of the great industrial educational movement. How- ever, we have had this day a joint session, but not a joint session with the Department of Manual Training; we held a joint session with the Department of Science Education and with the Department of Secondary Education. Another year it may be wise to hold a joint session with other departments. Now, if you tie us up permanently with the Department of Industrial Education, I feel very strongly that you are not going to give a chance for the National Education Association, thru this department or thru any other department that is definitely a part of the Association, to take leadership in this general movement for rural and agricultural education. If the concern of the directors is chiefly to eliminate departments to save expense, I do not see why this thing should not go thru; but, if the Board of Directors has an ambi- tion to make the National Education Association the organization which shall take the leadership, in so far as conferences and discussions and meetings can take leadership, for developing our rural schools, and especially for the enlargement of the agricultural educa- tion movement, I think you will make a serious mistake if you eliminate the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education. President Joyner : As I have another meeting which it is necessary for me to attend, I shall be obliged to ask to be excused, and will call Vice-President Harvey to the chair. Vice-President L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, took the chair. Linnaeus N. Hines, Vice-President of the Department of School Administration: I should like to ask whether it would not be fair to the Department of School Administra- tion, as well as the other departments, to let it take a vote as to whether it wants to be consolidated with any other department. The sentiment in our department is opposed to the action that was taken at Denver. The members want to go right ahead with a program of their own at this summer meeting. I think it would be fair to our department to let it vote on the question, and if it wants to go on with a program of its own, no matter if there are only twenty members there every year, it should be allowed to do so. DuRAND W. Springer, for the Department of Business Education: The members of the Department of Business Education during the past year have been in correspond- ence, and we come to you with a definite opinion that we do not like the combination that you propose. Prior to 1892 there was an organization known as the Business Educators Association, which held summer meetings, and contained as its members the teachers of commercial education in the United States. Application was made to your body for admission as a department. We were admitted. Since 1893 it has been my privilege to attend all the meetings except two. We have three members now where we had one in 1893. We started with eight. Today we have over a hundred active members who are strictly interested in business education. We began with a department meeting that had present less than twenty members. Today we had two hundred present. We have been growing. During that time we have been doing some things: one of which was that, as a result of the work of a committee, we issued a department bulletin. We did not ask for any funds for the printing of that bulletin, since as a department we had not become large enough to come to you and ask for appropriations. It must have been pretty fair in quality, for we sold over three thousand copies to those interested in commercial education. We do believe at the present time that it would not be fair to the National Education Association, and it would not be fair to the Business Section, that it should be blotted out. We are here. You absorbed an existing organization, and now merely to blot us out is hardly fair. I do not believe the National Education Association can afford to say, "We can only have so many Departments." That is like taxpayers saying they will not pay the taxes because they do not want the tax-rate to advance beyond a certain point. There are problems which we have not as yet solved, and which we have not yet worked out, and we believe that there are certain things we can do by ourselves which we cannot do in consolidation. We are your children by adoption, and we do not want to be thrown out, even tho you should adopt us again. Edwin White Gaillard, President of the Library Department: In taking up this question of consolidation, I wish to say that the Library Department has not been consoli- dated at all by the action of the Board of Directors at Denver. It has been absolutely wiped out. The schools of the country apparently have no further use for the Library Department. The Library section was originally established thru the influence of Dr. James H. Canfield and Mr. Melvil Dewey, to bring about a co-operation between the public library MINUTES OF NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS 47 and the elementary school. That propaganda has been far advanced. An entirely new factor has entered into this question which did not appear eight years ago, but has come as a result of this closer co-operation between the schools and libraries. There has come into existence a body of school librarians. There is no place for these librarians of school libraries to meet. The American Library Association has its meetings at times and places where it is impossible for a school man to go. Some years the American Library Associa- tion meets when the schools are in operation and the librarians cannot go. Sometimes there is no discussion of matters relating to schools in the American Library Association meetings. We submit for the benefit of this growing body of school librarians that there should be some place of meeting where they can come together and discuss their own sepa- rate problems and problems which run all thru the schools. If the department is abolished there is no place for its continuance or the spirit of its continuance. This morning I counted more than one hundred and twenty persons present. They were divided very nearly equally between school librarians, teachers who do not attend the American Library Association meetings, and public librarians. The attendance geographically ranged from the District of Columbia to Wyoming, while Tennessee, New York, New Jersey, Mis- souri, Massachusetts, Maine, and Canada were represented. There is, then, a growing body of persons who desire to come together and for whom no other provision is made. After further discussion Director Downing, of New York, moved as a substitute for the pending motion of Director Mott that the action of the Board of Directors of last year adopting the Report of the Committee on Consolidation be rescinded. Seconded and carried. Director John W. Cook, of Illinois, moved that the whole subject-matter of the reor- ganization of departments be re-referred to the original committee on that subject. Vice-President Harvey ruled the motion out of order on the ground that the directors, by rescinding their action taken at the Der>ver meeting, had discharged the committee which by the same action had been continued. Director Keyes, of Connecticut, then moved that the original committee be appointed anew and that the entire question of reorganization of departments be re- referred to this original committee on that subject with the addition of the two members which had been added to the committee at the Denver meeting, viz., the retiring Pres- ident, Director L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, and Director James M. Green, of New Jersey. This motion was seconded and carried by a unanimous vote. • The following are the names of the Committee: Alfred Bayliss, of Illinois, Chairman Ben Blewett, of Missouri Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin James M. Green, of New Jersey On motion of Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin, it was ordered that the consolidation of the Departments of Art Education and Manual Training remain unchanged by the motion to rescind which had just been carried, since those two departments had by their own action requested the Board of Directors to authorize them to unite as the Department of Manual Training and Art Education. Seconded and carried. After announcements, the meeting adjourned. Irwin Shepard, Secretary Approved, James Y. Joyner, President MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS FOR 1910-11 The meeting was called to order at 4:30 p.m., Thursday, July 7, 1910, in the Assembly Hall of the Parish House of Trinity Church, Boston, Mass., by President-elect Ella Flagg Young. The following members responded to roll-call: Ella Flagg Young, Illinois; James Y. Joyner, North Carolina; Irwin Shepard, Minne- sota; Durand W. Springer, Michigan; James M. Greenwood, Missouri; Elmer Ellsworth 48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Brown, District of Columbia; Nathan C. Schaeflfer, Pennsylvania; A. R. Taylor, Illinois; Lorenzo D. Harvey, Wisconsin; John W. Abercrombie, Alabama; A. J. Matthews, Arizona; George B. Cook, Arkansas; Duncan MacKinnon, California; Frederick A. Verplanck, Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, Delaware; P. M. Hughes, District of Columbia; Miss Clem Hampton, Florida; Mrs. F, S. Whiteside, Georgia; Charles S, Meek, Idaho; J. Stan- ley Brown, Illinois; T. A. Mott, Indiana; O. P. Bostwick, Iowa; John MacDonald, Kansas; W. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky; A. C. WilHson, Maryland; E. E. Scribner, Michigan; S. L. Heeter, Minnesota; E. E. Bass, Mississippi; Howard A. Gass, Missouri; M. H. Kinsley, New Jersey; J. E. Clark, New Mexico; Augustus S. Downing, New York; W. S. Snipes, North Carolina; Nelson Sauvain, North Dakota; W. C. Canterbury, Oklahoma; Reed B. Teitrick, Pennsylvania; D. B. Johnson, South Carolina; Freeman H. Hofif, South Dakota; J. J. Keyes, Tennessee; George H. Carpenter, Texas; H. B. Dewey, Washington; Morris P. Shawkey, West Virginia; Carroll G. Pearse, Wisconsin. Directors present, forty-three. The Secretary presented the following letter: Boston, Mass., July 6, igio PREsroENT James Y. Joyner, National Education Association Dear Sir: I wish to apply for the Territory of Hawaii to have representatives on the Boai-d of Directors of the National Education Association. Hawaii is a territory, a little larger in area than the state of Connecticut, with the privileges and responsibihties that pertain to the territories of Arizona and New Mexico. She is not a dependency like Porto Rico or the Philippines. We have a number of active members of the Association. The public-school system of Hawaii comprises 154 schools with an enrollment of 18,564 pupils and employing 476 teachers; the private schools number 51, enroll 4,881 pupils, and employ 218 teachers. Respectfully submitted, • (Signed) Perley L. Horne Director E. E. Scribner, of Michigan: I move that the request in the letter pre- sented be granted, and that the Board of Directors proceed to elect a director for Hawaii. Seconded and carried. Director D. B. Johnson, of South Carolina: I move that the writer of the letter, Mr. Perley L. Horne, be elected as director from Hawaii. Seconded and carried. President Young: The next order of business is the appointment of a committee to nominate members for the National Council. How do you wish this committee to be appointed ? On motion the Chair was instructed to appoint a committee of five members. The following committee was appointed: committee on membership in the council James M. Greenwood, of Missouri, Chairman Nathan C. Schaeflfer, of Pennsylvania Augustus S. Downing, of New York J. Stanley Brown, of Illinois Miss Clem Hampton, of Florida President Young: The next order of business is a communication from the Depart- ment of Superintendence. The Secretary read the following communication: Boston, July 6, 1910 To the Directors of the National Education Association: Gentlemen: The committee authorized by the Department of Superintendence to devise a system of uniform educational statistics has had its first meeting and outlined its plan of work. It is thought necessary to plan for at least two meetings of this com- mittee before next February. It will also be necessary to gather material concerning present systems of reporting throughout the United States. In view of the expense which will be incurred by the committee, we respectfully request an appropriation of five hundred dollars to cover necessary expenses. Respectfully yours, Payson Smith, President Approved: G. D. Strayer, Secretary W. M. Davidson, President of the Department of Superintendence. MINUTES OF NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS 49 After brief discussion, in which the plan of the committee was outlined, Director Joyner moved that the Board of Directors appropriate $500, or as much thereof as might be necessary, for the expenses of this committee, the appropriation being subject to the approval of the Committee on Appropriations and Investigations of the National Coun- cil. Seconded and carried. Director A. R. Taylor, of Illinois, presented a report by the Committee on a Universal System of Key Notation. The report was not read, but Director Taylor urged that the Board of Directors authorize the Secretary to print the report and send it to the active members of the Association at an early date as a report of progress. It was stated that the committee hoped to have the report in final form for presentation to the Department of Superintendence at its meeting in February next. After some discussion a motion was made, seconded, and carried that the Secretary be instructed to print and distribute the report as requested, subject to the approval of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the National Council. President Young: The next order of business is the election of a member of the Board of Trustees to succeed Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, whose term expires with this meeting. Director E. E. Scribner, of Michigan: I rise to nominate Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler to succeed himself as a member of the Board of Trustees for the term of four years. The nomination was duly seconded. Director Augustus S. Downing, of New York: As director from the State of New York I have a very unpleasant duty to perform. Before President Butler sailed for Europe he requested me to say to this Board of Directors, in case there should be a desire to re-elect him, that he should decline to accept re-election. H. B. Brown, acting chairman of the Board of Trustees, asked permission to make a statement to the directors. On motion, Trustee Brown was given the floor. Trustee H. B. Brown: I should feel that I was not doing my duty by the Board of Trustees and by the Association if I did not speak at this time. I have been associated with President Butler on the Board of Trustees for the past three years. He has been a member continuously for twelve years or more. I have been deeply impressed by his faithfulness and devotion to the interests of the Association, especially in the care of its Permanent Fund. His knowledge of financial matters and safe judgment in making invest- ments is shown in the high character of the investments of this Permanent Fund. I do not think there is another member of this Association who could fill his place as Chairman of the Board of Trustees and in guiding the Board in the care and investment of its Permanent Fund. In spite of what the director for New York has said, I wish to suggest that there has been at no time in the history of the Association so great a need for the sane and wise counsels of President Nicholas Murray Butler as at present. He is more than any other man familiar with the history and arrangement of its funds, and with the spirit and genius of the Association. It would be little short of a calamity for the Association, and for the Trustees, at this time, to be deprived of his services; and I hope that this statement may be placed in the minutes of the Board of Directors, and that President Butler may be unanimously re- elected to the Board of Trustees for the full term, and that a copy of the minutes be trans- mitted to President Butler with the notice of his re-election. President Young — to Director Downing: How reliable is your information that President Butler will decline to accept re-election ? Director Downing: I have delivered the message to the Board of Directors, sent to me in a letter by President Butler, as I agreed to do. I can say no more, deeply as I regret the necessity for delivering such a message. President Young : Do you wish to submit that letter as a part of the record of this meeting ? Director Downing: I do not. Director Joyner: In view of the nomination of President Butler to succeed him- self, I move that the Secretary be instructed to cast the ballot of the Board of Directors 50 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION for the election of Trustee Nicholas Murray Butler to succeed himself for the term of four years. The motion, being duly seconded, was carried by a unanimous vote. The Secretary reported the ballot cast according to instructions, and President Young declared President Butler re-elected as a member of the Board of Trustees for four years. The committee appointed to nominate members of the National Council presented its report as follows: To the members of the Board of Directors : Your committee reports the following-named nominations to fill vacancies which have occurred for the reasons stated: TO FILL VACANCIES OCCURRING BY REASON OF ABSENCE FROM TWO SUCCES- SIVE MEETINGS William P. Burris, Cincinnati, Ohio, to succeed John J. Doyne, Little Rock, Ark. — term to expire in 191 1. Francis G. Blair, Springfield, 111., to succeed Livingston C. Lord, Charlestown, 111. — term to expire in 191 2. Walter R. Ranger, Providence, R.I., to succeed Ernest C. Moore, Los Angeles, Cal. — term to expire in 191 1, J. A. Smith, Deland, Fla., to succeed Sarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass. — term to expire in 191 2. Thomas M. Balliet, New York, N.Y., to succeed Ida C. Bender, Buffalo, N.Y. — term to expire in 19 13. W. E. Harmon, Helena, Mont., to succeed O. J. Craig, Missoula, Mont. — term to expire in 1914. TO FILL VACANCIES OCCURRING BY REASON OF EXPIRATION OF TERM John W. Cook, DeKalb, 111., to succeed himself — term to expire in 1916. David R. Boyd, Norman, Okla., to succeed himself — term to expire in 19 16. Lorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis., to succeed himself — term to expire in 19 6. Edward B. Craighead, New Orleans, La., to succeed himself — term to expire in 1916. Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis., to succeed himself — term to expire in 1916. Henry Snyder, Jersey City, N.J., to succeed, himself — term to expire in 1916. Ella C. SuUivan, Chicago, 111., to succeed Katherine E, Dopp, Chicago, 111. — term to expire in 19 16. Frank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash., to succeed Henry C. Morrison, Concord, N.H. — term to expire in 1916. Randall Spaulding, Montclair, N.J., to succeed Edwin E. Sparks, State College, Pa. — term to expire in 19 16. George B. Strayer, New York, N.Y., to succeed Henry Suzzalo, New York, N.Y. — term to expire in 19 16. TO FILL VACANCY OCCURRING BY REASON OF DEATH David Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Cal., to succeed William T. Harris, deceased — term to expire in 191 5. Respectfully submitted, ! James M. Greenwood, of Missouri, Chairman Clem Hampton, of Florida Augustus S. Downing, of New York J. Stanley Brown, of Ilhnois On motion, duly seconded, the report was received and adopted and the nominees were declared elected as members of the National Council for the terms indicated. President Young : It is now in order to elect a member of the Executive Committee to fill the vacancy occasioned by reason of the expiration of the term of John H. Phillips, of Alabama. In response, W. M. Holloway, of Florida, and John H. Phillips, of Alabama, were nominated. On a motion to elect by a rising vote, W. M. Holloway received 17 votes and John H. Phillips received 19 votes. On motion, John H. Phillips, of Alabama, was declared elected as member of the Executive Committee for the ensuing year. MINUTES OF NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS 51 President Young announced the next order of business to be the selection of the place of convention for 191 1. Director Duncan MacKinnon, of California, requested that Mr. Alfred Roncovieri, superintendent of schools, of San Francisco, be heard. The request was granted. Alfred Roncovieri: From the teachers of the Golden State we bring you greetings and tidings of good will. To my colleagues and to me have the entire educational forces of the State of California and the public associations and municipal authorities of San Francisco intrusted and delegated the pleasant duty of extending to you a most earnest invitation to select our city for the convention of 191 1. San Franciscans are a hopeful, optimistic people, despite their disappointments. Great preparations were in progress to welcome you in 1906, when we were struck down by a cataclysm. Again, in 1909, we were encouraged to believe that you would be with us this year. We, however, cheerfully submitted to the trained minds who guide the des- tinies of the National Education Association, and who, for the greatest number and for its best interests, decided to hold the meeting this year in Boston. Other cities have had the help of California in other times, and loyal Californians believe that your response will be favorable to them now. We say, with confidence, that there is no city, north, south, east, or west, that will give you a grander welcome than the warm-hearted people of San Francisco. We renew our pledge of 7,000 memberships from the State of California, and all the railroads west of Chicago have guaranteed a one-way fare for the round trip. San Francisco has always been famous for its hotels and restau- rants and now has more of them than any other city in the country, and we hold an agree- ment with the hotel men's association that they will not raise their rates. As a starting- point for all kinds of excursions, San Francisco has no superior. It can be reached by five transcontinental railways in five days from the extreme East, and in less than three days from Chicago. Low special-rate excursions to our vineyards and orchards, our wonder- ful big trees and the Yosemite Valley, our mountains and our cool sea-coast, are guaran- teed by all the railroads. Everybody that has ever been there loves California — the land of promise, of sunshine, fruit, and flowers; and those who have not been there, I am sure long to see our state and our beautiful, rehabilitated San Francisco. After our appalling catastrophe of April 18, 1906, the world gave evidence of its love for San Francisco. By land and by sea there flowed to our city streams of relief. The sympathy of the Republic and of the nations beyond the seas was awakened, and magnifi- cent was the generosity that was bestowed on our people. Few of us were exempt from the bread line in those fateful days. We are strong again! We ask you to consider the two keen disappointments of our people in not being able to entertain you, thru no fault of theirs. We ask you to come and see our new, twentieth-century, up-to-date San Fran- cisco, the greatest marvel of rebuilding of all time, built on the greatest area of ruin ever known; greater, grander, and stronger, to fulfill her destiny and proud position as guardian of the Golden Gate. San Francisco has won the admiration and wonder of the world by the courage and energy of her rebuilding. She stands, today, more fit than ever to occupy her proper place among the great cities of the world. The confidence of her people has been justified, and the promise of greater prosperity for the future is here. Most characteristic of our people is their hospitality. This quality is one of the proud legacies bequeathed to us by our fathers, the rugged pioneers of the West, and most jeal- ously do we strive to maintain its original standard. We ask you to come and enjoy the cool summer breezes and bracing air of the Pacific Ocean; visit us in our favored land, in our homes and firesides; our latch-strings will ever be on the outside, and we promise you, like the Gaels of old, a hearty hundred thousand welcomes in true old California style from the people who make the lovely city of San Francisco their home. Director D. B. Johnson, of South Carolina: I move that this Board expresses itself in favor of accepting the invitation of San Francisco and the state of California, sub- ject to the decision of the Executive Committee after due consideration. Seconded and carried. There being no other business, the meeting adjourned at 5 :30 p.m. Irwin Shepard, Secretary Approved, Ella Flagg Young, President GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES OF WELCOME I. EBEN S. DRAPER, GOVERNOR OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS I have a very pleasant task to perform today in extending a cordial welcome to this great educational association to Massachusetts. The future of Jthis nation depends on the education of its children, and to you we look to see that they are properly taught the principles which make true American citizenship. I sincerely trust your meetings here will be of great benefit toward the cause of education in our state. I trust your stay will be pleasant and that the hospitality shown you all will meet with your approval. I hope you will have a delightful time and come again. [To President Taft] Mr. President, it is a great pleasure for Massachu- setts to say that you have returned and become a citizen again. [To the audience] He tried us last year, and liked us so well he has come back. We shall try to make his stay pleasant, but it is fitting on this anniversary that the President of the United States should be in Massachusetts. The history of this country, as far as the Fourth of July is concerned, started in this immediate vicinity, and we feel it is especially fitting that the President of this great nation should be here in Massachusetts today. We respect him for the great ofi&ce he fills. We love him and admire him because he is a man of great ability and absolute honesty. We sincerely trust his stay will be pleasant and that later on he will become a permanent resident. I realize my function is over but in looking over this magnificent audience before I take my seat, I want to tell you I think it is the grandest sight I ever saw. II. JOHN FRANCIS FITZGERALD, MAYOR OF THE CITY OF BOSTON I am not an educator; I may not even be educated in a highly technical sense; yet in my official capacity I represent education as completely as any teacher in this gathering. The office which I have the honor to fill could not exist except among a people possessing intelligence and that respect for knowledge which is one of the signs of intelligence. Government by the people implies education of the people. That is why tyrants have everywhere dreaded the free school, and why the free schoolhouse occupies a place in our affections second only to the Charter of Liberty itself. Upon its powerful influence we rely to prevent the return of tyranny and to main- tain a just equilibrium in the state. This circumstance, I think, explains why Boston has so often taken the lead in the field which you cultivate. If you pay a visit to the Dor- 53 54 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Chester section of our city you will find a tablet marking the site of the first free public school in America. Likewise, our city has been the cradle of those ideas of self-government which are now accepted over a great part of the civilized world. Long before the Revolution our Puritan colo- nists had resented the royal yoke. During the last hundred years we have inaugurated more than one movement for the emancipation of men. Most of our great educators — Franklin, Quincy, Horace Mann, Walker, Eliot, Lowell — have taken an active interest in government in one or another of its phases. In a word, the ideals of democracy and popular education are so interwoven with us that any conception except that of a free people, schooling all its children free, w^ould be utterly foreign to our way of thinking. The fruits of this temper you may have witnessed in the early days of your pilgrimage among us. You have doubtless seen schools of every description, public and private, ranging from kindergarten to university. Their numbers and external appearance are impressive. Their enrollment includes every child up to the threshold of manhood and womanhood. Their teaching staff contains the flower of our population. Their courses of study are elastic and progressive, growing with the needs of the times but never really departing from basic principles which have stood the test of experience. Their support is so generous that the cost of the public- school system alone this year amounts to over six and a half millions and constitutes the largest single item of our city budget. You come, then, teachers of America, to a city predisposed in your favor and deeply interested in your labors. Your deliberations will be followed with eager sympathy, tempered and governed by critical under- standing. Your calling is honored here as in few other communities. It is my privilege and pleasure to speak for six hundred and fifty thousand citizens of Boston, who, differ as they may on other subjects, are unani- mous today in welcoming you to the warmest hospitality of this city. RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME FRANCIS G. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION SPRINGFIELD, ILL. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, Your Excellencies the President of the United States, the Governor of Massachusetts, and the Mayor of Boston: It is my honor in behalf of the National Education Association to respond to the cordial words of welcome spoken by the governor of the State of Massachusetts, and by the mayor of Boston. As I sat here listening to these words of praise for the common-school system I found myself wishing that on some clear September morning these distinguished gentlemen might have been lifted to some height within the central part of this Republic, and, gifted with superior vision, they might have looked out to its farthest boundaries; for if they had been so posi- Sessions] RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 55 tioned and so gifted they would have seen on that bright morning the common-school system as a living, breathing, acting force — they would have seen practically sixteen millions of boys and girls coming up to the common schools. Out from the farm homes, along the dusty roads with their dinner pails in their hands and their books under their arms, up from the mining camps and villages, and up from the teeming centers of .industry comes this multitudinous army of children — as I like to think it, the great grand army of the future Republic. And I hope that in this great industrial country of ours, in this land of material prosperity, our corn and cotton will never grow so tall, our horses and cattle so big, our manufacturing estabhshments Uft their smoke stacks so high that they will obscure from our view this greatest crop, this greatest product, this greatest natural resource of our nation. I thank you for your words of welcome to this great body of teachers, and in welcoming them you are welcoming the representatives of the greatest democratic institution we have. I believe that there is more of the Declaration of Independence expressed in the common-school system than in any other of our institutions; there is more of equal opportunity, more of the even chance, more of the square deal, more of the recognition of the individual merits than in any other institution. At the door of the pubHc school all social, political, and religious distinctions disappear, all external marks of rank and classification are laid aside, and these sixteen millions of children enter the public schools as the sons and daughters of American citizens, and as the children of the Republic. Here the prin- ciple of Bobbie Burns alone obtains: What tho' on hamely fare we dine, Wear hoddin gray, and a' that; Gie fools their silks, and knaves their wine, A man's a man, for a' that! For a' that, and a' that, Their tinsel show, and a' that; The honest man, though e'er sae poor, Is king o' men for a' that. But this great common-school system which we represent is not only the greatest democratic institution in our land — it is the greatest intel- lectual clearing-house we have in America. It is the greatest medium of exchange of ideas and sentiments and knowledge; it is the greatest solidi- fying, unifying force in our social and political Ufe. We have had the figure of the "melting pot" appHed to America in a recent play, and the figure is a most suggestive one. People from the four corners of the earth are flocking to this land of freedom. They come bringing with them many charms of culture and education which enrich our land and make it better for their coming. But many of them come bringing with them varied ex- periences and notions of social relations and of national government, which 56 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General make it difficult for them to adjust themselves readily to the real spirit of our institution. How out of these varying and conflicting sentiments and ideals are we to create the ideals and sentiments of American citizens? Will our rocks and rills, our woods and templed hills do it ? Will our great expanse of plain and valley do it ? Will our great industrial activities and our push and vigor do it ? Will the atmosphere of freedom that hangs about us make the transformation ? No doubt all of these will have their influence. But I am inclined to think that the real, the fundamental, the abiding transformation is not wrought upon the adult thru his contact with these forces, but rather upon the children of these foreign-born parents in the public schools. It is difficult for us to estimate the far-reaching influence of an ideal or a sentiment as a transforming and forming force in the great public-school system, touching the minds and hearts of the children of both native and foreign-born parents. If, as we stood upon that mountain of vision a few moments ago with the sixteen millions of children before us, a great choirmaster could have stood forth, and catching the attention of these children started that great national anthem, written by a citizen of Boston: My country 'tis of thee, Sweet land of liberty, Of thee I sing, Land where my fathers died. Land of the pilgrim's pride, From every mountain side, Let freedom ring, how the mighty pulsation of the song would have sounded over mountain and valley and plain, catching up and knitting together the hearts and minds of these children into a wholesome, clean, upUfting respect for this country! And as we stood there if some great teacher could have held up before these children the lives of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln, what an instant and far-reaching response would have followed! These two great men represent within themselves the things that are most ele- mental and of greatest worth in our American life. So simple in their lives and in their thought and in their actions, like Greek temples they stand forth free from distracting adornment. Great in their simplicity and simple in their greatness, these two men constitute one of our greatest re- sources— one of our greatest educational assets. Greater than the product of farms and mills, of mines and quarries, greater than the wealth of forest and stream are the lives of these men. It is easy for us to believe that the open doors thru which not only the children of foreign-born parents, but our own native children, enter into the spirit of our national life are the lives of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Now, Mr. Governor, and Mr. Mayor, in responding to your words of welcome, I must say that this great army of teachers come not to New England^andJto^Boston'as strangers, they come as friends and kinsmen. Sessions] EDUCATION AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 57 for thru the great medium of public schools all that is best in Boston, in its thought, in its ideal, in its educational, political, and social achievements, has crossed the Alleghenies, swept across the Mississippi Valley, over the Rockies, and on to the Pacific. It has crossed the Mason and Dixon line and pervaded the entire Southland as an all-pervading influence, covering the whole country north and south, making us akin to Boston thru the sharing of your ideas and of your sentiments. Thru our great public- school system state lines and section lines are obUterated. And it is one of the happiest bits of poetic justice that ever came to my attention, that this year, on our natal day, this great National Education Association, meeting in Boston, the heart of New England, has presiding over it as its selected president, a man from the great South, representing all that is best in its culture, its resourcefulness, and its generosity. So it is, Mr. Governor and Mr. Mayor, that we come not as a great army of strangers. Tho we may never have crossed the boundaries of your city before, tho we may never have walked its streets, yet it all seems strangely familiar. For have we not in our public-school system visited Boston every year ? Have we not been attending your Boston Tea-Party for over a century? Have we not been climbing the belfry of the Old North Church and hanging out the lanterns? Have we not been riding with Paul Revere on his perilous journey, and going right on to Concord whether he got there or not ? Have we not been standing with the embat- tled farmers and firing the shot heard around the world ? Have we not been sitting with your genial Autocrat at the breakfast table and listening to the sweet reasonableness of your Philosopher ? Have we not spent many a rare day in June with your incomparable Lowell ? Have we not enjoyed many times the Children's Hour with your sweet and gentle Longfellow ? And so it is, Mr. Governor and Mr. Mayor, that this gathering seems to us like a great homecoming, and is a fulfillment of the promise that not only the bread, but the tea, which you cast upon the water is returning to you after many days. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS EDUCATION AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE WILLIAM WALTON KITCHIN, GOVERNOR OF THE STATE OF NORTH CAROLINA, RALEIGH, N.C. I appreciate the compliment of being accorded a place on today's program. Among the thousands of Independence celebrations thruout the country, none will surpass in patriotism, exceed in sanity, or approach in the scope of its constituency and the usefulness of its representation, this great gathering of American educators. A Tarheel should never feel a stranger in any place where the spirit of '76 prevails, or on any occasion when liberty is the sentiment. I almost 58 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General feel at home in famous Harvard's stadium, in sight of Bunker Hill monu- ment, when I recall that in the olden time when heroic conduct fixed the propriety of forever commemorating Independence Day, the old Bay State and the old North State performed no small part in laying the foundations of liberty on which our Republic is builded. The story cannot be too oft repeated, for it teaches courage, love of country, devotion to duty, and consecration to civil justice which created and secured our national great- ness. One hundred and thirty-four years ago was issued the most momentous document in profane history. It was an indictment of a king for the wrongs of ahen government, a resolution for the most blessed principle known in organized society — self-government — a plea for the rights of humanity, fit for every age, every land, and every people. It proclaimed the separation of a daughter in her youth and vigor from a mother country in her arrogance and power, perhaps the best mother country of the centuries. Some who were timid, some who were interested, some who were h5rpocrites, branded the Declaration as incendiary, but those who feared God, loved their fellows, and had the faith of patriots regarded it the most inspiring message since the Revelation, and risked their lives to sustain it. Fear put no doubtful language in that instrument, deception no falsehood, privilege no favoritism, greed no injustice. A mighty monarchy sought to destroy it. Trenton, Kings Mountain, Guilford, and Yorktown estabhshed it forever, and thirteen states gloried in their sovereignty. To secure the full fruitage of the Revolution a republic was created by the Constitution. What would be her fate ? The highway of history was strewn with the wrecks of govern- ments— monarchies, aristocracies, democracies — which had flourished with varying degrees of success and fallen from various causes. In the history of the race the philosophy of statesmen and sages had theretofore con- structed no government capable of resisting foreign aggression, and at the same time protecting rights, securing safety, and promoting domestic wel- fare to such an extent that political perpetuity was assured, and had de- vised no system suited to every stage of advancing civilization. Ponce de Leon searched amid tangled wildernesses for the fountain of perpetual youth and found it not. Our Republic in a generation of unequaled states- men, when the necessities of the time suggested the mastery of statecraft, in her search for the fountain of youth, sought every principle, considered every form, ancient and modern, that had been successful in the govern- ment of free people. "She washed the gold of political wisdom from the sands wherever it was found. She cleft it from the rocks. She gleaned it among ruins." Upon the rights of man and his community, she builded a new structure, capable of expansion, upon principles reaching to the utter- most corners of the earth, destined by the inspiration of her example to bless the world with increasing benefit for countless generations. France slew her king and is a republic; Mexico and every state southward to Cape Sessions] EDUCATION AND AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 59 Horn beheld our starry flag and became self-governing. Ancient systems of Europe under the steady pressure and stern demands of the masses have been modified by American principles, and the time will come when the dweller by the Caspian may celebrate with our children the birthday of the American Republic. As long as the heart beats in sympathy with the purposes of the great, and the soul thrills with the exploits of the brave, as long as mankind venerates worthy ancestral deeds — so long shall the chil- dren of America honor this day, and devote it to the encouragement of national pride, and the cultivation of mutual respect and good will. My native state is doubly patriotic, for we celebrate two Independence Days — this one and the 20th of May — the Mecklenburg Declaration. We of the South always had faith in ourselves, and the temper to follow our judgment. A half-century ago, we thought we could prosper and be happy without the North, but the North knew it could not prosper and be happy without us, and our separation was successfully resisted. We then thought as the New England states once thought, as was once taught in the U.S. Military Academy, that a state had the right to withdraw from the Union whenever she thought it to the interest of her people to do so, but after following with unsurpassed courage a bloody trail for four years, marked with monuments of glory, patriotism, and sacrifice, we found we were mistaken, and the South is still your country as the North is our country, and you honor us and the gallant soldiery of Lee, as we honor you and the gallant soldiery of Grant — great captains of a common country. We rose from defeat with the heaviest burden since man's upward march began. We moved forward, slowly, patiently, surely; sometimes nearly stumbling, often misunderstood, often misrepresented, "sorely tried, and sorely tempted, from no agonies exempted" in the bearing of the burden, in the performance of the solemn duty that destiny gave to us. The burden hindered, we shrank not — ^it were useless to shrink. The burden galled, we complained not — it were useless to complain. We moved forward understandingly, with steady purpose, with high resolve, with almost staggering responsibility, but with constant faith in the coming justice of the public opinion of the world. We grew strong, we prospered, the burden became lighter, we quickened our pace. In the judgment of wisdom and patriotism, in the light of eternal harmony, we have so far done well our duty. We have christianized, educated, developed. We have closed the door of no opportunity. We have been ever ready with the helping hand, the generous spirit. Happiness and progress resulted. A kindly feeling exists, such as was never before known under similar condi- tions. We challenge every page of history for a parallel in firmness, forti- tude, magnanimity, justice, and in the magnitude and character of our accomplishment. Marching forward as if by magic steps, an unstinted devotion to the American spirit filling every man, the South stands erect, in her dignity 6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General and power, proud of the North and the West, her heart filled with good will to all, malice to none. Her wealth exceeds that of the whole RepubUc in 1 86 1. The increase of her textile factories finds no counterpart at home or abroad. Her soft-coal product is twice that of the whole country thirty- years ago. Her farm products exceed those of the whole country twenty years ago. In North Carolina last year one farmer made three bales of cotton on an acre, and another made 226 bushels of corn, and we are just beginning scientific agriculture. But we are greater in other things. Last month North CaroUna had to sell a few milHon dollars of four per cent refunding bonds. The financial market in the money centers would not absorb them, as investments could be secured with a greater interest rate. We called the North Carolina bankers together and explained the situation. They promptly oversub- scribed the unsold portion and thus made our third declaration of inde- pendence. These bonds are legitimate, and are unrelated to the illegitimate special- tax bonds of 1868-69, which were conceived in sin and brought forth in iniquity, which profited only those who pillaged, and which have from the time of their birth been hawked over the country and sold by the bushel — never bought as investments, but secured on the speculator's table, gambhng in the fraud of adventurers in the attempted plunder of a common- wealth, and trusting for collection to the methods of the blackmailer. Mr. Chairman: As citizens of the Republic we have reason to exult. Today in material development, in resources, in energy, in all that makes national power, we are a greater people than Alexander or Caesar or Zengis or Bonaparte ever knew. "But let him that standeth take heed lest he fall." Most jiations die, as most men die, from internal causes. What shall it profit a nation to circle the earth with power, emblazon the seas with prestige, and command homage from every capital, and yet fail to remedy domestic evils, forget justice, hear not the cry of the needy, and check not the wrongs of the mighty ? Our forefathers faced no greater problems than this generation has to solve. Every age has its own interests, its own rights to preserve. If today every detail of government and everything in private life were fixed upon absolute right, tomorrow human selfishness would destroy that happy condition and next day man would have to begin anew his never-ending struggle. As civilization becomes more and more complex, the methods of oppression keep pace therewith, and every genera- tion requires more and more intelligence to resist them. In former times we had the highway robber, we now have the gold-brick swindler; then we had oppressive tax levies to support privileged classes, now we have the industrial monopolist; then we needed more force, now more intellect and conscience. It is, therefore, highly appropriate for the teachers to celebrate the Fourth and consider well their opportunities respecting the preservation of justice and liberty. On the seal of the University of North Carolina are two torches and the words: "Lux, Libertas" — fitting motto for those who Sessions! ]^AR AND MANHOOD 6i minister at the shrine of learning. We are safe from foreign foes, we must be safe from domestic ills. Foreign dangers are always direct and bold; domestic ones are indirect, shrewd, insidious. It may require force — armies and navies — to repel the former; it requires wisdom, diligence, and honor to overcome the latter. A country whose government rests upon the will of the people, in order to have a certainly just government, whose burdens are levied and whose blessings are distributed impartially, must have a high-class citizenship — so intelligent that it cannot be deceived, so conscientious that it cannot be corrupted, so courageous that it cannot be intimidated. The training of this citizenship largely depends upon the teachers of America. You are the worthiest band of captains the world ever knew — leading the grand army of the Republic, the boys and girls of America, against the forces of injustice, ignorance, and prejudice — leading them to victory in the fields of light and truth. "Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free" — free from vice, ignorance, and every error — a liberty worth the cost, a liberty leading to service — service to others, service to country, ser\dce to the Almighty — the measure of praise, the test of merit. WAR AND MANHOOD DAVID STARR JORDAN, PRESIDENT, LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL. The message I shall give today is a message of peace thru the arraign- ment of war. My attack shall be made from the side of biology; and my text may be found in these words of Sophocles: "War does not of choice destroy bad men, but good men ever." I shall leave to those who have had far more experience than myself the discussion of the advantages of law, order, and arbitration over brute force, which decides nothing, in the settlement of human differences. The relation of war to social, ethical, and religious development I shall not touch. I shall leave to others also all consideration of the horrors of war — its legacies of sin, of suffering, and of lifelong agony. I shall not take into account the costs of wars long since fought, burdens strapped for all time to the backs of the toilers of Europe. Nor shall I consider the cost of future wars, which are never to be fought, but which are provided for in the budget of every nation. These again are a burden unbearable, resting upon those whose chief relation to the Hfe of nations is that of bearers of burdens needlessly imposed. I shall not attempt to depict the growing strength of that invisible empire of bondholders who are fast becoming the owners of the civilized world and whose silent nod determines the issue of every great crisis in war or peace. My message concerns solely the relations of war to manhood as shown in the succession of the generations of men. Benjamin Franklin once said: 62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General There is one eflfect of a standing array which must in time be felt so as to bring about the abolition of the system. A standing army not only diminishes the population of a country, but even the size and breed of the human species. For an army is the flower of the nation. All the most vigorous, stout, and well-miie man in a kin^lam are to be found in the army, and these men, in general, cannot marry. What is true of standing armies is still more true of the armies that fight and fall. Those men who perish are lost to the future of civili- zation, they and their blood forever. For as Franklin has also said, "Wars are not paid for in war time : the bill comes later." The last thirty years have been the period of greatest activity in the study of biology. Among other things, it has seen the rise of definite knowledge of the processes of heredity and their application to the formation and improvement of races of men and animals. From our scientific knowl- edge in this respect men have developed the fine art of selective breeding. With men as with animals, "like the seed is the harvest." In every vicissi- tude of race of men or breed of animals, it is always those who are left that determine what the future will be. All progress in whatever direction in the development of animals is conditioned on selective breeding. There is no permanent advance without advance in the type of parenthood. There is no decline except that caused by breeding from the second-best instead of the best. The rise and fall of races of men in history are in a degree conditioned on the same elements that determine the rise and fall of a breed of cattle or of a strain of horses. As improvement in blood is dependent upon nor- mal selection, or the choice of the best for parenthood, so racial decline is conditioned on reversal of selection, the choice of the worst for survival and propagation. "Always and ever,"says Novicow, "war brings about the reversal of selection." Those traits of character — ^physical strength, agiUty, courage, dash, patriotism — desired in the soldier, are lost to the race that decrees the destruction of the soldierly. The belief that war in one generation sharpens the edge of warriorhood in the next generation is a delusion and has no biological foundation. It is the man who is left that determines always the future. Once on the flanks of the Apennines there dwelt a race of free people, fair and strong, self-reliant and confident. They were men of courage and action; men who "knew no want they could not fill themselves." They knew none on whom they looked down and none to whom they need look up. For all things which men could accomplish these plowmen of the Tiber and the Apennines felt themselves fully competent and adequate. Vir they called themselves in their own tongue, and virile, virilis, men like them are called to this day. It was the weakhng and the slave that were crowded to the wall; the man of courage maintained himself and begat descendants. In each generation, and from generation to generation, the Sessions] WAR AND MANHOOD 63 human harvest was good. The spirit of freedom was the only ruler these men knew. For it is written that men fit to be called vires "are too self- willed, too independent, and too self-centered to be ruled by anyone but themselves." This spirit of freedom being herself metaphoric called to her aid four great genii which create and recreate nations — variation, ever introducing change; heredity, holding fast what was developed; segrega- tion, in her mountain fastnesses shutting out the world; and selection, choosing always the best and for the best purposes, casting aside the weak- ling and the slave, holding the man for the man's work. And ever the man's work was at home, building cities, subduing forests, draining marshes, adjusting customs and statutes — preparing the way for the new generations. These men begat sons of men after their own fashion, and the men of strength and courage were ever dominant. In these early days when Rome was small, without glory, without wealth, without colonies, and without slaves, the Romans were men; these were the days of Roman greatness. But the spirit of freedom gave way little by little to the spirit of domi- nation. Conscious of power, men sought to exercise it, not on themselves, but on others. Step by step this led to their banding together, to aggression, oppression, plunder, struggle, glory, and all that goes with the pomp and circumstance of war. The individuality of men in the aggregate was lost in the aggrandizement of the few. Independence was swallowed up in ambition. Patriotism came to have a new meaning; it was transferred from the hearth and home to the trail of the army. It does not matter to us now what were the details of the subsequent history of Rome. We have now to consider only a single factor. In science this factor is known as "reversal of selection." "Send forth the best ye breed" — that was the message of the Roman war-call. The spirit of domination took these words literally; and the best were sent forth. In the conquests of Roman arms, Vir, the real man, went forth to battle and to the struggle of foreign invasion; Homo, the human being, the man who was not fit for the army, remained at home on the farm and in the work- shop, and he begat the new generations. Thus " Vir gave place to Homo." The sons of real men gave place to the sons of scullions, stable-boys, slaves, camp-followers, and the riff-raff of those the great and victorious army did not want. The "fall of Rome was not due to luxury, effeminacy, corruption, the wickedness of Nero and Caligula, the weakness of the long train of Con- stantine's ignoble successors. It was fixed at Philippi, when the spirit of domination was victorious over the spirit of freedom. Its beginning dated even earlier, in the rise of consuls and triumvirates, and the loss of the simple, self-sufficient race which would brook no arbitrary ruler. As the real men fell in war or were left in far-away colonies, while the life of Rome 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General still persisted, it was a different type of Roman that continued it; and this new type reproduced in Roman history its own weakling parentage. Thus we read in Roman history of the rise of the mob and of the arbi- trary ruler which is the mob's exponent. It was not the emperor that made Rome's imperialism; it was the absence of the people, the want of real men. The conditional power of Julius Caesar, resting on his own tremendous personaUty, showed that the days of Cincinnatus and Junius Brutus were past. The power of Augustus showed it still more clearly. The dechne went on and the power of the emperor became greater. It was written that "the little finger of Constantine was thicker than the loins of Augustus." The emperor in the time of Claudius and Caligula was not the strong man who held in check all lesser men and organizations. He was the creature of the mob; and the mob, intoxicated by its own work, worshiped him as divine. The people had declined and arbitrary power was dominant. By the rise in arbitrary power, as a sort of historical barome- ter, we may mark the decline of the breed of a people, a decline arising from degeneration in the type from which it draws its sires. A herd of cat- tle can degenerate in no other way than this, and a race of men is under the same laws. What have the historians to say of these matters ? Very few have grasped the full significance of their own words; for very few have looked on men as organisms, and on nations as dependent on the specific character of the organisms responsible for their reproduction. Benjamin FrankHn was, so far as I know, the first thinker to treat man thus as an inhabitant of the world, a species in nature among other species and dependent upon nature's forces and laws ^s other animals are. Otto Seeck, in his great history of the Downfall of the Ancient World {Der Untergang der antiken Welt), finds this downfall due solely to the rooting-out of the best {Die Ausrottung der Besten). The historian of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, or any other empire, is engaged solely with the details of the process by which the best men are exterminated. Speaking of Greece, he says, "A wealth of force of spirit went down in these ancient suicidal wars." He continues: In Rome Marius and Cinna slew the aristocrats by hundreds and thousands. Sulla destroyed the democrats, and not less thoroughly. Whatever of strong blood survived, fell as an offering to the proscription of the Triumvirate The Romans had less of spontaneous force to lose than the Greeks. Thus desolation came to them the sooner. Whoever was bold enough to rise politically in Rome was almost without exception thrown to the ground. Only cowards remained and from their brood came forward the new generations. Cowardice showed itself in lack of originality and in slavish following of masters and traditions. The Romans of the Republic could not have made the history of the Roman Empire. In their hands it would still have been a republic. Could they have held aloof from world-conquering schemes, Rome might have remained a republic, enduring even in our day. The seeds of destruction Sessions] 'WAR AND MANHOOD 65 were not, however, inherent in the race or in the form of government, but in those influences by which the best men were cut off from the office of parenthood. "The Roman Empire," says Seeley, "perished for want of men." The dire scarcity of men is noted even by JuUus Caesar. And at the same time it is noted that there are men enough. Rome was filhng like an overflowing marsh. Men of a certain type were plentiful, men "with guano in their composition," to use Emerson's striking phrase; but the self-reliant farmers, the hardy dwellers on the flanks of the Apennines, the Roman men of the early Roman days — these were fast disappearing, and with the change in the breed came the change in Roman history. With the Antonies, we are told, came a period of sterility and barrenness of human beings The human harvest was bad Bounties were ofifered for marriage Penalties were devised against race-suicide. Metellus speaks of marriage as " a duty which, however painful, every citi- zen ought manfully to discharge." Wars were conducted in the face of a declining birth-rate. Bury tells us that "the effect of these wars was that the ranks of the small farmers were decimated, while the number of slaves who did not serve in the army multiplied." Thus Vir gave place to HomOj real men to mere human beings. There were always men enough, such as they were. As Franklin says: "A hencoop wiU be filled, whatever the (original) number of hens." Thus the mob filled Rome and the mob- leader, the mob-hero, rose in relative importance. No wonder the finger of Constantine was thicker than the loins of Augustus. No wonder that "if Tiberius chastised his subjects with whips, Valentinian chastised them with scorpions." Zumpt, writing of this period, says: Government having assumed godhead, took at the same time the appurtenances of it. Ojfficials multiplied. Subjects lost their rights. Abject fear paralyzed the people and those that ruled were intoxicated with insolence and cruelty The worst govern- ment is that which is most worshiped as divine The emperor possessed in the army an overwhelming force over which citizens had no influence, which was totally deaf to reason or eloquence, which had no patriotism because it had no country, which had no humanity because it had no domestic ties There runs through Roman literature a brigand's and barbarian's contempt for honest industry Roman civihzation was not a creative kind, it was military, that is destructive. What was the end of it all ? The nation bred real men no more. To cultivate the Roman fields "whole tribes were borrowed." The man of the quick eye and the strong arm gave place to the slave, the scullion, the pariah, the man with the hoe, the man whose lot does not change because in him there lies no power to change it. It has been said: "Slaves have wrongs; but freemen alone have rights." So at the end, the Roman world yielded to the barbaric because it was weaker in force. To the barbarians 66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General it was not a conquest; they merely settled and peopled the empire. The process is recorded in history as the fall of Rome. In the Roman wars, "out of every hundred thousand strong men, eighty thousand were slain. Out of every hundred thousand weakhngs, ninety to ninety-five thousand were left to survive." This is Dr. Seeck's calculation, and the biological significance of such mathematics must be evident at once. He speaks with scorn of the idea that Rome fell from the decay of old age, the corruption of luxury, the neglect of military tactics, or the over-diffusion of culture. He continues: In condemning the sinful luxury of wealthy Romans, we forget that the trade-lords of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were scarcely inferior in this regard to LucuUus and Apicius, their waste and luxury not constituting the slightest check to the advance of the nations to which these men belonged. The people who lived in luxury in Rome were scattered more thinly than in any modern state of Europe. The masses lived at all times more poorly and frugally because they could do nothing else. Can we conceive that a war force of untold miUions of people is rendered effeminate by the luxury of a few hun- dreds? .... Too long have historians looked upon the rich and noble as marking the fate of the world. Half the Roman Empire was made up of rough barbarians un- touched by Greek or Roman culture. Seeley tells us: Whatever the remote and ultimate cause may have been, the immediate cause to which the fall of empire can be traced is a physical not a moral decay. In valor, discipline, and science the Roman armies remained what they had always been and the peasant emperors of Illyricum were worthy successors of Cincinnatus and Caius Marius. But the problem was, how to replenish those armies. Men were wanting. The empire perished for want of men. Does history ever repeat itself ? It always does if it is true history. If it does not, we are dealing not with history, but with mere successions of incidents. Like causes produce like effects, just as often as men may choose to test them. Whenever men use a nation for the test, as with a field, poor seed yields a poor harvest. Where the weakling and the coward survive in human history, there "the human harvest is bad"; and it can never be otherwise. The finest Roman province — a leader in the Roman world — was her colony of Hispania. What of Spain in history? What of Spain today? * This is Castile," said a Spanish writer, " she makes men and wastes them." "This sublime and terrible phrase," says another writer, "sums up Spanish history." According to Captain Calkins, the Augustinian friar. La Puente, in 1630, thus summed up the fate of Spain: Against the credit for redeemed souls, I set the cost of armadas and the sacrifice of soldiers and friars sent to the Philippines. And this I count the chief loss: for mines give silver and forests give timber, but only Spain gives Spaniards; and she may give so many that she may be left desolate and constrained to bring up strangers' children instead of her own. I Sessions] WAR AND MANHOOD 67 Another of the noblest of the Roman provinces was Gallia, the favored land in which the best of the Romans, the Franks, and the Northmen have mingled their blood to produce a nation of men, hopefully leaders in the arts of peace, fatally leaders also in the arts of war. In the Wiertz gallery in Brussels is a wonderful painting, dating from the time of Waterloo, called "Napoleon in Hell." It represents the great marshal with folded arms and face unmoved descending slowly to the land of shades. Before him, filling all the background of the picture with every expression of countenance, are the men sent before him by the unbridled ambition of Napoleon. Three millions and seventy thousand there were in all, as history tells us — more than half of them Frenchmen. They are not all shown in one picture; they are only hinted at. And behind the millions hinted at are the millions on millions of men who might have been, and are not^the huge widening human wedge representing the possible descendants of the men who died in battle. These men of Napoleon's armies were men without blemish, "the best that the nation could bring," chosen as "food for powder," "ere evening to be trampled like the grass" in the rush of Napoleon's great battles. These men came from the plow, from the workshop, from the schobl — the best they were, men from eighteen to thirty-five years of age at first, but after- wards older men and younger. " A boy will stop a bullet as well as a man," is a maxim accredited to Napoleon. "The more vigorous and well-born a young man is, "says Novicow, "the more normally constituted, the greater his chance to be slain by musket or magazine, the rifled cannon and other similar engines of civilization." We are told that among those destroyed by Napoleon were "the elite of Europe." "Napoleon," says Otto Seeck, "in a series of years seized all the young of high stature and left them scat- tered over many battlefields; so that the French people who followed them are mostly men of smaller stature. More than once in France since Napo- leon's time has the military limit been lowered." Says Le Goyt, "It will take long periods of peace and plenty before France can recover the tall statures mowed down in the wars of the republic and the first empire." I need only touch briefly the story of Napoleon's campaigns. It began with the first consulate, the justice and helpfulness of the Code Napoleon — the prowess of the brave lieutenant whose military skill and intrepidity had caused him to deserve well of his nation. The spirit of freedom gave way to the spirit of domination. Campaign followed upon campaign, against enemies, against neutrals, against friends. The trail of glory crossed the Alps to Italy and to Egypt; it crossed Switzerland to x\ustria; crossed Germany to Russia. The path of glory is one that descends easily. Conscription followed, and victory ^nd conscription debased the human species. The human harvest was bad. The first consul became the emperor. The servant of the people became the founder of a dynasty. Again con- scription after conscription. "Let them die with arms in their hands. 68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Generil Their death is glorious, and it will be avenged. You can always fill the places of soldiers." These were Napoleon's words when Dupont sur- rendered his army in Spain to save the lives of a doomed battalion. Then came more conscriptions. After the battle of Wagram, we are told, the French began to feel their weakness; the Grand Army was not the army that fought at Ulm and Jena. "Raw conscripts raised before their time and hurriedly drafted into the line had impaired its steadiness." Of the Moscow campaign J. H. Rose says in his History of Napoleon: Amidst ever-deepening misery they struggled on, until of the 600,000 men who had proudly crossed the Niemen for the conquest of Russia, only 20,000 famished, frostbitten, unarmed specters staggered across the bridge of Korni in the middle of December.' He continues: Despite the loss of the most splendid army marshaled by man, Napoleon abated no whit of his resolve to dominate Germany and discipline Russia He strained every effort to call the youth of the empire to arms; .... and 350,000 conscripts were promised by the senate. The mighty swirl of the Moscow campaign sucked in 150,000 lads of under twenty years of age into the devouring vortex The peasantry gave up their sons as food for cannon Many were appalled at the frightful drain on the nation's strength In less than half a year, after the loss of half a million men, a new army nearly as numerous was marshaled under the imperial eagles. But the majority were young, untrained troops; and it was remarked that the conscripts born in the Year of Terror had not the stamina of the earlier levies. Brave they were, superbly brave, and the emperor sought by every means to breathe into them his indomit- able spirit Truly the emperor could make boys heroes, but he could never repair the losses of 181 2 Soldiers were wanting; youths were dragged forth. The human harvest in France was at its worst. The inevitable result of all this must be the loss to the nation of those qualities which are sought for in the soldier. It leaves the nation crippled, une nation blessee, to use the words of an honored professor in the University of Paris. The effect does not appear in the effacement of art or science or creative imagination. Men who excel in these regards are not drawn by preference or by conscription to the Ufe of the soldier. If we cut the roots of a tree, we shall not affect, for a time at least, the quality of its flower or its fruit. We are limiting its future rather than changing its present. In like manner does war affect the life of the nation. It limits the future rather than checks the present. Those who fall in war are the young men of the nations, men between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five; they are the men of courage, alertness, dash, and recklessness, who value their lives as naught in the service of the nation. The men who are left are, for better and for worse, the reverse of all this, and it is they that determine what the future of the nation shall be. They hold its history in their grasp. However noble, encouraging, inspiring the history of modern Europe may be, it is not the history we would have the right to expect from the development of its racial elements. It is not the history that would have Sessions] iVAR AND MANHOOD 69 been made had these same elements been released from the shadow of reversed selection cast by fratricidal war. The angle of divergence between what might have been and what has been is measured by the parentage of strong, capable, and courageous men slain on the bloody fields of glory. All this applies not to one nation alone nor to one group of nations, but in like degree to all nations that have sent forth their young men to the field of slaughter. As it was with Greece and Rome, with France and Spain, Mauritania and Turkestan, so has it been with Germany and Eng- land; so with all nations that have sent forth "the best they breed" to foreign service, while retaining cautious, thrifty mediocrity to fill up the ranks at home. Germany guards her men and reduces the waste of war to a minimum. She is "military," but not "warlike"; and this distinction means a great deal from the point of view of this discussion. In modern times the greatest loss of Germany has not been from war but from emigration. If the men who have left Germany have been of a higher type than those who re- mained at home, then the blood of the nation has been impoverished. That this has been the case the Germans in Germany are usually unwilling to admit. On the other hand, those competent to judge the German- American find no type of men in the Old World his mental or physical superior. What shall we say of England and her relation to the reversed selection of war? Statistics we have none, and no evidence of tangible decline that Englishmen will not indignantly repudiate. When the London press in the vacation season fills its columns with comments on EngHsh deterio- ration, it is something else which these journalists mean. Their problem is that of the London slums, of the sweat-shop and child-labor, of wasting overwork and lack of nutrition, of premature old age, and of sodden drunkenness — ^influences that bring about the degradation of the individual, the inefficiency of the social group, but which, for the most part, leave no trace in heredity and therefore become no factor in the degeneration of the race. The degradation of the slums is at once cause, effect, and symptoms — a sign of racial inadequacy, a cause of further enfeeblement, and an effect of unjust and injurious social, political, and industrial conditions in the past. But with better training and improved surroundings the child of the slums rises to normal condition. Given a fair chance in his youth, he will show his normal British heritage. But the problem before us is not that of the slums. The question is, What mark has been left on England by her great struggle for freedom and by the thousand petty struggles to impose on the world the semblance of order known as " Pax Britannica" ? To one who travels widely thru the counties of England some part of the cost of this is plain. These lines suggest it — 70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Gener^il • ^ ■ ■ 1 There's a widow in sleepy Chester, Who mourns for her only son; There's a grave by the Pabeng River,— A grave which the Burmans shun. This story is repeated in every village of England and is recorded on the walls of every parish church. Everywhere can be seen tablets in memory of young men — gentlemen's sons from Eton and Rugby and Winchester and Harrow; scholars from Oxford and Cambridge, who have given up their lives in some petty war in a far-off country. Their bodies rest in Zululand, in Cambodia, on the Gold Coast, in the Transvaal. In England only are they remembered. Their names are recorded by the score in the parish churches, by the thousand in the cathedrals. Visit the cathedral towns one after another — Canterbury, Winchester, Chichester, Exeter, SaHsbury, Wells, Ely, York, Lincoln, Durham, Lichfield, Chester (what a wonderful series of pictures this list of names calls up!) — and you will find always the same story, the same array of memorials to young men. What would be the effect on England today if all these "unreturning brave" and all that should have been their descendants were numbered among her sons ? Doubtless not all of these were young men of character. Doubtless not all were worthy even of the scant glory of a memorial tablet. But most of them were worthy, most of them were brave and true, and most of them looked out on life with "frank, blue British eyes." Their influence, immediate and future, has been lost to the nation. More than all who fall in battle or are wasted in the camps, the nation mourns the "fair women and brave men" who should have been the descendants of these strong and manly men. If we may personify the spirit of the nation, it grieves most, not over its unreturning brave, but over those who might have been, but never were, and who, so long as history lasts, can never be. In his charming studies of Feudal and Modern Japan, Mr. Arthur Knapp mentions again and again the great marvel of Japan's military prowess as shown in the Chinese War, after more than two hundred years of peace. It has been even more conclusively shown in the Russo-Japanese War since Mr. Knapp's book was written. His astonishment was that after more than six generations in which physical courage had not been demanded, the virile quahties which make up such courage were found unimpaired. In the light of the reverse of this condition which we have been con- sidering in the case of European nations we can readily see that the experi- ence of Japan was just what we might expect. In times of peace there is no slaughter of the strong, no sacrifice of the brave. In the peaceful struggle for existence there is a premium placed upon these virtues. The virile and the brave survive. They and their descendants are not wasted on the battlefield. It is the idle, the weak, and the dissipated that go to the wall. "What won the battles on the Yalu, in Korea or Manchuria," says the Japanese writer, Nitobe, "was the ghosts of our fathers guiding our hands Sessions] EDUCATION' AND DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT 71 and beating in our hearts." If we translate this from the language of Shintoism into that of science, we find it a strong testimony to the fact of race-heredity, the survival of the strong in the lives of their self-reliant and effective sons. The shades that confronted Napoleon are not guiding the hands or beating in the hearts of the men of Europe today. By the law of probability as developed by Quetelet, it is claimed that there will appear in each generation the same number of potential poets, artists, investigators, patriots, athletes, and superior men of each degree. This law, however, involves the theory of continuity of paternity, that in each generation a practically equal percentage of men of superior force or superior mentality will survive to take the responsibilities of parenthood. Otherwise this law becomes subject to the action of another law, that of reversed selection, or the biological law of "diminishing returns." In other words, breeding from an inferior stock brings race degeneration; and such breeding is the sole agency of such degeneration, as selection, natural or artificial, along one line or another is the sole agency of race progress. And all laws of probabiUties and averages are subject to a still higher law, the primal law of biology, which no cross-current of life can check or modify: Like the seed is the harvest. War destroys the best seed, leaving the inferior to germinate, and the harvest is bad. Hence the final and bitter truth: "Wars are not paid for in war time: the bill comes later." THE RELATION OF EDUCATION TO DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: The presence of this audience of thousands of those engaged in the education of the youth of the country on this the natal day of the Republip, suggests the discussion of the relation of education to democratic government. We celebrate today the one hun- dred and thirty-fourth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. That was an announcement to England and to the world of the determination of a majority of those living in the thirteen colonies strung along the eastern coast of America to sever their relations with the mother country, and to establish some sort of a government here on prin- ciples of democracy. For more than a century each one of these colonies had enjoyed popular government — had enjoyed it thru the instrumentality of a charter or fundamental act or constitution granted by the Crown of England. The hundred and fifty years had witnessed the enactment of many laws by the English Parliament of a character calculated to confine the trade, the growth, and the prosperity of the colonies within Umitations inuring solely to the benefit of the mother country. But the supervision of the colonies by the home government was for many decades so neglectful 72 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General and indifferent that it left the control of each colony largely to the wish of the people of the colony themselves. They had their popular assembUes, their municipal governments, and all those institutions in the operation of which the colonists acquired a practical knowledge and education in self- government that was exceptional in its thoroness. They or their ancestors in crossing the ocean had brought a love of civil liberty and had acquired an understanding of its meaning by actual practice in its benefits, unequaled in the history of the world. Primary-school education was enjoyed by the great majority of the youths of the country, and there were many well- educated professional men in every one of the colonies. They had occupied their minds in studying the principles of government, and were well grounded in the teachings of Locke and all the political writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Having been trained in the actual forma- tion and maintenance of local government, they had had their constructive faculties largely developed by actual use and experience. The list of well-educated lawyers and professional men who had given time and attention to the study of the principles of government is a marvelous one, and can only be explained by the peculiar circumstances surrounding the life of each of the communities that grew up into the political entities known as colonies and subsequently formed themselves into the confedera- tion. Not until the time of Grenville, in 1763, did anyone in the English government seriously attempt to regulate the affairs in the American colonies and to adopt and enforce a distinct colonial policy. When this was done, it is now plain — altho perhaps Grenville could not have been expected to see it — that a century's neglect of them had developed an independence of thought and action in these colonies, which made impos- sible the resumption by England of closer control unless immediate steps were taken by a strong hand to suppress resistance. The Stamp Act, its repeal, the Declaratory Act, the Townsend Act, the repeal of the Town- send Act, and the continuance of the tea tax were first the assertion of authority, then a yielding to clamor against it, then a renewal of the asser- tion, then a second withdrawal, and then a temporizing attitude with declarations of authority that were most irritating to the colonists without any enforcement of the powers claimed. The thirteen years between 1763 and 1776 were the one thing needed to eradicate in the colonists their love of the union with the mother country, their reluctance to sever the bonds which had always been light until then, and to implant in their bosoms the determination to have an independent government and to work out their future as a separate nation. These conditions led to the Declaration of Independence — an instru- ment, in the minds of many, the most important ever penned by man. Of course it is not to be compared with the Constitution of the United States — that wonderful compromise and compact by which a government of the people was formed out of thirteen jealous independent states, a great nation Sessions] EDUCATION AND DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT 73 was founded competent to deal with all the great national questions, and local affairs were left to the separate states. The Constitution was a charter of fundamental law, the most concise and comprehensive ever written, elastic enough to meet all contingencies and yet restrictive enough always to preserve intact the original plan. It estabhshed a government on the principles set out in the Declaration of Independence. It executed the general promises of the Declaration. It was the result of the careful delib- eration of many minds. It involved constructive statesmanship of the highest order. On the other hand, the Declaration was what its name impHed, an announcement to the world of intention to act, a statement of the political principles upon which the action was justified, and an indict- ment of the King of England for the many acts of tyranny and usurpation of the compact he had made with the colonies, which made such action necessary. It was controversial, it was accusatory, it was declaratory. It was the wonderful product of one man's pen. It was intended to arouse the feelings and to stir to action the people of the colonies. And so it must have differed from the subsequent calm deliberative statement of fundamen- tal law in the Constitution, the result of the discussion of months by the greatest jurists and statesmen of the century. But whatever its intrinsic merit, as compared with the Federal Constitution, there can be no difference of opinion as to the importance of the act it evidenced or of the consequences that flowed from it. The style of the Declaration is remarkably clear and forceful. The language is striking, and the matter, tho embracing much, is reduced to a concise form that was well calculated to attract the attention of those whom it was hoped to arouse. The important part of the instrument, from our present-day standpoint, is its declaration of democratic principles of government. At various stages in our history questions have arisen involving the consistency of present- day politics with the principles announced in the Declaration; and it is to some of these questions that I would this afternoon invoke your attention. The propositions that have given rise to the most discussion in the Declara- tion are these: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. When the Declaration of Independence was signed, slavery was a recognized legal institution in most of the colonies. It was not a popular institution in the world at that time. Washington, Jefferson, and all the statesmen, whether from the South or North, deplored its existence and hoped for its abolition. One of the counts of the indictment against King George III contained in the Declaration referred to, altho it did not specify, the annulment by the British home government of laws passed in the colonies making the importation of slaves from Africa a penal offense. After slavery 74 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General became a valuable institution to the South from a commercial standpoint; after the development of the cotton industry seemed to make it indis- pensable to the prosperity of the cotton-growing states; after the feeling in favor of abolition had developed in the North to the point of an organized abolition party, and after the extension of slavery in the territories had become one of the most bitterly contested issues in politics, the construc- tion of this clause of the Declaration and its meaning became a frequent theme in political controversy. In the Lincoln-Douglas debates the ques- tion was mooted whether slavery was not contrary to the provision that all men are created equal, and whether the proposition that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, and among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, did not make slavery entirely incon- sistent with the Declaration. Mr. Lincoln insisted that it did. He insisted that the equality referred to in the Declaration meant equality of oppor- tunity to enjoy life and liberty and to pursue happiness. He said that as between him and a negro woman there were many respects in which he was her superior; but in the right to earn her living in the sweat of her brow, and to apply the earnings of her labor to the maintenance of her life, to the enjoyment of her liberty, and to the pursuit of her happiness, she was his equal or the equal of anyone, according to the Declaration of Independence. By the war for the Union slavery was eradicated from our political and social systems. The process has left scars, but even those who exhibited the greatest courage and endurance in defense of the Constitutional prin- ciples by which slavery was upheld are willing now to admit the great good fortune of this country in the result by which the manacles were struck from the hands of four million slaves and they were made citizens of the United States and given equality according to the definition of Mr. Lincoln. The signing in 1776 of this declaration of principles in favor of equaHty of all men in the face of the existence of slavery at that time in the colonies indicates that the Declaration was intended to be a statement rather of ideal conditions and of principles, the attainment of which in practical results was for the future and not for the immediate present. The incon- sistency between that Declaration and slavery, the great man who drafted the instrument and the intelligent men who signed it of course realized. We can all now rejoice that after an awful war a change has been effected in our social institutions in which that rank inconsistency between the pro- fessions of the Declaration of Independence and the actual social institutions of this country has disappeared. But slavery has not been the only policy and institution of our govern- ment that has been attacked on the ground of its inconsistency with the Declaration of Independence. In 1898 we were drawn into a war with Spain, on account of the abuses which were alleged to exist and which we believed to exist in the government of Cuba under the Spanish Crown, and Sessions] EDUCATION AND DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT 75 which were thought to be so long-continued as to justify us, an immediate neighbor, in interfering to secure the independence of the people of Cuba. We entered upon the war in a spirit of true altruism. We declared that Cuba ought to be free and that we should hold her only long enough to establish a suitable government in the island for the people of the island. We did free Cuba. We did give her an independent government. When thereafter revolution threatened the existing government, we intervened in accordance with our treaty rights to preserve law and order, and after having secured for her a fair election under her constitution we turned over the island again to the government thus elected. In the course of the Spanish War, in order to defeat the power of Spain, Admiral Dewey and our fleet visited Manila, captured the Spanish fleet and Manila, and with it took over the Philippine Islands. At the time that he took possession of the islands there was then pending an insurrection by some of the Filipino people against the power of Spain. The government of Spain was there said to be inadequate and ineffective and unjust. We used the insurgent Filipinos as allies to aid us in taking Manila and we could not well turn them back to Spain. On the other hand, the insurgents were in no condition to establish and maintain a stable government. We found from seven to eight millions of people in a state of Christian tutelage. They were as ignorant as children, but they were Christians. They took their ideas from Europe and America, and not from the Orient or Moham- medanism. Not more than 10 per cent, of them were educated in any way. They had from twelve to fifteen different dialects of limited vocabu- lary, little literature, absolutely preventing a progress dependent on a popular acquaintance with the advance in world ideas. Some of their educated people had adopted declarations in favor of democratic govern- ment and had attempted to establish a republic in parts of the islands, but its administration was corrupt, tyrannical, and utterly ineffective to sup- press disorder. There seemed to be, therefore, but one course for the United States government to follow, and that was to take over the Philip- pines, establish law and order, and then to teach the people enough in learning and in the practice of popular government to enable them to take over a government and maintain it permanently. Meantime we had to suppress an insurrection in order to initiate such a poHcy. Those who were responsible for the policy have been subjected to the severest criticism, in that they are said to have violated the proposition of the Declaration of Independence that to secure the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness "governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed." I affirm that there is nothing in the Philippine policy of this government which is at variance with the language from the Declaration of Independence which I have quoted, when that language is properly understood by the same sort of construction as Lincoln gave to the language, "All men are created equal." ^ 76 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General In order properly to judge of the meaning of an instrument like this, the circumstances surrounding the men who wrote it and signed it are to be taken into consideration. These words were applied in the minds of the framers of the document to the people living in the thirteen American colonies, than whom there never were people of better skill and practice in the science of self-government. As already said, for a hundred and fifty years they and their ancestors had carried on government, practically free from any control by the home government. They had worked out their municipal institutions, and they had held their assemblies, and they had framed their laws, all with a view to the maintenance of a successful democracy; and of course there could be no just government of them which did not depend upon their consent. But the framers of the Declara- ation would be the last persons to apply this principle to people like the FiUpinos. Even Lincoln in his debates with Douglas said that he did not believe that under the principles of that instrument negroes should be placed upon juries or that they should be entitled to vote. Progress was made after that and doubtless he changed his mind as to the rights which should be extended to them; but I only refer to this to show what his con- struction of the language was. The truth is that the language is to be understood as applying to people who have intelligence, education, and self-restraint enough to know what is their best interest, to understand what civil liberty is, and what their rights in a government securing civil liberty are. Until they reach this stage in political education they must be helped. This is not to say that men in this country who do not measure up to the standard I have given should be shut out from the ballot, because there are enough men of intelligence and political education and self-restraint to neutralize the evil effects of mixing some ignorant and uneducated in our electorate. But where a country is inhabited, as the Philippines are, by seven millions of people with "only a small percentage educated at all, and with no percentage having real political education and experi- ence, they must be helped, they must be given assistance in ordinary education and in the experience that comes from actually practicing par- tial self-government. The problem presented, when the United States took hold of the Philip- pines was a most difficult one, and it had to be solved by the schoolmaster. A thousand teachers were imported, and they were set to work teaching the young Filipinos EngHsh in the primary classes, and teaching the Fili- pino teachers how to talk and teach English. After ten years we have now a body of eight or nine thousand Philippine school teachers, and we have in the islands a half-million young Filipinos reading, writing, and reciting English. The native dialects were unfitted, any one of them, to become the language of a great country; the Spanish language was known only to about 7 per cent, of all the people; the people wished to learn the English language; the language of the United States, which had taken over the Sessions] EDUCATION AND DEMOCRATIC GOVEkNMENT 77 islands, was English; the business language of the Orient is English; and so English was adopted as the language of the Philippines. Today there is more English spoken in the islands than there is Spanish, and in two gen- erations English will be the general language of the Archipelago. The authorities of the United States helped the Filipinos to form muni- cipal governments, then provincial governments, and finally Congress pro- vided a Philippine Assembly, elected by the eligible voters of the islands, divided into sixty or more districts. The electorate is now made up of about 15 per cent, of the males in the islands over twenty-one years of age. There is an educational test which as education spreads in the islands rapidly fits the men of the islands for voting. There are two chambers, the Assembly and the Commission. The Commission is appointed by the Executive. There are three Filipinos upon the Commission and five Ameri- cans. In this wise the government goes on, and those who are fitted by their primary and secondary education become electors, they are trained in the public schools, they have the opportunity of going to an industrial school in each province, and many of them avail themselves of this oppor- tunity. Thus we are carrying on in the islands two kinds of education — the primary and secondary, and industrial education in English for the present and coming generation of Filipino youth, and again, by actual practice in government we are teaching the adult Filipino who is eligible to vote the responsibilities of government, and the necessity for self-re- straint, so that as a member of the majority he can accord to the minority the right to which they are entitled, and as a member of the minority can abide the government of the majority and insist only on the maintenance of civil liberty and his individual rights. It is necessary to give the first kind of education — that is, the primary and secondary education — in order that the Filipino may learn what his rights are, and learning them may assert them. The great difficulty in dealing with the present condition there is in implanting in the minds and breasts of the Filipinos, whose rights are infringed upon by their own people, what their rights are and how they can be vindicated in court or elsewhere. The government of the United States owes a great debt to the thousand American school teachers who were induced to go to the Philippines to assist in working out the problems, and it is they who have made a success of the policy in the islands. As the education shall spread, the theory upon which the policy was begun is working out. After a generation or two the people of the islands will be so well grounded in English and in the primary and secondary branches of education, and in actual practice in government, that they can probably be trusted to run their government alone. Meantime the United States is dealing with the Philippines in a spirit of the utmost justice. The gov- ernment which has existed there for ten years is well run; the money drawn from taxes is economically spent; and the islands have changed their character from a country in which there were but few roads and only one 78 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iGeneral railroad to a country in which the railroad mileage has increased more than five times, and in which the wagon roads have had a similar increase. We have now dealt justly with them by granting them in the last tariff act the markets of the United States, with limitations upon the importation of sugar and tobacco, and the opportunity to come into our market has so improved business in the islands that everybody there is prosperous. The trade between the United States and the Philippines has nearly doubled in a year. The question is whether this work which has been done by the United States for ten years at a very considerable cost and at practically no advantage to it in a pecuniary way is a violation of the Declaration of Independence in that the government thus established is not one entirely dependent upon the consent of the governed. It is one in which the gov- erned have only a partial voice, but it is one which is gradually educating the governed to a point where they can be trusted to carry on their own government. When the time shall arrive in which the Filipinos can be safely trusted to organize and maintain permanently their own government, and this government shall withdraw from the islands or offer to do so, the proposition of the Declaration of Independence will then have been ful- filled and the government will be a just one, for it will rest on the consent of the governed. Meantime, however, in the absence of the full effects of education, and until the Filipinos as citizens are able to walk alone, there will continue to be a seeming inconsistency between the policy of the Americans in the Philippines and the language of the Declaration of Inde- pendence. But I maintain, in the presence of this great audience, whose pro- fession is that of teaching and whose object is that of educating and fitting men to meet the responsibihties of government and to become intelligent patriots, that the methods taken and the procedure that is being followed are in entire accordance with the spirit of that great Declaration, properly interpreted, and are only another instance with that of Cuba of a purely altruistic poHcy that does credit to the American Republic and is in entire accord with those high principles which were embodied in its Declaration of Independence, and carried into practice in its Federal Constitution. PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS SOME DOMINANT TENDENCIES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION JAMES Y. JOYNER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION RALEIGH, N.C. The relation between education and civiHzation is so intimate and logical as to constitute an unbreakable bond of cause and effect, and to render it difl5cult to determine which is cause and which is effect. Changed and changing conditions of life and civilization demand and produce changed and changing conceptions of education. Changing needs arising out of Sessions] DOMINANT TEfVDENCIES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 79 changing life and civilization must be met by changing systems and meth- ods of education. Any educational system to be vital and useful in a democracy must have its roots in the life and needs of all the people, must be shaped in accordance with the demands of the present and the ideals for the future. Not only must the needs of an existing civilization be met, but the seeds of future progress therein must be sown thru education in each generation. Educa- tion, therefore, must develop the power of modification and mutation as well as the power of adaptation. In the United States, where the changes in civiUzation and life have been so rapid and revolutionary, it would be exceedingly strange and dis- tinctly unfortunate were there not continuous educational discussion and criticism, fermentation and unrest, experimentation and investigation, accompanied by changes in conceptions, systems, and methods of educa- tion, some progressive and some reactionary. So long as human needs increase and human life grows more complex, there can be in a democracy no cessation in the development of educational systems. To arrest the progress of education is to arrest the progress of civihzation. A static system of education means a static system of civilization. The thoughtful student may easily discern a few potent and permanent tendencies in American education. The greatest good to the greatest number and equality of opportunity to all are fundamental principles of democracy. One logical demand of democracy, therefore, is a system of education that shall provide equality of educational opportunity for all, and that shall best fit each for the greatest service to the greatest number. Out of this logical demand of democracy has grown the demand for indus- trial or vocational education. This is the first marked tendency in American education to which I desire to invite your attention. In the aristocratic civilizations of the past, the educational systems were based upon the idea that education was for the preparation of the privileged few for leadership. In their life and industry, the masses of men were left untouched, unlifted, blind followers in the ways marked out by the leaders. With the growth of the democratic spirit, the recognition of the civil and religious rights of the common man, there dawned a new era of liberty on earth. The common man has slowly come to understand that there is no liberty without learning, no equality of opportunity without equality of educational opportunity, guaranteeing to every child, as an inherent right, the chance to develop to the fullest every power in him for effective service. With this new conception of his educational rights, the common man first demanded an equal chance for his child to obtain the same sort of education that the favored few alone had heretofore enjoyed. In obedience to this demand, a system of free elementary schools was first established, furnishing equaUty of opportunity to the children of the rich and the 8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General poor, the high and the low, alike, to obtain therein the essentials of intelligence. With increasing intelligence and broadening vision, this common man, in further declaration of his rights, demanded equality of opportunity for his child to enjoy the advantages of fuller development, thru higher educa- tion, until here in America in most of our states, democracy has constructed an educational ladder, from the door of the hovel and the door of the palace, from the kindergarten to the university, without a missing round, up which every child may climb as far as he has the capacity and the time. With still-increasing intelligence and broadening vision, this common man with his saving common-sense has seen that even this system, modeled as it was at first largely after the traditions of the past for training for leadership alone, was failing to meet the varied needs of the many with their varying tastes, talents, and environment, that the elementary schools were leading only to the secondary schools, the secondary schools only to the college and the university, the college and the university only into the three so-called learned professions — law, medicine, and theology — over- crowding these professions, misleading many unfit ones into them, leading many of the brightest and most ambitious of the children of the industrial masses away from the pursuits of their fathers, and leaving the major industries of the world, in a commercial and industrial age, largely un- touched by skill, culture, and training. Then came his protest and his demand that his schools and colleges should provide courses of study ministering to the varied needs of the many, to fit the common man to meet and solve the common, everyday problems of his life, and to lift his life to a higher plane of efficiency, service, and hap- piness. In obedience to his protest and demand, the colleges and univer- sities first established elective courses of study, adapted to the varied talents, tastes, and needs of the varied classes of students. The democrati- zation of the courses of study in the colleges and universities, stimulated by the passage of the land-grant acts and the establishment of the land- grant colleges for special education in agriculture and the mechanic arts, has grown apace, until they are now meeting the needs of a much larger class of students and touching helpfully, by preparing leaders, many of the major industries of our country. But 90 per cent, of the people of the United States make their living by industrial pursuits. Scarcely 5 per cent, of our population ever reach the college or the university. It was, therefore, but another natural evolution of democracy, but another inevitable demand of the common man, that the courses of instruction in the secondary schools should be adapted to the needs of the 95 as well as of the 5 per cent., should lead into life as well as into college, and into industrial pursuits instead of away from them. Originating in a fundamental need of democracy and humanity, en- forced by the insistent demand of ihe industrial masses,jWho are^the people, Sessions] DOMINANT TEN'DENCIES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 8i and whose expressed will must at last be the law in a democratic republic, this movement for industrial education must become a fixed part of our educational system everywhere. To guide it wisely is the work and the duty of our profession. It has its dangers. The apostles of this new truth, blinded by its first dazzling burst of light, in an enthusiasm amounting almost to fanaticism, may lose their educational perspective in their insistence upon industrial or vocational education, may forget that education has any other end but the vocational. In an almost revolutionary reaction from an educational system in which the so-called cultural was made the chief and almost the sole aim of education, under which universal education meant the same sort of education for all sorts of people, it is not unnatural that there should be an over-emphasis of the utilitarian, the vocational, the adaptation of education to the environment and the individuality of every sort of child. In swinging from one extreme that produced men with an education with- out a vocation, we must not swing to the other extreme that will produce men with a vocation without an education. In making our schools minister to the new needs of men, arising out of an ever-changing civilization, we must not fail to make them continue to minister to the eternal, the common, the universal needs of men arising out of their common nature and the nature of their common life as parent, citizen, member of society. In making them minister to the material, we must see to it that they also minister sufficiently to the emotional, the imaginative, the aesthetic, in a word, the spiritual. That civilization which does not provide in its educational system for the cultivation of those facul- ties that fit men to make a Hfe is as surely doomed as is that which fails to provide for the cultivation of those that fit men to make a living. "Every man needs and should be provided two sorts of education — one to fit him to work, the other to fit him to live." The two sorts should be combined in the same system, proceeding side by side in proper proportion. I agree with those who hold that it would be a fatal blunder to permit in our system of American education the establishment and the maintenance of entirely separate systems of vocational or trade schools. There is no place for peasant schools, for separate schools for special classes of any sort, in a democracy. Such a separation of the purely cultural from the purely practical or vocational in our American system of education would inevitably increase social cleavage along vocational lines, would be uneco- nomic in effort, time, and money, would prove a disintegrating force, tending to destroy the unity of education and the homogeneity of our population. By one-sided education for the many we must not drag our civilization down to the deadening level of mere materialism, our average man down to the low plane of a mere machine, fitted to do his work with skill, but without fitness to live his life with happiness and satisfaction to himself 82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General and to others. For the preservation of our democracy and the continuous elevation of our civilization, we must hold together in our system of edu- cation, from bottom to top, the cultural and the useful, the practical and the ideal, the material and the spiritual, mingled in proper proportion with due regard for the common needs and also for the special needs of all in every community. You cannot elevate work unless you elevate the worker. You cannot elevate the worker unless you include in the scheme of his education not only special training for skill but also general training for manhood. For the elevation of the industrial masses to their proper social and civic plane in a democracy, you must send into the industries men trained not only to skillful work but educated also to think, to dream, to feel, to love, to lead, to lift. You cannot measure the greatest worth of a man in our democ- racy by a money-mad world's tape-line of dollars and cents. Not on the vulgar mass Called "work" must sentence pass, Things done that took the eye and had the price; O'er which, from level stand, The low world laid its hand, Found straightway to its mind, could value in a trice; But all the world's coarse thumb And finger failed to plumb, So passed in making up the main account; All instincts immature, All purposes unsure. That weighed not as his work, yet swelled the man's amount: Thoughts hardly to be packed Into a narrow act. Fancies that broke through language and escaped. All I could never be. All men ignored in me. This I was worth to God, whose wheel the pitcher shaped. THE OTIOSE TENDENCY A distinctly undesirable tendency of American education is otiosity — the antithesis of strenuosity. It is noticeable in elementary, secondary, and college education. Elementary and college education probably suffer most from it. In the elementary school it is probably an extreme reaction from the old education of grind and drudgery. It threatens, however, to end, if unchecked, in an education of gush and dissipation. The old edu- cation of grind was based too much, perhaps, upon the pedagogy of birch to force the child to unpleasant tasks. There is danger that the new edu- cation will become too dependent upon voluntary interest and will develop no power to drive the will to the discharge of unpleasant duties and to the performance of unpleasant tasks. Sessions! DOMINANT TENDENCIES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 83 Will you pardon me if I suggest that I sometimes fear that a fault too tommon in many of our best American schools is that of making the way too easy for the child, of leading him too constantly along the line of least resistance, of helping him too much, of explaining too much for him, of working too hard to save him from working ? In some of our elementary schools it has come to pass that the children are even forbidden to take books home or to do any studying upon their own initiative, in their own way, out of school, and that little time has been left from recitation for independent study in school. May we not expect from such made-easy and rapid transit methods a crop of intellectually spoiled children, flabby of mind, weak of will, superficial in character, inaccurate in scholarship, doing nothing well except what they like to do ? Should they not be taught or trained to do well whatever it is their duty to do, and to find a stimulus of interest in tasks at first unpleasant in the very joy of mastering them ? In seeking to make the way too easy for him, in lifting him too quickly over the hard places, in depriving him of the intellectual and moral struggle from which come strength and power for self -guidance and self-reliance, the teacher wrongs the child. Out yonder in life there will be rough places in the road, there will be mountains of difficulty to overcome, there may be nobody there to help. The child should learn in the little world of the school, which is his life then, to face difficulties bravely, to grapple with them courageously, to rely upon himself to overcome them, and to acquire in overcoming them the strength, the courage, and the confidence to overcome other and greater ones. Thus passing from strength to strength will he be fitted at last for the greater struggle and the greater victory in the greater world. May not we modern teachers, with all our boasted new pedagogy, still learn some valuable lessons from the old-fashioned schoolmaster, who, if he taught nothing else worth while, taught industry and duty and obedience and self-reliance, hatred of shirking and willingness to drudge where drud- gery was necessary for mastery? There is no mastery without drudgery; there is no strength without struggle. In the moral, the spiritual, and the intellectual world, things worth having have been divinely hedged about with difficulty, with hardness even, mayhap that those attaining them might in the very struggle for their attainment gather the strength that will make them worthy of them, and teach them how to appreciate and use them when attained. The wise in all ages have recognized this great truth. It has found expression again and again in the proverbs and the philosophy of pagan and Christian, even in the myths of the child races. The golden fleece still is guarded by the fiery dragon; Jacob still must wrestle with the Almighty before he wins a new name and has power as a prince with God and man; the flaming sword still stands by the gate of Eden, and work, work, is still man's doom and blessing. 84 . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General A similar tendency to otiosity is noticeable and alarming in college and university education. It is attributable in part perhaps to previous train- ing, but more to the influence of wealth and luxury, of fraternity life, athletics, and "soft" elective courses, which offer temptations to ease and idleness that are well-nigh irresistible to young men of unformed character and unfixed habits. MORAL EDUCATION As character always determines the use to which knowledge and training are put, it is of prime importance in education. Unless accompanied with the development of character, conscience, and conviction as guiding prin- ciples, the development of power and efiiciency thru education may, thru misapplication, become a means of degradation. It is not surprising, there- fore, that one of the most marked tendencies in American education is increased emphasis upon moral education, whereby there shall be woven into the warp and woof of the character of the growing child and youth the homely virtues needed for the proper guidance of everyday life. It is as needful and as democratic that our system of education should minister to the moral needs of all classes of our population as that it should minister to their industrial and vocational needs. In this land of teeming immigra- tion, of multiplying factories and shops, of growing cities with their apart- ment houses and crowded tenements and numberless temptations, when on every hand the forces that tend to cast asunder the home ties, to shorten the hours of family association, to weaken the bonds of parental control, and to decrease the opportunities for moral training in the home are daily multiplying, an increased burden of moral education has been thrown upon the American school. For the formation and fortification of good character, it is wisely insisted that moral instruction should be given in all our schools by precept, exam- ple, and systematic teaching. It should be based, I believe, upon the funda- mental teachings of the Book of Books, and the open Bible for moral but not sectarian instruction should have and hold its place in every public school. Example is more potent than precept, willing and doing the right, impelled by the right motive, the formation of right habits from right living, more potent than systematic teaching about right and wrong. " School is not preparation for life; school is life." In schoolroom and on playground the child finds as varied and typical opportunities as men find in the wide world beyond for doing right, for refraining from wrong, for acquiring under proper guidance and stimulation, by observation, imitation, association, and practice, self-restraint, industry, obedience, courage, courtesy, kindness, honesty, purity, charity, and all the other virtues that form and adorn human character. There is scarcely a school task, duty, or play that cannot be made by a skillful teacher to contribute to the moral education of the child. History and literature and the drama of the world's daily life furnish abundant Sessions] DOMINANT TENDENCIES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 85 material for illustration and inspiration. But over all, above all, more than all, is the daily example, the personal touch, the dynamic influence of the teacher with soul and consecration. Moral character is not formed by the mere memorizing of moral maxims and ethical principles. Feeling is the real key to it. Right feeling must precede right acting. Feeling, desire, motive, action — these are the steps to virtue or to vice. As a man thinketh in his heart, so is he. The heart of a little child must be kept with all diligence, if out of it shall come the issues of life. More and more are the methods of moral instruction conforming to these fundamental principles taught and illustrated in the writings and lives of the greatest moral reformers and teachers of the ages. THE ALTRUISTIC TENDENCY Selfishness and separateness will eat out the heart of any civilization and sow seeds of decay in any system of education. The spirit of all true democracy is essentially altruistic. There is much cause for rejoicing, there- fore, in the growth of the altruistic spirit in American civilization and American education. In the business world where competition is sharpest and selfishness most to be expected, there is manifest evidence of a con- stantly growing sense of obligation by the rich to hold their wealth in trust for the advancement. of society and to use it for the benefit of humanity. Perhaps no other century in the annals of time has to its everlasting credit so much of princely philanthropy. Is it too much to hope that even before the close of this twentieth century we shall witness the adoption by the rich everywhere of the high creed of one of the century's princeliest philan- thropists, that to die rich should be counted a crime ? The true scholar no longer seeks scholarship solely for personal enjoyment and individual superiority, but rather for social service and the happiness of humanity. Consecration of individual talent and power, of intellectual, moral, and spiritual wealth of every sort to the uplift of all shall at last become the dominant doctrine in every American school. Every child born into the world in a democracy is not only the parents' child, but also the community's child, the state's child, the nation's child, and humanity's child. Out of every one of those relations grows a duty and an obHgation from every one of us to every one of these American children, which we neglect at peril to the family, the community, the state, the nation, society, and all civilization. The school-less child is a menace to the best in all. If the child be not so educated as to lay upon him a reciprocal duty and obligation to render in return when he reaches man- hood's estate a service to all, commensurate with that which he has received from all, then education is a failure and the vast expenditure for it a criminal waste. The fundamental basis of all public education in a democracy must be social and the fundamental aim of it must be altruistic. The individual is 86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General educated at the expense of the public, that he may be able to render to the public the best service of which he is capable; and he should be so educated as to desire and to determine to consecrate his education to such service. There can be no other justification of public education by general taxation. The old education was individualistic; the new education must be altruistic. This altruistic spirit is but a recognition and an application of democ- racy's fundamental principles of universal brotherhood, individual respon- sibility, and social obligation. THE PEACE MOVEMENT This peace movement that promises to sweep the world into universal peace, what is it but the natural product of this spirit of democracy and altruism, the fruit in due season of a Christian civilization whose founder was the Prince of Peace, and one of whose cardinal principles for two thousand years has been "Peace on earth, good will toward men" ? But we may cry " Peace, Peace" ; we may prate of its beauty to children and to men; we may form our peace societies and hold our peace conferences and enact our peace laws, but peace cometh not by observation — the seat of it is within the heart — the scepter of it is wielded by the spirit. Therefore thru education in the home and school must be cultivated those virtues that make for peace — love, justice, mercy, recognition of the rights of others. These must reign in the hearts of children and rule the spirits of men in all lands before peace can reign o'er all the earth. It is well to begin with the children in the schools, before the heart is full of din and the world's fierce battles begin, when their tender feet can be more easily led into the paths of peace and their innocent souls more easily attuned to the music of peace. The lion and the lamb shall some day lie down together, but not until a little child shall lead them. For a' that, and a' that, It's coming yet, for a' that, That man to man, the warl' o'er, Shall brothers be, for a' that. THE PUBLIC-HEALTH MOVEMENT This public-health movement that is enlisting the activities of men and women everywhere for the prevention of disease and the preservation of health and life — what is that but the product, too, of this growing spirit of altruism in society, government, and school, a recognition of the funda- mental value of healthy bodies as a necessity for the effective appHcation of every sort of education to the doing of a man's work in the world, of the civic duty of preserving the health and prolonging the life of all, to increase the efficiency and prolong the service of all ? Disease decreases efficiency, premature death ends it ere it is well begun. What shall it profit a nation if, thru education, it gain all knowledge and all power, intellectual and 1 Sessions] MESSAGE FR6m the bureau OF EDUCATION 87 spiritual, but, thru disease, lose its physical vigor, its body, by which alone it can translate these into action upon the world ? Such are some of the dominant tendencies in American education shap- ing and molding the destiny of our democracy. There are conflicts and discords now. There shall be victorious adjustment and concord by and by, for I see in part, That all, as in some piece of art, Is toil co-operant to an end, "In the Sistine Chapel," says George Herbert Palmer, "Michelangelo has depicted the Almighty moving in clouds over the rugged earth where lies the newly created Adam, hardly aware of himself. The tips of the fingers touch, the Lord's and Adam's, and the huge frame loses its inertness and rears itself into action." Teachers of America, go forth to your work of lifting humanity into finger touch with the Almighty, unawed by fear, unrestrained by pessimism, sustained by faith in the holiness of your mission, assured that you hold the strategic point in education, which ever must be the strategic point in civilization. A MESSAGE FROM THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION WASHINGTON, D.C. It was an extraordinary legacy that was left to the Bureau of Education by Commissioner William Torrey Harris. The present administration of that office has no finer responsibility than that of maintaining at its best the spirit and tradition which constitute that legacy. There are undoubtedly very few today who would accept in its entirety the philosophical system which Dr. Harris represented. There are few, indeed, who would accept unmodified his plan of educational administration. But his plan and system were the outcome of an elevated and unselfish patriotism. He was an American, and his x\mericanism was permeated by such devotion to the loftiest thought and the widest learning, that it can never disappear from the educational organization of this country without incalculable loss. At the opening of this report, I desire to pledge anew the office over which he presided, in loyalty to that massive and dominant moral purpose to which Dr. Harris gave his lifelong devotion, and call upon the representatives of all educational systems and educational institutions thruout the land to renew allegiance to that ideal. The President of the National Education Association has asked me to bring at this time a message from the Federal Bureau of Education, and has intimated that such a message might properly find a place on each annual program of this organization. There is an historic reason back of 88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General this suggestion. The Bureau of Education is, in a sense, the child of the National Association, having been brought into being at the immediate instance of the National Association of State and City School Super- intendents, which was the forerunner of the present Department of Superin- tendence. My statement made in response to this call shall be a brief one; but I hope it may show that the Federal Education Office is maintaining its continuity with the work begun by Dr. Harris and his predecessors, while at the same time it is facing the new needs of these later days in ways in which there is no precedent for its guidance. The task is the double one of making an effective instrument and then of turning it to some worthy use. Within the past year the instrument, that is, the Bureau as it may be seen from without, has been greatly changed. It has left its outgrown shell by the unresting sea of Eighth and G Streets and has entered into dignified and commodious quarters under one of the Federal Government's own roofs. It has, indeed, been taken into the bosom of the national family. Its library, which had previously been reorganized, has now been rearranged in its new quarters for practical service. A vigorous new division has been erected, that of school administration, which deals particularly with mat- ters of interest to state and city education offices. A beginning has been made in what may be termed a field service, a service which has already engaged a good portion of the time of two specialists, those in school admin- istration and in the work of the land-grant colleges. This service is to be further extended. Provision has been made by Congress for two important additions to the staff, namely those of Editor and of Specialist in Higher Education. The new specialist will be engaged, both at the office and in the field, with work in connection with our colleges and universities. A great campaign has recently been undertaken by friends of the Bureau with a view to the wide extension of this new service in the field, which promises to give us within the near future an instrument for more generous and far-reaching activities. It is earnestly desired and hoped that this campaign may meet with abundant success. It is not generally known that this Office is equipped with one of the most extensive educational experiment stations in the world. It is an ex- periment station embracing some five hundred and eighty thousand square miles of territory, with two thousand five hundred miles of sea coast, sparsely populated with some thirty thousand natives of different back- ward races, Indian, Aleut, and Eskimo. Such a practice school presents the white man's burden in its most concrete form, with all of the difficulties and all of the inspiring opportunities presented by the world-education movement of our time. There in Alaska the school physician and the school nurse are now going up and down, helping the people in their sicknesses, and teaching them how to live clean and wholesome lives. The girls are I I Sessions] MESSAGE FROM THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION 89 learning to cook and to sew and to make good homes. The boys are learn- ing to earn an honest livelihood under their new conditions, by new indus- trial pursuits, by the raising of reindeer, by improved fishing, gardening, and the use of common tools. They are learning something of the white man's wisdom and the white man's better aims in life. These things are to help them in their new relations with the white man, who must inevi- tably be their neighbor and their fellow-laborer. The end in view is the training of these people to self-reliance and ultimate self-government. There is only one thing more to be said at this time about the strength- ening of the Bureau as an instrument, and that is to refer to the strengthen- ing of its relations with other government ofiices. It is true everywhere, and notably true in Washington, that an isolated office is likely to be a weak and crippled office. Among the most important steps that have been taken of late in the building-up of this Bureau have been the arrangements which have been made for close co-operation with the Library of Congress and with the Bureau of the Census. Connection with the Census Office has received especial attention during the past year. That office is now rendering invaluable assistance in the effort to secure more nearly uniform and therefore more informing statistics concerning our great state and dty systems of education. The chief accounting officers of a number of our city school systems have now formed a national association which in its turn will co-operate with these two offices at Washington. A committee was appointed at the Indianapolis meeting of our Department of Superintendence for a somewhat similar purpose. This gives us a strong combination of those interested in the improvement of school accounts and school reports. We have now more reason than ever before to hope that the reproach which has lain against our school reports, that they do not tell an intelligible tale, is soon to be a thing of the past. Everybody has a personal interest in such a change, for to have more illuminating reports will mean to have so much the better schools. This is all that it seems necessary to say at this time regarding the tool. Now, what is the larger work which the improved tool may be expected to do? It is the business of the Bureau to collect and diffuse such information as shall help the people of the United States to establish better systems of schools. On the face of it this business would seem to be simply that of information and not that of propaganda. In a sense this is true. The office is to be a scientific office, with scientific impartiality toward the facts which it reports. But it cannot be indifferent to the facts which it reports. It must view them with reference to the improvement of our educational systems. The field in which its investigations shall be made must be selected with reference to public needs. It must call attention to the sig- nificance of the facts presented, with some positive conviction as to the 90 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General directions in which there is need of improvement. It has indeed a mission. It has a propaganda. It is concerned all of the time with the effort to make for this country a better education of all of the people. Some of the directions which this endeavor should take in the immediate future may be mentioned here. We are still unable in this country to give to all of our citizens anything like a fair chance at an education. We still have some illiteracy. We still have great numbers of pupils leaving the schools before they have received a proper elementary education. There are portions of the country which are at great disadvantage as compared with others in these respects. This office of information must keep on setting forth the actual state of our school attendance, so far as it can be determined, and must reiterate the call of these simple facts to efforts for the improvement of school attendance. The improvement of school attendance must go hand in hand with the abatement of child labor and numerous other undertakings for the general welfare of childhood. It is the business of a central office to call repeated attention to these relationships, and to help those who are at work in neighboring fields to work together for their common ends. We need to press home such information as will lead to the improvement of our school buildings. In a country which is spending seventy-three milUon dollars a year for the construction, equipment, and repair of its buildings for school purposes, such information as would lead to an improve- ment of only I per cent, as regards this expenditure would cause an aggre- gate annual saving of no mean sum; while the saving of the health of pupils, which can be accomplished thru more hygienic construction, is an incomparably greater concern. In a thousand ways the improvement of health thru education is now in progress. An agency which, thru the gentle force of clear information, can bring these ways into unison and prevent the waste of misdirected efforts, will prove itself a national benefit. Industrial education is with us, in its three main forms of trade schools, schools of housekeeping, and schools for rural life. It is every day raising more questions than anyone as yet can answer. Such an office as the Bureau of Education is to overlook this whole field and keep incessant inquiries under way, all over the world, with a view to finding the best answers to the most urgent of these questions. But here again, it is not information alone that is needed. Our new efforts at industrial education are pulled this way and that by inharmonious aims and conflicting interests. A National Office concerned with these things must make the constant endeavor to persuade those discordant forces into unity of aim, and that effectiveness which comes from unity. At this point alone there is a patri- otic service to be rendered, the value of which no man can estimate. I shall make no attempt at any complete enumeration. It is easy to see how important are many of the other undertakings which must be passed ^ I I Sessions) MESSAGE FROM THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION 91 over here from sheer lack of time: the supervision of rural schools, improve- ments in the training of teachers, the relation of secondary schools to colleges and universities and to the life outside of colleges and universities. And then the great work of higher and professional education — a world within itself — there never has been a time when a mediating agency was more needed in this field. Such an agency should help our institutions of higher learning to do a common work for the country at large. State insti- tutions and those under private control; graduate schools, which are begin- ning to appreciate the evils of institutional isolation; and schools of medi- cine and law, in which the problems of isolation, affiliation, and standards generally are reaching their acute and critical stage: the time calls unmis- takably for a central agency strong enough to deal with questions such as these, and wise enough to deal with them by way of effective influence without arrogating any fictitious authority. In the near future, without doubt, a general reorganization of the federal agencies of education must be frankly considered. Some of the questions subsidiary to such reorganization are already under discussion. Four of them may be mentioned here : Shall we have a National Department of Education, co-ordinate with the nine depart- ments now in existence ? Shall we have at Washington a National University ? Shall we have an extension of federal aid to education in the states, particularly in the form of federal aid to industrial education ? Shall a federal office be erected to concern itself with the general welfare of our child citizens ? These questions are a challenge addressed to the educational thought of the nation as well as to the political thought of the nation. I have confi- dence that the educational leadership of our time will meet those questions squarely. Our political leaders have a right to expect courageous and com- petent advice from the leaders of education, when questions such as these shall come up for legislative action. I will not take your time for any extended discussion of these proposals. One general point of view, however, calls for emphasis. Education is no longer an interest subsidiary to other interests. It has become one of the independent and dominant concerns of modern societies, and particularly of democratic societies. We may make such administrative arrangements from time to time as may be found workable and possible. But we must expect education to be eventually the organizing center which shall draw to itself and adjust to one another all of those governmental agen- cies which are directly concerned with purely human betterment. But while the greater things are taking shape, the Bureau of Education is to go on doing more and more of its appointed work. That appointed work, stated in other than legal terms, is to make sporadic educational excellence contagious, and make the contagion of educational improve- ment an epidemic. Let me close with an illustration: 92 NATI NAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Not long ago I was at a university commencement, where, among others, a class from the law school received their appropriate degrees. When he came to one of the young men, the president stopped and explained to the audience this candidate's peculiar case. To begin with he was deaf, and was unable to speak. Early in his senior year, in a football accident, he had lost the sight of one of his eyes, and that of the other was threatened for a time. When he was nearly recovered, his president, visiting him in the hospital, offered condolence in view of the probability that he would be unable to complete his course. He took the pad and wrote across it, "I've one good eye left and I'll make it yet." That young man was a negro in a southern negro school. His neighbors, white and colored, had confidence in him, and they joined in long applause when he received his diploma. He made it, with a single eye; and I am glad to acknowledge the lesson that I learned from him. If by any means we can make such educational spirit as his contagious and even epidemic in this wide and susceptible country of ours, no one of us will have labored in vain. WILLIAM TORREY HARRIS JAMES M. GREENWOOD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS KANSAS CITY, MO. Today there is a vacancy in each heart here that ever came in close contact with the vigorous personality of William Torrey Harris, who died in his seventy-fourth year, November 5, 1909, at Providence, Rhode Island. In my office his picture hangs on the wall, and as I turn toward it, the eye and the Hps seem ready to speak to me of things eternal. Somehow I feel as I look upon his face pictured there, that this life is only earth's vestibule to a higher and a better one. It is the same calm face that said to me scarce two years ago: "I have now commenced the reading of Hegel's Philosophy of History for the seventeenth time, and I shall get more out of it at this reading than at any previous one." This simple statement is characteristic of his entire life, indicating energy, courage, and great tenacity of purpose, and forming a background of character as clear cut as polished steel. Handi- capped, yet as h(iusekeeper and cook, student and athlete, he emerged from Yale College after reaching his majority and settled in St. Louis in 1857. Here he worked and studied for nearly a quarter of a century, becoming the greatest and sanest intellectual and educational force in this country which has been lavish in its production of vigorous men and women. His personal experience was wide and deep among men and women of keen perceptions and strong convictions. He possessed ability of the very highest order, an intellectual energy that was tireless, and a physical constitution that could endure equal to Napoleon's. Thruout these years he studied the greatest thoughts of the greatest men that this earth had produced. In all his work he displayed J Sessions] WILLIAM TORREY HARRIS 93 the genius of industry, a keen insight, and a well-balanced and unbiased judgment upon every subject that he investigated. His mind was titanic in its structure and modes of thought, and as he rose and passed across the educational horizon of his native land, he cast a light that will shine undimmed down the ages. He always looked for and sought the genesis of things. Whether with the microscope, the telescope, or the eye of reason, into whatever region of knowledge he penetrated, he always came back to man as that something which remained unchanged thru a changeable world — a something that bound the life of the child, the adult, and the aged man into one continuous stream of purpose and action. In whatever region he turned his thoughts, he saw clearly beneath this fleeting phenom- enon the permanent and the real — the clear idea of the individual and of the absolute reason. His mission was not to startle men and women with new doctrines founded upon false or doubtful hypotheses, but to make clear to them the great truths that lie about us everywhere which are wholly or partially obscured. By pondering over the fundamental questions of exist- ence, of institutions, of history, of the sciences, of art, of religion and phi- losophy, he would bring into the field of thinking that certainty which each has that he exists, and to know he is a rational being that feels and loves and aspires to satisfy yearnings yet unsatisfied. William Torrey Harris was fortunate indeed when he chose in early manhood St. Louis for his home. His intellect there was unfettered by traditions that would have cramped his aspirations in some other localities. The society- into which he flung himself was in a continual flux not tied down between leading strings. For years he associated with a coterie of as profound and brilliant men and women as could be assembled elsewhere on this continent. This, too, was the era when some of the greatest thoughts in the scientific world were startling and challenging the attention of think- ing men in Europe and in America. The doctrines of Kant, Laplace, La- grange, Humbolt, and Lyell, were in some respects being replaced by those of Wallace, Darwin, Mayer, Huxley, Spencer, Baird, and others in the natural sciences; while Boole, Sir William Rowan Hamilton, and other continental analysts, building mostly on the foundations of the great mas- ters who had preceded them, were making wonderful contributions to the department of pure and applied mathematics. Bold minds were pushing out into new and unexplored fields everywhere. Upon every hand was an undercurrent of feeling that in the physical universe from the minutest particle to the largest sun in infinite space, law rules supreme — that every department of knowledge is subject to an unvarying uniformity in the or- ganic and inorganic realms; nay, that all human institutions embracing the nations of the earth, formed no exception to the rule of the universality of law. While these schoolmasters of the race were formulating and giving to the world their theories, William Torrey Harris was studying most closely and analyzing and inventorjdng most patiently and accurately what these 94 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General and others had done and were doing in their special fields of investigation; and while believing most firmly in great underlying principles as the ground- work of everything permanent and valuable, he decided to do a similar kind of work in education for the unfoldment of human character as Laplace, Lagrange, Gauss, Peirce, Boole, Sylvester, Cayley, and others had done for mathematics; what Humboldt, Lyell, Agassiz, Wallace, Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, and others had achieved in the organic and inorganic sciences; what Marshall, Story, Webster, Calhoun, Hayne, Wright, and Choate, guided by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, had done in fixing the principles of constitutional government for the United States. It is true that Jefferson, Horace Mann, Bishop Potter, the elder Beecher, and Alexander Campbell in our own country had spoken powerfully in favor of education of the masses in order that repubUcan form of government might be saved from anarchy. But his sphere of work lay in another direction, that of critically interrogating human nature and human institutions, and then determining what factors in these are permanent and what ones transitory and whether they could be brought within the realm of educational law as implicitly existing in man's thinking-processes. Across the historic pages he saw that some men had cut deep channels in every part of the world's history wherever men had combined to secure and maintain permanent possession of property within prescribed limits. All his investigations were confined to civilized races. Savages had no history anterior to civilization, and the wild man had no great attraction for him prior to the taming of his instincts in obedience to the civil and moral law. A scheme of education, however well de\ised, without a thoro knowledge of the persons to which it can be appUed, would have only an abstract value. And all his reflections centered about estabhshed and well-organized institutions, the home, the church, the school, and the state. As others studied plants and animals in the wild or domestic state, he studied man in civil society. Whatever line of research he undertook he brought the highest order of analysis and constructive abiHty to its investigation. Thus he stimulated others in their activities by virtue of his clear thinking and judicial attitude. His special work was to gather up and to arrange concrete phenomena under general law and show how these included the highest results of human reason. By the most searching analysis, he separated complex phenomena into their simplest elements and placed each where it belonged. Literally he would pluck up a subject by its roots, and in the clearest sunshine examine each of its constituent elements and classify them one by one. In this respect his mind was one of the most searching and critical of any age. Whether deal- ing with abstractions or real things, he never wavered in his steadfast course. Having sounded the depths of knowledge with unerring fine and plummet, he moved forward from premise to premise with a force as irre- sistible as fate. He built up his arguments into a system out of which he formulated the laws of logical analysis and classification. Sessions] W^/Z'^/yllf TORREY HARRIS 95 When he had passed in review thru the first stage in knowing and entered upon the second, or the relativity of knowledge, he clearly perceived that any one science is only a bough of something else deeper down. Every science touches other sciences at numerous points of contact. He was pre- eminently a truth-hunter who would know what a thing is and what it is not in order to know its history and its destiny. His materialistic problem was to convert the forces of the world into such forms that man could handle them. His spiritual problem was freedom and immortality of the soul, guided by higher specialized inteUigence. The ablest Uving advocate of the freedom of the human will as opposed to a conscienceless mechanism, he recognized for each the privilege of making the most of himself as an independent and self-centered personality. It was only a step then to the achievement in the realm of matter and mind as man's special prerogative. By looking steadfastly at institutions he saw their significance in the systems of administration and jurisprudence which safeguarded property, conferred personal rights and privileges, and enforced contracts. There could be no higher degree of intelligence developed above that of the uncivi- lized tribes, unless these rights and duties were enforced. Man can be elevated only thru a good system of religion, a good system of morals, and a good system of politics. Physical causes produce physical effects and intellectual and moral causes produce their corresponding effects. These principles being deeply imbedded in the universal consciousness of mankind, he longed to see humanity not living in the basement, but on the first, second, and third floors. History had taught him the great lesson that in the stream of life men are sifted and sorted, the few to rise, the majority to sink into a dead level; but the hope of the world was in the elevation of the masses, guided by intelligent leadership in the active practice of the highest forms of moral and civic virtues. Because men succeeded by honorable means in great undertakings, he did not regard their successes as crimes against humanity. The most important of the world's work, as he saw it, was to elevate the natural instincts of man thru the appointed channels of civiHzation by reducing his habits of thoughts and actions to a reasoned system of rights, duties, and obligations, and among these he recognized duties, customs, and actions as of pre-eminent worth in the formation of character. In education he dug down into the neglected and forgotten elements to find a sure foundation upon which to build. In this search he brought to light the "five windows of the soul" thru which the different kinds of knowledge reach the mind and are systematized by it. A human being thus became of infinitely more value than a mere animal which turns what it lives on into a manufactured article for man's consumption. The silent forces of life, working like the molecular forces in the department of physics, are the most powerful in the shaping of character. Education, character, life itself, all combined are properly classed as a growth purposefully devel- oped, and learning is also a process of continuous growth. 96 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General His outward speech was the expression of his inward thoughts and feel- ings which had been maturely considered before utterance. Whether he followed Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Edwards, Kant, Hegel, Ham- ilton, John Stuart Mill, or Herbert Spencer, he would classify all their thoughts by the three phases of knowing which he had discovered and eluci- dated, and then further test the conclusions each had reached by an apphca- tion of the valid and invalid modes of the syllogism. Back of the syllogistic forms he instituted a critical investigation as to why the modes of the figures are arranged in definite orders. Starting with the conclusion that grammar shows the logical structure of language, and that language reveals the struc- ture of reason, and that all speech takes the form of a judgment, he ascer- tained that the mind acts in conformity to the syllogistic modes in a specific manner when interpreting sensuous ideas, abstract ideas, or ideas of the absolute. Even the mind itself, unless unhinged, works according to law. So far as I know, he was the first who analyzed the different figures of the syllogism for the purpose of showing what kind of knowledge each represents and how it is arranged. He demonstrated how in sense-percep- tion, which is a low grade of thinking, the mind "uses the second, first, and third figures; in the handling of abstract ideas, the third, first, and second figures; and in the absolute idea, it uses the third figure." From a critical examination he was led to inquire — what significance have the syllogistic figures in psychology? This clue was no doubt derived from Hegel, who was the first to point out that each form of life had a corre- sponding "syllogistic structure and likewise the inorganic world is corre- spondingly dominated." A deeper meaning is implicitly involved in the figured syllogisms as not only furnishing rules for testing thoughts, but how the mind unconsciously thinks its thoughts according to the principles involved in the very structure of the syllogism. His special interpretation and application of the syllogism revealed to thinkers a deeper meaning in the logic of thought as to its background than any others had ever dis- covered, and of which only Hegel and Everett had caught ghmpses. Once in this field and seeing how fruitful it was, it was an easy step to take up each of the subjects that entered into the curricula of the elementary school, the high school, and the college, and to determine its bearing on all the other departments of learning, and to map out the special sphere of each. Thus, it is evident how this mental procedure gave rise to his famous expression — "The five windows of the soul." From his reflections on the dominant ideas composing each of the branches pursued in the elementary schools, the secondary schools, and the colleges, he perceived how they naturally fell into five co-ordinate groups and that each group ought to be represented in each year's work thruout these continuous courses. His chief contribution to the philosophy of education lies in this classification, in which is demonstrated what categories Sessions] WILLIAM TORRE Y HARRIS 97 of the mind are actually employed in pursuing any one of these groups of studies. It is thru mathematics as an instrument that a tool is furnished for dealing with bodies and their various kinds of motion in time and space. Mathematics thus enables man to command nature in its quantitative aspect. As powerful as this solvent is, it has its limitations. Its realm, however much extended and symbolized in measuring space, time, matter, force, and energies, cannot be apphed to any considerable extent to the processes of organic life. While one may study the mechanical action of forces as manifested in the plant, even here everything quantitative and mathematical is of a different form from that of the life-principle itself. There is a biological something in the plant or the animal which determines it to follow after its kind. All the mechanical forces, such as light, heat, elec- tricity, and gravitation, are best studied and comprehended from the stand- point of mathematics. Yet thought in its practical aspects as well as in its deeper phases will be static, dynamic, or combination, just as human minds may be fixed, fluid, or plastic. Rising out of the inorganic world which presupposes the organic, the second includes all the studies relating to plants and animals — the growth of material for food, clothing, shelter, transportation, and culture. This internal principle in inorganic nature builds for itself from the surrounding material a structure in which to dwell. The animal uses the inorganic and organic substances, drawing from its surroundings salts and acids, and thru its instrumentaUties converting vegetable substances into tissue by the use of heat, light, and electricity. It is a striving to express itself after its own form. This Hfe-process is not mathematical, neither is it mechanically moved by a force without or within. There is a formative principle which is the prime mover and modifier that mysteriously builds up the organic structure. It is true that at many points these two phases, the inorganic and the organic, overlap, nevertheless they exhaust the field of nature. They in- clude two vast areas of science, pure and abstract, in their wide applications, and some have gone so far as to make them include all knowledge. From a few fundamental conceptions pure and applied mathematics have been built up into one of the most comprehensive' and far-reaching systems that the mind of man has yet constructed. Yet there are vast fields where it is utterly helpless as an efficient agent. Neither can the most skillful biolo- gists apply the methods of their department to outside spheres. Projected in bold relief, Dr Harris showed what instruments as tools man employs to comprehend the inorganic and the organic kingdoms in standard terms of his own thinking. The significance of his discoveries and classifications was not fully recognized or comprehended while he was among us. Had they been, a 98 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General great deal of fruitless effort and senseless experimentation on the children would have been avoided. He formulated new and safe lines of pedagogical procedure which are rational. Unwittingly would-be reformers often stumble into bottomless pits. To cause leaders of educational thought to consider the whence and the whither of what they were doing was his object in speaking to the educators of the world. He was a conspicuously clear and safe leader in educational philosophy. He had worked thru each subject and determined its bearings on the Hfe of the citizen in a free gov- ernment under the conditions of time and opportunity. Under his con- ception the world for helpful co-operative purposes was growing very small, and he was writing on the world's blackboard for all time. As he often expressed it: "We can afford to wait." His instincts were always centered on the eternal verities in each subject. The superficial he never tolerated, and passing popular bursts of educational reformation had no charm for him any more than red-handed anarchy as a substitute for constitutional government. His earliest training had been to look at all things straight in the face and to see what they contained. To bring truth to Ught among men was his mission and this he did in many ways. When the entire coun- try went wild on supplementary reading in the elementary schools, he called attention to the great value of strong, short Hterary unities for young and growing minds; these selections were to be taken from a large list of the choicest authors, thru a careful study of which the learner's mind would be influenced by noble thoughts and enriched by a select and exten- sive vocabulary. The universal cry from the secondary schools, colleges, and universities in regard to the chaotic conditions of teaching Enghsh and the woeful results now obtained are mainly traceable to methods and their tendencies which he clearly foresaw twenty years ago and pointed out. He saw the need of something logical and eternal in the elementary schools. Under the influences of superficial science teaching in many high places and in magazines and the daily press, he saw that a mechanical explanation of the world is a system of mere surface thinking which was making deep inroads on reUgious faith in the unseen. A mind so constituted as his was, analytical, critical, constructive, and with a firm behef in human responsi- bihties and the immortality of the soul, would naturally view with deep apprehension the undermining of the Christian faith and the loosening of the unseen foundations of society. To combat the agnostic influences at work in society, he studied most diligently the Church Fathers, Dante, Christian art and hymns, fate and freedom, and all phases of materialistic and spiritual philosophy, and in his lectures on the Christian religion and its necessity to humanity, he was the ablest defender that appeared on the platform during the last quarter of a century. He met the scoffer on his chosen field and there answered him most completely. In thus speaking of him in this connection, I class him with Professor C. C. Everett Sessions] CRITICISMS OF SCHOOLS BY THE LAITY 99 and Professor Borden Bowne, and these three, as I estimate ability, were the clearest and ablest and sanest thinkers in this special department our country has yet produced. Dr. Harris was one of the most philosophic and artistic interpreters of music, Hterature, sculpture, painting, and architecture that either Europe or America has produced. These were all expressions indicat- ing the height and the depth of the aspirations of the human soul in endeavoring to transcend the world of sensuous impressions. They were means of conveying to humanity what man strives to accompHsh and to transmit his thoughts and feelings to the oncoming waves of future generations. Only the few who came in close personal contact with him knew the riches of his wonderful mind or the sweet persuasive influence of his nature. On another occasion I have drawn the curtain partly aside that others may catch some glimpses of him as a few knew him. He shed a steady and clear light on every question that he ever presented to the National Education Association. His contributions covered the most diversified fields of thought. He was equally at home in all. Un- doubtedly he was the best-informed all-round citizen of this country. For more than sixty-five years he had been a learner and a thinker. In far- reaching constructive statesmanship, he would have ranked with the very ablest in Europe or in America. As an interpreter of history, of poHtical institutions, of the civil and moral law, and of sociological, economic, and social conditions, he was unexcelled even by those who are speciahsts each in his own chosen field. But in the realm of psychology, philosophy, and logic in their bearing on systems of education, he stood head and shoulders above all others on this continent if not in the world. He was the many- sided scholar, philosopher, and educator — great in the simplicity of his character. Little appreciated while here among us, yet the living and those that come after us will turn more frequently to his published addresses as sources of information, of inspiration, and of wisdom than to those of any other of America's great educators and philosophers. His rank is among the world's greatest men and his statue should be placed in the "Hall of Fame" in our national capitol as a recognition of his contribution to scholarship, education, and philosophy. THE CRITICISMS OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS BY THE LAITY JAMES W. CRABTREE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL PERU, NEBR. Society is divided into two classes — teachers and the laity. These two classes are very intimately related to each other. All teachers formerly belonged to the laity. They passed successfully the examinations, received certificates, secured schools, and became teachers. The laity likewise NA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION [General receives recruits from the teaching ranks, receiving each year, it is said, nearly one-fifth of all those engaged in the teaching service. Teachers and laity have not only come largely from each other but they have intermarried to such an extent that there is no telling how much dissatisfaction and adverse criticism among the laity comes directly or in- directly from teachers themselves. It may be shown in this same way that the confidence of the laity in the public schools is also largely traceable to the teacher's influence. There are three classes of the laity who pass criticism upon the schools: (i) the smallest, least important, but most annoying, is the class known as the chronic faultfinders; (2) a much larger and more dangerous class composed of those whose disapproval has back of it something personal and selfish; (3) the larger class of people whose criticism grows out of their loyalty to the pubHc schools coupled with their interest in young people and a genuine desire to promote their welfare. A somewhat careful study of the faultfinders, in ten typical country schools and in ten typical smaller city schools, shows: (i) That the number is limited, there being only nine who could properly be called chronic kickers in the ten districts and thirty-seven in the ten towns. (2) That in every instance these same people complain about other things besides school affairs, as a rule fighting most bitterly that in which the community is most deeply interested. (3) That the criticisms are trivial, usually reflecting on the methods of teaching, methods of discipline, personality of teacher or superintendent, and the methods of busi- ness employed by the board of education. (4) That while the criticisms are exceedingly annoying to the teacher in charge of the particular school, they are of little value to those who are gathering suggestions for improving the efficiency of the schools. They seldom touch upon essential points or upon organic weaknesses. ■ The chronic faultfinder is one of the teacher's worst problems. At some period of his life every school teacher has dreamed of the time when all the faultfinders would be dead, or else transformed into angels of kind- ness ; of the time when all the bitter tongues would have grown tired and still, and the only sounds to reach his ear, the pleasant tones of commenda- tion. But always in the gray of dawn he awakes to find that the kickers still live, and that their numbers have not decreased. The person who has made a careful study of facts and conditions is worthy of listeners at least. The chronic faultfinder, however, has no place in this class. He is the obstinate individual who is never suited. Whatever is, is wrong. Whatever plan is adopted, he attacks. If the dis- cipline is strong, it is an outrage; if it is mild, he brands it as a failure. In one breath the children are worked almost to death ; in the next they are not forced to study at all. He can see that other schools are all right, but this particular school is a fraud and a delusion. The faultfinder does not represent the educational poHcy of the laity. Sessions] CRITICISMS OF SCHOOLS BY THE LAITY lOi The people ridicule and disown him. His conduct is just as irritating to the Board of Education, and to citizens interested in the welfare of the schools, as it is to the teacher, or to the superintendent. But these are the burdens that every teacher, principal, and superintendent must bear. Everyone must learn to accept with resignation the fact that the chronic faultfinder is now and always will be a part of Jiis life. He has a right to criticize, and he is going to do it. The teacher must learn to bear it all with composure, and to reduce to a minimum the worry resulting from it. Now, as to the second class — those who criticize because of some per- sonal grievance and for other selfish reasons. It is well knpwn that city superintendents are in the habit of searching for the motive, or as they term it, the "sore spot," and that they often find back of the criticism something like the following: defeated for a place on the board; daughter failed to secure a position in the schools; the superintendent or teacher belongs to the wrong church; a relative or political friend not chosen as janitor; competitor given the contract for coal or for school supplies; child received low grades; boy punished for some school offense; daughter not promoted or graduated; dislikes personally some teacher or member of her family. These people are the cause of most of the more deep-seated difficulties that confront the management of the school. They are the more dangerous because they are often able to conceal their real motives from the com- munity. They claim to have and are often supposed to have a genuine interest in the growth and prosperity of the school, and yet they resort to any extreme in order to get even with the superintendent, teacher, or board member. It sometimes looks as if a man fights harder to punish someone he hates, than to protect one in whom he has confidence; that he devotes more time, energy, and ingenuity in an effort to retard the progress of the school, because of some trifling grievance, than an equally strong man deeply interested in the schools puts forth in defending worthy teachers and in protecting a good school. A man actuated by the motive of revenge has little difiSculty in ferreting out real mistakes of those managing the schools, and of discovering organic weakness in the school itself. Then presenting these with earnestness and apparent sincerity he easily con- vinces his neighbors that there is something radically wrong. His motive may not be discovered in time to prevent more or less damaging results. However contemptible, this man is likely now and then to uncover some real defect which the superintendent would not know without his assistance. Of course the superintendent wisely profits by such knowledge. We do not disregard truth simply because it is picked up by soiled hands. But the greatest good comes not from the worst but from the best people. To the school it comes from those most deeply interested in young people, and in their education for efficiency. I02 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Tho we naturally dread the criticism that comes from faultfinders and from men of questionable motives, we welcome the opinion of any thought- ful man. There is no war on honest criticism. It is the breeze that keeps the educational atmosphere clear. True criticism is a corrective agency and the teacher's best friend. It is the impelling force that leads one to search for that which is best. This leads to a discussion of the third class, those who believe in the school, and who are loyal to its interests. Again, a meager investigation has been made to gather a few concrete facts, and some data from the people themselves, before arriving at a conclusion. The effort has been made to get the actual views of the people, from different standpoints. First, the following questions were sent out to over three hundred thoroly rehable business men in the various parts of a western state, the aim being to get their honest opinion as to whether the schools as at present organized do their part in preparing young people for the places they must occupy immediately after leaving school: Question: In the case of a young person entering your employ, would you consider his school record of any value? Of the two hundred and ten replies, the tabulation shows two hundred and seven yes, three no. The letters, however, of those answering yes usually indicate also that the school might give a still better preparation for service. Question: Would you give high-school graduates the preference over those who have not taken such a course? Some of the typical answers to this question are: Everything else being equal, I most certainly would. It depends on the kind of work done in the high school. Some high schools lead pupils to despise honest toil. I would prefer the high-school graduate but would be glad if he were more practical. I seldom make inquiry as to scholarship, but it would be better, I think, if I should. I prefer the young man with an education as soon as he can be brought down to earth. I think the preparation the schools give excellent, but I prefer to teach them the principles of my business after they come to me. Again, many suggest that the high school might give a better prepara- tion. One hundred and ninety-six prefer the high-school graduate, whereas fourteen are either uncertain or prefer those who are not graduates. Question: Is a college education desirable for a business man? Answers: Always desirable. Desirable but not essential. That depends on the man and the college. Not essential to the business but to the outside Ufe. It is important in making life mean more, I fear a college education hinders from the standpoint of making money, as college notions and college habits do not prepare for a business life. If valuable, it must be obtained in early life. Worth as much to a business man as to a professional man. Graduation from technical colleges means more than graduation from general groups. Sessions] CRITICISMS OF SCHOOLS BY THE LAITY 103 The tabulation: Yes, one hundred and fifty; No, twenty; DonH know, thirty- two; No answer, eight. Many of those who answer "Yes" show by their answers that they are not entirely satisfied with the kind of train- ing given in the colleges, tho better satisfied, evidently, than with the high schools. In order to test further the attitude of these same men toward the schools, the following questions were included in the list sent out: Question: Are the moral standards of the high school satisfactory? Answers: Higher than could be expected when the home life of students is taken into account. The moral standards do not vary greatly from the ideals of the superintendent and faculty. It is to be regretted that dancing and card playing are encouraged so much by the school. One indiscreet, careless high-school teacher may perceptibly lower the standard of conduct of the entire body of students. It all depends on the teachers. The moral standards are good enough. Parents of low ideals are the ones who criticize the schools. The tabulation shows: Yes, ninety-five; No, thirty; Don't know, fifty- six; No answer to this question, twenty-nine. Again the answers are more favorable than the tabulation indicates, as many of those answering "No" show by the tone of their replies that they are not necessarily dissatisfied with the school but that they believe further improvement should be made along this line. Question: In the main are the public schools making the progress that should be made? Answers: Making better progress than could reasonably be expected. Going so fast that it makes our heads swim. If measured by the increased taxes for school purposes, the progress is ample. They are broadening and spreading; not so sure of real progress. The progress is not in the right direction. The answers to this question, tho not in form for tabulation, show in the main that these men are proud of the progress that has been made. The answers to these questions, and to several others not included in this paper, show that business men are reasonable in their criticism. They have the fullest confidence in the superintendent and are quite willing to leave the problems of the school to him. They will evidently be satisfied with his judgment. This does not mean that school conditions cannot be improved. It does not mean that teachers and superintendents should let well enough alone. It simply means that school experts have the good will and the confidence of business men in their efforts to improve upon present school conditions. The great majority of business men are pleased with the work of the common school, the high school, and the college, but, Uke the educators in I04 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General that respect, they see certain weaknesses that demand thoughtful attention on the part of those in charge of the schools. They have serious doubts as to the wisdom of some educational policies, and very often they are right in their views. The following question was sent to each of one hundred and ten other representatives of the laity in order to get at a few specific weaknesses of the school from the standpoint of the people: In your judgment, what is the greatest weakness in our public high school as at present organized and conducted? Eighty-two answers were received. Some few supposed there were weaknesses but preferred to leave it to educators to find them. Only one was greatly dissatisfied with the schools. The answers show faith in teachers and great confidence in the schools. Often the writer apologizes for assuming to criticize at all. Some of the typical answers are: The high school does not fit boys and girls to earn a living. The work is theoretical, visionary, and impractical. It prepares too much for college and not enough for making a living. Not sufl&cient emphasis is placed on the common branches. The greatest weakness is the lack of accuracy and thoroness. Not teaching to do things. Not teaching the proper care of public property and respect for older people. The school neglects the development of the moral and physical nature. It interests young people too much in late evenings. The pupil is not taught how to study. Lack of attention to agriculture, domestic science, and other forms of industrial work. Pupils' energies scattered over too many subjects in school and among too many school interests on the side. Lowering moral standards by football, basket-ball, etc. Waste of time and effort. Too Httle attention given to the vocational. An inexcusable weakness is the gap between the grades and the high school. Why not let the high school follow the grades naturally instead of hooking onto the college and leaving its feet dangling in the air as at present? It may be interesting to note that out of fifty-four of the answers most conscientiously and carefully prepared: Twenty-six mention in some way or other that the high school is not doing enough in fitting boys and girls for earning a living; Eight seem to hold the college in a measure responsible for the lack of balance in high-school courses; Nineteen complain that pupils are not taught how to study; Fourteen mention the need of greater attention to agriculture or other manual and industrial subjects; Four refer to the bad effects of athletics; Seven think students are forced to study too many things; Four object to the so-called practical subjects in the high school, such as agriculture, bookkeeping, and shopwork. Sessions] CRITICISMS OF SCHOOLS BY THE LAITY 105 The following is selected as one of the best answers given to the question and also as one which seems to be typical of the feeling that exists among the most thoughtful members of the laity everywhere at the present time: The school does not attach enough importance to what the pupil is to do immediately on leaving his studies. My boy has received his college degrees, but unless he secures a position as a high-school teacher or as a college professor, a kind of work for which he has no desire, I do not know what in the world will bCcome of him. He is a scholar but helpless as a child in going up against things as they actually are, and worst of all, he seems to have lost the pride in doing things with his hands which he had when he entered the high school. We must either keep our children out of the high school a portion of the time and teach them to do things, how to earn money as well as how to spend it, how to live among people today as well as how folks have lived and acted in the past, or else the schools should in some way meet this need, and why may not the schools do this double service for our children? The laity is proud of our public-school system and greatly pleased with the trend of its development. Because of the high esteem in which teachers are held, and because of unlimited confidence in the judgment of educators in all matters pertaining to the school, the criticisms are expressed more in the form of desires than as actual adverse criticisms on the schools. The views of the laity are for this reason deserving of additional respect and consideration. It will be observed that the criticisms of these thought- ful, dependable people, even tho mildly expressed, touch upon basic prin- ciples and point out organic weaknesses well worth the educator's most careful thought. There are two groups of educators, neither group very large, but each one trying desperately to bend the trend of public-school progress in its direction. One group, in pursuing its educational ideals, has forgotten that men are beings of flesh and blood to be housed, clothed, and fed. The other group sees little in life beyond earning a living and making money, and desires to cast overboard the languages and every other sub- ject that does not contribute clearly and directly to strictly utilitarian ends. The laity views either of these extremes with equal alarm. Aristotle says that virtue is a mean between two extremes. For exam- ple, he says wise economy is a virtue, but too little or too much economy produces the spendthrift or the miser, the worst of vices. On the same general principle, a very wise educational end or purpose, when pushed to the extreme of neglecting its important bearings and its inherent connec- tions with other things, not only loses its real value but leads to unsound, unbalanced, and dangerous results. The laity appreciates just as we all appreciate that there is little danger of either of the two extremes mentioned gaining permanent possession of the schools. It is not difficult to see that the great majority of thinking educators are centering on the safe and sane educational mean of educating for both culture and service, the most splendid progress having already been made by schools in many places in working out this double idea. io6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The laity is not unconscious, as these investigations show, of the use that many universities and colleges still persist in making of the high school. Young men and young women have a strong desire to continue their education, and their parents have a growing desire to give their children a college education. Both student and parent are anxious for an arrangement by which the student may be admitted to the college without having to go thru the ordeal of the entrance examinations. Super- intendents and high-school teachers, and others interested in young people are also anxious that a connection be established that will enable graduates to enter college on their high-school diplomas. This desire is so strong that the college is permitted to form its entrance requirements into a course of study for the high school. However rational as entrance requirements, it' does not necessarily follow that they shape themselves into an ideal high-school course of study. Now, the laity feels that the bargain has turned out to be a bad one for the high school. In order to accommodate one out of five, or one out of ten, as the case may be, the interests of four out of five or nine out of ten have often been sacrificed. In fairness to the college it must be made plain that leading professors in many colleges have already espoused the high-school cause. The state university of my own state does not permit any change in entrance require- ments or in rules of accreditment without first gaining the consent and advice of the superintendents and principals of the state. Dr. Charles E. Bessey insists on the high schools giving students that training in botany which means most to them at their particular age, whether they remain in school or drop out. Then he makes that the foundation for his courses in botany in the university. He does not see why that cannot be done in every other high-school and college subject. A few other colleges are showing tendencies in this same direction. Those in charge of high schools as well as the laity welcome this insurgency on the part of colleges and college professors. The colleges thruout the country, however, too often use the club of accreditment in getting control of the high school in all such matters as laboratory and library equipment, methods of teaching high-school sub- jects, courses of study, and quahfications of high-school teachers. It is strange how difficult it is for some of our excellent colleges to tear away from the academic serfdom of earlier days. No one person has done more in emancipating the high school from col- lege control than that city superintendent who recently refused to comply with the red tape and petty regulations prescribed for accreditment by the Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges of the North Central States. Thousands of people had been waiting for someone to speak, so when Superintendent Ella Flagg Young of the Chicago schools spoke, an Sessions] DEMONSTRATIVE METHODS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 107 expression of approval and appreciation swept over the entire United States. Her action forced important changes in the rules. It is just as absurd and unreasonable for the college to assume to dic- tate high-school courses as for the high-school to assume to dictate courses of study for the grades. The best things do not drop down from heaven. They grow up out of the earth. The helping hand may be extended from above, but growth must be upward and not downward. So, build the high school on the foundation of the grades. Let its mission be not only educating for culture but also training for service. Let it give a rational education for the masses. Then let the college build its courses on this high-school foundation. Let each year from the kindergarten on up thru college be built upon and grow out of the year next below, making every year contribute not only its full share of knowledge and of power, but also some preparation for service. The members of the laity look upon education as something that ought to better one's condition. They consider that it is something that ought to make their labor more effective and more profitable. They firmly believe that it is something that will at the same time enable them to live fuller, richer, and happier lives, and they look upon an educational system as faulty which cannot accomplish this. The school is the public's practical way of expressing its interest in the education and efficiency of its offspring. This gives to the school the highest purpose of all agencies and institutions estabHshed by society, a purpose almost equal to that of the home itself. It must be clearly un- derstood that the pubhc school does not belong to the college. It does not belong to the teacher. It does not belong to the church. It does not belong to the political parties. It belongs to the people and it must he operated for the people in promoting the interests of their children. VALUE OF DEMONSTRATIVE METHODS IN THE AGRICUL- TURAL EDUCATION OF THE RURAL POPULATION H. L. RUSSELL, DEAN OF COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. The growing interest in the matter of agricultural education has doubt- less led your program committee to assign a place on this general program for the consideration of the subject here announced. The question of agricultural education is generally considered as merely a phase of the broader problem of industrial education as apphed to the schools, whether it is a specialized school, or in the general public-school system as we know it today, but it is our belief that the benefits of this type of education should not be confined to the education of the youth alone.. It is well within the province of the college and secondary school interested in the development of agriculture to carry the teachings of modern agri- io8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General cultural science to the rank and file of those who support our entire economic structure. The schools, both secondary and higher, are unquestionably molding at a rapid rate the youth of our land, and the beneficial results of such training are becoming increasingly evident. But what of the miUions who are struggling with the problems of impoverished fertility, of wasting diseases, of lack of knowledge regarding the essentials as to the proper care and handhng of crops, conditions which are easily possible of improve- ment, but which are as yet too frequently neglected for lack of proper knowledge ? Are these to be left alone in their struggle, while attention is directed solely to the youth of the land ? If these matters which should be taught our youth could be presented in such a way as to influence our present practice, the public school would develop a stronger hold on the community, as it would then to a greater degree enter more vitally into the life of that community. The economic need of the hour is increased production, and we as a people are rapidly passing from the status of a creditor to that of a debtor nation. Rapidly increasing prices of our products, and the rapid increase of home demand have robbed us largely of our European markets, and unless our production is materially increased within the next decade, or even less, that time will see us importing our bread stuffs. As a nation we are practicing extensive rather than intensive, or even intelHgent, farm- ing, and as a result, our production is pitiably low. President Brown of the New York Central Railroad has presented statistics which well show our comparative condition, for instance, with Germany. If we were to produce on our tillable areas crops of wheat, oats, corn, and barley today, equal to those produced on the soils of Ger- many, which are not nearly so rich on the average, it would amount to an increase in the value of our products that would approximate three and one- half billions of dollars — or more than one-third of our present total agricul- tural output. The low yields which this country shows exist in spite of the fact that new lands of virgin fertility have been constantly opened up for settlement. But the reckless single-crop system has reduced the original fer- tility of the Dakota wheat-fields from twenty-five to thirty bushels per acre, to eleven to fourteen bushels per acre. Last year America surrendered to Argentina our position as the leading meat-exporting nation of the world. With a soil that was once of surpassing richness, our farms now yield four- teen bushels of wheat per acre to thirty-two in Old England where the land has been cultivated for more than a thousand years. England, Ger- many, and the Netherlands produce from two to three times as many oats per acre as America, while the staple food supply, the potato, yields in these countries two hundred and fifty bushels per acre to our eighty-five or ninety. With the general appHcation of well-recognized principles of im- proved agricultural practice, our products could easily be doubled. See what this would mean. On the basis of present conditions, it would be Sessions] DEMONSTRATIvk METHODS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION icc; practically equivalent to the discovery of a continent of arable land, equal to or larger than that now under cultivation. Whether as a nation we heed the lesson to be learned before hunger pinches us, is a question. The remedy we know, if we will but apply it, and the application of it can only be made intelligently thru education. The urgent necessity of the case already requires that the father of the child should again go to school, but if he goes,'it must be to a different kind of school. It must be to a school of doing, rather than to a school of recita- tion, for hands cramped with toil cannot well adapt themselves to books and figures. The most feasible method of expression is the seeing with one's own eyes just how the thing should be done. This has led to the develop- ment, by our agricultural colleges, of demonstration work, which carries directly to the man on the soil the results which have been gained in the laboratory and experimental field. The past few decades have witnessed an enormous advance in agricul- tural science. The federal experiment stations and the United States Department of Agriculture have worked out the science and applied the theoretical principles to practice, which, if followed by the rank and file, would immediately result in at least doubling, if not trebling, our present output, and yet this enormous mass of accumulated information at present largely lies fallow, because it has not been brought directly to the man on the farm with sufificient force to grip him with the conviction that forces immediate action. This opportunity is the field for agricultural extension, and as Commissioner Draper of New York has well said: The schools, from highest to lowest, should act in accord not only in training students and in scientific research, but in carrying knowledge to the very doors of the farmers. Evangelistic work in agriculture should go everywhere. Seed specials should be run over the railroads. The blood of the best farm animals should be distributed thruout the state. Object-lessons of special interest to both men and women should be carried in all direc- tions. The applications should be especially adapted to every section, and the fullest atten- tion should be given to the less favored rather than to the more favored counties of the state. This is exactly what a number of the agricultural colleges are now doing, and also some of the secondary agricultural schools. With us in Wisconsin this attempt to reach the actual farmers takes two modes of expression: 1. Actual demonstration work held during the summer on selected farms. 2. Extension courses held at university; also at county agricultural schools and elsewhere, giving by demonstration exercises and stereopticon lectures the results of the summer work. A few salient examples of this work were then presented, using lantern slides to show the different phases of the work. Corn. — By breeding and selection types of corn were perfected which were peculiarly applicable to Wisconsin conditions. Thru the medium of the Experiment Association, consisting of persons who have attended the various courses of the Agricultural College, no NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General fifteen hundred com centers and twelve hundred barley centers have been established for the propagation of pure-bred grains that have been developed at the college, sufficient quantity having been distributed for development of increase plots. During this last year over $300,000 worth of pure-bred seeds was disposed of by members of this associa- tion from this selected stock. County demonstration farms. — On the farms associated with the state charitable and penal institutions, also the county-asylum farms, demonstration plots have been developed, in which tests of seed taken from surrounding farms are made under comparative condi- tions. Tests of new, improved, and varying kinds of crops are made. During the course of the summer a farmers' picnic is held at which speakers are furnished to present the results of the work and actual demonstration of improved methods thereby made. Young people's corn contests. — Thru the aid of the county superintendents and sec- retaries of the county fairs, samples of improved corn and barley are distributed to school children, for them to grow and enter samples for comparative judging contest at the county fair in the fall. This year twenty thousand young people are engaged in this work, for which several thousand dollars in cash prizes and several educational scholarships in each county are given, which provide for the payment of the expenses of the winners to Madi- son in the winter to attend a special course given for young people. In this way the inter- est of the school youth, as well as their parents, is enlisted in this improvement work. Improvement of animals. — Cow-testing associations, organized for the determination of the production of dairy animals and the consequent ehmination of unprofitable cows, are fostered. Over thirty community breeding-centers have been established for the breed- ing of single types of animals, so as to make a community center for the development of these special dairy breeds. Soils. — Several hundred co-operative fertilizer tests are in progress on soils where phosphate and ground limestone are furnished the farmer to compare the results of this soil-improvement process with the crop returns under ordinary conditions. The drainage service affords the owner of wet, swampy lands an opportunity to begin drainage improve- ment for which there is a large demand thruout the different portions of the state. Not only is it necessary to drain the swamp and muck lands, but even a large proportion of the clays of the state are too wet for a profitable cultivation without drainage. Restriction of diseases of plants and animals. — This is forcibly shown thru the potato- spraying demonstrations which are held in the different potato districts of the state, the college furnishing the machinery and chemicals and showing how the spraying solutions are compounded, the farmer giving the labor necessary for the application of the spraying mixtures and digging the crop. This same type of work is carried on in connection with the spraying of orchards for the control of the apple scab and codling moth. Interest in the restriction of such animal diseases as bovine tuberculosis has been greatly increased by holding postmortem demonstrations on animals that have reacted to the tuberculin test. In such instances animals in an apparently healthy condition have been found to reveal an advanced stage of the disease, which could be readily recognized only upon postmortem examination, and the institution of this demonstration method has rapidly increased the amount of voluntary tuberculin-testing among the farmers of the state. Weed eradication and control. — The distribution of weeds is frequently looked upon as a comparatively minor matter, and yet many farmers are paying a very heavy tax in the matter of the control and eradication of noxious weeds. Demonstrations made as to the influence of the iron-sulphate treatment on the eradication of mustard, dandelion, and such weeds have been very successful. Extension courses. — During the winter extension courses are held. Thru the medium of lectures and demonstrations and practical tests farmers who attend these courses are Sessions] PUBLIC HEALTH AND PUBLIC EDUCATION iii given the results of the summer's work, and thus the influence of these demonstration meetings is further extended. This work was begun five years ago by holding a ten-days' farmers' course at the Agricultural College, and it has increased rapidly in popularity until last year there were over fifteen hundred men and women present. This work has been still further extended by taking similar courses out to the different agricultural schools, and last year seven such courses were held, the attendance upon each of these ranging from three or four hundred up to nearly two thousand. The work of these extension courses has been still further intensified by holding special schools of one week's duration in which definite and regular laboratory exercises are given on not more than two or three special phases of agriculture. An experimental school of this sort was held last year at which the subjects of milk-testing, tuberculin- testing, and seed-testing were taken up and mature farmers gave to the consideration of these topics the same degreee of care and attention as would be required of regular college students. In these practical ways, aided by the farmers' institutes, which are held in all portions of the state and which are also under the immediate direction of the Agricultural College, the mature rural population of the state is brought in contact with the latest and best in agricultural practice. PUBLIC HEALTH AND PUBLIC EDUCATION WILLIAM ORR, DEPUTY STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION BOSTON, MASS. Probably no movement in education has made such rapid progress in forming public opinion, in defining its aims, and in achieving positive results as that which seeks to benefit the human race thru a ministry to its physical needs. When one considers the ideals now so largely current as to bodily growth and development, the searching criticisms of all conditions which operate against good health, and the insistent demand that schools, social agencies, and governmental power should be exerted in behalf of sanitation, pure food, and observance of the laws of hygiene, the showing thus made for the advocates of physical education is certainly creditable. It is now an accepted axiom that the failure of the individual to secure that physical development which makes for the highest efficiency in life, and the failure on the part of the race to show the same jealous care for its vigor and virility are to be accounted as crimes, either on the part of the person concerned, or of organized society, or of both. We have now attained to what may be called a public conscience in the matter of health. An achievement in the cause of education for health has been the great extension of our knowledge, and the application of the discoveries of science in the advancement of physical vigor. More and more the aim of research is to discover the underlying causes for weakness and debility, and then to remove those causes. Prevention rather than cure is the maxim of the day. One might note illustrations : the warfare against tuberculosis, laws against impure food, quarantine in case of contagious disease, the relentless search for noxious germs, coupled with a like earnest quest for the proper means 112 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION [General wherewith to destroy them before entrance into the body, and, if they have attacked the individual, to render them comparatively harmless. And other instances of this desire to make much of disease that has ravaged mankind impossible may be found in the insistence upon proper conditions in the schoolroom, methods and courses of study adjusted to the needs and capa- city of the child, and, more than all else, the recognition of a rightful place in any rational system of instruction for definite, direct teaching on the proper care of the body and proper respect for its functions. Nor is this new movement to be attributed in the main to personal, selfish considerations. It grows in large measure out of the spirit of human solidarity; it is an expression of the altruism which is more and more becoming a dominant tone in the life of the day. There is a quicker and keener sympathy between man and man. Disease and suffering on the part of one's neighbor call forth a desire to rid the world of such shadows and such distress. There is, to be sure, a recognition growing out of this same sense of human solidarity that, if evil be tolerated in any portion of the world, then its effects are sure to be felt by all in some way, in some form, or at some time. The legislation which has grown out of this public opinion constitutes a remarkable body of statute-enactment — that which relates to the schools and their conduct is no small achievement in itself, and there is abundant evidence that the end is not yet. Soon we shall practically realize that which has been said by a firm believer in the secur- ing of health thru proper instruction, that "the city or state that does not adequately care for the health of its children may well be considered as subject to a charge of criminal negligence." Another motive for this widespread interest in better health is based upon a faith in humanity, a large hope, a buoyant optimism. No longer is it accepted as inevitable that mankind should suffer the scourge of pesti- lence and disease. Scientific knowledge has shown so many epidemics to be preventable that men are confidently looking forward to the time when typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and the white plague shall be no more. There is also a growing confidence that many bodily evils, heretofore accepted as inevitable results of heredity, may be counteracted by proper training, nutrition, and a wise attention to the vital forces granted the individual. The old doctrine of determinism is passing away before a con- ception of the plasticity of humanity, and the possibility of bringing to bear remedial agencies and of calling upon forces heretofore unsuspected in the physical nature of the child and the youth. But the progress of education for public health is not free from hin- drances and obstacles. The movement must overcome the inertia which clings to customs, usages, and existing modes of thought. The old order, to be sure, changes, but it changes slowly. Specific illustrations of this conser- vatism are easily found by one who studies the condition of many school buildings, and those buildings are by no means confined to country districts. Sessions! PUBLIC HEALTH AND PUBLIC EDUCATION 113 The routine of the school day is in too many places not such as to give a proper opportunity for the best development of the child's physical nature. We are still far from establishing a proper co-ordination between the material presented in instruction, the mode of teaching, the demands upon the child's mental power, with the order that nature prescribes as necessary to the highest development, not only of the mind, but of the other powers of the individual. Again, laws are too often but laxly enforced. The individual in too many cases does not realize his duty to society in safeguarding its other members against the possibility of contagion, against neglect in his own household of the primal principles of health. Organized society tolerates in cities many conditions which do not make for physical growth, develop- ment, and vigor. Consequently, the betterment is sporadic instead of general. There is a comparatively slow advance in the practice of the teachings of science in regard to bodily health. Knowledge spreads but slowly, and only by iteration and reiteration are people impressed with the importance of the new gospel of health for all. Especially in a democ- racy, where there is no power to issue by edict the command, is progress necessarily dependent upon the slow education of public opinion, and upon the consequent readiness of all individuals to follow the law. In education, with the best intents, much still remains to be done. We know as yet but in part. The importance of play is a comparatively new note in the discussion of teachers. In the practice of the schoolroom only within a few years has attention been called definitely to the opportunity offered at the intermission of the school on the athletic field, in the realm of games and sports, and on the gymnasium floor. The larger values of athletic training, of gymnasium work in the advancement of mental vigor, in the development of moral qualities and of social virtues, are now just gaining consideration. A great field for investigation in regard to the order and development of the mental powers as compared with the physiological growth is just being approached. Much still remains to be done in deter- mining thru experiment the exercises adapted for different ages, and the differentiation between the sports and the gymnasium work set for boys and for girls. The field of adolescent physiology and psychology is one of vast extent in which only a few landmarks have as yet been erected. New conditions brought about by the increase of the factory system, the demand for workers not yet developed in body, the artificial conditions in the city — all these are demanding thoro and exhaustive study. How then is progress with some degree of rapidity and certainty to be assured ? First: We must seek for a better and more adequate organization of experience. Trial and experiment are widespread but as yet no effective means has been established of securing co-operation between workers. How slowly, with all our associations, conventions, institutes, periodicals, public addresses, does the knowledge of the good thing that has been 114 NA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION [General done, that is possible elsewhere, spread! One may find in cities adjoining each other, even in the same community, greatest extremes in the matter of regard for the good things of education, in school conditions, and in the surroundings which make for health of body. Again, more effective methods of educating pubHc opinion must be se- cured. It is unfortunately true that the school man and the investigator have not yet learned the art of publicity. Any merchant who followed the stereotyped, formal methods used by educators in their gatherings would fail utterly in calling the attention of the pubhc to the goods which he wishes to sell. We may learn much from the terse, pithy, concise, and tell- ing way in which the newspaper reporter puts his items in the columns of the press. It is of the utmost importance that in such a practical way the public should be informed of the methods and practices used in the schools in securing a knowledge of the laws of health. Children constitute an invaluable medium for spreading knowledge that has been put before them so as to make a real and genuine appeal. One might warrant the statement that instruction on the use of improper ingredients in prepared foods, if put so that the children could bring it to their homes, would in two years make the business of preparing and placing such goods upon the markets a financial failure. When once this knowledge of proper conditions for the health of the individual and the race has become a part of the warp and woof of human conviction, legislation will be ample in scope, comprehensive in the ground covered, and will be effectively enforced, because backed by dominant pub- lic opinion. There is also need for a fuller and wider knowledge. For this, we must look mainly to institutions devoted to research. There is ample reason for rejoicing in the growth, number, and effectiveness of such agencies. The time has also come when the general knowledge of the subject is such that those investigations may be directed along definite lines, toward results of positive value to mankind. Out of all this, then, comes an imperative demand for the development of the local, state, national, and international agencies which make for the conservation of human life. A study of the expenditures of local and gen- eral government shows that far more is spent in meeting the evils of crime, poverty, and disease than is spent in aiding the agencies which work for the eUmination of these foes of human society. It is not without reason that one hopes that in the near future the civilized state will spend five or six times the amount for conservation, for improvement, that it expends for remedies, and thus reverse the present program. It is emphatically necessary that in the United States the hands of the Bureau of Education should be strengthened in its endeavors to establish a clearing-house whereby information bearing upon the best methods in pro- moting health shall become the common property of school men everywhere. One discovers in this movement for physical well-being a common current Sessions] TRAINING FOR TEACHING 115 wherein the representatives of all the manifold phafees of education may meet. The laws of the human body are fixed and fundamental. The methods whereby children and youth are taught and trained to observe these laws must be essentially the same. As our scientific knowledge grows, then, we are going to have an increasing body of common practice followed by all schools, and thus establish a universal basis for public education in health. Again, sufficient data are now at hand to make possible a quantitative measurement of the results of such teaching and training, both on the eco- nomic and on the social side. If it is found that attention to the physical conditions of the child diminishes the percentage of retardation, if conta- gious diseases are checked, if certain diseases are banished from mankind, if the length of human life is increased, if economic eflSciency is multiplied, then these results will show a definite money value to society from better school methods. The social values are also easily determined. Men and women who are well are more congenial, co-operate more effectively, are happier, are more disposed to join in the common work of betterment of conditions in the state and the nation. An efficient democracy demands that the leaders of education should give heed to this primal consideration of health as the basis for all effective work. TRAINING FOR TEACHING EMMA L. JOHNSTON, PRINCIPAL, BROOKLYN TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS, NEW YORK CITY, N.Y. It is fortunate for each new generation that the ability and the desire to teach seem to be natural to most human beings. As a matter of course parents teach their children, the housewife teaches her maids, the farmer his men, the factory foreman the hands, the business man his clerks, the preacher his congregation. As teaching is so natural an occupation for human beings and the need for it so great it seems a pity that any teaching- power should be allowed to go to waste. It is safe to say that it is being wasted in most of the cases where teachers are failing in schools. These men and women are probably not without teaching-power; they are merely trying in vain to use their power in the wrong place. It is easy to declare that the person who does not make good in some teaching position lacks the ''gift," and to advise her to try some other kind of work. It is much harder to acquaint oneself with her tastes, her tem- perament, her sympathies, in order to be able to direct her to the part of the teaching-field where the particular kind of service that she can render is needed. We whose duty and privilege it is" to train teachers — and there are really none of us that have been long in the profession who are not di- rectly or indirectly doing this work — we must bear in mind the necessity of conserving teaching-power. Some other kinds of power or ability may ii6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General become useless on account of changes in the industrial or social world, but while generation succeeds generation, and while life grows more and more complex, it is inconceivable that the need for teaching-power will grow less. Besides letting it flow along the ways of least resistance which custom has established, we must send it thru channels of our digging that it may carry refreshment, health, vigor, Kfe itself, to the arid regions of the earth. Sometimes when we are laboring with a young woman, trying one plan after another in our effort to fit her for teaching, onlookers suppose that our only concern is to put her in the w^y of earning a living at a genteel calling for which apparently she was not intended by nature. But they are mistaken. Our chief concern is for the young people at our doors or may- hap in some remote corner of the world who are hungering for the food that perhaps this person better than any other can give, and we dare not declare her unfit for this mission until we have tested her to the uttermost. To help teachers-in-training to direct their powers we must extend their study beyond the general problems of education. Their work will be to assist in adjusting pupils to their environment, but the task of ad- justment will vary with the individuals to be adjusted. For instance, the child of kindergarten age lives and should live in a different world from that inhabited by the boy or girl in the elementary school; the pupils of the secondary school have entered upon another stage of living, the students in college upon still another. The teacher who undertakes to lead any one of these classes of young people into their spiritual inheritance must know the peculiar nature of the individuals whose guide he hopes to be. There may be some teachers whose services would be equally valuable in a kinder- garten and in a college, but they are certainly not common. I have in mind a teacher whose failure in an elementary school was of the most dismal kind. Experience made her even less successful than in the beginning, and she came to feel that her case was hopeless. At length a vacancy occurred in the teaching-staff of a secondary school for girls. It was remembered that this unsuccessful .elementary-school teacher had on many occasions mani- fested a practical interest in the life-problems of young women, and she was invited to fill the vacancy. Then the miracle happened. From the very first moment she was a success. The minds and hearts of her students were to her an open book; the world of young womanhood was as familiar as the world of childhood had been strange. Hundreds of her former students, now teachers themselves, testify that she did more than any other one person to inspire and guide them. When, after many years of service, she passed away, it was found that the character of the work she had been doing was well expressed by the sculptured figures of the Alice Freeman Palmer me- morial at Wellesley College — a woman of heroic build with outstretched arm and hand unwavering, showing to the slim young girl graduate who goes forth with lamp and book, the path she must follow, but with head bent that 1 Sessions] TRAINING FOR TEACHING 117 the smooth young brow may feel the teacher's last warm touch of love and tenderness. What a waste of power there would have been had this woman been told after her failure in the elementary school that she did not possess the teach- ing " gif t" ! And what gain there might have been if, while she was receiving her preliminary training to teach, she had been encouraged to specialize for immediate service in secondary school or college. Within a somewhat narrow field the opportunity for deliberate choice is wisely provided in some training schools that offer kindergarten courses in addition to courses fitting for service in the elementary school proper. Here all students have met equal entrance requirements and all pursue the same course for the first semester. But during this half-year they observe the two kinds of work being done in the model school, they are encouraged to seek the advice of their teachers with regard to their choice of course, they are themselves observed and studied by these teachers to the end that they may be assisted to make a wise selection. It seldom happens that students who choose one course so deliberately have cause to regret later that they did not select the other. To teachers engaged in schools in any grade from kindergarten to col- lege, opportunity for specialization is offered by the sex of the pupils. There are teachers who succeed equally well whether their pupils are boys or girls, but there are many who are clearly fitted to teach pupils of one sex rather than the other, and there are some who fail with both because they lack sufiicient knowledge of boy and girl nature, and because they are not aware that the possession of such knowledge is absolutely essential. When, for instance, a certain young teacher took charge of her first class she dis- covered that she had never made any special study of boys. She learned her lesson eventually, but at the expense of too much of her own vitality and of the children's time. This extract quoted exactly from her diary will show how the struggle began: May 13. My first day as a teacher. Children remarkably good. May 14. Children again good. My predecessor has them well trained. I doubt my ability to keep them there. (Blank pages) June 2. The blank pages represent the most painful fortnight I ever knew — a time of unremitting, furious struggle — of being crushed between the knowledge of the impossi- bility of ruling the boy^, and, on the other hand, the knowledge of the impossibility of giving up. September 3. I especially need practice in fierceness. I am going to be fierce right along now. I was fierce today, but not enough. The boys were good, but 7 know them. Friday, September 6. I've done fairly well this week, but next week I'm going to make those children afraid of my glance. I must be a perfect tigress. The other teachers say that I have all the notorious boys in the division. Next week it shall be my first firm, fixed purpose to inspire fear. If I can't do it, I am no good as a teacher. I wish I was more fluent in abuse. Because a teacher has sufficient personality and force of character to ii8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General keep boys quietly and good-naturedly industrious in a classroom is no proof that he understands boy-nature well enough to be the best guide for a boy at any particular age. "Little Hartopp," overhearing the uncompli- mentary remarks of Stalky and Company as they mimicked him and their other schoolmasters, showed his fitness for his task when he said, "It isn't brutality — it is boy, only boy." If the schoolmaster and the schoolmistress are only half-way tolerable, the majority of boys will submit themselves to their authority in the classroom and will take on the intellectual veneer that the school gives, but all the while they will Hve their real lives among them- selves, acquire knowledge which has no relation to the prescribed course of study, and form habits too strong to be broken by any force that may come later into their lives. Boys are likely to ignore you if you do not manifest your fitness to be received into their inner circle, but girls will, in general, take it for granted that their elders are in sympathy with them, and to most women teachers they will, upon the slightest encouragement, show the treasures of their world. The pity of it is that so often a teacher does not know how to act in this wonder-world to which she has been introduced thus trustingly by its inhabitants. If boys have suffered because of lack of sympathy resulting from lack of knowledge on the part of their teachers, what shall be said of girls ? There are teachers in schools whose call to teach girls is as clear as was Mary Lyon's, but there are others who, having shown a decided lack of abiUty-to keep order in a boys' classroom, chiefly for that reason have been termed girls' teachers, and have been permitted to take charge of classes of girls. Because on account of their gentle manners, their limited physical strength, their lack of the habit of combination, girls seldom outlaw, seldom resist authority in school, these so-called girls' teachers stay with them year after year, giving them the husks of schoolroom knowledge but faihng to give them the food their natures crave. Because girls do not live together in their own world as much as boys do, it should not be left to this world of theirs to develop powers that should make for the uplift of the home and the state. A woman noted for her success as a boys' teacher was asked how the girls in her class responded to certain stimuli, and she answered, "I cannot tell, I never notice them." I sometimes wonder whether it would not pay us well to notice our American girls a little more, since the girl is mother to the woman. It is not enough to say that intellect has no sex, that since the industrial, the commercial, and the professional world are opening their doors to women, girls should be trained in company with boys and as boys are trained. No matter what opportunity may be offered to women to shape the life of society in general, including the economic and political life, the fact will remain that men and women have different ways of thinking and feeHng and that they were just as different when they were boys and girls. I am not maintaining that boys and girls should be in different I Sessions] TRAINING FOR TEACHING 119 schools or classes. I am asking only for a differentiation between the training of boys and girls whether they are educated together or separately, this differentiation to be brought about thru their teachers' understand- ing of the difference between their natures. Rural and urban schools offer the teacher another opportunity for speciaHzation. Too often country children and youth are put in charge of teachers whose chief aim is to fit them for the industrial or commercial life of the city to the neglect of the rich possibilities offered by their present environment. The teacher who selects the rural school for his field must study not alone the characteristic ideas and habits of his country pupils, he must study the community which he is called to serve, must recognize the importance of the part it plays or should play in the life of the nation. A teacher whose field is any portion of a great city system of public schools, especially when the city is a port like New York, receiving its thousands of immigrants every year, needs the preparatory training of the foreign missionary. He should know something of the language, the his- tory, the occupations, the social condition of the people whose children he is to teach. It is not enough.to resolve that these children of aliens — alien in language, in thought, in feeling, in habits, in aspirations — shall be made to conform to the American type. What is the American type ? Is it fixed ? Is it desirable that it should be ? May it not be that it is destined to become something finer than we have known, and that a study of these different classes of strangers so soon to become an integral part of the American people may lead to a determination to aid them in realizing their ideal instead of trying to supplant these ideals by others less suited to them and less valuable to the nation as a whole? As one community after another makes a place in its public schools for physically, mentally, and morally defective children, there arises a need for teachers specially trained to care for the blind, the deaf, the feeble-minded, and the incorrigible. There must be knowledge, of course, plenty of it, possessed by the teachers of so-called special classes, but there must be something else that transcends knowledge. Who can define this essential thing ? The spirit of self-sacrifice that always responds to the call of mis- fortune may send the good shepherd out into the cold and darkness to seek the lamb lost among the hills, but what is it that sharpens the shepherd's ear so that above the noise of the storm he clearly distinguishes the faint appeal of loneliness and helplessness ? A certain young woman was considered a hopeless case by those who were attempting to train her for teaching. Slow to learn, apathetic, ap- parently resentful of criticism no matter how tactfully it was offered, she seemed to lack every quality of mind and heart that a teacher should pos- sess. One day a volunteer was called for to give temporary assistance to a teacher of mentally defective children. This young woman was the first to offer her services. She had not been with the children half an hour be- I20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General fore their teacher said, "This is the best assistant I have ever had. She understands my children, and they turn to her for help as naturally as they come to me. It is rare to find a person so well qualified by nature for this kind of work." The young woman resumed her study of the science of education with interest and enthusiasm. At last she had a strong motive for overcoming the difficulties that stood in the way of her obtaining a license to teach. What a corps of learned professors could not do for her had been accomplished by a handful of feeble-minded children. Within the limits of this paper it would be impossible to point out all the kinds of service for which teachers need special training. The in- stances given may be sufficient, however, to show the necessity for such training and also to show that there is a field for the employment of a great variety of natural aptitudes. When aU the richness of opportunity is revealed to enthusiastic young students of education whose interests in their kind as yet know no limits, they are likely to feel like Bottom in the play, who wanted to act all the parts. The teacher may select his specialty early, and this choice may even pro- vide him with a motive for adopting teaching as his profession, but until he has studied education as it applies to the whole nature of an individual in the successive stages of development, and to the race in all periods of its history, he is not prepared to specialize at all either in theory or in prac- tice. Certain studies have come to be regarded as a necessary part of a course for the professional training of teachers — ^psychology, the history and principles of education, and methods of teaching. Less generally accepted, but, it seems to me, no less essential, are logic and ethics. In time it may become customary to offer the teacher-in-training a brief survey of the more important phases of philosophical and scientific thought in order to render clear to him the great historical phases of education in connection with the thought-movements to which they are due. Where or how shall the teacher receive the general and the special training which we maintain are essential ? In a university ? In a normal or training school? From self-directed reading and observation? From experience ? The ideal plan would seem to be that by which, before in- dependent practice is begun, complete preparation should be made in an institution offering courses to teachers-in-training for service of many kinds. By this plan a mutual understanding would be established among the work- ers in all parts of the educational field and many barriers would be broken down. While would-be teachers continue to be as different from one another as are the members of any other class of human beings, even the best plan for preparatory training will not altogether do away with the costly teach- ing of experience. In a certain training school for teachers three young women listened to convincing lectures on the evils attending corporal punishment in schools, and each resolved to avoid the use of the rod. _When I Sessions] TRAINING FOR TEACHING 121 they became teachers, tho they were in the beginning equally unskilful in class management, one of them quickly learned to control her class thru the application of certain principles of teaching which she kept before her mind. The second needed the discipline of experience, but fortunately received her lesson in time to prevent any appreciable waste. She tells her own story as follows: On the first day of my teaching one of my sixty-six boys, seeing his coat in the hands of a monitor at the back of the room, decided to make a dash for it. Instantly my hand was on his collar, and he made no dash, but he said that I had hurt his leg. Thoroly frightened, I sent for the principal to attend the injured boy, take away my license, and discharge me. She came, but she did none of these things. Instead she first made the boy draw down his stocking and show the leg which (thank the Lord) was unmarked and whole; then she sent him home with the firm belief that I not only had not hurt him, but had saved him from a serious accident. But when the door was closed behind him, she gave me a strong initiative of a habit which is mine to this day — that is, when teaching, if excitement or anger comes, to get my hands behind me, and the greater the excitement or anger, the tighter to hold them there. The third young woman, like the second, had to be taught by experience, but her lesson involved more waste. She says: The idea of ruling by fear speedily arose and dominated me. Corporal punishment was recommended to me by my fellow-teachers, and the time came when in desperation I tried it. I do not know that it injured the child. It made me ill. Fortunately I was shortly afterward transferred to another school where law-breaking was not winked at. Here, with the assistance and encouragement from my superiors in command, the train- ing-school ideal of ruling thru interest revived. I put forth extreme efforts to make my lessons interesting. My daily program was constantly novel. The strain was great, but I did rule thru interest. However, the time came when I did not need to perform prodigies of ingenuity to keep the children good, and of late I have perceived that the secret of a contented, orderly class is the conscious feehng of growing power in the children. The essential thing in preparing a person for teaching is to make him be- lieve that he needs broad professional and intensive specialized training for his work. This belief, whether it be slow or swift in coming, is for every possessor a lamp to the feet. This belief " touched with emotion " accounts for the method and the secret of all the great teachers the world has known. There may have been much for experience to teach, but nevertheless the essential thing was accomplished, the lighted lamp was firmly grasped by the student who could write at the end of her preparatory training course: When I came to the Training School heartbroken because I could not go to college, I thought of school teaching as petty drudgery unworthy of ambition. I thought that in joining the teachers' ranks I parted from all hope of honor or high achievement. I learned in the Training School that teaching is a great art, with a great history and a great mission; that to join the teachers' ranks is to join a mighty army of earth's noblest — past, present, and future; and that to fill worthily the least place in those ranks is itself high achievement and honor. Another young woman was for only two weeks a student in a training school for teachers, being compelled at the end of that time to accept a 122 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General position in an elementary school. But in those two weeks she had a vision of all that is meant by the word "teacher," and she set herself deliberately to deserve the title. .Reading, observation, experiment, conferences with associates, were some of the means employed. The waste, when there was any, was of the teacher's own vitahty and never of the children's powers. The struggle was hard, but the task ''in hours of insight willed" was at last accomplished, and then an appreciative board of education singled her out from scores of able men and women trained in professional schools and universities and appointed her to help supervise the work of the largest public-school system in this country. It is not necessary to say to you who have listened to this simple address that no attempt has been made to treat fully or systematically the subject assigned. I have been making a single plea — that, in training for teaching, the individuahty of the student be respected. We make it our study to give the pupils in the lower schools an opportunity to develop their native powers and to fit themselves for that particular kind of service to society which they can perform most efficiently and cheerfully. Let us treat the would-be teacher in the same way, remembering that the field of education is about as broad and diversified as society itself, and that it can furnish work and the highest kind of satisfaction to almost everyone thg,t will prepare for it with sufficient intelligence, courage, and conscience. THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN FOR HOME-MAKING MRS. W. N. HUTT, CHAIRMAN OF WOMAN'S BRANCH OF THE FARMERS' INSTITUTE WORK OF NORTH CAROLINA, RALEIGH, N.C. It is very fitting that North Carolina should have one of her represent- atives to speak on education of women for home-making, because down there we so highly regard things domestic, that, as you learned at the Stadium on Monday, we even went so far as to elect as our governor the man Mr. Kitchin. There are two words in the English language that it is absolutely impos- sible to dissociate, "woman" and "home." Consider one and you are inevitably led to think of the other. Home is the oldest and greatest human institution; it was a woman's hand that first formed it. During all the gradual evolution from the glimmering dawn of antiquity to the modern day, it is about her that it has grown and developed. The home is the unit of nation-building. Whatever exalteth woman exalteth the nation. The position of any nation in the scale of civilization can be accurately judged by the enlightenment of its women. Since the home, with woman as its center, is the bedrock of our whole social fabric, can there be any educa- tion more important than the education of women for home-making ? In order to get a comprehensive view of woman's accomphshments, and therefore a just estimate of her educational needs, let us go back to the Sessions] EDUCATION OF WOMEN FOR HOME-MAKING 123 beginning of things and review briefly the progress of woman's educational evolution. Long centuries ago, in the dim and shadowy past known as the Dark Ages, man fought the wild beasts and from his conquest of them provided food for the family. The woman did all else, skinning and preparing the flesh for cooking, roasting it over fire of her own make, tanning the skins and shaping them into garments, grinding the grain and making it into bread, and bearing and guarding the children. In this unequal partnership, man followed the chase while to woman's lot fell the ceaseless grind of unending drudgery that in her early years reduced her to a hopeless, hag- gard menial. This is also a true picture of woman in the home life of the aboriginal inhabitants of our own land. From classic lore we learn that the nations of antiquity, particularly the Greeks and Romans, occupied very high positions as regards literature and art. From this one might assume that their education was of a high stand- ard and that women received their due share of training and culture. From the literature of the Greeks and the present-day remains of their houses we learn that home and family life, as we now understand it, was almost unknown to them. Their dwellings were within walled cities and were of one story with stone floors. The absence of any provision for family life is very evident. The two principal divisions are the courts for men and women. It is said that the Greek woman was not expected to leave her home more than once a year and never appeared at dinner with her husband and family if a guest were present. The Roman women enjoyed greater freedom than their Greek sisters, but they had practically no education except what they acquired by obser- vation from their brothers and husbands. From sacred history we learn that the Hebrew women received religious instruction. They were not, however, permitted to learn at first hand from the great religious teachers as do the women of today, but must get their knowledge of it at home from the men of their households. They were encouraged in all domestic duties, tho untrained in them except as instruc- tion was handed down from mother to daughter. Thousands of them came into the world and passed away again and the world was no better for their having been here. The woman of today desires to make the world a good place. Coming down thru the mediaeval times there was a slow unconscious development of woman's personality like the slumbering growth of the butterfly within the confining walls of the dormant chrysalis. As the Renaissance, the golden age of literature, was preceded by the literary barrenness of the Dark Ages, so the modern development of women's education was preceded by a long brooding period of mental quiescence. This brings us down to a generation or two ago, to the time of our mothers and grandmothers. In their days there were no schools of domestic 124 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General science, but each well-regulated home was a school in itself where the daughters of the family were taught the useful arts of housekeeping. The occupations and duties of the home were then much more numerous than those of the modern household, for each home was a little world in itself where were performed many of the operations now relegated to the shop or factory. Our mothers and grandmothers had of necessity to be their own bakers and pastry-cooks, and every good bread-maker was known and revered in the community. They carded wool and flax and spun them into fabrics which they later shaped into garments for the various members of the household. Carpets they made, and blankets, and even the designs that ornamented them. In the learning of these useful duties the artistic side was not neglected, for mothers prided themselves on the beauty and elabo- rateness of their daughters' samplers, quilts, and wax flowers. In those good old days housekeeping and home-making were the sole employment of women and domestic accomplishments were at a premium. The manners of some of our modern women who pride themselves on saying, "I never cooked a meal in my life," or "I don't do up fruit in summer; it's just as cheap to buy, besides it is a lot of trouble," would have been held in high disdain by our grandmothers. But the good old colonial days have passed, nor would we recall them, for the busy striving world of today has brought to women opportunities broader and grander than our mothers ever dreamed of. The factory with its economy of material and energy has taken from the home the burden of production where the only motive power was woman's energy. Manu- facturing at such expense was the consuming of gold to smelt iron. Under the changed economic conditions of today the labor of spinning and weaving, of tailoring and dressmaking, of brewing and curing has almost entirely passed from the home to the shop and factory. Relieved of the drudgery of uneconomic production, woman has now time for the development of herself and the proper rearing of her family. She has been relieved of a trade and in place of it she has been given a profession. This modern age is remarkable for many wonderful discoveries, not the least of which is woman's discovery of herself. What is known as the age of science is also the age of woman; not, we hope, of the so-called new woman with her fads and fancies, her mannish ways, her aggressive man- ners, boldly asserting her so-called rights and demanding the franchise, but the real woman with the trained brain and heart and hand, the maker of the home and the helper and inspiration of mankind. How may we best fit ourselves for this vastly important position ? By education, training. Just how early the education of the girl for home-making may begin is hard to say. The line which divides the muscular actions that are the result of nervous stimuli and those motions which are the result of intelli- gence is indefinite indeed. True it is, nevertheless, that a certain amount 1 Sessions] EDUCATION OF WOMEN FOR HOME-MAKING 125 of knowledge and memory are awakened at a very early age. The babe in arms is influenced by color, light and shadow, and the tone of voice. If a lively tune is played on the piano, the babe laughs; a loud, noisy ragtime, and it grows fretful and nervous; a soft lullaby, and it is lulled to quietness and slumber. Did you say that babies are tbinkless things, With no other light than what instinct brings, With brains as downy as butterflies' wings And heads as empty as a bell that swings When muscular motion is moving the strings? Did you say that babies are thinkless things? Then when does the think begin to grow? And when does the mind begin to show? Since the child has memory and intelligence it is possible for a certain amount of education to begin. By this, I do not mean the would-be educa- tion which is evidenced by the repressive command with the usually ap- pended threat or punishment. It is, "No, baby, not touch," or "No, no, not drop spoon. Mamma slap hands. Mamma spank." Instead of being trained to development, the child is trained to repression. By the time a child is a year old it should have learned many things that will stand it in good stead, things which unlearned at that age will mean trouble later. By that time it should have acquired the art of self-entertainment, personal regularity of habit, and acquaintance with the law of obedience. Of course as yet that must be obedience to higher authority and not obedience to a sense of right and wrong. Such knowledge comes later. Between the first and second years th^ memory of the child become's astonishingly developed. There is related of Helen Keller a very interesting example of the early development of memory. She became deaf and dumb in her nineteenth month. As is known, she hears music by placing her hands lightly on the piano and receiving the vibration. Her mother ob- tained two songs that Helen had heard sung when she was an infant in Alabama but that she had not heard since. The minute they were played she clapped her hands and said, "Father carrying baby up and down, swinging her on his knee. Black Crow, Black Crow!" Black Crow was a third song her father had sung. It is wonderful what early impressions the plastic mind of a very young child can receive. In its tenderest years it may have absorbed the beautiful impression of a well-ordered home, pre- sided over by a loving and intelligent mother, or an impression of confusion, bare walls, and irritable tones. The nurse, kind and cheerful in the presence of superiors but cross and neglectful when away from them, may cause the child to use similar methods with those who later come under its power. While sitting one day on my verandah I noticed children playing house during recess-period at a school across the street. A number of them sat on a low fence while the would-be mother stood in front of them. Her idea of parental bliss seemed to be to thrash and scold her family to her 126 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General heart's content. After a while it became the turn of another little girl to be the mother. For a moment she looked smilingly at her charges, then quietly said," Mary, it's time for you to practice on the piano. Flora, you take little Sara for a walk," all the time wrapping her up to the point of suffocation. Then she took on her lap the infant, really a girl as big as herself, and began to sing her to sleep. If the mothers of those two children had been there to look with seeing eyes they would have learned a lesson well worth their while. The little girl child loves the things of the household; whether it be attributed to instinct — hereditary memory — or what not, the child certainly loves these things. Watch the little girl as she plays with her first doll and sings the lullaby to it, in fancy putting it to sleep. Watch her as she makes her first playhouse, the deft use of the broom, the washing of doll clothes in miniature tubs over tiny washboards, the familiarity with the use of the little flat-iron and cook-stove. This is mother instinct, the house-making in miniature, and the mother can crush these impulses or she can guide and direct them, cherish and encourage them. As Mrs. Ellen Richards said the other day, " Put your play into useful work." The little girl says, " Mamma, let me help wash the cups and saucers"; the mother says, "No, you're too little, you run along and play," and she does run along and play and finds her own employment and finds her own happiness. Her mind is diverted. Too late the mother sees she has lost her most precious oppor- tunity, that of fostering the natural instinct toward housekeeping while the child's mind was still a clear page ready for her to write upon and while the child was exclusively her own and not the world's. Suddenly she wakes up to the reahzation that her daughter is grown, and she says, " Come here, you great big girl, and help your mother." She does not want to come in; her interests are, by training, elsewhere. The time has passed when there was pleasure in learning these things. Oh, you say, the child must have exercise and freedom and fresh air. Dudley A. Sargent said a couple of days ago, "The child should swing and leap, run and play, swim and box to develop muscles." Is there any less development in running upstairs for mother, sweeping off the porch with her little broom, wiping the dishes, or making beds ? Whether, of course, this work is made play or not, must depend on the attitude of the mother. As for being in the free air, it is time that we made the inside more free from germs rather than less free than the great world of outdoors. I do not mean that I would give her no play as we know it today. I would; but her work-play, or help-play, would be a necessary part of each day. In the school training of future home-makers I would begin with the little folks in the primary grades. A large percentage of the children who enter public school never go beyond it except into the world's stern school of experience. If they do not get in their brief school life some of the rudi- mentary principles of home-knowledge, they seldom get them at all. For- Sessions] EDUCATION OF WOMEN FOR HOME-MAKING 127 tunately, during the early school age young children are very apt at learning domestic science, especially if they are allowed to do things. They take the greatest delight in the active duties of the household. One of the most interesting sights I ever saw was a cooking-class of little girls, every one standing on a soap-box so that she could reach the top of the table built for older people. The big pink, blue, and white bows on their heads, the dimpled arms, and tiny hands were incongruous with the earnest faces and pursed lips as they gravely stirred the contents of big bowls. These little girls could tell a great many useful things about pro- teids, starches, and food-materials generally. By such 'instruction the wise mother and the helpful teacher first place the little girlish feet on the definite path toward home-making. Children are at this age interested in elementary science. If anyone doubts it, try Ritchie's Primer of Sani- tation on any little daughter and see if she ever pursued you as much to read to her any fairy story. Such books will array them against flies, mosquitoes, dusty corners, and closed windows as no later training ever could. It is not necessary to wait for the child to grow up before giving her a certain amount of technical training. Also, could there be a more auspicious time for inculcating in the minds of these children the fact that they were learning that which will be useful to them when they become home-makers ? Nor would I, because the girl has had training in home knowledge in the primary schools, consider it superfluous in the high school, college, or university any more than I would discontinue a man's training for business because he had begun it in the grades. The practical question now arises, how are we to incorporate such in- struction in the already overloaded curriculum ? With what is it over- loaded? For one woman who remembers her trigonometry or German there are five hundred who are compelled to remember and use all their training in home-knowledge. Those who have never had occasion to con- sider the subject of home economics are apt to think of it as so much cooking and sewing. It is not that any more than cabinet-making is cutting a mortice, or civil engineering running a line. I shall not enter into a discussion of the detafls of the school training, but the course, simplified or elaborated according to circumstances, which has proven most successful is: 1. Physiology (the knowledge of the body). 2. Personal hygiene (care of the body). 3. Public hygiene (that great study of what the world has done and is doing for public health). 4. Bacteriology (the knowledge of micro-organisms in relation to food, health, and disease). 5. Cooking (the preparation of healthful and nourishing food). 6. Dietetics (the study of food materials). 7. Chemistry (as applied to the things of the household). 128 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General 8. Sewing, millinery, and textiles. 9. Child study. 10. Home nursing. • It is impossible to estimate what even a part of this training would mean to the farm home. The study of these subjects has been too long neglected, especially in our exclusively women's schools. We have behaved as tho we seemed to think such knowledge would be poured out upon us in time of need from heaven above. The proud young father will say, "Why, dear, you take as good care of oui» baby as if you had studied them all your life." Does she, when from one-fourth to one-half of all that come into the world die the first year ? When a man is yet a boy, he begins thinking of his vocation. Having chosen it, he selects his college. Upon the completion of his course he is fairly well equipped to fulfill the duties of his calling. On the other hand, what of the girl ? What is she to make of herself ? It is seldom that the girl, beyond her 'teens, even on her wedding day, will acknowledge the possibility of her marrying. Why should she be ashamed of it ? Is there anything more noble ? The vocation of every woman is marriage. She may not adopt it, but that, as Kipling says, "is another story." A woman may study elocution or philosophy, medicine or music, but she will, with it all, wake up some fine morning and find herself in some man's kitchen, and woe be unto her if she has not the knowledge with which to cook his breakfast. At the marriage altar a man does much more than put the ring on a girl's finger and with all his worldly goods her endow. He gives into her hands that which is of more value than the gold that any merchant ever gave to a banker for safe-keeping: his health, his digestion, his success, his happiness. The day comes in the life of almost every woman, wKen the duties of motherhood press heavily upon her and it might be asked, "Is there any training that will help her then ? Since no two children can be the same in temperament, would she not need individual training for each particular child?'"' Not necessarily. In dealing with the faults of the children, whether it be with selfishness, untruthfulness, temper, or what not, the remedy is largely in the attitude of the parent rather than with the child. The impulse of the mother is apt to be to use compulsion rather than patience. The clothes of the child are, according to the trend of the parent's mind, simple or elaborate, whether they be made in the style of today or a hun- dred years ago. The ailments and their treatment in children require good common-sense and a knowledge of how to follow the doctor's advice. The management of the home will be largely dependent on her knowledge of household system, hygiene, bacteriology, and food. Sessions] EDUCATION OF WOMEN FOR HOME-MAKING 129 Childish fingers weave into the very fiber of a woman's being much of love and sympathy and wisdom, but not knowledge. It reminds one of the oft-told story of the good mother and the wise one. Wisdom does not make knowledge, however great an adjunct it may be to it. A man may desire to be a successful occupant of the chair of theology. He may have great wisdom and good judgment, but to do it he must have the training. Can or should any less be expected of the mother who puts the stamp of her knowledge on her children where it shows in health of body and strength of brain, character, and all that makes for perfection ? When all is said and done, it is the attitude, the principles of the parents that mold the child. Just as an architect plans no two houses alike, but does nevertheless apply to each house, whether bungalow or castle, those principles and theories which he learned in his training for the work, so will woman deal with no two problems alike, but will nevertheless apply the same fundamental laws. The studied deference to the father's opinion, the consideration that will not allow the family to depart to mountain or seashore, leaving the bread-winner to a summer of empty home and boarding-house meals, the honor that is as apparent in the privacy of the home as when company is present, the Christian love and charity that are evident in small things as well as in large ones — these are the real, if unconscious, education by which the child is taught to be, in her turn, a home-maker. The problems of the mother are unlike with each child, but so do they vary with the same child in different ages. A tired mother quoted to me: "When one's children are little, they walk on one's feet, but when they are grown up they walk on her heart." "Yes," I said, "but is your hap- piness, your pride, also proportionately great ?" She thought a minute and with a smile said, "Infinitely greater." The wife is mother, nurse, seamstress, cook, housekeeper, chamber- maid, laundress, dairy-maid, scrubwoman, confidant, playmate, teacher, and social arbiter, all in one. She may not perform all these duties herself, but she says who shall do them and how they shall be done. The few are trained to this duty; the many, we hope, will be. The world at large realizes the need, as is shown by mothers' congresses, fresh-air funds, child-relief campaigns, and pleas for a national Department of Health. Only the schools and the government are slow to recognize it. In Bible times it was the father on whom all this responsibility for the children rested. Somehow, somewhere, I do not know when, this responsi- bility became shifted to the shoulders of the mother, things became turned around. This reminds one of the little boy whose father said, "You at the head of the class, Johnnie ? Why, I thought you were at the foot. " " I was, paw," he said, "but teacher turned the class around." All this talk would make one think and hold the opinion of the little boy who was asked what I30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General part of speech "girl" was. He said, "She ain't no part of speech, she's the hull blame thing." One would think she was the hinge to the door of the universe, and she is. I thought so when I read in a magazine the other day that "there are today few occupations a young man can take up without fear of a woman's taking the bread out of his mouth. There are prize fighting, ladies' tailor- ing, and domestic service." It went on urging men to prepare themselves as cooks, butlers, etc. Many girls find it necessary to look upon school as but a path to the business world. Others, of more ample means, regard it only as leading to society and marriage. To anyone, however, may come the day in which it will be necessary for her to earn her living. Under the changed social and economic conditions of modern .life a great many occupations have opened up for woman's activities that have lain fallow from the foundation of the world. In the business and financial world the typewriter and telephone are two great dynamic forces, both of which are almost entirely in the hands of the woman worker. In the teaching profession all the kindergarten training is given by women, practically all the primary teachers are girls, and in high schools and colleges a growing percentage of instruction is given by female teachers. The triumphs of modern surgery in saving and pro- longing life would be abortive but for the healing touch of the woman nurse. How often has her ready wit and skillful hand held back the destroying angel ! What myriads have passed into the great beyond before her coming ! A good general education is fundamental, practically essential, to suc- cess in any profession, nor is the profession of home-making an exception to the rule. Our girls, like our boys, should have just as good literary and scientific education as we are able to give them, for this is the master key that unlocks the portals to avenues of opportunity. We must always have a care, in our desire to specialize, that we do not forget this foundation knowledge. Woman has not thrust herself into the work-a-day world; she has been called there and business has been benefited by her coming. The number of girls who go into commercial life to gratify selfish whims, for excitement, pleasure, or fine clothes, are few and far between. The heart of woman is ever true to home; she leaves it only thru necessity and the call of love will always bring her back. Education for business does not in any way unfit a girl for home-making. Would that every married woman had the knowledge of affairs to be a help and counselor for her husband. The same knowledge of business would leave fewer helpless widows and dependent children. Probably, however, there is no one training which prepares her for more varied occupations, and occupations in which she does not compete with man, than does that of home economics. The graduate in home eco- Sessions] EDUCATION OF WOMEN FOR HOME-MAKING 131 nomics may teach cooking, sewing, bacteriology, chemistry, and any of its various branches. She may have supervision of the food and sanitation of institutions such as hospitals, asylums, mercantile establishments, cot- ton mills, and homes of correction. They are more and more recognizing the need of such supervision. An ever-widening field is that of social ex- tension in the great factories or business corporations. The duty is to study and guide the girls in moral standards, dress, literature, entertain- ment, and health. The Woman's Branch of the Farmers' Institute today reaches thousands of farmers' wives far back in the country. It is an insti- tution that could not have existed ten years ago because there were then so few trained workers. The missionary, whether in slum or foreign field, is effective as she never was before because, instead of having only zeal and sympathy, she is now equipped with a knowledge of her powers and limita- tions, a cool head, a calm outlook, and a well-directed enthusiasm born of her knowledge of the fundamentals. I know one girl who is a food-chemist, another a water-analyst, another a flour-tester, and so on, almost without end. Women are starting laun- dries, violet farms, dairy, chicken, and bee farms, rest-rooms, tea-rooms, darning and patching establishments for worthy bachelors. All these occupations are not the direct outcome of home training. They do, however, utilize the combination of trained brain and hand. A friend, one evening, urged that the trained hand was not necessary. Next morning at breakfast time I said, "How did you burn your hand?" "I was taking muffins out of the oven. I am not much accustomed to cook- ing," she explained. ''Ah, then," I said, "you do acknowledge that it is well to have a trained hand, that the trained mind was not sufficient!" After all, education does not consist of the number of facts stored away in the chinks of the brain. It is the power to systematize, to correlate, to apply those facts. It is the point of view, the outlook on life, the mental attitude. If we have found in household economics that form of education which gives the trained faculties as well as the stored-up facts of home- knowledge, then we have reached the ideal form of education, the one suited to this day and age in which we live. I was struck with the inscrip- tion on your public library. "The Commonwealth requires the education of the people as the safeguard of order and liberty." What we are all working for is not this or that training, or supremacy of this or that sex or type of people. We want the condition best for all. My recommendation would be to educate our girls for living and doing. Modern life has less and less place for the unskilled and the non-producer. Our girls, like our boys, should be taught to do things. They should not, of course, be taught to do the same things, except in their elementary-school work, for as woman's work and life differ from man's life and activities, so must her later activities differ from his. That looks as tho I did not approve of coeducation. I do most heartily approve of coeducation. 132 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General One of the greatest defects of the schools of a generation ago was that they sought to teach the so-called cultural subjects and to turn out ladies and gentlemen. Nowadays there is no place for dilettantes and trifiers and the world is knocking on the doors of our schools asking for men and women. There is no less call today for the lady and gentleman, but these, like the poets, are born, not made. They are the product of the home and not of the school. Culture, that is, true culture, is more needed today than ever in the past; but it is not the culture of a little Latin and less Greek, or a little music and less painting, that marks and labels off the lady and gentle- man from the great productive mass of mankind, but the culture of the trained mind and the skilled hand that does not selfishly segregate itself from the general mass of humanity, but enters into the struggle and leads and helps and directs. Culture can be as readily and surely acquired from a lesson in cooking or textiles as from one in music, languages, or art. In recommending practical education for women, I wish it to be well understood that I have no quarrel whatever with what are commonly known in women's colleges as cultural subjects. Let us have all the cul- ture possible, the more the better, but let it be the culture that makes women useful to society and not a parasite upon it. As Roosevelt said in his Paris speech, "Let us never become so refined and so highly educated that either the man or the woman will be unfitted to do the rough, useful work of life." Let culture go hand in hand with utility and helpfulness. Let us have all the purely cultural subjects for which the girl has time, but let them be accessories to the useful subjects rather than substitutes for them. The woman does not exist who would give up her music, art, languages (until she does so by a slow process after marriage) or whose life is not brightened by her beautiful gowns, well-arranged coiffure, or an ability to grace a reception line; but again, I say, let these things be accessories. The educated woman of the future should be so trained in girlhood and young womanhood that when the responsibilities of life come upon her, she will be found thoroly competent; indecision and vacuity will have no place in her. She will have a fundamental knowledge of foods and how to prepare them, and since she is not a mere drudge, her kitchen will be a laboratory so equipped with labor-saving devices and modern conveniences that the viands coming from it will be the products of dexterity, chemical knowledge, and art. Sickness and disease will be foes to be fought and never again visitations from the Lord. Hand in hand she will stand with her husband. The finances of the household will be as carefully computed as are those in her husband's store or factory. When the call of public welfare comes she will be ready, whether it be for pure milk, a national Department of Health, schools, or art. Then might it be said, "The heart of her husband doth safely trust in her," and — it might truly be added — his head also. Sessions) VALUE OF THE LIFE-CAREER MOTIVE 133 THE VALUE DURING EDUCATION OF THE LIFE-CAREER MOTIVE CHARLES W. ELIOT, PRESIDENT EMERITUS OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY CAMBRIDGE, MASS. The teaching profession nowadays fully recognizes the fact that only those processes of education are successful which procure the active interest and co-operation of the minds and wills subjected to them. During early school life the intelligent teacher tries in every way to rouse and maintain the interest of the pupil in the subjects of study, and endeavors to select studies for the individual pupil which are likely to hold his interest. For many children this animating and selective task on the part of the teacher is a difficult one; and for the great majority of American children of from twelve to sixteen years of age the schools fail to perform it. Hence, multi- tudes of American children, taking no interest in their school work, or seeing no connection between their studies and the means of later earning a good livelihood, drop out of school far too early of their own accord, or at least offer no effective resistance to the desire of unwise parents that they stop study and go to work. Moreover, from lack of interest they acquire while in school a listless way of working. Again, interest in their studies is not universal among that small proportion of American children who go on into a secondary school; and in every college a perceptible proportion of the students exhibit a languid interest, or no interest, in their studies, and therefore bring little to pass during the very precious years of college life. There are, however, certain regions in the total field pf American educa- tion in which the internal motive of interest in the work comes into full play, with the most admirable results. In general, professional students in the United States exhibit keen interest in their studies, work hard, advance rapidly, and avail themselves of their opportunities to gain knowledge and skill to the utmost limit of their strength and capacity, no matter whether the profession for which they are preparing be divinity, law, medicine, architecture, engineering, forestry, teaching, business, or corporation serv- ice. In secondary education the high schools of commerce and mechanic arts have a decided advantage as regards motive power within the pupil over the ordinary high schools. The industrial schools, trade schools, con- tinuation schools, evening and summer schools, business colleges, and Y. M. C. A. classes in secular subjects show a large proportion of strongly inter- ested pupils. The part-time schools which some of the great corporations, like the General Electric Company, the New York Central Railroad, the Grand Trunk Railway, the Ludlow Manufacturing Associates, the Yale and Town Manufacturing Company, and the International Harvester Com- pany have been conducting for a few years past have no difficulty in inter- esting their pupils in those academic subjects which make part of their general shop instruction. When one goes thru the shops and schoolrooms of 134 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Hampton Institute, where hundreds of negroes and scores of Indians are under instruction, or thru the working-rooms of the Tuskegee Institute, thronged with negroes of all shades, one is struck with the eager application to the work in hand which is exhibited by the students. One sees no loafing or inattention, or uninterested work. Everyone,- whether bright or dull, seems to be doing his best, and to be doing it with hearty good will. What is the motive power in the mind and will of the pupil or student in all these various successful educational institutions ? It is the motive of the life career. A professional student has chosen his life-career. A pupil in a commer- cial high school or a mechanic-arts high school has made a primary decision with regard to his life career; he has determined the first direction of his preparatory work, altho later he may come to branchings of the way where a new decision will be needed. The apprentice in a railroad shop or an electric works has in like manner decided on one kind of a life-career, and is bent on pursuing it to advantage. The journeyman who has chosen one of the fundamental trades enlists in a public or endowed evening school or a Y. M. C. A. class with the purpose of improving himself in his trade or art, and believes that good work in the school will increase his earning capacity. The negro or Indian student at Hampton sees clearly that the studies and labors of the place will make him a better farmer, or a carpenter, mason, or wheelwright with good earning capacity; and he has decided to fit himself as well as he possibly can for some one of these gainful occupa- tions. The apprenticeship method in education, tho slow and liable to great abuses, produced for many centuries highly skilled workmen, who acquired all the accumulated skill of preceding generations and transmitted it with additions to the next. When, under the factory system, apprentice- ship almost disappeared, it turned out that a successful method of education on a large scale had been well-nigh lost. Its success was due to the con- tinuous play of the motive of the life-career. The intelligent leaders of American industries are now trying to recover the apprenticeship system with the modifications made necessary by the factory system. The students in a university summer school, a business college, or a technical school are, as a rule, persons who have chosen their calling, and believe that by taking appropriate additional instruction they can further themselves in that calling Of the pupils or students in all these educational institutions which give full play to the motive of the life-career, from the lowest industrial evening school to the highest professional school, that delightful thing can be said which Mr. Shrigley, President of the Williamson Free School of Mechani- cal Trades near Philadelphia, said in 1908 about trade schools: The young men who are being trained in a properly conducted school of that type show great interest in their work, and are so enthusiastically devoted to it that their progress is wonderfully rapid and gratifying. Sessions] VALUE OF THE UFE-CAREER MOTIVE 135 Indeed, on account of this enthusiasm and rapid progress among the stu- dents or pupils of such institutions, earnest teachers always enjoy working in them, and teachers who work both in schools where the life-career motive is recognized, and in those schools where it is not, invariably find the first sort of school more interesting and inspiring than the second. We ought not to be surprised that schools which avail themselves of this strong motive get the best work from their pupils, and therefore do the best work for the community. All of us adults do our best work in the world under the impulsion of the life-career motive. Indeed, the hope and pur- pose of improving quality, or quantity, or both in our daily work, with the incidental improvement of the livelihood, form the strongest inducements we adults have for steady, productive labor; and the results of labors so motived are not necessarily mercenary, or in any way unworthy of an intelli- gent and humane person. There is nothing low or mean about these motives, and they lead on the people who are swayed by them to greater service- ableness and greater happiness — to greater serviceableness, because the power and scope of individual productiveness are thereby increased — to greater happiness, because achievement will become more frequent and more considerable, and to old and young alike happiness in work comes thru achievement. We come here upon the ancient controversy between pure and applied science, cultural and technical subjects in education, idealism and utilita- rianism, and on the old distinction between living and earning a living. The immense increase in knowledge during the past hundred years, and the innumerable new applications of knowledge for the benefit of mankind ought long ago to have persuaded us that a greatly enlarged definition of culture and of the cultivated man was indispensable. We also need to discard forever the notion that there is something vulgar or degraded about the useful and the serviceable. After all is said to the discredit of ''bread and butter" motives, it is no moral or philosophical objection to a dis- covery or a field of knowledge that it has useful applications. Even in the realms of the beautiful, fitness for some human use enhances or contributes to beauty, or is an important element in it. A ripening field of grass or grain billowing in the summer wind is not less beautiful because it promises welcome food for man or beast. The apple blossoms are not less beautiful because apples w^ill later be developed from them. The root of landscape beauty is adaptation to the delight and service of man. The useful invention of a Tungsten filament for an electric lamp is no less worthy or dignified than the apparently useless discovery attributed to Thales, that a piece of amber rubbed with a bit of silk would attract a light body delicately sus- pended by a fine thread. Moreover, the mental capacity involved in the invention of the Tungsten filament is, to say the least, just as strong as the capacity which Thales exhibited in his amber experiment. The student who masters the Tungsten-filament facts in their connection is just as 136 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General worthily occupied as the student who makes himself acquainted with the exploit of Thales, altho the observation on amber was innocent of appli- cations to human welfare for two thousand years. Again, there is nothing inherently selfish or low-minded about hard mental work done in order to improve one's chances of earning a good livelihood, whether in overalls or apron, or in street clothes. Indeed, the earning of a good livelihood, whether by man or woman, is, as a rule, an altruistic performance in high degree — at least after twenty-five years of age, and often before that limit. The conception that useless knowledge is purer and loftier than useful belongs with the feudal system and with that conception of religion which makes it to consist largely of ceremonial, detaches it from ordinary human life, and regards it as in great part an other-world interest. American society has pretty well got over the feudal idea that a gentleman can have no other occupation than that of the soldier, the priest, or the landowner, and is beginning to understand that religion is primarily a matter of loving serv- iceableness in this world. It is high time that our teachers and leaders of the people understood that every civilized human being gets the larger part of his life-training in the occupation thru which he earns his livelihood, and that his schooling in youth should invariably be directed to prepare him in the best way for the best permanent occupation of which he is capable. In other words, the motive of the life-career should be brought into play as early and fully as possible. It is obvious, however, that the early recognition and selection of the best life-work for every child is a difficult matter. Let us next consider, therefore, first, the natural helps in performing this great function of the home and the school, and secondly, the precautions which can be taken in indeterminate cases. There are numerous cases in which an occupation is naturally transmitted from parents to children, or from one generation in a broad sense to another. Thus, in an agricultural region, or in a town of one industry or two or three industries, it is altogether probable that large groups of children will follow the occupations of their parents. Again, among the children in a given school there will always be a fair proportion whose natural gifts and tendencies become obvious to the observant teacher who watches them for years. Such children should be turned toward appro- priate occupations by the teacher in consultation with the parents. There will also be a small proportion of children who know their own minds by the time they are fourteen years old. They too should be helped to the life-work which attracts them. Finally, in every community and every school there will be a considerable number of children who can be fairly prepared for any one of several occupations, tho not, perhaps, for the highest success in any one. To some one of these sets or classes the great majority of children in any community will be found to belong. It is wise, if family circumstances permit, to postpone the actual training for a specific trade or occupation till at least the sixteenth year, because in I Sessions] VALUE OF THE LIFE-CAREER MOTIVE 137 most cases the body is not sufficiently developed before that age to under- take the real work of a trade. Most boys are not fitted for apprenticeship or a trade school until they are sixteen, and in general seventeen is a better age at which to begin. Children who must leave school at fourteen because of home conditions should be required to attend continuation schools or part-time schools; but to this end new legisFation and the co-operation of mercantile establishments are necessary. If, then, the motive of the life-career cannot be brought into full play before sixteen years of age, what precautions ought to be taken to maintain the interest of pupils in school studies up to that time, and to give them a training which will not only increase their mental power and their capacity for rational enjoyment, but also their earning capacity in a variety of occupations ? In the first place, instruction in every subject taught at school should be accompanied to the utmost extent possible by concrete illustration and fresh, current exemplification. Real shop problems should be used to illustrate the theoretical principles of geometry, mechanics, chemistry, and physics. This sort of illustration is available not only in mathematics and elementary science, but also in languages, literature, and history. Secondly, much attention — much more than is now given — should be paid in every elementary and secondary school to the training of the eye, ear, and hand, for the reason, among others, that well-trained powers of sight, hearing, and touch are of high value in any life-occupation. Thirdly, the elements of the arts applicable in ordinary households and in various trades or callings ought to be carefully taught in all schools, public, endowed, or private, such as drawing and designing, domestic science and art, and home economics, carpentry, and joinery, and, in rural communities, agri- culture. Rural schools have an advantage here over urban schools, because agriculture has become such an admirable subject of school instruction since successful farming came to involve acquaintance with plant-breeding, animal-breeding, and a variety of crops, animals, manures, motors, and machines. For children between the ages of twelve and sixteen it is particu- larly important to provide various forms of training which they can see will be of use to them in after-life. The provision of well-graded courses of that nature, with constant concrete illustration of every mental process or problem, will go far to hold the interest of the children in their school work, and prevent premature withdrawals, or diminish the number of them. The next question is — and it is a grave one — who is going to guide the inexperienced child to a wise preliminary choice of the life-career ? The answer must be — the parents and the teacher, but mainly the teacher. The parents and the teacher together ought to be easily able, in the first place, to give the right direction to that small proportion of children whose education clearly ought to be prolonged thru the secondary school and the college because of good parts or favorable circumstances, and to that other small proportion whose natural bent is strong. These two sorts of children, 138 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General however, together make but a small minority; the great majority show no decided bent, and seem about equally fit for any one of several callings, so that some authority must make a tentative sorting and an experimental assignment. Moreover, since the circumstances of the parents unfortu- nately determine for a large proportion of all children an early discontinu- ance of systematic education, the selective function of the teacher will at the best have serious limitations. Democratic society has as yet found no remedy for this undesirable abridgment of school life. The profession of teaching must recognize this fact and cope with it, so far as possible. At present we are permitting the great majority of American children to go out into the world as unskilled laborers, without having chosen any trade or other occupation requiring skill, and without having felt in their school work the motive of the life-career. This is an evil which is not to be cured by additional legislation merely. It must be cured by serious modifications of the programs of American elementary and secondary schools, by the acceptance on the part of teachers and school authorities of the function of guiding children into appropriate life-work, and by providing new kinds of instruction and new organizations like continuation schools and trade schools. When Benjamin Franklin's father thought it was time for the boy to choose a trade, he took Benjamin about the town and showed him men at work in all the trades then practiced in Boston, and it was only after this comparative survey that Benjamin decided to be a printer. A very skillful printer he became by the time he was eighteen years old. American schools should perform this office for all pupils who ask for such guidance. If this guiding and selecting function for the public schools looks difficult, we may get encouragement from the fact that it is by no means untried in the wide world of education. Germany, France, Switzerland, and Belgium can all show this thing actually done. Do you say, "True, but those countries are not so free industrially and socially as ours is. Their institutions, or their industrial conditions, or their family habits give them means of directing children into trades which we do not possess." It is well that we do not possess any means of compulsion; for success and hap- piness in life depend on the individual's following a congenial calling. It is highly inexpedient, as well as unjust, to force any child or youth into a trade which does not attract him, for in it he will be both inefficient and unhappy. Many interesting experiments in this direction are already started in different parts of the United States, and most educational authorities are taking a keen, tho sometimes uninstructed, interest in the general problem of vocational training. It will doubtless occur to many minds that an early choice of a trade or occupation may turn out to be an unwise one. Such mistakes, if soon discovered, will not be very serious under American indus- trial and social conditions, which are more mobile than those which prevail Sessions] VALUE OF THE LIFE-CAREER MOTIVE 139 in Europe, so that an early mistaken choice of the calling can be more easily rectified here than it can be in the old countries. Moreover, a good training for any one trade will always contain many elements which are applicable in another trade; and if the motive of the life-career has been in good play, the animated mental and manual work done by the pupil will have been in some fair measure profitable toward the ultinlate career. When all available means have been used to discover the best vocation for each child and to direct him to it, there will remain in the mass of chil- dren who are approaching the end of their school life numerous indeter- minate cases which afford no clue to the best calling — at least at the age at which choice urgently needs to be made. What policy should a well- organized school system follow in regard to such children ? The first thing to be done is to keep such children interested in their school studies as long as possible, in the hope of preventing them from going to work as unskilled and immature wage-earners. To maintain interest it will be expedient to offer in the school a considerable variety of studies, so that each child may have a chance to pursue the studies he most affects, whether chiefly manual, or chiefly mental, whether bookwork or shopwork. This involves a school program stated in different groups, or offering options. A program of this sort will provide the best security a school system can furnish for a wise ultimate choice of a calling, for it will enable the undetermined pupil to select the studies to him most congenial. When at a later date he discovers and adopts the trade or occupation for which he is best adapted, it will turn out that by selecting the most congenial studies he will have prepared himself for the congenial trade or calling, because the same natural tend- encies which directed him to the selected studies will direct him safely to the ultimate calling. A single uniform course of study prescribed to all offers no such security for pupils who cannot determine their trade or calling at fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, or seventeen years of age. This principle has already been thoroly worked out with students of college age. Those who do not yet recognize their best calling in life should choose under a free elective system the studies they severally most affect, because those studies will in all probability prove later to have been the appropriate preparation for the calling, when discovered, in which each can best succeed. Both in school and college diversity, not uniformity of product, should be the aim. The fortunate pupil or student is he who early discerns his life-career, and makes his school training or his school and college training an appropriate preparation for it. The vocation once known gives clear guidance to those knowledges and skills which will best contribute to success in it. Whoever advocates the introduction of concrete illustration and the elements of industrial training into the common schools will at once en- counter three objections: (i) there is no time for more subjects; (2) the present amount of instruction in the so-called academic subjects is already inadequate and ought not to be reduced; and (3) instruction in applied I40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General « science and industrial subjects is costly, and there is no money to pay for it. To meet the first objection, the best way is to increase school time per day and per year. This would now be possible with due regard for the health and vigor of the children; because many of the new subjects call for bodily exercises, and also because improvements already effected in school grounds and buildings make the hours spent in school quite as healthy as those spent at home, healthier indeed under many urban conditions. An exten- sion of school time from twenty-five hours a week to from thirty-three to forty-four hours a week, according to the age of the pupils, would make great improvements possible. In cities and large towns the summer vaca- tion should be much reduced. This lengthening of the weekly school time has already begun in day schools which make much of manual training and industrial teachings, and the vacation schools, summer camps, and summer sessions are making head against the evils of the long vacation. In connection with the increased interest in all school work resulting from the admission of the life-career motive, the increase of school time will meet completely the second of the above objections. There will be no need to reduce the academic or cultural elements of the present high-school pro- grams. It will be possible to give the essentials of the common high-school course and also much manual and industrial instruction. This is not proph- ecy, but merely the recognition of existing facts. Finally, the third objec- tion— no money — must be met by getting more money, public and private, to spend on schools. Some unobservant and unimaginative people say that it is impossible to increase public expenditure whether for schools or for any other object. The answer to that pessimism is that public expendi- ture for schools and for many other objects has been greatly increased within the past thirty years, and that almost all citizens hold that school expenditure ought to be increased even tho the total expenditures of the community should not rise, because, if judiciously made, it yields a larger and quicker return — material, mental, and moral — than any other expenditure. Thruout the discussion of the expediency of introducing vocational subjects into American schools, it is important that one fact be kept clearly in mind, namely, that to provide more subjects of instruction does not mean that each individual pupil is necessarily to study more subjects. Thus, the city of Munich provides instruction in some sixty trades, but the individual Munich boy or girl learns only one trade. So American schools for children of twelve years and upward must teach many subjects, but each pupil will pursue only that number of subjects which is expedient for him. To the question where it is most important to introduce industrial training, and to give the motive of the life-career the freest play possible, will not the answer of our profession be well-nigh unanimous — in the public- school system, from the seventh grade to the twelfth grade inclusive? Many other organizations and instrumentalities will share in the good work, Sessions] VALUE OF THE LIFE-CAREER MOTIVE 141 but the free public-school system should be the chief field of this great reform. The ample and discriminating report recently published by this Association's Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Education exhibits the immense confusion of nomenclature, opinions, plans, and efforts which clouds the subject of industrial education, but out of this confusion emerges one unifying and integrating conception — 'that of the supreme value of the life-career motive in the lifelong process of education. On being installed as rector of the University of Edinburgh in 1866, Carlyle told the students what " a man is born to, in all epochs. He is born to expend every particle of strength that God Almighty has given him, in doing the work he finds he is fit for; to stand up to it to the last breath of life, and to do his best." DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE INDIANAPOLIS MEETING, MARCH 1-3, 1910 SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST DAY MORNING SESSION— Tuesday, March i, 191 o The Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in the Assembly Room of the Claypool Hotel, Indianapolis, Ind., at 9:30 A.M., President Stratton D. Brooks, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass., presiding. After a few introductory remarks President Brooks declared the meeting ready to proceed with the following program: Topic: Children Differ in Mental Alertness 1. Retardatioh: What Constitutes Retardation? How Significant Are Retardation Statistics ? When Is Retardation Justifiable ? How May It Be Corrected ? — Leonard P. A.yres, secretary of Russell Sage Foundation, New York City. 2. What Consideration Should Be Given to Gifted Pupils ? — ^James H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md. 3. What Consideration Should Be Given to Subnormal Pupils ? — Maximilian P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J. General Discussion — Leaders: Lightner Witmer, director of the Psychological Laboratory and Clinic, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; F. B. Dyer, super- intendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS At the close of the morning session President Brooks appointed a committee on resolutions consisting of the following named persons: Ben Blewett, superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo. Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. Charles H. Keyes, supervisor of schools. South District, Hartford, Conn. E. H. Mark, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky. COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS A committee on nominations was also appointed consisting of: Z. X. Snyder, president of State Normal School, Greeley, Colo. S. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn. J. Stanley Brown, superintendent of schools, Joliet, 111. Charles J. Baxter, state superintendent of public instruction, Trenton, N.J. F. B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. Mr. Milton Fairchild, of Baltimore, Md., special instructor of the Moral Education Board, was introduced and allowed ten minutes to explain plans which have been formulated for moral instruction by means of stereopticon lessons. He spoke as follows: During the past thirteen years serious efforts have been made to devise a satisfactory method of teaching morals in American public schools. Something like $50,000 worth of work has been done with results that are satisfactory to a large circle of prominent educators. I have devoted my entire time since 1897 to the problem with a definite purpose of inventing, if possible, a method of instruction that would hold the interest of boys and girls and influence them in their daily lives, and yet be suitable for American public-school conditions. In this effort I have had the assistance of a large circle of educational leaders and now appear before you under the sanction of the Moral Education Board, which has a membership of 150 distributed over the entire United States. 143 144 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis Our plan of moral instruction is as follows: 1. Photographs of things that actually happen in real life are taken especially for moral instruction. 2. Lantern slides from these, 50 to 100 for each lesson, are projected on a screen and thus enlarged to life size before large audiences of pupils in the school assembly halls. 3. Carefully prepared instruction as to what is right and fine in conduct is given as an explanation of the photographs while the pupils are studying them upon the screen. It has been generally recognized both in the home and in the school that what is called "incidental instruction" carries real influence. The trouble has always been that there has been no possibility of controlling such instruction. The "incident" will often happen when instruction is inappropriate, or will not happen at all, and nothing like thoro instruc- tion has ever been possible along these lines. It seemed to us if these episodes in real life, which ought to be the basis for moral instruction, could be photographed and lantern slides made from them, so that when the pictures were thrown on the screen life-size the boys and girls would be willing, and perhaps anxious, to discuss them from the standpoint of morals; and that "Illustrated Lessons in Morals" could thus be prepared, which would be under the control of the teacher, and which it would be possible to utilize for thoro instruction in morals — the most important topic in education. Along these lines extended experiments have been made. A special camera taking thirty pictures a minute was invented, and fully six years have been spent in gathering an extensive collection of photographs especially for moral instruction. Several illustrated lessons have been made up, and delivered over a territory including twenty different states to aggregate audiences numbering over 100,000 boys and girls in public and private schools. The interest is real, and often intense. The presentation of the real things of life which involve morals makes it seem natural to the pupils that the morals involved in the pictures should be discussed. Large audiences of 600, and sometimes 2,000, have listened to these illustrated lessons with intense interest for an hour. The discussion among the pupils themselves following the delivery of the lesson on "The True Sportsman," for example, has been prolonged for days, and sometimes weeks, in a perfectly natural way and with permanent results on the moral convictions of the school. The lessons which are at present available for general use thruout the entire United States have the following titles: 1. High School Lessons: "The Gentleman"; "Personal and National Thrift"; "The True Sportsman." 2. Upper Grammar School: "What I Am Going to Do When I Am Grown Up." 3. Lower Grammar School: "What Men Think about Boys' Fights." The preparation of an "Illustrated Lesson in Morals" involves about $10,000 in advance expense. The photographs are difficult to get, because the photographer must happen to be on hand when the incident worth while for moral instruction happens to come off. A psychological chart is first made covering the topic. Then the photographs illus- trating the ideas to be taught are selected and the text very carefully written, to insure the argument taking firm hold of the minds of the grade of boys and girls before whom the lesson is intended to be used. The pictures and texts are then printed and sent to members of the Moral Education Board for criticism and suggestion. After thoro revision the lesson is printed in its final form and, together with its accompanying lantern slides, is sent out by express as there may be demand for it. The natural interest of the pictures, and the direct, simple character of the text, make it possible for a local teacher with some ability as a lecturer to make an effective delivery of the lesson. This interesting formal instruction in morals is given in assembly halls to large audi- ences, and is then supplemented by personal discussion and instruction by the various teachers to their own classes. The plan is to take such a lesson as "What I'm Going to Do When I'm Grown Up" and give it in rapid succession in all grammar schools of a city, provoking interest in the entire body of grammar-school pupils and affording general opportunity for discussion by the teachers simultaneously. It is possible in this way to exert powerful influence over the moral convictions of boys and girls themselves. Mr. Bernard N. Baker, of Baltimore, is furnishing a fund of $10,000 on which this system of moral instruction can be fully tried out in America. He is giving his personal attention to the business organization, and planning for the incorporation of the Moral Education Board as an educational institution. The schools are to pay a small rental fee to sustain headquarters, but part of the expense is to be borne from the endowment fund. The address is. Moral Education Board, 903 Calvert Bid., Baltimore, Md. Mr. Fairchild then invited the superintendents interested to visit his exhibit, and called attention to a historical sketch written by Walter H. Page, which appeared in March, 191 o, issue of World's Work. Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES I45 AFTERNOON SESSION At 2 P.M., President -Brooks called the meeting to order and the following program was presented: Topic: Children Differ in Moral Responsibility 1. The Variable Factors in Moral Responsibility. — P, W. Horn, superintendent of schools, Houston, Tex. 2. Discipline as Affected by Differences in Moral ^Responsibility. — Walter F. Lewis, superintendent of schools, Port Huron, Mich. 3. Methods of Reducing Moral Truths to Practice. — Horace H. Cummings, general superintendent L.D.S. Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. 4. A Richer Moral Ideal. — P. P. Claxton, professor of education, University of Tennes- see, Knoxville, Tenn. In Memoriam, William Torrey Harris. — George P. Brown, editor. School and Home Education, Bloomington, 111. (Read by John W. Cook, with introduction by Mr. Cook.) C. P. Gary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C. EVENING SESSION The evening session was called to order at 7:45 o'clock. President Brooks presiding. Hon. Albert J. Beveridge, United States Senator for Indiana, delivered an address on "The School and the Nation." Following the address of Senator Beveridge a recep- tion was tendered to the visiting members by the Board of School Commissioners, and the superintendent and teachers of the public schools of Indianapolis at the John Herron Art Institute. SECOND DAY MORNING SESSION— Wednesday, March 2 The meeting was called to order by President Brooks at 9:30 a.m. The following program was presented: Topic: Children Differ in Mental Attitudes, Tastes, and Tendencies r. Dangers and Advantages of Specialization Prior to the High School Age. — W. E. Striplin, superintendent of schools, Gadsden, Ala. 2. The Effects of Electives upon the Future Welfare of Secondary Education. — J. Stanley Brown, principal of Township High School, Joliet, 111. 3. Do Present College-Entrance Requirements Sufficiently Recognize the Different Tastes and Tendencies of Pupils ? — A. Ross Hill, president of the University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. General Discussion — Leaders: A. H. Yoder, superintendent of schools, Tacoma, Wash.; J. George Becht, principal of State Normal School, Clarion, Pa.; W, A. Godward, superintendent of schools. Devil's Lake, N.Dak. The annual business meeting followed the program. Invitations to hold the meeting of the Department for the year 191 1 were received from Chattanooga, Tenn., Dallas, Tex., Richmond, Va., St. Louis, Mo., Mobile, Ala., and Chicago, 111. The following resolution was offered by President John W. Cook of DeKalb, Illinois: Resolved, (i) That the action of this Department with respect to its location for 191 1 shall be advisory only, and subject to the approval of the officers of the Department, includ- ing the General Secretary of the National Education Association; (2) That no action respecting the location of this Department for the year 191 1 shall be regarded as even advisory by the officers of the Department unless supported by a majority of those voting, and if three or more cities shall be voted for in any ballot the city receiving the smallest vote shall be dropped on the succeeding ballot. The motion was duly seconded and adopted. After two ballots were taken, Mobile received 371 votes, a majority of the votes cast. Superintendent Ella Flagg Young, of Chicago, moved to make the vote for Mobile unani- mous. This motion prevailed. President Brooks called for the report of the Committee on Nominations and President 146 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis Z. X. Snyder of the State Normal School of Colorado, chairman of the committee, submitted the following nominations: For President, W. M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr. For First Vice-President, J. A, Shawan, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio. For Second Vice-President, C. G. Schulz, state superintendent of public instruction, St. Paul. Minn. For Secretary, Arthur D. Call, supervising principal of schools, Hartford, Conn. The report was unanimously adopted and the nominees declared elected. The session then adjourned. AFTERNOON SESSION— 2:30 p.m. ROUND-TABLE CONFERENCES The afternoon was devoted to the respective round-table conferences with programs as follows: (a) round table of state and county superintendents Leader — T. H. Harris, state superintendent of public education for Louisiana, Baton Rouge, La. Topic: The Country Child ^ 1. The Necessary One- Room School: (a) When necessary; (6) What it should do; (c) How do it. — H. A. Gass, state superintendent of public instruction, Jefferson City, Mo. 2. Consolidated Schools: (a) Advantages; (&) Obstacles; (c) How obtained. — Robert J. Aley, state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.; Robert Lee Jones, state superintendent of public instruction, Nashville, Tenn. 3. Industrial Education in the (a) Consolidated school; kind and scope; (6) One- room school; kind and scope. — C. E. Byrd, superintendent of schools, Caddo Parish, Shreveport, La. 4. Teachers for Country Schools: (a) Kind wanted; (6) How to secure them. — L. J. AUeman, state institute conductor. Baton Rouge, La. (b) round table of superintendents of larger cities Leader — Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. Topic: History and Art as Requisites in Making the Curriculum for Industrial Education 1. The Importance of History in Industrial Education. — ^James H. Robinson, profes- sor of history, Columbia University, New York City. Discussion led by Wm. H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools, New York City. 2. The Study of Art as a Requisite in Industrial Education. — Walter Sargent, super- visor of Art and Manual Training departments. School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Discussion led by Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction in public schools, St. Louis, Mo. (C) ROUND table OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF SMALLER CITIES Leader — W, J. McKone, superintendent of schools, Albion, Mich. 1. The Purpose and Content of the Elementary Curriculum. — A. H. Chamberlain, treasurer, N.E.A., Pasadena, Cal.; F. E. Downes, superintendent of schools, Harrisburg, Pa.; E. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich.; H. L. Smith, superintend- ent of schools, Bloomington, Ind. 2. The Grading and Promotion of Pupils. — Charles S. Hartwell, secretary Joint Com- mittee on School Organization of New York City Teachers' Association, Brooklyn, N.Y.; F. E. Converse, superintendent of Schools, Beloit, Wis.; H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111.; E. J. Brown, superintendent of schools, Dayton, Ohio. EVENING SESSION A joint session of the Department was held with the American School Hygiene Asso- ciation, The American Physical Education Association and The Public School Physical Training Society; President Stratton D. Brooks presiding. The following program was presented: Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 1 47 Topic: Children Differ in Physical Condition 1. Health and Education. — Thomas F. Harrington, M.D., director of school hygiene, Boston, Mass. (Representing the Department of Superintendence.) 2. The Health of the Teacher. — Luther H. Gulick, M.D., director. Department of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation. (Representing the American Physical Education Association.) 3. The Principle Underlying Modern Physical Education. — Herman H. Horn, pro- fessor of education, New York University. (Representing the Public School Physical Training Society.) THIRD DAY MORNING SESSION— Thursday, March 3 The Department was called to order at 9 : 30 a.m. by President Brooks. The following was the program of the session: Topic: Children Differ in Environment 1. Southern Educational Problems. — Samuel E. Weber, inspector of state high schools for Louisiana, Baton Rouge, La. 2. Education in the Country for the Country. — ^John W. Zeller, state commissioner of common schools for Ohio, Columbus, Ohio. General Discussion — Leaders: Thomas P. Bailey, superintendent of schools, Memphis, Tenn.; C. B. Connelley, dean of the School for Apprentices and Journeymen, Carnegie Technical Schools, Pittsburg, Pa.; John F. Haines, county superintendent of schools, Noblesville, Ind. At the conclusion of the discussions of the topic of the morning, William L. Kallmann, of the City Normal School of Cleveland, Ohio, read the report of the Committee on Music Education and moved its adoption. Superintendent Blewett, a member of the committee, arose to explain why he could not sign the report. He objected to the adoption of the report because he feared that in adopting it the Department would be establishing a precedent that might in the future be quoted by private interests seeking to use the Department for private gain. Ossian Lang, editor of the School Journal, of New York City, defended the report on the ground that it did not represent a private interest, but one of universal importance. The motion to adopt prevailed. Superintendent Blewett, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, then read the following resolutions and requested that the first and second sections referring to William T. Harris and George P. Brown be voted on separately and that a rising vote be taken. This request was granted, and on motion the first and second resolutions were adopted unanimously by a rising vote. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Resolved: 1. That in the death of William Torrey Harris our country lost its most profound philosopher, American education its most distinguished leader, and the National Education Association its most respected and best-beloved member. The memory and the record of his work in this association will be cherished as one of the richest heritages of our body. 2. That this Association learns with the deepest regret of the recent death of George P.. Brown, for many years one of its most honored and conspicuous members. His likeness to his illustrious friend. Dr. Harris, was often remarked. In philosophic insight, in clear grasp of fundamental principles, and in beauty of character they were singularly alike. Both devoted their lives mainly to the solution of educational problems, more especially to those of the elementary school. As teacher, educational writer, and philosopher, Mr. Brown made a distinguished place for himself in the annals of public education in this country. *3. That the increasing efficiency of the Bureau of Education is establishing faith in the importance of its function in the national life. It is the hope of the Department of Superintendence that, because of the Bureau's broad influence upon national ideals in education, the nation shall within a short time place it among the departments of the * Not adopted : referred to a special committee. 148 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis executive branch of the government and recognize it thus as the department to which is intrusted the development of the nation's most precious resource, her children. 4. That the Department of Superintendence is in full sympathy with the ultimate motives of those who have suggested to Congress the establishment of a children's bureau; but unquestionably believes that the work proposed for such a bureau is naturally part of the work of the Bureau of Education, and that any division of responsibility would result in confusion and waste. The Bureau of Education must consider all conditions that affect the education of the children favorably or unfavorably, and such research should be intrusted to its experts with specialized training for such investigations carefully selected and adequately paid. 5. That the Department while heartily approving every agency that may be used to advance the educational interests of both state and nation, places itself on record as disapproving any appropriations made by either legislatures or Congress for any institution which is not supported exclusively by public funds and which is not subject to complete federal or state control and investigation. 6. That, because the statistics published in school reports are inadequate for the pur- pose of comparison, the president of this Department is hereby authorized to appoint a committee of five to formulate and report at the next annual meeting of this Department a system of statistics which will secure uniformity in reports on all points of common concern. 7. That the problem of retardation in our schools demands our careful consideration. Superintendents should emphasize all means which will reduce the amount of retardation without sacrificing the efficiency of the work. Late entrance and irregularity of attendance are important causes of retardation which can be overcome to a great extent thru more intelligent co-operation of the home. The poor adjustment of the elementary curriculum to the needs of many retarded pupils can be remedied in part by modifications in the course of study to suit it to the local problems, and each superintendent must attack this problem in the light of local conditions. There must be a clear recognition of the fact that the assignment of a child to a grade should depend upon his ability to profit by the new work rather than upon the specific knowledge already attained, or upon the failure measured by marks and grades of the preceding term. The superintendent should hold the principal responsible for the individual promotion of exceptionally bright pupils, that there may be no retardation of a pupil in grade or work below his ability to carry successfully. The prin- cipal should understand that this case is one of his most important obligations and privileges. 8. That the i8th of May, the anniversary of the first Hague Peace Conference, be observed in the schools by setting aside a portion of the day for appropriate exercises in recognition of the endeavor of the nations to establish a higher moral ideal in international relations. 9. That we favor the encouragement of agricultural education by national and state assistance. 10. That the thanks of the Department be hereby expressed to Superintendent Calvin N. Kendall, the local committee, and the press for the many courtesies shown to the officers and members of the Department. Respectfully submitted Ben Blewett, Chairman Charles E. Chadsey Charles H. Keyes Edgar H. Mark Committee After some discussion of the resolution recommending that the Bureau of Education be made a department of the national government, to be represented by a member in the President's cabinet, an amendment prevailed referring this question to a committee of five to be appointed by President Brooks; this committee to make recommendation at the next annual meeting of the Department. The remaining resolutions were then adopted by a unanimous vote. Superintendent Blewett moved that a delegate be appointed by the president-elect of the Department, to represent the Department at the coming Educational Conference at Brussels. This motion prevailed. AFTERNOON SESSION The last session of the Department was called to order at 2 p.m.. President Brooks presiding. The following topic was considered: Superintendence] WHAT cdNSTITUTES RETARDATION? 149 Topic: Children Differ in Vocational Aim 1. Industrial Education in Elementary Schools. — Ben W. Johnson, director of manual arts, Seattle, Wash. 2. Vocational Courses in Secondary Schools. — W. F. Webster, principal of East High School, Minneapolis, Minn. 3. Trade Unions and Industrial Education. — W. B. Prescott, secretary, International Typographical Union Commission on Supplementary Trade Education. General Discussion — Leader: George H. Whitcher, superintendent of schools, Berlin, N.H. At the conclusion of the discussion there being no other business the Department adjourned sine die. J. F. Keating, Secretary SUPPLEMENTARY The following-named committees authorized by the Department of Superintendence were appointed by President Stratton D. Brooks subsequent to the close of the convention. All of the appointees have accepted appointment, viz.: COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL STATISTICS Payson Smith, state superintendent of public schools, Augusta, Me., Chairman. Charles M. Lamprey, head of the Department of History and director of the Model School, Boston, Mass. William H. Elson, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio. E. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools, East Saginaw, Mich. George D, Strayer, adjunct professor of elementary education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, N.Y. COMMITTEE ON THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION A DEPARTMENT OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT William H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools, New York City, N.Y. Chairman. Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo. Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. J. Stanley Brown, superintendent, and principal of Township High School, Joliet, 111. John W. Abercrombie, president of the University of Alabama, University, Ala. Irwin Shepard, General Secretary, N.E.A. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS TOPIC: CHILDREN DIFFER IN MENTAL ALERTNESS /. WHAT CONSTITUTES RETARDATION ? HOW SIGNIFICANT ARE RETARDATION STATISTICS? WHEN IS RETARDA- TION JUSTIFIABLE? HOW MAY IT BE CORRECTED? LEONARD P. AYRES, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE OF THE RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK CITY WHAT CONSTITUTES RETARDATION ? During the past few years the term *' retarded" has been applied with increasing uniformity to describe the condition of school children who are too old for their grades. It describes but does not attempt to explain. It is applied to all children of this class whatever may be the cause or causes which account for the fact that they are above the normal age for their grades. They may have entered school late, or they may have made slow progress: 150 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis under both circumstances they are termed "retarded." It is in this sense that the word will be used thruout the present paper. Now many able educators, and among them some of the keenest thinkers in the profession, have taken issue squarely with those who use the term in this way and have argued that the proper criterion for judging backwardness among school children is not age in grade but rather rate of progress. Here then we have two criteria, one setting up an arbitrary standard v/hich says that the boy who is eight years of age or older in the first grade, nine years old or older in the second grade, etc., is "retarded" and the other claiming that the child who takes more than one year to complete the work of one grade is retarded. The criterion which judges the extent of retardation in a school system by telling how many of the children are too old for their grades has won its way into nearly universal use because it gives the quickest, clearest, and most easily understood answers to these questions. To discover how many over- age children there are in his school system a superintendent has only to draw up a table showmg the distribution of children by grades and ages and to draw thru it a line separating the over-age children from those of normal age. The objections that have been brought against this method are: first, that it exaggerates the extent of the evil; and second, that the facts shown are non-significant because the child who enters school late is not retarded at all but will make such rapid progress as to more than catch up with those who entered earlier. Considering now the first of these two objections, is it true that the age standard of measuring retardation exaggerates the seriousness of existing conditions? In New York City 16,000 children graduated from the eighth grades last June. Of these children 42 per cent, were retarded according to the age standard, and 43 per cent, had required more than eight years to complete the eight grades. In another study of the school histories of 19,000 children in New York it was found that 23 per cent, were over age but that 40 per cent, had made slower progress than that called for by the course of study. In an article published in the Educational Review for September, 1909, Dr. Roland P. Falkner published data from a number of cities showing that when we can apply both the age-in-grade and the progress criteria we find almost without exception that the age standard understates rather than overstates the extent of the evil. Turning now to the second objection we are confronted by the claim that the child who enters school late readily overcomes his initial handicap and by rapid progress soon catches up with the children who entered early and even passes them. Here again the question at issue can only be answered by an appeal to fact, not to opinion. Reference has been made to a study of the school records of the 16,000 children who graduated from the eighth grades in New York City last June. One part of that study consisted of a tabulation of the records of progress Superintendence] WHAT CONSTITUTES RETARDATION? I5i made by the children who entered at each age. In this study only the records of the children who started in the first grade and completed the eight grades were taken into'consideration. The results are shown in the following table : AGE AT ENTERING AND MONTHS REQUIRED TO COMPLETE EIGHT GRADES . Age at Entering Number of ChUdren Median Number of Months to Complete Course e 1,521 5,828 2,936 721 142 26 9 2 82 6 : 7 81 80 8 79 74 69 66 Q lO II 63 The lesson taught by the table is that children who enter school late make a little more rapid progress than do those who enter early, but that it is only a little more rapid. To state it another way, the lesson is that the child who enters late will not, as has been claimed, catch up with the child who enters early. The figure which tells us how many over-age children there are in each lower grade is an important figure because it helps to tell us how many children are not going to be able to stay in school long enough to graduate. To summarize: retardation is a term used in educational economics to signify a condition and a result, not an explanation or a process. A retarded child is a child who is too old for the grade he is in. Why he is too old the term does not attempt to explain. Retardation is found to a greater or less extent in all school systems. Because of it half of the children who enter our city schools fail to graduate. Retardation as calculated by the age-in-grade standard has not been overstated. This standard is more easily applied than th6 progress standard and the conditions it discloses are of the utmost importance. HOW SIGNIFICANT ARE RETARDATION STATISTICS? When a superintendent has before him a table showing just how many children there are in each grade who are older than they ought to be for that grade the information is certainly significant. But suppose that last year's figures show the superintendent that 30 per cent, of the children were then retarded and this year's figures show him that now only 25 per cent, are retarded. How significant is this change ? The answer is that it may or may not be significant. In the first place if last year's computation was based on the total enroll- ment for a term or the entire year and this year's figures were secured on the basis of the enrollment or attendance on a given day the two figures are not comparable. The reason is that figures giving the total enrollment almost 152 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis always give a fictitiously large membership to the lower grades and the per- centage of retardation computed on the basis of the total enrollment for a term or year will be untrustworthy. The lesson here is that retardation statistics are not to be trusted for purposes of comparison for different years in the same system or in different systems unless they are computed on just the same basis of enumeration. But there is another factor which has the greatest influence in affecting the figures showing the percentage of retardation in any system. This is the date on which the computation is made. In 1908 the cities of Springfield, Mass., and Springfield, Ohio, published tables showing the age and grade distributions in their school systems. These tables showed that in the Massachusetts city the percentage of retardation was 22 while in the Ohio city it was 38. Are these figures significant in the sense that they show that conditions are very much better in the Massa- chusetts city than in the Ohio one ? We find that the Massachusetts data were gathered in September while those in Ohio were gathered in June. If the over-age children had been enumerated in the Massachusetts city in June instead of September they would have constituted 42 per cent, of all of the children instead of 22 per cent. On the other hand, if the back- ward children had been enumerated in Springfield, Ohio, in September instead of in June as they were, they would have been 23 per cent, instead of 38 per cent. The result of all this is that we see that the conditions in the two cities are very nearly equal with perhaps a slight difference in favor of the Ohio city. The principle underlying this is most important. It is largely because this fundamental difference has been ignored that inter-city comparisons of retardation have been so unsatisfactory and have given results that we have all mistrusted. In the considerations that we have reviewed we have an answer to our second main question, which was: How significant are retardation statistics? The answer is that they are important and significant in disclosing to the superintendent important facts about his schools. They are unreliable and deceptive for purposes of comparison unless the children are enumerated on the same basis and the ages of the children are recorded in the same month of the year. WHEN IS RETARDATION JUSTIFIABLE? The answer to the question. When is retardation justifiable? seems to be, When it is the result of circumstances beyond the control of the school authorities. If a boy is older than eight years of age when he enters the first grade he is bound to be numbered among the retarded in the following grades. We may put retardation because of late entrance in the category which we are calling ** justifiable retardation" in the sense that the school and the school authorities cannot be held blameworthy for its existence. Superintendence] WHAT CONSTITUTES RETARDATION? 153 This brings us to the retardation that is caused by slow progress. In an investigation in New York City it was found that of every hundred retarded children 30 were retarded because of late entrance; 13 were retarded because of late entrance combined with slow progress; and 57 were retarded because of slow progress alone. Thus we see that slow progress is by far the greatest cause of retardation. How much of it may be termed justifiable ? In the first place the school is not to blame for the fact that there are in every considerable community some genuinely mentally deficient children. They are apt to constitute perhaps one-half of i per cent, of the school children. These children should not be in the public schools at all. They cannot be taught by regular classroom methods and are really institution cases. Ranking above these unfortunates we find a much larger number of children who are not mentally deficient, subnormal, atypical children, but are genuinely dull. They may be taught in the public school but need special classes. Such children are apt to constitute 2 or 3 per cent, of the school membership. The children of these two classes, the mentally deficient and the dull, are justifiably retarded in the sense that their backwardness is no fault of the school system. A third class consists of the immigrant children who enter our schools ignorant of the English language and who often enter at advanced ages. It is no fault of the school that large numbers of such children enter its doors. A fourth cause of slow progress is physical defectiveness. Studies in the New York schools have shown that it takes the child who has seriously defec- tive teeth on the average of one-half of a year more to complete the eight grades than it does the child who has sound teeth. In a similar way the child who has adenoids requires more than a year longer to get through than does the child who is not so handicapped. We have considered four causes of the sort of retardation that we may consider wholly or in part justifiable. The extent of such retardation varies greatly in different localities and under different conditions. It is probable that often from a third to one-half of all of the retardation in our school systems is justifiable in the sense that the responsibility for it cannot be laid directly at the door of the school and the school authorities. HOW MAY RETARDATION BE CORRECTED? Retardation may be corrected by measures that reduce late entrance and encourage normal progress. The measures which will tend to reduce late entrance are of two sorts. The first consists of extending the lower limit of the compulsory-attendance period so that children will be required to attend school at the age of seven rather than at tlie age of eight. The second measure consists of ceasing to educate the parents of our children in the belief that the child who enters school at the age of eight or nine is certain to more than catch 154 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis up with the one who enters at five or six until we have definite, reliable data to support those statements. Turning now to the measures which will result in more children making normal progress we have first to consider the question of special treatment for the three special classes of children already mentioned. There is no division of opinion on the proposition that in all school systems it is a duty owed to the community, the teachers, and the children to discover which of the pupils are feeble-minded, and segregate them in institutions if possible. It is almost equally true that we are all agreed that it is good econ- omy to organize special classes for the dull children and the non-English- speaking children. A second sort of remedial measure consists of the developing and perfecting of measures for conserving and increasing the physical soundness of the pupils, for discovering and excluding cases of contagious disease, for finding and having remedied physical defects, and for making the entire school and its surroundings happier, healthier, and more wholesome. The next sort of remedial measure consists of the sort of record-keeping that shall enable the school to keep track of each individual child from the time he enters school until he leaves and to tell when he fails and why he fails and guide in preventing him from failing. The third consideration, and in this limited paper it must be the final one, is that if we are to correct retardation we must so change our courses of study or our methods of grading and promotion that the children who make rapid progress through the grades shall be at least equal in numbers to |;hose who make slow progress. At the present time this condition does not exist commonly, if indeed it does anywhere. At present our courses of study are not fitted to the abilities of the average pupil but to those of the unusually bright one. In- an investigation in New York it was found that for every child making rapid progress through the grades there were eight who made slow progress. Last year in a Massachusetts city for every one making rapid progress there were twenty-one making slow progress. In a large city in Pennsylvania the slow pupils are fourteen times as numerous as the rapid ones. In five other cities in different parts of the country the slow pupils are from ten times as numerous to 150 times as numer- ous as are the rapid ones. It is probably a most conservative statement to say that in the average city there are at least ten times as many children making slow progress as there are making rapid progress. To change this condition is the great school problem. To summarize: The problem of retardation is the problem of finding the leak through which half of our children escape before they complete the elementary course. The causes of retardation are late entrance and slow progress. Not all retardation can be done away with, but it can in most cases be materially reduced. The measures whereby it may be reduced are none of them untried experiments. All of them are measures which may be put 1. i Superintendence] PROVISION FOR GIFTED CHILDREN 155 in practice by any community. Most of them are now being used with entire success in more than one city. //. PROVISION FOR GIFTED CHILDREN IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS JAMES H. VAN SICKLE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BALTIMORE, MD. During the past decade much attention has been given in public-school systems to the problem of the backward, delinquent, and defective children who clog the lower grades of our schools and retard the progress of the children of normal mentality. The movement for special classes for the few — possibly 2 per cent, of the whole number — who cannot profit by instruction as given under ordinary school conditions, is undoubtedly in the right direction. I would go farther and say that another group of children, numbering possibly 8 or 10 per cent, of the whole enrollment, intermediate in mental grasp between the extreme cases and the great body of average children, should receive such individual attention as cannot be given in large classes because many of them will later develop marked strength, if they are now enabled to proceed at the moderate pace needful for them. The topic assigned to me assumes that there are children at the other extreme of ability for whom, also, special provision should be made. President Eliot has often called attention to the importance of discovering these capable individuals and giving them opportunities commensurate with their abilitirs, so that society may use them "to lift the whole population to a higher pline of intelligence, conduct, and happiness." Theoretically, most people are willing to admit that the general tendency in a democracy is to bring ail men to a common level; and that the level toward which we tend is the level of the average intelligence rather than that exemplified in the genius; and that the only way to lift the whole population is to develop capable individuals to take the lead in the lifting. It cannot be denied that the graded-school system, by its tendency toward uniformity, has operated toward making us satisfied with a medium level of attainment. Undoubtedly, one of its effects has been to raise many individuals to a higher level than they might otherwise have attained, and this is good; but, on the other hand, it has made many other individuals satisfied with lower attainments than those of which they were capable, and this is not good. It is not easy to break the "cake of cus- tom" that fifty years of uniformity have created; but now that such signal progress has been made in the proper education of children at the lower levels of ability, we may hope for at least equally valuable results from special attention to children of exceptionally strong mental endowment. For the purpose of this discussion these children are spoken of as "gifted." By the gifted child we do not mean the genius in the sense in which Mr. Galton uses the term. We refer to a more numerous class of children endowed with somewhat more of intellectual power and energy than the great mass of chil- dren in our schools. Of course there is no clear-cut line of division anywhere 156 MAT ION AL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis between the various groups. They shade into each other, and we shall often be in doubt as to the group in which a child belongs, but even under such circumstances there is a gain for education, because we shall sooner solve a problem by recognizing it as a problen than by ignoring it altogether. Statistics are available showing about how many subnormal childern there are among every one thousand, but we do not know how many gifted children there are among every one thousand. We do not know because we have not been looking for them. Under the operation of school-attendance laws, in- stead of easily getting rid of the dullards and laggards, as we too often formerly did, we are undertaking to hold them and teach them, and it is an easy problem to discover who they are. They force themselves upon our attention. Too often, on the other hand, we fail to notice that some children in our classes might do much more work than we are requiring of them. From time to time a few, by reason of their special aptness, have commanded our notice, but we have not considered that they needed any special opportunities. We have, as a rule, held that these bright children would in some way take very good care of themselves; that if a child had any special ability he would make his way in spite of all obstacles. This may be true of the extremely limited number of individuals included in Mr. Gal ton's definition of genius; for he holds that the actual genius is the only genius; or, in other words, that the only individuals of superior native ability are the ones who have demonstrated that superior ability by actual accomplishment, and conversely, that those who have not actually demonstrated the possession of superior native powers do not possess them. He rules out the extremely important factor, "oppor- tunity." According to Lester F. Ward, the only true test of genius (ability) is trial. But unless the conditions for trial are present there can be no trial, and without trial under favorable conditions there is no basis for judging whether there be genius or no. Ward's position in this matter, tho somewhat oversanguine, is to my mind more reasonable than Galton's. Great men [he says] have been produced by the co-operation of two causes — genius and opportunity; neither alone can accomplish it. But genius is a constant factor, very abun- dant in every rank of life, while opportunity is a variable factor and chiefly artificial. As such it is something that can be supplied practically at will. The actual manufacture, therefore, of great men, of the agents of civilization, of the instruments of achievement, is not a Utopian conception, but a practical undertaking .... it consists in the extension to all the members of society of an equal opportunity for the exercise of whatever powers each may possess. How slight an opportunity to develop whatever powers they may possess have children who drop out of school and enter the ranks of unskilled labor as soon as the law permits ! Often a parent is unaware that his gifted child is the possessor of any special talent unless so informed by the teacher. Not infrequently when so informed, a parent will keep his child in school even at the sacrifice of the small but important pecuniary aid which the child's labor Superintendence] PROVISION FOR GIFTED CHILDREN 157 would afiford. By dealing thus with parents whose only capital is their labor, teachers are able to aid very materially in bringing genius and opportunity together. But keeping children in school is not enough. There must at the same time be offered the opportunity for the more able pupils to exercise their ability. Adherence to fixed and unchangeable courses of study and to inflexible schemes of classification fall far short of furnishing equal oppor- tunity to all in our schools. Total lack of systematic procedure would equally fail to secure the desired equality of opportunity, for stimulation and guidance must be well organized and constant. We hear of isolated instances of such stimulation and guidance, but not often of well-organized schemes which may be applied on a large scale, as in a city system of schools. There is a considerable body of literature on the subject of backward children, the lower lo per cent, of our enrollment, but very little on the upper 10 per cent., the gifted. Mr. Kendall's presentation of the case of the ablest pupils, two years ago, is the only one giving definite plans of procedure that I can find in the Proceedings of the National Education Association. The Mannheim scheme of classification (briefly described on pp. 43-47 and 121-23 of Bulletin No. 376, Bureau of Education, entitled The Auxiliary Schools of Germany) makes special provision for the abler pupils by grouping them in separate divisions. The "Report of the Committee on Provision for Excep- tional Children in the Public Schools," presented at the Cleveland meeting of the National Education Association, devotes the greater part of its space to abnormal and subnormal children. Only one page is devoted to provision for exceptionally capable children, and the attitude taken by the committee is, that the problem, while immensely important, remains unsolved. {Pro- ceedings, National Education Association, pp. 350-51.) In the same volume Dr. Charles A. A. J. Miller, of Baltimore, devotes a half-page to this topic (p. 959). The Report of the Committee on Six- Year Course of Study is suggestive, especially in recommendation 4 (Proceedings, National Education Association, 1908, p. 627). A year later the same committee made a report (Proceedings, National Education Association, 1909, pp. 498-502) in which there appear twelve brief statements of plans designed to meet the needs of pupils of varying ability. In the same volume, pp. 175-82, Mr. Walter Siders presents an excellent discussion of certain phases of the subject. The value of any plan must be measured by its results. We cannot expect complete and convincing reports of results in the early stages of the operation of any plan; but where, as in Indianapolis, Worcester, Baltimore, and elsewhere, special provision made for the abler pupils has been in operation for several years, a tentative statement might at this time be possible. For instance, where high-school credits have been earned by elementary-school pupils, it would be possible to make a numerical statement of that particular kind of result and to say something specific as to the class rank of such pupils upon graduation from the high school. Such a statement would be of more 158 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis value for comparison than an indefinite remark to the effect that by means of a given plan "many pupils save considerable time" or "some pupils are able to complete the high-school course in three years." Instead, therefore, of indulging in indefinite statements, I shall attempt to give a brief statistical report of measurable results accomplished by means of a plan, common to several cities, which, beginning in a small way in the fall of 1902, we have been using in Baltimore. The plan, in brief, is to allow pupils who have done strong work in the sixth grade to take up extra studies of high-school grade while doing the regular work of the seventh and eighth grades of the ele- mentary school. These studies are Latin, French, or German, advanced English, and, in exceptional cases, some of the mathematics of the first high- school year. Pupils who take this work are transferred to a convenient cen- ter in which enough pupils may be gathered together to allow the instruction to be organized on the departmental plan. We started in 1902 with one center enrolling 173 pupils, and that year we admitted pupils of the eighth grade as well as the seventh. In 1903 and later, admission was limited to pupils just entering the seventh grade. We now have four centers with an enrollment at present of 571 pupils. For three years one of these centers has been allowed, by way of experiment, to keep selected pupils for an extra year. Such pupils spend but two years in the high school. Other preparatory pupils ordinarily spend three years in the high school; but in either case, for preparatory pupils, the time required for high-school graduation after the sixth elementary grade has ordinarily been five years, whereas six years would have been required had it not been for the high-school credits earned in the elementary school. The preparatory arrangement was in only a formative and transitory stage during 1902-3, 1903-4, and 1904-5. High-school adjustments also were quite difficult at first. Hence, of pupils promoted to the high school in 1903, 1904, and 1905, a majority were unable to graduate in three high-school years. With the preparatory class promoted in June, 1905, the tide turns, and thereafter we find that nearly all pupils entering high school from prepara- tory classes have been able to earn the diploma of graduation in three years. The first preparatory-school pupils were graduated from the high school in 1906. By June, 1910, 236 in all will have graduated. Of these, 41 were in the high school proper but two years; 120 were in high school three years, and 75 four years. Among the latter were 57 who spent but one year — the eighth — in a preparatory center, the one which was opened in 1902. While these 75 pupils who, in the early days of the plan, spent four years in the high school did not save any time, they enjoyed marked advantages. They earned 13,050 credits, or an average of 174 each; whereas the number required for graduation was only 150. It is quite evident that the high-school course pursued by these pupils, tho not shortened, was made much fuller and richer than it would have been had they entered from the ordinary eighth grade. A study of individual records of high-school graduates who came from the Superintendence] PROVISION FOR GIFTED CHILDREN 159 preparatory classes shows in general that a notable gain was experienced in one of two ways: either the student gained a year or more in time, securing the high-school diploma in three years or less instead of taking the customary four years; or the student, tho spending four years in the high school, was able to rank among the honor graduates of his class and to secure a much broader and richer training than the regular four-year student secured. In a relatively larger number of cases where the student took a third preparatory year in the single center offering this extra preparatory year, distinct gain was experienced in both these directions at the same time, because the high- school diploma was secured after only two years in the high school proper, and the student also stood among the honor graduates. Six preparatory-class boys who spent three years in preparatory class and only two in high school, and who graduated in June, 1909, won a rank of 34 in a class of 133, or 32 places above the middle of the class, and two were among the first twenty in the class. Eight girls from the same preparatory class, graduating from the high school at the same time, made an average of 21 in a class of 161, or 59 places above the middle of the class (in Baltimore boys and girls go to different high schools). One of these girls stood second in her class and three others were among the first twenty. The average number of credits earned by this company of boys and girls was 165, or 15 in excess of requirements. The graduation of 236 preparatory pupils from the high schools in the four years ending in June, 1910, is not a large showing when we consider that in these four years the same high schools (three out of the five in our city) have graduated 1,342 pupils; but the plan is very new compared with the usual one, and a number of obstacles must yet be overcome. Some parents do not fully understand the plan. Not all teachers can be quite impartial in their attitude toward a scheme of work which takes away from the regular classes some of the more desirable pupils. Furthermore, many pupils enter- ing the seventh grade are timid about going to a strange school located at a point somewhat distant from their homes; and so it happens that only about one-third of those recommended as capable of taking up the extra preparatory work avail themselves of the opportunity offered. If the work were carried on in every large school so that pupils could enter upon it without being trans- ferred away from the home school, doubtless more would attend; but unless there are enough enrolled at one point to form at least three classes, the teach- ing cannot be economically provided for. For this reason we are using for the preparatory classes only selected centers, and for the further reason that our plan enables us to utilize schoolrooms in portions of the city where the popu- lation is decreasing and where consequently some schoolrooms have become vacant. There are now enrolled in our preparatory classes in the elementary schools 571 pupils, and in the high schools, exclusive of students to graduate in June, there are now 223 students who were promoted from preparatory classes. Mr. Ward's statement that genius is not restricted to any rank of life is borne i6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis out, in the case of our preparatory pupils, by the interesting fact that in these classes are to be found boys arid girls representing every rank of the social order and wide variety of home conditions. To take this material and, following Ward, make "leaders and builders of civilization" out of it is an ambitious undertaking — so ambitious that we do not aim so high; but, judg- ing by the energy and enthusiasm that these selected pupils put into their work, and the marked success which they have so far attained as measured by school standards, we are quite certain that they will display somewhat more of energy and efficiency in whatever field of life-effort they enter, than if, during their schooldays, they had become contented with a lower level of effort and attainment. ///. WHAT CONSIDERATION SHOULD BE GIVEN TO SUBNORMAL PUPILS? MAXIMILIAN P. E. GROSZMANN, PLAINFIELD, N.J. My task this morning is the discussion of provisions for what in this symposium is called the ''subnormal" child with reference to mental alertness. A distinction is made in the program of this meeting between degrees of mental alertness and of moral responsibility; differences are recognized in the mental attitudes, the physical condition, and the environment of children. This method of classification does not appear fully satisfactory; for these various forms of exceptional development are interdependent. Bodily defects, illness, and deformities will produce mental and moral deviations which can be controlled by controlling the physical cause. Even imperfect brain develop- ment, or an impairment of the nervous system, are after all bodily defects. And that the environment of the child has its counterpart in the child's mental and moral attitude needs hardly any specific statement. Seeming moral defects are not infrequently intellectual defects — an inability to appreciate the consequence of actions, weak perception and conception generally, and lack of judgment, all of which tend toward manifestations which have an ethical significance. Again, when we speak of differences in mental alertness we rarely think of legitimate differences in aptitudes. Generally speaking, a child is con- sidered backward, and lacking in mental alertness, if he has difficulty in acquiring the school arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic which are usually taken as standards or gauges of efficiency. If a child is backward in drawing, painting, basketry, or other activities of this kind, including, perhaps, even laboratory work, he will not readily be counted among the backward, if he can read, write, and cipher according to the standard of the school. And yet the artistic person, or the constructive mind, from his respective point of view, will have a perfect right to consider those children defective who cannot develop along the lines of artistic and constructive activity, ijo matter how well they can read, write, or figure. This would seem to show that a I Superintendence] CONSIDERATION GIVEN TO SUBNORMAL PUPILS i6i statement of difference in mental alertness is more difficult than would appear at first glance. It is well that in this symposium the discussion of children who differ in mental attitudes, tastes, and tendencies should have found a place; but from the topics as presented in this program it would seem that a difference of this kind is recognized only in the pubescent and adolescent ages, while it would apply with some force to many younger children. I will not enter into a discussion of the desirability of a proper classification of exceptional children. Suffice it to say that without the establishment of a generally accepted classification and terminology, we may not be able to discuss the problem with sufficient lucidity. The writer of this paper has presented a tentative classification which has been favorably accepted in many places and been made the basis of discussion in professional courses. Its author is painfully conscious of its defects; but it may at least be con- sidered the starting-point for the general acceptance of a suitable nomenclature. In this paper, the term "subnormal" is used, not in the sense in which my own classification employs it, but as referring specifically to mental retar- dation and arrest. The question under discussion is what consideration should be given to mentally retarded pupils in the public schools. The first claim which these children have is certainly that they be con- sidered; in other words, that they be given an opportunity to develop along the lines of their individual abilities. The community owes them as much consideration as it owes the so-called ''normal" child. Recognizing the presence of a relatively large percentage of subnormal children in our schools, it is very necessary to take cognizance of the incipient stages of deviation from normal development, as the latter is generally under- stood. If this can be effected, much difficulty will be avoided and many chil- dren will be saved for useful citizenship who may otherwise be permanently derailed. It is well enough to say that teachers and school principals should be trained in ready recognition of evidence of abnormal conditions. But unless there is a well-organized system of examinations, tests, and research work, conducted by medical inspectors, boards of health, psychologists, and neurologists, in conjunction with what may be called the ''educational pathologist," rela- tively little will be accomplished. Regular and frequent measurements alone will reveal danger-signs, for it has been shown that the relative height and weight of children are indices of mental capacity. And if co-operation with the homes and the family physicians, of the pupils can be established, much helpful information can be gained. Those children who are found wanting in some respects by these various observations need not all be immediately removed from the regular class. Medical treatment and some special regard for their individual differences may suffice. If the difficulty is more serious and the discrepancy between the class aim and the child's ability to reach it is too patent, removal from the regular 1 62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis class is indicated. Such children should be placed in a special observation group, which may be looked upon as a kind of pedagogical clinic. This clinic will serve as a "clearing-house." Children with whom it is merely a matter of readjusted instruction may be placed in "special" or "ungraded" classes; others may need a manual-training school, or a trade school, in lieu of the ordinary three-R's school which they attend. Some will thrive better in a farm or garden school. In Germany, they have founded what have been called "forest schools" for children of this class. In other words, it may mean a transplantation of the child into a different educational environment with different standards. Again, if specific defects are found, such as will handicap the child in its school career, when there are graver mental imperfections and neuropathic conditions, a removal to special institutions is necessary. Feeble-minded children and those with ingrained perverse tendencies have no place in public schools, but should be put under custodial care. This plan in its entirety may seem ideal and even Utopian to some. While perhaps in the evolution of proper provisions for "subnormal" children we may have to be satisfied temporarily with but a fragmentary realization of this plan, it will be found the only true solution of the problem. It may require considerable expense and it may be difficult of smooth organization. But it will save cost and difficulty to an undreamed-of extent if we consider the enormous expense which is imposed upon human society by pauperism and crime, by charity and correction, by judiciary and penal measures. Mr. Leonard P. Ayres has recently shown that the handicap caused by such physical defects as the school doctors discover amounts to about 9 per cent. In 1906-7 the total amount expended by schools in the United States was $336,898,333. If, to use the argument of Mr. Ayres, nothing were done to remove the educational handicap imposed by removable physical defects, $30,320,850 of this money would thus be wasted every year. This amount can be saved by proper medical inspection. But the medical factor is only one in the solution of the problem of the "subnormal" child. The total number of removable and controllable difficulties is vastly in excess of 9 per cent, of the total. The pupils in our schools who are now allowed to drift, without proper attention to their difference in mental alertness, not to speak of their differ- ences in other respects, may be compared to the waste products in industry. In industrial processes it has become the commercial ideal that there shall be no residue left which would go to waste; and the secondary product, or by- product, now often assumes greater importance even than the primary. Like- wise, the apparently subnormal child may be developed into a useful by- product, and among the subnormal children there may be found such as will become leaders if developed in the right direction. And if it were only that the injurious residues are rendered harmless, as is done in factories with the greatest care, and as ought to be done in our educational institutions with Supemtendence] CONSIDERATION GIVEN TO SUBNORMAL PUPILS 163 equal care, society will be saved an enormous amount of damage. When once we will apply the same painstaking, minute, and completely organized methods which are followed in commerce and industry to the process of molding the human material, we shall eliminate from society the greater part of those injurious elements which now threaten its health and even existence. From what has been said it will be seen that to my mind the function of the special or ungraded class is not what it is commonly understood to be. Usually it is a sort of dumping-ground for all those children with whom the regular grade teacher does not know what to do. It was perhaps a progressive step when the so-called ''incorrigible" child was separated from the so-called ''mentally defective" child, and put in special classes or schools. Of course, if the "incorrigible" child were really incorrigible, he would have no place in the public school, not even in a reformatory; he would have to be placed under custodial care of the closest kind. Fortunately, there are very few really incorrigible children, and most of these can be redeemed if approached in the right manner. But a public-school ungraded class is not even the proper place for the truly mental defective. Most children who are now in "ungraded" classes should be transferred to institutions or other suitable places where their life conditions can be fully controlled. An "ungraded" class in a public school is after all a class only for such individualized instruction as can be given in a day school. The ungraded or special class is best adapted to what in the tentative classification alluded to before has been called the group of "pseudo- atypical" (or "paratypical") children. They comprise those children whose progress in school was hindered by irregularity of attendance and change of schools; by a slower rate of development, without pathological retardation; by temporary illness; or by slight physical difficulties, such as lameness and minor deformities; slightly impaired vision and hearing; adenoids, etc. The ungraded class will also be of great help to children who have suffered from neglect; further, to the children of some of our immigrants. Children who are difficult of management may find the atmosphere of a special class where their individual instructional needs are better recognized more congenial than in the regular class. It should be the function of the ungraded class to restore its pupils as soon as possible to ordinary school conditions. And we must not forget that an ungraded class may also prove an especial boon to children of unusually rapid development who would feel the burden of medioc- rity in the regular class too harassing. This suggests the problem of methods for the subnormal child. Gener- ally speaking, methods must be adjusted to the individual. There should be no lock-step; the tension of an "average" standard must be relieved; there must be freedom of personality, aptitude, and attitude. In all grades of subnormal development, down to and including the feeble- minded, perhaps, we may have to recognize that we are dealing with individuals representing different stages of racial development. This is not the place to 1 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis discuss the so-called "culture-epoch" theory in detail. It has been vigorously combated. Suffice it to say that no matter what modifications it may have had to undergo, the main facts of racial development have, undoubtedly, their counterpart in the evolution of the individual. We are dealing with instincts, and methods of mental and moral activity, which manifest different degrees and stages of development, from the primitive form to the modern. Sometimes the seeming primitive instincts, or modes and manners of living, of thinking, feeling, and acting; the crude and coarse tendencies of some subnormal children, do not point back to very ancient levels of civilization and culture. The refinement of instincts, the appreciation and practice of not only more polished, but really purified habits and manners, is a relatively recent thing. Our great-grandfathers differed in this respect very much indeed from the modern conception and from modern mental and moral habits. Super- stitions, for example, are not very long extinct, if at all, and yet they reveal an unreasoning mind. Public education, with reading and writing for the masses, marks a very recent stage of civilization. The dame schools of the New England of a century ago were of the most rudimentary character. All this does not mean only differences in opportunity, but indicates deeper differences in aptitudes and attitudes. And the peasant population of some European countries have preserved to this day many of those conceptions and customs which to the modern American mind seem shocking. Subnormal development, then, apart from genuine pathological cases, will mean that a child represents some by-gone evolutionary stage; a more primitive culture-epoch in some degree. He may be on a lower evolutionary level right thru; which is the rarer case. Or he may possess the original instincts, capacities, tendencies, etc., in various and different stages of develop- ment. He may, for example, in the matter of mathematical reasoning and facility still be on what we may call the Egyptian level, while in reading and literary work he is capable of doing work parallel to modern requirements. Or in graphic representation, drawing, painting, and construction, he may still have the Indian method of symbolism, while in mathematics he is capable of competing with the brightest child of modern times. In dealing with the subnormal child, it will be helpful to remember these facts; and methods and measures should be adjusted to individual needs on the basis of a recognition, and identification, of a child's particular stage of racial development. This development is more or less parallel to his physio- logical and psychological development; and the nascent stages of his faculties will demand consideration. Inasmuch as the subnormal child (again not considering pathological cases as such) will present evidences of a more primitive level of psychic growth, it is plain that in his training those elements must prevail which have been essential in developing culture and civilization from primitive times. In other words: objective, manual, industrial, and constructive methods will form the basis of all school work for this class. What in the ordinary Superintendence] CONSIDERATION GIVEN TO SUBNORMAL PUPILS 165 grades of the public school will of course also find recognition in proportion to the age of the children, viz., the principle of manual experience, will with the subnormal child require more prominence, longer application, and more variegated adjustment. For it is thru the evolution of manual and construc- tive skill, of motor control and muscular co-ordination, that the human race has risen gradually above the lower creation. Reason and judgment grew in proportion to motor control. What is historically evident has recently been demonstrated physiologically, thru special investigations among defec- tive children. Using the dynamometer in testing the feeble-minded children of the New Jersey Training School at Vineland, Dr. Henry H. Goddard found that the difference between our children and normals in strength of grip increases steadily and uniformly as we proceed from our highest, what we call our seventh, grade down to our lowest or Grade I. It may, therefore, be asserted that, allowing for some individual excep- tions, we can, on the average, determine the grade of a child by finding out how much he can squeeze on the dynamometer. [And he adds] Besides the diagnostic value of this fact, it is of the utmost significance for pedagogy, both of abnormals and normals. Intel- lectuality and brain power are somehow closely connected with muscular control. The child that learns to use his muscles well is laying the best possible foundations for good will-power, self-control, and high intellectual attainment in whatever direction he applies himself later. Altho this paper is perhaps particularly concerned with school provisions for the subnormal child, I may be permitted, before closing, to refer to a few other pertinent matters. Especially under existing conditions, a percentage of subnormal children will leave the public-school care before their restoration to satisfactory balance is completed. Such children will be unfit for self-maintenance, and provisions for their after-care should be made. A discussion of this subject in a com- mittee of the Public Education Association of New York City has led to the suggestion that there should be created municipal and state commissions which, like the Commission on Lunacy, or the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, would have power to control the proper management of these children. The compulsory-education law may need to have its functions extended in this direction, for not infrequently parents are unwilling, or too ignorant, to take the proper care. Further: all these provisions will only relieve, to some extent, the con- dition of children who have already become subnormal. The further problem is to study the operative causes of these deviations from the norinal, and to search into the possibilities of removing, or preventing the operation of, these causes. This is a far-reaching sociological problem which is more and more engrossing the attention of the medical and educational professions, of phil- anthropists, sociologists, and others working in this field. The public schools, by developing provisions for the study and care of subnormal children, will constitute themselves into what may be called a vast educational clinic, and 1 66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis render valuable aid in the solution of this problem, which in its wider aspect is the problem not only of the subnormal but of the exceptional child. The problem of the exceptional child is assuming increasing proportions as our study of it grows. We are apt to consider this problem as the result of an increasing deterioration of the race, and to think that individual cases are examples of degeneration in our age of high tension. I fear that there is an overemphasis laid upon objective causes. Especially in the case of the exceptional child who is out of tune with his environment and can be set right if properly understood, this cause plays a relatively small part. It is rather that our understanding of child nature has not kept pace with the increas- ing complexity which our rapidly changing civilization has created. Our present understanding is adequate for the child of a generation ago, and this is not suited to help the child who must adjust himself to the kaleidoscopic combinations of environment of today. Naturally, the child whose nature is not the average finds the greater difficulty in making these adjustments. I would, therefore, say that the exceptional child of today, with the exception of the lower orders and of truly pathological cases, suffers not so much from inherent deterioration as from our lack of understanding his nature, and from our failure to adjust him adequately to the complex problems of an environment in which he must live without having a ready equipment for ad- justment. The process of becoming a unit in a given civilization is a process of assimilation and transmutation. It starts from within us, and implies a projection of the outer world upon the inner. It means, as Froebel puts it, an internalization of the external, and an externalization of the internal. In this process the exceptional child has particular difficulties inasmuch as he is in a way a representative of a different epoch. Yet a child considered even subnormal in mental alertness if measured with the average or rather antiquated standard of the ordinary curriculum may have a peculiar genius of his own which lifts him above the successful average pupil in human value. The plea for satisfactory provisions for the exceptional child includes, therefore, a plea for a better recognition of child nature in general. DISCUSSION F. B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. — The problems arising from the difference in alertness of children were probably not so apparent some years ago, for the reason that when children did not get on in school they got out. Conditions were not so pressing until the rigid enforcement of child-labor laws and compulsory-education laws clogged our educational machinery. In Cincinnati there were 1,648 more children in school over 14 years of age last year than there were the year before, though the total attend- ance is not greatly increased. Most of these belong to the type of children who formerly dropped out. Anyone who ranks cities by their percentage of retardation alone misunder- stands the situation. It is the business of our schools by persuasion, coercion, and every inducement they can honestly offer, to hold the children as long as the school will be of advantage to them, altho as their efforts are successful there will be a relatively larger num- ber between twelve and sixteen who are behind. It is thus that the number of over-age Superintendence] CONSIDERATION GIVEN TO SUBNORMAL PUPILS 167 ^^B Sup I^^B children has become so conspicuous as to be noticed even by us superintendents. The I^K problem of the precocious child is not much more pressing than it has always been, except I^B by way of contrast. He is more conspicuous because more rare in proportion to the mass. I^^B As he will probably be able to take care of himself pretty well, and as his teacher will prob- I^^B ably show him oflf about all that is good for him, I think we are very naturally I^^B more distressed about the children who seem to be misfits. ^H[ I have time to mention only two methods of impr(7>ving conditions: Teachers must ^^B be apprised of the situation, and aroused to a realizing sense of their responsibility — I should rather say opportunity — in the matter; and we must provide relief in a larger variety of auxiliary schools than we are yet doing. 1. Acquainting teachers with the situation. — Some propose semi-annual promotion and a two-class system as a remedy for retardation. These may be worth considering, but hebdomadal promotion and a ten-class system, or any other mechanical device, will not be sufficient. It must be done thru organism and not thru mechanism — thru living, functioning teachers, who are thoroly aware of the situation and who are not blamed with it. Their classes must be small enough for them to look after individual children. They must be disabused of the theory that all children must have everything up to a fixed stand- ard before promotion or that there should be an invariable time for promotion or demotion. They must be instructed how to measure the characteristics of children and how to judge what is best for them. They must be given time and encouragement to visit homes, to advise with parents and arouse them to their responsibility in training their children. They should do this, however, not so much for the help they will give as for the help they will get in the way of insight on their part and intelligent co-operation on the part of parents. I believe the school principal is another factor of fundamental importance in attacking the problem. Irregular attendance and half-hearted effort are accountable for more retar- dation than is defective mentality. The principal is the intermediary. We must give him vigilant truant officers, home visitors, medical inspectors, nurses, and all the helps he can use. We must place under his guidance the most competent teaching staff that can be found and encourage him to give his utmost energy to real supervision — or, rather, to intervision, if we had such a word. I don't like to think of him as a super, looking down from above; I should rather think of him as among, looking in between, selecting those who need stimulation, working with the teacher, talking with the pupils, grouping them according to their needs. I verily believe that with such a vigilant principal, equipped with such help as I have described, the percentage of failures could legitimately be reduced from twenty to ten or twelve under normal conditions. But these ten or twelve per cent, of failures we shall always have, and any system that pretends otherwise is a system of deception. With the great influx of older children at present, we must for a time labor with a much larger percentage of over-age children. What shall we do with them ? I shall confine the discussion to this one class of children referred to by Mr. Van Sickle as the intermediate class. 2. Provisions for relief. — (a) Auxiliary schools should be provided for retarded chil- dren as well as for those who are markedly defective. The old device of an ungraded room is theoretically a good one, but in practice it has not met expectations. When each pupil is a class to himself, about six to ten pupils is the limit of a teacher's ability. The strain upon her even then is excessive and in time her teaching becomes perfunctory or she wears out. Also the vigilance that is needed to keep children moving to her room and from it finally exhausts the principal, who has too many things to look after to have the ungraded room ever uppermost on his mind. Where the principal wants it enough to give it great attention the ungraded room will be a success. It may be resorted to especially in isolated districts, providing for various special needs, but in centers of school population it seems to me that the plan of collecting the retarded children in a central school is better. Those who are deaf, blind, foreign, incorrigible, or of extremely low mentality are sent to central special schools. Where necessary, transportation is provided by the Board, which runs a 1 68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis conveyance for the blind and for children of low mentality, and supplies street-car tickets for the deaf and the truant school. In addition to these schools, in the city I represent, 176 of those who were three years behind their grade but who did not fit in any of the special schools were placed in a central school two years ago under six teachers. They were exam- ir^ed by medical experts — aurists, oculists, neurologists, etc. — a large staff of practitioners volunteering their services. Teachers were selected who seemed adapted to the work. Each class was given manual training and gymnasium every day. The course of study was adapted to their age and interests. In most cases there was no attempt to force or stuff, but the work was done leisurely and thoroly but very concretely and with as frequent reference to the workshop and practical affairs as possible. The attitude of these children toward school has wholly changed in the last two years. Their effort, attendance, and conduct are nearly up to the normal. We are now preparing to enlarge the plant and to establish a central school to be fed by at least a half-dozen schools and numbering three hundred to five hundred retarded children from the second to the fifth grades and give them a four-year industrial course, consisting of household arts, simple toolwork, drawing and applied arithmetic, and such cultural work in English, history, and geography as they are capable of. I believe there are at least 10 per cent, of our children, who, while not belong- ing in classes for children of decidedly defective mentality, are not going to keep up with normal children without overstimulation and unhealthy pressure. The ordinary curricu- lum is not adapted to their needs, but a course can be devised for them which will give them the rudiments of an education and make them useful and happy citizens. The advantages of massing them in an auxiliary school are that they can be classified, that a corps of teachers can work together with mutual interests and sympathy, and that they can without great expense be provided with a large amount of manual and physical training. Such a school can serve as a clearing-house, from which children may be sent to the special schools which may better fit their needs, or back to higher grades of the ordinary school if that seems best for them, but a large number of them will probably do better to remain in the industrial school until they go to work. By providing transportation for distant pupils, one school can meet the needs of a large section of a city. In planning new buildings one school can be easily reserved for an auxiliary center. h) Continuation schools should be provided for those who go to work before they complete the elementary course. Attendance part time in day schools should be compul- sory for all such up to the age of sixteen or eighteen. Children who go to work at fourteen have not as a rule fixed habits, right ideals, or trained reason. If the state kept control of these, and provided say eight hours of instruction a week for them they would be worth more to their employers in the end, and would be worth vastly more to themselves. Again I speak from experience. We opened a day class for machine-shop apprentices in August The employers allow the boys four hours a week and pay them for it, and yet they agree that the output of the boys is not diminished, while the spirit of the boys, their ambition, their interest in their work, and their attitude toward their foreman and employer are wonderfully changed for the better. If all superintendents appreciated the importance of these part-time schools after children go to work, it would not be long before our states, at least in our northern section, provided for them. The advantage of such schools seems in part to be that many retarded children seem to wake up after they go to work, and become interested in their studies, especially in those which are applied to the work they are doing. If control over them is maintained for two years after they start to work it will make a vast difference in their lives. Superintendence] VARIABLE FACTORS IN MORAL RESPONSIBILITY 169 TOPIC: CHILDREN DIFFER IN MORAL RESPONSIBILITY /. THE VARIABLE FACTORS IN MORAL RESPONSIBILITY p. W. HORN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HOUSTON, TEX. (Abridged for the volume of Proceedings.) The recognition of the fact that there are variable factors in the matter of moral responsibility is the first step toward the giving of real justice. There can be no real justice in any scheme which treats all people as possessing the same degree of moral responsibility. An approximation of justice is the best that can be obtained under such conditions. It is this that diaws the sharp distinction between divine justice and justice in our courts. The basal principle of divine justice is that a man *'is judged according to that which he hath and not according to that which he hath not." The best that the civil law can do is to announce the principle that "a man is presumed to intend the consequences of his own voluntary act." It is the boast of the human law that it treats all men alike; it is the glory of the divine law that it sees in all men differences. This difference is a necessary one. It is because "man looketh upon the outward appearance, but God looketh upon the heart." The school in this respect stands midway between the human law and the divine law. This is because the school is partly a civil institution, and partly a divine institution. It cannot ajBford to overlook either of these sides of its work. While it cannot at any time see all of the heart of any child, it can see more of it than the civil law can; and it is its duty to see as much of it as it can. When once we recognize the fact that no two of our children are exactly alike in the matter of moral responsibility, the next question that arises is, What makes the difference ? What are the variable factors in the case ? The first of the variable factors in the moral responsibility of the child is his age. It is merely a truism to state that children at different ages should be dealt with differently in regard to moral questions, and yet it is a truth which has never been fully grasped in our schools. We constantly see the effort on the one hand to deal with adolescents as if they were small children, and on the other hand, the effort to deal with them as if they were grown people. These courses are alike injurious. The teacher who really wishes to do the best for her children morally must gradually change her point of attack and her method of work from the time the child first enters school until he leaves it. It should furthermore be emphasized that these changes should be made gradually. There is no such thing as a sharp break in the development of the child. Even the transition from childhood to adolescence is not made in an hour, or a month. Not even the exact year can be definitely stated. That too, varies with individuals. Nevertheless, we sometimes see sharp changes in the method of discipline and in the method of moral treatment of the children. The sharpest of these breaks occurs between the elementary school I70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis and the high school. Another perhaps as great occurs between the high school and the college. It is no wonder that children drop out at these gaps. The second factor which must be reckoned with in the moral training of children is that of sex. The recognition of this factor is by no means so easy a matter as might be supposed. A hasty generalization to the effect that "boys are bad and girls are good," or, vice versa, will always lead one to error. Crude as such a belief may be, it is a fact that either in the one form or the other it does exist in the minds of a great many people, and that it results in either form in injustice to one or both sexes. While it must be admitted that no clear-cut line of moral responsibility can be drawn between the sexes, it must also be admitted that a different kind of moral treatment is needed with the sexes. Teachers frequently make the comment that "the boys are better than the girls in some particulars, and the girls are better than the boys in others." There is more philosophy in this remark than might at first be apparent. It implies that more emphasis needs to be laid on certain moral questions with boys and on certain others with girls. There may be a difference of opinion as to whether these differences can best be brought out in separate schools; but there can be no difference of opinion as to the fact that these differences exist, and become more marked as the pupil grows older, and that they should be recognized if any system of moral training is to be effective. A third of these variable factors is that of nationality. No teacher who has come in contact with any considerable number of pupils of foreign parentage can fail to realize that each nation has its own particular code of morals. It is not necessary to go .... anywheres east of Suez Where the best is like the worst Where there ain't no ten commandments. The thoughtful teacher in our own country observes that the Italians have their own particular code of morals; the Germans another; the Syrians another, and so on through the list. It may be true that the Ten Command- ments do not vary the world over, but it is also true that man's interpretation of them does vary largely. Certain interesting facts in regard to various nationalities are matters of common knowledge among teachers. For instance, teachers are glad to have in their rooms the children of German parentage. A German parent ordi- narily impresses upon his child the idea of truthfulness, obedience, and respect for the teacher and for law. It is commonly recognized, also, that Jewish children ordinarily make desirable pupils, from both an intellectual and a moral standpoint. In regard to certain other nationalities, reports are by no means so flattering. An interesting article or perhaps a book might be written on "The Geo- graphical Distribution of Morality." While it is undoubtedly true that no geo- graphical line could be drawn which would have all the good people on one Superintendence] VARIABLE FACTORS IN MORAL RESPONSIBILITY 171 side of it, and all the bad on the other, it is nevertheless true that moral ideals and hence moral responsibility vary greatly, even in different parts of our own country. If the article should be written it would doubtless be found that no one region has all the advantages or all the disadvantages in moral matters. For instance, the region where they burned witches was not the region where slavery flourished. To show the practical bearing of this upon the question of schoolroom morals, it may be pointed out that there is a large section of the United States today in which the average boy is taught in his home, and in society generally, that it is his actual duty to resent the imputation of a lie by a blow. There are other sections where he is taught that a blow under such conditions, while not unnatural, would be wrong and highly regrettable. If it should be said that this difference shows a broad general difference in the moral sensibility of the two regions, it is at least worthy of notice that in a large part of the region where boys are taught that the imputation of a lie ought to be resented by a blow, they are also taught to class a high protective tariff in the same category with highway robbery, differing from it chiefly in the fact that it is safer. It will be apparent to any unprejudiced observer that the moral sensibility of the people of one section of the country may be comparatively obtuse in regard to some one moral question, and yet may be quite acute in regard to others. Any teacher who, even with the best of intentions in regard to moral training, fails to take into consideration the moral ideas of the racial heritage and geographical environments of her pupils will find her work necessarily ineffective. We recognize more or less fully the necessity of having our textbooks graded in difficulty to suit the intellectual capacity of the children. It is strange that we fail so largely to grasp the idea of gradation to suit the moral capacity even of whole groups of children. The new style of school readers with its literary flavor may be admirably suited to the moral needs of certain children, or of certain schools; but the old-style reader — such as the old McGuffey that you and I used to study when we were children — with its emphasis on character-building was undoubtedly better suited to the needs of certain other great groups of children. A twentieth-century reader may be all right for twentieth -century children; but there are many children who still live morally in the nineteenth century, and for their moral training at least the nineteenth-century reader is better adapted. It need hardly be stated that one of the greatest of all causes of difference in moral responsibility in the child is the difference in training he has received in his out-of-school environment. His life at home and on the street is per- haps the strongest of all the forces that enter into the making of his moral ideals. Any scheme of education is fatally short-sighted if it proceeds on the supposition that the school life is the whole educational force. So long as homes are different children will be different. The moral training received in the home affects the child's moral capacity just as the intellectual training 172 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis affects his mental capacity. To expect the same amount of moral responsive- ness from the child reared among vicious surroundings that you would expect from the child in a Christian home would be as unreasonable as to expect the same degree of appreciation of a great piece of literature from an illiterate laborer as from a university scholar. No scheme of education is complete which does not take into consideration the home life of the child. No educational study is adequate which does not look into the child's out-of-school conditions. This study can of course be made in many different ways. One of the greatest works of the mothers' club is to make it possible for the teacher to understand what the home influ- ence is. Only when this understanding is gained can any rational moral training be given. Increased moral responsiveness on the part of the child means increased responsibility to the teacher, and this responsibility is not always wisely carried. If it be true that a good home environment adds to the child's moral capacity, it follows that the best moral training ought to be possible when the children have good environments out of school. It does not appear, however, that this is always the case. In fact, it sometimes appears that the very best work in moral training is being done by our schools in districts where the home environment is worst. This speaks well for the workers there, but poorly for the rest of us. It is true that "to whom little has been given, of him little shall be required": but it is also true that "to whom much has been given, of him much shall be required." Close akin to the influence of the home and the street as variable factors in the moral responsibility of children, may be mentioned the influence of the church, the Sunday school, and other organized agencies for moral and spiritual work. The active results of these agencies in forming the child's character is a question on which teachers differ widely. This very uncertainty tells something. The best friends and most active workers in Sunday-school matters are bending all their energies to make the training more effective. The comparatively loose organization and system of teaching used in the average Sunday school make it wonderful that the Sunday school has accom- plished as much as it has. There can be no doubt that with all its short- comings, the Sunday school is growing to be more and more an effective factor in the moral development of the child. Still another of the variable factors in moral responsibility is the child's physical condition. Not only is the body at the basis of intellectual develop- ment, but it is at the basis of moral power as well. The child whose nerves are wrecked, as a result either of disease or of bad habits, is not likely to develop as much moral stamina as the child of sound body. The removal of adenoid growths frequently gives the child a degree of moral responsiveness which the teacher would formerly have deemed impossible. Every teacher has known cases in which utter lack of moral responsibility was the result merely of excessive cigarette smoking. In fact, in many instances, the "bad boy" Superintendence] VARIABLE FACTORS IN MORAL RESPONSIBILITY 173 could be made a good boy morally if he could only be made a good boy physically. And it is one of the triumphs of modern education that in many instances this very thing can be done. No greater scientific work is being done in all the world today than that being done by Dr. Lightner Witmer, Dr. Groszmann, and their colaborers in working over physically certain unfortunate children so that they may have a chance, both mentally and morally. This great work should be taken up in so far as it may be in every large school system in our country. While it may be impossible to achieve such triumphs as those of these men, it is at least possible in every school system for us to give more mental and moral capacity to certain unfortunate children by giving more attention to their physical defects. No possible line of modern school work could be greater, or more in accord with the spirit of the One who said, "In- asmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me." There remains yet at least one more element which should be considered in the matter of moral responsibility. This may be called individual tempera- ment. It is the irreducible minimum which remains after all allowance has been made for all extraneous influences. One of the variable elements in temperament is that of will. After all is said and done, we cannot escape the conclusion that every human being, whether child or adult, is allowed con- siderable range of free choice as to right and wrong. He can do right or he can do wrong. It is for him to decide. It is just at this point that one of the dangers of modern child study comes in. We have found out certain well-marked tendencies on the part of the child. If, however, we mistake these tendencies for inevitable facts, our system of education is greatly weakened. It is all right for us to believe that the boy at a certain stage in his existence has a tendency to be a savage. It is all wrong, however, if we assume that at this stage he must necessarily do unkind and cruel things. It is even worse if we teach him that he is expected, at this time, to do these things. There can be no moral training without moral responsibility, and moral accountability. Not to expect good things from a child — or from a man — is one of the surest ways not to obtain them. We do well to observe carefully the tendencies in children as pointed out by child study, but we do wrong if we teach that these tendencies are too strong to be overcome. We should be careful that the doctrine of fatalism, which has disappeared from our philosophy, and is disappearing from our theology, does not reappear in our system of education. Children are no more thieves by compulsion than men are. They need to be taught that it is not with our stars, but with ourselves, that we are underlings. These, then, are at least a few of the variable factors entering into the moral responsibility of children: age, sex, nationality, geographical environment, home and street environment, moral and religious training, physiological constitution, and original temperament. 174 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis It is the duty of the teacher' to study carefully the effect of each one of these upon the moral capacity of each child in her room. If she is interested in increasing his moral capacity, it is her duty to find a task suited to the capacity of each child under all of the conditions. In conclusion, may I be allowed to suggest that it must be a task that is to be done, not merely talked about ? Moral training can no more be accom- plished merely by moral lectures than can mental or physical training be given to children by lectures on mental or physical subjects. The general plan of moral training in our schools today is different from that in the schools of yesterday. The moral training of tomorrow will doubt- less be different from that of today. The school of yesterday did things to the children; the school of today does things for the children; the school of tomorrow will do things with the children. The great question in morals asked by the teacher of yesterday was, "What shall I do to the boy who has done something wrong ?" The question being asked by the teacher of today is, "What can I do for the moral welfare of the children under my charge ? " The question that will be asked by the teacher of tomorrow will be, "How can I get the children to do such deeds as will contribute to their own moral development, to the welfare of others, and to the service of God and humanity ?" //. DISCIPLINE AS AFFECTED BY DIFFERENCES IN MORAL RESPONSIBILITY WALTER F. LEWIS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PORT HURON, MICH. Nothing else in school life compares in importance with the discipline of the school. There is nothing that exerts so large an influence upon the school or upon the children's character. The subjects of arithmetic, geography, and grammar are important and count in the future life of the child, but essential as these subjects are they are not comparable with the discipline of the school which he attends. We are all agreed that children must learn to read and write, but these are not the most influential elements in education. Character must be made the groundwork, the foundation in any plan of education. Of infinitely more importance than drawing, music, or spelling is the fact that children should be so trained that they leave school disciplined in the love of manliness and truth. They should go forth waving the flag of good citizen- ship. There must be authority with obedience behind it, authority from both within and without. I suppose in the best-governed schools there is a com- bination of both methods. Certainly the discipline of a school is growing less autocratic year by year. With equal certainty we know it is more attrac- tive to the pupils. The great problem of school government, however, is to train the boy and girl so that when they leave the school and go out into the world they go forth as honest, upright, decent citizens. The question of school discipline therefore must be considered as a moral one. Superintendence] DISCIPLINE AND MORAL RESPONSIBILITY 175 We are putting things enough into the head of the child or endeavoring to, at least, but the pupil's heart must be in the right place. It cannot go wholly wrong. Otherwise our scheme of education has a tendency for evil. We must not educate the head while the heart remains untouched. The ques- tion is not axiomatic that the development of the intellect carries with it a moral growth or any distinct uplift of one's better nature. In fact a person is not educated when his better half is left untrained or simply veneered through our educational system. His moral nature must be touched. With the devel- opment of the intellect alone by far the poorer half of the child has been developed. In the final outcome of any scheme of education there must result a moral fiber shown in the child's personality and character. Many teachers are autocrats in their plan of discipline. This is notice- able in every exercise of the^hool. Discipline to be successful and work for the best interests of the child must be based upon a respect for the teacher and come involuntarily, almost spontaneously. There must be a spirit of kindly co-operation between both parties in the school — the teacher and the pupil. When this is fairly accomplished school work should be largely pleas- ure and the discipline of the school not a difficult task. We hear much about the personal influence of the teacher, her personality. This is trite enough. The graces of person, her manner of speech, her enthusi- asm— these are unquestionably strong factors bearing favorably on authority and discipline. The discipline of the school is a large part of the success of the teacher. Broad scholarship is no guarantee of this success. The teacher may have many excellent qualities, but thru her power as a disciplinarian she is rated either a success or a failure. We expect all normal pupils to respond to sensible discipline, a discipline that is steady, firm, based on a thoro under- standing between teacher and pupil. Such a scheme of discipline will take into consideration the varied but rational interests of the children. All children must obey. They need oversight, guidance in the right direction. If these do not prevail lawlessness is the result. There must be a strong public opinion in the school in favor of discipline of the right sort. With a close sympathy between pupil and teacher, and plenty of steady, honest work, the question of discipline is solved for the great majority of pupils. We may have one or more pupils, not in every room but in every building, who make themselves nuisances. They may be persistently disobedient, impudent, or impertinent to their teachers. Usually they are boys over whom the parents have no control. They do not obey. They break the laws of the home, the school, and the city. There is the pupil with the defiant attitude. It is his right to be controlled, and distinctly a crime against him and against society to allow him to grow up unregulated. Once in a while we find a pupil who seems entirely vicious. Ordinary forms of government in the hands of the ordinary teacher are defied. He annoys and is against everything in the form of discipline. Apparently his constant aim is to disturb the school. There is open defiance of authority, contrary to every school interest. Of 176 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Undianapolis course if one of these boys can be brought into correct habits of living in the school the teacher has certainly won a great victory, but he must come into touch with the spirit of order and discipline. I think we all have to admit that now and then we find a pupil of so defiant an attitude that fear of punish- ment only will keep him in line long enough to allow the teacher to develop a better spirit. But if he cannot be won over he should not be allowed to defy the school and its discipline. I do not believe in corporal punishment. Our natural feelings of humanity are against violence, against any form of discipline thru assault and battery. Still, it should not be made impossible but held in reserve for the most serious and stubborn cases of disobedient and defiant pupils; for those who would otherwise break down the discipline of the school and need the attention of the courts. In choosing between corporal punishment and suspending a boy from school it occurs to me that the former is less injurious to the future life of the boy. No one questions that the highest motives should be employed, and in well-disciplined schools, with teachers of broad common-sense and large understanding, it is seldom resorted to. Probably in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred even in these extreme cases mentioned above there is some better way that will touch these pupils. But a little spanking is preferable to disorder and lawlessness, better for the boy and better for the school. In a very, very few cases it acts favorably toward discipline. To some boys it certainly has been a blessing. They themselves acknowledged it later in life. For the most part kindness, firm- ness, and self-control will produce good discipline. In general terms a teacher may be unfit who must use the rod. But after other means have been tried to the utmost, rather than the truant school or expulsion a little corporal punishment is less injurious. The truant pupil must be considered in any scheme of discipline. In the great majority of cases truancy may be traced to lack of parental control. The parents mean well but do nothing to encourage the boy in regular attend- ance at school. The atmosphere of the home is dead. The father usually is absorbed in his business or tired out from his day's work in the shop. He has neither the time nor the inclination for the care of the children or any close companionship with them. The pressure and burden of work necessary for the support of the family make him neglect his choicest possessions. Too often we may trace truancy to the inefficient teacher. It is not always the dull pupil who plays the truant game. Of course the backward pupil loses interest day by day thru constant failure to keep up with the class, but the bright boy has plenty of time left for mischief which in his own judgment he can use to better advantage outside of school. In either case the school becomes a prison and both classes of pupils are absei.'t with more or less regularity. Most cases of pupils coming under the truant list are preventable. They become irregular in their school work through no fault of their own. Usually common-sense and justice exercised thru some of the plans of special help and supervision of study will put pupils of this class into habits of respect for authority. Superintendence] DISCIPLINE AND MORAL RESPONSIBILITY 177 It is not so very long ago that we regarded the intellectually, as well as the morally, defective child without consideration in the scheme of school life. We now realize to what a state of efficiency these children may be trained. In our state institutions some of the worst cases of idiocy are cured, while many of the milder cases are much improved even in the publici schools. Statistics show that this class of children is rapidly on the increase. Twenty years ago the number was estimated at about one-fifth of i per cent. This rate is said to have doubled in two decades, the children embracing every grade of moral responsibility. We are doing more and more for these chil- dren, but still more must be done. In every scheme of discipline these unfor- tunates should be recognized. Not with harshness but with sympathy they must be treated, but must, however, be made efficient and moral. Uniform discipline cannot touch them all. It is said that the delinquent child of today comes from the city and town. At least 98 per cent, of those noted in some of our reformatories are the pro- duct of city life. We notice the increase in juvenile depravity not only in irregularities of conduct but also in those more serious crimes not noted fifteen years ago. Our plan of school government must go down to these children. The safety of the state demands it. Great things are being done by the school for intellectual and industrial life. We should accomplish much along moral lines. Any scheme of discipline that does not train the child morally, as a part of its work, must be a failure. Of course we all contend that the ordinary school government is productive of moral training; that the personal influence of the teacher is indirect but forcible; that literature and history are sure to have lasting and beneficial effects upon the character of the child. We do not however make moral training the important work of the school. Reading, spelling, geography, and arithmetic are given regularly five days in a week. These are important things. The pupils know this. They also know that subjects that are not considered at all or are mentioned but slyly and indirectly must be rather unimportant. If our plan of government and training does not take into account the principles of morality, will the children value it as a factor of any importance in daily life ? We seem to be very proud of this indirect moral training, but it is not as thoro as it ought to be. It is not frequent, systematic, or definite. Certainly the boys who smoke and gamble, swear and steal, and who do other things that are bad, need thoro training in the principles of decent living. We are practically unanimous that the schools should train for right conduct. Naturally as teachers we blame the home, the church, the saloon, and the press. They in turn blame us. But it doesn't improve the matter for us to say "you're another." The boy's training in school makes him either socially fit or so- cially unfit. He becomes either a good citizen or he does not. The school is largely responsible for this and the teachers should be his trainers and he should be drilled at the proper time. 1 78 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis We find different standards of conduct everywhere amongst different classes of pupils. They have their own problems, but they all should have train- ing in good conduct. Should it have a place as part of the school discipline, or be sandwiched in with the various exercises of the day ? Ought it not to be on a par with, and have an equal chance with, spelling, arithmetic, or gram- mar ? The incidental method is hallowed by custom and has precedent behind it, but is it adequate ? The public schools must become the great institution in character-building. The tone of the school, its general plan and methods of management, must show the highest regard for moral principles. It must establish obedience, regard for others, right habits which build character. Ordinarily the child respects the right and the good, and our discipline is based upon such a feeling of the child. We presume an orderly school, subject to the will of the teacher, but the scheme of discipline must have in mind the pupil. The aim is in the direction of virtue, the developing of moral strength. Children are not alike morally, but the schools must take them as they are found, make men and women of them. Of equal importance with power to read and write is a high conception of right and wrong. In spite of the dishonesty in industrial, commercial, and political life these virtues have high place in public regard. Then why should they not be cultivated by every means at our command? Talking will not produce good conduct. The pupil must see and feel it in the school life. It must be brought about thru daily and yearly training. Or does this training avail nothing? Have we entirely discarded the doctrine of formal discipline ? Has it no value in the general training of the schoolroom? Is it useless to insist upon obedience, or fruitless to endeavor to form habits of honesty and integrity ? In the light of this doctrine do habits apply only to situations in which they are formed ? If this is true our discipline would become useless. If these habits formed in school do not become part of the individual and make for law and citizenship, then discipline counts for nothing in developing obedience and self-control. If it is true that practical tests of the doctrine of formal discipline have every- where failed, then our training toward good citizenship amounts to nothing except under parallel situations. I believe, however, that we are what we are thru force of habit, that the virtues upon which good citizenship rests are formed largely in school. Honesty, uprightness, self-control are taught by example until a habit is formed. Every scheme of discipline stands for these virtues thru a continual respect for authority. The discipline of the school for all classes of pupils should impress upon the children that they share not only in the duties but in the responsibility of their fellows. Emphasis should be laid upon their own rights and also upon the privileges of others. It occurs to me that thru the discipline of school government there may be a stronger public sentiment in favor of law and order. With self-government in the upper grades of the grammar schools the whole control might be made easy. Self-government gives the pupil a feeling of responsibility. This in itself is healthful and strengthening. Pupils Superintendence] DISCIPLINE AND MORAL RESPONSIBILITY 179 feel that they are citizens of the school and that the reputation of the school is as much for them as for the teacher. The ordinary boy or girl in school notices the violation of rules every day and the milder forms of misconduct going on around him but he is not con- cerned with the government of the school and it is not his duty to interfere. He does not dare to report these offenses. If he had disposition to do so he would be branded as a spy. Where he becomes part of the governing plan and is responsible for the order of the school the situation is different, as discipline is maintained by the efforts of all. For all classes of pupils in the lower grades the Brownlee Plan contains within it the elements of a good scheme of discipline. Many of its features are interesting. There are new things and those that are modified. It has a simple plan with an excellent purpose. The scheme is based upon what we might call a word-a-month plan. Each month a word is made prominent, such as kindness, honesty, or self-control, and every day thru story, compo- sition, or other work reference is made to this word. These words are made prominent thru the eye on banner or blackboard for the purpose of awaken- ing thought and to arouse an impulse in lines of proper conduct. By means of this plan of school government improvement has been made, not tempo- rary but permanent, in social and moral ways. Better attention to the laws of good health, obedience in the home and school with increased regard for the rights of others have been noted. Opportunities are given for the working-out of the children's best nature and on the whole it develops a spirit of co-operation. Among the forms of self-government that have received some attention is that of the school city. This form of school discipline has been organized in several of our largest cities. The idea, however, does not seem to spread, in spite of the fact that distinguished educators have expressed their heartiest approval of the system. School principals who have tried the system speak heartily in its favor. In many instances it has been successful beyond the sanguine expectations of its friends. The school-city idea is in an experimental stage, but it certainly has vital elements that are fundamental in character. New and important elements are brought into school discipline. By this plan moral responsibility has been stimulated. The school city has been the means of developing character. Pupils instead of blindly obeying the commands of others are led to think for themselves. At the same time the children are trained in the practice of citizenship. The plan of the school city has two aims. First, to develop in the pupil self-control and responsibility, and second, to give plenty of practice in the forms of government. The phase of this form of government is emphasized upon the character side while the practice of government is a secondary aim. As far as we may judge this entire plan is strong in the direction of moral training. A healthy school spirit is formed by placing a part of the control in the hands of the pupils where it belongs and in giving them proper guidance. i8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis The idea of the school city is to impress every child with his duty as a voter and thru habit coming from daily drill make him self-governing. Children thus disciplined, we are told, become citizens alive to the questions of the hour, responsible and independent. In the general plan of discipline the govern- ment is of course autocratic. The teacher gives the command, the pupils obey. Their purpose is to be ruled but to have no part in the ruling power. Thru this self-government, pupils discriminate between right and wrong and by developing the will to do right become subject to the control of external government. In theory at least it is better to be led to good behav- ior thru rules that they themselves have made, than by forced submission to authorit}-'. If it develops ideals of this kind, self-government should then command attention. METHODS OF REDUCING MORAL TRUTHS TO PRACTICE HORACE H. CUMMINGS, SUPERINTENDENT OF LATTER DAY SAINTS SCHOOLS, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH In considering methods of moral training it should be borne in mind that there is no royal road to morality, but desirable results in this line of effort are won only with that labor and care that excellence always exacts. And while we appreciate the work of those giant reformers of the youth-gone-wrong who have made Denver, Cleveland, and New York more famous, we are sure that here as in many other places "an ounce of preventative is worth a pound of cure." Children ought not to be allowed to go wrong, and the consideration of methods to train them in the right claims our best thought as teachers. Of what value to the individual or the state is a well-trained intellect when yoked with a corrupt heart ? It but adds to the wolf the qualities of the fox. Yet our jails are filled with educated criminals, and too many tramps are graduates of our schools. If we may believe the newspapers or even our lawmakers when discussing remedial legislation we must conclude that the honesty, integrity, and patriotism of colonial times have all been swallowed up in the wickedness of trusts, food adulteration, graft, and political corruption of many kinds. Recently a prominent New York judge soberly declared that 40 per cent, of the cost of all public improvements goes for graft. Estimates must include this item as much as that of labor, lumber, or other materials. Whether the world is growing better or worse, however, is not material to the purposes of this paper. We all know there is much need for more effectual moral training. The limits of this paper preclude any but the briefest reference to the psychology involved in moral training, but it may aid in placing values upon methods suggested as well as revealing the strong and the weak points in forces that have been depended upon to meet this need. The problem is largely how to develop the will to do right and furnish con- ditions to reduce moral instructions to actions. Superintendence] REDUCING MORAL TRUTHS TO PRACTICE i8i In the field of instincts we will consider 1. Secretiveness. — Practice, and teach the pupils how to practice, keeping secret all evil reports of the mote in the brother's eye; not to boast of their own virtues, not even letting "the left hand know what the right hand doeth" when they render aid to another. 2. Envy. — Direct envy toward the purest and most excellent character, and show that what one is envious of in such a case can only be attained by substituting a perfect love for selfish envy. 3. Anger. — Teach self-control, and the use of righteous indignation as in the case of cruelty to animals, injustice to weaker pupils, and proper resistance to various forms of oppression. 4. Fear. — Fear to do anything unbecoming a man — one who does is never safe. Have courage to face the unpleasant or dangerous at the call of duty. By furnishing occasions for responses on students' part, lead them to taste and appreciate the sweets of such a course. 5. Constructiveness. — Manual training, domestic arts, and laboratory work should be provided to direct and develop this instinct. 6. Leadership. — Supply responsible positions for students as monitors, and ofl&cers in student organizations, athletic clubs, etc., the proper discharge of whose duties will promote the general welfare. 7. Imitation is perhaps the most important of the instincts. How many thousand things a child learns by imitation which he never would learn if he had to wait until they were taught him ! This faculty does not wait on judgment. The child does what he sees others do with little or no conception of what it means to him. Hence only persons of the highest moral attributes should be engaged as teachers. We should be in truth what we want our pupils to become. Exclude teachers who smoke, use liquor, profane, or gamble, or who are insincere, irreverent, or untruthful, if we would not have our children become like unto them. Surround the children with the purest atmosphere possible. Demon- strate in yovu- lives that you love good and hate evil. Enter enthusiastically into the study of ideal characters; impress the ideal and seek opportunity to apply it in the school, on the campus, in the home, and in the social circle. Chiefly thru this instinct does the child become "the product of his environment." Remark. — Of the four hundred teachers in the schools with which I have the honor to be connected, three-fourths of whom are males, not one smokes; as a consequence not I per cent, of the boys smoke after attending a short time. In the field of habit the psychological law is very definite. Frequent repetitions of an act create a tendency to its automatic recurrence. Advantage should be taken of every opportunity to get the pupil to perform moral acts and form moral conclusions and determinations. Here also "we learn to do by doing." The good and true in history, literature, and current events should be discovered by the pupils and applied as far as possible in their lives. Their attitude and conduct toward lessons, teachers, and classmates should conform to correct principles. Study their habits outside of school. Gain their confidence and they will confide in you their secrets. Much sin is due to ignorance, and many a boy's life has been changed for the better by a heart-to-heart talk with a wise, earnest teacher. In the field of impulse action follows ideation immediately and without deliberation, hence the greater danger that the ideas and thoughts become unwholesome and result immediately in bad acts. The law of teaching here is: Let bad impulses be followed invariably by pain and unpleasant results. l82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis Let good impulses bring satisfaction. This will eliminate the bad and estab- lish the good as habits. For impulsive students select studies that require reflection, careful observation, and deliberation, such as mathematics, experi- mental physics and chemistry, drawing from life or model, etc. Let them be assigned to subordinate positions in school and social events which require deliberation and well-organized effort. They may take part in athletic sports and contests whose rules require impulses to be restrained and conduct controlled. Leaving the racial or hereditary elements let us glance a moment over the field of deliberation and choice. We here enter the domain of the personal in life, the negative side of which is self-control and the positive side self- expression. In deliberation we estimate impulses, motives, incentives, and their consequences. In choice we identify self with one and thereby exclude the others. The moral problem for the teacher here is, first, to give a knowl- edge of the right, and second, to secure a disposition to do the right. The gravest mistakes in moral training have occurred in efforts to solve this problem. Formal moral instructions alone can never accomplish more than the first part, leaving the result — like faith without works — dead. To teach a child continuously what is right without securing in some way corre- sponding connections with right conduct, is to make that child oblivious to such relations, and stifle within him the impulse to put into practice good teachings. "He that knoweth to do good and doeth it not, to him is it sin." Between knowing and doing there is a certain action and reaction. Each makes the other more perfect; neither alone is complete. Home, in his Psychological Principles of Education, says: The correct order of educating religiously is, first the action and feeling, then the idea and thought. The child is primarily a doer, not a thinker. He abides in the region of the concrete, not the abstract. Children can do right and so feel rightly, before they can think rightly. It is thru obedience to the commands of God and feeling our dependence upon God that children come to think rightly about God. The same principle also holds true with adults: Whoever is willing to do the will of God, shall know of the doctrine. The trouble at this point is that in religious education as in all types of education we have begun with children on the intellectual, abstract, passive side of life rather than on the practical, concrete, and active side. Just as we know the true significance of things by the use to which they are put, so we learn the significance of moral principles thru our acts which give rise to them. To love is to know the full meaning of love, which no oral or written description could impart. To pray fervently is to know the sweetness of intimate communion with our Father. To give is to know the joys of giv- ing. To do unto others as we would that they should do to us is to know the doctrine to be divine. Happily the course necessary to get the knowledge also creates a desire to put it into practice and thus the ''yoke becomes easy and the burden light." The home, the church, and the school are the three great forces which society depends upon for moral and religious results. Let us glance at their Superintendence] REDUCING MORAL TRUTHS TO PRACTICE 183 present conditions and apply some of the principles of moral training to their work. I. The home. — In a paper by the chairman of the International Committee on Moral Training, read at this gathering a year ago, it was stated that 96 per cent, of the teachers in more than a thousand schools of this country "reported as finding difficulty in the development of character by reason of improper home training." The modifications in home life have been so great and so rapid during recent years that methods of moral training there have not kept pace with them, and are now inadequate to meet the needs and conditions in most homes. When each family produced most of what it consumed each member had some task which contributed to the welfare of all. Family ties and home influences then were strong. Morning and evening prayer, Bible-reading, and prac- tical exhortations to right conduct were common exercises around the family hearth. Now the factory, shop, department store, and office separate the family after a hasty breakfast, too early, perhaps, for the younger members to join. Conditions are no more favorable for family devotional exercises at the irregular hours of reassembling in the evening. Each worker is paid in money which he spends in his own way. Even paying board at home, when work can be had without going abroad, is not like working in and for the home. The demands of business upon the father and of society upon the mother divert their interest in a measure from the home, with the result that the number of children, as well as the quality and value of parental training, is rapidly diminishing. Modern society is in such a whirl of business and work and fashion and pleasure that home training receives too little attention. Return to those primitive conditions is impossible, even if it were desirable. We must find adequate substitutes for the best they contained and adapt them to present needs. With this object in view there were established in Ogden, Utah, about four years ago, several organizations calling themselves Parents' Classes. Once a week the parents would meet and under the guid- ance of the best supervisor available would discuss the various practical problems of home life confronting them. The movement quickly became popular. Parents of all classes joined. The educated and wealthy deliber- ated with the poor and unlearned, and each profited by the knowledge and experience of the other. Such topics as "How to Promote Truthfulness," "Beautifying the Home," "Proper Amusements," "Economy in the Home," "Proper Food for Children," "Proper Clothing for Children," "Politeness at Home," "How to Get Children to Observe Proper Hours," and many others were considered, and each member of the class was expected to express a thought on each subject. At the close of each meeting, or when the considera- tion of a topic was concluded, a resolution to put into effect the results of the deliberations was usually passed, thus securing a united effort of the parents in the neighborhood. i84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis A thousand such classes are now in operation, with twenty thousand members enrolled and an average attendance of 67 per cent., and the work is growing rapidly. Among many good results curfew laws are generally observed; there is less work for juvenile courts; in many places parents have set aside one night a week called ''home night" to spend with their families in thoughtfully prepared ways to promote happiness and morality. Com- mittees have prepared courses of study, suggested books of reference, and in other ways guided the movement. 2. The church, whose special work is spiritual, has also failed to keep up with the times. The authority and influence of its ministers are not what they once were: and the Bible itself, chiefly thru disuse, but partly no doubt thru attacks from higher criticism and other sources, has lost much of its power. Sunday theaters and other amusements now draw the crowds that should attend church. In the light of modern pedagogy it seems to me that one great mistake of most churches is that the minister is the chief worker and therefore the principal one benefited. Surely there is enough work for all to do, and why should not all be equipped and put to work ? The smallest complete division of the church in which I was reared is called a ward and contains perhaps five hundred souls on an average. It requires 162 persons to ofl&cer properly all the organizations and departments of a ward and to do the church work in it. Each organization has a definite and useful work to do (which cannot be described here) and in the natural rotation in office every active member carries a share of responsibility and work. Neither is it a blessing to a church for one or two of its wealthy and gener- ous members to bear its whole financial burdens. ''Where the treasure is, there will be the heart also." The widow's mite did the widow more good no doubt than it did anyone else. All the members should be induced to contribute in proportion to their means, and their interest in the church would increase accordingly. 3. The school is no longer opened with any form of devotional exercises. Many teachers as well as pupils I suspect never pray. No religious instruc- tions can be given lest they become sectarian. Even Christmas exercises are fast becoming Christless. Sometimes the teacher is told to teach morality; but there being no clear line of demarkation between that and religion, and, already distracted with the multitude of other subjects to be taught, this vital one he woefully neglects. To supplement the work of the public schools with more thoro moral and religious training — for the two cannot well be separated — a denominational movement was started some years ago in the West. A corps of volunteer teachers meet the children after their school work is done and invite them to attend a religion class held in some convenient place. Here they are trained in the principles of morality and religion. In many places the work is a great success; in others, quite indifferent, depending largely upon the ability and I Superintendence] IN MEMORIAM— WILLI AM TORREY HARRIS 185 faithfulness of the instructors, most of whom are not trained teachers. The results, however, on the whole have induced parents of various sectarian affiliations to have their children attend, until the enrollment now is about 40,000. The differentiation that has grown up amongst us as to the religious and the secular in education is most unfortunate. I love to think that all the principles of education are both religious and secular. Not one of them could be spared from society or from the church. Either would suffer irreparable* loss if deprived of training in language, mathematics, or science, as it would without truthfulness, charity, or virtue. The multiplication table is as essen- tial to salvation as is faith or baptism. As well might we think of an unre- formed thief in the kingdom of heaven as an uninstructed ignoramus. The so-called religious cannot say to the so-called secular: "We have no need of thee." "Be ye perfect even as your Father in heaven is perfect" is the task assigned us, and we must not only acquire the divine attributes of his heart, but attain unto the knowledge that is in him. The child is a unit and should develop as a unit. All his powers and attri- butes must be trained in proper season or the product will be unbalanced and unsatisfactory if not positively dangerous. Neither the head, the hand, nor the heart should be neglected. The school has long done excellent work in training the mind. It is now extending its power to train the hand. Let us hope that our religious fears and jealousies will in time melt away sufficiently to permit the school to exert its mighty power and achieve its crowning success, a more perfect training of the heart. IN MEMORIAM— WILLIAM TORREY HARRIS I. BY GEORGE P. BROWN, BLOOMINGTON, ILL.^ (read BY JOHN W. COOK, DE KALB, ILL., WITH INTRODUCTION) INTRODUCTION BY JOHN W. COOK This paper embodies what the author wished to say about Dr. Harris the man, and the influence of his personality and characteristic mode of thought on elementary educa- tion. To this the author had planned to add some description of the work of Dr. Harris as principal and superintendent of schools^ and as a leader in the discussion of education. The stimulation and molding influence of this work as it became a part of the growing organization of elementary education offered an interesting opportunity for description to one who was taking part in that organization, and was himself most vitally stirred by the influence of Dr. Harris. This part of the plan for the present paper was only referred to in conversation with a few friends, and no notes from which to give it expression are available. Dr. William Torrey Harris was born in 1836 and passed on to another plane of being November 5, 1909, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. His purpose in life was the promotion of the education of mankind. He entered ^ Mr. George P. Brown, who prepared the following tribute to Dr. Harris, died February i, iqio. i86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis upon the active pursuit of this purpose in St. Louis in 1857 as principal of an elementary school, and served twenty-three successive years as teacher and as director of the instruction of the children in the elementary and second- ary schools of that city. During this period he was studying and practicing in another field of education, when he sought to steady his own and other men's view of life, and help them to a rational view of the world. These results are embodied in the Journal of Speculative Philosophy. It is my present privilege and is made my duty to speak on this occasion of the influence of Dr. Harris in promoting the school education of children, and in steadying the thinking of the teachers, thru a very unsteady period in the evolution of education in our country. Previous to his advent as leader those at the head of the city school systems were groping their way in fitting the teaching to the dififerent grades of pupils, by arranging the material to be taught and getting books published to fit this arrangement. The conviction was dawning that little boys and girls were not little men and women. But it was only dawning, and the command- ing purpose of the teaching was to lodge in the memories of the children the lessons assigned. It sought to fill the mind with knowledge for future use. I have always thought that it was the great good-fortune of the Mississippi Valley that Dr. Harris came early into contact with Henry C, Brockmeyer. Thru their intercourse it was revealed to Dr. Harris that there was need of a better-defined purpose of school education. He began the study of this problem by asking and answering the question why the common-school studies have become the studies in our common schools. They are the ele- ments of the knowledge of nature which man has been impelled by his spiritual hunger to know, and of the social experiences of the race that have made our civilization. These he called the windows of the soul thru which one could come to know nature, and thru which he could come to know himself and his fellow-men. To know nature and to know man was the commanding pur- pose of education. To the average schoolmaster of that day who has now arrived at his threescore years and ten this was a revelation of the dignity of his vocation beyond anything he had formerly conceived. The commanding purpose of life is that man know himself. To do this he must know himself as he has come down through the ages in the stream of evolution in which in every stage of his progress he was striving to look him- self in the face, and after he had reached that stage, his aim has been toward a deeper and broader knowledge of this objective self which the attainment of self-consciousness had revealed to him. Self-consciousness by which he knows himself as object and as subject — to know this with what it involves is to know God and the world. It was this consciousness that made him repeat so often that it was all- important that a teacher should have an inspiring and rational view of the world, for it was his view of the world that he taught, along with the branches of learning, however unconscious of it he might be, or however much he might try to hide his conviction. [' Superintendence] IN MEMORIAM— WILLI AM TORREY HARRIS 187 I know that this is denied by, perhaps, a majority of thoughtful teachers, but they have not the point of view of Dr. Harris at which he arrived thru the study of the German philosophy of three-quarters of a century ago. Having clarified his own thought by this discipline he proceeded to make application of it to the work of elementary and secondary education. To prepare the children to know their own generation, and so live efficiently therein, they must know the experience of the generations that made it what it is: it must be known in its history. This history is epitomized in the branches of knowledge taught in the elementary schools. The experience of the race in gaining a knowledge of inorganic nature is recorded in mathe- matics; its mastery of organic nature is recorded in biological science; the experience of these generations in the evolution of life in the social order is incarnated in language; art and the arts reveal to us what the race has achieved in the world as beautiful and useful; these indicate the five avenues along which the race has marched, and the school is established to give the child a general survey of the route and something of the experience of his progenitors as their own preparation for looking at life from their shoulders. Each of these routes has a literature enormous in quantity and of inestimable value in quality, but thru it we survey the entire civilization of the world from primitive man to the present time. I have been told that another route has been discovered and a sixth window must be opened for the human soul — that of industrial training; but if a sixth, why not ten or twenty if the school is to lead henceforth to the Temple of Mammon ? To that goal the way is broad and the roads are many. This survey of the educational route by Dr. Harris will certainly steady the practice of the leaders of educational theory and practice for generations to come. Dr. Harris had the noble ambition of leading thoughtful men and women, and especially thoughtful teachers, to that view of the world which Plato taught in Athens as philosophy, and which Jesus of Nazareth taught in Pales- tine as religion; in the philosophy of the former an intellectual view of the world led on to loving kindness as the rule of life; and in the religion of Jesus a heart view of the world as boundless love led on to a rational philosophy. He saw in Herbert Spencer a fascinating apostle of another view of the world which eliminated reason and substituted reasoning; reason — the soul of the universe revealed thru insight; and reasoning — the processes of logical think- ing to a conclusion from data furnished by the world of nature. So important did he think it to be to make known to the American people and especially to the schools and universities the abstract and unstable foundations of Spen- cer's philosophy, that, as I have understood, he started his Journal of Specu- lative Philosophy primarily to counteract its influence and show the error of attempting to build a human institution upon such a foundation of sand. I have had no direct statement from him which enables me to vouch for the truth of this, but it is consistent with his determined purpose as made manifest in his life. One only needs to read again the leading article in the first number i88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION flndianapolis of the Journal of Speculative Philosophy to find evidence that this legend, like all legends that live, is founded upon fact. This Journal was published, first, as a quarterly, and later, at such times as material accumulated, until its editor became National Commissioner of Education. That first article in the first number foretold the conflict in education between the physical and the psychical aims that are now battling for control in the education of the children as never before. There is much talk about a new education and new religion, which shall work in harmony with modern science. Dr. Harris has stood like a stone wall for that practice in teaching that will best educate the child. This, he has always held, will ever prove to be the child's best preparation for any vocation in life he may eventually pursue. This requires that we know the individual child in order to know how best to educate him. But his contention has always been that the child is a child of his race as well as of his time, and that the products of the race must be used as the material of the child's study in the schools; for they help him to stand upon the shoulders of those who have gone before in directing his own life. Dr. Harris was a leader thru his personality more than thru his publications. It will be a growing regret of you and of all engaged in directing education that he has left in permanent form so little of that which he worked out with such assiduity. He has left no books that express in a connected form and in detail what he was wont to utter in fragments in his moments of inspiration. He had no irresistible impulse to write, and seldom prepared an address except on the cars or in his room immediately before its delivery. He had in mind more than a score of books that he intended to write, and when he withdrew from the office of commissioner he intended to set to work at once and put them into form. It seems to me that his old habit of working on the spur of the moment to meet an immediate engagement had him in its thrall. I remember when he was once talking to a cultured group on some topic in the field of art and the audience was entranced by his thought and the felicity of his expression, that one in the outer circle asked him to speak louder. He replied, I thought with some annoyance, that if he must think on how he spoke he feared that he would have nothing to say. I think that is indicative of the habit of mind that has stood in the way of his writing the books he had hoped and earnestly desired to write. Dr. Harris dealt with the foundation ideas of education. It was there that he loved to dwell. He was ever reverting to the presuppositions that went before the matter in hand. I have often wondered whether he was ever a great teacher of youth like Dr. Arnold. His administration of the schools of St. Louis had nothing in it of the doctrinal, and in his visitation of schools in other cities he was an acute critic of the practice going on, ever tying his criticism to some self-evident (when he mentioned it) principle of teaching. His intimate friends wondered at the practical acumen of the philosopher, but he did not have the influence of a great teacher upon his principals — with some marked exceptions. Superintendence] IN MEMORIAM— WILLI AM TORREY HARRIS 189 His leadership lay in laying bare the foundations of education which had been buried for ages and forgotten beneath the layers of temporary expedients and devices and successive theories. He brought into the light of conscious- ness what had been in the subconscious since Christianity began. The end toward which he looked was a synthesis; the impulse which he obeyed was analysis as it appeared to those who saw less profoundly than he. His aim in this analysis was to show the inevitable synthesis, but the educa- tional public often failed to see the necessity of the synthesis in the analysis. It is for this reason among many others that we mourn the fact that he did not work out these syntheses in a series of books upon the various topics so essential to a full-orbed life the content of which lay so clearly in his own mind. It would be well if someone would take what he has left of fragmentary thought and articulate it into connected wholes. Everything said or done by him has its place in his scheme of thought, and that scheme of thought is, at bottom, a scheme of education. So loyal was he to the processes and products of his thought that he would sometimes say, when a new hypothesis was suggested, that if he^admitted that among his categories he would have to reconstruct his entire system. It reminds one of the attitude of Hegel toward his own products in the later years of his life. Indeed it is the attitude of most philosophic thinkers, and of consistent thinkers in any field, when their system of thought has become the habit of their self-conscious life. Systems are the spontaneous activity of thought evolving itself in products in their beginning, but as they advance in their development the spon- taneity limits itself to specific channels. Hospitality to new discoveries is the attitude of the scientist, and this often works the overthrow of tentative systems. But the welfare of education is dependent equally upon the autocracy of a system of philosophy and the fluidity of the system of science. The teacher who turns his back upon either is sure to come to grief, whether he is ever conscious of his grief or not. The philosopher builds his system upon the past: the scientist, if he is a scientist in spirit and in truth, works with his face toward the future. The teacher is philosopher and scientist in one. There is too great a tendency today for him to become fluid at the expense of solidity. Dr. Harris was solid in education. All that has been said of his power to make application of his theories to practice in education or to other institutions is true. He was the most prac- tical of men to the degree that he was the most philosophic. The universally true is the only truly concrete truth. All finite truth is but an abstraction from the universal. If one knows the relatively universal he knows every phase or aspect of it expressed in an individual. The world of sense is the most abstract of all existence. The statesman is wiser than the politician in that he thinks more universally and therefore more concretely than the politician. Philosophy is often condemned for its abstraction, but that is done only by him who lives in the abstract. He must contend that God can I90 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis be known only in the abstract. He must shift his point of view before he can escape from his mirage. Of course Dr. Harris was one of the most prac- tical of schoolmasters because he was more truly philosophic, more universal in his knowledge of things. II. BY C. p. GARY, MADISON, WIS. Dr. William Torrey Harris holds a unique position in the history of Ameri- can thought and education. For nearly half a century he was mentor and intellectual guide for most of the men who within that period molded and shaped American education. His St. Louis reports and his early addresses and discussions of educational subjects were so eminently sane and so sound philosophically that subsequent developments and investigations have tended largely to verify his early educational theories. As a simple illustration of this general fact we may recall that his doctrine of the recitation as first pub- lished in the St. Louis reports was that the mutual aid pupils received from one another in the recitation periods was an advantage that nothing else could adequately take the place of. Many years later numerous experiments were tried with a view to individualizing instruction, but these experiments, while they are not yet ended, have invariably found their limitations, not only on the basis of added expense, but also on the basis of ineffectiveness. Dr. Harris was an illustration of a man who early in his career got started right in his thinking. Fortunately for the educational world, his mind matured early, as compared with most philosophers, and fortunate it was also that his speculative philosophy took a practical turn with respect to education. At the age of forty or forty-five he had, in my judgment, reached the full height of his intellectual power, though subsequently he added great stores of knowl- edge and even new philosophic insights. Thru the courtesy of Mr. F. A. Fitzpatrick, I am able to quote at length from a personal letter the words of Henry C. Brockmeyer in which he doubt- less gives a just and adequate estimate of Dr. Harris in his early prime: Mr. Harris is still at school; for he regards the sensible universe as the institution for the education of man: birth the matriculation, life the academic course, and death the graduation. To him life means our opportunity to come into more intimate relations, from day to day, with whatever is true, and good, and beautiful; to cultivate the most intimate acquaintance with whatever is, and is forever. With this interpretation of life, which presupposes self-conscious intelligence as the final end of the universe, and its reali- zation as the significance of existence, he has applied himself with great industry to the acquisition of a connected view of the various achievements of man in art, science, religion, and institutions — industrial, social, and political — as selected parts of one self-consistent total. What has appeared in public from his hand may be regarded as the fragmentary results of his application, and bears evidence of a power of abstract thought, which, together with his unwearied industry — which may be regarded as his peculiar characteristic — prom- ises well for the future. In his immediate practical sphere, as superintendent of public schools, he endeavors to transform these views into a living actuality, by realizing for his city a system which, while it opens to the pupils a vista in the eternal significance of life, is in strict harmony with the political institutions of the country. JupSHSaScej IN MEM OKI AM— WILLIAM TORREY HARRIS We educate," he says, "the future citizens of the United States, not the future citizens of Prussia, of France, of England, of China, or of Japan. This must dictate our methods. Nor shall we forget that, although citizens of the United States, they are to be men and women. The particular shall not swallow up the general. We will not educate Spartans; nor shall the general obliterate the particular. We will not educate blank, abstract humani- tarians." He may be regarded pre-eminently as a man of thought; his erudition, though varied and extensive, is never produced for its own sake, but ever in the service of thought. His concrete results are achieved from the self-mediation of thought, and not by the intuitive methods, which will, while oblivious of the logical relations involved, appear under the character of makeshifts for the time being. Morally without a blemish, he is socially esteemed, but his absorbing industry withdraws him from society as such. He combines the depth and industry of the German, the grace and poetic taste of the Greek, with the enthusiasm and practical tact of the American. In physique, he is strong, muscular, and enduring; in mind, clear, profound, and prompt, and in heart, warm, generous, and just. He is emphatically the man who would rather have truth than wealth, and rather be right than president. He is still young, his life work but fairly begun, and his fellow-citizens naturally look for great things from him in the future, and, if his life is spared, will not be disappointed. But Dr. Harris was not simply an educator. At the same time that he was aiding so powerfully in giving shape to American education he was the defender of the worth and dignity of human life against the onslaughts of fatalism, materialism, pessimism, and a multitude of other 'isms that came thick and fast as falling leaves in the vale of Vallombrosa. It was the period of exaltation of physical science, the period of Darwin, of Wallace, and of Huxley. It was an era of English and Scotch metaphysics, and French materialism. Conservation of energy was the highest conception of science. The origin of energy was beyond its ken. A civilization will correct its own errors, or have them corrected for it, in the course of time, but there can be but little doubt that Dr. Harris' attacks upon Spencer's ''Unknowable" and other forms of agnosticism saved this country from an inundation of false and pernicious philosophical doctrines that would have turned back the dial hand of civilization in the higher reaches of thought and speculation for at least half a hundred years. On the cover of the Journal of Speculative Philosophy stood as a motto Novalis' splendid sentence, ''Philosophy can bake no brea^, but she can procure for us God, Freedom, and Immortality." Many in that seething period of materialism scoffed and ridiculed the motto and characterized the doctrines of the editor as Hegelian vagaries. Dr. Harris, however, had an unwavering conviction that the universe is the manifestation of a creative First Cause and that man is created in his image, that human character is infinitely perfectible, and that human life with all its imperfections and trials, defeats and successes, is merely the kindergarten to the infinitude of time thru which man as an individual, as a personality, shall exist and develop. The world to him constitutes an ascending series, from nothingness up thru inor- ganic nature, organic nature, and man to the highest spirituality in what he called the communion of saints or the invisible church. All of this he held 192 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis was merely the unfolding of the divine reason, the whole constituting a system and a never-ending process. The influence of such a man at such a stage of our development cannot be overestimated. His doctrine and his person- ality were such as appealed to young men whose theories of life were in a formative state, and the appeal was particularly strong to those who were entering upon educational work. They were not only drawn to him, but he was drawn to them. He thus became spiritual father to thousands, many of whom he never met personally, or at most but rarely. It was my own great good fortune to come under the influence of Dr. Harris some thirty years ago. The manner of it I have been urged to tell, as it is regarded as more or less typical of what has occurred in the life of many others who know and acknowledge their deep debt of gratitude to him for stimulus and guidance. In 1880 during an attack of the wander-lust I found myself on a hot August sabbath day in a tumble-down village on the banks of the Missouri River. In my restlessness I wandered into an open church and listened to a sermon by a prosaic, unemotional Scotchman. I had for some time previous been delving into Berkeleian idealism and also wondering whether it would not be well for me to make philosophy my career. At some point or other in his sermon the preacher touched in me a philosophic chord that vibrated. The next day I sought him out and had a long talk with him on logic, metaphysics, and kindred subjects, and in the course of his remarks he mentioned Dr. Harris and said that it was too bad that a man of his brilliant intellect should have gone da£fy on Hegelianism. That chance remark was perhaps the most important thing as a factor in my life that was ever said to me, for immedi- ately I was filled with irresistible desire to know about Dr. Harris and about Hegelianism. From the Scotchman's point of view I then began myself to grow daffy. I was a teacher and discovered in some way that Dr. Harris had published some educational reports. I sent and got such as were avail- able. I likewise secured all the addresses of his that I could find in print. I discovered that he was publishing the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, and from that day to this a set of the Journal has occupied the place of honor above my study table. Through the Journal I was quickly introduced to Hegel, and from him I passed on to the study of that glorious company of immortals of whom Socrates, Mato, Aristotle, and Kant are the chiefest. For years I worked in this new field and the related one of insight-giving literature, with the greatest energy and enthusiasm; but, singular as it may seem, in all this time, lasting some ten years, I never met Dr. Harris or wrote him a line. Then came our first meeting in a hotel in Topeka at a late hour at night. I knew he was weary and I tried to excuse myself, but not until two or three o'clock the next morning would he allow me to leave him. Indeed, I finally tore myself away almost brusquely out of consideration for him. From an intellectual point of view it was the most significant conversation of my life and all but infinitely the most profound and brilliant. The universe I Superintendence] IN MEMORIAM— WILLI AM TORREY HARRIS 193 was transparent as crystal, and eternal verities delivered to us the message that is surrendered only to those who toil thru laborious years to the highest mountain peaks of philosophy. At such moments that which is temporal and accidental, that which is mere appearance, shrinks into the background as an intruder, and actuality and reality stand forth in all their beauty and perfection. The five years following this meeting were to me rich in the study of Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, Goethe, Carlyle, and Emerson — all under the stimulus of Dr. Harris. I then found myself passing over into the study of sociology and assumed for a time that this was wholly on my own initiative, but only recently have I come to realize how along in the nineties Dr. Harris began to place renewed emphasis on the fact that the determination of the course of study is, after all, a sociological matter, not a psychological. Whether it was due to Dr. Harris or was merely the trend of the times, I do not know, but since the middle of the nineties our education discussions have been far less psychological and far more sociological. Dr. Harris was a rare combination of Yankee shrewdness and philosophic insight and power. To him the learning-process was one of self-estrangement or alienation. The human spirit longs to reach out and find that which is seemingly foreign to itself, the unrelated, the alien. This it revels and disports itself in, until a feeling of familiarity develops and that which was alien ceases to be such, the spirit enlarges to compass the new and strange as a moment in its own development. Led by his philosophy of estrangement, and by his all-compassing interests as well. Dr. Harris studied profoundly oriental philosophy, language, history, science — in fact, every product of the human mind was grist to his intellectual mill. This combination of knowl- edge, shrewdness, and the deepest philosophy that the human mind has ever evolved made Dr. Harris invincible in debate. Many a man in the pride of his youthful enthusiasm has undertaken to measure swords with him in an unpremeditated debate. The result was invariably the same. The youthful enthusiast quickly discovered that his armor was but sorry protection against the shafts of Jove. But withal his manner had almost the timidity of a school- girl, and he never appeared to exult over his success in debate. He quickly recognized in the ascending ladder of the categories what rung any man had reached and by means of the dialectic method, of which he was past-master, he was able to show how the truth that might be contained in his adversary's viewpoint could be taken up and illuminated in the intenser light and deeper truth of the next higher category. Examples to illustrate this will doubtless occur to all ; but recall, if you please, how a few years ago when the psychological discussion of interest was at its height, and some were disposed to take the interests of the child as their guide in the education of the young, that he in a few simple, direct sentences called attention to the fact that interests are good, bad, and indifferent, and that you must have a higher principle 6n which to select out the interests that should be fostered and encouraged and those that 194 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis should be suppressed, and that this higher principle is to be found in what the child is to become instead of what he now is. A child must be trained in the school to appropriate the experience of his fellow-men. He must conquer and make his own the social heritage of the race. The interest and self- activity of the pupil may be excited by and upon the merest /orw of studies and yet his culture in co-operation with his fellow-men be utterly neglected. To those who are familiar with Dr. Harris' philosophy and his mode of thought the Report of the Committee of Ten, as it came from his hand, was in no sense a surprise, but the strictly logical outcome of his educational philosophy. For him there were five provinces of human learning — two relating to nature and three relating to man as a spiritual being. These five provinces must be represented in every course of study until the period of specialization is reached. While there is more or less overlapping of these studies, still in the main they represent separate and independent fields of knowledge. Arithmetic is not geography, geography is not grammar, or history, or literature. Each occupies its independent field and cannot be omitted and cannot be permanently subordinated. Literature, however, according to Dr. Harris, is by far the most vital, because it gives an insight into human nature and it reveals the motives and desires that prompt men to action. Dr. Harris never wearied in his reiteration of the term ''self-activity" as applied to the human mind. He recognized many grades of self-activity, from feeling up to the highest type manifested in the supreme efforts of the human will. He even discovered self-activity in the plant, if not even in the passivity of inorganic forms. The inorganic was for him the starting- point of self-activity reaching finally, thru many grades of development, the divine self-activity manifested in the self-determination of the Creator of the universe. This idea of self-activity, he held, is the source of our thought of God. If one lacked this idea of self-activity he could not attain it. All attempt to teach him divine truth would be futile. He could not form in his mind, if he could be said to have a mind, the essential characteristic idea of God; he could not think God as Creator of the world, or as self-existent, apart from the world. If the doctrine were revealed and taught to him, and he learned to repeat the words in which it is expressed, yet in his consciousness he would receive only a limited effect, a dead result, and no living God. Hence, he urged upon teachers with great persistence the necessity of calling out self-activity in the highest reaches of which the child is capable at a given stage of development. He greatly feared that by the use of wrong methods or by too prolonged a drill in the lower forms of thinking the child might suffer arrested development. Especially was this to be feared in over- training in sense-perception or in the quantitative aspects of nature. So too, he believed that the study of natural science, when pursued too exclusively, tended to blind the spiritual eyes in the course of time to the highest thought and emotion represented by music, sculpture, painting, literature, philosophy, and religion. No man ever had a deeper sense of the value of the human Superintendence] IN MEMORIAM—WILLI AM TORREY HARRIS 195 institutions than did Dr. Harris. Without the family, the school, the church, civil society, and the state, civilization would be impossible, and if these were destroyed man would quickly sink back to the plane of his most primitive ancestors. The value, use, and preservation of these institutions he would have brought home to the minds of youth in the most effective ways that can be devised. The student who comprehends the spiritual significance of the noble poems of Dante, of Shakespeare, and of Goethe, who appreciates, in a spiritual sense, the art of Raphael and of Michael Angelo, who can hold high converse in the philosophy of Plato and Hegel, whose spiritual nature is responsive to the Hebrew Scriptures, who can perceive that history portrays the development of the human race in its long upward journey toward freedom and spirituality — he is the fully developed man, he the man who has suffered no arrested development. Such a man was Dr. Harris, a soul free from envy, free from hate, free from all that belittles and cramps less perfect human nature. There was that in him which reminded one of Aristotle, and again that which related him to Phidias; nor is it sacrilege to say there was much to remind one of the Teacher of Nazareth. To him it was also given to show in no small degree the way, the truth, and the life. If the philosophy of our departed leader did not mock him he has passed on to yet higher visions of the true, the beauti- ful, and the good. His is the opportunity to test more fully than in the mortal flesh the truth of the vision Dante saw in his Paradise. And now they ascend to the highest heaven — the tenth — and Dante sees the river of light of the Empyrean and the white Rose of Paradise, in which all the souls of all the heavens find their place, the paradise being symbolized by the perfect participation of each in the whole. III. BY ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, WASHINGTON, D.C. One day in the winter of 1901-2, 1 was sitting in the old office of the Com- missioner of Education, when General John Eaton appeared at the door. Already age and illness had laid a heavy hand upon him. Dr. Harris rose quickly to meet him as he came slowly forward. He had stopped by the way for a word only, but it was to me a deeply interesting sight that those two great commissioners presented, as they stood for a few brief moments and talked together. They were the two men who had made the Bureau of Education. John Eaton had taken the office when its fortunes were at their lowest ebb, with an annual expenditure of but little over $8,000, had organized its work, had gained for it the confidence of Congress and the Executive, had guided it through perilous times, during the long term of sixteen years, and had increased its annual income to more than $80,000. Dr. Harris, after a brief interval, had entered upon the office of commissioner, finding it already organ- ized and in working order, and had infused into its operations a philosophical spirit, a personal life and influence, such as has rarely entered the education 196 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis ofl&ce of any state or nation, with an individual bent and quality such as could never reappear in any other time or place. I could look on those two men as from without, untroubled by any thought of ever succeeding to their responsibilities, and it was with a deep sense of thankfulness for the incalculable service they had rendered to American education. Dr. Harris was at that time in the full fruitage and ripeness of his powers. As I came to him then, not as a stranger, to be sure, but not as an intimate acquaintance — a younger man, seeking materials for some writings on edu- cation— I was chiefly impressed with his kindliness and his readiness to take an interest in another's work. That, I am sure, is one of the chief things to be said regarding his seventeen-year administration of the commissioner's office. The commissioner was there to help all comers who might desire such help as he had to give. He placed the facilities of the Bureau at their disposal. But the most that he had to give was himself, and he gave himself unsparingly. The Bureau in his time was, indeed, "the lengthened shadow of a man." As one of his chiefs of division said, "There were no real division chiefs in his time. He was the head of every division." In a considerable measure this was true. He was large enough to overflow all of the activities of the office and pour his spirit into them all. A man who cared for the spirit more than the form, or rather, one who cared that the spirit should make forms to its purpose and not be cramped by forms which others might impose, he went forward carrying with him his assistants and subordinates in a current of high thought, pure aspiration, and unqualified devotion. Under the dominion of such a spirit, the office had little of the character of a member in a bureaucracy, but was more a friendly fireside or a friendly beacon light. How much that unusual character in this government office has meant for the humanizing, and enlightening of American education, I will not undertake to say. And there are many here, who having felt the power of that kindly influence will understand the meaning of all that I leave unsaid, tho it has gone too deeply into their lives to be brought forth in words. Within the Bureau, everyone felt that power, down to the humblest laborer at four hundred dollars a year. Some, overborne by so dominant a person- ality, found as it were a refuge in routine. Some found their cup brimming over and drank deeply of those things of the spirit which had been given into their lives. All I think, with hardly an exception, came to an admiring devo- tion toward their great leader and friend. How unconventional and non-political was his attitude, appeared at the very beginning. He often told the story of his appointment to the office. It was brought about thru the influence of prominent members of this Depart- ment of Superintendence, who laid their recommendations directly before President Harrison. But Dr. Harris did not conceal the fact that in the presidential election he had voted for Mr. Cleveland. President Harrison Superintendence] IN MEMORIAM—WILLIAM TORREY HARRIS 197 refused to consider this an objection, and the appointment was duly made. Four years later, the commissioner's estimate of President Harrison having changed, he once more voted for the re-election of the occupant of the White House. But with the defeat of President Harrison, President Cleveland in his turn refused to consider the commissioner's politics, and Dr. Harris was reappointed. The office has never been "in politics" from that day to this. It was during this second Cleveland administration that Dr. Harris again bade defiance to precedent by resisting an attempt at an increase of his salary. Governor Hoke Smith, who was then Secretary of the Interior, tells the story with humorous appreciation. Dr. Harris, as he recalls the occurrence, came to him in real perturbation on learning that the secretary was about to recom- mend the increase. There was expostulation on the one side and insistence on the other, but in the end Dr. Harris had his way, and Congress was not asked to make the advance. It would be difficult to parallel this instance in the history of the federal government. Aside from his large correspondence and personal relations with educational leaders everywhere, the main work of the great commissioner was largely embodied in his annual reports. These reports commanded marked attention all over the world. The statistical portions were enlarged and improved. Chapters on a great variety of educational topics were included, sometimes even fairly extensive monographs. Especial interest centered in the com- missioner's introductions, which presented a survey and discussion of the chief educational movements of the time. The increase in the bulk of these reports is indicated by the fact that while that issued in 1890, Dr. Harris' first year in office, cost for printing and binding less than $16,000, that issued in the year 1906, his last year as commissioner, cost $34,000. The staff of the office in the meantime had grown but slowly, the expenditure for salaries having risen from $45,420 in 1890 to $54,940 for the year 1907. The difficulty of securing an adequate staff of assistants weighed on the com- missioner's spirit. But it was his conviction that this was a matter in which Congress must decide, and not one in which he could with propriety urge Congressional action. In spite of the small appropriations, a number of competent specialists and clerks were at ail times attached to the office. The Alaskan work had been committed to the Bureau before the time of Dr. Harris' administration, but it was during his term that the reindeer enter- prise was launched. He was deeply interested in this undertaking. In his thought it related itself to the whole doctrine and method of civilization. Accordingly he not only gave his support to Sheldon Jackson in the beginnings of the experiment, but he brooded over it and planned its adjustment to the life of the Alaskan natives as it was at that time. I have said elsewhere that the reindeer enterprise seems to me one of the most significant and suggestive educational experiments of recent times. How much of its success is due to the restless, indefatigable initiative of Dr. Jackson and how much to the deliberate reflection and planning of Dr. Harris, it would be difficult to say; igS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis but the two men worked upon it together, and doubtless both contributed largely to the outcome. The difficulties of the Alaskan situation, after pioneering methods had done their first, great work and before a more systematic procedure could be carried into effect, wore upon Dr. Harris in the later months of his adminis- tration. He said to me, ''I have been working, at Alaska with both hands and trying to do the rest of the work of the Bureau with my little finger." While it was hard to put aside an occupation which had brought him honor and happy associations and to which he had given some of the best effort of his life, there came to him undoubtedly a great relief when he accepted the retiring allow- ance granted, with every expression of appreciation and esteem, by the Car- negie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Another year in the Bureau of Education, as he confidently declared, would have cost him his life. He was ready with every kind of assistance and support for his successor in office, whose appointment he had himself recommended. But he showed extreme delicacy, such as I have never seen surpassed, as regards the offering of any advice which he feared might prove embarrassing. I may not find a better opportunity of expressing my deep sense of gratitude for such unmeasured consideration shown to the younger man who followed him. I even feared that I might at times miss some word of counsel or warning where it might be needed, because of his unwillingness to seem, in the slightest degree, to dictate the policy of the office from which he had withdrawn. At the same time, he did communicate freely such ideas as he entertained regard- ing persons and plans, whenever his advice was asked. And when new under- takings were entered upon which he had held in earlier years to be inadvisable or impracticable, he was not slow to give them his outspoken indorsement. There are many aspects of his work as commissioner which cannot be touched in this brief paper, and some of them of great significance. Neither has it been possible to speak of the services, outside of his official duties, which he performed in the years of his commissionership. I have only men- tioned a few things, here and there, in the great work of a greater personality, a personality indeed of oceanic vastness, which overflowed all common metes and bounds. But these few words are a tribute of filial affection. They are offered to the memory of one whose influences and tradition will, I believe, forever be the brightest and most precious possession of our federal Office of Education. Superintendence] SPECIALIZATION PRIOR TO HIGH-SCHOOL AGE 199 TOPIC: CHILDREN DIFFER IN MENTAL ATTITUDES, TASTES AND TENDENCIES /. DANGERS AND ADVANTAGES OF SPECIALIZATION PRIOR TO THE HIGH-SCHOOL AGE W. E. STRIPLIN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, GADSDEN, ALA. A thoughtful student of children is forced to the conclusion that they differ in mental attitudes, tastes, and tendencies. This being true, if we meant what was declared in the principles laid down at the last National Education Associa- tion, ''that we believe in equal educational opportunity for every child," we must arouse ourselves to the very great responsibility of making our teaching, courses of study, and schools meet and solve in a helpful way these differences. When we consider the fact that the highest percentage of elimination by grades is from sixth to seventh to eighth and totals 14 per cent., we would be criminally negligent were we to fail to look for the causes and strive hard to apply sure and swift remedies. Think of only one-third who enter school finishing the elementary school of seven grades or more; the median of the last grammar grade, seventh, eighth, or ninth, being 38.5 per cent. Of course we all realize the very great importance of giving sufficient cultural information on which to build well-rounded symmetrical characters before specialization begins. We can but recognize also that while children are young there is much weight in the argument that they will get more systematic and hence stronger training by being taught by a single teacher than by more in the departmental plan. But the single teacher to the grade plan is in ex- istence today in a vast majority of the strong school systems and it was in existence when the above-stated statistics were collated. Do you not agree that our duty is to select a means whereby the existing shortcomings of our schools will be eliminated ? Are the parents of the chil- dren intrusted to our care going to be satisfied much longer ? Will business men continue to back us and support our measures heartily unless we rise to the full height of educational leadership and show that we understand our business by putting a stop to this waste and elimination and by showing that every cent in every dollar invested in maintaining educational systems is being used in the very best way possible by educational experts who do only the very best work at all times ? I am firmly convinced that we need some specialization, beginning at least by the time children are through the sixth grade, that will rivet the attention and interest of many who leave off school work and begin to battle with life's problems about that time. We all know that no one teacher can teach all the branches so as to secure the very finest results in each. Many strong teachers in arithmetic fail miserably when they attempt to present geography, history, or grammar. This being true, why not get the strongest teachers of the various branches and thus give them an opportunity of special- 200 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis izing so that they may become expert in the presentation of one or two subjects, rather than stay mediocre in presenting all. In this electric age, an age of practical things and measures, there comes a demand to the public schools for a more practical turn in educational endeavor. We cannot clear our skirts by meeting the demand in a general way. We must plan so as to equip, if possible, for better citizenship every pupil intrusted to us for training. With the strongest and most skilled teachers in charge of the various subjects in the upper grammar grades, the subject- matter will be made so attractive and will appear so essential that many will be held for a longer term of years in school, thus increasing their earning capacity and in the end adding to the wealth of the communities where they are to live and work. It may cost some more to have the departmental plan in the upper grammar grades, but it also costs more to run high schools; yet we cannot fail to realize the very great benefit of specialization in high-school teaching. If by carrying the plan down to the sixth grade we can hold a fair percentage of those who are now dropping out at or about that stage, would it not be money judiciously spent in any community ? It seems to me from the investigations made that the advantages, to the pupils of varying mental attitudes, tastes, and tendencies, in the expert, artistic, high-class teaching that is secured by the departmental plan, far outweigh the disadvantages. If the town or city is too small to furnish a sufficient number in the two upper grammar grades to require a teacher for each subject, let one teacher take two or more subjects, and she can then do better work than with all. The second kind of specialization that I want to call your attention to for the benefit of twelve- to fourteen-year-old pupils has to do with the superin- tendent's, the principal's, the teacher's work outside of the schoolroom. I am convinced that far too many feel that they have discharged their school duties in a perfectly faithful and conscientious way when the school hours are ended each day and the book instruction has been given. Those who feel thus either fail to recognize the differences in children or do not feel that their responsibility is great enough to drive them to the point of trying to reach those hardest to reach. Sometimes the very finest work for the child can be done with the parent. Some special work in securing the co-operation of parents is absolutely necessary in almost every school and many times during each school year. Sometimes a child's attitude toward a study or studies is not his own, but merely reflects his parents' opinion and estimate. And will the most indifferent superintendent or principal say for one minute that his duty is not to convert that parent to the correct attitude and thus save the child to a longer school life ? Time cannot be spent to better advantage than in working after and secur- ing the co-operation of home influences in our school work. Much of this special work can be done by the superintendent by a wise and tactful use of the newspapers in making appeals to parents for a united effort of every Superintendencel SPECIALIZATION PRIOR TO HIGH-SCHOOL AGE 20I element constituting the school community, and convincing them of the correctness and helpfulness of any innovations. He may have to send a circular letter to all parents on some occasions. He will have to go in person a few times or in some way get parents to come to him. Whatever effort is necessary should be put forth enthusiastically and gladly, for in so doing some pupils will be held in school and the sweet realization that comes from duty well done will more than compensate for the sacrifices made. Strong expert teaching will not wholly eliminate the dropping-out process; there must be a specialization brought to bear that will reach the home and bring it into a helping relation; that will make it the strong right arm of the school, if you please. One main cause of elimination is incapacity for, and lack of interest in, the sort of intellectual work demanded by present courses of study. The pendulum has swung too far and the courses of study do not meet the present- day demands. Colleges dictate entirely too much in reference to high-school courses; this causes the high schools to dictate in a large measure the curricu- lum of the grammar grades. I fear we are prone to lose sight of the fact that a large majority go into the various walks of life from the elementary schools and that they, constituting such a large part of the school population, should have some attention, at least in the matter of electives and specializations. Do not misunderstand me; I would not for a moment argue against college attendance nor even against the lower schools encouraging pupils to aspire to and try to take higher training. I am perfectly willing for teachers to create a vision that will cause many of their pupils to become ambitious enough to take university training, but at the same time, I would have the courses of study arranged so as to give just as much inspiration and just as many practical helps as possible to the boy or girl who cannot even hope to graduate from the high school. Let us not force them from our schools at this early age with but little knowledge and with no tools to work with in securing more; no desire, if you please, that would keep them climbing toward higher heights and to richer and fuller lives. Some will say that it is too expensive to have electives to suit the tastes of those pupils who expect to drop out and not finish a high-school or college course, but I would have them remember that this is the larger class and they have a right to be considered; and justice demands that we meet their desires in a way that will enrich their lives and make them better able to cope with the difficulties of life and be a blessing to the communities in which they are to live. The courses of study for this class will necessarily vary and will have to depend on local conditions. The occupations of the locality would be very largely a determining factor. I am of the opinion that but few studies, as our courses now stand, would have to be excluded, but a very large elimination of subjects and subject-matter, as now presented in our textbooks, would of necessity take place. 202 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis I cannot enumerate all, but in arithmetic, for instance, only the practical parts that could be applied to use in the various vocations in the different localities would be used. By use of local applications, the various principles would be grasped in a shorter time and much less work would have to be given under each head. Many of the tables in compound numbers, cube root, and other topics of no more directly practical nature could be omitted alfogether. The same process of elimination should be applied to other sub- jects. I am firmly convinced that much constructive work should form an important part in every course. The amount and nature would have to depend upon the local conditions. The last form of specialization toward which I would direct your minds is made necessary from the fact that the largest elimination is from force of circumstances. A living must be provided for the family. This is a condi- tion that is growing on account of increased competition and cost of necessities. Why not arrange a course of study to extend over three years that can be covered by classes working one-half day at a time ? The teachers in the upper grammar-school grades and the teachers of the high school could take these classes and give the same work in the morning and in the afternoon, but to a different set of pupils. This plan would enable a large class of hoys especially to work one half the day and attend school the other half. Here again the question of expense would arise, but the question of justice to a large number would arise at the same time. I am of the opinion that this short course would hold many who really want to finish but cannot work up the courage or spare the time to take a full high-school course as now con- stituted. Many after taking this three years' course would become ambitious to take still more training and might be encouraged to finish at college or the university. Arranging for the two shifts of pupils for the half-day classes, and especially helping to secure half-day jobs, will require much extra labor; but by seeing the merchants, the lawyers, the doctors, the manufacturers, and securing their co-operation in the name of humanity and better citizenship, the plan can be made a success. I believe this method can be worked even in small cities and towns, for it could be started to advantage with a class of twenty, ten in the morning and ten in the afternoon. It seems to me that this would be easier and more practicable and less expensive than the every-other-week plan. A special course extending over three years, beginning with the seventh grade, should be arranged for pupils who are going to be compelled to begin as bread-winners at or near the age of fifteen. To hold pupils for this course, specialization will have to be resorted to and a close connection between it and actual life be made very evident. Even in this short course, there should be some electives. One division would satisfy those inclined to business, another branch those of a mechanical bent. One of the important things to study in each course would be the manufactories and various indus- tries and callings in the local community. Some will argue that there will be Superintendence] ELECT IVES AND SECONDARY EDUCATION 203 no end to courses until each individual is reached and held in school and prepared; but a few electives, determined by the locality and industries, will reach a very large majority, and the fact that many will in this way be held for a longer school term will be felt in the future in an elevated citizenship, and we will then feel amply repaid for our extra work in having built up a school for the benefit of all the boys and girls. Let us fail and we will be pointed to by future generations as people who played at furnishing equal school opportunity for all. The laggard, the exceptionally bright, the careless and indifferent, the dissatisfied, the normal child, and the one who must earn a living — all should have educational opportunity provided which is best suited to the direct needs of each class. Let us not forget that the school exists for the child, that means each child; and the courses should be so arranged as that the very best thing possible will be done for every pupil. If we attract and hold all of them in an interested and beneficial way that will equip them well for the intelligent exercise of the complex functions of an exalted citizenship, the people will be perfectly willing to invest even more money in such noble endeavor and for such uplifting influences. As educational leaders, we must remember that a conscientious, efficient discharge of our duty to the whole community demands that we plan wisely, in a broad way, so as to secure the very highest results to the very largest number in educational uplift. We should take this for our motto, and it will cause us as superintendents to consider the differences in children and try hard to supply their various educational needs. "May every soul that touches mine, Be it the slightest contact, Get therefrom some good, One little grace, one kindly thought, One aspiration yet unfelt. One gleam of hope to pierce the thickening mist, To make this life worth while and heaven a surer heritage." I //. THE EFFECTS OF ELECTIVES UPON THE FUTURE WELFARE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION J. STANLEY BROWN, PRINCIPAL OP TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, JOLIET, ILL. Horace Mann's advent in the little town of Yellow Springs, Ohio, back in the fifties, and the labors of those last few years, constitute probably the initial step in the formal recognition of elective studies. The great extension in meaning, however, is confined to the last fifteen years in both secondary and higher education. In the earlier history of secondary education when schools were somewhat small and poorly equipped and when funds were more difficult to obtain than at present, we had the same set of studies provided for all, regardless of sex, previous condition, or future employment, and we considered that we were 204 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis rendering the best service to all, and it is reported that there are some remote regions east of the Alleghenies even now where such an opinion is making a struggle to survive. We are gradually learning, however, that the Lord made the boy and that it is only man that makes the course of study and prescribes its limitations. We are learning, too, that no longer can we fashion the boy, God's product, to the course of study, man's product, but we must fit the course of study to the boy — yes, to the individual. By so doing we do recognize that boys and girls differ in mental attitudes, tastes, tendencies, etc. Now, let me say before I proceed farther that I am not an advocate of unrestricted, undirected electives, and what I may say refers to electives under wise direction. This means that the work of finding out from earlier teachers the tastes, mental attitudes, etc., must be systematically done and the findings thereof made the basis of assignment when the boy begins his secondary- school work. We have all been shamefully lacking in this and have trusted that somehow the boy's American spirit to go it alone might either help him to avoid the rocks or give him grit to endure the bruises. Every large school ought to have a teacher of great wisdom, experience, and foresight, whose entire time should be given to directing the boy's choice of studies, career, higher institution to attend, etc. It is certainly true that the present meager knowledge of the individual student is insufficient to justify a selection of studies for him, or to help him determine what he is best suited to do in life, or at any rate to establish a goal toward which his future efforts are to be directed. If this goal is far away it is probable that he must have more training, and if so, the type, kind, and location of some higher insti- tution must receive attention. Many a life is lost to the nation because the individual could not determine for himself what his natural endowments fitted him to do. Many another life is wrecked because the individual chose unwisely the type of higher institution best suited for him to attend. The work of such a teacher is of the highest order, and certainly no one would say after thoughtful consideration that such procedure interferes with the develop- ment of initiative. The introduction of elective studies has been a great factor in doubling the attendance at secondary schools during a period of about ten years. The individual has been recognized and the greatest good to a greater number realized, and as rapidly as local conditions or the need of the age demands it, the high schools must offer new lines of work, broaden the opportunity for elections, and continue to be in reality the college of the common people. The secondary school does not exist for the gratification of any man's ambition or to exploit a theory of education. Nor does it receive support by the public for the sake of the development of one department, as occasion- ally some teacher thinks; but its prime function is to give to the youth the greatest opportunity to develop. In so far as the elective system extends this opportunity its effect on the future welfare of secondary education is good. I Superintendence] ELECTIVES AND SECONDARY EDUCATION 205 If the elective system attracts and holds thousands of youth while the older, narrow, all-required-work type of courses attracted hundreds and held a smaller percentage than are held at present, the elective system is making a great quantitative contribution to both the present and the future welfare of secondary education. Modernized courses of study with elective studies mean extension of influence downward and upward and must have much to do with shaping the grammar-school courses of study and also the earlier years of the courses in colleges and other higher institutions of learning. The force of the electives and the benefit to be obtained from them are lost unless their number and scope are sufficiently extended and inclusive to meet the needs of the boys and girls of different tastes, purposes, attitudes, etc. If the evident public demand which is being met now by schools not supported by public taxation is to be met by high schools, the number of elective studies must grow larger and must also be related to one another. The failure of the public high school to meet these public demands has led to the establish- ing of private schools. Now any scheme which looks to the future welfare of secondary education must reckon with public demand. The best educa- tion the schools gave in i860 will not meet the demands of 1910. Each age produces its own problems differing from those of preceding ages because the conditions under which we live are not static. These prob- lems in education we must solve in the light of present knowledge. What was highly satisfactory in the solution of educational problems a quarter of a century ago cannot with any degree of sanity be applied to present-day prob- lems. Boys and girls enter our high schools intending to be in school for one year or at most two years, and then they must go out into life and do some of the world's work. For such it is manifestly unfair to think we are doing the the best for them to give them two years of a well-formulated four-year course. We must recognize the elective system, select for them the subjects of greatest benefit to them, and give them the best teaching the school affords. Let us call this specialization or any other name; we must give such people some- thing which will enable them to take their part in the world's work at once and without the embarrassing necessity of being adjusted to conditions out- side of the school or of being completely recast so as to fit the demands of real life. It is pre-eminently the business of the school so to keep in touch with life that no adjustment will be needed, and if the student's life must practically be recast before he can take his place in the world, it is the school that needs adjusting. I am convinced that the high school with one course made up of what we call the traditional studies will for the present do more acceptable teaching and produce more accurate scholars, than the new, modern courses organized to meet the needs of present-day life. But the appeal of the former is to the constantly diminishing few, the latter to the constantly increasing man}. If such is the effect of electives on the future general good of 206 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis secondary education, there can te little chance for a controversy touching the desirability of generous electives. Again, judged on the basis of scholarship only, there are few in high school, college, or university possessing adequate claims. In my judgment, it is not the primary purpose of any of these institutions to produce scholars, and if that is the purpose, failure to do so is glaringly evident. Do not understand me to underestimate the value of pure scholarship, because no one thinks more highly of the real, true scholar than I. But of the pretenders, what shall we say ? A few years ago every high-school and college man thought he had utterly failed in the performance of duty if when opportunity offered he did not say something about the yawning chasm, the great gulf between the elementary and high schools. Well, something has been done, and is being done, to bridge the chasm or narrow its bounds so that the average child of fourteen may safely make the journey across and land in the high school. But now we are hearing of a more serious chasm between the high-school boy and girl and the wide world — the big public. Now this demands consideration, and, like some other great questions, I think it ought to be dealt with by its friends. A high-school course of study for a boy is a certain number of years of his life, and ought to be so shaped that he would experience little inconvenience or loss of time if at any time his school life should be suddenly transferred to some other life outside of school. It is a very sad comment on our courses of study and the instruction therein, if he must be penalized when he offers himself to do some part of the world's work, and yet we know in many cases this is precisely what happens. We must connect the school life more directly with the life outside the school, and in making this connection there must be advice and help sought from the people outside who are immediately concerned with the boy who may come to them after he has spent one, two, or perhaps more years in high school. The ironclad course of study had its place, its limitations, and it likewise had its day. It was good for the few, and is yet. But this is not a sufficient reason to apply it to the many. We must recognize differences in mental attitudes, tastes, and tendencies, and in no other way can this be so well done as by skillful planning of such electives as will fit the needs of these people so unlike in mental make-up. The call of the state is for a better citizenship, and to this end laws are enacted requiring attendance in the public schools until the age of fourteen, sixteen, or seventeen is reached. The financial call of the family summons the boy to become a breadwinner, and now the boy is face to face with the loss or gain represented by those two years in high school. Does it not make for the future welfare of secondary education to have directed that boy so to elect his work that his earning capacity may be recognized at once, and both the boy and his employer be able to see at once that his earning capacity has been increased because of the school training received ? Superintendence] DIFFERENT TASTES AND TENDENCIES OF PUPILS 207 If this be not true in the great majority of cases, what has the boy gained from state-enforced education ? If this be not true, the boy is likely to become a malcontent. Does it pay ? Will it ever be justifiable for the state to pro- duce thru the agency of the public schools bodies of malcontents ? The difficulty of working out a solution for this problem of making a closer, more direct, more evident relation or connection between the life in high school and the life out of high school is far greater than bridging the chasm between two co-ordinate parts of an educational system, and no single element in our modern education contributes so much toward the solution of the problem as does the system of elective studies along broad, comprehensive lines. In the application of such a scheme we enlist as interested co-workers the men and women who under most circumstances have little or nothing to do with the public schools except to offer some occasional adverse criticism about some policy which they failed to comprehend. If by such means we secure an interest in educational leadership among the patrons and supporters of the school, the future welfare of secondary education is assured. We find that electives tend to broaden the appeal of high-school work and thereby greatly multiply the number entering secondary schools. This is a defensible factor in the future welfare of secondary education. We find again that election of studies reaches its most satisfactory result when under the careful direction of a wise counsellor, and that the work of such a teacher is a great factor in determining the efficiency of young life in public service. The elective system makes such direction full of meaning. We find that school life may be so related to life out of school by means of electives that there is little or no break in passing from one to the other, and that if the state insists that in the interest of good citizenship the boy should attend high school till sixteen or seventeen years old, the boy may insist that the benefit be commensurate with the expenditure of time and effort. We find that specialization may be best arranged by a careful grouping of elective studies for the individual whose attendance in secondary school must be limited to two years. We find that old narrow courses of study whose content was well tried and appealed to a few will probably produce a higher grade of scholarship for the few; but the appeal of the broader courses of study is to the many, and in time they, too, will produce a larger percentage of scholars. We find that electives enable the public school to adopt the best new things introduced and tried out by secondary schools conducted for revenue only. By such means the high school is kept up to date in subject-matter and method of presentation. In conclusion, the effect of electives on the future welfare of secondary education will be to magnify the field of high-school education; keep in close touch with public demands; lead the schools away from domination by any other institution, and relate the work of the school more immediately to life. 208 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis III. DO PRESENT COLLEGE-ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS SUFFICIENTLY RECOGNIZE DIFFERENT TASTES AND TENDENCIES OF PUPILS? ALBERT ROSS HILL, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO. Just how far we shall go in recognizing individuality of taste and tendency among high-school pupils, especially during the earlier years of the course, is not very easy to determine with precision and definiteness. The youth is more or less unstable and whimsical in his tastes then, "he is everything by turns and nothing long," and it is one of the functions of secondary edu- cation to reveal to the pupil and to his teacher and guardian what his per- manent and dominant interests are and in what direction his greatest capacities for work and usefulness lie. This in itself would seem to impose some restrictions on the elective system in secondary education. This was recognized by the Committee of Ten of the National Education Association, wherein the committee advised in favor of postponing the choice between literary and scientific curricula till as late as possible in the four years' course, since the choice between these two roads often determines for life the youth's career. Moreover, they believe that it is possible to make this important decision for a boy on good grounds only when he has had opportunity to exhibit his quality and discover his tastes by making excursions into all the principal fields of knowledge The wisest teacher, or the most observant parent, and one might add, still less the youth himself, "can hardly predict with con- fidence a boy's gift for a subject which he has never touched." This led the committee to suggest that during the first two years of the high-school course, literary, historical, mathematical, and scientific subjects should all be properly represented. Now, we have made some progress since that committee's report was published, and we would doubtless want representation for indus- trial and commercial work, but the essential principle involved seems equally valid today. To my mind there is at least one other ground for restricting the applica- tion of the elective system in secondary education. Some variety of study is helpful at this stage in giving that insight into our civilization which is an essential element in modern culture, and some continuity o^ training is impor- tant in developing sound habits of accurate and systematic thinking that are essential to efficiency. Every high-school graduate should have the habits of thinking that make for efficiency and also be able to share in the great aesthetical and cultural values of human life and be responsive to the demands that society will make upon him. This probably led another committee of the National Education Association — that on college-entrance requirements — to recommend the maintenance of certain constants in those requirements. These constants included a certain number of units in English, foreign lan- guages, mathematics, history, and science, and it was recommended that the remaining units be elective, leaving about one-half of the high-school students' Superintendence] DIFFERENT TASTES AND TENDENCIES OF PUPILS 209 time to the pursuit of those studies that at the time seem best suited to their individual tastes and tendencies, or seem to bear most directly upon their probable future vocations. These constants were two units in English, four in foreign languages, two in mathematics, one in history, and one in science, and the electives were to be chosen from the same general fields. Here again we would probably agree today to widen the field of electives at least, and to be less insistent upon the number of units required in foreign languages, but 1 see no reason for a radical departure from the principles laid down by that committee of this Association. How do present college-entrance requirements in this country compare with those recommended by these committees of the National Education Association ? On the average, they follow them very closely; a small number of important colleges being slightly more rigid in their demands than the sug- gestions of the reports and a large number affording opportunities for greate flexibility than any recognized body of educators in this country has yet seen fit to recommend. To substantiate this statement, it is only necessary to examine the catalogs of typical institutions. I begin with the oldest American institution of higher education. Harvard College. The entrance requirements at Harvard are as follows: 3 years of English, 2 years of French or German, i year of history, 2 years of algebra apd plane geometry, i year of science, the remainder to be selected from a list including English, German, French, Greek, Latin, history, mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, anatomy, botany, zoology, civil govern- ment, economics, music, drawing, manual training (including woodwork, blacksmithing, clipping and filing, machine-tool work). This shows that our oldest American college has gone much farther in making entrance require- ments flexible than has the National Education Association in its recommenda- tions. Equally flexible are the requirements at Columbia, Cornell, and Chicago. Perhaps Princeton may well be taken as typical of those colleges which quite legitimately, I think, do not feel responsible to every class of student but prefer to have a select group of students and to have their degrees stand each for a particular type of culture. For entrance to the classical course at Princeton, the student must present one year in history, 3 years in English, 3 years in Greek, 4 years in Latin, 2^ years in mathematics, 2 years in German or French. But anyone desiring the B.S. degree can substitute modern lan- guages for Greek, and one desiring the engineering course need not present ancient languages at all. Vanderbilt, a typical southern institution on a private foundation, makes requirements resembling those of Princeton, but does not insist on either Latin or Greek for entrance to the Arts course. These institutions, and others like them, are among the most rigid in their entrance requirements, but they are what are generally known as private colleges. No student is bound to attend them, and they are not strictly respon- sible to the general public in state or nation for service of a varied character such as can be demanded of the public institutions. On the other hand, 2IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis we do find among privately endowed institutions the greatest flexibility, the most striking instance being that of Leland Stanford Junior University, which specifies only three years of English, leaving the remaining twelve units of secondary-school work to be selected from a very wide range of elective studies. But after all, the state university is the most strictly American institution of higher education today, and holds the most intimate relation with secondary schools. Probably, therefore, the best field in which to seek an answer to our question is to be found in the entrance requirements of our state universi- ties, as these vary chiefly in the quality and quantity of high-school work demanded and not to any large degree in the proportion between constants and electives. I am going to treat the University of Missouri, which I know best, as typical and call your attention to the following requirements for entrance to the College of Arts and Science: 15 units are required, including three years of English, 2 years of any one foreign language (Greek, Latin, German, French, or Spanish), one year of elementary algebra and one year of plane geometry, the remainder to be presented from the following list: English, Greek, Latin, German, French, Spanish, solid geometry, trigonometry, advanced algebra, physics, chemistry, general biology, botany, zoology, physical geography, commercial geography, economics, civics, history, domestic science, agriculture, manual training, freehand drawing, mechanical drawing, and music. What other subjects should be recognized ? When I have put this question, I have thus far never received an answer, but I dare say commercial branches may be pointed out as given slight recognition, inasmuch as only commercial geography and economics have been suggested. My reply to that is, let the high-school principals determine what is to be considered standard courses for a curriculum in commerce, and there is practically no doubt that the state universities will promptly recognize the work for entrance. The entrance requirements of other state universities closely resemble those of Missouri, Wisconsin and its northern neighbors being somewhat less flexible, Louisiana, at the opposite end of the Mississippi Valley, being more so. Louisiana State University does not require any foreign language for entrance, and accepts as electives stenography and bookkeeping, in addition to those subjects usually found in the accepted lists. It thus appears that the colleges and universities of the country, especially the state universities, have responded to the recommendations of recognized committees of this Association, and have adapted their entrance requirements to the changed conditions of secondary education, and the later conceptions of its functions. In many instances, indeed I believe in the majority of the state institutions, they have gone farther than the committee of secondary- school studies and other similar committees of this Association could well have expected, inasmuch as they have made their requirements more flexible than was suggested. If they have not gone far enough, is it not time for the National Education Association to appoint another committee composed of Superintendence] DIFFERENT TASTES AND TENDENCIES OF PUPILS 211 high-school and college teachers to reconsider the whole question of high- school courses and their relation to college-entrance requirements? But perhaps it will be said that the content of the several units of subject- matter needs revision. Permit me again to point out that these have all been determined by special committees of this and other associations of teachers, and if revision is demanded, the movement should come from the Association instead of having individual members complain because the colleges describe the units for admission in accordance with the recommendations of this and other bodies supposedly fitted to judge. In the administration of college-entrance requirements, we also find- a possibility of doubt as to the effect of those requirements upon the individual tastes and tendencies of pupils and the individual conditions and needs of localities. Now I am not sufficiently familiar with the methods followed in all the colleges to speak with full knowledge on this phase of the subject, but we are all aware of the two leading methods of administration of college-entrance requirements in America. In several of the eastern institutions, students are admitted on examination only, whereas thruout the entire West and almost universally in the South, the certificate of an accredited school is accepted in lieu of examinations. It seems to me to be evident that the latter method furnishes the better means for recognizing individuality. A wise inspector of schools will seek to determine the quality of instruction offered in the high schools, and when a teacher whose work is approved testifies that John Jones has satisfactorily completed a unit in American history and government, for instance, the entrance committee of the university will accept that unit for entrance without inquiring what special topics were stressed or whether the cultural or vocational aim was chiefly in the mind of the teacher or pupil. In the main, then, present college-entrance requirements make reasonable provision for recognition of the individual tastes and tendencies of pupils, in form, in content, and in administration. Recent changes in them have been made in line with recommendations of national or sectional associations of teachers, and the public institutions especially have shown a readiness to adapt their requirements and their work to the changing needs of the people. DISCUSSION J. George Becht, principal of State Normal School, Clarion, Pa. — I think we are fairly well agreed upon the following propositions. First, that education in its earlier stages is very largely indeed a general preparatory function: having in view the training for power, method, and skill. Second, that it is generally concerned with giving the pupil a command of certain definite arts which he may use later for the acquisition of special knowledge. Third, that the course of study should be so adjusted and balanced as to form a fitting introduction of the child into the moral, social, and industrial activities of his generation. Fourth, that the course of study as ordinarily administered does not sufficiently recognize individual differences in children. The course of study prior to the high-school age, as ordinarily prescribed, comprises such subjects as are generally believed to give a good foundation for special education. 212 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [IndianapoUs That there is much traditional matter taught cannot be denied. The course needs con- stantly to be overhauled and the dead matter cast out. But that work is hardly the work for children. It must be admitted that as adults we have not shown superior wisdom in the construction of our courses of study. " Compound Partnership " was a business inven- tion of the seventeenth century and its operation soon after was displaced by the joint-stock method of conducting business; yet in the face of this our textbooks up to a few years ago were still giving space to the elaboration of this effete and fossilized subject. The course of study constantly needs readjustment to meet new demands and new conditions. If we begin the work of specialization, upon what basis shall we specialize ? In the elementary group of studies we find the historical sciences, natural sciences, and the linguistic studies. Surely none of these can be omitted. If we will sensibly adjust our programs, the work of specialization will take care of itself. It is hardly necessary to argue here that specialization has a tendency toward narrow- ness, that invariably the specialist interprets life through his specialty. The specialist is of infinite value to us. He is the pioneer in most of life's activities. He has made pos- sible the great discoveries and inventions of the age; but the masses of mankind are not and will not be specialists. They need a general training so that they may adjust themselves to life's varying and various activities. It is true there may be a certain amount of election and specialization in the high school, and as we pass into the college and university the specialization may be made more selective; but surely the early years of a child's life are for the purpose of giving him a mastery of the tools of education, the instruments by which he will interpret later life, and for this he needs a broad, general, and generous foundation. The peculiar danger of early specialization lies in childhood's extreme capriciousness. Impulses apparent for a day or two are exceedingly powerful and dominant, and then evaporate, leaving barely a trace. Today the boy is in a telegraph office. He becomes interested in the click of the instrument, emotional enthusiasm overpowers him, and he would be a telegrapher. Ten days later he has forgotten that he would be a telegrapher. He stands in front of a wholesale house and watches the men loading heavy boxes, while there stands a man directing and checking up the invoice. For the moment that occupa- tion appeals to him and he would now be a bill clerk. Later he picks up a piece of lead pipe, a brass valve, some nickel fittings, and having heard of the fabulous fortunes of the plumber, he would become a plumber or a junk dealer. His choice is determined by fleet- ing impressions; by whims and caprices of the moment. I do not minimize the value of these temporary interests. They may be made to serve useful ends, but in the last analy- sis the child needs to be put in touch with permanent interests, and these are of a later devel- opment. After all it is not the purpose of the school to develop complete little men and women. We need to make more and more of childhood's happy days instead of forcing these little ones into highly specialized forms of activities. The state recognizes the fact that it is necessary to protect the broader development of the individual by not allowing children to engage in certain occupations before the age of fourteen. If in this narrower way the state recognizes the danger of specializing a child's activities, it would seem that those who control the destinies of children in the school, at a time when life is most plastic, should approach this subject with an appreciation of its influences on the larger aspects of life. Early specialization, that is, specialization before the high-school age, is bound to be done at the expense of a well-rounded development. W. A. GODWARD, superintendent of schools. Devil's Lake, N. Dak. — That children differ in kind and range of capabilities is well known. That education should vary to accommodate these differences is well established, both in theory and in fact. But that these variations in education should all aim at retaining or differentiating these initial individual differences is by no means true. Mere variation may mean something or noth- ing in the individual. Nature is reckless, prodigal, in her variations. She appears to care nothing for waste nor for individual destructive elimination. She aims at a type. Superintendence] DIFFERENT TASTES AND TENDENCIES OF PUPILS 213 Education, too, must aim at this same type; but the whole theory of education, unless it is wrong, aims not only at the desirable types but has as its secondary aim the preservation of the individual. In the process of performing this double function, it is quite as often the aim of education to equalize these natural variations as to differentiate them. In fact there are whole fields of human interest and education in which not differentiation but universality, both of idea and of habit, is the aim. Such are the whole fields of ethical, religious, and civic culture, in which the chief danger is not uniformity but variation. In fact the very nature of this kind of culture is universality. The fact of variation in the individual does not in every case call for specialization. It may call for equalization, or for elimination. It is only when society demands a differen- tiation in ultimate function that that kind of differentiating education known as specializa- tion is warranted at all, and then it must not be indulged in indiscriminately. The specialization must be subject to the law of growth of the child and the complete demands of society and must take into account the individual variations. In what fields of education do we find the social demand for variation in the final product ? We have said that this result is not desired in ethical, religious, or civic training. With one exception it is as little desirable in physical. This exception is the demand for different physical powers and qualities with reference to sex. This variation is in little danger of abuse and the advantages are obvious. In the field of the aesthetic, we find wide variations in the children, and beyond the common standard of good taste and expres- sion, we find a wide range of variation recognized if not demanded by society. In the field of art, of course, these variations both in demand and in capability warrant specialization; but this specializing must be subject to the limits just mentioned, the laws of the child's growth and the complete requirements of society. The fact that the aesthetic powers develop at an early age will throw this limited amount of specialization into the elementary period. But it is not in the realm of ethical, or religious, or civic, or physical, or aesthetic cul- ture that there has been made the most insistent or the most boisterous demand for speciali- zation, but naturally enough, this demand has come in the field of vocational education. Nor are the demands, on the whole, irrational. They are fully warranted by the variations in ultimate social demands. But because these demands for vocational education should be satisfied, and will be satisfied before long, not only in a general way but in a special way, it by no means follows that this specializing should be done in the elementary period. By the laws of growth of the child and the complete requirements of society special voca- tional training should be almost wholly excluded from this period. In the elementary period specialization in vocational education with reference to sex is certainly valid, ele- mentary variation in vocational knowledge, power, and skill is, of course, desirable, but the variation is rather in the direction of degree of these elementary powers than in the direction of kind for it is obvious that variation witli reference to kind of knowledge, power, or skill involves a selection of vocation which at this early period cannot be without serious danger of error. The explicit objections to vocational specialization, farther than we have indicated, are as follows: 'Neither body nor mind of the child is ready for industrial exac- tions at this early period. There are other social demands of greater value which must not be neglected. The child has not reached a period of maturity in which it is safe to select his life-work. Narrow specialization in early youth will be more likely to limit than to enlarge the individual power, even in his specialization. There is a better period in which this work can be done, and it is simply a matter of better labor laws and better compulsory- school-attendance laws, and their wise enforcement, to retain children in school until they have attained any desirable degree of social efficiency. If high levels of manhood and womanhood and society are to be reached the movement must be rather away from speciali- zation in the elementary periods except in those cases where the variations develop early, where the variation is demanded by society, and in which the specialization will not inter- rupt the acquiring of the complete social culture which will fit the individual for his whole 214 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis sphere of life. As we have seen, the only kinds of specialization which comply with these tests in the elementary period are physical specialization with reference to sex, vocational culture with reference to sex, and a limited amount of aesthetic culture with reference to the individual. Farther than this, variations in education are aimed either to equalize the individual differences to the social requirements of universality or are elementary variations aiming to lay a general foundation for the several lines of narrower specialization later on in the course. It must be remembered, finally, that education is not a closed science — not even an exact science. Educational aims more than those of any other science or profession must acknowledge the fact that they are approximations, but below these approximations after all lie the great general principles which point the direction of truth, and in accordance with which all such questions as specialization must be relatively determined. These principles are the ultimate social demands as to variation or unity of function, the initial variations of the individual, and the laws of individual growth, none of which can be ignored with impunity. TOPIC: CHILDREN DIFFER IN PHYSICAL CONDITION /. HEALTH AND EDUCATION THOMAS F. HARRINGTON, M.D., DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL HYGIENE, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS. The health problems in education are many; nevertheless, when we analyze them, we find that the overheating and the poor ventilation, the improper lighting and the misfit furniture, as well as the poorly nourished and the mentally retarded, the physically unfit and nervously unstable, the neglect of exercise and the abuse of athletics, separately and combined, become important only so far as each affects the working capacity of the individual or group of individuals. In other words, the efficiency of the work performed is the measure of the importance of each of these factors in the so-called '* school diseases." Work, therefore, is the criterion of education as it is of health. An important factor in all work, whether mental or physical, is that each individual has his biological limit, dependent upon race or family character- istic. Few probably ever reach their limitations, so wisely has Providence placed the margin of safety by its duplication of organs and by its super- abundance of fluids and tissues; nevertheless, the unmistakable lesson of all nature is that the highest development and the soundest health lie in the knowledge of how much the brain and the muscles, or either, may be stimulated to activity without injury and within its own limits, rather than in the striving to develop either brain or muscles so as to reach a fixed standard within a specified time. Here lies the keystone of a rational educational system. In children there is imminent danger of overpressure, because here the danger signal of overwork — fatigue — is not so likely to be noticed. On the contrary, the toxic effect of overwork is usually irritability, and this excitation is often mistaken for brightness and zeal and is encouraged and fostered. For this the schools have been censured greatly. The greatest hope of establishing a national understanding of a healthy way of life, as well as the most hopeful point of attack of present-day evils, is Superintendence] HEALTH AND EDUCATION 21 5 unquestionably in the schools. Here, beginning in the earliest years of life, the inculcation of the simple rules of health and the practicing of the prin- ciples of cleanliness, fresh air, and work for five hours in the day must make for health, happiness, and righteousness to a degree not possessed by an> other means. Without debating, therefore, whether or not it is the particular duty of the school authorities to safeguard the health of those whom it compels to come to its buildings, we can agree that it goes without saying that the con- ditions and the circumstances surrounding the child while under instruction should be wholesome; and secondly, that it is to the interest of the school, as well as to that of the scholars, to supplement the function and the authority of the home in so far as the requirements of each child make necessary. In no case is there any need or justification for the school to usurp the duty of parent or home. This is the principle upon which the health work in the Boston schools has been built. A brief reference to some of the problems com- mon to the school communities and to the manner in which relief measures were carried out will illustrate its value. HEATING AND VENTILATION There is no factor more important to the health and efficiency of pupils and teachers than the proper temperature of the room and the constant supply of proper fresh air. This is particularly true in school life because at no other time in life are children confined in such large numbers together for five hours a day. The very activity of their growth precludes the necessity for^ extra warmth, while the nature of the growth calls for a maximum of oxygen. This is too often overlooked and adults in attendance regulate the room tem- perature in accordance with adult sensations. The great evil, however, lies in the adoption of systems of heating and ventilation which depend either upon constant automatic perfection in the control mechanism, or upon a supervision far too expensive for constant efficiency. Much ill health and educational waste depend upon this factor of temperature and ventilation. The evil is equally active in homes and workshops. All investigations show a direct relationship between anaemia, nervousness, headaches, and recurrent *' colds" and overheated or baked devitalized room atmosphere. The asso- ciation of anaemia with high temperature is shown by the table on following page. In 3,009 cases of anaemia, 2,377 were in rooms where the temperature was 69° and over; 321 cases occurred in rooms with a temperature of 68°, while only 235 cases occurred in rooms between 64 and 67° F. inclusive. From the data at hand, a room of not more than 67° F. is unquestionably the best for health and efficiency. In our investigations we found fully as many cases of ill health in buildings equipped with modern plenum systems as we did in buildings heated by direct radiation. The argument against opening the win- dows for purposes of ventilation has been that the draught thus created gives 2I( NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis RELATION OF THE TEMPERATURE OF ROOMS IN THE DIFFERENT GRADES TO THE NUMBER OF ANEMIC CHILDREN Tempera- Grades ture I II III IV V VI VII VIII Total r6 18 "s 13 7 13 6 55 78 45 65 81 79 5 14 6 I 15 15 2 . 6 II 44 63 132 20 106 I 57 13 2 6 "s 4 16 3 17 2 31 56 100 18 64 4 5 4 4 10 5 I 4 . 5 2 6 5 15 4 8 72 95 127 23 2 47 58 21 10 I 4 5 6 •• 30 II 34 54 81 26 26 21 43 26 4 I •• 2 9 7 29 35 90 22 78 19 10 2 6 4 7 18 2 37 59 51 18 30 6 6 2 5 3 3 19 36 39 29 14 I 14 4 13 19 2 CQ ... 60 . . 61 62 . . 33 36 82 6^ 64 6k 66 67 39 321 476 66s 221 68 69 71 72 401 105 266 72 74. 7c 108 76 75 6 77 . ■ ■ 78 36 10 70 80 8 493 494 352 509 434 321 234 172 3,009 children fresh "colds" or that the plenum system is deranged by such opening. The remedy found effective was the establishment of periods of physical exercises at a fixed time in each session during which windows thruout the buildings were thrown open, top and bottom. By this arrangement the janitor was able to regulate the extra requirements put upon the heating and ventilating system by means of the open windows. This relief measure in the elementary grades is in addition to the regular recess airing during which the same process is repeated. Organized recess games and plays by grades have been found a most effective means to insure each child an opportunity to participate in outdoor recreation. The teachers go into the yards with the children and lead the games, thus partaking of a preventive measure which so many teachers have neglected. In the high schools, a ten-minute setting-up drill in the middle of the session offers the opportunity for a similar arrangement. This drill is given by room captains, boys and girls, in whatever room or laboratory the daily pro- gram brings the classes at the appointed time each day, usually between the second and third periods. The reports have been uniformly favorable to this method. It has had the effect of emphasizing the importance of fresh air and deep breathing; the thermometers are watched closely by pupils and the temperature record kept for public scrutiny. The number of illnesses Superintendence] HEALTH AND EDUCATION 21 7 and the days of absence have decreased markedly and a mental alertness is more manifest. In the high schools the time for this drill has so shortened the periods of interchange of classes that loitering in corridors and study- rooms has disappeared wholly. The whole scheme has been a most effective preventive measure in combating disease without overemphasizing to children the fear of any one particular disease. It gives the child an opportunity to build up a constitution in which the ubiquitous germs can be successfully combated. The following experiments illustrate the possibilities of employing the principle of fresh-air schools for those physically unfit to bear the enervating influence of crowded classrooms. Eighteen pupils, whose frequent absence on account of ill health made school life unprofitable, were assigned to an outdoor class in the school-yard where movable seats and desks were arranged upon platforms. The regular work of an ungraded class was carried out. Each child was given an opportunity to procure a luncheon at a very low cost at each session. The total gain in weight for the class was eighty-one pounds, the lowest gain being one pound and the greatest ten pounds. The average gain for the class was 4I pounds. The number of sessions of absence for these children was reduced from 583 in the previous three months to 39 during the outdoor sessions. Another experiment, but dealing with purely tuberculous children, shows more strikingly the association of fresh air and health. A class of twenty tuberculous children was assigned to the roof of one of the buildings of a public park. Regular ungraded school work was carried out. The children did not go home at noon but had luncheon served, at a nominal cost to them, at the school. Periods of rest were enjoined and sleep in storm-bags and blankets encouraged during the after-luncheon period at noon. During the year 1 908-1 909, fifty-seven pupils were assigned to this class, each new pupil taking the vacancy occasioned by the transfer of a cured case back to the regular grade. Thirty of the fifty-seven were discharged as cured and returned to the regular class without loss of academic standing; three were promoted beyond their former classmates. Each cured case has been examined every two weeks since and none has shown a return of the tubercle bacilli nor a failure to progress in weight. This hospital school has today seventy-six pupils and is under the immediate jurisdiction of the Boston Consumptives' Hospital Trustees, an arrangement which permits of feeding and storm- clothing without the intervention of school or private charity. These two experiments have resulted in a wider health measure. In December, 1909, the superintendent requested each grade teacher and school nurse to select from the pupils in their rooms all those considered to be suffer- ing from anaemia, chorea (St. Vitus' Dance), palpable glandular enlargement, and those who are relatively undersized or who had returned to school after a recent illness. All these pupils were then referred to the medical inspectors 2l8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis for an opinion as to the advisability of placing them in open-air classes. The results of this survey by grades is as follows : Total number of pupils inspected 90,000 Total number selected by teachers and nurses 5,043 (5 .6 per cent.) Total number approved by medical inspectors for fresh-air classes 4,489 (4-98 per cent.) Un- graded Kinder- garten I II III IV V VI VII VIII Total Anaemic 127 86 550 470 381 496 438 334 246 170 3,298 Choreic 5 5 40 40 40 35 29 42 33 12 281 Glandular. . . 17 8 63 89 67 81 69 52 43 27 516 Undersize . . . 9 21 68 51 39 74 61 50 34 23 430 Recently ill. . 32 30 96 82 60 59 55 39 33 32 518 190 150 817 732 587 745 652 517 389 264 5,043 Reduced to percentages, this means that out of the 5,043 or 5.6 per cent, who were thought to be in ill health, more than 65 per cent, were suffering from anaemia, 10 per cent, from glandular enlargement, 10 per cent, had been ill recently, 8 . 5 per cent, were undersized, and 5 . 5 per cent, were choreic. The illness by grades was as follows: Kgn. I II III IV V VI VII VIII Percentage of total illness 2 16 14 II 14 12 10 7 5 Each of the 5,043 pupils selected by the teachers and nurses was followed to the home by the school nurse with the object of learning any probable home causes for the ill health. The findings are important because they present the actual conditions as observed by the school nurses who, from frequent visits to the homes and from their personal knowledge of all the factors, were able to estimate rightly the findings and the conditions in each case. This is far different from drawing conclusions from answers received from direct questioning of parents and children when the respective school neighborhoods know that an investigation is on foot. The thirty-four school nurses of the Department of School Hygiene had visited 22,292 homes of school children during the year prior to this special investigation; they had taken, by the request of the parent or guardian in every case, over 2,500 children to dentists and over 9,000 children to the hos- pitals; they had referred 7,500 children to the family physicians, and in many cases when the mother was unable to make the visit with the child, the nurse fulfilled the duty. In addition to this co-operation with the homes and parents, the school nurses had rendered over 36,000 dressings for affections among pupils referred to them by the school physicians; and had secured the correction of 3,377 cases of defective vision and 848 cases of defective hearing. All this co-operation has resulted without one complaint of interference, usurpation, I Superintendence] HEALTH AND EDUCATION H^ or weakening in any manner the unity and the sanctity of the home. I emphasize this fact not so much to strengthen the report of the nurses as to bring out clearly the degree to which co-operation of the school with the home is possible, and more especially to check, if possible, the growing tendency today to acknowledge that the home life has disappeared. In Boston, at least, such a condition of society does not exist. Among the 5,043 children selected as probably ill, the nurses' reports show that 3,531 came from homes classified as ''good," while 1,512 came from homes classified as ''poor," or 70 per cent, and 30 per cent, respectively. Ninety per cent, of the children ill with chorea came from good homes. The home factors entering into the possible causes of ill health were varied and multiple. In the absence of any fixed standards, it would be unprofitable to enumerate those factors, other than to restate the social and economic causes of ill health already given in this paper. Overcrowding, poor ventila- tion, lack of sufficient sleep, and indifference to ordinary laws of hygiene, sanitation, and feeding were very constant factors noted. The result of this investigation has been that the School Committee has voted to establish in certain districts one or more schoolrooms capable of arrangement so as to offer to the class of children referred to above the advan- tages of the maximum of fresh air and sunshine during school hours. Ail new buildings are to have rooms similarly arranged. The assignment of children to these fresh-air rooms is separate and distinct from the hospital class for the tubercular. The reason for this is obvious. Genuine demon- strable tuberculosis among school children is much more rare than many published reports would indicate. The anaemic, the glandular, and the under-sized are included, no doubt, in many estimates of tuberculosis among children, and in all probability such children are infected, at least they are of the more susceptible class; nevertheless, the association of these special rooms for fresh-air classes with genuine tuberculosis would defeat greatly the object of the undertaking. One of the constant forerunners of serious illnesses, especially the systemic disturbances such as tuberculosis, diabetes, heart diseases, etc. among school children, is a failure to gain in weight or a loss in weight. Parents recognize this and are always ready and eager to co-operate to bring about a gain in weight. In order that this co-operation may be secured easily for the welfare of the child, the School Committee has placed scales and measuring rods in the various school districts, and teacher, nurses, and pupils are encouraged to make the freest use of the same. The regular record of weight and height forms a part of the clinical record card kept by the school nurse. These scales are to be used also for a scientific investigation for a series of years, in order to learn the normal ratio of growth and weight of the same group of individuals during schooling years. This installation of scales offers a means of gaining accurate data upon the perplexing problem of dealing with the so-called underfed school children. 220 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis There can be no question about two facts: first, that in every community- there are many poorly fed children; and secondly, that the physical and the mental growth would be increased greatly by better methods of feeding. Here again we lack fixed standards, both in the nature of the food required and in the quantity. Fixed habits, dependent upon age, climate, racial and national customs, cannot be overlooked. The demonstration and advice by school nurses have helped to carry into the homes the lessons along lines of better dietary taught the children in the schools. Demonstration classes in cooking and dietary are to be established for parents whose children have been selected for open-air classes. The underfeeding among children from poor homes is not due to neglect so much as to lack of knowledge in the homes and to the overburden of parents from many other duties. A great part of the underfeeding among all classes is not due to poverty; neither is anaemia an index to nutrition. This is shown by the following data furnished by the school nurses. In our investigation, 3,375, or two-thirds of the children in ill health, had good breakfasts; 1,668, or one-third, had poor breakfasts. A good breakfast consisted of fruit with bread and butter or eggs and milk or cocoa, or cereal with milk or cream. A poor breakfast included either some picked-up or made-to-order food without milk and in nearly every instance tea. Among the children said to have a poor breakfast, 1,155, or 69 per cent., came from good homes while 513, or 30 per cent., came from poor homes. Few, if any, of this latter class were without money to procure something for breakfast. Too often, the money was spent for pickles or candies. By far, the most common and pernicious factor in this whole problem is tea-drinking among children. In the form and in the quantity now indulged in by growing children, it ranks very high as a cause of much of the ill health present today. Its use is now so firmly fixed among all classes of school children that its eradication will require the combined effort of every agency at our command. It is a great national evil. Until information in the home is more enlightened on the value of the most common and inexpensive articles of food, as well as on their best preparation, it is futile and unwise to consider any general relief measures for bettering, by means of free school luncheons, those in our schools who are undersized and anaemic. These last two conditions are not necessarily associated always with underfeeding and poverty. The greatest good would result if all school children were given an opportunity to procure, at a minimum cost during the daily recess, such simple articles of food as fruit, rice, puddings, custards, bread and butter, cookies, prunes, apple sauce, milk, cocoa, ice cream, and, if possible, soups. To offer free luncheons to school children is evidently not the solution, as it postpones the real effective agent, namely, the education and the stimulation of the home. From the data at hand, we are warranted in the conclusion that there is no need for the school to undertake this evident duty of the home and of public relief associations. One of the most effective means in impressing upon pupils and parents the importance of this duty, as well as the allied health problems of cleanliness, Superintendence] HEALTH AND EDUCATION fresh air and sunshine, exercise and rest, food and drink, was the establish- ment of ''Health Day." The School Committee of Boston established such a day and a program was carried out in all the grades from the kindergarten to the Normal School, emphasizing in each the importance of some particular line of health work, including demonstrations in physical exercises, games, and plays, as well as in home nursing, cooking, food values, and economics. Bearing directly upon the problem of the poorly nourished and the phys- ically ill is the greater national problem of the physical status of the youth of our country. Data upon which to base an opinion are very meager in this country. In 1876 Dr. Bowditch made a series of measurements of Boston school children. I have collected 1,418 (boys 763, girls 653) measurements of boys and girls born in Boston, both of whose parents were born in Boston. All these children were attending in 1 900-1 909 the same schools from which Dr. Bowditch drew his measurements. It is very probable that these two sets of measurements represent, in many instances, two generations of the same family. AVERAGE HEIGHT IN INCHES Age 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 Boys 1876 (Without Shoes) 1906 (With Shoes) 46.2 48. 50.1 SI. 8 53-6 55-3 57-09 59-8 Girls 1876 (Without Shoes) 45-52 47-58 49-37 51-34 53-42 55-88 58.16 59-94 1006 (With Shoes) AVERAGE WEIGHT IN POUNDS 49.07 48.95 53 92 52 94 59 53 57 6 65 30 63 47 70 18 70 5 76 92 78 84 84 86 I 94 91 98 8 47.46 52.04 57-07 62.35 68.84 78.31 88.65 98.43 48 52 57 64 70 79 90. 97.8 Two thousand weights of Boston schoolboys, ages seven, nine, eleven, and thirteen years, taken at random from the data collected, show in the com- parison with the average weight of Boston schoolboys in 1876 the following: Weights Age Last Birthday 1876 1900-1906 49 .07 lbs. 59.23 lbs. 70.18 lbs. 84.84 lbs. 48 . 2 lbs. 57.6 lbs. 70 . 0 lbs. 86.4 lbs. I X years 222 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis The further study of these data is being pursued and the results will be published. In the meantime it can be asserted quite positively that the present generation of our school children does not appear to be deteriorating physically. On the contrary, the girls are probably taller and, so far as our present data have been studied, heavier than girls of corresponding ages in 1876. Time does not permit further consideration here of the problems of school furniture, playgrounds, school athletics, or physical training — all bona fide educational subjects. Neither can the question of the care of the tuberculous nor the control of the "carriers" of diphtheria, which exist to the extent of i^ per cent, in our schools, be satisfactorily set forth in the limited time left at my disposal. A detailed report of each of these subjects will form a part of our school documents. The more closely one studies the whole problem of health and education as applied to pedagogy, the more evident it becomes that in the near future, the present system of education in this country will have to be rearranged. Medical science is now prepared to offer aid and advice for a healthier expan- sion. Many fixed traditions and cherished legacies may have to be sacrificed. Already continuation schools are demonstrating the great educational, as well as industrial and physical, waste of repeated, prolonged interruptions in serious work. With pupils thus under school supervision during the summer months, greater attention will be given to the importance of the rapid growth in children's height during those months. The disregard of th^'s physiologic demand of nature has resulted in many nervous wrecks, and calls for a radical transfer of the enervating influences of the June examinations and of the pro- motions in September to a time in the child's seasonal growth less unstable. The keynote of this convention — children differ — emphasizes the educational error of fixed grading, especially in the lower grades. Recent medical dis- coveries suggest that the chronological age is no criterion for the continuation of this custom; the daily observations in school and in the physician's 'con- sul ting-room prove that fewer discouraged backwards, choking the progress of lower grades, less time for latent criminality to find its opportunity in idle- ness, a better opporunity to direct rightly precocity, and the surest means of averting the storms of puberty would result by a freer transfer of pupils from grade to grade with a suitable "clearing-house" check at possibly the sixth- grade age. In the attainment of some such pedagogical system lies the highest usefulness of the great free offerings of our public schools. The present unrest is propitious. In the future lie inestimable gifts awaiting the approach of pedagogs and physicians, education and health. Superintendence] COMPETITION AND CULTURE 223 //. COMPETITION AND CULTURE D. A. SARGENT, M.D., DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, , HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. No one doubts for a moment the stimulating influence of competition in all lines of mental and physical activity. It matters little whether the com- petition is in business, education, or sport; as soon as one man or a group of men is arrayed against another, all act with greater zeal and energy. The philosophers tell us that the reason for this increased effort when opposed by a rival or competitor dates back to primitive conditions in the remote past when one's life and belongings often depended upon the result of a personal contest. So thoroly has the necessity for moving and doing as a basis for living been ingrained into our organism that these impulses to activity have become a part of our natural inheritance. We now know that the apparently aimless and endless motions of head, trunk, and limbs, and the grasping, biting, striking, and kicking in which every infant child so constantly indulges, are only nature's efforts to enable him to perfect and develop his psycho-physi- cal organism so that he may maintain a footing in the world and adapt himself to his environment. So soon as he has sufficiently perfected his bodily organism to enable him to move about and come in contact with persons and things, a new impetus is given to his development. Then when the child's acts become purposeful and he begins to assert himself, he learns for the first time what it is to come in contact with another purposeful will, and his education for life really begins. His impulse to fight, to struggle, and contend is thoroly aroused, and thru his childhood's plays and games and his youthful sports he finds numerous opportunities for testing his powers in comparison with others — receives many and forcible suggestions as to the need of further adjust- ments of his organism to its surroundings. In a word, is not this an epitome of life and a simplified representation of the process of human development ? All thru the ages the simple forms of life and labor have afforded ample opportunity for fostering the struggling and contending spirit. The old- fashioned contests in spelling and mental arithmetic and in prize speaking and debating afforded to the youth of a century ago a great incentive to mental effort, and many of the leading men of the country were trained and developed by this kind of stimulus. The events in which men have competed in the past for physical supremacy are so numerous as almost to defy enumeration, and some of them are so trivial as to be hardly worthy of it. Wood-chopping, log-sawing, hoeing, spading, mowing, reaping, corn-husking, wool-gathering, and brick-making are some of the primitive industries that have often lent themselves to competition, and excited the greatest interest and rivalry. Putting the stone, throwing the hammer, tossing the caber, and the impromptu boxing and wrestling matches held on the village green, "when sleights of art and feats of strength went round," were some of our present-day athletic events engaged in a hundred years ago. These rough-and-ready contests 224 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis in the field, on the common, in the schoolhouse, at the corner store, and at the county fair ground were about the only means afforded young men in those days for "sizing themselves up " as it were in comparison with others, and many an aspiring youth has had the conceit taken out of him, and been given a new start in life, by meeting a ''better man" in these primitive struggles. Now the primary object of these early contests was not to discover who was the best reaper, corn-husker, or wood-chopper, or even the best boxer or wrestler — for after a fashion these were all common activities — but the object of the greatest interest was to determine who was the ''best man." This term was in such common use in connection with all athletic contests in the past that it has been incorporated into the very language and literature of sport. We sometimes hear the term used today in connection with athletics, altho it is more frequently used in referring to the best man at a wedding ceremony. It is interesting to learn from Darwin that originally the best man was the chief abettor or muscular backer of the bridegroom in the act of capturing a wife, when wives were procured in that way. With the division of labor and the multiplication of employments and industries has also come a great increase in the number and variety of sports. The eagerness and the intensity of the competition in trade and business has been imparted to our sports and pastimes, and many of the questionable methods pursued in the conduct of competitive games have been borrowed from the business world. The great public interest aroused in sports, thru the growing need among the people for more physical vigor, has also tended to intensify and exaggerate the importance of all competitive sports and con- tests. Athletic contests imply a struggle for supremacy between two parties, which only one party can win. One party will consequently experience the joy of victory and the other party the chagrin of defeat. The greater the publicity given to these contests thru popular interest and the daily press, the more intense these emotions grow and the more difficult it becomes to keep the contests within reasonable bounds. Victory is now accepted as the one and the all-important thing, and everything else is made subservient to it. This leads to professionalism, foul tactics, overtraining, the do-or-die or anything- to-win spirit, and even to the claiming of heights never climbed, distances never covered, victories never achieved. A host of evils follows as a natural consequence. Some of these evils may be briefly enumerated as follows: a tendency to specialize in single sports, and narrow the field of physical education; too much time, money, and attention given to the development of the major sports like football and baseball and too little to the development of the minor sports like gymnastics, lacrosse, cricket, association football, fencing, boxing, wrestling, etc. In this connection it may be well to observe that the major sports, so called, are those that attract the greatest popular interest and draw the largest gate receipts — not those that are most valuable from a developmental or educational point of view. The present method of selection picks the best men for the major sports and leaves the Superintendence] COMPETITION AND CULTURE 225 rest to the minor sports, without training or pecuniary resources. The high standard of all the popular sports puts them beyond the qualifying efficiency of the average student. All of our sports are pursued too much as ends in themselves rather than as means to ends — and those ends the general improve- ment and harmonious perfecting of the human organism. A great deal has been done in many of our secondary schools and colleges for both sexes during the past twenty-five years toward the attainment of these ideals, and the progress that has already been made leads the author of this paper to have great hopes for the futute. We have been so much occupied in fostering the spectacular or advertising side of athletics, and con- tending with the evils growing from over-competition, that we have almost entirely neglected the educational or cultural value of these important agents of youthful development. We hear a great deal at the present time about the desirability of a pleasing personality in the teacher and professional man, the advantages of a genial nature, a courteous manner, a fine carriage, and a manly bearing. What is the meaning or worth of an athletic trophy or medal, a college diploma or a school certificate, if they do not stand for noble conduct and sterling character as well as for physical and mental efficiency? What is it that makes victory so pleasurable and defeat so hard to bear, except our tickled vanity and pride, and our wounded feelings and self-esteepi ? Many of the highest moral qualities, such as courage, fortitude, forbearance, generosity, magnanimity, and nobility of character, may be cultivated on the athletic field; while presence of mind, health, strength, poise, and endurance, and those lighter tho highly serviceable qualities such as skill, grace, alertness, and flexibility — all come into the possession of the physically perfected gymnast and athlete. Now it seems to me that we should so conduct our school sports and exercises as to emphazise their educational and cultural value and put less stress upon the competitive element that enters into them. As unregulated competition is not the life, but the death, of trade, so unregulated competition in sports tends not to their preservation but to their destruction. The history of rowing, baseball, boxing, wrestling, football, and basket-ball in America is the history of an almost continuous fight that has been carried on in behalf of these sports to preserve them from extinction. The problem is how to get the stimulating effect from the spirit of competition, and yet avoid its evils and destructive tendencies. The first remedy which I would suggest is to make competition in all sports less intense and more diffusive. That is, do not put so much stress upon the time made, the height jumped, the game played, as upon the number in the school that are engaged in making some serious athletic efforts. In order that all of the pupils in the school may get some of the mental, moral, and social advantages as well as the physical advantages of the competitions, the contests should be arranged in groups, so that each one according to his ability could do his share toward helping to win a victory. Then, in order that no particular line of natural ability on the part of the pupils may be favored in the contests, they should be made 226 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis to include a liberal variety of athletic events. By so doing, those who could not do well in one type of performance could make a more creditable showing in something else. This method may be applied to gymnastics as well as to athletics, and wherever it has been tried it has brought about a better school spirit and developed a higher average moral and physical tone among the pupils. As a means of doing away with the evils and preserving the good there is in athletic competitions, the group method has great possibilities and much to commend it. But in all sports as well as in all physical exercises the qualities most required are the qualities that will be most intensified and developed. A failure to recognize this fact and to act upon it deprives our present system of athletics and gymnastics of a great measure of their educational value to the individual student. A boy comes to school or college from the farm. He is large and strong, but awkward and clumsy in all of his movements. He needs to be made more flexible, more graceful, more refined. In other words, he needs physical culture in its best sense, and not physical torture. By the method of natural selection now prevailing in athletics, he is chosen for the position of guard or center rush on the football team, or to put the shot, throw the hammer, or row on the crew. In either case he will have to get rid of some of his awkwardness and clumsiness if he succeeds as an athlete, but^is he getting the training that he most needs to round him out and perfect him as a man ? Another boy is tall and slender and needs to put on weight and acquire more strength. He is selected for a middle distance runner or a high jumper, and bends all of his energies to qualify as a competitor in these events. Here again the boy sacrifices his opportunity to develop him- self as a man in ordei: that he may perfect himself as a high jumper, pole vaulter, or some athletic specialist. I have cited but two illustrations, but I could give a dozen more did the time permit, to show where the best culture for the man is neglected, in order that he may find more time to practice some single sport in hopes of winning honors for himself and his school or university. In some of the eastern colleges the competition is so keen and the time and energy given to the preparation for athletic contests are so excessive, that the faculty have restricted the number of major sports to two in which the same student may enter as a contestant. Altho this restriction of competitors to two sports may prevent a few students from injuring themselves from over- training, it intensifies the evil for the majority of students by taking away the stimulus for practicing a wider range of athletic exercises. To encourage too narrow and too early a specialization is not only a mistake from a cultural point of view, but even from an athletic standpoint. Page, Sweeney, and Dray, who have held world's records in their athletic specialities as high jumpers and pole-vaulters — all preceded the practice of these events by a long period of all-round exercises and general gymnastic training. I could mention many more distinguished athletes, amateurs and professionals, who have pursued the same course. We now know that this method, which has been largely empirical on the part of many athletes, has a solid scientific foundation. Superintendence] COMPETITION AND CULTURE 227 The recent laboratory experiments of Keith Lucas, a Fellow in Cambridge University, England, have proven conclusively that the muscle fiber and not the muscle as a whole is the unit of action, and in order to bring out the full working capacity of all the muscles and increase their tone and improve their innervation, that body and limbs must be subjected to extreme flexions and extensions, and to the greatest possible variety of movements. If these later- day deductions of the physiologists are true they furnish further arguments for broadening our conception of physical education. Not only must the ordinary round of light and heavy gymnastics be taught to all of our school children as a matter of daily routine, but they must be taught and encouraged to practice the greatest variety of youthful sports and games. Walking, running, jumping, skating, swimming, diving, rowing, canoeing, bicycling, dancing, fencing, and the various forms of ball-playing are essential parts of a boy's neiiro-muscular education. If he does not learn these sports in his youth, he is not likely to take them up when an adult for fear that his bungling efforts may excite laughter and ridicule. In learning and practicing these different sports there is a training and a culture which comes to the boy which he cannot get in any other way. This experience becomes a part of his psycho- physical organism. As a preparation for life no amount of book learning will ever compensate for the loss of it. This is the testimony of hundreds of men now living who were deprived of this training in their youth. The developmental and hygienic value of all forms of physical exercise has long since been recognized, but the educational value of many of them has not been fully appreciated until quite recently. The recognition of gymnastics as a fine art, to be classed with music, speech, construction, sculpture, drawing, and painting, as modes of expression, has done much to bring this fact to the attention of the public. In order that the cultural value of various kinds of gymnastics and athletics may be fully brought out, the nicest regard must be given to form in the method of executing the exercises. The Germans and the French have long worked for ideals in their gymnastics as they have in their music and sculpture, and the Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, and Finns have actually attained a precision, poise, and elegance in their gymnastics which are truly admirable. The American school and college youth are apt to scout at form and finish in their athletics and gymnastics as synonymous with silliness and insincerity, and they often assume a slouchiness of standing and walking for fear that they may be thought to be posing or attitudinizing. Notwithstanding this national custom, the American athletes who attain championship form do their work with the highest degree of grace and artistic finish. Our women have already led off in this new movement with their artistic dancing, and progress along the same line will soon follow as a matter of evolution in our gymnastics and athletics. Order, grade, poise, balance, precision, accuracy, refinement, delicacy, elegance, and beauty may be expressed in action as well as in thought and feeling. When our school authorities recognize the possibilities in physical exercises for cultivating these qualities 228 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis as well as the many others that I have already mentioned, they will give these exercises a larger place in the curriculum than they do at present. When our youth realize that it is not necessary to be a dude in order to be a gentleman, or a tough in order to be an athlete, a great victory will have been gained. Then they will realize that they can get all of the rough and strenuous work that they want, without making their games brutal or revolting, and that they may display their skill, strength, and daring in sport without resorting to the tactics of the mucker or the bully. In fact, they will learn that the true sports- man may be a gentleman on the track and on the field as well as in the drawing- room and parlor. Some of us believe that our youth may even be taught to play football and basket-ball and still be gentlemen, tho it may require some amending of the present rules to make this possible. Finally, the public itself must realize that the sports, games, and physical exercises of our school and college youth are not conducted primarily for the amusement of the masses, but for the physical education and the all-round training of the sons and daughters of the republic that they may be better able to meet the duties of life and the responsibilities of citizenship. In order to keep up to the high ideals and high standards in physical education of which I have spoken, the crying need of the hour is for special teachers of both sexes of recognized character and ability. No class of teachers in the community at the present time are more sorely needed, and none can do more good if well qualified or more harm if poorly qualified than the teachers of physical education. Let us lift this great subject out of its crude, spectacular stage and put it on a sound educational basis. Let us give less attention to the exploitation of the strong, and more attention to the instruction of the weak. Let us give courage to the timid, energy to the feeble, grace to the awkward, and hope to the despondent. Let us teach more of the people that life is really worth living, if they will only learn to live normally, fully, wisely, and well. Many of the truths which I have presented to you are now coming home to thousands of the community of both sexes, young and old, thru their everyday experiences. Upon the general recognition of the importance and possibilities of the physical activities as adjuncts of education, culture, and development depends much of the usefulness and prosperity of our schools and colleges; and in the prac- tical employment of these physical activities under intelligent direction on the playground, in the gymnasium, and thru industrial and vocational training depend the health, vigor, and prosperity of the American people. ///. THE PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION HERMAN H. HORN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY It is a pertinent time to inquire into the principle of physical education if we can find it. Our day is showing a quickening of the physical as well as Superintendence] MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 229 the moral conscience. The call to the out-of-doors, the increasing biological study of the body since Darwin's time, the recognition of the place of play in life, the use of vacations, the growth of the movement for open-air playgrounds and gymnasia, the large field of sport, the enthusiasm for athletics in school and college, the demand for athletic reform, the movement for pure food and pure drugs, the increasing amount of travel — all indicate that the physical element of life is emerging into conscious, if chaotic, recognition. An order- ing principle is needed hy such an unordered situation. Indeed the exuber- ance of our physical life in the nation and in the nation's schools raises the question of proportion, balance, and harmony among the physical and mental values. And this again is a question of principle. I. THE PRELIMINARY POINT OF VIEW As an introduction to the organizing principle, whatever it ma)' be found to be, I suggest that we consider the matter from the standpoint of the evolution of the physical and psychical organism. Without going into the details of controversial theories, it is perhaps best to state at once what seems to be the soundest conclusion in this field. It is this: body and mind have evolved together. Evolution, however it comes to be written in detail, is a psycho- physical phenomenon. Body and soul — the term soul being here used as synonymous w^ith mind — have grown with each other. Comparative anatomy, coupled with comparative psychology, indicates a correspondence between the developing nervous systems of related organisms and their degrees of intelli- gence. Human anatomy and child psychology likewise can parallel body- growth and soul-growth. We seem not to have at first a finished soulless body, waiting to be animated, nor yet a finished bodiless soul, waiting to be incarnated; but first, last, and all the time, a body and soul, mutually depend- ent, beginning, living, and growing together. Their unity is life, their separa- tion is death. We know no mental beginnings without body; we also have no bodily beginning without mind. The prenatal life of the body is without doubt accompanied by such mental experiences as emotions of pressure, motion, touch, and warmth. Like union and liberty, body and soul are one and inseparable, until death do them part. The seed of life that transmits the physical characteristics from one generation to the next transmits also the mental characteristics. (Cf. Traducianism.) The main stages in this joint evolutionary process may be roughly sketched out, following Aristotle in the main. First, the vegetative soul, capable of nutrition, and common to plants, animals, and men; then the appetitive soul of desires and wishes, emotions and passions, common to animals and men; finally the rational soul, capable of abstract thought, aesthetic appreciation, moral character, and religious worship, belonging to man alone. The develop- ment of a single human being shows a similar growth — first, that which is natural, afterward that which is spiritual. In order to keep body and soul apart in origin, growth, and decay, old 230 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 'Jndianapolis philosophies formulated theories of the creation, once for all; of as many souls at the outset as there were ever to be people in earth, or of the special creation of a new soul for each new body at the moment of conception, or quickening, or birth. (Cf. Creationism.) But at the same time the practical necessity of the body for the soul's existence once they became associated was recognized in the doctrine of a spiritual body for the soul after death, while the universal and indissoluble association of body and soul has in ancient and modern times been maintained by the panpsjchists. The conclusion of this preliminary discussion therefore is: the problem of soul and body is settled by letting them grow together from the beginning, not by first separating them by abstract thought and then asking how the)' came together. n. THE PRINCIPLE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION The preceding discussion prepares us for stating the fundamental principle of physical education, which is: man's nature is a unity. As Montaigne, thinking for himself, expressed it: "It is not a body, it is not a mind, that we have to educate, but a man, and we ought not to divide him." What is the character of this unity? Man's nature is indeed complex; he is physical and mental, and his mental nature is complex, being intellectual, emotional, and volitional. But these are all elements in one unitary whole that we call the man. Following Aristotle again, the body is material; the mind is the informing principle; the soul shapes the body. ''The soul is form and doth the body make," as the poet Spenser has it. Without the soul the body is mere material, dead; without the body the soul is pure form; together they make man. The body is the soul's home; the soul is the body's citizen. The body is the soul's only medium of self-expression; the soul is the body's most useful organ. Leaving behind figures of speech and the difficult concepts of form and matter, and simply reporting the language of common experience, the unity of human nature means that the condition of the body is due to mental as well as physical influences; that the condition of the mind is due to physical as well as mental influences; that the condition of the man is the sum-total of his bodily and mental conditions. We must next see the bearings of this principle of the unity of human nature upon physical education. in. CONSEQUENCES OF THIS FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE There are several consequences that flow from one fundamental principle. The first is: The body does not exist as the incubus of the soul — this is the mistake of asceticism — nor again merely as the soul's tool; but also for itself. Likewise, the soul does not exist merely for the body's sake — this is the mis- take of modern Epicureanism in its various forms. On the contrary each exists for both, the body for itself and the soul, the soul for itself and the body. Superintendence] MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 23 1 Neither is called upon to sacrifice its highest life for the other; the best life for each is the best life for both — they being one. A further consequence is the unity of education. Physical education is also mental education, and mental education is also physical education. Training the body is changing the soul's means of self-expression; training the soul's purposes involves giving a new set to the nervous system. As human nature is one, so human education is one, and physical education needs mental education for its perfection as mental education needs physical education for its perfection. Physical and mental education, the gymnasium and the class- room, the athletic field and the debating forum, the recess and the study-period, play and work, are two sides of the single educative process. The unity of education appears especially in manual training and all forms of educative tool, shop, and form work. IV. DEFECTIVE TYPES OF PHYSICAL TRAINING In general, the error consists in disturbing the balance between the physical and psychical values; viz., the development of the body at the expense of the mind and the development of the mind at the expense of the body. We want body and soul well attuned. The two main elements of old Greek education, initiating and partly causing the Periclean age of physical, intellectual, and aesthetic conquests, were music and gymnastics, music for the soul and body and gymnastics for the body and soul. Either one without the other would have produced a defective type. As Plato puts it in his Republic: "Neither are the two arts of music and gymnastic really designed, as is often supposed, the one for the training of the soul, the other for the training of the body." "What then is the real object of them?" "I believe," I said, "that the teachers of both have in view chiefly the improvement of the soul." "How can that be?" he asked. "Did you never observe," I said, " the effect on the mind itself of an exclusive devotion to gymnastic, or the opposite effect of an exclusive devotion to music ? " "In what way shown?" he asked. "The one producing a temper of hardness and ferocity, the other of softness and effeminacy," I replied "He who mingles music with gymnastic in the fairest proportions, and best attempers them to the soul, may be rightly called the true musician and harmonist in a far higher sense than the tuner of things." "You are quite right, Socrates." "And such a presiding genius will be always required in our State if the government is to last." "Yes, he will be absolutely necessary." "Such, then, are our principles of nurture and education." — {Rep. iii. 410 B — 412 A.) In our day the unity of education has been disturbed, to the detriment of both body and soul. On the one hand we have a development of the body at the expense of the mind, leading to such results as athleticism, the making 232 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis of gymnasts and acrobats and the gathering of huge crowds at football con- tests and prize-fights, where, in the name of the body, the body is abused, thru the lack of mental element. This overemphasis has resulted in moral injuries as well, such as the desire for victory at any cost, the turning of a contest of skill into a gamble, the introduction of a large and disturbing financial element, the overpraise of young victors, the destruction of the ideal of sport for its own sake, the cultivation of the sentiments of animosity instead of generous rivalry respecting the opponents, the undemocratic training to a finish, perhaps the overtraining of a selected few who least need it, at the expense of the many who most need it, the sense of justification in neglecting weightier school and college matters, and the perversion of the true perspective in human values. On the other hand, we have a development of mind at the expense of body. This particularl}' is the defect of the studious type in school and college. Athletics being for the few, not the many, but still engrossing the interests of the institution, the studious seek a distinction in scholarship. Unfortunately such distinction is too little esteemed by their fellows and too little rewarded by the faculties. The faculties have not harmonized the conflict between the physical and mental values as they might have done partly because they are themselves afifected with the athletic craze ; partly because their hands are tied by the authorities higher up who want victorious teams as advertising agents ; partly because the situation is controlled by alumni in the world who want several annual great and exciting spectacles. This all means that athleticism has usurped the place of physical training; that its worldlj' ideals too often control student-body, faculty, trustees, and alumni alike; that institutional honors go to the gridiron hero, not to the honor man; that the honor man himself is insufficientl}^ trained physically; that his scholarship is pale, anaemic, and smelling of the midnight oil; and that the studious element, while still young, is left too much to the bare satisfaction of finding virtue its own reward. Thus while physical training has pulled away from the unity of education in one direction, narrowing itself into athleticism, demanding victory for an elect five, nine, or eleven; mental training has likewise pulled away in another direction, narrowing itself into an exclusive and pallid scholarship. The educational house is divided. V. TRUE EDUCATIONAL AIMS It is time for us to hear and to heed in education the lesson of the unity of human nature, the joint evolution of the physical and mental being. The aim of physical training is to make the body not an end in itself, but both a joy to itself and the usable tool of the soul. Every student should feel physi- cally with Browning ''the wild joys of mere living" and think with Aristotle that "good things have been divided into three classes, external goods, goods of the soul, and goods of the body. Of these the goods of the soul are good in the strictest and highest sense" {Ethics, I, 8). Superintendence] MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 233 The corresponding aim of mental education is to make the mind a worthy inhabitant of such a well-built home, using, not abusing, the body, and to itself a source of high ideas, contentment, and noble achievement in the social world. And the corresponding unitary aim of all education is the physical and mental equipment of persons for social living — both wise leading and intelli- gent following. The restoration of the ideal of unity in education is one great need, espe- cially in the interest of a sound physical training for the many. It would also assist in solving some other pressing questions, such as the adjustment of the cultural and practical courses; but with these we are not concerned here. VI. REMEDIES AND RESULTS Only a word in conclusion as to remedies and possible results. Perhaps the remedies have been sufficiently intimated in the diagnosis, if correct, of the situation. We must recognize, spread, and practice the principle under- lying modern physical education, viz., the unity in complexity of body and mind, and the consequent unity that should characterize all education. Some have done this for years already. The details of the prescription you will no doubt be able to supply better than I. To me it would be gratifying to see the current demand for athletic reform squarely and fully supplied by a change of spirit as well as of rules, the substitution of the ideal of sport for that of victory; the scorn of unfair means; admiration for the opponents' skill; and that love of fair play which is the best umpire. Our games are running in Teutonic fashion in the direction of team-play where moral standards are hardest to maintain, as the virtues of a committee or group or nation are slighter than those of its individuals taken separately. So I should welcome an emphasis on track work as being more individualistic and so as capable of illustrating higher standards more easily. Also we should emphasize inter-class and inter-dormitory contests within a single institution; the lessening of inter-institutional contests, the require- ment of higher scholarship for candidates for teams; the requirement of more physical training for the studious, allowing academic credit for the same; the strict maintenance of standards; the exclusion of first-year college men from inter-college contests; less glorification of athletic victories, more private appreciation and public recognition of the scholarship men; the reliance upon head work more than brute strength; more grace and less bodily injury; and the restoration to the first place of the idea of the educative function of all the agencies of physical training. Our trust for improvement must finally be placed on individual efforts here and there, on the spreading of ideas thru print, on cautiously practicing reforms, and on the contagion of example. For American society so largely recruited from the school population and molded by the educated out of proportion to their number, the readjustment of values would in time mean less nervous 234 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis strain, less suffering from old injuries and over-exertion, more care of the physical on the part of busy men and women, a more vigorous scholarship, a better poised physique, an increased ability to take a vacation and enjoy a holiday, more of cultured leisure, less of man-destroying labor, less of idle amusement to stimulate a worn-out nervous system, and a greater appreciation of a proportioned education such as Plato had in mind when he wrote: "When a beautiful soul harmonizes with a beautiful form and the two are cast in the mold, that will be the fairest of sights to him who has an eye to see it." TOPIC: CHILDREN DIFFER IN ENVIRONMENTS /. SOUTHERN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS SAMUEL E. WEBER, INSPECTOR OF STATE HIGH SCHOOLS FOR LOUISIANA, BATON ROUGE, LA. In a democracy the fundamental purposes of public education are every- where the same. State systems of elementary schools have for their object the giving of a fund of intellectual and moral training which makes for intelli- gent and conscientious citizenship. Intelligence and conscientiousness insure a wise and just government. To make it possible for those who have the means and the inclination to continue their education and for latent talent that surpasses the intelligence of the average individual to develop still further, the American state also subsidizes public secondary schools and state univer- sities. By providing all of these educational means the state discharges its full duty toward its citizens. Besides, all of these educational facilities serve to enhance material prosperity, social efficiency, moral and political well-being. All of these agencies are provided for and vigorously encouraged in all of the southern states. Whatever methods are employed in the South differing from those to be found in other parts of the country are not due to differences of aims but rather to social and economic conditions. By reason of the presence of a negro population, in many instances the majority element of the total population, the South carries the additional burden necessitated by the establishment and maintenance of a separate system of schools, separately financed, separately taught, and in some instances separately supervised. According to the biennial reports of the state super- intendents of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia, the length of term for negro schools varies from three and eight-tenths months in South Carolina to six and three-tenths months in Virginia, where the length of term is practically the same as the length of term for schools for whites. Most of the state superintendents of the states mentioned advocate the giving of an industrial education along agricultural lines to the children of the negro race. State Superintendent J. Y. Joyner of North Carolina says on this point (Biennial Report igo6-igo8): Superintendence] SOUTHERN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 235 My experience and observation in this work and my larger acquaintance with the people of the state and their feeling have deepened my conviction that the only hope in education beyond the point of mastery of the rudiments of learning for the negro race is to be found in agricultural and industrial training — largely in agricultural training. Unless we can give him such training in the schools as will help to make him a more industrious and efficient workman, and to save him from vice and idleness, the negro race is doomed. Alfred Holt Stone, of Mississippi, in his Studies in the American Race Problem, predicts the economic future of the negro by his probable ability to compete with other forms of manual labor. A number of concrete problems are worked out in which comparisons are made between negro labor and other forms of labor, notably Italian labor, indicating the superiority of the latter on account of the Italian's greater thrift and more permanent tenancy. Mr. Stone asserts that negro labor is not so dependable. White labor is given the place in some instances. He says: Already, here and there, scattered thruout the South, even in smaller towns, white domestic servants may be seen. There are white barbers and bootblacks, and white men in every other trade and calling. States and railroads and private organizations are dis- cussing the question of foreign immigration with increasing earnestness As I have said, the negro possibly has it in his power to arrest this movement, at least for many years. He can do it, in a measure at least, by making of himself a reliable, dependable factor in the economic life of the South, but not by any other means within my view. I say he can do this. But will he ? It would mean a revolution in the present social and industrial life and habits of the masses. James H. Dillard, president of the Jeannes Fund, discussing the purposes of the Jeannes Fund in The Independent of December 2, 1909, makes the problem one to be solved by the rural public schools. In this connection he says: Now, it must be remembered that it is upon the rural public schools that the great masses of the negroes in the South must depend for what training they are to receive; and the time has come for an efifort to improve these schools. First, the public school authorities must awake to the fact that the school term must be lengthened in order to make the money spent of much avail. Secondly, these schools must have some sort of super- vision. They need some one who would come, if only once or twice a month, with words of criticism and encouragement. The income of the one-million-dollar Jeannes Fund is to be used to induce the regular school authorities to extend the work of rural education for negroes. As a report states: From superintendents of education all over the South have come expressions of willing- ness to co-operate During this first year the fund has paid the salary of seventy- three industrial teachers in schools connected, except in the case of four reform schools, with the public-school system, and in many places the assistance has been given at the instance of the county superintendent of education. According to Census Bulletin 26 more than four-fifths of the population in the South is rural. The cityward migration has as yet not set in. In con- sequence, southern educational problems deal most largely with rural schools, as follows: To make larger provision for such schools; to distribute them 236 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapons properly in a scattered country population; to build better schoolhouses and equip them adequately with modern school furniture, libraries, and the neces- sary mechanical means for teaching, such as maps, globes, charts, etc.; to place competent teachers and expert supervisors in charge of them; to con- solidate them wherever possible; to get all the educable children into school and keep them there regularly without the operation of a compulsory education law; the necessary construction, in many instances, of passable roads; the formulation and carrying into effect of courses of study adapted to rural- school conditions; bringing within reach of the country boy and girl a high- school education — these are some of the more vital problems pressing for solution. In addition, such rural population has a smaller per capita wealth, which makes inevitable a smaller per capita local appropriation for school purposes. The amount of wealth for each educable in the southern states as compared with amount of wealth for each educable in the United States as a whole is a little more than one-third. With this relatively small per capita (educables) wealth it would be doubly burdensome to carry the additional expenses entailed by the enforcement of a uniform compulsory education law. In proportion to the population the number of children is also much greater than in the North. On account of the large plantations, or in those places where it is impossible to enroll enough pupils to comply with a state law requiring a minimum enrollment of ten, twelve, or fifteen pupils, county-school authorities some- times pay part of the salary of a private teacher. In some instances teachers refuse to teach in isolated places (salary paid may be higher than in towns and cities) where congenial companionship is absent, where the conveniences to be found in more thickly settled sections are wanting. How is the South meeting these problenxS ? All of these problems have received and are receiving the attention of the best educational thinkers in the South. Within the last ten years remark- able progress has been made in public education. All of the problems indicated have been partially solved. The length of term for schools for whites is approximately 6.25 months on the average, including all of the states named. Excepting local districts in Alabama, unincorporated local districts in Tennessee, and the county in Arkansas, all of the southern states support existing public schools and encourage the establishment of additional ones by district, county, and state school taxes. To assist in equalizing the burdens among the different sections of the state North Carolina sets a special appro- priation of $100,000 to aid backward districts in bringing their school terms up to the constitutional requirement of four months. The last session of the legislature in South Carolina voted $20,000 to increase the average length of school term. Tennessee has a legal provision for apportioning 10 per cent, of the general education fund to the poorer counties. With the exception of Mississippi every one of the southern states has the Superintendence] SOUTHERN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 237 advantages of normal-school facilities in institutions especially provided for the training of teachers. Teachers' institutes and summer schools are held in all of these states. Every southern state university has its department of education. Teachers in public schools, as a rule, come from the best families of the South. In most of these states the office of county superintendent is filled by trained men. The division superintendent in Virginia and the parish superintendent in Louisiana are given powers by law equal to those of city superintendents upon whom has been placed the responsibility of successful administration and supervision of their respective school systems. The Louisiana school law, defining the functions and qualifications of county superintendents, is unique and considerably in advance of similar laws in other states. On pages 41 and 42 of the Louisiana Public School Laws it is stated that "each board shall elect or appoint for a term of four years a parish (county) superintendent who shall be ex-officio secretary of the board, and who shall nominate all teachers to be employed in the public schools of the parish. He shall be a man of high moral character and a practical educator. Before any person may be eligible to appointment as parish superintendent he shall hold a certificate of eligibility issued by the state board of education, which certificate shall be revocable by the state board of education if at any time the parish superintendent should be found incompetent, inefficient, or unworthy." State elementary-school inspectors are appointed in Virginia, and thru the co-operation of the trustees of the Peabody Education Fund inspectors of elementary schools are appointed in the other southern states. By means of the co-operation of the General Education Board, high-school inspectors have been appointed in all of the states mentioned, excepting Kentucky and Texas. These men, with one exception, work under the joint supervision of the respec- tive state departments of education and state universities. In Louisiana the inspector does his work under the supervision of the state superintendent and the state board of education. Regardless of opposition incurred from those who look upon the removal of the one-room rural school as a tyrannical interference with their personal liberties and rights, consolidation of rural schools is making rapid headway in the South. By means of such consolidation better schoolhouses are built; better equipment is provided; more competent teachers are secured; closer supervision is made possible; a larger enrollment, more regular attendance, and longer terms result; pupils stay in school for a longer period of years, leading to the establishment of high-school departments; expert teaching of agriculture, domestic science, music, and drawing may be successfully intro- duced; community life is built up; the teacher's life is made more congenial. The problem of providing adequate educational facilities, of getting all of the educable children into school and keeping them there regularly without the operation of a separate compulsory education law finds its partial solution 238 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis in the available resources of states and communities, and in the method by which school funds are apportioned. Wickliffe Rose, general agent of the Peabody Education Fund, in his 1909 report to the trustees of the Peabody Education Fund, draws the following conclusions based upon a comparative study of statistics: 1. To raise a given amount of revenue for each child of school age the burden of the South is three times as heavy as for the United States (p. 28) ; 2. It thus appears that in 1902 the southern states raised for all purposes, state, county, and municipal, practically as much revenue according to their financial ability as the rest of the country (p. 39) ; 3. For public schools the southern states seem to be doing less, according to their financial ability, than is being done by the rest of the country (p. 39); 4. These figures show that in the support given the schools the southern states are not living up to their own financial ability (p. 40); 5. The cost of maintaining schools would be less in the southern states than in states like Pennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts. Taking all of the facts into considera- tion, it would seem to be a very conservative estimate to say that in order to provide for all the children of the southern states educational advantages equal to those provided for the children of the more favored sections of the country, the South will have to spend for schools at least four times as much revenue as it is now spending for this purpose (p. 70). Professor Rose proposes a number of remedies for the raising of additional school funds. The first is a tentative statement, that "in most of the southern states perhaps the public-school funds should be increased by devoting a larger percentage of the total public revenue (state, county, and municipal combined) to the business of education" (p. 70). His other recommendations are in virtual agreement with Professor Cubberley's conclusions in his School Funds and Their Apportionment. To equalize educational burdens and to stimulate local effort, school funds ought to be derived from state, county, and local municipalities. Instead of being distributed on the basis of scholastic population, as is done wholly or partly in thirty-eight states, including every southern state except Florida, school funds ought to be distributed on a basis of the number of teachers actually employed and aggregate days' attendance (or average daily attendance multiplied by length of time) . To relieve poorer communities of oppressive burdens in their attempts to meet the minimum educational demands of the state, a certain ''reserve fund" should be set aside and distributed equitably among them. Further, distribution on the basis of educables bears no direct ratio to the amount of taxes paid, because the taxes of the farmer are higher relatively than the taxes of the manufacturer. This places undue burdens upon agri- culture and thus discourages the very industry upon which the economic development of the South so largely depends. If the basis of apportionment were changed, minimum educational demands could be made in every southern state, or could be somewhat increased without increasing the general school tax. Partial or optional compulsory education laws are to be found in Kentucky, Superintendence] SOUTHERN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 239 North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. In Kentucky such law is appli- cable only to cities of the first, second, third, and fourth classes or to all with a population of more than three thousand. In North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia, the operation of a compulsory education law is left to county boards of education. References have already been made to the facts that the population of the South is mostly rural, that the per capita wealth to be found in rural com- munities is less than in manufacturing centers, that courses of study ought to be worked out better adapted to country life, that teachers ought to be pre- pared to teach in rural schools. It is desirable that this large percentage of rural population be maintained. To do this, courses of study must be adjusted to meet the needs of the people; rural life must be raised to a point where it can compete successfully with the city in the opportunities and advantages it has to offer to the country boy and girl. The reason why our young people flock to the cities is not so much their natural desire to leave the farm as the fact that the city has more opportunities, comforts, conveniences, and means of culture to offer. Country life must be interpreted in the light of the child's experience instead of by illustrations drawn from books and from town or city life. Vocational instruc- tion in agriculture is imperative and the public schools must furnish it. The potential resources in agriculture in the south, where thousands of acres of very fertile land lie undeveloped, are difficult to estimate. The organization of corn clubs, the establishment of purely agricultural schools in Alabama, Arkansas, and Georgia, and the establishment of depart- ments of agriculture in existing high schools, as is done in Louisiana, Tennessee, and Virginia, ought to do more to make farm-life attractive in those states than any other educational movement ever attempted in the South. On account of the expense connected with the establishment of a purely agri- cultural school, the tendency it w^ould have to educate one class of people along one line only, lack of opportunity afforded to the pupils in such schools to come into contact with those preparing for other pursuits in life, the failure to make it possible for country boys and girls to take courses preparing them for other fields of usefulness, I believe that the plan to introduce departments of agriculture in existing high schools is by far preferable to the purely agri- cultural school, unless communities are densely enough settled for the exist- ence of other high schools which pupils may attend who have no inclination to stay on the farm. At present, the one-room rural schools of the South, as elsewhere, are given less attention from practically every educational standpoint — school- houses, equipment, teachers, supervision, courses of study, medical attention, etc. — than town and city schools. Especially is this true in regard to teachers in the one-room rural schools. State Superintendent Harris of Louisiana has recently made a study of the number of normal-school teachers of Louisiana who are teaching in the 240 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis one-room rural schools. Among sixteen hundred and forty-seven (1,647) normal-school graduates prepared in the Louisiana State Normal, the New Orleans City Normal School, and normal schools outside of the state, 87 teach in one-room rural schools. This is a deplorable condition — a problem by no means limited to Louisiana nor to the South, but largely common to the entire country. The high schools of the South have advanced rapidly during the last five years. This may be attributed to two causes: (i) successful classification of all schools doing high-school work; (2) state appropriations for their encouragement. Upon the meeting of certain conditions and requirements, Alabama gives to each county high school $2,000; Arkansas, $160,000 for the establishment of four secondary agricultural high schools; Florida, $65,000 for all its high schools; Georgia, $77,500 to 11 congressional-district agricultural schools; Louisiana, $53,000 for two years out of the general school fund; North Caro- lina, $100,000 for two years; South Carolina, $60,000 annually; Tennessee, $1,500 to each county high school meeting certain requirements; Virginia, $135,000 a year. With the exception of the county high schools in Alabama and the congres- sional-district agricultural high schools in Georgia, these schools may be located to meet local needs. At present all of these schools have a four-year high-school course based on an elementary course of seven years. Departments of manual training, domestic science, drawing, music, and agriculture have been introduced in a few high schools. One of the most difficult problems to be solved in the upbuilding of the high schools of the South is due to the ability of high-school pupils to enter higher institutions of learning, private or public, and the pressure there is brought to bear on them to do so before completing the high-school course. There is widespread interest in public education all over the South, The problems proposed are being solved by the separate states. There is a whole- some rivalry among them to outdo one another in this great work. DISCUSSION Thomas P. Bailey, superintendent of schools, Memphis, Tennessee. — There is only one southern problem, and it is that of environment. For southern children are the truest of Americans by birth and tradition, and therefore if they are being bred in the cult of caste, nurture due to conditions and not nature due to inheritance must be responsible for their departure from the splendid type of American democracy. But do not suppose that even by implication I am condemning. my own dear people. Public peace and the safety of the state demand that the less developed race be subordinate to the more developed, under conditions as they exist in the South today. The caste of the kin is the practice of the theory that blood is thicker than water; and the Sermon on the Mount cannot invalidate God's own law of the survival of the fittest. If these widely different races cannot blend their blood — and instinct and science say nay — the only real foundation for democracy, equality actual or potential, does not exist and cannot be created. The principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity are as abstractly true as Newton's Laws Superintendence] SOUTHERN EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 241 of Motion, but the resistance of race-consciousness brings about as real a friction as does the resistance of the air in modifying the actions of bodies in motion. The all-inclusive virtue, love itself, has a biological basis, and character -vafaes are conditioned by body-facts. Thus it happens that the southerner's loyalty to his race comes of his love of his kind, the kind he knows and values. But should such conditions exist? Must southern children of the dominant race grow up to scorn and despise, or else condescendingly to tolerate, their less fortunate fellow- creatures ? Or shall we legitimate lust and short-circuit the destiny of a chosen people ? Southerners understand the apparent cruelty imputed to the God of Israel who is repre- sented as commanding the extermination of non-assimilable peoples. But the more refined killing of today in the South is not the occasional taking of a negro's life but the impassive and relentless murder of a people's hopes. But better this than worse that might be. Better twenty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay. Better preternatural suspicion than breeding dusky broods. Sometimes we must be cruel would we be kind. Only in the kingdom of heaven is there neither marriage nor giving in marriage. Now the kingdom has not yet come in the South. Therefore, let him that would establish any kind of human equality on any basis other than that of a biologically based family life, give us the recipe for life in a vacuum. Again I ask, Should these things be ? Must the southern child be compelled to choose between the ideal and the real in a world where ideals must be realized in accordance with the laws of nature ? Will sickly saintliness bring us salvation ? Or must we seek safety in racial selfishness ? God forbid the answer, " Yes," to either of these last two questions ! Who shall deliver us from the body of this death ! I dare not hope to put this subject before you sharply in a hasty minute or two. But I must make an appeal in the name of the righteous God and of bewildered humanity. I ask that you leaders of education think on these things in this wise: Let us have this negro question studied. We are studying tariffs and the price of beef; we become partisans about a pole intangible and invisible; our scientific expeditions scour land and sea for specimens of fauna and flora; we discriminate nicely the uncertain tints of Mexican Indians; we explore the heavens above, the earth beneath, and the waters under the earth — all these we do, and much more without the waving of bloody shirts or the planting of party platforms. Let us take the negro question out of politics, out of society, out of popular religious discussion, out of prize-fighting — out of all wherein heat doth obtain rather than light. Let us put the negro question into science, and science into the negro question. We have tried all else, and in vain. Parties and churches and schools, and philanthropies of all kinds, have brought us not one whit nearer a solution. The favorite prescription for a solution is education, especially industrial education. And yet there are towns where negro artisans are not allowed to work, and labor unions in plenty that negroes may not enter. Education for what ? Are the whites going to neglect the training of their children's hands ? When the grandsons of the former slave-owners are dead, will anyone prefer negro labor, skilled or unskilled, to white ? Can education abolish race-consciousness and repattern the convolutions of the brain ? Aye, education may solve the race-problem and all problems, but when and where and how ? Men and brethren, let us study the race problem. Let the study be national and inter- national, for ours is not the only problem of race. Let the study be scientific and not sen- timental; co-operative and not individualistic; continuous and not scrappy; professional and not dilettante; humanitarian and not partisan. Let us isolate the surd and square the whole equation — find a square deal. It is science, and science alone, star -eyed science, truth-loving science, spiritually intellectual science — it is the twentieth century's greatest power, the scientific research of today, that can pre- pare us for the doing of this Nation's greatest duty, the solution of this problem, so as to free two unallied peoples and make the states of this union United States indeed and in truth ! 242 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis THE EFFECT OF INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT CLIFFORD B. CONNELLEY, DEAN OF THE SCHOOL FOR APPRENTICES AND JOURNEY- MEN OF THE CARNEGIE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS, PITTSBURG, PA. Environment has been defined to be "surrounding conditions, influences, or forces, by which living forms are influenced and modified in their growth and development," and in the light of this definition it is not diflicult to appreci- ate the importance of a subject such as is this in relation to the educational policy of our country toward its children. We need not be students of psy- chology to be able to understand what environment means in the daily lives of men and women, and to what great extent it bears upon the trend of adult life in all walks. Few men and women are so constructed that they cannot be influenced, even though slightly, by the surroundings in which they live, and the most mature character and mind bear the stamp of the world about them. Social history and social progress offer evidence of the influence of environment in every stage and step, and educational advancement is affected likewise by surrounding influences. If then, as I have suggested, environment means so much in the lives of men and women, how much more does it mean to children! Here we find the mind and character in immaturity and non-development, the raw mass \vaiting to be molded by surroundings, experience, and education. Early impressions mean so much to the child, and every experience leaves its impres- sion on the young mind. The surroundings in which the child moves are acknowledged by scientists to be an all-important consideration in the growth of the child's mind and character, whether it be the surroundings of the home or of the school. And since the educators of the country are entirely responsible for the educational environments of the children and their consequent influence on the growth of the child, it behooves us to take special note of this feature of our training and to regulate it as much as possible in accordance with the necessities and advantages attendant upon the natural environment of the children. There can be no doubt that the life of the community influences the character of the school in that community, and is a moving consideration in the educational policy necessary there. Various sections of our country have their own peculiar problems to care for and meet, and the educators of each section cannot meet with satisfactory success unless they consider these sur- roundings as affecting their individual communities. North and South, East and West — all have their peculiar features of environment and its great influences, and it is therefore almost impossible to lay down any general detailed rule for guidance in educational policy which will fit every section of the country without modification. Our educational systems must be modified and regulated according to the demands of the community in which our schools are located; otherwise, the school must be out of harmony with the needs and requirements of the city or country in which it happens to be. Superintendence] THE EFFECT OF INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT 243 Just as sections of the country are particularly afifected by surrounding conditions, so in every section the country districts and the city districts are also peculiarly affected by environment. The rural communities require educational facilities in harmony with rural conditions and needs, and city districts must take into vital consideration the environment of the cities. This is true whether we consider education in general, or whether we discuss only that particular branch known as "Industrial Education." In fact, environment means perhaps more to the latter than to the former, for environ- ment first touches industrial needs and necessities, as the means of preparing the child for its future capacity to earn a competence midst such surroundings and under such conditions as exist in the community in which it lives. Industrial environment, especially in the large manufacturing cities, such as Pittsburg, has a most important bearing on the educational policy of the city. In fact, the practical questions suggested by life in such cities sometimes make it difficult for educators there to save the school from an overwhelming demand for materialistic education. Great industries mean great competi- tion and great needs. Manufacturers are constantly in search of skilled labor and they offer tempting compensation for it. Parents and their children are not slow to perceive the opportunities of large remuneration for manual services, and spurred on by the necessities of earning large wages to meet the demands of these days of high-priced living, the view of these parents and their children who are old enough to understand what money means inclines sharply toward a demand for practical education in the shortest time possible to attain it. It is not difficult, then, to understand the problem which confronts the educator in the large manufacturing cities, especially when we consider that nowadays people have come to know full well the advantages of skilled ability in manual trades over that of ordinary clerkships in mercantile pur- suits as a medium of satisfactory incomes. The great problem, then, in the educational policy of every city must be to adapt the course of education to the necessities of the city to the extent in which each branch of education is needed, and no further. Large manufac- turing cities require large industrial educational facilities, and the need is constantly growing. The various cities thruout the country are endeavoring today to meet this problem in the most effective and satisfactory manner, and as to their success or failure time alone will be the judge. The effect of industrial environment on educational policy may be better realized when we consider how far it has been recognized and acted upon by educators thruout the world. In foreign countries, as well as in our own, the needs created and stimulated by industrial environments have caused progressive educators to endeavor to meet the requirements of their communi- ties and countries in a practical manner. Let us briefly review the policy adopted in various foreign countries, and then in different sections of our own, toward the industrial needs of the country. In Germany there is at present established a system of industrial education 244 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis wholly in harmony with the industrial demands of the nation. It has well been said that "the industrial schools of Germany are justly celebrated for their thoro, systematic, and comprehensive instruction." They cover the whole educational period; there are the lower industrial schools, which connect directly with the common schools, and thus become continuation schools and give training to workmen; the higher industrial schools which correspond to our technical colleges and produce the leading technologists; and the middle industrial schools for pupils who have gone thru the lower industrial schools, but who desire to shorten the period of higher education, altho they wish to prepare themselves to become foremen or assistant superintendents. The cities of Munich and Berlin are especially noted for their progress in the lines of education in industrial branches, and the success of the schools in these cities is largely due to the insistent demand for them arising from the industrial environment of the communities. The proverbial ''Made in Germany" expression is an evidence of the world's recognition of that nation's wonderful industry, and if present conditions in the educational system of the. country will serve as a criterion for the future, Germany will long continue to be referred to in that way. In France, which is not so great an industrial country as is Germany, the need for industrial training to meet her own particular conditions and those of the surrounding nations has been well met. This may be gathered from the fact that while in 1880 there were in that country only forty-eight industrial schools receiving state aid, yet twenty years later this number had been in- creased to three hundred. As a rule, the schools are carried on under government supervision, and furnish industrial education of the broadest kind. It is a matter of interest here that in France an effort is made to educate the pupils artistically as well as in skillful manipulation, which is quite in harmony with the artistic temperament of the nation, and the materialistic output. In the great industrial nation of England, existing social conditions peculiar to the country somewhat retard the progress of the industrial educational system. Yet the large cities, particularly London, Liverpool, and Manchester, are endeavoring to meet the needs of the people to a great extent. Industrial education in England is fostered by national subsidies, and consequently the industrial schools there are under national control. In our own country, both states and cities have recognized the needs of the people in industrial lines. Three state schools have already been estab- lished in New Jersey, and the success with which they have been attended proves the wisdom of such institutions. In Massachusetts, under the direction of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, the policy of the industrial-school system of the state is gradually being shaped in such a manner as to offer the most effective results. But New Jersey and Massachusetts are not alone in their recognition of the industrial needs of the people; New York, Wisconsin, and many other states have proceeded along similar lines, tho perhaps by different methods. But the tendency Superintendence] EDUCATION IN THE COUNTRY 245 everywhere is to regulate educational policy in accordance with local environ- ment. From the brief statement of facts here given, it may be gathered that the effect of industrial environment of city and country life at present is to create a demand for sufficient industrial training, along with other branches of education, to meet the needs of the community. If our schools are to be well attended and if our pupils are to be kept interested in their work, it is incumbent upon us to offer students proportionate courses of various forms of education in keeping with the needs created by the environments of the communities in which our schools are located. Educational policy must be so molded as to fit the environments of the localities in which the educa- tion is offered, and that this need is being appreciated more each day is fully attested by the ever-increasing tendency of modern educators to offer students a course of instruction wholly harmonious with the student's needs. EDUCATION IN THE COUNTRY FOR THE COUNTRY JOHN W. ZELLER, STATE COMMISSIONER OF COMMON SCHOOLS FOR OHIO, COLUMBUS, OHIO In a recent utterance, Hon. Elmer E. Brown, United States Commissioner of Education, said: Two of the most important problems of American education at the present time center in our rural schools. These are, the problem of the adjustment of the school to the indus- trial life of the community, and the problem of more adequate country-school supervision. This statement gives expression to a nation-wide feeling. We are coming to realize more and more that our agricultural interests are the foundation of all other industrial interests — that as these prosper, all others will prosper — that as these decline, all others will decline. The investigations of Secretary Wilson of the Interior Department along the line of our agricultural industries, and the recent formal utterances of two great captains of industry, have awakened a new interest in our rural problem. We are coming to have a rural, as well as a city, problem. Quite recently, in a formal address in Boston in the presence of a notable gathering. President William C. Brown of the New York Central Railroad said: We must increase production per acre by more intelligent methods or we must face the relentless certain day when we shall not produce food enough to supply our necessities. Six months before this statement, another great captain. President J. J. Hill, of the great Northwest, gave expression to the same feeling when he said that the time would come when we would import agricultural products. In the light of the fact that during the last decade we have sold a billion dollars' worth annually of our farm products abroad, these may seem strange and unwarranted statements. But these prophets see strong tendencies and 246 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis conditions which, if not checked and improved, will ultimately fulfill these predictions. That there are agencies and conditions strongly tending toward the fulfillment of these prophecies, no keen student of our economic and indus- trial conditions can truthfully deny. President Brown and Commissioner Brown, tho widely separated in the nature of their positions, both said the same thing. The former said: "We must increase production per acre by more intelligent methods." The latter said: "Two of the most important problems of American education are the adjustment of the school to the industrial life of the community and more adequate country-school supervision." Railroad Brown said that farming must be more scientific, and Commissioner Brown told us how to make it more scientific. The former stated a stupendous and alarming fact; the latter suggested the remedy by which our fears may be allayed. The adjustment of the school to the industrial life of the community means more than scientific farming. It means a larger number of farmers employ- ing more intelligent methods. The program committee evidently scented this same thought when they framed this subject — "Education in the Country for the Country." THE ADJUSTMENT OF THE SCHOOL Education for the country will require an adjustment of the schools in the country to the agricultural and domestic life of the country. This means, first, a change in the course of study. The country-school curriculum must be modernized — so modified as to meet the intellectual, industrial, and social needs of rural-community life. Experience has already demonstrated that such a curriculum is a most potent factor in promoting not only material wealth, but intellectual and moral as well. But, second, the adjustment of the school to the industrial life of the com- munity means more than a change in course of study. It means teachers trained for and adjusted to a course of study adjusted to the agricultural life of the country. This training of teachers requires a state system of training schools whose scope is broad enough to educate and train, not only in mathe- matics, but in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and domestic science. Third, the adjustment of the school means more than change in curriculum, trained leadership, and training schools. It means township and village high schools whose buildings are constructed and equipped with a view of adapting them to the modernized curriculum. This means more school revenues in many localities; in other localities it means reorganization thru consolidation and centralization of schools. The solution of the problems of securing more revenue where needed and reorganization thru consolidation and centralization where it is practical to do so, requires an enlightened public sentiment. An expert, well-equipped, well-paid educational county official can do much to develop an intelligent public sentiment so essential to all school improvement. Superintendence] EDUCATION IN THE COUNTRY 247 This brings me to the second statement of Hon. Elmer E. Brown, "The problem of more adequate countiy-school supervision." I prefer, however, to discuss this problem later in the paper, and retrace my steps to consider the rural high school. In the "adjustment of the school to the industrial life of the community," the high school is the essential and fundamental factor. I mean the high school in the country, not in the county - seat or city. THE RURAL HIGH SCHOOL The rural high school is just as essential to a complete scheme of education for the country as the city high school is to a complete scheme of education for the city. There are many reasons why vigorous and aggressive measures should be enacted to stimulate and build up the rural high school. 1. Because country life and country environments afford a better oppor- tunity for study and a better opportunity to secure the raw material for a good education. 2. The home of the youth of tender years is the best place in the world for his boarding and lodging place. 3. The rural high school will save several years now wasted in useless repetition of studies. 4. The rural high school affords the opportunity of securing an industrial education suited to the needs of a rural people. 5. The rural high school affords the opportunity for the development of the rural spirit, a spirit that would magnify and exalt respect and love for country life, "A spirit that would awaken a deeper interest in the children in the problems of rural betterment, and hasten the time when the rural com- munity will be regarded as the ideal place in which to live." 6. The rural high school could become the center of great agricultural possibilities. Let this school be equipped with a course of study and laboratory the equal of the city school, and adapted to the rural community life, with an agricultural expert as one of the teachers, and who can estimate the rural possibilities that would result from such high-school centers in each township ? A high school so equipped would find numerous ways not only to develop the rural spirit in the pupils, but to aid the farmers. The problem of fertili- zation, the problem of the different types of soil and crops adapted to each type, the problem of crop rotation, of stock-judging, of protecting crops and fruits against the ravages of insects which destroy millions every season, the forest problem — these are a few of the many problems that an agricultural expert in the rural high school could materially aid in solving. 7. In addition to this work for the youth, this high-school agricultural teacher could conduct short courses in agriculture for the benefit of the farmers of the community. The agricultural department conducted by the United States and the various states does not reach the average farmer. The agri- cultural reports and bulletins do not reach the most needy farmers. 248 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis There has been a failure to connect the agricultural colleges and depart- ments with the farmer. The rural high school could become the depository and distributing center for everything of value published by the agricultural colleges and experiment stations. The high-school agricultural teacher could awaken an interest in the value of these reports and bulletins, and these, with an agricultural library, would become effective in making a helpful connection between the farmers of each township and our agricultural schools. In these, and many other ways, the rural high school could awaken an interest and render inestimable service to the rural community. 8. Undue emphasis should not be placed in the rural high school on indus- trial education. ''Man cannot live by bread alone." The course of study should be well ballasted with academic studies. Education for avocation is at least equally as important as education for vocation. This rural high school should become a center for many social and literary advantages. The ideal rural high school would have a library of wisely selected books, and become a center of distribution of the best books, magazines and periodicals, and scientific works demanded in the community. It would have a lecture course and other social and literary entertainments. 9. Not many of our rural youth at present have the opportunity of secur- ing a critical knowledge and appreciation of good literature. Without this knowledge, they cannot appreciate good books — books which during the hours when they are not employed in the struggle for bread and butter will make life worth living. The culture studies, literature, history, music, and art, should have a large place in a course of study for the country. The rural as well as the city youth must be fitted "to enjoy the things of the mind and higher life, to think the best thoughts of the best men as these are enshrined in art and literature." I would have the rural high school made a potent culture-center and inspire the rural youth with the idea that the best place to live is in the country, and that scientific farming is as honorable and may become as great a profession as law or medicine. The ideal rural high school would afford all these advantages and oppor- tunities, and the general social, intellectual, and moral uplift ''would be too great to be estimated." TIME AND EFFORT But you say that this adjustment and transformation will take time and effort. True, but the time is ripe to move toward this ideal by leaps and bounds. From many sources comes the cry of the decadence of our rural schools. Many rural communities are eager for the improvement of their schools. Our most intelligent farmers are coming to realize that a technical and scientific knowledge is essential to the most successful farming, and that the rural youth must be taught these subjects to the end that we may per- petuate our agricultural prosperity. Yes, it will take time, and effort, and organization and legislation to solve this rural-school problem, but in solving Superintendence] EDUCATION IN THE COUNTRY 249 it we shall solve one of the most fundamental problems of this century — the problem of checking the movement of population from the country to' the city. One way to check this movement is to build up a system of rural schools which will give equality of educational opportunity to our rural youth. Education in the country for the country needs heroic treatment. I do not believe in making haste slowly in attempting to solve this problem. I believe in evolution — not a purely natural evolution, but evolution stimulated by vigorous organization, expert leadership, and wise legislation. It is a trite saying that you cannot legislate people into righteousness; but one of the chief functions of legislation is to create conditions favorable to righteousness. Law today, no less than in ancient Hebrew economy, is a I schoolmaster to lead men to higher and better ideals. MORE ADEQUATE SUPERVISION This discussion brings me to Commissioner Brown's second rural-school problem — the problem of more adequate country-school supervision. All of the states have made some provision for rural-school supervision; very few have an adequate system of county-school supervision. All of the states west of the New England states, except Ohio and Arkansas, have some form of county supervision. In Ohio, after nearly a half-century of optional township supervision, and twelve years of township centralization, not more than 150 of the 1,369 town- ships are under supervision that supervises. More than a quarter of a million of rural-school youth in our state have no supervision worth the name. In the states which have the best system of county supervision, marked improvements have been made in the rural schools, but even here it is con- ceded that the county unit is too large for close, adequate supervision. The township unit, it is quite generally conceded, is too small for a state-wide system of adequate supervision. There is a growing tendency in Ohio toward a system of rural-school supervision involving both of these principles — the one expressed in a mandatory county superintendency, making the county the unit for school administration; and the other principle expressed in mandatory group-township districts with a supervisor whose chief function is to be supervision. This scheme embodies both principles — the federating, systematizing, and unifying principle, expressed in the county superintendent; and the close, adequate supervision principle, expressed in a group-township district supervisor. This is the ideal toward which Ohio is striving and tend- ing. Among the numerous duties and powers vested in the county superintend- ent, the following should be some of the more specific powers: 1. To study educational needs and conditions with a view of reorganizing the rural- school system to meet the demands of this new industrial age. 2. To create wholesome, enlightened public sentiment so essential to all school improvement. 250 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis 3. To encourage centralization and consolidation where practicable, and group- township districts for effective supervision where the former are not practicable. 4. To encourage, stimulate, and lead in the establishment of rural high schools. 5. To become, as he has in some states, the Strong right arm of the state department of education. 6. To federate, unify, and utilize all the educational forces of the country to make our rural-school education more vital and effective. The county superintendent should be free to give much time to, and to place great emphasis on, the rural-high-school problem. Under wise and expert leadership, he could consolidate the township with the poor, struggling village high school and thus secure a sufi&cient tax duplicate to support one first-class high school with a strong department for the teaching of agri- culture. The well-equipped rural high school, as I see it in our state, is fundamentally essential to an effective system of education in the country for the country. I do not believe that it is feasible to introduce agriculture or any other phase of industrial education into the entire body of rural schools within a state. I believe in the conclusion reached by the Committee on Industrial Education made to the National Education Association five years ago, which declared that "under existing conditions and under conditions likely to exist for a long time to come, comparatively few teachers in the country schools will be prepared for this work." The committee further says: "In each country where the experiment has failed, the authorities have reported that the chief reason was the failure to secure teachers properly prepared to teach the subject." "It is evident that before this phase of industrial education can be made a success in the one-room district school, there must be a body of teachers with special training for this work, that pupils must remain longer in school, that there must be greater facilities for the training of teachers, and that salaries must be materially increased," to which I wish to add that more men teachers must engage in school work. I return, therefore, with even greater assurance to the conclusion reached before, that education in the country for the country must, under present con- ditions, be secured very largely thru the rural high school, and that we need more adequate school supervision to foster and build up first-grade rural schools all over the country. WHAT HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED FOR EDUCATION IN THE COUNTRY FOR THE COUNTRY ? The Hon. A. C. True, Director of the Office of Experiment Stations, Washington, D.C., in a recent address in Portland, Ore., tells us that much has been accomplished. When Secretary Wilson came to the Department of Agriculture twelve years ago, there were but ten agricultural high schools in the country. Now there are sixty agricultural high schools. Then there were few, if any, ( Superintendence] EDUCATION IN THE COUNTRY 251 public high schools teaching agriculture; now there are three hundred and forty-six. Then there were but few schools training teachers to give instruc- tion in agriculture; now there are one hundred and nineteen state or county- normal schools, and fifteen agricultural colleges training teachers to give instruction in this subject. Our agricultural colleges can do much, have done much in some of the states, but they cannot do all the work. The sepa- rate agricultural high schools supported in part by the states have been estab- lished in some of the states. Alabama, Georgia, California, Minnesota, New York, and Oklahoma have congressional-district agricultural high schools. Wisconsin, Maryland, Michigan, and Mississippi are trying the experiment of county agricultural schools with a large measure of success. Add to all these the work in private schools and correspondence schools along the line of this phase of industrial education and it will appear that much has been accomplished in the last decade. This movement has gained tremendous headway until, according to a ^recent bulletin statement from the Department of Agriculture at Washington, there are now more than five hundred educational institutions in the United States engaged in training teachers how to teach agriculture in the public schools. ' The present scope of instruction in agriculture would not be complete without adding the efforts made in some of the states in the township high schools. This movement has begun in Ohio, and I believe will spread rapidly over our state. More than a score of township high schools are doing effec- tive work in agriculture. In my own native township. Union, in Hancock County, Ohio, an $18,000 building, the greater part of which will be devoted to the high school, with a well-equipped laboratory for the teaching of agri- culture, not only to the pupils, but to the farmers as well, is now being planned and erected. A normal-school bill, making provision for two additional state normal schools for Northern Ohio, is now pending in the General Assembly. It is written in the bill that, in planning said buildings, provision shall be made I for well-equipped departments for instruction and training in agriculture. Ohio believes in the conclusion reached by the Committee on Industrial Education already referred to, that trained teachers are necessary to make a success of any phase of industrial education. These agricultural departments are to train teachers for our rural high schools. WHAT MORE CAN BE DONE? The State Fair Board, the agricultural colleges, the state grange, the state training schools in agriculture, the agricultural experiment stations, and all other organized agencies along this phase of industrial education should federate their forces and more closely ally their aims and efforts. In too many states now, each seems to be independent of the other. They should be made to articulate at some points more closely. 252 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis It also occurs to me that there might be organized with profit an interstate commission on agricultural education — an interstate commission composed of states whose climatic and industrial conditions are quite similar. The public-school men must become more active and helpful in the solu- tion of this, one of the most vital problems of the age — education in the country for the country, and thus aid without litigation in removing one of the chief causes of the high cost of living, and aid in creating conditions more conducive to a higher and nobler type of American citizenship. DISCUSSION John F. Haines, county superintendent of schools, Noblesville, Ind. — The function of the school is to educate the child: the function of education is to furnish the child (i) the ability to make a living, (2) the ability to make a life. I put the ability to make a living first, because the man who cannot make a living does not and cannot command the respect of his fellows. What then must be the education of the country boy to enable him to stand in the com- munity as a man of property and at the same time be a useful member of society ? We are pretty well agreed that a change in our present covirse of study is needed, but no change has yet been suggested that is acceptable. We are so wedded to traditions that we are not willing to give up our "partial payments," our map questions, and our long line of dates in history. Both the school nen and the farmers are to blame for the present state of affairs. The school man sits in his study and evolves a "course of study for the rural school." He sees in his "mind's eye" the country child, by pursuing the subjects that he suggests and in the order that he suggests, become an "agriculturist," not a farmer. Such a course usually does more harm than good. The author of it does not know the conditions and cannot know them by merely reading about them or hearing about them. The farmer is opposed to a change in the curriculum. He wants his boy to study books; the boy can learn to work at home, and the girl can learn to cook and sew under the instruction of her mother. What then must be done to improve the conditions in the rural schools ? 1. Men who deal with this problem must be men who come into direct contact with conditions as they exist. 2. The public opinion of the r\iral communities must be changed. It is evident that in the grades great slices of arithmetic and geography and history must be cut off and cast out, and in their places must be put manual training, some of the simpler phases of agriculture, and music, drawing, and reading, reading, reading. In the high school much of the Latin and German and the higher mathematics and the so-called science work could well be omitted. The Latin seems to develop in the boys a propensity for swearing, and mathematics a weakness for tears in the girls. In chemistry, and sometimes even in botany, the pupil, after a full term's work, says, "What is it all about ?" But what would the colleges do for students prepared to enter ? There would be one satisfaction, that those who entered would know how to work and the education acquired would "stick" better than much of the college education under the present plan, which, like paper put on a whitewashed wall, peels off soon after examination day. Education in the country to accomplish its purpose must do at least two things. It must put the child in possession of a knowledge of its environments and give him skill in the use of this knowledge. It must also give him culture and refinement. This, to my mind, must be accomplished not by establishing trade schools and agricultural high schools in different sections, but by eliminating from the present course of study some of the things f: Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 253 that I have already indicated and putting in their places agriculture, manual training, and domestic science. It is claimed that we could not find teachers prepared to teach these subjects. True, but neither can we find teachers prepared to teach arithmetic, grammar, and history. The great trouble in my own county is, not that we cannot find teachers who are prepared or who are willing to prepare, but that if the course of study prescribed by the state board of education is carried out there is but little time left for anything else. The pupil desires to complete this course in the common school so that he may enter the high school and the high school adheres to its course in order that it may remain on the commissioned list. If we could have a course of study requiring a minimum amount of work instead of minimum grades in certain subjects it would help us wonderfully. In some of the high schools in my county we offer courses in agricultural and domestic ;ience, but the cry year after year is that we have not the time to do this and carry out le prescribed course. The farmers themselves have opposed such instruction in the schools, but when it is )nce introduced they are soon converted. The children are ready and anxious "to do lings." Some years ago I organized a Boys' Corn Club in Hamilton County, the first v&c organized by a school man. I thought it would be better for the boys to raise corn lan to raise so much of the proverbial "Cain." The result is that a large number of these )ys have become expert corn-growers and have taught their fathers how to select and test le seed. In some of our rural schools we have introduced manual training, and here again \he parents are converted. Almost without exception the boys who raise the best corn and who do the best work at the bench are the leaders in their classes What then should be done for education in the country ? In the Middle West this should be done: whenever it is possible the schools should be consolidated so that in each school there would be at least two teachers, the principal, a man who should receive not less than fifty dollars for each month in the year. Just as soon as he has proven himself the man for the place he should be installed so that he could not be removed without just cause. He should live in the community and have his interests there. He should be placed in charge of from ten to twenty acres of land and this should be the experiment plot for the neighborhood. Place in this school also a young woman who can teach the girls. Then give them time and material and see what will be accomplished. Give the high schools a chance to train teachers for these rural schools and they will do it. But I would not neglect the culture side. I would have the country children taught music and drawing and literature in abundance. I would have the boy taught to build a better house and beautify the farm. I would have the girl taught to beautify the home and make it attractive. When education in the country is made for the country, then the highest type of man- hood will be developed there in the future just as it has been in the past. TOPIC: CHILDREN DIFFER IN VOCATIONAL AIMS INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL BEN W. JOHNSON, DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, SEATTLE, WASH. For the sake of clearness, I define "vocational" to be that which pertains to a definite occupation, and "industrial" that which pertains to all occupa- tions— ideas of materials and processes, their production, manufacture, and distribution. I may also safely assume that children do differ in mental alertness, in 254 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis mental attitudes, tastes, and tendencies, in environment, in physical condition, and likewise in vocational aim. The previous speakers have so interpreted these topics in their discussion of them, consequently the kind and character of the education the child is to receive must be so modified that every child will have his opportunity to grow and develop according to these fundamental difiFerences. The question arises: When do these differences become dominant in the life of the child so that we can, with reasonable accuracy, determine what they are, their charg,cter and strength, what of stimulus to give them, what of redirection for the good of the child and his future needs ? I quote the expression of more than one educational writer in stating that *'it is a growing conviction that the elementary period as now organized must be modified to meet this new situation." The elementary period as such should end at about twelve years or the sixth grade, and the seventh and eighth grades with the first, and possibly the second, year of the high school should be organized into a separate or intermediate department. This plan would have a number of advantages over the so-called six-year high school. To add two years at the beginning of the high school without modifying the point of view of most of the secondary work would not remedy to any extent the present exodus from the school after the first year. Again, this period, the intermediate, is a unified period where we consider the best interests of the child, and the school should be organized solely to that end. The upper grammar grades are now using methods and organization copies from the lower grades and are attempting to treat the subjects from the stand- point of the high school. In this intermediate school the subjects, fewer in number for each pupil, would be studied from the standpoint of social need and not as separate subjects. The transition from the elementary to the high school proper would be easier, and the changes would come at the time of needed adjustment. The courses offered would permit the child who expected to continue in school an opportunity to elect a language, and to those children who could not continue, the opportunity to select an industrial course, or pre-apprenticeship course, ending at about the sixteenth or seven- teenth year. This course would also permit the pupil to pass easily to the high school if he, later, desired to do so. There is nothing to be gained, apparently, in having separate schools at the intermediate period for the two lines of work. The "industrial cultural" and the "academic cultural " as Mr. Person^ calls them, could be accommodated in the same institution with all the advantages of the same social and adminis- trative organization such as now obtains in most of our high schools with their different courses. The place for the separate school is after the sixteenth year when a definite vocation or trade is to be taught. Berkeley, Cal., voted to try a similar plan of organization of its public schools, beginning the past January. Superintendent F. F. Bunker has organized the seventh and eighth grades together with the ninth grade of the I Industrial Education (1907). I Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 255 high school and placed all these pupils in three convenient school centers and placed in charge of them strong teachers of broad culture and wide experience in teaching pupils of this age and hopes thereby to make the transition from the elementary school to the departmental work of the high school much easier. He also believes "it will aid in establishing a community feeling or group responsibility, under favorable conditions, with pupils totally lacking in this respect in the elementary schoool." This intermediate school would correspond to a similar organization in European schools, with the further great advantage of their being democratic — "open at the top" to further education or training and open at the bottom to any bo}'S or girls old enough to enter. As to the evils of early specialization that this scheme seems to favor, the reply is, that specialization is not the purpose of such a school, nor can it be when we consider the nature of the child and the character of the instruc- tion he should receive. Is not specialization largely dependent upon the way a subject or course of study is presented? If for the subject alone, it is specialization; if for the subject in its relations to individual and social need, it is not specialization. The child is not narrowed in his outlook on life. The trouble with the cry of "early specialization" is that the assertion is too often made from the narrow standpoint of the so-called academic cultural course which considers all other lines of study narrow because they use the life-material of today as cultural elements. The segregation of the particularly bright pupils of the seventh and eighth grades that they may do part of the high-school work and thereby gain a year, is a recognition of this need and is very good as far as it goes. It is not broad enough unless it places equal emphasis upon the industrial and academic courses, and classifies all pupils for mental alertness according to their native tastes and interests. Culture and intellectuality are not the exclusive prod- ucts of any one course. If in such segregated groups only such academic studies are given as will lead directly to the high school and college, too much emphasis is given to a line of study too long considered the peculiar possession of the socially and intellectually select. Democracy should grant an equal opportunity, but not necessarily the same opportunity, not to a few specially selected, but to all pupils according to capacity, taste, and interest. Mr. Ayres states the following: From available data it appears safe to say that for every pupil making rapid progress there are from eight to ten making slow progress and for every term gained by the rapid pupils, from ten to twelve are lost by the slow ones. The courses of study of our city school systems are adjusted to the powers of the brightest pupils. They are beyond the powers of the average pupil, and far beyond those -of the slower ones.^ I venture the assertion that a lop-sided school course is largely responsible for this state of affairs. Why do we not "get busy" and correct this state ^ The Laggard in Our Schools. 256 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis of affairs? There is $27,000,000 a year in it to be saved, according to Mr. Ayres' estimate of our losses thru this cause, to say nothing of the children we can save. I will not take space to give details of an industrial course in such an inter- mediate school, but refer you to others who have covered this point quite thoroly. Dr. Haney gives such an outline in the Educational Review, No- vember, 1907; Mr. Selvidge, in the Manual Training Magazine of June, 1909, and Mr. Dodd, in the same magazine for December, 1909; Mr. Dean, in a circular, The Albany Vocational School, issued by the Division of Trade Schools, Department of Education, New York, of which he is chief. The last two are working schedules now in operation. The Report of the Special Committee on Industrial Education of the American Federation of Labor also gives similar suggestions for courses. All of these writers, with the excep- tion of Mr. Selvidge, call their courses vocational, meaning that they are indus- trial courses that will help the pupil choose some definite vocation which he will later pursue as an apprentice or in a trade school. They recommend a longer school day and from one-third to one-half of the time to be spent in handwork or household arts and drawing. It is interesting to note, in passing, that the kind of handwork proposed is the same now given in any good manual-training course for the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, but giving more time to it. Another point of importance is that these industrial, cultural courses in these intermediate schools are presented from the standpoint of social need, as is likewise each subject of the course — science, mathematics, history, geography, and language. Now the elementary period proper would include all children from the first to the end of the sixth grade, the period when practically all the children are in the school. The psychology of the child of this period should be the key to the character methods used for his education. The vocational aim, if this play-imitation and play-utility time of life may be so called, is only significant as indicating a means of connecting in his mind the relations that exist in the industrial world. From this standpoint, all the children of this period may be classed together, and the course be uniform. The things they need to know are the ones of fundamental service to society. These things the masses must have to get on at all. These are first the tools of communication, reading and writing, how to use one's own language, to perform the simple operations of arithmetic and of accounting, and also get somewhat of sympathetic knowledge of his city, county, and national government, politically and industrially, and as to bodily welfare, he should know the simple laws of health and sanitation, the conditions of welfare everyone needs to know to protect himself and to pro- tect society as well. As society is made up of the activities of man and the expression of his aims and ideals in these activities, industry is the warp and woof that knits together Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 257 the whole fabric, and makes man economically dependent upon every other man. What, then, shall be the medium for bringing this rich content cf life to the child's experience, so that while he develops as an individual, and becomes more and more practiced in the instruments of communication and expression, he will also get his social bearings, and have the spirit of play at the activities of man preserved, and gradually transmitted into the spirit of work and participation in the industries of the world ? The school, as the recognized agent of society for giving the coming genera- tion what the larger whole requires, has always been tardy in modifying its functions to the rapid changes in developing society. The sciences had a hard time breaking into the sacred precincts of the classics, in response to new discoveries and social needs. Manual training was no exception to the rule, and as the expression of the laboratory idea applied to secondary education, gained its recognition from the school almost solely upon disciplinary grounds of mental culture; but from the practical world of industry it sought and gained recognition because it taught the fundamentals to all the arts. It has evolved from this disciplinary conception of the tool and exercise, thru the Sloyd period to the art-craft stage. And most manual training of today is now in this stage of progress. The emphasis has shifted from the disciplinary value of the process to the worth of the process in carrying out the constructive idea of the child. There has developed a difference of opinion as to what should be the source of these ideas of construction — in other words, the content of this activity. Some believe that the chief value such construction has is in the opportunity it gives the child for the expression of the impressions received in history, reading, nature study, etc. Some have taken almost the opposite view and have considered the differ- ent activities represented in construction as different forms of industry and have, therefore, developed the school work about these activities as a basis for the other subjects of the curriculum. The school problem is attacked from the industrial social side. The school work is correlated with some form of industrial work as a "center of interest." Others, again, have given it an industrial content, a study of industries, but adapting the course to the developing stages of the child's growth. Begin- ning with the home and its activities, the child is led to connect its activities to those of primitive man, and each stage of man's development is recapitulated in his industrial activities until they are used to interpret the present life to the child. This last conception of the content of the manual arts is indicative of the fourth stage in its evolution. They are a means of connecting the present industrial life to that of the school. The manual arts are no longer ends in themselves, but a means to an end, instruments of social service. As I under- stand this, it does not mean that all that is good in technique with its ideals of workmanship, or the useful and beautiful model or garment, the constructive 258 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis ideas of the child developing his initiative and efficiency, are to be any the less considered or neglected because v^^e nov^ see these factors as elements funda- mental to industrial life, and change the viewpoint or avenue of approach to that of the social significance of the manual arts. We then start from the other end, and select those industries of dominant social worth of which these elements now making up a manual-training course are or may be typical problems. There have been and are now a number of experiments that are seeking to make this ideal of the manual arts a reality in an ordinary school situation. One plan has made an analysis of the great forces that man has controlled for his own service and thru which the race has advanced industrially. Power in its various manifestations was considered: wind, water, steam, gas, and electric power, and from these, typical forms were chosen within the capacity of the pupil, who then proceeded to construct them, considering materials, tools, processes. Technique and workmanship were developed in response to a real need and the problem connected up with real life. In the same way, transportation was made the central subject of the hand- work, and the class, individually and together, worked out problems illus- trating this factor in man's development. Shelter was next considered, and modern methods of building a brick house, even to the making of the bricks, formed the problem. Another plan of industrial approach, thru the manual arts, has taken up the modern methods of manufacture. The class has taken paper-box making (cardboard work was the handwork for this grade and there was a demand for boxes) to work out first individually, and then as a class, each individual making only a part — "doing piecework." The conditions affecting the worker and the product were considered by the class and the advantage of co-opera- tion in the amount and uniformity of the product, and the disadvantages as to the individual pieceworker if limited to the one process. These two plans, one from Newark, N.J., the other from Boston, Mass., show what can be done under present school organization. They also show that very capable teachers are necessary, and whether we reorganize the system or not, more money for the schools is a necessity if they are to perform this larger service in education. Mr. Oscar L. McMurry and Mr. Frank McMurry^ give a very clear statement of this point of view. In order that a body of thought may take high rank as a study, it must consist of more than a few isolated concrete pieces of work. These must be both numerous and closely interrelated, or, at least, if not so connected as to form a unified whole, must consist of topics capable of forming thought complexes of considerable magnitude. In addition to that, they must find their origin in some broad and deeply significant phase of human life comparable to that of literature or history. Now the manual arts are the special representatives in the public-school curricula of the productive activities, consisting of selected parts of the trades and industries. The number of these is legion. Consider under the broad division, "shelter," the group involved I An Arts Course for the Grades, Chicago Normal School Press. Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 259 in house-building alone, such as carpentry, masonry, plastering, plumbing, heating, light- ing, glazing, trimming, painting, and decorating, and the many upon which these are directly dependent, as for instance, lumbering, milling, brickmaking, manufacturing of hardware and of plumbing goods, glassmaking, etc. Again, under "clothing" consider the making of a simple skirt which, as we see, involves some knowledge of weaving, spinning, the nature of the raw material used, such as cotton, wool, or silk, the dyeing, soap-making, and laundering. Under "food " it is seen that cooking is directly concerned with gardening, milling of grain, canning of fruit, plumbing, and a score of occupations. Thus the groups of facts in these fields are extensive and interrelated. These indus- tries, too, have a far-reaching physical and ethical bearing on mankind, directly involving the welfare of all the people. The manual arts, therefore, as representatives of the industries, and including prin- ciples of both construction and living, are highly worthy of respect and of a place on the school program Enough valuable thought bearing on industry can be offered to quicken and sharpen wits, not only for the sake of greater mental quickness and acuteness in general — or, indirectly, of making tradesmen and industrialists out of pupils — but of making them more sympathetic and intelligent in regard to such pursuits and convincing them that opportunity and greatness lie within those fields, as well as without. In determining the parts for such a curriculum, based on the belief that the cultural idea of the manual arts is productive activity in the field of materials, they use the term social industries as best expressing the content and limits of the field, and they determine the choice of the trades and industries by the four factors: (i) their relative importance in social life remembering the individual environment; (2) the ability of the pupil; (3) interest to be excited by an industry; and finally (4) practicability from the point of view of equipment. The industry having been decided upon, the conditions determining the individual tasks selected will be its capacity to throw light upon the character of such an industry and the closeness of its relation to other chosen topics. I have referred to these examples of the changed point of view arising in the manual arts for several reasons. First, in answer to the criticism that the manual arts have failed to help the working-man. It is not the province of the elementary school to teach vocations as such, and again, the children who later make the so-called working-class are even now directly unaffected by any manual training, for they leave school too early. Second, some believe that manual arts have no value other than as a means for teaching applied design, or of affording a means of expression for the other subjects of the cur- riculum. While this may be true of some manual-art courses that have been emasculated by the academician, the critic ignores the real elements of the manual arts and that they, too, are being socialized. And lastly, industrial education for the elementary period, believed to be a necessity, can be realized more quickly by using the manual arts we now have, modified to meet the situation. What to do is clear. First, establish manual training, manual arts, or industrial courses, whatever name suits the need, in all our elementary schools. The latest statistics give only 1 50 secondary schools out of a possible 9,000 as manual-training or industrial schools. Of the 1,300 city school systems, only one-half of them have any manual training and but 150 of them have work in all the grades and 100 have courses in the high school.* I U. S. Bureau 0} Education Reports. 26o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapoljs Tho manual training is characterized by one writer as a "fungus growth on an ill-proportioned and misshapen curriculum that needs not so much to be pruned and trained as to be uprooted and replaced by a more vigorous and more productive plant," this desirable attainment, much as we believe in it, cannot be gained by a revolution, but by evolution. The manual training of the past can be easily changed to industrial education, the need of the present, if its advocates and friends catch the significance of the social industrial move- ment of the day. Such an organization of the curriculum is suggested by Dean Russell,^ who recommends that the "instruction in the public schools be classified under three heads: (a) The humanities, including language and literature, history and civics, and the fine arts; (6) the sciences, including mathematics, geography, physics, chemistry, and biology; and (c) the industries, including the study of materials and the dominant processes in the successive stages of production, manufacture, and distribution. This classification is a great step forward for it gives equal recognition to the three groups that make up human thought and achievement, and, if adopted, would give new dignity to the industrial arts and do much to correct the false standard of what is of most worth in the attainment of culture. My contention is that children do differ in vocational aim and that, there- fore, industrial education must be a necessary part of the elementary cur- riculum. To realize this, the present elementary period should be divided after the sixth grade, and the seventh and eighth grade, together with the first, and possibly the second, year of the high school, become an intermediate school with elective courses, one of which would be an industrial course lead- ing to a trade or vocational school or back to the high school, or out to an apprenticeship and industry. The first six grades should be the elementary school proper in which the course would be the same for all pupils and based on child growth and the demands of society, and should have as one of its elements industrial education, manual training evolutionized, as a means of relating the schools to industry, and of making the child more sympathetic and intelligent in regard to the work of the world. And lastly, the first step for- ward is to modify existing manual-training courses and continue to establish them until they are a part of every school curriculum. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS W. F. WEBSTER, PRINCIPAL OF EAST SIDE HIGH SCHOOL, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. The United States has become a rich and powerful nation. We recall that a narrow strip of land a thousand miles long was this whole nation in 1775. The three millions of people that dwelt along the Atlantic seaboard have multiplied and pushed westward over the AUeghanies, across the broad I "The School and Industrial Life," Educational Review, December, 1909. i Superintendence] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 261 prairies, up the towering Rockies, and down the Pacific; and ever3rwhere as they went, Proserpina-like, they have left scattered along their path the tokens of modern civilization — happy farmsteads, wonderful cities, palaces of art, and temples of learning. No wonder the great industries spring up in this land of limitless resources, or that the products of our factories have reached the enormous total of $14,802.147,087 .00. Neither is it any wonder that the world's money market has moved from London to New York, and the United States is the only great nation whose exports exceed its imports. Our wealth has been gained largely by the exchange of raw materials for gold; but when the day arrives that our coal, our iron ore, and our forests are gone, Americans, like other nations, will be forced back upon their wits. The battle for supremacy in the commerce of this world is to be a battle of brains. It is the vision of a dubious future that has turned the attention of business to the conservation of our resources and the development of our industries; for American industry has its one vulnerable point — its labor is unskilled. And it is to the public schools that the directors of large industries look for a supply of skilled workmen. The result is that business is fast industrializing education. Yet business is not wholly responsible. Educators have long seen the need of training for youth that will save them from the helplessness of ineffi- ciency. The education that served well the nineteenth century is antiquated in the first decade of the twentieth century. Now it is the ability to do some- thing that the world wants done that our schools must give to youth. And last to enter the field and advocate vocational training is labor. It has seemed a mystery to many of us that labor has waited so long; but until recently labor has been ignorant of its power to effect great changes in govern- ment; it has waged a continual struggle with capital; and it has looked upon schools for the development of skill as seminaries of scabs and strike-breakers. However, the dignified statement issued by the Federation of Labor at its Toronto convention is a prophecy of a large expansion in school usefulness and an absolute guarantee of the nation's advance toward industrial supremacy. These three classes of society — the representatives of business, the repre- sentatives of labor, and the representatives of education — must counsel together if we are to have a true solution of this greatest economical problem before the American people today. In their deliberations base selfishness must be eliminated. Only two master motives should guide them — a wish to help youth forward on the journey toward success, and a desire to make America leader in the realm of commerce. A few principles seem pretty well established. It has been demonstrated that differentiation of pupils into certain large groups may safely begin as early as the seventh grade; yet the definite choice of a vocation must not be made before the high-school period. No person can feel reasonably sure of his advice to a boy on this momentous question until he has entered the period of his adolescence. This is the time when the youth reveals himself and 262 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianap(jlis 1— announces by unmistakable traits the work in which he is qualified to gajin success; and it the time when leg and arm and hand most readily adapt themselves to the demands of the chosen life. Moreover, vocational training in secondary schools should be just what its name indicates — real training for the trades. Whatever occupations are chosen, these should be the center around which all the other work shall be ordered and arranged, so that the whole shall be one symmetrical unit. The atmosphere of the laboratories should be the atmosphere of a well-conducted shop. Accuracy and skill should come first; but quickness at work, real trade efficiency should always be kept before the youth; for his value in the world depends quite as truly on how much he can do as upon how well he can do. In order that the vocational idea may dominate all the work, and also that a real increment of skill may be gained, a large part of the da)' must be given over to labor with the hands — at least one-half the time. Even then there is a remainder large enough to give all the theory necessarj^ for most crafts — much more than is now possessed by many workmen — and, in addition, to impart some needed information concerning the duties of citizenship and the rights of men. For if we may believe those in this work, the avidity shown by bo}'S in gaining knowledge when it contributes definitely to the calling by which ihey propose to earn a living will compensate in no small degree for the shortened hours. Have the school day a full eight-hour day, divided about equally between study and recitation on the one hand, and the shops and laboratories on the other; and this work time should be spent in a real workshop, where real things are being done, under the guidance of real work- men. In such a school the theory of any occupation can be taught and some degree of proficiency can be acquired; but it is not easy to carry the work so far as to make of our graduates journeymen in the trades. Efficient skill follows continued repetition and large practice. It is very difficult for schools to obtain stairways to build or steam plants to install. For finishing off a journey- man, it seems much wiser and more economical that a boy should be indentured to some employer to serve from one to three years as an apprentice. But right here arises a difficulty. The labor unions, in order to protect themselves from an overcrowded labor market, have limited narrowly the number of apprentices a shop or a contractor may employ; nor has the master workman always been at great pains to teach an apprentice the mysteries of his craft. Some new adjustments must be made; the leaders of organized labor should come to the aid of the schoolmaster. For the youth of this land have the right to demand of their fathers and of the state the opportunity of choosing and learning a trade. And if narrow selfishness seals the ear against the pleading of thousands of sons, then the state will be driven to assume the entire responsibility for apprentices and master workmen. What reason can be urged for limiting the number that may enter the trades that cannot, Superintendence] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 263 with even greater force, be urged regarding the professions? Restriction of numbers should not be secured by saying to youth "You will not be per- mitted to learn this trade"; but the trades should be guarded as the pro- fessions are guarded, by examinations, so that only the worthy are admitted. The lazy, the ignorant, the unskilled are today an incubus upon labor; and they bring the whole body of organized labor into disrepute and ill-favor with employers. Allow only skilled workmen in the unions, make of each organiza- tion a body of intelligent men, striving to render all its members of greater service to the community, and labor will attract to its ranks the best blood of the nation and acquire a dignity and standing in the earth which it has not yet attained. Then the law of political economy which regulates the market for other products will operate in the labor market; and the numbers seeking a given trade or profession will rise or fall with the fluctuations of supply and demand. And again, if we are to retain the fluent qualities of democracy, if we are to escape the slow hardening of society into layers, vocational training must be kept in close touch with the other work of the school. It is true that the air of a shop can be best secured where no other education is being carried on. It is also true that what is needed today even more than industrial train- ing in our schools is a high regard by every class for real work, no matter what it may be, or w^herever or by whomsoever it may be done. And if the alter- native be this, the present association of all classes in the democracy of our high schools, or the segregation of those that labor with the hands from those that are to make a leisure aristocracy of wealth and snobbishness, then indus- trial training would better be abandoned: for this nation will survive even with our present methods of education; but a democracy cannot long endure where the whole plan of instruction encourages the haughty selfishness of plutocracy and domineering arrogance of a ruling class. Big-hearted, broad human sympathy, a recognition of the worth of every man that honestly toils, a feeling that a man's a man for a' that he may pour a mold or wipe a joint, comes from an intermingling of humanity, and a consequent understanding of one by the other; and this association is possible only before the paths of lifQ lead men apart into the vocations of manhood. All must learn together — some Latin, some bookkeeping, and some steam-fitting. And while laboring side by side, each will gain the prize he seeks; but with the acquisition of knowledge and skill, there will flow a yet richer blessing to democracy — a certain largeness of sympathy, free from suspicion and selfishness, a sympathy so big, so all-embracing that it presages the dawn of a new day, when labor and capital shall know each other, and peace and good will shall dictate the policies of the leaders of industry. And yet another and possibly a greater advantage will follow from retain- ing our present method of organization. Life disasters will be even more frequent than now if the early choice of father or child is irrevocable. Life for the average workman is narrow and circumscribed; his vision seldom 264 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis penetrates beyond the gray windows of the shop where he toils. After labor is done, his associates are his fellow-workmen. In this limited confine he lives; and here he gathers about him his family. When the time comes that he must choose the course of his child's life, he naturally turns to the occupa- tions he knows; and the child is in all probability set in the path of his father. The child of the mason will take up his father's trowel; the barber's son will find his place at the barber's chair; Harry Biggerstaff will succeed Tom Biggerstafif in the little blacksmith shop. Moreover, until the boy reaches his twelfth year, his father or one of his father's companions is his ideal; and in realizing this ideal he believes he will find his greatest happiness. A choice at this time might be disastrous; for the conditions surrounding both father and son make a wise choice almost impossible; and the determining influences of home and environment conspire together to hold the child of the trades- classes ih the stratum of society to which he was born. To offset the mistakes of ignorance and the restriction of environment, and to allow each youth to find the work that he can do best, freedom to shape his growing life must be his. The insurmountable barriers that hedge in the children of the laboring classes must be broken down; and liberty, which makes it easy for a boy to pass from one vocation to another, if he finds that some one has blundered, must be substituted for the bondage almost sure to follow the infinite differ- entiation of this industrial era. And how many a time have we all met a youth in the middle of his high- school course still undecided upon the question of his future calling! He does everything well; so far there seems to be no special adaptation that calls him to some peculiar field of endeavor. How easy to send him to a trade school or a commercial school and make of him a fair accountant or machinist, when some years later he makes the sad discovery that he should be an archi- tect. The separate commercial school had disclosed but a small sector of life's pursuits; he was not privileged to look upon the whole circle of vocations. Soon the obligations of manhood are upon him, and change is impossible; the shades of the prison-house begin to close about the growing youth. The soul of a builder of cities withers in the breast of a commonplace bookkeeper. I realize that the period of childhood will be yet further lengthened by such a system; but that is the law of advancing intelligence. Children will not so early become productive money-getters; but shall we thrust children into shops and factories, while men go up and down our streets begging for work ? And what matters it to this nation whether the balance of trade is a half billion or a billion in our favor ? It is enough as it is. Fifty years from today the United States will look across the great seas and find there but one rival — all Europe combined. But if human life is worth more than steel bridges; if life-happiness is to be weighed against bank-balances; if success is to be reckoned in joyous satisfaction, and a nation is honored more by its men than by the stifling power of mammoth combinations of wealth; then the American school with all its present freedom and fluency is the ideal school Superintendence] TRADE UNIONS AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 265 for a democracy, which still holds to the truth that all men are created equal and endowed with certain inalienable rights — among them life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. And it is for an extension of our American education that I plead. It is men that this nation needs — not arms, not fingers, not eyes — working fragments of men; but whole, integral men — men whose hands are strong, whose brains are thinking, whose hearts beat high with hope. But a courageous spirit seldom dwells with an empty stomach or a shivering back. It is not so hard for a man to be true to himself when he knows that his two strong hands guided by a trained mind can win for those he loves the comforts of life. Poverty cannot demand of such a one the sacrifice of principle; the cries of hungry children will not drive him to abdicate manhood's throne. With feet planted firmly on the solid earth of self-support, he throws his shoulders back and breathes the free air of manly independence. Every youth that has the indwelling consciousness of strength to meet the world with its hardships and discouragements holds the surest prophecy of a life of usefulness; and a high character in the j'Outh of a nation is a firm foundation of true greatness and a sure promise of enduring grandeur. TRADE UNIONS AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION W. B. PRESCOTT, SECRETARY, INTERNATIONAL TYPOGRAPHICAL UNION COM- MISSION ON SUPPLEMENTARY TRADE EDUCATION In the busy world of today it is almost impossible for one to acquire an accurate knowledge of the purposes and methods of all the social-uplift move- ments. Consequently there is bound to be a great deal of misconception and misrepresentation. Trade unions, being primarily opposed or inimical to great interests and being composed of poor men who wield litde influence, and who have not yet seen the necessity for maintaining press agents, are especially the victims of misrepresentation. I do not know that they have been misrepresented more on the question of technical or industrial education than on any other features in their activities, but I am convinced that those who believe unionists to be opposed to education are mistaken. True, there are some forms of industrial education to which they are opposed and to which any man ought to be opposed. To put that as briefly as possible T would say trade unionists are opposed to any form of industrial education that has for its main purpose the exploitation of the student or pupil. We do not take such high ground as to say that because a commercial educational institution has made a great deal of money in a very short time that it is an exploiter. In America we have several examples of that sort of school, and I have never yet heard of a trade unionist saying they were inimical to the public welfare simply because they made money. I have, however, heard a prominent and representative educator refer to that as a species of exploita- tion. The trade unionists reserve their shafts of criticism for those forms of 266 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis education which tend to narrow the student's mental outlook and make him more dependent than otherwise. They are also opposed to educational institutions that turn out incompetent and inefficient mechanics. Perhaps to the outsider they are unnecessarily bitter in the denunciation of this sort of school, but the outsider does not know as the worker does what a serious social blight inefficiency is. The man who is turned out of the so-called trade school a mere specialist, and an indifferent one at that, is never sure of steady employment. Precarious employment not only means decreased earning capacity, but it subjects the victim to temptation and compels him to live under conditions which unman him and retard the development of his char- acter. Only those who have tried it have any conception of what a hell it is to spend one-third or more of one's time tramping from door to door seek- ing employment. The rebuffs and humiliations crush all but the proudest spirits, and in time ambition is superseded by the spirit of "don't care" and "what's the use?" Those who are in the midst of this and count among their acquaintances life wrecks by the score do feel strongly, and have a right to feel strongly about any method of education which sends a youth into the world with the baleful handicap of inefficiency. The prominence given the subject of trade education will necessarily involve educators of all degrees, and it is my impression that they will find organized labor insistent upon proof that an educational scheme will be thoro before the plan will receive the indorse- ment of trade unionists. The co-operation of organized labor is of consider- able importance. You may possibly regard it with disfavor, but it is the voice of the worker. No other element in our community knows so well what workers need or their aspirations as does organized labor. True, the worker as such exercises comparatively little influence in the governmental world today, but what influence he does have comes to him thru organization. You hear a great deal about organized labor butting in, but have you ever heard of any great interest stopping to heed the protests of unorganized labor? That is a voiceless multitude. Irrespective of the sway of labor in political matters, its influence will loom large in the subject of industrial education. The United States Commissioner of Labor's report for the year 1902 treated of trade and technical education. It was, in fact, a world-wide review of what had been done in this line. It is noticeable that in the early days of industrial education in Continental Europe and Great Britain many efforts proved failures until they were placed on such a basis as to invite and secure the co-operation of the labor element. Indeed, how could educators and boards of education ascertain what mechanics and artisans desire to learn or believe should be taught in any sort of school without consulting them? You must always remember that in establishing industrial schools the courses are not primary courses to be shoved down the throats of children, but that you will have to demonstrate that what you are teaching is of real social and commercial value before you secure scholars worth while. Superintendence] TRADE UNIONS AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 267 Among the adult workers there is a very large element that should be taken into consideration. It is composed of the men who have chosen a life vpcation and by reason of the specialization inherent in present-day industry have not had an opportunity to become well grounded in the principles of their respec- tive trades. They are known as specialists, and tho this is the day of speciali- zation, these specialists differ somewhat from the specialists who are held up to the public as examples of what is possible by specialization — lawyers, physicians, engineers, financiers, etc. The professional man has been well grounded in the underlying principles of his profession and out of that knowl- edge selects his specialty. The mechanic or artisan, on the other hand, is all too frequently a specialist because he knows nothing else. The professional develops a specialty out of his wealth of knowledge; the mechanic or artisan remains a specialist on account of his ignorance. In many of the industries being a mere specialist ties the mechanic to the wheel. He must stay in that shop or confine his activities to that one particular process. This makes the laborer dependent, because he has lost what has always been labor's chief asset — mobility. He cannot move from shop to shop or from place to place and is therefore less capable of bargaining for wages than the all-around man who can move from process to process, if not from place to place. Speciali- zation also means intensification of production, which in turn means that the dead line is reached earlier in life, and a man's earning capacity is con- siderably affected by this. When he begins to feel the effects of age he finds himself competing with younger men, in a field where the desirable quality is speed. There is little chance for the use of stored-up knowledge, which is the saving grace in the professions. Speed, and nothing but speed, is the factory god. It is obvious that under these conditions the specialist in mechani- cal pursuits is at a very serious disadvantage when the hair begins to turn gray and the children reach that age when they are most in need of financial support from the bread-winner — the age of about sixteen when the selection of a vocation for life is made. Parents at that time should be sufficiently independent to be able to invest a little capital in seeing that the boy or girl is started on the right road. Unfortunately the father just about then begins to feel his powers declining and stands in mortal dread of being let out of his trade on account of inability to keep the pace. In my opinion any system of industrial education supported by the state or city should have a place for these men. If such an opening is made it is almost a surety that you will find trade unionists not only willing but anxious to co-operate. In fact several unions are already doing work in this line, not having the patience to wait for the state to perform what in the opinion of working-people is a very natural and proper function. In my own trade we have a system of supplemental trade education which has been so successful that the labor organizations of the cognate trades are discussing the feasibility of developing systems of education along similar lines. Perhaps the need and purpose of supplemental education as applied to the trades can best be ex- 268 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [IndianapoUs plained to you by an account of the methods of the International Typographi- cal Union course in printing. In the compositor's trade it is a generation- old story. A boy is taken into a printing-office; the foreman soon discovers the process for which he shows the greatest adaptability and keeps him at it. In due time he becomes a journeyman but with little knowledge of the trade other than his particular process. This is regarded as an evil. The limita- tion of apprentices by unions is not all due to selfishness. A very great part of the moving force behind it is a desire to insure boys a fair opportunity to learn the trade. This of course would be impossible if an unlimited number of apprentices were permitted. But in time the offices became specialized and it was impossible for the great number of them to undertake to teach a boy anything outside of its special line of work. Then it was that it began to dawn upon the trade — employers and employees — that neither one nor the other was responsible for the condition, but that the old-time apprenticeship system has been very largely eliminated by reason of the changed industrial conditions. Naturally the union was the first to feel the effects of its ranks being filled with men who were one-eyed specialists, thru no fault of their own but as a result of an environment which they could not alter. All realized that it would be far better for the journeyman if he had a wider knowledge of the industry. After a protracted struggle in which the union spent upwards of $4,000,000, the eight-hour day was adopted in the trade. This gave to the members leisure for cultural development; and I may say here that those in favor of industrial education will be howling dervishes in a wilderness of indifference while the workers are compelled to labor long hours. The first step to a successful system of industrial education is leisure for the pro- spective student. The echoes of the eight-hour strike had not passed away before the typographical union had appointed a commission to "formulate some system for the technical education of our members and apprentices." That action was taken in August, 1907. In December of that year the com- mission was organized, and in March of the following year — just two years ago — it launched its course. The commission found it had a problem on its hands, for it had to devise some method of education which would be within the reach of every one of the nearly 50,000 members of the union. Some of these are employed in the most highly developed metropolitan offices, while others are found working in primitive shops in communities that are able to support only seven or eight printers. The establishment of schools equipped with printing-plants would be far too expensive, and such schools must per- force be in large printing-centers such as Chicago or New York. This would deprive union members in small towns of an opportunity to participate in the educational benefits. The commission also discovered that the tendency in typographical schools here and abroad was to educate along empirical lines. The instructors would say this piece of work is good or that bad and when asked for the reason had none to give other than that it was pleasing or displeasing to the personal taste of the teacher. This was very unsatis- Superintendence] TRADE UNIONS AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 269 factory, as there was no real basis for instruction. The commission discovered, however, that the Inland Printer Technical School had sent men to art schools for the purpose of studying design and color harmony and other art principles which were involved in display and decorative typography and that the instruc- tors at this school were teaching a handful of students the *'why" of good typography. Now it must be remembered that every compositor can set t)'pe, but the mere typesetter's days are over. Machines have rendered that a very precarious method of making a livelihood. On the other hand there is a constantly increasing demand for what is known in the trade as display or job men. Thousands and thousands of journeymen printers of today have had little or no opportunity to develop themselves in those branches. So general is this condition that there is creeping into the compositor's trade an adjunct known as the designer, who is usually a product of the art school. He takes the job, sketches the manner in which it is to be set, and covers it with instructions so minute that the compositor has little or no opportunity to exercise his ability. Of course, this mere following of instruction would lead to mental lethargy and the ultimate degradation of the trade to a low mechani- cal level. The commission felt that its mission was to meet this situation and to supply the wants which the printing-office did not fill. After investi- gation it was discovered that what was being taught in the Inland Printer school could be reduced to a correspondence course. This was agreed to on the basis that the school would provide the tuition and the union would bear all advertising and other promotional expenses, the course to be sold to students at about cost of tuition. In addition to these expenses the inter- national union gave a rebate of one-fifth of the cost to every student who pursued the course to the end with ordinary diligence and intelligence. This prize or rebate has been supplemented by many local unions in various ways. Some give another $5 ; others offer to co-operate with employers in securing the course for apprentices; and still others make a substantial reduction in initiation fees to apprentices who are students of the course. The cost of the course is $23 for cash or $25 if paid in installments of $1 a week. As there are thirty-seven lessons and the student learns by doing, you can readily see that this is education at cost. As a matter of fact, were it not for the expenditure by the union, the course on a commercial basis could not be sold for less than $50 or $60. We teach the student freehand lettering mainly for its cultural value, tho it has a great commercial value for the printer of the future. The display or decorative compositor is an artist and his work is good or bad in so far as it adheres to or departs from the principles of design. And here it is that the course of the International Typographical Union differs from other printers' educational efforts at home or abroad. It teaches the principles of design as they can be applied to the compositor's business. He is then in a position to defend his work. If a customer objects he can say and prove that it is properly balanced, in proportion, and correct as to tone-harmony. 270 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis Heretofore color has been regarded in the trade as a matter of personal taste. We raise it from that level and teach it scientifically and in such a manner that when the student is thru with the group of lessons treating of this subject he has made for himself a color-chart which is an absolute authority on the contrasts and harmonies of color. In these groups of lessons we teach prin- ciples, and the student is learning why his work is good or bad and why he should do some things and avoid doing other things. The method is far superior to that of instruction by textbooks for the reason that we took out of art courses those things on design and color-harmony which the printer wants to know. The lessons and instruction are prepared by printers. The result of this is that a very capable printer — a gentleman sixty years of age — who became a student of our course said that he learned more of value to him as a printer from our lessons than he has ever been able to acquire in exhaustive study of textbooks on color and attendance at many lectures. That he was no sluggard as a student is evidenced by the fact that he learned two foreign languages in order to be able to read up in the original. The reason for this experience is that when he read textbooks and attended lectures the writers and lecturers were concerned about upholding or demolishing some theory of color and passed up as belonging to kindergarten classes those elemental things which the printer ought to know. Our course, having been prepared by printers for printers, does not make that mistake. Quite recently Professor Sargent, of the University of Chicago, dropped in on the Commission and looked over its work. He was asked if with his knowledge of art and his standing as a pedagog he could do much more for our students than our instructors were doing. He made this significant reply: "No indeed! I could not do better for the reason that I am not a printer." This is an impor- tant feature of trade education and emphasizes the reason why organized labor should be consulted in the development of any system. It is strong presumptive evidence — if not conclusive evidence — that unless the worker himself has to do with the instruction the curriculum will not be at all satis- factory. In the groups of lessons treating of lettering, design, and color-harmony, the printer is learning the principles that govern in his work. Having acquired these principles he is on an equal footing with the designer, and in addition to the principles he has what we might call typographic sense. The result is a better product more cheaply produced. We have had numerous illus- trations of that. As a rule the designer does not comprehend the limitations and difl&culties the compositor has to contend with. Before the job has proceeded very far modifications of the original design are found to be neces- sary. Then there is the lack of harmony between the designer and the man who executes the work. The International Typographical Union course equips the compositor for the work of the designer, and as a natural consequence there is complete understanding, sympathy, and harmony from the begin- ning of the job to the end of it, because the designer and compositor are one Superintendence] TRADE UNIONS AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 271 and the same person. Of course there are many other lessons in the course of a technical nature which I have not the time to detail. The method pur- sued in inculcating this knowledge has been said by adequate authority to be about the best in use. The student is required to send in a copy of his work, be it lettering, balancing measures in design, the selection of colors for jobs, or the designing of various kinds of job work. This is taken by the instructor, gone over very carefully with a differently colored pencil, pointing out the defects in the student's work. While the instructor is doing this he is talking into a phonograph record, explaining his views and giving such information as it is thought the student needs. The talk — and we find it better with all its crudities of expression than a more polished and stilted letter — is then transcribed on the typewriter and returned to the student along with his lesson. This gives him the advantage of a blackboard illustration and oral instruction. Really the value of the course does not lie so much in the printed lessons as in the instruction given in this way. We also require our students to criticize work, compelling them to answer many questions, largely on the theory that one does not know a thing until he has told it to some person else. The attitude of trade unionists toward education may be gauged by the success of this effort. Among economists who pay particular attention to labor matters, the Typographical Union is regarded as the typical American union. What it has done in the past other organizations have followed, and doubtless its efforts in the educational arena may be taken as a presage of the general trend among trade unionists. The course is not quite two years old and fifteen hundred students have been enrolled, notwithstanding the intense prejudice in the printing business against correspondence-school methods. Other unions who come in close contact with compositors have been watching this effort and we find that every one of them has within the last year appointed a committee to develop systems of education for the benefit of its members. To say that unions are opposed to trade education in the face of such a showing can hardly be called anything else than misrepresenta- tion. True, we may be accused of being somewhat backward in handling this subject, but it must be remembered that American public opinion is somewhat backward also if we compare its status with that of Europe or Australia. The natural resources of this country have relieved the people of the necessity of establishing industrial education, but now the matter is up there is every reason to believe that the American trade unionists look on it in much the same light as their fellows elsewhere. In Germany, France, Great Britain, and Australia they did not combat industrial education. They did, however, oppose meretricious forms and, in many instances, successfully. So it will be here. So far I have spoken generally on the subject and directed attention to some actual work which would seem to be first-class evidence of good faith. If you ask me for a definition of organized labor's position toward industrial 272 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis education at present I cannot do better than refer you to the action of the last convention of the American Federation of Labor which was held at Toronto, in November, 1909. It recommended a continuance in the progressive development of supplemental trade education such as is undertaken by the International Typographical Union and some other organizations, and in connection with that course it stated: Educators, as well as others of wide experience, believe that, for the adaptation to an end, this school has no equal. It also marks a new era in education, and one of its chief assets, other than the education of its students, is that public and private interests are emu- lating its example. It is worthy of mention, however, that large sums of money are annually expended by trade unions for education, thru the channels of official journals, and in some instances its members are being trained for the teaching profession; and the preparation of text-books is another undertaking. And the committee further recommended that all trade unions which have not adopted a system of technical education give the matter the consideration it so richly deserves; and we further believe that the present undertakings of the unions call for the most enthusiastic admiration, and are entitled to the most cordial and loyal support. On the question of supplemental technical education, by which is meant the teaching of the underlying principles of trades to those working as appren- tices, the Federation says: The demand for such instruction is measured by the necessity for training in particular trades and industries, and the chief aim of such instruction should be to present those principles of arts and sciences which bear upon the trades and industries, either directly or indirectly. The economic need and value of technical training is not to be disregarded, and cog- nizance should be taken of the fact that throughout the civilized world evening and part- time day technical schools enroll twenty pupils to every one who attends the other types of vocational schools. And the committee submits for consideration and discussion to the convention the proposition that there be established, at public expense, technical schools for the purpose of giving supplemental education to those who have entered the trades as apprentices. You, as public-school men, will be more largely interested in what the Federation terms "technical industrial education," concerning which it makes this pronouncement: We favor the establishment of schools in connection with the public-school system, at which pupils between the ages of fourteen and sixteen may be taught the principles of the trades, not necessarily in separate buildings, but in separate schools adapted to this particu- lar education, and by competent and trained teachers. The course of instruction in such a school should be English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, elementary mechanics, and drawing, the shop instruction for particular trades and for each trade represented, the drawing, mathematics, mechanics, physical, and biological science applicable to the trade, the history of that trade and a sound system of economics including and emphasizing the philosophy of collective bargaining. This will serve to prepare a pupil for more advanced subjects, and, in addition, to disclose his capacity for a specific vocation. In order to keep such schools in close touch with the trades there should be local advisory boards, including representatives of the industries, employer and organized labor. Any technical education of the workers in trade and industry being a public necessity, it should not be a private but a public function, conducted by the public and the expense involved at public expense. Superintendence] TRADE UNIONS AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 273 Organized labor's position in a general way on the educational problem is officially expressed in these terms: Organized labor's position regarding the injustices of narrow and prescribed training in selected trades, by both private and public instruction, and the flooding of the labor market with half-trained mechanics for the purposes of exploitation, is perfectly tenable, and the well-founded belief in the viciousness of such practices, and consequent condemna- tion, is well-nigh unassailable. Organized labor's record for years in regard to better sanitary conditions in factories and workshops, and its continued efforts toward safeguarding women and minors, have been the subject of wide discussion and much helpful legislation. Its advocacy of free schools, free textbooks, and the raising of compulsory school age have been religiously adhered to, and closely allied to these subjects is that of industrial education, and any serious discussion of the proper kind of vocational training promotes discussion of the former. There is a strong reaction coming in general methods of education, and that growing feeling, which is gaining rapidly in strength, that the human element must be recognized, and cannot be so disregarded as to make the future workers mere automatic machines. Experience has shown that manual-training-school teachers without actual trade experience do not and cannot successfully solve this great problem, and that progress will necessarily be slow, as new teachers must be provided, a new set of textbooks will have to be written, and the subjects taught in a sympathetic and systematic manner. In the last analysis, it is of greater moment to those engaged in industry whether this question should be discussed freely and fairly than it is to mere theorists, who advocate industrial education without having any definite plan or purpose (other than a selfish one), in their advocacy of the same, and it is believed that a unification rather than a multiplica- tion of effort is needed in order to help solve this immense problem. It is believed that the future welfare of America largely depends on the industrial training of our workers and on protecting them. If the American workman is to maintain the high standard of efficiency, the boys and girls of the country must have an opportunity to acquire educated hands and brains, such as may enable them to earn a living in a self-selected vocation and acquire an intelligent understanding of the duties of good citizenship. No better investment can be made by taxpayers than to give every youth an opportunity to secm-e such an education. Such an opportunity is not now within the reach of the great majority of the children of the wage-workers. The present system is inadequate and unsatisfactory. Only a small fraction of the children who enter the lower grades continue thru the grades until they complete the high-school course. The reasons which seem to be the prime causes for withdrawal are, first, a lack of interest on the part of the pupils, and secondly, on the part of the parents, and a dissatisfaction that the schools do not offer instruction of a more practical character. The pupils become tired of the work they have in hand and see nothing more inviting in the grades ahead. They are conscious of powers, passions, and tastes which the school does not recognize. They long to grasp things with their own hands and test the strength of materials and the magnitude of forces. Owing to past methods and influences, false views and absurd notions possess the minds of too many of our youths, which cause them to shun work at the trades and to seek the office or store as much more genteel and fitting. This silly notion has been shaken by the healthy influence of unions, and will be entirely eradicated if industrial training becomes a part of our school system, and in consequence of this system of training the pupil will advance greatly in general intelligence, as well as in technical skill and in mental and moral worth, he will be a better citizen and a better man, and will be more valuable to society and to the country. 274 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis DISCUSSION George H. Whitcher, superintendent of schools, Berlin, N.H. — There is a large degree of indefiniteness surrounding the terms "manual training," "mechanic-arts train- ing," "industrial training," and "vocational training," and while I have no license to define these terms for others I have the right to define them for the purposes of this paper in order that certain conclusions may be viewed in relation to the premises upon which they are based. MANUAL TRAINING For reasons purely psychological, manual training is a pre-adolescent adjustment — part of the series of accessory co-ordinations dealing with the finer muscles of arm and wrist, hand and fingers. Tools are used as means whereby this neuromuscular adjustment is effected. The method is non-scientific. As well might we attempt to formulate rules for the guidance of babies learning to walk as to lay down scientific principles governing arm and hand movements in whittling, sawing, planing, etc. The problem of manual and mechanic-arts training, as it presents itself to the public school, is primarily an educational and not a vocational problem, and most emphatically its chief end is not making of carpenters, machinists, blacksmiths, or other artisans, but rather its function to serve as a part of the many educative agencies employed in making efficient men and women. It is a grave mistake to suppose, as some do, that the public school ought to train narrowly in the direction of any vocation, or to assume that industrial education means trade schools, and it is even worse to argue that the "man side" of a boy's development is jeopardized by an education that provides opportunity for establishing an effective co-ordination of mind and hand, a theory advocated in a recent book, which, if carried to its logical conclusion, must result in an aristocracy of learning as set over and against a proletariat of labor. The objection to the vocational point of view is chiefly psychological; no one will deny that an adult becomes more efficient by working in a cotton mill, but what is good in the case of the adult is absolutely fatal to the welfare of the child. Again, the requirements in that case of vocational training are unpedagogical and necessarily so. The apprentice must by much repetition secure great accuracy of result, but successive repetitions result in less and less exercise of the higher brain centers until a time comes when the movements are almost without thought, that is, automatic, and the worker guides the machine with little interest, his mind wandering here and there with a minimum of attention while his hand, habituated to a few movements, might almost be said to act independently of the higher centers; all this is fatal to educational effectiveness. The teacher in the public school must never forget that "skill is developed thru repetition until the process is performed accurately and rapidly with little mental effort, beyond that involved in initiating the motor activity demanded by the process." For this reason skill is not an end to be striven for in manual and mechanic-arts train- ing in the public schools. Instead of making, say a dozen penholders, paper-knives, cold chisels, etc., aiming to come closer and closer to the one mental image, the pupil should construct a dozen different models, each requiring a new mental image, thus keeping the higher brain centers active and reflex control subordinate. These things are fundamental in the public school because with children we are primarily concerned with superimposing a higher order of brain centers upon a lower, therefore the higher centers must be used, not suppressed. To the boy of eighteen whose intellectual powers are well established, the learning of a trade, with the accompanying relegation of motor control to the reflex mechanism, is not seriously detrimental, altho even at this age it would be better, if possible, to work toward the educational rather than the vocational ideal, but to the lad of twelve or fourteen any vocational scheme with its necessary accompaniment of supernormal exactness, of Superintendence] THE NECESSARY ONE-ROOM SCHOOL 275 endless repetition and the inevitable automatizing of movements is nothing less than crimi- nal since it must result in arrest of the higher human brain qualities. Any scheme looking toward the incorporation of trades schools in the public schools until the attendance age is raised to at least the age of eighteen years is a dangerous scheme. It seems strange that after fighting factories and shops for prematurely vocationalizing boys and girls we should now see so many signs of a tendency to turn our children over to these same factories and shops under the mistaken notion that they are better qualified to educate children than are the men and women who have devoted their lives to the teaching pro- fession. Either we were mistaken in taking the children out of the shops or we are making a mistake in putting them back again. Just at the present time we are approaching the danger-line in educational matters. Our friends, the college men of the ultra-cultural type, would divide society into two groups, "aristocracy of learning" and a common class of workers; for the former they would provide an education that just fits this mythical "man side" notion, while for the latter the call for bread is to be answered by providing the "solid rock" of vocational training. This, however, is not the worst of our troubles, for recently a new brand of educator has arisen who would establish three classes in society, a top crust of employers of labor, a bottom crust of ignorant workmen, and a filling of skilled strike-breakers narrowly educated at public expense in the public schools. These new educational leaders consist of general managers, vice-presidents, or presidents of great labor-employing corporations. Sometimes they admit that their interest is "purely a business matter," Of one thing they seem sure, namely, that they can educate our boys so that they will at least fit into their business better than they do now. It is prudent for us at this time to keep our education treasure-boxes locked. I remember the men who have opposed our present entirely inadequate fourteen-year attendance law and I know just what influence would line up against any movement look- ing toward increasing the limit to sixteen years where it ought to be. And I know that generically it is these same men who are most solicitous as to the kind of education that shall be given to our boys. I am therefore "suspicious of the Greeks" even when they tell us specifically just how and what the public schools ought to do to educate boys. ROUND TABLES ROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS TOPIC: THE COUNTRY CHILD I. THE NECESSARY ONE-ROOM SCHOOL HOW^ARD A. GASS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, CITY OF JEFFERSON, MO. I am an advocate of consolidated schools whenever and wherever it is possible to establish and maintain them. So far as my information goes, consolidated schools have met with universal approval. They offer opportunities that cannot be enjoyed by the students of the one-room school. They are growing in popularity and rapidly increasing in numbers. In my own state (Missouri), where we now have not to exceed twenty con- solidated districts, I hope to see within the next two years not fewer than two hundred. But when all such schools have been established that conditions will warrant, there will still remain a large number, in fact, the larger number, of schools that must be taught in the one-room schoolhouse. Until recent years the one-room school was the only school known in rural communities. The country people in times past have been taught in such schools. A majority of country schools will continue to be taught in one-room buildings. Certain physical conditions in 276 . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis many rural communities make any other kind of school impossible. Impassable streams, bad roads, mountainous districts, sparse population make the one-room school necessary, in fact, the only school possible for com. unities so situated. Schoolhouses, whether one- room or more, should be situated so that every child may have an opportunity to secure at least the fundamentals of an education. It must be remembered that some of the best schools in rural communities are the one-room schools. Every school, wherever located, should give the child a chance to so develop and train his powers as to make the best use of his opportunities in his life-work. The one-room school should give the child a thoro understanding of the fundamentals of an education. The essentials should be taught, and well taught, and this can be done by a good teacher in a one-room school as well as in a school of larger proportions. It is more necessary, probably, to have an expert teacher in the one-room school than to have such a teacher in a graded school. The teacher in the isolated districts must teach, and teach well, all of the subjects that the pupils of the school are capable of studying. The best and wisest management is that which secures for the one-room school the best teaching talent that a liberal community can provide and gives the pupils as many months of school and as careful instruction as can be had in the larger centers. The essentials should be so well taught as to enable the children of such communi- ties to make their way in life should they not have opportunity to secure training in higher schools. //. THE CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS ROBERT J. ALEY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. No movement for the betterment of the country schools has attracted more attention than the one looking toward the consolidation and concentration of such schools. The fundamental notion back of this movement is the recognition of the need for equal oppor- tunity to all children. That all children should have an equal opportunity to come into possession of the common knowledge of the race is a well-recognized principle in our govern- ment. That they do not have this equal opportunity is seen by anyone who takes the trouble to visit a one-room country school and a grade building in a good city system. Consoli- dation furnishes to the country "child the advantage of the best graded school without the distractions incident to city life. In a consolidated school where the teacher has control of one or at the most of but two grades it is a much easier matter to secure a good teacher with professional training than it is in a one-room country school. This is true because the teacher feels that with a nar- rower field of work it is possible to do much better and to grow faster in the profession. The economy of the consolidated school makes it possible to have longer terms than the same revenue would provide without consolidation. The longer term attracts the better teacher. In a consolidated school it is possible to have a competent man in charge who is able intelligently to supervise and to direct the work of all the teachers. The result of this is better and more uniform teaching, as well as the prevention of many failures. The great- est difficulty in the one-room school is its utter independence from other schools and the lack of central supervision over its work. In the consolidated school all the best things practiced in any city system may be used. The consolidated school, with its better teaching and longer term, interests the pupils to such an extent that a much larger number of them go on into the high-school work. Per- haps nothing has done so much to build up the high schools of this state as the consolidation of the rural schools. In fact, nearly all consolidated schools now maintain two-, three-, or four -year high-school courses. In the consolidated school it is possible to have drawing, music, manual training, and domestic science. Some of the very best work in these subjects is being done in the rural high schools. The whole curriculum can be enlarged and made to fit the needs of the community. Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL WORK: IN THE ONE-ROOM SCHOOL 277 The teachers in these schools, because their work is limited to one or two grades, have the time and the opportunity to give much individual attention to the children. By ^^^ doing this the number of pupils who grow discouraged and quit, or fail and drop out, is ^^Bt very greatly reduced. Indeed, it often happens that this individual attention results in ^^^Bthe discovery of latent powers. Frequently those who were supposed to be very dull, ^^■[ because of the stimulus of individual care, become the leaders in their classes. ^^^B- One of the greatest factors in favor of the consolidated school is that it enlarges the ^^H neighborhood. Instead of the old district unit of four square miles, it give the larger unit ^^^Bof twenty or thirty square miles. By means of this larger unit, the petty jealousies and I^^Hnarrow prejudices of the old smaller unit are broken down. All the children of this larger l^^^unit become acquainted and thus enlarge their horizon. The school itself becomes a social ^^B center where meetings for the promotion of all sorts of common interests are held and where ^^^plendid lecture courses are frequently maintained. ^^B There are some serious objections offered to consolidation. Some of these are real ^^Band others are merely sentimental. Where the country is rough, streams numerous and ^^■•'cliflBcult to cross, and the roads poor, consolidation of larger areas is not possible. In such ^^■regions it may be practical to combine only two or three districts into a consolidated school ^^f with two teachers. As one looks back he is likely to enlarge the virtues of things that he knew as a child. There are those who oppose consolidated schools because in their memories the little red schoolhouse looms up as a great institution. Because it was good enough to meet the con- ditions of their childhood they argue that it is sufficient for the children of today. This objection will be overcome in time by the death of the objectors. While waiting for this to occur the education of the people to an appreciation of the greater benefits of consolida- tion will do much to overcome such sentimental objections. In some cases the consolidated unit has been made so large that the children are com- pelled to remain too long in the transporting wagons. This objection, of course, can be met by reducing the size of the unit of consolidation. It sometimes happens that the drivers are not competent. It may be that they are unable to maintain the proper discipline or it may be that they are too careful of their horses to make proper speed. These objections are easily met by procuring good drivers. To obtain consolidation two things are necessary. The people themselves, or a con- siderable number of them, must believe in the value of the system. There must be laws regulating the matter, either making it permissive or requiring it under certain conditions. These laws need not be long nor complicated. They should provide for the building of the houses and the paying of the drivers. The experience of Indiana in the consolidation of schools has been satisfactory. Of course, here and there objections have arisen. In most cases the objections center about things easily remedied. In most of the consolidated units the people are highly pleased and could not be induced to return to the old one-room idea. ///. INDUSTRIAL WORK: IN THE ONE-ROOM SCHOOL, ITS KIND AND SCOPE C. E. BYRD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SHREVEPORT, LA, In treating this subject, we shall confine ourselves to the rural school the patronage of which comes from the farm. The term "industrial work" we shall interpret to include not only manual training in the usual sense but all kinds of work bearing on farm life for all of the grades, for both sexes, indoors and in the field, and its influence on the life-work of the pupil. The problem of the rural school, like the poor, is always with us. No branch of public education has received more persistent, thoughtful, and scientific investigation and con- 278 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis sideration than has the rural school. It has been prominent on the program of every educational convention and conference held in this country for the last twenty years. It is a fruitful theme of the current magazines and w^riters on educational matters. It is up annually in state legislatures and the national Congress. It was a popular text frequently selected by our late strenuous president in his public utterances. The subject is of vital importance to the welfare of the people individually and to the nation as a whole. And yet the problem is still unsolved. The status of the rural school is still unsettled; its functions still undefined, or, if defined, still unfulfilled. There is a prevalent belief that the rural school is not fulfilling its highest function, as is evidenced by the condition of the farm and the farmer, by the constant migration from the farm to the city, and by the lack of thrift, happiness, and harmony among the people of the country. The old red schoolhouse, which served its purpose in a way, has had its day and is gradually disappearing. In a degenerate form, it is still found in the sparsely populated districts of the country. As population increases and transportation facilities improve, consolidated schools are being established. These are demonstrating the advantage of co-operation, render possible more concentrated work by teacher and pupil, and tend to break down the barriers of prejudice engendered and fostered by isolation, and are proving forceful factors in creat- ing social harmony and centers of community interest. Courses of study for rural schools are now planned to meet the needs of country life. The bent of the training is toward, and not from, the farm. The old standards of instruc- tion are being enriched by the study of good literature, nature study, elementary agriculture, and industrial work which have a bearing upon country life. Industrial work is the last to receive consideration, due no doubt to prejudice, to the lack of revenue, and competent teachers. Before any subject should become a part of the work of the country schools, it should be subjected to the following tests: (i) Is it scientific ? (2) Has it disciplinary value, both mental and physical ? (3) Is there a need for it ? (4) Will it contribute to the development of the pupil and the ^velfare of the community ? Industrial work in the country schools has already demonstrated that it measures up to the above tests and more. It will supply a desideratum long felt by making the work of the pupil more real, by furnishing a training more practical, and by rendering the instruction more dynamic and hence more permanent. We are coming slowly to recognize the necessity of scientifically using the motor activities of the pupil and to realize that all instruction and training in which the pupil does not act out methodically and systematically impressions received, or thoughts engendered, are barren. The country child on entering school is a bundle of curiosity and energy. His being is fresh and plastic. He is quick to receive impressions and ready to respond to the sug- gestions of his teacher. He craves satisfaction for his curiosity and is eager to expend the energy of which he has an overflowing supply. The following are some of the purposes to be kept in view in providing industrial work for the pupils: 1. To rob work of its drudgery. To give industrial intelligence — "The power to see beyond the task which occupies the hand for the moment to the operations which have preceded and to those which will follow it, power to take in the whole process, knowledge of materials, ideas of cost, ideas of organization, business sense, and a conscience which recognizes obligations." 2. To give normal direction to innate activity. 3. To make clear to the pupils the industrial side of our work-a-day existence. 4. To afi'ord a change from the daily routine and strenuous application to books, and rational means of using pent-up physical energy. 5. To contribute to physical development and thus promote health. 6. To establish definite standards and by work on concrete objects prevent deception on the part of the pupil. I Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL WORK: IN THE ONE-ROOM SCHOOL 279 7. To produce dexterity and deftness of execution. 8. To make other subjects of curriculum more real and definite. ' 9. To create true ideals and a power to realize them. 10. To engender a discontent with the disorder, lack of sanitation, discomforts, and inconveniences now so often found about the average country home. 11. To lay the foundation of the life-work. The modern consolidated country school provides an artistic, well-planned building and ample grounds for play, shade trees, flowers, and a school garden. It provides com- fortable transportation for pupils living too far away to walk to school. It should provide industrial work, suited to all the grades and rooms for teaching both boys and girls those subjects which pertain to either sex. The work for the boys of the grammar grades should consist of the construction of simple objects found on the farm or in the home; the study of materials both vegetable, animal, and mineral with which the country boys have to deal and out of which they are to earn their living. They should be taught the use, care, and the essential principles of tools. They should be taught first to plan, second to select the material, and then to con- struct those things which are of use on the farm and in the home. The interest in the object to be made will of necessity create a desire to be skillful in the use of tools. The boy who can, by the suggestion of his instructor, design and make a gate, tho a model, will not be satisfied when he comes to work on a farm with dilapidated bars. The boy who can design and construct a tower, windmill, and pump that will draw water from a pail, will not be content to use a rope and bucket when he comes to operate a farm. The study of the design, adaptation, material, and construction of farm tools, imple- ments, and machinery should be included in the course. The making of simple, useful, and artistic pieces of furniture for the home both by boys and girls will create good taste and tend to make the home comfortable, convenient, and aesthetic. The boys should be taught the food values of the farm products both for man and ani- mals, they should be taught the nature of soil and plant foods, the cultivation of the crop, the parasites and enemies of plants and animals, and in the school garden make practical tests. They should be taught all phases of dairying and poultry raising, the rotation of crops, the fertilization of the land and its cultivation. They should be taught in a concrete way the influence of sunshine and moisture on plant and animal life and soils. They should be taught the drainage of land; how and when to plow; how to gather their crops; how to grade and select the materials for sale; and last, but not least, how to calculate the yield and accurately estimate the profits. The girls should be taught how to weave and sew; how to select material so as to get the maximum of value for the money and labor expended; how to design a dress and har- monize its decoration and colors; how to trim their hats to satisfy good taste and to come within their revenue. They should be taught the scientific values of foods, their prepara- tion and serving. They should, by practical demonstrations, learn how to can and preserve their fruits, care for their dairy products, and how, from the abundance of the farm, to pro- vide not only plenty but properly cooked and tastefully served food for the table. They should be taught the necessity of sanitation about the home, and led to look beyond the thing to the thought that animates its being. The obstacles to the accomplishment of these desired ends is the lack of revenue, a proper appreciation on the part of the people, and, too, the meager supply of teachers capable and prepared to put them into successful execution. I believe that it is feasible and will be an accomplished fact, first, in the consolidated schools and finally in the one-room school. The industrial work to be accomplished in the one-room school will of necessity be limited on account of the inability of the teacher, the want of time and space and the supply of equipment and material. Simple work, well designed for the individual pupils in their seats, will accomplish some good. The 28o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis school garden will be the only laboratory available and should be emphasized. The work to be done should be fully outlined by the school authorities charged with the administra- tion and supervision of the school so as to have the work systematically pursued and some uniformity maintained. In the brief time allotted me, it is impossible to go into details. What I have said is merely suggestive, and will, I hope, furnish the basis of presenting the subject fully before the conference. I am sure that there are those present who are ready to offer suggestions that will be helpful to the speedy introduction into the schools of this important work in which we, as superintendents, and the people of the nation are profoundly interested. IV. TEACHERS FOR THE COUNTRY SCHOOL: KIND WANTED: HOW TO SECURE THEM L. J. ALLEMAN, STATE INSTITUTE CONDUCTOR, BATON ROUGE, LA. We have in the following vigorous language of Theodore Roosevelt, the whole problem of country life, and consequently the problem of the country school, in a nutshell: I warn my countrymen that the great recent progress in city life is not a full measure of our civilization; for our civilization rests at bottom on the wholesomeness, the attrac- tiveness, and the prosperity of life in the country. The men and women on the farms stand for what is fundamentally best and most needed in our American life. Upon the development of country life rests ultimately our ability, by methods of farming requiring the highest intelligence, to continue to feed and clothe the hungry nations; to supply the city with fresh blood, clean bodies, and clear brains that can endure the terrific strain of modern life; we need the development of men in the open country, who will be in the future, as they have been in the past, the stay and strength of the nation in time of war, and its guiding and controlling spirit in time of peace. This is the greatest question before the American people today, and the country- school teacher must be an important factor in its solution. While the city school has to a certain extent kept pace with the progress of the city, the country school has been in a stage of "arrested development" during the past years and is just about to emerge from this condition. According to the Country Life Commission: In every part of the United States there seems to be one mind, on the part of those capable of judging, on the necessity of redirecting the rural school. Everywhere there is a demand that education have a relation to living, that schools should express the daily life, and that in rural districts they should educate by means of agriculture and country- life subjects. - The kind of teacher needed for the country school is one who can do the sort of teach- ing indicated above. The charge that the country school has no point of contact with coun- try life, is in the main true; but we cannot hope to articulate the country school with life, to arouse it from its present stage of arrested development, or to redirect the efforts of the rural school until we are in a position to place in our country schools a higher type of teacher; and we shall never have this higher type of teacher until we provide means of training her. But in order to do this, there are certain other things which must be brought to pass. In any school a successful teacher must have three essential qualifications: (i) a wholesome personality; (2) a goodly supply of information and culture; (3) skill in the art of teaching; but the successful teacher in the country school in order to teach by means of agriculture and country-life subjects, must have all of the above qualifications and, in addition, specific training to teach these specific subjects. While it must be admitted that little can be attempted in a one-room country school in industrial subjects and that it is dangerous to attempt such subjects in schools of this type, or any other, with teachers unprepared to teach the subjects, we must have, even in the one-room school all over the land, teachers who can teach effectively the common- Superintendence] TEACHERS FOR THE COUNTRY SCHOOL 281 school branches and, at the same time and along with this teaching, arouse an interest and enthusiasm in the problems of home and farm life. It is this sort of intellectual process which is needed to relieve the manual labor of the country from its semblance of drudgery; but teaching of this kind is of the highest type and will need the highest type of training, and the services must be paid for accordingly. How then are we to secure this type of teacher ? There are many obstacles that impede the progress of the country school. Three of the most important are: (i) lack of public sentiment in favor of improving the country school; (2) the need of sufficient professional supervision; (3) the small school. Because these affect and modify the other numerous hindrances in a vital way, they should be removed first. It would be a waste of money ind effort, for example, to provide a training school for counties where public sentiment lermitted paying the teacher $25 per month for a term of four of five months. So above and beyond the question of how to secure teachers for the country schools \ the larger problem of how to create a demand for the kind of teacher wanted. Not only \ there no demand for the kind of teacher and teaching described, but there is positive bjection to the introduction of industrial subjects into the schools. On this subject the Country Life Commission believes that "the most necessary bing now to be done for public education in terms of country life is to arouse all the people 3 the necessity of such education, to co-ordinate the forces that are beginning to operate, nd to project the work beyond the school for youth into continuation schools for adults." Few persons familiar with country life will question the wisdom of the conclusions quoted above. The problem, then, of securing the kind of teacher wanted for the country school is the problem of removing the obstacles that have hindered the employment of such teachers and that have impeded the development of the country school; any other attempt at solution would be superficial and futile. Who should inspire and lead the campaign for higher ideals in country communities, for better supervision and n ore of it, and for consolidated schools ? It is manifestly the duty of the state superintendent to lead and direct such a campaign. Like Horace Mann, he should go about in the state arousing the people to the necessity for the new education, for more supervision in country schools, and for consolidated rural schools. In states where provision for sufficient county supervision has not already been made, the first care of the state superintendent should be to influence legislation in favor of laws providing for the election of professional superintendents who should give their entire time to supervising the schools of the county. The question of efficient county supervision is very important in considering the improvement of the country school, and ought to be one of the first considerations; it is impossible to conceive of much improvement without such supervision. The efforts of the state superintendent reinforced by those of county superintendent devoting his entire time to his schools would arouse public sentiment and would eventually lead to the establishment of one or two consolidated schools. These schools could immedi- ately introduce agriculture, domestic science, or such other industrial subjects as would best meet the needs of the community; it could keep open a full session, employ a sufficient I number of teachers for the year at a year's wages ;_ and in one stroke the question of 1 securing competent teachers, of relating the school to the life of the community and the question of supervision, would be nearly, if not quite, solved. Each consolidated school would serve as an object-lesson for the surrounding country; and in time the condition of the country school, even where consolidation is not practicable, would be materially improved. Here is how the problem has worked out in Louisiana: in 1903 the first consolidated school was established; in 1907 there were 103. In 1908, a law was enacted requiring professional qualifications of the parish superintendent; and in 1909 there were 629 con- solidated schools involving the elimination of 1,939 one-room schools. In addition eight agricultural high schools were established in accordance with the requirements of the state course of study; and the salary of teachers for the entire state increased, in five years, $15 282 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis per month. The state is now ready to take up a vigorous campaign for consolidation, and we expect great improvement in the rural schools within the next few years. In my opinion, the best means of securing the teacher wanted for the rural schools are: (i) arouse public sentiment; (2) provide professional supervision; and (3) consolidate country schools. These are fundamental problems and until they are satisfactorily solved there cannot be hope for much progress in securing the kind of teacher wanted for the country school. DISCUSSION Henry R. Pattengill, editor of Moderator-Topics, Lansing, Mich. — In Michigan we have been trying two plans for the improvement of country one-room schools and teach- ers. First, a system of traveling institutes. The county supervisor, together with an institute worker, travels during a week or two among the country districts of the county. They visit the country schools of each township, making short calls with a view to ascer- taining the condition of the schoolhouse and grounds, the general spirit and work of the school, to sing with the pupils, question them upon their studies, give them an inspirational talk, usually stopping not longer than one-half hour in a school. The forenoon of each day is usually occupied in this way; sometimes the afternoon also. Frequently, however, in the fall of the year and winter when the country people have most leisure, general rallies or meetings are held in the afternoon and the evening in town halls, country churches, grange halls, or other convenient and commodious places. Here the teachers, pupils, and patrons of the adjacent districts assemble and sing together old folk and war songs, and an educational address is made by the institute instructor. In this address he seeks to give the proper idea of the value of an education; the necessity of good teachers. He urges the decoration of schoolhouses and their proper equipment, regularity and punctual- ity in attendance, the dignity of labor, and the inestimable value of the comfort and happi- ness of a country home. People are commended for equipping their schoolhouses with libraries and other necessary conveniences and for the neatness and tidiness with which they maintain their school. They are as freely criticized for any lack or negligence in these matters. The purpose of this is to create a better school sentiment among the people. The institutes are very popular but the work is rather difficult for the instructor. In some counties these institutes are combined with the farmers' institutes. Often the institute worker travels one hundred and fifty miles by carriage, visits fifteen or twenty rural schools, and makes twenty or twenty-five addresses during a single week. The second means for improving the schools has especial reference to the teachers. Michigan has four most excellent state-normal schools, each of which has a large attend- ance and special courses given for the preparation of rural teachers. Yet few professionally trained teachers have found their way to the one-room rural school. Several years ago the plan was established of creating what is known as county normal-training schools. Forty-two of Michigan's counties now are blessed with this means for training teachers to work in the country schools. The county board of supervisors votes to appropriate one thousand dollars toward the maintenance of such school. The city in which the school . is located and the state contribute another thousand dollars. Two teachers are selected to do the regular work of such school. These teachers are country-bred or else have had experience in country-school teaching and have gone on to normal schools or universities to complete their academic and professional training. The pupils for these schools are selected by the Board of Education, consisting of the county-school commissioner, the superintendent of the city schools, and the state superintendent of public instruction. Usually these pupils have completed a course in some high school before entering this training school. Such pupils spend a year under the direct supervision of these competent, sympathetic, and skillful teachers. Common branches are reviewed, history of education and the study of pedagogy constitute part of the course, while the musical director, drawing teacher, or other special teachers of the city school trains the pupils in their respective I Superintendence] TEACHERS FOR THE COUNTRY SCHOOL 283 branches. These normal pupils virtually live with these teachers during the day in the schoolroom. The inspiration of their teachers is manifest in the daily life of these pupils. The rooms of the city schools in the various grades are used as training schools for these embryo teachers. There under expert supervision they are taught to teach, and after a certain period of inspection they are given charge of a room and required to teach the classes in that grade. They are given expert assistance in the preparation of educational busy-work and in many of these schools manual arts and domestic science are a part of the curriculum. Nearly eight hundred such pupils are now in the training schools of the state and will be graduated next June to begin teaching in country schools next fall. Several thousand of these training-school teachers are at work in the country schools in Michigan. In fact, the superintendent of public instruction reports that 37 per cent, of our rural teachers now have professional instruction. One can tell immediately upon visiting the schools of these teachers that they have had professional training. Time and energy of pupils are conserved, these teachers know what to do first and what to do next and just how to do it. The school officers and people appreciate the work of county-normal teachers, seek them, and pay them better wages than other beginners or those who have not had long and successful experience. We thus seek to show to the people the difference between skilled teachers and unskilled teachers and the public does not seem slow to appreciate the difiference. Richard Park, county superintendent of schools, Sullivan, Ind. — We are all con- vinced of the advantages of consolidated schools, and many such schools are already in operation in Indiana, but the problem of the single-room district school is still with us, and will be for many years. The question now is how to improve the condition of the single-room rural schoolhouse. Experience leads me to express the opinion that the example of a single model district schoolhouse and school furnishes the best agency for improvement. Other districts quickly catch the spirit of improvement and recognize the advantages of the improved conditions. These improvements should be directed to correct the leading deficiencies of the rural school in the various particulars of lighting, heating, ventilation, decoration, and the supply of the necessary facilities for health and comfort in school work. The playground should be ample, with good drainage, well supplied with trees and shrubs, and in other ways made attractive. The very best teachers should be placed in this model school, whose influence and success would incite the surrounding communities to secure better teachers, and be willing to pay better salaries. The system of interschool visitation may be made helpful in order that the excellences of each may incite to the improvement of all. George H. Black, president, Lewiston State Normal School, Lewiston, Idaho. — In addition to the instrumentalities already referred to in the discussion, Idaho has inaugurated a definite movement for rural high schools which schools provide for vocational education adapted to rural communities. This movement promises to increase the high-school population sevenfold within the next two or three years. Excellent results were attained thru the establishment of county institutes for school trustees, and thru the normal exten- sion work which provides for sending out field instructors in domestic arts and rural sciences, whose duty it is to demonstrate and direct such work in rural districts. W. S. PiCKEN, principal of the Western State Normal School, Hays, Kans. — I am glad ;nat the preceding speaker has dwelt upon the helpfulness of the model district school as an agency to uplift the rural schools. Our normal school has maintained such a model for the past three years. We have required a half-year's observation of an expert rural teacher's work by all of our beginning students — the young men and women who are going out to teach their first rural school. We have already noted a gain to the Jural schools in 284 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis our vicinity. The beginners who have so observed the model school enter upon their terms with clearly defined ideals of a good one-teacher rural school. Thus far we have carried on our work in a typical rectangular boxlike room. The state architect of Kansas has recently, however, given his best time and thought to the preparation of plans and specifications for the best possible reasonable priced one-teacher schoolhouse,and contracts for its erection are to be let this month. I am convinced that one of the most helpful agencies possible for the uplift of rural schools would be a model district school maintained in every community. No better expenditure of public funds could be made than that needed to carry out such a plan. ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF LARGER CITIES ART AS A NECESSARY FACTOR IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION WALTER SARGENT SUPERVISOR OF ART AND MANUAL TRAINING, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. If industrial education is to be of the greatest service socially and commercially it must not be narrowed into lines which tend merely to immediate increase of commercial output of the ordinary quality, nor to a mechanically specialized skill, but must also pro- vide the worker with a wide basis of knowledge and interests regarding industries. The study of art is an important factor in broadening the influence of industrial education and rendering it of more value to the worker and to the quality of his product. This paper purposes to discuss the relation of art to industrial education and to present some suggestions as to what phases of art instruction should enter into industrial education. The present attitude of industry toward art is somewhat unfortunate. The idea that art is not closely related to what is practical is altogether too common. For example, an advertiser will sometimes say, "Business is of more importance to me than art; my adver- tisement must accomplish its purpose rather than be artistic." He does not realize that the arrangement of his subject-matter, the relation of the margins to the printing, and the skillful spacing of prominent words are elements of practical business value as well as of aesthetics. Another hindrance to attempts to make the study of art more general for indus- trial workers is the popular fallacy that appreciation of art is possible only for a few, and that showy, commonplace designs will always be desired and preferred by the general public. Art and industry were once intimately associated. The artist was also a craftsman, and the craftsman was an artist. Michelangelo was not only a great painter and sculp- tor, but an architect also, and his painting and sculpture were integral parts of a structure. Because of its divorce from industry, art has suffered thru becoming detached and super- ficial, and industries have suffered thru becoming commonplace and ugly. A recognition of the commercial value of the artistic quality of industrial products is of fundamental importance in discussing this matter. In the long run people will choose among equally useful things those which are most beautiful. The object that fulfills only its utilitarian purpose cannot compete ultimately with the object which in addition to being useful is also beautiful. This is a truth which a new civilization is slow to learn, but which becomes increasingly evident as civilization progresses. For this reason a knowledge of art is not only desirable from a cultural point of view but is also an industrial necessity. It should not be a diflScult matter to plan a course in art which shall be of directly practical value to Industrie^. Unfortunately the principles of art have been formulated abstractly, and students often find it difficult to apply them in concrete instances. The following suggestions are offered as to subjects which may form a practical basis for a course in art as related to industries. A mastery of plain explanatory drawing. — Ability to sketch rapidly furnishes a means I I Superintendence] ART IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 285 of description and experimentation and a stimulus to invention. The workman who can take his pencil and indicate possible forms of arrangement of the material with which he is working is able to experiment with various shapes and decide in advance upon the best final form of his object. The builder can sketch different angles for the gable of a roof to find out which will look best, or can try different proportions for pieces of furniture or other constructive projects. Experimentation by means of sketching gives reality and momentum to an idea and is one of the greatest stimuli to invention. The power to draw also develops ability to read drawings made by others and is thus of value for those who work from plans. This ability is essential to the success of the workman. Freehand drawing should be well taught in elementary schools. Unfortu- nately much of the public-school drawing is thoughtless and slipshod. Children in the upper grades can explain theories of perspective and foreshortening, but when given a simple test, such as having an object placed before them and being asked to show with a rapid pencil sketch how it looks, they are often unable to do so. Instructors often refrain from, teaching careful, correct drawing of objects for fear the results will become mechani- cal. They prefer to develop the aesthetic sense by allowing children to modify the actual appearance before them. This defeats the end in view for the best preparation for shaping things as they might be, is ability to represent them as they are. There is need of more careful training to draw truly and to represent facts. This is the best basis for later aesthe- tic appreciation, as well as being the most valuable industrial phase of drawing. Children in public schools should be taught to express their ideas rapidly and well by means of free- hand drawing. A course in art as part of industrial education should also give practice along the follow- ing lines: A thorough study 0} the evolution of design in particular crafts. For example, in printing, furniture-making, pottery, manufacture of utensils, etc., students should know what has been produced in the past, the stages by which the products have arrived at their present form, and the examples which in the history of each craft have been prized as best. Thus the student is furnished with a historical background for judging industrial designs. He gains a realization of the great amount of thought and effort which has been expended upon even the common industrial products in order to bring them to their present forms. He should be taught to use the art museum as the literary student uses the library. Museums in turn should be provided as fully as possible with collections of articles or photo- graphs which shall furnish to the various industries abundant reference material. A practical working knowledge 0} the principles 0} design. A product is artistically excellent when it satisfies the aesthetic sense. This sense is an increasingly important factor in determining the choice of the purchasing public. If we ask on what these satisfactions are based we find that they depend upon the following elements: a) Utility, which implies the perfect adaptation of the material to its purpose. This is the fundamental element in artistic satisfaction. No amount of decoration or ornamental treatment of expensive n aterial can compensate for lack of utility. Closely allied to this is the satisfaction in fine craftsmanship. Delight in a piece of work excellently made is an aesthetic satisfaction. In addition to skillful technique, fine craftsmanship implies the appropriate treatment of the material— such treatment as is suggested by the nature of the material itself. 6) Beauty. Any training in good design must consider the possibility of beauty in the essential parts of the object before any decoration is added. One element in delight in constructed objects lies in consistently related, well-chosen proportions, and in refine- ment of outline. The chief beauty in the appearance of a house, for example, consists in the proportions and in the spacing of walls, windows, and doors. No amount of orna- ment can compensate for mistakes in the disposition of these necessary elements. The relative proportions of the parts of a chair and refinement of outline in the necessary struc- tural parts determine whether its design is excellent or not. 286 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis The student must learn to discriminate between good and bad proportions. He must also be able to utilize to the full the possibilities of beauty in the material employed before proceeding to decoration. The first element of beauty in the surface of wood is obtained by so treating it as to bring out the beauty of the grain itself. For this reason any- thing which violates the natural quality of the wood, as does pyrography, for example, is in questionable taste. The more important possibilities for beauty in constructed objects lie in this careful planning of outlines and proportions of necessary parts without regard to ornamentation. Taste degenerates when profuse and showy decoration hides poor construction and takes the place of the beauty possible from good proportions. After the possibilities ofi'ered by the structural elements have been exhausted the next consideration in design is that of suitable decoration. Appropriate ornament always echoes or emphasizes the structure or relates to or symbolizes the purpose of the object. The ornamentation of a vase should follow and echo the curves of the surface, or divide the general form pleasingly, but should not present a competitive interest. For example, if an Indian's head is realistically painted upon a vase there is a clash of artistic interests. An Indian's head is a suitable subject for the painter, and a vase is a suitable subject for the designer, but the two have no relation and are therefore in bad taste, however excellently the head may be painted, unless it is so conventionalized as to fit the form. It does not enforce or make more important the idea of the vase, but adds an extraneous interest. The vase should rely chiefly upon the possibilities of its own form. The subject of decora- tion includes also the use of appropriate and harmonious color. It is hard to overestimate the probable influence of a knowledge of art upon American industries. The coming of good design into our industries tends to retain and to distribute in this country the large sum now sent abroad for designs and designers. It is the function of an industrial nation to convert its raw material into its most perfect and valuable forms at the hands of its own workmen, thereby raising the quality of the industry and increasing the interest of the workman in his work. Art instruction at present is somewhat dis- organized and seldom allied in the most eff'ective way with industrial advancement. There is need of an industrial art school which shall take one American industry after another and explore it for artistic possibilities, which shall take the products and compare them with the best that have been produced in the past and with the finest examples from other countries, and which shall discuss them to see how they may be made more useful and more beautiful. ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF SMALLER CITIES 7. THE PURPOSE AND CONTENT OF THE ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, TREASURER, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, PASADENA, CAL. The paper was given under three general heads: 1. An effective curriculum must meet a real demand. 2. The significance of training for eflaciency. 3. The discovery of fundamental elements thru the sifting process and the necessity for repeated application of the principles involved. A digest of parts i and 2 follows: The present age is one of educational cataloging. Rules rather than reasons are emphasized. Chronological order and quantity of material should count for less than ability to know where to go for information when a demand is created for it or than a knowl- edge of how to study. The school trains toward dependency and away from self-reliance and leadership. There are, however, efficient schools springing up and regardless of the grade or the type of such school they recognize that education to be effective must meet a demand. Superintendence] THE ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM 287 Improvement in the industrial and commercial world means energy properly directed and results closely scanned. In order to develop an education that shall make for efficiency, as keen a searchlight must be turned upon the school and its product as upon the machine and its product. As a human institution the present-day school is far and away the best the world has ever seen. But in many respects the school of the past was better adapted to its own time than is the school of today to the ideals of the times in which we live. To be efficient implies thoroness and thoroness means more adaptable and better-adjusted schools. We still cling to old courses and methods and systems; to conceptions and ideals that are outgrown, antiquated, moth-eaten; that are as foreign to the spirit of present- day civilization as would be the pony express, the scythe and cradle, the hand printing- press, or the tallow candle. Turning now to the content of the curriculum of the elementary school we find: 1 . So far as the present is concerned the school studies now in use, if properly devel- oped and presented, contain all the elements necessary to produce desired results. 2. As new stores of knowledge open to us or as new developments demand a modified form of treatment, a new phase of experience must be brought into the school. 3. A large portion of the several studies now in use in the elementary school may be entirely eliminated from the program; certain portions of subjects may be delivered over to the high school for its consideration; and more time must be devoted in the first eight grades to the fundamentals and to drill upon those particular principles, facts, and forces needed by the rank and file, whatever sphere in society the individual may fill and whatever post or position he may occupy in the material world. So far as present courses of study are concerned, the program must be readjusted. The schedule may be concentrated under the following general heads: 1. Physical Training. 2. Oral and Written Expression — Reading, Language, Literature. 3. History. 4. The Industrial Arts. 5. Geography and Nature Study. 6. Music. 7. Mathematics. And while not included as a special branch of instruction, the laying of a sound moral foundation, the building of character, is to constitute the beginning and the end of every 'lesson in every subject; and unless such moral foundation result, the curriculum and the I teaching alike are ineffective. 1. Physical training must include health studies and care of the body. It is not enough [that 90 per cent, of the students sit on the bleachers and cheer while the 10 per cent, per- fform. Free play and exercise for all is necessary, and in so far as possible this exercise , should be carried on in the open air, either on the field or in the outdoor gymnasium. We must emphasize the value of proper sitting, standing, walking, breathing; of pure air iand water; of the necessity for properly lighted and well-ventilated rooms. Instruction [should include an understanding of the value of simple, wholesome, well-cooked food; [of proper dress; of temperance and regularity in all our daily habits. How to care for yourselves and for others in emergency or accident are matters of the utmost importance. Cleanliness of mind and body, and strength of muscle and character go hand in hand. lAnd everywhere and always the most effective teaching is done thru practice and example. ; The significance of good health and strong bodies must be recognized by the teacher, and I for her teaching to be effective she must live the truths she seeks to inculcate. 2. Acceptable speech, legible writing, clear-cut written expression, never have been and never can be secured by giving attention to language study or English for one period a day only, and by ignoring it elsewhere thruout the school. In order that students may ap- preciate the significance of good English, they must be drilled in it constantly in all school studies, thus making its use automatic and part of the daily life. The best language teach- ing possible in the grades is that obtained thru the medium of history or arithmetic or other study. In other words every teacher must be a teacher of English as well as of morals. 288 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis Technical grammar, as such, has no place in the elementary school, first, because technical grammar cannot be studied understandingly by grade children, and second, because a knowledge of technical grammar, per se, will not make a master of English, or produce a mind capable of appreciating the literary masterpiece. There is nothing in the argument that since the tools of language must first be had, these are obtained thru a study of technical grammar. Attention must not be focused upon wrong or improper forms, but upon the perfect and the acceptable. An appreciation of good literature must be inculcated. Do this, not thru the "dis- section" method, or by rewriting or "writing down" a classic to fit the immature mind. Concentrate upon strong, clear-cut masterpieces; give attention to exact, well-defined oral speech. Not only is repetition necessary and drill effective, but common errors must be taken up in the various school recitations, whenever they are found to occur. Demand fewer written papers, many of which are consigned to the waste-basket without reading, and secure results thru more frequent oral drills. A return to the oral reading of times past may seem heretical doctrine to preach, but if present methods produce boys and girls who read thoughtfully and with expression, I have been unfortunate in my observations. More attention should be given the study of originals in literature. A study of a sim- plified Hiawatha, for example, in the first or second grades; a consideration of a more complete version in the third or fourth, and the pupil, when he attains the age at which he should normally respond to the original and appreciate its real literary worth, is often too disgusted to ever again "look the poem in the face." The pupils in the grades must absolutely master a strong, virile form of expression. If this be not accomplished thru the medium of class instruction, they will surely take up the slang of the street and the playground. Cure the slang habit by giving it no place in the schoolroom. 3. In history, push "wars and rumors of war" into the background. Elevate the study of industrial development, social ideals, commercial significance, peace movements, strong character studies, moral heroism. Man's place and work in a growing democracy rather than^his prowess on the field of battle is the heart of real history study. The indus- trial arts, geography, and history so touch and overlap, that for elementary-school purposes they may be separated only for convenience' sake. The history stories of discovery, exploration, settlement, and invention are good. Biographical studies of strong, lofty characters are excellent. Industrial history and commercial geography unite in a study of the perfection of the steam vessel, of the marvels of transportation by land and water, of the development of labor-saving machines and inventions such as the printing-press, and sewing-machine, the combined harvester, the fountain pen, the typewriter, the cookstove, the swinging and traveling crane, the steam hammer, the milling machine, the electric flat-iron, and the thousand and one appliances so essential to the arts of peace. To arouse a deep interest in the dirigible balloon and flying-machine is of greater importance than to lead to an understanding of the construc- tion of a Monitor, a Dreadnaught, or a Maxim gun. The achievements of a Benjamin Franklin, a Robert Fulton, a John Roebling, a Thomas Edison, a Roentgen, a Pasteur, a Beethoven, a Saint-Gaudens, a Shakespeare, a Lincoln, are of vastly greater significance in the development of character and of the culture of the mind, than the memorizing of the causes of the Revolution, the order and time of state admissions to the Union, the presidential succession, or the dates and results of the battles of the War of the Rebellion. In history we must give large attention to the achievements of men who have accom- plished results such as to make for improved social, industrial, and moral conditions, and to advance the standards and ideals of a people. History study must bring out clearly the relation of effect to cause, and develop thought rather than tax memory. 4. As indicated, the industrial arts in the grades find their chief place in making clear the study of history and geography and in furnishing a natural avenue of expression for Superintendence] THE ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM 289 active minds and bodies. Beginning in the first and continuing thru the eighth school year, the meaning and growth of industries should have a prominent place. The study of primi- tive peoples, their manners, customs, mode of life, hunting and fishing exploits, travel, home-making — all thru the medium of the arts, may be understood and applied in such a way as to show how progress has been made. The occupations and industries of our people today: the fundamental principles of home-building, of bridge construction and engineering, of boat and car manufacture — these are to be included in a study of the industrial arts. Instead of joints, and stitches, and abstract exercises, attention must be given to real processes and to actual things. The life of the mechanic, the farmer, the miner, the builder, the engineer, the artist, the writer, the housewife, the bread-winner, are opened up to the student in school. The boy has a feeling for industrial situations, for the meaning and dignity of work, for social adjustments, for the application of scientific principles in the arts, for an appreciation of the beautiful that is of untold value to him. The girl gains contact with the household arts, the prepa- ration and serving of foods, comparative food values, adulterations, substitutes, com- positions, the economics of marketing, the art of preserving, of cooking for special purposes such as for invalids, the care of the home, furnishing the house, planning and arrangements of rooms, home-decoration, sanitary conditions; and thru this contact and this elemen- tary study, she will be made more efficient and better adapted to take her place in the world of life and action than could possibly be the case otherwise. 5. Thru contact with the most fundamental problems that have to do with our daily life, the study of geography and man's relation to the earth on which he lives may be made real and meaningful. Food, clothing, shelter, transportation — all are such important factors in man's welfare that their study is a ready introduction to the world of geography. Trace the raw food products thru the stages of soil preparation, planting, tending, harvest- ing, and the various processes of working over and manufacture, transportation, and the like. Consider from beginning to end the stages thru which our various articles of clothing pass from the raw material to the most intricate processes of manufacture. Study the growth of the abodes in which we now live thru the evolution of cliff, cave, hollow tree- trunk, cabin, to homes constructed of wood, or brick, of stone, of iron and steel, until the structures of today readily withstand the ravages of fire. View in detail the journey of these materials from the forest, the mine, the mill, the quarry, the kiln, as thru one process after another they find their way from distant lands to our own doors. These things are not studied as ends in themselves so much as means to ends. In no way can a knowledge of physical conditions be so well acquired as thru these channels. By taking up the study of wheat from the standpoint of food, or cotton in its relation to clothing, there is a constant working back to climate, soil, location, and all that enters into making of value a knowledge of physical, industrial, and commercial geography. Agriculture always has been and always will be the most important of human indus- tries, and upon it depend manufacture, commerce, wealth, life, happiness, and progress. The study of man's relation to his environment is easily made as interesting as a fairy story. The work of rivers and glaciers, of winds and tides and ocean currents, the cause of deserts, the significance of lakes and seas, of plains and mountains, of valleys and forests — all may be appreciated thru rational interpretation. Both boys and girls should visit, under careful guidance, the manufacturing plants, the art galleries, and the museums, in the cities or in nearby villages. They should under- stand and witness the building of good roads, appreciate the significance of forest-conserva- tion and the husbandry of all our natural resources; visit the sources of water supply; study the work of the gas and electric plants and trace the evolution of illumination from the tallow dip to the arc light. They may take up the problem of street-cleaning and the disposing of sewage and garbage. They may interest themselves in the street car, the work of the civil officers, the mail service, the telephone and telegraph, the newspaper, the public institutions — asylums, homes for aged, unfortunate, or infirm — and the many facts 290 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis and forces that tie together geography, history, and good government, and make for perfected citizenship. Thru these and similar channels the student is led to see and appreciate his place in society. He acquires a fund of real geographical knowledge pertaining to his own and to other countries, that can, in his short life in the grades, be had in no other way. And of facts, locations, populations, climate, productions, industries, manners and customs, he secures a more intensive understanding, than should his entire time be devoted to the ordinary method of fact-gathering. 6. To say more than a word on the side of mathematics instruction is impossible. It is essential that in the elementary school the fundamentals be emphasized, and these are, first and foremost, the fundamental operations, commonly called addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The fundamental operations are used constantly in school and out, by men and women in all walks of life and of varied conditions and circumstances. To manipulate, easily and rapidly, problems involving these principles is an accomplish- ment few possess, and even the man schooled in the higher mathematics frequently finds himself sadly lacking in the practical arithmetic of which the fundamental operations are the foundation. In addition to constant practice in the above, ease and accuracy in manipulating problems involving common and mixed fractions, percentage, interest, square and cubic measure must be given much attention. So-called business arithmetic or business forms need to receive special emphasis. The arithmetic of business rather than the arithmetic of school must be taught. Repeated and varied work in the fundamentals, returning again and again to the principles governing practical problems, is the work necessary to be done in the grades. The teacher of arithmetic must use the textbook less and rely upon himself and his pupils to furnish much of the material to be studied. A most effective method is to request the pupils to bring from home such problems as the father and mother have constantly to solve. Then, too, the teacher should keep a note book in which are recorded the problems presenting themselves to the various men of his acquaintance. The builder and contractor must know the cost of excavating, of lumber, brick, hardware; must handle the problems of cubic measure in digging a basement, square measure in shingling a roof or plastering a room. The painter, the decorator, the plumber, the landscape gardener — each must possess an intensive knowledge of a real mathematics. The real-estate dealer, the farmer, the bank clerk, the grocer, the tinsmith, the drug- gist, the sewer contractor, the mechanic, the street-car conductor — these and all others have a daily need for a knowledge of business arithmetic. In the early years the pupils should be taught to handle, easily and rapidly, concrete problems in the fundamental operations and simple fractions; in the upper grades the pupils must understand common business forms and papers, the elements of accounts and the general arithmetic of commerce. This means drill in the lines suggested with scant consideration in these grades of the bulk of the arithmetic as now taught. The oral or mental arithmetic of an earlier day may be called into play. The catch problem, however, must be displayed by the problem of recognized everyday importance. All of this points to the necessity of teaching, in the elementary school, the things that are usable. It means thoroness, with such a grasp of a few things as to make possible further intensive study later. It indicates that the elementary is a preparatory school, not merely for the school next above, but for real life. It points the necessity for training indi- vidual powers. It indicates the value of jormational over simply informational work. DISCUSSION F. E. DoWNES, superintendent of schools, Harrisburg, Pa. — Every day's teaching in the elementary school should be inspired primarily by the child's needs, the needs of Superintendence] THE ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM 291 society, and the needs of the times, and not by the desire to prepare pupils for entrance to the high school; and the course of study, fundamentally, should be subordinated to these ends in teaching. The public has a right to expect in every pupil who completes the elementary curriculum: (i) a reasonable habit of accuracy, (2) the habit of industry, or spirit of work, (3) considerable power of concentration, (4) a fair measure of discrimination or ability to distinguish the essential from the non-essential, (5) systematization in effort, and (6) a healthy, growing sense of honor. These are basal requisites, and the content of the ordinary school curriculum is simply the medium thru which they are to be developed. They represent fundamental purposes in our educational effort, and are the true intellec- tual and ethical ends to be secured. That there are other important ends — more patent, possibly, than these — will be admitted; but that there are purposes more fundamental will be conceded by no one. Inasmuch as only a comparatively small proportion of the pupils of our public schools ever reach the high school, it follows that the elementary curriculum must concern itself with the future of the large majority, as well as with that of high-school embryos. Any course of study in the elementary school that has no aim other than high-school prepara- tion is in need of a new viewpoint and an immediate readjustment, for it is not constructed in the interest of the masses who are paying the cost. The business of the elementary school should be to give to every pupil who completes it a working capital — a tangible, usable, educational asset — whether he is going to take it with him into life thru the avenue of the high school and, perhaps, the college and university, or more directly and immediately into the actual work-a-day world. Our college friends tell us that a high-school course of study that will prepare best for college is the course of study that is best suited to the needs of everyday life. But we do not believe this, first, because it does not satisfy our reason, and, second, because it does not work out in practice. The high school, under its college tutelage, takes up the cry where the college drops it, and says to the elementary school, "Construct your courses of study to fit one-fifth or one-tenth of your pupils for the high school and you will then have builded for the life-interests of the remainder." And again our reason and experience compel us to question the soundness of the argument. "You may fool all of the people some of the time, and some of the people all of the time, but you cannot fool all of the people all of the time." The public has been long-suffering. It has waited patiently for proof. It has supinely submitted to a distorted educational sentiment until patience has ceased to be a virtue. It has witnessed the curtailment, by a full year, and in some instances two years, of the elementary curriculum. Whereas, formerly, a boy completed the grammar sthool and entered the stern battle of life, none too old, at the age of fifteen or sixteen, now he is forced to begin the work of life at the age of fourteen, in order to accommodate the small fraction of his schoolmates who must finish the high-school course at eighteen and that of the college at twenty-two. The public has consented in many places to tha intro- duction of algebra, in the grammar school, for the benefit of this same favored few. And if we may judge by the large sales of some of our publishers of English classics specially prepared for the elementary schools, the trend, even, of literatiure teaching is toward high- school, and, eventually, college preparation. Time prevents my carrying the argument farther. It is this condition more than any other, we believe, that accounts for this lack of adaptability, as suggested in the leading paper, and, incidentally, for the greatest storm of criticism that the public schools have ever known — this nurturing the few at the expense of the many. The schools have never done as good teaching, in their way, as they are doing today; but they have been aiming in the wrong direction. They have been supplying an education which eventually, after years of advanced training, would best equip a small minority for life, but have not been giving the most practical education to the vast majority. The point we have been attempting to bring out is that, in our elementary schools, life-conditions and life-needs should be the prime consideration, rather than high-school 292 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis conditions and high-school needs. The latter should be regarded as incidental. The high school should make it its business to take up the work where the elementary school lays it down and proceed with it along the same worthy lines. Assuming due provision for a few subjects purely cultural and conventional, the content of the elCi entary curricu- lum must look more than ever to the immediate interests of the great mass of pupils who are to make early use of it. The public demands this as it has never demanded it heretofore, and it is now insistent that its demands be met; so that it becomes merely a question as to how best to comply with these demands. Most subjects, if not all, of this revised cur- riculum will have to stand the test as weighed in the balance of practicability, or utility. Every subject, whether it is to function as habit or judgment, must prove its immediate or early worth. Algebra, for example, which functions both as habit and as judgment, will be discarded in the grammar grades, because, without a high-school and college course, it possesses no utility. The substitution of an elementary course in bookkeeping or men- suration, or, as has been suggested, purely business arithmetic, would be infinitely more practical than algebra, and both the direct and indirect benefits much greater. In Harris- burg we have been teaching bookkeeping in the grades for many years and the public would not have it otherwise. What does this mean ? It means that every pupil who completes the elementary course goes out into the world able to keep a single-entry account, either personal or for the corner grocery, with day-book, cash-book, and ledger. Mental arith- metic in many places, has become a lost art, as a distinct textbook study, and in our re- adjustment we would do well to restore this. Our boys and girls all need an appreciation of good literature; but they need first to know how to read intelligently and intelligibly, how to write a correct and legible letter, business or otherwise, and how to spell, more than they need to know Hiawatha, or The Deserted Village, or Dickens' Christinas Carol. Over- emphasis of the study of literary classics may become dangerous, if by it too little time and attention are given to actual practice. The acquiring of correct practice largely thru imitation is a slow and unsatisfactory process. Public speaking is another lost art. Within the memory of the youngest of us, I think, a Friday afternoon was not complete without a spelling-bee or declamation exercises. Now these are exceptions. Our new course of study must include these. Our boys must be taught the use of their hands and the dignity of labor, and our girls must be given lessons in household economy. We would not be misunderstood. We are not troubled with pessimism. We believe that our schools are better equipped, maintain better facilities, and supply better teaching than ever before. But we also agree with the leading paper in that in the natural process of evolution, for the most part for the better, we have made some vital mistakes. Culture and conventionality seem to have too far outweighed utility as standards. Now, manual training is in its ascendency; but while its high place in the education of today is a promis- ing sign, even it may not possess the highest possibilities, unless care is taken to see that proper relations and balances are maintained. In the curriculum of the future we must retain the best of the old and the best of the new. We have lost too much of the best of the old and accepted too much that is bad of the new. E. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich. — Thru the kindness of President Chamberlain, I had the opportunity of reading this paper some days ago. With the author's main contention I find myself in agreement. Indeed, the educational world today is in practical agreement with him, judging from the rapidity with which the changes advocated in the paper are being made in our schools. The purpose of the elementary-school curriculum is, according to the reader of the paper, adaptability to environment, efficiency to do things. To this statement I heartily subscribe, and I may remark, in passing, that this has always been the aim of the school. Education has always aimed to fit the student for his place in the world. The method of education and its content, however, have varied from epoch to epoch according to the ideals of the age. To Plato, reflection was the highest ideal and so Greek education led Superintendence] THE ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM 293 to intellectual training; in Rome the best school was the armed camp which prepared for battle and conquest; Luther set up the ideal of righteousness and his thought has affected the school curriculum ever since; today we seem to be in a great maelstrom of materialism, whose eddies are drawing down into it even our courses of study. I believe thoroly in the adaptation of the individual to his place in life, I believe thoroly in the adaptation of the school to the individual pupil. I believe in vocational schools, trade schools, apprentice schools, continuation schools, etc., as is evidenced by the fact that we opened a trade school in our city the fifth of January of the present year. While, therefore, I agree with the author's statement of the purpose of elementary education, I suggest the need of care, of caution, of forethought in changing our curriculum to make it agree with the content which \\e has suggested to us in his paper. There is just now a great danger of our thought and of our practice becoming materialistic. If proof of this were needed, the recent book of Mr. R. T. Crane, the wealthy manufacturer of Chicago, would furnish it. No more striking indication of the spirit of the times could be had than this book, in which the author dismisses with a word as entirely useless and worse than useless all schools and all education above the elementary grades. To Mr. Crane the almighty dollar, so called, is the only thing worth striving for, and I suggest that there is a danger of infusing this spirit into our schools, our teachers, and our courses of study if we insist upon the industrial core in every group of studies. In my judgment, the city of Chicago could find a more appropriate name for its west side technical high school than Crane. I suggest with all respect that there are more important things in this universe than dirigible balloons and flying-machines, not to say, however, that these are monitors, dreadnoughts, and Maxim guns. President Chamberlain has said, "The achievements of a Benjamin Franklin, a Robert Fulton, a John Roebling, a Thomas Edison, a Roentgen, a Pasteur, are of vastly greater significance in the development of character and of the cul- ture of the mind than the memorizing of the causes of the Revolution, the order and time of state admissions«to the Union, the presidential succession, or the dates and results of the battles of the War of the Rebellion." Yes, this is true, but this is an unfair comparison. To make good his point, the reader should have compared Franklin, Fulton, Roebling, and Edison with Washington, Perry, Grant, and Admiral Sampson. In such a comparison the heroes of the army and navy will not suffer by the side of heroes of peace. It will be a sad day for the idealism of the world when we try to forget in our teaching what the wars of progress have done for the world. I am not defending the arbitrament of the sword. I am only saying that, in the past, war has developed the world's greatest heroes and that we must not omit this from our courses of study. The spiritual, not the material, is the abiding verity of the universe. Our boys and girls should be so nurtured in their early years as to realize that the eternal things of existence are the unseen, not the seen. The industrial world, our natural resources, are the seen, they obtrude themselves upon us, especially in this age. In our desire to teach our boys and girls to do things with their hands, there is danger of forgetting that the best and truest and most enduring acts are wrought with the mind, not with the hand; that the unseen, not the seen, needs our deepest devotion. We shall soon reach, if we have not indeed already reached it, the point of over- emphasis on the material in our schools. The heart of our education, its foundation, is still to be found, I believe, in literature, in the wisdom of the ages, as it is recorded in books. The boys in the trade school should still be taught the world's great poems, stories, and legends. Success and happiness in life depend on a vocation, and it is the part of the public school to teach vocations, as a means of self -protection and self-preservation, but "with all thy getting, get understanding." A man's happiness in the world, and, therefore, his value as a citizen depend, ultimately, more upon how he spends his leisure hours than upon how he spends his working hours. It is, therefore, of fundamental importance that we teach the meaning of the progress of civilization in manners and morals. The paper we have listened to leaves the impression that the progress of industry and manufacture is the one essential in the study of history. 294 NAl^IONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis It is of fundamental importance that we give our students a love of the pure and true in literature as well as a knowledge of the development of labor-saving machinery. I shall not venture to a discussion of the author's detailed statements in regard to the content of the course of study. My general feeling I have already indicated. I believe sincerely in industrial education and the training of the hands, but I believe even more strongly in the education of the feelings and the training of the heart. It is because I think a warn- ing is timely in our rush toward industrial education that I have spoken as I have today. II. THE GRADING AND PROMOTION OF PUPILS CHARLES S. HARTWTLLL, SECRETARY OF JOINT COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION NEW YORK CITY TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS, BROOKLYN, N.Y. Five years ago this February, in one of my English classes were eighteen boys who had passed a grade of work but had been grouped with twelve others to whom that grade of work was entirely new. These eighteen were to repeat, simply because they had failed in two other subjects. Six of these pupils I had myself passed the week before, some of them with a good margin in percentages, and twelve had been passed by other teachers. It was the second semester of the first year and there was no excuse in lack of sections or time in the weekly program for not shunting these eighteen lads across the hall or to the next floor, to advance in the subject they had passed, except the idea of mass promotion, which pre- vailed at that time in the Boys' High School of Brooklyn, and in nearly every other high school in Greater New York. Confronted by the problem of entertaining for five months 60 per cent, of the class, who knew they had passed — in one case with 19 per cent, beyond the passing mark — while at the same time I must stick to the syllabus for the other 40 per cent., to whom the work was new and essential, and realizing that this condition was due solely to wrong ideas of administration, my sense of injustice was aroused. I wrote a severe criticism of this system of promotion, which President Butler printed in the Educational Review for September, 1905. Among the two hundred letters which this circulation brought me was one from President Eliot, who commended that portion of the article "Economy, in Education" which treated of promotion by subject. In this letter were these remarkable words: We have reaped now in the public-school system all the benefits of system and uni- formity, and it is high time to superinduce in the American schools the opposite benefits of flexibility and variety. Another passage in President Eliot's letter was this: The three fundamental things for the improvement of education up to the age of eight- een are (i) the extension downward of departmental teaching; (2) the earlier introduction of many subjects now reserved for the high school; and (3) the promotion or advancement of the individual pupil by subjects and not by the year or half-year. The greatest problem we have to solve in oxir great system [said Superintendent Max- well to the principals of Manhattan and the Bronx] is to reach the individual and to help the slow pupil. I may say [he continued] that we are on the verge of solving this problem, and by a method which will revolutionize the public-school system of this country. In referring to the above article in the Educational Review President Butler, the editor, wrote: "The agitation should be kept up both in New York and elsewhere until something is accomplished. I should think it perfectly possible and very desirable to adopt the point system in dealing with secondary-school pupils." On December 18, 1906, Associate Super- intendent Edward L. Stevens, in charge of all high schools in Greater New York, wrote: "The scheme of promoting by points will undoubtedly go thru this month. We have agreed upon a minimum of 150 points." By a point is meant, in New York City, one reci- tation a week for a half year. Promotion by points carries with it, of course, promotion by subjects. Superintendence] GRADING AND PROMOTION OF PUPILS 295 The most intense opposition to the change proposed came from the principals of the largest high schools, particularly those making a specialty of supplying young womjen to the training schools for teachers, but even in these conservative institutions the making of special or individual programs has since that time made some progress. The results of two questionnaires, sent out in 1906, showed that the entire country was ripe for the change proposed by President Eliot and proved that the worst abuses of mass promotion are confined to the largest cities. Every state but Nevada contributed. To the question: " Do you make a student who has failed in some of the work of the grade take all the work of the grade again ?" 206 superintendents, principals, and teachers said "Yes," but 357 said "No," or only 63 per cent.; 103 were willing to approve the New York City system, while 299 indorsed the changes agreed upon by the Board of Superintendents in January, 1906. But, in spite of a vigorous press agitation it took fifteen months to secure the adhesion of the high-school principals to this principle, and it was not until March 27, 1907, that the Board of Education of the city of New York adopted the rules under which promotion by subject or promotion by points is now enforced. Moreover, these rules are even now evaded in several of the high schools of Greater New York, and if a superintend- ent unannounced and unaccompanied should walk into some of the first- and second-year classrooms in high schools in New York City and ask the simple question, "How many pupils in this room are now taking over again some subject in which he or she has already , passed," or if he should inspect the permanent record-cards of some pupils, he would fir\d just such cases now, while the rule of the Board of Education that extra credit shall be given for superior work is practically ignored in certain high schools. ^ The formation of small annexes for first-year pupils or first-term pupils co^ibutes materially to this unfortunate condition of reaction. W The enthusiasm of Van Evrie Kilpatrick of P.S. No. 52, Manhattan, led in 1908 to the forming of a Joint Committee on School Organization with special reference to the grading and promotion of pupils in the elementary schools. Seven principals and three heads of departments, five from the City Teachers' Association and five from the Brooklyn Teachers' Association, have for a year and a half been struggling with this problem. A preliminary statement may be found at pp. 14-17 of the Brooklyn Teachers' Association Report for 1908-9, and a complete report is to be issued within a few months. At present writing 1,001 direct replies have been received to the twenty questions sent out by the joint committee. Hundreds of these have, besides the "Yes" or "No" answers, comments of various kinds. Scores of letters have been received from all parts of the country and material for a large volume would be easily available. Of the 1,001 replies received, 7 came from Porto Rico, Hawaii, Manila, Canada; the other 994 came from forty-eight states and territories. These replies are distributed as follows: 509 from the nine North Atlantic States, 45 from the nine South Atlantic States, 21 from the South Central Division with eight states, 296 from the North Central Division with twelve states, and 87 from the Western Division with ten states; the rest were indeterminate or blanks. Among the writers are 325 super- intendents of schools, 513 principals, 20 teachers, 25 college presidents and professors, 66 normal-school presidents and teachers and supervisors of training schools, and 21 more, including members of boards of education. In general terms, then, the .vote or tabulation is that of the experience and opinions of over 300 superintendents, 500 principals, and 100 teachers of teachers. Results based on so solid a foundation should be valuable as indicating the trend of the entire country. Omitting for present purposes all doubtful replies, the direct "Yes" and "No" answers to he questions, "Have you tried ?" and "Do you favor ?" the various plans of promotion outlined in this questionnaire, as taken from 965 cards received from fifty-two states, dependencies, and Canada, are as follows: 296 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis 13- Cambridge Plan Elizabeth Plan Pueblo Plan Batavia Plan Departmental Teaching Group Teaching Pre-academic School Extension Classes Special Classes for over-age or foreign-born children Ungraded Classes Promotion by Points Chicago Plan North Denver Plan Reports 965 965 965 965 965 965 965 965 965 965 965 96s 965 Tried 78 270 203 135 471 529 45 57 274 275 78 155 162 Not Tried 380 222 270 170 97 371 406 248 260 363 305 267 Favored 235 349 278 151 467 514 116 235 537 553 192 240 220 Not Favored 149 256 146 65 260 119 47 42 179 155 161 Percent- • age Who Favored 66 78 65 37 76 89 31 66 92 93 52 61 58 To the question, "Are you trying any other plan than those named above?" only 55 responded in the affirmative, or about one in twenty. In other words, the plans proposed in the questionnaire cover substantially the principal methods of promotion adopted in this country. "Do you believe it is feasible to place each child in that grade or subject in which he may work up to his fullest capacity ?" — 362 answer "Yes" and 165 say "No." This question is affirmed by 70 per cent. "Should pupils repeat work in which they have satisfactorily passed?" — 31 say "Yes, " but 642 say "No," many of them "Never." The vote against grade promotion, then, is fully 20 to i. It is simply impossible here and now to give names and opinions, however influential they may be. To select is to make invidious distinctions. I simply deal with the matter in the large. I note, however, that the country is progressing in opinion, in experience, and in determination toward more flexible methods. In 1906, to the question, "Do you favor the advancement by subject plan?" while 428 said "Yes," 113 said "No." Pro- motion by subject was directly opposed by 22 per cent, of the educators responding. Three years later, to practically the same question, and that aimed at the elementary instead of the secondary school, only 31 seem directly to oppose. One excuse for the maintenance of grade promotion is the tremendous power it gives the teachers over the pupils. When they know that failure beyond the minimum of periods of work means repetition of the entire term, pupils will struggle harder to avoid this ca- lamity. But what glory is there in passing nearly all members of a class at graduation when because of an inflexible system a large percentage of the pupils have spent from five to six years in completing a four-year course ? In the congested Brooklyn system, with its part-time classes, every term's work that is unnecessarily repeated in any high school is keeping another pupil in an annex of only one or two grades where he must pass all or repeat all. I have known a pupil sent back to an annex to take a grade the fourth time, because two subjects were not quite passed and there was no room in the main building. Those who would like a more detailed statement of the various systems of grading and promotion, on which the experience and opinions of educators have been invited by the Joint Committee on School Organization which I represent, I would like to refer to Education (Boston) for February, 19 10, pp. 381-83, where the subject is carefully treated by our chairman. Van Evrie Kilpatrick. Those who wish to learn the comments made by many distinguished men, either for or against any one of the plans discussed, I must refer to the forthcoming complete report of the committee. A monograph on each plan by an assigned member is in April to be placed in the hands of the chairman, who will Superintendence] GRADING AND PROMOTION OF PUPILS 297 sum up the findings and issue the complete report within a few months. By autumn this may be in the hands of those who have contributed to its value by sharing their experiences and convictions. Time permits me only a brief reference to Nos. 5, 7, and 11, on the recent question- naire of our committee, covering respectively departmental teaching, the pre-academic school, and promotion by points. Three years ago 324 favored departmental teaching in the seventh and eighth years, while 127 opposed it. Now, 467 favor it to 146 in opposition. The percentage of those who favor departmental teaching in these elementary grades has increased to over 76 per cent. The number who have tried it is 471, while 467 favor it, practically the same number, if not the same contributors. Of the 471 who have tried only 55 oppose departmental teaching. I am justified in saying, then, that departmental teaching in the seventh and eighth elementary years will not be dislodged and has come to stay. The vote on the organization of the seventh and eighth years as a separate school deserves consideration. While only 45 state that they have tried it, 116 or two and a half times as many favor it. There is, however, formidable opposition in the 260 negative votes. In this connection may I call attention to the Proceedings of the National Education Association for 1909, p. 502, where a smaller postal-card canvass reveals a majority in favor of "organizing the ninth year with the seventh and eighth years under departmental teach- ing and promotion by subjects as a junior or lower high school, especially in large cities." The six-and-six plan has made great strides since Dr. E. W. Lyttle, of Albany, read his paper at Asbury Park in 1905, as an examination of the Morrison and Lyttle reports in the National Education Association Proceedings for 1907 and 1908 will reveal. In my own judgment the seventh and eighth years are now the real battle-ground for improvement in courses of study and in school organization, and vital connection with the secondary system will help the masses of children in the closing years of compulsory education. "Promotion by points," says Mr. Kilpatrick, "is really the greatest thought in modern educational progress and is by its very nature the direct antithesis of any plan of organizing the educational course on a more or less fixed basis of years for each step." In Superin- tendent Seaver's report for 1901 we have an interesting statement of the Boston view. He says, "In the requirements for graduation, emphasis will be transferred from the ele- ment of time to the element of acquisition.^' "The goal set up for pupils now," he adds, "is the maintenance of a general average jor a given length 0} time: then the goal will be the mastery of particular studies. There can be no question which goal is the better worth striving for, nor any doubt as to the superiority, moral and intellectual, of the education resulting from a striving for the worthier goal." Not only in the day high schools, but also in the evening high schools in Boston, promotions are made by points. Did time permit I could quote reports and letters from Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Philadelphia, and so on, which would show that other systems besides New York's have suffered from the lock-step or penitentiary method of doing time in school. One Phila- delphia principal wrote me: "I hope that we shall be able to secure the adoption of a rule which will not require repetition of 76 per cent, of a year's work because 24 has been below the standard." Does not such a letter show that it is a real evil which we are combating ? The result of the inquiry by this special committee cannot yet be foretold. Letters showing an interest that insures action continue to come from distant states. Principal Charles Perrine, chairman of the School Problems Committee of the Brooklyn Teachers' Association, who has read all the cards and letters, has, at my request, made the following observations: I. Every principal should have a rule or a system under which it will be impossible for him not to know promptly of any pupil who is so far above the class that he needs to be put into the next higher grade or so far below the class that it is positively harmful to the class and to the pupil himself to remain in that grade. i 298 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis 2. Most cities need an improved system of record-cards by the use of which teachers and principals will take greater care in grading pupils according to their individual capacity and needs. 3. As one principal well puts it, "We are firing in the air as long as our classes contain fifty, sixty, or even more pupils." No class should exceed forty, and thirty would be desirable. 4. Every teacher should set aside at least a half-hour daily for helping individuals, a plan followed widely in Toronto and Milwaukee. One superintendent requires that two-fifths of the day be devoted to assisting individuals, particularly in directing them how to study. Where classes must contain fifty or more, this Brooklyn principal suggests that three-fovirths of the class, in lower grades, might profitably be dismissed a half-hour earlier at each session to permit the teacher to give attention to those who by reason of sickness or late entrance or less brilliancy cannot be promoted without individual help. The majority would still have all the time in school that Kansas City allows and all that many physicians approve. 5. No one administrative device is so widely recommended as the employment of an additional teacher whose chief business it is to afford special help in the essentials and in "methods 0} study '^ to pupils who have fallen behind because of sickness or slower mentality and to assist in rapid advance to a new grade without loss of essential topics especially bright or over -age children and those children from other schools who are hard to grade. Among the cities that recommend the individual teacher are Colorado Springs, Denver, Boulder, Wheeling, Brookline, Salem (Mass.), Minneapolis, Kalamazoo, Plainfield, and East Orange. The number of pupils whose promotion would be saved added to those who would complete the course in shorter time is an argument that would appeal to the taxpayer, especially if his boy was being saved. 6. Some courses of study while published as a minimum are in reality an impossible maximum for certain sections of the same city. Some superintendents recommend that the course be reduced to bare essentials which should then be rigidly demanded, while an enriched curriculum is provided for the brighter pupils, as in Carthage, Mo., which has slow and fast sections in both high and grammar schools. Others would provide for a fuller course for all, but permit its completion in a term or less by brighter sections, by a proper modification of the Cambridge plan so widely used. 7. Several Philadelphia principals and superintendents regret the loss to the pupils in the present plan of semi-annual over the former plan of promotions three terms a year. From many other widely scattered sections comes a plea for 24 or even 32 grades in an eight-year course without change of teachers each time. 8. But most important of all we must extend into the elementary schools the practice happily becoming more prevalent in the high schools, of promoting by subjects. It is said that small high schools in New York State have been able to make a program that accom- plishes this by having upper grammar grades taught departmentally with high-school pupils, and that many more pupils remain to get some high-school work or to graduate, because they nearly all earn promotion in some subject. Chief Inspector Wood says the program is possible because the school day is longer. If possible in smaller schools, it surely ought to be possible in larger schools. If special subjects interfere, those special subjects should be eliminated in special cases or deferred until after school. When teachers and principals once realize that there is a way to master the difficulties that have led to retardation, it will be found, as always, that the teachers are ready to make any personal sacrifice to advance those to whom they have dedicated their lives. In his response to our questionnaire. Secretary Irwin Shepard made a statement which deserves special thought. "The solution of many of these problems," writes Mr. Shepard, 'will be found in continuous sessions of schools, not meaning continuous attendance of Superintendence] GRADING.A'ND PROMOTION OF PUPILS 299 all, but continuous opportunities for attendance for those who can profitably attend con- tinuously, with corresponding opportunities for vacations at any time when needed and only when needed. It is all wrong to shut up school buildings for three months every year and enforce a vacation for that time on all. Under continuous sessions, promotions should be quarterly rather that yearly or each half-year. A child can take a vacation, then, any three months when he needs it, or can attend continuously if best. This will break up the seven or eight grades into 28 to 32 units." In his Eleventh Annual Report just issued, at pp. 106-9, Superintendent Maxwell gives interesting statistics regarding promotions in New York City and closes thus: "The most successful method, however, of accelerating promotions and the progress of pupils thru high schools would be the establishment of summer sessions." Four terms of twelve or eleven weeks each, six periods to the day, separated by not more than a fortnight's interval, and three terms of the same length of a two-period evening school amounting to a fifth term in the year, would not only be conducive to economy in any large city, but afford the very flexibility in promotions for which I plead, provided: 1. That each period, day or evening, shall have at least one class for each term's work in each subject offered, wherever prepared pupils enroll in sufficient numbers. On program-making see "Liberating the Lower Education" in School Review for June, 1907, pp. 449-52. 2. That when the pupils of any section are too few to warrant the formation of a class, each shall be permitted to take any other subject available within his powers successfully to pursue. 3. That pupils who fail by a narrow margin in any subject shall be permitted to take both the term to be repeated and the next term's work in that subject, in case they drop for that ])urpose their most advanced subject and then clearly and steadily maintain the standard in both grades of work. 4. That pupils who secure a specified high standing in a subject shall be permitted to take an additional term of advanced work when feasible and suitable. 5. That, whenever they form an excuse for an inflexible school program, minor sub- jects, or those occupying but one or two periods a week, shall be grouped in the same unit as regards time-allowance and credit-assignment or deferred to another term or altogether eliminated. 6. That inexperienced teachers or those who, knowing only the graded system, have a narrow outlook shall not be assigned to the important task of classifying children, unless teachers of wider vision and sympathy are unavailable. 7. That the accommodation of certain teachers and even the equalization of sections shall be subordinated to the fundamental principle of placing successive terms' work of any subject at the same periods in the program, so that each pupil above the sixth year, and especially while obliged to attend school, may advance according to his or her own proficiency in each subject. 8. That administration shall scientifically assign to each school the proportionate number of teachers in each subject for all pupils above the sixth year which the size and number of rooms renders necessary to carry on the work of the course in that school. 9. That whenever inflexible conditions have placed the child at a disadvantage, his right to a chance to progress shall have the right of way over difficulties. 10. That in all cases where it is really immaterial which term of a subject or which subject is taken first the distressed child shall have the benefit of the additional oppor- tunity for flexibility in order that he may either shorten the time or increase the power of his course. The principle involved in above recommendations is that system must yield to the child as we find him or her. We are to use every contrivance to facilitate individual prog- ress and not to block progress. Not only the geniuses are one-sided; many far from being 300 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis brilliant are one-sided. Flexibility gives each and all a chance to bring out the best in self and prepares for social service. "The Keynote of the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at Indianapolis," according to the Educational Review, "is the difference in children. There are differences in mental alertness, in moral responsibility, mental attitudes, tastes, and tendencies, in physical condition, in environment, and in vocational aim." Promotion by points or promotion by subjects recognizes these differences and gives the child, the home, and society the benefit of all the possibilities involved. DISCUSSION F. E. Converse, superintendent of schools, Beloit, Wis. — Mr. Hartwell and other New York teachers are rendering us valuable service by their systematic study of this prob- lem. It seems to me that we are practically all agreed on the importance of modifying our graded system so as to reach and help the individual. The problem is the how, or the plan for doing it in our smaller cities. In the typical accredited small city high schools of the Middle West, the promotion of pupils by subjects has been a settled practice for years, if not from the first, and, as an accompaniment, departmental teaching has been at least approximated in those high schools. But we have been as slow as the slowest in trying any modifications of the com- mon graded plan in our elementary schools. I suppose the explanation is, that it is a comparatively simple matter to organize and run a high school on the departmental and promotion-by-subject plan. It is not so simple and easy to apply the plan in the elementary school, chiefly because economy has required that elementary teachers handle classes of forty-five and fifty pupils, instead of half that number as assigned to high-school teachers. If for each room and teacher in our elemen- tary schools we could assign not more than twenty-five or thirty pupils, departmental teaching could be quite easily extended downward from the high school. But with con- stantly increasing population this seems out of the question except in the wealthiest com- munities. The vote on Mr. Hartwell's questionnaire seems to indicate a growing sentiment in favor of organizing the seventh- and eighth-grade pupils with the present high-school grades, thus affording opportunity for departmental teaching and promotion by subject. But the cost of room in our costly high-school buildings will always interfere in most cities with carrying out this six-year plan. It seems to me there is greater promise in the plan by which Grades 7, 8, and 9 are organized together as lower high schools, leaving only Grades 10, 11, and 12 in the high school proper with its more expensive laboratories and equipment. To adopt this three- and-three plan would provide school buildings nearer the homes of the pupils, and enable most small cities to build one or more moderate-priced buildings for the lower high school, with assembly room, gymnasium, shop, and kitchen, that would be in closer touch with the people than the larger six-year high school or even the present high school. Again let us remember that the greatest problem is the evils of mass teaching. Depart- mental teaching and promotion by subjects will not alone remove nor much lessen these evils. We all know that most of the evils of mass teaching still remain in our high schools in spite of departmental work and promotion by subjects. There the individual is not yet reached nor the slow pupil helped as he needs reaching and helping. It is only because of the survival of the fittest that the evils of mass teaching are any less in the high schools than in the lower grades. With reference to such special plans as the Cambridge, the Pueblo, the Batavia, the Elizabeth, the Chicago, the New York group plans, etc., the vote seems to me indecisive or uncertain. The strength of the common graded plan is its simplicity and economy. We have to remember that the machinery of the graded school must be retained and pre- Superintendence] GRADING AND PROMOTION OF PUPILS 301 served. Moreover, the evils of mass teaching cannot be eliminated by merely substituting one machine for another hovi^ever that machine may be modified from the old plan. It seems to me that they all would require closer supervision than the old plan to secure the results claimed. This is a point against them only because adequate, efficient supervision is now almost impossible in our smaller cities where the superintendent is either "the whole thing" or nothing, having little time for real supervision, and where principals of buildings teach most of the time. In other words, any approximately constant group plan, no matter how short the interval between groups, may be followed so as to be quite as inflexible as the old plan. Remember, it is mass teaching we are trying to supplement by some method of reaching and helping individual pupils. This aim will require the greatest possible flexibility of the grading and promotion plan. Herein lies the need of close supervision of the best kind: because the teacher needs the perspective of the principal to help determine the needs of individual pupils. The regular teacher is too close to her grade to have a good perspective. Further, she is apt to be over-conscientious about having her pupils thoroly prepared to pass into the next grade room. She is apt to fear the criticism of the next grade teacher about the unpre- paredness of her pupils. The best supervision for this purpose — of applying and carrying out any flexible plan of grading and promotion — could best be given by the principal of the building, whose whole time could profitably be given to the work of helping teachers to apply the course of study and to classify the pupils according to their needs. Of course this implies a school principal who is thoroly acquainted with the teaching-process, the course of study, and the pupils, yet far enough removed from each grade to have a good perspective of the whole school. There are undeniably strong points in favor of every one of the plans that have been named, and it now seems to me that, given strong teachers and a capable principal devoting most of his time to supervision, every school of ten, twelve, or more rooms could improve results and better reach the individual pupils by employing a combination of those plans — departmental teaching for the seventh and eighth years, with promotion by subjects; special and ungraded classes, if rooms and teachers are available; the constant and shifting group plans in lower grades; and then supplement the whole by setting aside on every teacher's daily program a certain time each day for individual teaching. Edwin J. Brown, superintendent of instruction, public schools, Dayton, Ohio. — I open my discussion with an acknowledgment of the valuable work done by Mr. Hartwell and his associates of the Brooklyn Teachers' Association. Their exhaustive investigation of the subject of "Grading and Promotion" has placed at the disposal of those interested, material so thoroly covering the entire matter that no superintendent can afford to be without it. Mr. Hartwell has brought to our attention, briefly but clearly, all the different plans of promotion in present use. He has given us data, showing the number of supporters and users of each system. Here lies a real danger, the attaching of undue importance to the numbers given, in the data submitted. Several years ago, the Batavia plan, now least favored of all suggested plans, would have had the largest number of supporters. It was but a milestone on the path of progress. So with other plans, which, in spite of the number of their supporters, must be considered mere guideposts on the road leading to the ideal system. It is not any one plan, but a wise combination of the best features of all plans, that will do our children the most good. "Differences in children" has been the keynote in every discussion of this meeting. The theme alone, if nothing had been said, would have shown the progress of our profession from too great a uniformity to a rational consideration of the claims of the individual. Children differ in many ways, in every way, perhaps, and someone must recognize and reconcile (for the good of each and for the good of all) these differences. That person 302 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis must be the teacher. In the attempt, therefore, to secure this best plan of grading and promotion, one element, the essential element, is the grade or class teacher. To reverently paraphrase, superintendents may plan, principals may work, but the teacher alone getteth the results of permanent benefit. Many a well-planned system of work has failed in the schoolroom because the teachers, while loyally supporting the school authorities, have been led to see so little of the under- lying principles, purposes, and details of the plans of the supervising force that they could not carry them out efficiently and successfully. Superintendents may blaze the trail, but it is the teachers who must make the path, build the pike, lay the rails, string the trolley-wires and (since flying-machines have been mentioned here and Dayton is the home of that invention) chart the atmosphere in this forward movement, in the grading and promotion of pupils. At every turn it is the teacher who appears as the important factor in this work. No superintendent who is not thoroughly in touch with his teachers, either personally or thru his supervising force, can hope to have any system of promotion other than a misfit, working excellently here with a sympathetic, capable teacher; failing miserably there, with a teacher out of touch with or mistaken in her understanding of his plans. The only point I wish to make, then, in this brief discussion, is that the teacher will play the important part in any plan. She holds the "marking pencil" in grading. Her opinion must, after all, be an essential part of every promotion. No plan, flexible in every other part, can be a success if the teacher is expected to follow it mechanically without thoroly understanding and appreciating all of its details. The superintendent must have the support of his teachers, not in a merely mechanical manner, but with an intelligent interest, that will make real success possible and permanent. The automatic telephone system is operated by the user turning a dial face to the proper number. Machinery makes the call. This device is advertised in such statements as " Our operators never lose their heads; they never lose their tempers. They have nerves of steel." It is the boast of our own Cash Register Company that its machines never make mistakes. Two perfect systems are here shown, but they are mechanical. We must remember, however, that our teachers do not have nerves of steel, that they, like us, may make mistakes, not so much in teaching the subject or in recording or adding the grades as in doing the work the automatic telephone and the cash register do not need to do — in making comparisons with the child's past progress, in drawing conclusions as to what is best for him in the coming months and years. Here is the superintendent's real work in promotions — to eliminate the mechanical and to put his teachers in clear-visioned, sympathetic touch with all the best plans and then to work out with these teachers plans which, taking into account the differences in children, will arouse in the teachers the determination to do the very best possible for each child, not only for the present, but for the future. This would mean not a city-wide plan, but often a different plan for each class. Would it not be wise to acquaint each teacher with all phases of the promotion problem, then give her the class and say, "Here are your boys and girls. They are beginning the fifth grade. You are to do, not for all of them, but for each of them, that which he most needs. If you discover some one whom you cannot touch vitally and eternally for good, let us know; some other personality may. If you find a pupil capable (before the end of the year) of doing more than the fifth-grade work, give him the chance. Here is a minimum course. Enrich it along lines most helpful to each child. These are your children for a year. Do not worry, do not hurry, but work, and remember that your work is eternal. You are a teacher charged with a great responsibility, but blessed, as are few with great opportunities in the life of each of these, your children." Children do dift'er, and in no other part of the school work do their differences play a more important part than in grading and promotion. Here are problems whose solutions Superintendence] GRADING AND PROMOTION OF PUPILS 303 are worthy of the best thought and highest endeavor of teachers, of principals, and of superintendents. H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111. — Evidently the adoption of a grading and promotion system which makes adequate provision for properly safe- guarding the welfare of each child in the matter of his assignment for work is an administra- tive problem. Most of the evils in our public schools may be shifted in part to the shoulders of the community, the teachers, or the board of education; but any shortage in the grading and promotion plan in a system must surely be mainly chargeable to the superintendent of schools. It is probable also that no other one thing which he does, after selecting his corps of teachers, is more far-reaching in its consequences than is the matter of instituting a wise system of grading and promoting pupils. The major portion of the paper opening this discussion is devoted to showing the advisability of promoting by points or subjects rather than by classes. With this position I am in hearty accord. I believe also that the credit system of promotion should be admin- istered more discriminatingly, if it is to stimulate the individual child as it should. To this end less credit than the hours of work actually carried should be granted for mere, bare passing grades in all cases in which the student is capable of doing a higher grade of work, and more credit than the hours of work actually carried should be granted, if it is of a superior, high character. Indeed, I was surprised to see that Mr. Hartwell found condi- tions existing in the public schools of the nation which seemed to require the discussion and support of this plan. It is easily possible in any grade or high school organized depart- mentally, and it is the only rational system to be used under such an organization. I regret that his data do not show the attitude and practice in reference to this system by states. It has been generally in use so long thruout the states here in the Middle West, that most of us had forgotten it is possible to do it otherwise. We are glad to aid New York to secure the adoption and use of the system, however, by giving it our public endorsement here. The fundamental theme of the paper, as of all the addresses of this session of the Department, is that the system of grading and promotion instituted must yield to the inter- ests of each child which it concerns. We cannot give this principle too strong sanction in the meeting of this round table. In the few minutes at my disposal, I desire to state briefly some provisions every system should make for the progressive and satisfactory advancement of its children thru the grades and high school. 1. In the first place provision should be made for this advancement to take place upon the basis of a flexible, adaptable course of study. This topic is not directly a part of our discussion but it is related to it in a very basic way, so I touch it merely to say that every course of study should provide: (i) a required minimum of work to be done by each child in each grade before he passes from the grade; (2) a more extensive amount of work which all pupils of average ability should be expected to complete satisfactorily; and (3) additional work which the "more gifted" pupils, borrowing superintendent Van Sickle's phrase, should be inspired to do, that their opportunities may be rich and profitable in proportion to their abilities. 2. The more flexible the machinery of the plan of advancement the more desirable it is so long asit is practicable and workable. Various plans have been devised whereby those gifted children may complete the required work in a minimum of time, the average children in a little longer period of time, and the slower children, who are not so defective or arrested as to constitute custodial institutional cases, in a little longer period of time. All of these plans, regardless of their details, seek to make it easy for a child to transfer from any class moving at a given rate of progress to a class moving at any other rate, whenever the evidence may indicate that such a transfer would probably be to the interest of the child concerned. Every school system may and should embody in its grading and promotion scheme some flexible plan. It may be the Cambridge plan or some modifica- 304 NA TIONA L ED UCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Indianapolis tion of it. The exact details matter little, provided the periods when transfers may be made smoothly and without loss are not too far apart. This flexibility should also be supplemented by arranging plans whereby small short- ages in the work of a grade may be made up by a child after he has gone into a more advanced grade. These shortages are unavoidable often, and yet the child's age and general ability clearly indicate he should go to a higher grade. He will be greatly stimulated by being in a grade with pupils of his age and social interests and attitudes. In all these cases the child should be advanced, if at all possible. The programs should then be planned so he may return to the lower grade to remove his shortages. We now have a number of cases in our schools which are being so handled. A child in the fourth grade, for example, is returning to the second grade for his number work, while another in the third grade is taking the phonic exercises and drills in both the lA and 2B grades. Of course, many of these cases are handled by the individual help which the regular teacher can give. Others are adequately met in crowded rooms by the assistant teachers. Still others are met by the private instruction and help of the unassigned teacher. In my own schools the last half -hour of the day is regularly used in aiding children needing special help. All children whose attendance, conduct, and work for the day have been exem- plary are excused at 3 : 30. All others, and standing special cases, remain for such help and conferences as their individual cases require. The method of treating these cases is a secondary matter, so long as it is simple, hygienic, economical, and effective. It is little short of criminal, however, not to find a remedy for all cases where advancement is reason- ably possible. In this connection we must not forget the importance of seeking to institute plans whereby success in his term's work is insured to every single child. Nothing succeeds like success. Nothing so certainly insures future success as a series of successes in one's history. Let us make failure impossible to all types of children to the degree that it lies within our power to do so. Some months ago, a large, overgrown sixth-grade boy, who was just entering early adolescence, was discovered in the room of a teacher who believed in the large results which follow from doing difiicult and distasteful things — a doctrine born of the old-time view of formal discipline. This manly fellow was a leader except in history. His uncommon ability seemed to fly out of the window when the preparation or recitation of the history lesson was undertaken. Accordingly, his teacher ceased to call upon him to recite in his other classes. She felt there was little need for him to recite in his other studies. He always had his lessons in these subjects. So, she proceeded to call upon him without fail in history and he was seldom known not to fail. The boy's confident, courageous manner changed to one of doubt and hesitancy, and he began to do poorly in whatever he did. The teacher was urged to accept the doctrine that nothing stimulates to other successes quite so effectively as a series of successes. She reluctantly tried the theory and began calling upon him to recite in his other subjects and in the things he could do in history. Soon the light returned to his eyes. His face changed from gloom to cheerfulness. He began to stand erect and hold up his head again. His old-time pleasant, familiar way with his associates returned, and John became his former courageous, successful self. The opportunity for victories had established him again in the good favor of his classmates. He felt his teacher believed in him, and he began to "bet upon himself" again. No other factor contributed to the saving of John from a term of failure and discouragement quite so much as his successes. 3. More sanity than often prevails should be displayed in invoicing the child's claims to promotion. It is inexcusable narrow-mindedness and grievous shortsightedness to determine a child's promotion or failure solely upon the basis of his ability in the three R's. Carelessness with reference to his ability in these studies would be fatal, of course. Nobody wants the child strong and expert in these subjects more than I do; but expert, automatic ability in these subjects does not need to be secured all at once. I Superintendence] GRADING AND PROMOTION OF PUPILS 305 A large, overgrown child should be advanced as rapidly from grade to grade, until he reaches the grade where children of his age and social interests are, as the development of his general ability will permit. He should not be held to a strict, careful mastery of all the detailed drill phases of a subject,, as should a younger child who is in a grade where children of his age and attitudes normally are. Nor is there any absolute standard of proficiency by which to measure advancement in these subjects. Before the children leave these subjects entirely, a certain minimum efficiency must be required; but what should be considered an ideal mastery by a slow, incapable child is only three-fourths mastery by an average child and only half-mastery by a gifted child. Let us more and more learn to cut our cloth to suit the wearer and to adjust our detailed requirements to the genuine interests of our children in the long run. Let us note and measure ability in subject-matter, but let us also learn the conditions which rendered each child who is threatened with failure in his term's work irregular in attendance, slothful in his work, and unambitious in his attainments. Was he in ill health ? Was he hampered by physical defects ? Did home conditions tax his energies, cause him to fail to get needed rest at night, deprive him of sufficient food and detain him from school ? Was he growing rapidly, so that his energy and vitality were all consumed here ? Did his growth render him awkward and clumsy in both body and mind ? Was he with pupils so much younger and so much different socially that his embarrassment and his failure to adjust to their atmosphere and spirit handicapped him ? Was the room so overcrowded that he didn't receive needed individual aid ? Was he in a part-time school ? Was he with a teacher who was not compatible ? Was he put at a disadvantage by chang- ing schools or teachers two or three times, owing to readjustments made in the schools or to his parents moving about in the city ? Are you absolutely certain the requirements of the course of study and the standard for promotion are ideally correct ? Is his threatened failure due to your general, deliberate estimate of his ability, or does it result from his stand- ing in percentages from a series of examinations imposed from above ? All of these ques- tions and more should be honestly asked and answered by every teacher before she labels the term's work of any child failure. After all the conditions have been considered, every child's teacher should be honest enough with him and with herself and should be sufficiently devoted to his future welfare to fail him, if this unquestionably seems to promise most for him. Courage is quite as important here as is sympathetic appreciation in promoting a child. If we shall succeed in adopting for our guiding phrase ''Not the system but the child," happier children and teachers and better equipped future citizens will be the certain result. Let us, in pursuit of this end, be willing to cut our red tape into blue ribbons at any time, in our efforts to educate America's children. If a general illustration may be pardoned in this serious gathering where we are seeking to consider technical matters upon the basis of dennite data rather than upon that of mere opinion, I wish in closing to cite a result secured to a child and to us, by the wisdom of a teacher who taught years ago in Hancock County in this good state of Indiana. A system of rules and standards had been adopted by the directors of this school for the guidance of the teacher. While he was faithful to his trust and loyal to his employing board, as all true teachers are, he found ways to modify his system when special cases demanded it. In the case which I have in mind, three regulations were broken in the interest of the child. The first decreed that any child failing in more than five sums in arithmetic in any week should be flogged. By the close of a certain recitation, this child had failed in the fatal five sums. Knowing what awaited him he went to his seat in a dazed condition. While dreaming over his lot he fell to drawing, another thing prohibited by the directors of the school. His drawing portrayed a large, strong man wielding a huge club over a stripling of a boy. Just as he finished the drawing he glanced up and was surprised to find the master standing over him. He hastened to erase the drawing but the master caught his arm, saying, "Don't erase it Jim, it's good." He now realized he had broken two 3o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Indianapolis regulations of the school. After school he awaited the orders of the master with anxiety. After making certain all had gone and that no one was in sight, the master called him to his desk, and, instead of proceeding to thrash him, he took him upon his lap. He then drew from his desk a copy of Ivanhoe and read to his pupil until he saw he was intensely interested, when he asked him if he should like to take the book home with him and read it thru. The child thought he should, and so he took the book to his home and hid it in the hayloft, where he secretly read it thru, altho the directors had ordered that no novels should be read in school. This seemed to reach the child and awaken his genius, and thus was James Whitcomb Riley saved to the world, and thus began the growth of the talent which produced his inimitable poetry. f THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION CONSTITUTION PREAMBLE The National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the presentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions formulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational questions; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its discussions, to define and state with accuracy the dififerent views and theories on the sub- ject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds and reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis of opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object, to encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion, together with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require the careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite the freest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions. Any member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the grounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council. It shall prepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Education Association, set- ting forth the questions considered by the Council during, the previous year, and placing before the Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall embody in this report a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part of the Association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number, committees repre- senting the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the exchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as demanded the attention of the pro- fession or of the public. ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP 1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from the membership of the National Education Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and, after the first election, such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter provided. 2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members — four members for six years, two for four years, and two for two years, and the Council shall elect eight members — five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years; and annually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five members, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (sec. 5), to serve six years, or until his successor is elected. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with the annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any reason, fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by the Council. 4. The term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first election shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council. 307 3o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies caused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged to the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members, with the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions. No state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members. ARTICLE II— QUALIFICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP All members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National Education Association. ARTICLE III— MEETINGS There shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as the meeting of the National Education Association, and at least two days previous to this meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the Executive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary. A majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting, whether regular or called; but any less number, exceeding eight members, may constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as defined in this article. ARTICLE IV— THE WORK OF THE COUNCIL The Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the thoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council; also to conduct like investigations originating in the National Education Association, or any of its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds. ARTICLE V— THE APPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEES AND EXPERTS In the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers, it shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the Council or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations. ARTICLE VI— OFFICERS At the annual election of officers in 1904 the president of the Council shall be elected for a term of three years, the vice-president for a term of two years, and the secretary for a term of one year; and thereafter annually the vacancy caused by the outgoing officer shall be filled by the election of one person for a term of three years. It shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the assistance and approval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting as shall realize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized and exists. ARTICLE VII— STANDING COMMITTEES 1. There shall be four standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee on Membership, a Committee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investiga- tions and Appropriations. 2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and of three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member may be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899. 3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by selecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to conduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry out the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for CouncUl OFFICERS AND STANDING COMMITTEES 309 the report of any investigation which may be ordered by the National Education Asso- ciation or its departments. 4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council and six other members, whose terms of oflQce shall be so arranged that two vacancies may be filled every year, beginning with 1899. 5. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit at the next meet- ing a report on "Educational Progress during the Past Year," in which a survey of the important movements and events in education during the preceding year is given. This committee need not be selected from the members of the Council. 6. The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine members, whose terms of ofl&ce shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled each year, beginning with 1903. No proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educa- tional investigation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the Association for an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted upon until such proposal has been referred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations for report. ARTICLE VIII— THE DUTIES OF THE COUNCIL 1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Educa- tion Association, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general. 2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a "roimd table" character. ARTICLE IX— AMENDMENTS This constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Coimcil, by a two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provisions may be waived at any regu- lar meeting by unanimous consent. By-laws not in violation of the constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the Council. OFFICERS, STANDING COMMITTEES, MEMBERS OFFICERS FOR 1910-11 CHARLES H. KEYES New York, N.Y President Term expires in 1913 WILLIAM M. DAVIDSON Omaha, Nebr Vice-President Term expires in 191 2 JOHN W. CARR Bayonne, N.J Secretary Term expires in 1911 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE The President, ex officio, chairman James M. Greenwood Kansas City, Mo Term expires in 1911 Elmer Ellsworth Brown Washington, D.C Term expires in 1912 Joseph Swain Swarthmore, Pa Term expires in 1913 COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP The President, ex officio James Y. Joyner Raleigh, N.C Term expires in 1911 James M. Greenwood, chairman Kansas City, Mo Term expires in 1911 Augustus S. Downing Albany, N.Y Term expires in 1912 Carroll G. Pearse Milwaukee, Wis Term expires in 1912 Elmer Ellsworth Brown Washington, D.C Term expires in 1913 Robert J. Aley Orono, Me Term expires in 1913 COMMITTEE ON INVESTIGATIONS AND APPROPRIATIONS Nicholas Murray Butler New York, N.Y Term expires in 1911 William H. Maxwell New York, N.Y Term expires in 1911 Edward T. Fairchild Topeka, Kans Term expires in 191 1 James M. Greenwood, chairman Kansas City, Mo Term expires in 191 2 3IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Frank A. Fitzpatrick .... Elmer Ellsworth Brown. Augustus S. Downing Lorenzo D. Harvey John H. Phillips Boston, Mass '. Term expires in igi 2 Washington, D.C Term expires in 191 2 Albany, N.Y Term expires in 1913 Menomonie, Wis '. . . . Term expires in 1913 Birmingham, Ala , Term expires in 1913 MEMBERS Elected by the Association Elected by the Council TERMS EXPIRE IN I9II William H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky. Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass. •I. C. McNeill, Memphis, Tenn. E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa. James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. Estelle Reel, Washington, D.C. A. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz. Julius I. Foust, Greensboro, N.C. W. T. Carrington. Springfield, Mo. William P. Burris, Cincinnati, Ohio W. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore. Joseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa. Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa. Ben Blewett, St. Louis, Mo. Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo. John W. Abercrombie, University, Ala. *B. W. Torreyson, Little Rock, Ark. G. W. A. LucKEY, Lincoln, Nebr. John A. Wood, South Bend, Ind. D. B. Parkinson, Carbondale, 111. Thomas A. Mott, Richmond, Ind. John H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala. Francis G. Blair, Springfield, 111. James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo. *Charles C. Van Liew, Chico, Cal. J. A. Smith, Deland, Fla. *James a. MacLean, Moscow, Idaho *Edward T. Fairchild, Topeka, Kans. *Alfred Bayliss, Macomb, 111. Walter E. Ranger, Providence, R.I. terms expire in 1912 Ella Flagg Young, Chicago, 111. Edwin S. Monroe, Muskogee, Okla. W. H. Elson, Cleveland, Ohio John W. Carr, Bayonne, N.J, •Albert Salisbury, Whitewater, Wis. Grace C. STRAnsAN, Brooklyn, N.Y. Adelaide S. Baylor, Wabash, Ind. Carleton B. Gibson, Columbus, Ga. C. G. SCHULZ, St. Paul, Minn. Oscar T. Corson, Columbus, Ohio terms James M. Green, Trenton, N.J. Augustus S. Downing, Albany, N.Y. George B. Cook, Little Rock, Ark. Stratton D. Brooks, Boston, Mass. Edgar H. Mark, Louisville, Ky. Thomas M. Balliet, New York, N.Y. Henry B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind. William O. Riddell, Des Moines, Iowa A. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Utah Reed B. Teitrick, Harrisburg, Pa. terms W. E. Harmon, Helena, Mont. *David Felmley, Normal, 111. John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo. David B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C. Wales C. Martindale, Detroit, Mich. Mrs. Elleh H. Richards, Boston, Mass. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal. M. Bates Stephens, Annapolis, Md. Jacob A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio J^MES W. Crabtree, Peru, Nebr. * Not present at annual meeting, 1910. Elected by the Association TI John MacDonald, Topeka, Kans. *Alma L. Binzel, Winona, Minn. *C. O. Merica, Laramie, Wyo. S. L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minn. *Charles McKenny, Milwaukee, Wis. * Not present at annual meeting, 1910. expire in 1913 William E. Hatch, New Bedford, Mass. Bettie a. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn. Andrew S. Draper, Albany, N.Y. •Clifford W. Barnes, Lake Forest, 111. Frank E. Parlin, Cambridge, Mass. Cheesman a. Herrick, Philadelphia, Pa. W. M. HOLLOWAY, Tallahassee, Fla. Thomas C. Miller, Shepherdstown, W.Va. Frank B. Dyer, Cincinnati, Ohio EXPIRE IN 1914 WiLtiAM M. Davidson, Omaha, Nebr. M. G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa. *L. E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex. Harlan Updegraff, Washington, D.C. *0. S. Westcott, Chicago, 111. JuLLA Richman, New York, N.Y. Mrs. James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. Frank Strong, Lawrence, Kans. C. P. Gary, Madison, Wis. Homer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa Elected by the Council expire in 191 s Miss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind. Lewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Washington, D.C. William H. Black, Marshall, Mo. •Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N.Y' Council) HONORARY MEMBERS 311 I I David Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Cal. •W. R. SiDERS, Pocatello, Idaho •William H. Maxwell, New York, N.Y. E. G. COOLEY, LaGrange, 111. •H. J. Rogers, Albany, N.Y. John W. Cook, DeKalb, 111. *David R. Boyd, Norman, Okla. Lorenzo D. Harvey, Menonomie, Wis. *Edwin B. Craighead, New Orleans, La. Carroll G. Pe.'Vrse, Milwaukee, Wis. 'Henry Snyder, Jersey City, N.J. Ella C. Sullivan, Chicago, 111. Randall Spaulding, Montclair, N.J. George B. Strayer, New York, N.Y. Frank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash. •Luther L. Wright, Lansing, Mich. George M. Philips, Westchester, Pa. Edmund A. Jones, Columbus, Ohio Ernest E. Balcomb, Providence, R.I. tj. E. Burke, Boston, Mass. expire in 19 1 6 Anna Tolman Smith, Washington, D.C. •William S. Sutton, Austin, Tex. James H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md. Thomas Bailey, Memphis, .Tenn. James Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C. Robert J. Aley, Orono, Maine. Charles E. Chadsey, Denver, Colo David Snedden, Boston, Mass. J. Stanley Brown, Joliet, III. ♦R. L. Jones, Nashville, Tenn. HONORARY MEMBERS Jane Addams, Chicago, 111. Edwin A. Alderman, Charlottesville, Va. Sarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass. James B. Aswell, Natchitoches, La. Brown Ayres, Knoxville, Tenn. Earl Barnes, Philadelphia, Pa. Alexander Graham Bell, Washington, D.C. D. Bemis, Spokane, Wash. Ida C. Bender, Bufifalo, N.Y. Thomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R.l. Frederick E. Bolton, Iowa City, Iowa Richard G. Boone, Los -Angeles, Cal. Albert G. Boyden, Bndgewater, Mass. Anna C. Brackett, New York, N.Y. John E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass. Edward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa. William L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind. Matthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt. David N. Camp, New Britain, Conn. P. P. Claxton, Knoxville, Tenn. Oscar H. Cooper, Abilene, Tex. William J. Corthell, Gorham, Maine E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio O. J. Craig, Missoula, Mont. Charles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N.Y. Robert E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn. John Dewey, New York, N.Y. V. C. Dibble, Charleston, S.C. KLatharine E. Dopp, Chicago, 111. John J. Doyne, Little Rock, Ark. Charles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass. E. C. Elliott, Madison, Wis. WiLLL\M W. FOLWELL, Minneapolis, Minn. James A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal. William K. Fowler, Lincoln, Nebr. H. B. Frissell, Hampton, Va. R. B. Fulton, Miller School P. 0., Va. Charles B. Gilbert, Englewood, N.J. Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo. Lewis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo. James C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass. Mrs. Edwin C. Grice, Philadelphia, Pa. W. N. Hailmann, Cleveland, Ohia G. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass. Paul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass. * Not present at annual meeting, 1910. Minn. Ind. Walter L. Hervey, New York, N.Y. Albert Ross Hill, Columbia, Mo. J. George Hodgins, Toronto, Can. James H. Hoose, Los Angeles, Cal. George H. Howison, Berkeley, Cal. James L. Hughes, Toronto, Can. Thomas Hunter, New York, N.Y. Ellen Hyde, Farmington, Mass. Edmund J. James, Champaign, 111. Charles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, E. S. Joynes, Columbia, S.C. Calvin N. Kendall, Indianapolis, David L. Kiehle, Portland, Ore. William F. King, Mt. Vernon, Iowa Henry M. Leipziger, New York, N.Y. Livingston C. Lord, Charleston, 111. James MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa. Francis A. March, Easton, Pa. George H. Martin, West Lynn, Mass. ' Charles A. McMurray, DeKalb, 111. Jesse F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal. Ernest C. Moore, New Haven, Conn. Henry C. Morrison, Concord, N.H. William A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass. Mary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind. John W. Olsen, St. Paul, Minn. John M. Ordway, New Orleans, La. Warren D. Parker, Pasadena^ Cal. John B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, Ohio JosiAH L. PiCKARD, Cupertino, Cal. Edward T.- Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal. James R. Preston, Jackson, Miss. John T. Prince, West Newton, Mass. George J. Ramsey, Danville, Ky. Mrs. Ellor C. Ripley, Boston, Mass. William D. Ruffner, Lexington, Va. James E. Russell, New York, N.Y. Ellen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis. Henry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa J. G. ScHURMAN, Ithaca, N.Y. H. E. Shepard, Baltimore, Md. Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn. Charles R. Skinner, New York, N.Y. Euler B. Smith, LaGrange, Ga. J. Lancaster Spalding, Peoria, 111. t Deceased. 312 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Edwin E. Sparks, State College, Pa. HoifER D. Sprague, Newton, Mass. Lucia Stickney, Cleveland, Ohio Grace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Nebr. Henry Suzzalo, New York, N.Y. John Swett, Martinez, Cal. A. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111. W. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga. John G. Thompson, Fitchburg, Mass. L. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N.J. William 0. Thompson, Columbus, Ohio Charles F. Thwing, Cleveland, Ohio Julia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala. Jasper N. Wilkinson, Muskogee, Okla." Delia L. Williams, Delaware, Ohio J. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D.C. John W. Withers, St. Louis, Mo. Lightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa. Harry K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Nebr. Calvin M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo. Robert Allen i8g4 Israel W. Andrews 1888 Joseph Baldwin 1899 Henry Barnard 1900 William N. Barringer — 1907 Newton Bateman 1897 William C. Bates 1909 Reuben S. Bingham 1902 George P. Brgwn 1910 John T. Buchanan 1908 J. E. Burke 1910 Norman A. Calkins 1895 James H. Canfield 1909 Aaron L. Chapin 1892 Clara Conway 1904 J. L. M. Curry 1902 N. R. H. Dawson 1895 John W. Dickinson 1901 Larkin Dunton 1890 John Eaton 1906 W. R. Garrett 1903 Daniel C. Oilman 1909 Samuel S. Greene 1883 John M. Gregory 1898 George T. Fairchild 1901 Daniel B. Hagar 1896 R. H. Halsey 1907 DECEASED MEMBERS John Hancock 1891 William R. Harper 1906 William T. Harris 1909 William D. Henkle 1882 Edwin C. Hewitt 1905 Elnathan E. Higbee 1889 Frank A. Hill 1903 Burke A. Hinsdale 1900 Ira C. Hoitt 1905 George Howland 1892 John S. Irwin 1901 Henry N. James 1901 H. S. Jones 1900 Thomas Kirkland 1898 Albert Lane 1906 Merrick Lyon 1888 Albert P. Marble 1906 James McCosh 1894 Charles D. McIver 1906 Thomas J. Morgan 1902 Lemuel Moss 1905 M. A. Newell 1893 Birdsey G. Northrop 1898 Theodore B. Noss igog Edward Olney 1886 GUSTAVUS J. Orr 1888 Francis W. Parker 1902 S. S. Parr 1900 W. H. Payne 1907 Selim H. Peabody 1902 William F. Phelps 1907 John D. Philbrick 1885 M. S. Cooper Poucher. . .1900 William B. Powell 1904 Zalmon Richards 1890 Andrew J. Rickoff 1899 Charles C. Rounds 1901 Edward R. Shaw 1903 William E. Sheldon 1900 Edgar A. Singer 1909 James A. Smart 1900 F. Louis Soldan 1908 J. W. Stearns 1909 R. W. Stevenson 1893 Thomas B. Stockwell. . . .1906 Eli T. Tappan 1908 Horace S. Tarbell 1904 Charles O. Thompson. . . .1885 H. S. Thompson 1904 Arnold Tompkins 1906 James P. Wickersham. . . .1891 S. G. Williams 1900 Emerson E. White 1902 SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Saturday Forenoon, July 2, 1910 OFFICERS President — ^Joseph Swain, president of Swarthmore College Swarthmore, Pa. Vice-President — W. M. Davidson, superintendent of instruction Omaha, Nebr. Secretary — ^John W. Carr, superintendent of schools Bayonne, N.J. The Council met at New Old South Church in Boston, Mass., and was called to order at 9 :30 A.M. by President Joseph Swain. The introductory address was presented by Joseph Swain, the president of the Council. James H. Van Sickle presented the "Report of the Committee on Exceptional Children." Discussion by Ben Blewett, St. Louis, Mo.; Charles E. Chadsey, Denver, Colo.; Miss Bettie Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio; Wales C. Martindale, Detroit, Mich.; Miss Julia Richman, New York, N.Y.; J. H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md.; Miss Olive Jones, New York, N.Y.; M. P. E. Groszman, Plainfield, N.J. CouncU] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 313 Wm. H. Maxwell being absent, the paper prepared by him was read by Augustus S. Downing, of Albany, N.Y. The subject of the paper was: "The Economic Use of Edu- cation Plants." General discussion by Lewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.; Robert J. Aley, Orono, Maine; J. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.; W. T. Carritigton, Springfield, Mo.; Augus- tus S. Downing, Albany, N.Y.; Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn.; John W. Cook, De Kalb, 111.; M. P. E. Groszman, Plainfield, N.J.; Miss Julia Richman, New York, N.Y. On motion, the following committee was appointed on the President's address: James M. Green, Trenton, N.J. Chas. H. Keyes, New York, N.Y. William M. Davidson, Omaha, Nebr. SECOND SESSION.— Saturday Afternoon, July 2, 1910 "Report of Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Education" was the first topic considered. An introductory statement was made by Charles R. Richards, director of Cooper Union, New York City. "Industries in the Elementary Schools" was presented by Jesse D. Burks, director of Bureau of Municipal Research, Philadelphia, Pa. "Intermediate Industrial Schools" was presented by David S. Snedden, commis- sioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass. "Industrial and Technical Education in the Secondary Schools" was presented by Charles H. Keyes, of Hartford, Conn. Discussion by John G. Thompson, Fitchburg, Mass.; Henry B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind.; James M. Green, Trenton, N.J.; L. D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis.; Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.; Frank B. Dyer, Cincinnati, Ohio; James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. ; Arthur D. Dean, Albany, N.Y. The discussion was closed by Charles R. Richards. THIRD SESSION.— Saturday Evening, July 2, 1910 The Council met at 8 p.m. President Swain appointed as members of the Com- mittee on Membership Elmer E. Brown, of Washington, D.C., and Robert J. Aley, of Indianapolis, Ind. to take the places of two absent members, Livingston C. Lord, of Charleston, III., and I. C. McNeill, of Memphis, Tenn. The President announced that the Committee on Membership would also act as the Committee on Nominations. A brief report on "Co-operation with Education Organizations in Other Countries" was made by Elmer E. Brown, United States Commissioner of Education. The report was discussed by Ernest E. Balcomb, Providence, R.I.; and Miss Anna Tolman Smith, Washington, D.C. The chairman of the Committee on the Culture Element and Economy of Time in Education, James H. Baker, president of the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., reported progress and stated that a final report would be made next year. "Report on Educational Progress during the Year" was made by Frank Strong, chancellor of the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. FOURTH SESSION.— Tuesday Forenoon, July 5, 1910 The Council met at 9:30 a.m. The first subject presented was the "Report of the Committee on Moral Education in the Public Schools." James M. Greenwood, chair- man of the committee, made a preliminary statement of the work of the committee. John W. Carr, secretary of the committee, read the Introduction and Recommendations of the Committee. Discussion by John W. Abercrombie, University, Ala.; William H. Black, Marshall, Mo.; John W. Cook, DeKalb, 111.; D. B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C; Miss Nebraska Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.; John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.; Mrs. Ella Flagg Young Chicago, 111.; and Martin G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa. 314 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National The next topic, " Physical Education in Its Various Phases, Elementary, Secondary and Higher," was presented by Dudley A. Sargent, director of Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard University. A paper on the same subject was prepared by Luther H, Gulick, Russell Sage Founda- tion, New York City, N. Y. Mr. Gulick was unable to be present, and the paper was read by another. Clark W. Hetherington, professor of physical education, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo., presented the last paper on this subject. Discussion by David Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Cal.; Wm. H. Bartholo- mew, Louisville, Ky.; Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Boston, Mass.; Homer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa. FIFTH SESSION.— Wednesday Forenoon, July 6, 1910 The Council met at 9:30 a.m. with Vice-President William M. Davidson presiding. The first subject on the program, "The Vocational and Industrial School," was presented by Frederick P. Fish, president of the State Board of Education in Massa- chusetts. The next paper on the same subject was presented by Theodore W. Robinson, vice- president of the Illinois Steel Company, and president of the Chicago Commercial Club. The next speaker on this topic was Charles H. Winslow, Chairman of the Committee on Industrial Education for the American Federation of Labor, Washington, D.C. The last speaker was Henry Abraham, secretary of the Central Labor Union of Boston, Mass. Questions were asked by Thomas W. Bicknell, Ben Blewett, J. W. Carr, F. G. Blair, Chas. H. Keyes, and James M. Greenwood, and were answered by Mr. Robinson, Mr. Abraham, Mr. Winslow, and Mr. Greenwood. Discussion by Augustus S. Downing, Albany, N.Y.; Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, Chi- cago, 111.; Chas. E. Chadsey, Denver, Colo.; Thomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R.I.; Charles H. Winslow, Washington, D.C. By resolution the thanks of the Council were tendered to Messrs. Fish, Robinson, Winslow, and Abraham for their excellent addresses. On motion of James M. Greenwood, the Council went into executive session. EXECUTIVE SESSION On motion, the Committee on Exceptional Children was continued another year. The Committee on the President's Address made the following report, which on motion was adopted. Boston, Mass., July 5, 1910 The committee appointed to report on the President's address recommends as follows: First: The continuation of the practice of having a report on the educational prog- ress of the year, as required by thfe Constitution. Second : Three of the six committees appointed three years ago have rendered com- pleted reports or probably will have done so with this meeting. Three others, on the following topics: Provision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools; The Culture Element and Economy of Time in Education; and Co-operation with Educational Organizations in Other Countries, will report in the future. It seems proper at this time to propose new questions for investigation, and the committee offer the following : The Attitude of Labor toward Industrial Education. The Relation between Public Schools and Private Colleges. The Administration of Public Educational Systems. The committee wishes to commend the degree of interest in the work of the Council secured by our President in his plan of program, including the three-minute speeches, but feels that it should be kept constantly in mind that we are a Council, and that there should be as much opportunity as possible for spontaneous discussions, and possibly one or more closed sessions. CouncUJ SECRETARY'S MINUTES 315 The United States Commissioner of Education is working in the closest harmony with the educational policies of this Council. We recognize the increasing eflaciency of the Bureau under his administration, and we ask for him the most cordial support on the part of Congress in the development of his plans. We recommend to the Board of Directors the appointment of an advisory committee to act in conjunction with the Commission in securing needed legislation. The further questions of the President should remain with the Executive Committee. Finally, the committee wish to note the very successful administration of the retiring President. James M. Green ) Chas. H. Keyes [ Committee William M. Davidson ) The question of the publication of the Report on Moral Education was referred to the Executive Committee with power to act. The Committee on Membership made the following report, which on motion was adopted : To the National Council: Your Committee on Membership, which was also appointed to act as the Com- mittee on Nominations, recommend the election of the following: officers of the council Charles H. Keyes, New York, N.Y., to succeed Joseph Swain as president of the Council, for a term of three years, term ending in 1913. members of the executive committee Joseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa., to succeed William T. Harris, deceased, as a mem- ber of the Executive Committee of the Council, for a term of three years, term ending in 1913. MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP Elmer E. Brown, Washington, D.C., to succeed Livingston C. Lord for a term of three years, term expiring in 19 13. Robert J. Aley, Indianapolis, Ind., to succeed I. C. McNeill for a term of three years, term ending in 1913. James Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C., to succeed Charles H. Keyes, resigning to accept the presidency of the Council, term ending in 1911. MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE ON INVESTIGATION AND APPROPRIATIONS Augustus. S. Downing, Albany, N.Y., to succeed himself for a term of three years, term ending in 191 3. Lorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis., to succeed himself for a term of three years, term ending in 1913. John H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala., to succeed himself for a term of three years, term ending in 191 3. E. T. Fairchild, Topeka, Kans., to succeed William O. Thompson, absent from two successive meetings, term ending in 191 1. MEMBERSHIP Terms ending in igii: W. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore., to succeed Frank B. Cooper, absent from two successive meetings. G. W. A. Luckey, Lincoln, Nebr., to succeed Frederick E. Bolton, absent from two successive meetings. John A. Wood, South Bend, Ind., to succeed Jane Addams, absent from two suc- cessive meetings. Terms ending in 191 2: Edwin S. Monroe, Muskogee, Okla., to succeed J. N. Wilkinson, absent from two successive meetings. W. H. Elson, Cleveland, Ohio, to succeed W. O. Thompson, absent from two suc- cessive meetings. C. G. Schulz, St. Paul, Minn., to succeed John W. Olsen, absent from two successive meetings. 3i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Terms ending in 191 3: Andrew S. Draper, Albany, N.Y., to succeed himself. Frank E. Parlin, Cambridge, Mass., to succeed Mrs. Ellor C. Ripley, absent from two successive meetings. Cheesman A. Herrick, Philadelphia, Pa., to succeed Mrs. Edwin C. Grice, absent from two successive meetings. W. M. Holloway, Tallahassee, Fla., to succeed J. W. Withers, absent from two suc- cessive meetings. Terms ending in 1914: Harlan Updegraflf, Washington, D.C., to succeed J. E. Russell, absent from two successive meetings. C. P. Gary, Madison, Wis., to succeed E. G. Elliott, absent from two successive meetings. Terms ending in 1916: Anna Tolman Smith, Washington, D.G., to succeed herself. William S. Sutton, Austin, Tex., to succeed himself. James H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md., to succeed himself. Thomas Bailey, Memphis, Tenn., to succeed James B. Aswell, absent from two successive meetings. James Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.G., to succeed Brown Ayres, absent from two suc- cessive meetings. Robert J. Aley, Orono, Maine, to succeed himself. Gharles E. Chadsey, Denver, Golo., to succeed himself. David Snedden, Boston, Mass., to succeed Paul H. Hanus, absent from two suc- cessive meetings. J. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111., to succeed himself. R. L. Jones, Nashville, Tenn., to succeed himself. On motion the following was adopted: Resolved, That the President be empowered to designate certain sessions of the Goun- cil as open to members only, and that in the selection of a meeting-place, due considera- tion should be given to securing a room reasonably remote from the annoyance of distracting noises of the street. On motion, the secretary was instructed to notify each member who has been trans- ferred from active to honorary membership. On motion the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, That it be required of the Gommittee on Nominations, that it shall here- after when submitting its report at the time of the Annual Business Meeting of the Coun- cil, include in its report the names of all members whose names under the rule are to be placed on the list of Honorary Members of the Council. The minutes of the Denver meeting were approved as printed in the volume of Pro- ceedings. On motion the following resolution read by L. D. Harvey was referred to the Com- mittee on Go-operation with Educational Organizations in Other Countries. Resolved, That the President of the Association be authorized to appoint a committee of five members, of which Honorable Elmer E. Brown, U.S. Commissioner of Education, shall be chairman, to correspond with proper persons in all the civilized countries of the world, with a view to organizing an International Educational Association and holding the first meeting of the same at some convenient place in Europe in August, igii. Resolved further. That the Board of Directors be asked to authorize an appropria- tion not to exceed $500, out of the Treasury of the Association, to defray the necessary expenses of this committee. After thanking the council for the courtesy shown him during his term of office, President Joseph Swain introduced his successor, Charles H. Keyes. On assuming the chair. President Keyes thanked the Council for the honor conferred upon him. Adjourned. John W. Carr, Secretary Council] INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT 317 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS I INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT PRESIDENT JOSEPH SWAIN, SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, SWARTHMORE, PA. PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL In pursuing the object of this Council as set forth in the preamble to its constitution and in the several separate resolutions of the Council in the past few years in harmony therewith, it is the present practice of this body to have the program in three parts: First, the report of the Educational Progress of the Year, which is required by the constitution. Second, the reports of committees for special investigation and a general discussion of the same. Third, a general discussion of other important topics which may, if the Council so directs, be taken up in the future by committees deemed especially fitted by training and experience to make special study and em- body their conclusions in a report to the Council. Three years ago the President of the Council was directed to appoint six committees to investigate certain questions and report their conclusions to the Council. These questions were: Industrial Education in Rural Schools. A System of Teaching Morals in the Public Schools. The Scarcity of Teachers. Provision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools. The Culture Element and Economy of Time in Education. Co-operation with Educational Organizations in Other Countries. The Committee on Industrial Education, L. D. Harvey, of Menomonie, Wis., chairman, and the Committee on the Scarcity of Teachers, I. C. McNeill, of Memphis, Tenn., chairman, presented completed reports in 1908, which were printed in the Proceedings of that year. The Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children, James H. Van Sickle, of Baltimore, Md., chairman, presented a preliminary report in 1908 and a supplementary report in 1909 and has a statement to present at this meeting. The Com- mittee on Moral Education in the Public Schools, James M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo., chairman, presented a preliminary report in 1908, which was printed only in outline in the Proceedings. In 1909 a brief report of the progress of this committee was given to the Council. This year this committee will present to you a tentative report signed by all its members, for your consideration and discussion. The Committee on the Culture Ele- ment and Economy of Time in Education, James H. Baker, of Boulder, Colo., chairman, gave a preliminary report in 1908, and a report of the progress of the committee in 1909. This committee is still continuing its labors but will make no report this year. The Committee on Co-operation with Educational Organizations of Other Countries, our late honored leader, William T. Harris, chairman, made a report in 1908. Commissioner Brown 31 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National reported for this committee in 1909 and he will also present a statement this year. It thus appears that at the close of this meeting of the Council, three of the committees will have presented completed reports, leaving three committees with unfinished reports. The great amount of labor and time expended by our committees with- out compensation or even money for travehng expenses or clerical services is an indication of the fact that our educational leaders are willing to do everything in their power, even tho it means much personal sacrifice, to advance the great work of American education. These reports are all made with care and with great labor and they are serving a distinct purpose. They are not only of service in themselves, but they have been instrumental in starting further investigation in the United States Bureau of Education, and in private societies and foundations. For example, growing out of the work of the Committee on Exceptional Children, a new committee has been appointed to prepare a report to be published by the United States Bureau of Education. At the request of the Council Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children, the Commissioner of Education called a conference at the Indian- apolis meeting of the Department of Superintendence. At this conference there were present, besides the committee, a number of men who have made a special study of this work. As a result of the conference the Com- missioner has appointed a committee to prepare a brief bulletin, which will give as fully as possible the present practice in cities of the United States in dealing with exceptional children in their public schools. The United States Commissioner of Education has appointed the chair- man of our committee chairman of the new committee. This committee in turn has secured the aid of one of the professors of the University of Pennsylvania and one of the members of the Sage Foundation. Thus the work of the Council has been successful in promoting not only its own work, but the work of other bodies. In a different direction, a member of the Committee on Moral Educa- tion has been made president of the Character Development League, which, it is said, has been endowed with a million dollars for the purpose of char- acter-building in our public schools. While, therefore, lack of funds has greatly hampered our committees in their investigations and we should earnestly put ourselves to the task of correcting this defect, we nevertheless can take courage to continue the general policy pursued of appointing such committees, not only for the sake of the work they do, but for the work they inspire in other organizations. Possibly one of our leading functions should be the testing of the theories and experiences of other workers and the pointing-out of needed reform in the public-school system and investi- gations to be made by educational bureaus of state and national govern- ment as well as in private foundations for education and research. Perhaps the time has arrived when one or more additional committees I Council] INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT 319 should be appointed to take up some of the many questions which our rapidly developing public-school system is creating in order to adjust- itself to the changed conditions of our civilization. All of the new questions discussed in the last three years in this Council have been chosen from carefully compiled lists prepared thru the suggestions of members of the Council. No question has been selected that has not been proposed by more than one member and from members from different parts of the country. Thus they have represented wide interests. The particular questions chosen have been largely determined by the President's ability to secure the right person to lead the discussion, for the matter of proper persons to discuss topics is at least of equal importance with the topic itself. The new topics in 1908 were these: The Distinctive Functions of University, College, and Normal Schools in the Prepa- ration of Teachers. Household Science in Elementary and Secondary Schools. In 1909 the new topics were: What Industrial Education Means to the Elementary Schools. Rural School Supervision. The Adjustment of our School System to the Changed Conditions of the Twentieth Century. The Administration of Public Educational Systems. The new topics for this year, 19 10, are: The Vocational and Industrial School. The Economic Use of Educational Plants. Physical Education in Its Various Phases: Elementary, Secondary, and Higher. From these questions or special aspects of them, one or more questions could profitably be selected for minute study by a committee or committees appointed for this purpose. I desire to call special attention to the topic, "The Vocational and Indus- trial School," assigned for the last session of the Council this year. This topic may be considered as included in the discussion of the report on "The Place of Industries in Public Education," but the point of view may be distinctly different. The men who will discuss the Vocational and Indus- trial School question are all of them representative business men, who, thru their interest and practical experience, have come to certain conclusions concerning these schools. It is proposed to give them a full hearing, un- hampered by the theories of pedagogs. It is believed that such a hearing will be greatly to the benefit of a better understanding of the vocational school and its problems. It is by the perfect harmony of theory and prac- tice, founded on experience, that we must get the best results in all forms of education. The lack of funds for the work of this Council emphasizes the importance of increased appropriation to the United States Bureau of Education, be- tween which and this body there is such unity of purpose. 320 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National The past year has been little short of a revolutionary epoch in the history of the Bureau of Education. For the first time in the history of that office, it has been housed in one of the great buildings belonging to the federal government. The change has involved a removal from the cramped and dilapidated building which had for many years been rented for the purpose, to comfortable and dignified quarters in the building formerly occupied by the Post Office Department. With this change has come an important internal reorganization. One of the most vigorous and experienced mem- bers of the staff has been advanced to the position of chief clerk, a position which carries with it the responsibility of serving as Acting Commissioner in the absence of the Commissioner from Washington. The work of the Library upon the lines laid out two years ago has been continued, and the collection has been so rearranged in the new quarters as to make it much more available for regular use. A new Division of School Administration has been erected, in charge of a highly trained and experienced specialist, who is devoting a large part of his time to work in the field. The Annual Report for the year 1909 was brought out with unprece- dented celerity, the first volume appearing in December, 1909, and the second volume in April, 1910. The contents of these volumes has com- manded unusual attention. Arrangements have been made under which the reports of succeedings years may be expected to appear with equal promptness. The biennial digest of educational legislation in all the states has been changed to an annual publication. Congress has provided an editor, to have immediate charge of the publication service. Within the past month another new position has been created by Congress, that of Specialist in Higher Education, at an annual salary of three thousand dollars, which has set a new standard for salaries in the Bureau. In taking this step Congress seems to have entered definitely on the carrying-out of the plan which has been urged of providing the Bureau with an adequate staff of well-equipped specialists. Many educational officials and institutions thru- out the country are now participating in a regular campaign for securing to the Bureau an adequate staff of such specialists, with funds to enable them to devote a large part of their time to work in the field. The reorganization of the Alaska work, which has been going on for the past three years, has now been completed and turned over to a super- intendent called in from the field. With the increase of the Alaska appro- priation from one hundred thousand dollars to two hundred thousand dollars three years ago, the work has been greatly expanded. The expansion in number of schools, of teachers, of reindeer stations, and of other special provision for industrial education, has ranged from 50 per cent, to 500 per cent, within this three-year period. An entirely new sanitary campaign has been organized, embracing the employment of physicians and nurses, contracts with local hospitals, and other provision for the improvement of i I Council] PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 321 health conditions. The Alaska of the Eskimo and Indian is recognized as the great experiment station of the Bureau, and this work is now more closely than ever before co-ordinated with the Bureau's other activities. I would call attention to a recommendation of the United States Com- missioner of Education made last year, which was doubtless overlooked by the Council. After calling attention to the desirability of entering into communication with societies and organizations in foreign countries, with the view to inviting them to consider with us questions of international character, he said: It is accordingly recommended that the National Council at this meeting appoint a Committee on International Correspondence; that this committee be instructed to enter into communication with representative educational bodies of other lands, with a view to learning whether they would regard the program here referred to as practicable and desirable; and that the committee be further directed to report the results of such correspondence at the next meeting of this Council. I would ask that the usual committee be appointed for the consideration of this and any other questions arising from this statement by the President of the Council. In conclusion, I am sure I express what is in the mind and heart of every member of this Council today when I say we all feel a great sense of loss and deep sorrow in the death of Dr. William T. Harris, the universally recognized leader in the counsels of this body for more than a generation. His profound learning, his keen insight into the things of the spirit, his unselfish devotion to the service of humanity, his unwavering faith in the democracy of the public schools, his simple manner, his mastery of debate, his kind heart, his passion for the truth, his ability to go right to the heart of his theme, and his alertness to detect mere show and sham — all these attainments and more made him to each one of us guide, philosopher, and friend. May we all cherish his memory by doing what he would have us do thru the example and inspiration he has given us, by dedicating ourselves anew to the service of the school, the hope of our country, which he did so much to promote. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS JAMES H. VAN SICKLE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BALTIMORE, MD. The Report of the Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools presented to this body in 1908 was styled "preliminary" with the idea that after a more detailed study of the problem had been made by your committee a full report would be prepared. As funds of the Asso- ciation have not been available for carrying on your committee's work, at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at Indianapolis in March, 1910, the Commissioner of Education, at our request, called a joint meeting of the committee and a number of specialists in this field 322 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National whose experience would enable them to give valuable advice, and who were willing to aid in any way that might be thought best. It was the con- sensus of opinion at this meeting that there is a special need at this time of information as to exactly what is now being done for exceptional children in public schools with special reference to the better things that are done, what means are employed and what results attained, together with a state- ment of what additional things public schools should do and practical sug- gestions for beginning and carrying on work in special classes. Commis- sioner Brown stated that the Bureau of Education stands ready to compile and publish a bulletin showing what is now being done in the different cities of this country and to act as a co-ordinating agency to unify the efforts of the different workers in the field. When the meeting adjourned it was understood that Dr. Brown would appoint a special committee of three to prepare such a bulletin for publication — one a superintendent of schools to represent the school management side; the second to deal with the sta- tistics of retardation; and the third to deal with the problem of the special treatment of mentally and physically defective children. Subsequently the following named members of the conference were appointed by the Com- missioner and they have signified their willingness to co-operate in the work: Dr. Lightner Witmer, Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, and Superintendent J. H. Van Sickle. To aid the committee in gathering material for the bulletin, Dr. Brown sent out a circular letter of inquiry to which replies have already been received from fifty-six cities. It is hoped that, in view of the importance of the inquiry and the need for early publication of the bulletin, all super- intendents who have not yet replied will do so with as little delay as possible. The committee expects to treat in the bulletin as many of the following topics as the data received in response to the circular letter permits: I. A provisional nomenclature for use in this j&eld. II. Agencies for the treatment of retardation in the public schools. A . Educational 1. Day schools for truants. 2. Schools for backward children. 3. Parental or residential schools. 4. Special classes for: a) Deaf and semi-deaf. b) Blind and semi-blind. c) Backward children. d) Epileptics. e) Non-English-speaking. /) Late entering. g) Working paper classes. h) Classes for gifted children. i) Vocational classes. 5. General adaptation of the curriculum to meet the differentiated needs of the pupils of the public schools: I Council] PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 323 a) In elementary schools. b) In secondary schools. « 6. General classification according to ability: a) Mental. b) Physical. (i) Medical inspection for contagious and infectious diseases. (2) Medical inspection for defects. (3) Physical examination. (4) Dental clinics. B. Social 1. The school nurse as a social visitor. 2. Home and school clubs; mothers' clubs. 3. Public baths and school baths. 4. School luncheons. 5. School kitchens and cooking classes. 6. Playgrounds. 7. Recreation centers. 8. Clothing, and home environment. 9. Gymnasia. 10. Training for "little mothers." III. Bibliography. In considering the question of a bibliography, the committee has had in mind a bibliography that would be directly serviceable to the superintendents of this country who are looking into the problem of the treatment of backward children, with a view to introducing work along this line. We have thought that a list of refer- ences which superintendents might be expected to have and to use would be much more serviceable than a complete bibliography culled from periodical literature in many branches of science, which the student in this field would find it desirable to consult. IV. The committee will include in the bulletin, if they find it possible to do so, a report on some of the best recent work of related character in foreign lands. I DISCUSSION Maximilian P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J. — The words of the last speaker contain a deceptive argument. If we were dealing only with the problem of the individ- ual we might assent to the proposition to allow our weak-minded "hewers of wood and drawers of water" to work out their own salvation. But as a matter of fact we are deal- ing with a grave social problem. How will you prevent these "humble workers" from propagating their kind and thus becoming a public menace? The family histories of these individuals as exemplified by Mr. Johnstone's chart should open the eyes of all thinking people. And it is a mistake to think that institutional care of these individuals would mean prison life. They are made happy and contented if the right organization is developed. This brings up once more the question of the function of the special or ungraded classes in pubhc schools. They ought to be of two kinds: one a sort of observational chnic in which a mental and moral status of the child is ascertained and from which he is transferred to his proper educational environment; and the other giving those children who can be more or less readily restored to average response their proper opportunity. The public school is not a place for those children who cannot be thus readily restored to fairly normal equilibrium. Miss Julia Richman, district superintendent of city schools. New York, N.Y. — There seems nothing to be added to what has already been said, unless perhaps the result of certain observations I have made. For six and a half years I have been watching the 324 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOQIATION [National effect of special gradihg for "overage" children in the schools of my own district. With twenty-three thousand school children crowded into a space covering less than three hun- dred acres, practically all of them foreign-born or of foreign parentage, under housing conditions at times intolerable, in an environment un-American at all times, unhygienic often, generally unfavorable to the best moral, physical, and mental development of the child, this district presents a field for the observation of the exceptional child greater in need and richer in material than the average school communit3^ Thirteen terms ago we began to segregate all the "overage" children, placing them in special classes under the best available teachers, and eUminating from the course of studies many "non- essentials." After six and a half years of careful effort, we still have about four thousand children in special classes. (This does not include the ungraded classes for children pro- nounced mentally deficient after a thoro pathological and psychological examination.) A study of these special classes discloses much of interest and value. In three min- utes I can emphasize but one point. These children can be roughly classified into two great divisions: the child with average mental powers, "overage" thru late entrance, illness, frequent transfers, etc., and the child of such hmited mentality that altho not tech- nically called "mentally deficient" he must be classified as the border-line child or the "near defective." For the former class, careful individual instruction and help will soon bring him up to grade. Rarely should it require more than two years to bring him back to the regular class for children of his own age. The problem is far more delicate and serious for the other child, the exceptionally dull, the "near defective." It is for us to protest against the further waste of time and money and of the life-blood of both teacher and children in futile efforts to teach such what they cannot learn. All these details of our traditional courses of study that we in our arrogance deem "essentials," but which require for their mastery intellectual powers beyond the capacity of children of this type, must be swept aside and in their stead there must come help and instruction along Hnes fitted to the child's future needs and mental limitations. Just what these lines are to be depends upon the genius of "divinely touched" teachers to discover and develop. Their effect will be to give the poor handicapped child a greater interest in classroom tests, a greater hope for satisfactory achievement, and a greater confidence in his ability to turn chronic failure into something akin to success. One thing more. What shall be our attitude toward the real mental defective? Given a boy, able-bodied, generally intelligent in every direction but book-learning, over fourteen years of age, anxious and able to get work — should the law compel him to remain in school until he is sixteen, because he cannot work an example in long division or write a composition? At sixteen or at sixty these tasks will still be beyond his feeble mental powers, even tho we keep him in school for that full period. What, then, is the proper course to pursue? To keep him at his desk working, working, working at the unattainable, giving him two years of discouraging, futile effort in school, with idleness and possible harmful company outside of school, or to let him get into some useful occu- pation, where he becomes self-dependent and self-respecting? This is a phase of the problem which this committee must consider in its final report. Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. — The investiga- tion made by Mr. Ayer, under the auspices of the Russell Sage Foundation, of retarded children has resulted in much activity in many places, in the effort to overcome existing conditions. Nearly every city in which investigations have been made proves to have a surprisingly large percentage of children two, three, and four years behind the grades to which normal children of their ages are supposed to belong. Given the existence of such conditions, each city is face to face with the problem of overcoming the admitted unfortunate condition. It is necessary for principals and teachers of a given system to reaUze fully the nature and extent of the evil and to become inspired with a desire to relieve the conditions. CouncU] PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 325 Many teachers and not a few principals have felt conscientiously that a large percentage of failures in the grades was not to be considered a reflection upon the effectiven3ss of the work. In fact, sometimes it has been felt that such conditions merely indicated that high standards were sustained. A superintendent's first duty is to overcome these false ideas and to have both teachers and principals impressed with the thought that an un- necessary failure is an evil of the first magnitude. When principals and teachers do fully realize that part of their duty is to spare no pains to secure the successful accomplish- ment of the year's work in as many cases as possible, the percentage of retardation will be found to diminish. The next problem in the overcoming of this evil is to have the community convinced of the desirability of special schools being established in which pupils who are retarded may receive proper attention. While all are willing to concede the desirability of such special schools, many feel a personal pride as to their own children and have the feeling that there is a reflection upon the family if any member is compelled to be in attendance at such a school. To convince such parents of their error is a problem which we have been attempting to solve in Denver by special meetings in various parts of the city. It is our hope, thru the establishment of these special schools for retarded children in various centers of the city, to be able to show in a few years a decided diminution of the number of such children. Ben Blewett, superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo. — The report of the com- mittee gives a practical classification of the types of children who should be educated apart from the ordinary scheme of the school for normal children. Much has been accom- pUshed when the facts set forth in the report are recognized and used as principles in the organization of the work with exceptional children. To select the children that come under these several types is a practical detail more difficult than the theoretical classification of tj^es; more diflScult, if for no other reason, because each case presents differentiations from the type. Unless expert skill is exercised in the selection and assignment to peculiar training, serious harm may be done. For this expert diagnosis the skill of both the physician and the psychologist is needed. This skill should be at the service of boards of education providing schools for exceptional children. To place a child in the class of mental defectives when his trouble is a remediable physical condition works greater harm than to leave a mentally deficient child in the association of normal children. To burden the schools with the task of educating a child whom the expert psychologist could readily determine as hopelessly handicapped by heredity or by the chances of birth is conduct that is without reasonable excuse. Olive M. Jones, principal. Public School 120 (Special School for Delinquent Boys), New York, N.Y. — A question has been raised in regard to the future of the exceptional child. May I venture to express an opinion based upon an actual experience of nearly five years in caring for at least one type of exceptional child? Many of these children are physically strong and able, and altho mentally unfit to gain much from the ordinary school education, they are neither idiots nor imbeciles, and they are capable of becoming self-respecting and self-supporting in some one of the lower walks of life. Shall we force them to remain in school and attempt to force upon them an education nature has not fitted them to receive? One such boy is in my school now. He is very poor and the only means of sup- port to a feeble, widowed mother. The most persistent, painstaking efforts have failed to bring that boy to the place where he can pass the examination upon which an employ- ment certificate is conditional in New York, if the applicant is under sixteen. He will not be sixteen until next December. Yet he is a great, strong boy, can lift and pull and tug, is our most trusted errand boy, handy and skillful in a thousand ways. He can never 326 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National be taught to work a problem in arithmetic as long as he lives, but he can bargain and make change with more shrewdness, speed, and accuracy than most of us. Such boys are not institution cases, even if the institutions which would receive them were all of the right kind or sufficient in number to accommodate them all. Would it not be wiser as a civic question, as well as kinder and safer for the boy, to let him go to work as porter or stoker or packer, any one of which jobs he could do well ? There must always be hewers of wood and drawers of water, you know, and some of us must always do the thinking for some of the others. Then why institutionalize and confine such a child and deprive him of his right to an independent, self-respecting existence? Why not rather train him to do efficiently the things he can do and then let him go out to earn the liveli- hood he can earn ? THE ECONOMICAL USE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY That a public-school building may be used economically it ought to be used all of the time — summer and winter, morning, afternoon, and evening — and it ought to be used for the greatest benefit to the greatest number of people. Otherwise a large part of the people's investment in the building is wasted. To use a school building only from nine to three, five days in the week, nine months in the year — in other words, to allow it to remain unused more than one-half the working year — ^is not only to waste the people's money, but to deprive of the benefits of its use many thousands of persons of all ages who might otherwise take adyantage of them. It is evident, however, that a building which consists of a cellar, cor- ridors, and rooms furnished with children's seats and desks fastened to the floor may be conveniently used for but one purpose — the conduct of school recitations. If a school building is to be used for social and recreative pur- poses, even if it is to be used economically for the purposes of a modern school, it should be constructed and furnished very differently from the prevailing t3^e of schoolhouse. In all of this discussion two considerations are, I think, self-evident: 1. The schoolhouse is intended primarily for children. If, therefore, there comes a conflict between the interests of children and the interests of adults in planning the building, the interests of the children must prevail. 2. Children are entitled to time and opportunity for play — the natural means of development for the young of the human species, as it is for the young of all animals. My first proposition, then, is that every schoolhouse should have abun- dant play-space. I need not dwell on the importance of providing large out-of-doors playgrounds. These are of the greatest service when they are fully equipped and rightly used. When, however, they are laid out in grass and flowers, as is the case in many of our smaller cities and villages, they are more ornamental than useful. Happily, school gardening is coming into vogue and is rapidly converting sham playgrounds into real play- grounds. But the outdoor playground, no matter how it may be used, is not sufficient. It is not used on excessively hot days. It is not used on very CouncUl USE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 327 cold days. It is not used at night. It is not used when it rains or when it snows. Under the best of conditions, it is used less than one-half the days of the school year. By the erection of suitable shelters it might be used much more than it is. In any case, however, it should be supplemented by a large indoor or covered playground. In New York, where the cost of sites is so high as to prohibit the purchase of much more land than that on which the building stands, we utilize practically the whole of the ground floor as an indoor playground. This large room is kept heated in winter to about fifty degrees. It has large folding doors and abundant window space, so that there may always be a free circulation of air. Its walls, floor, and ceiling are given a light and cheerful finish, so that it may not offend the aesthetic feelings. Permanent benches are constructed round the walls, so that tired children may have somewhere to rest. It is equipped with the usual gymnasium outfit — wands, clubs, dumb-bells, jumping-mats, bars, and horses. A small movable platform for the use of teachers or speakers adds greatly to the number of uses to which the room may be put. By all means let us have outdoor playgrounds if we can, but whether we can or not, every school should be provided with an indoor playground. Its advantages are: a) It can be used in all weathers, at all seasons of the year, at all hours of the day or evening, h) Where a school is so crowded that, as is often the case in New York, two classes must occupy the same room at different hours, one class may be having, in the covered playground, games, or folk dancing, or caUsthenics, while the other class is reciting. c) The covered playground solves the problem of a place in which to provide recre- ative space for young working-people on winter evenings. It may be made so attractive as to draw girls from dance halls and young men from saloons. In New York in the densely populated parts, where an outdoor play- ground is impossible on account of the cost, we have solved the problem by constructing playgrounds on the roof. Such roof playgrounds are now rendered feasible thru modern methods of fireproof construction. The floor of the playground, which is also the roof of the building, is constructed of vitrified tile or brick. Abundant entrances and exits, toilet facilities, and drinking-water are provided. A parapet wall three or four feet high surrounds the roof, while the top and sides are inclosed by a wire netting stretched over steel trusses, to prevent the throwing of injurious missiles into the surrounding streets. Such a playground on the roof may be used not only for ordinary play purposes but for band concerts and dancing on summer nights. A schoolhouse should be equipped not only with playgrounds but with an assembly room that will accommodate at least one-third of the school at one time, and with shops and cooking-rooms for manual training in the case of the older children. In order that an assembly room may be used, as it should be, for lectures, concerts, and other entertainments, as well as for ordinary school purposes, 328 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National it should be placed not higher than the first classroom floor and may be placed, if the configuration of the ground permits, below the level of the street, its roof constructed largely of glass forming the floor of an interior court. Its seats should be such that it may be used not only by the smaller children but by adults. Benches should be discarded because they are uncomfortable and do not conform to the now universally accepted plan of radial aisles. Proper provision should also be made for the use of a stere- opticon and screen. Electrical conduits and wiring should be brought to a central point at the rear of the room, never to the center, so as to avoid annoyance to the audience by the operation of the lantern. The screen, which when hung from the ceiling generally presents an untidy appearance, should be placed in a pocket in the floor of the platform, from which it may be raised by means of a pulley, and to which it may be restored when not in use. The stage itself should be furnished with side entrances, curtains at the front, and footlights, to permit of dramatic performances. Every schoolhouse should be a children's theater. Even the classroom should be planned with a view to its use for other than strictly school purposes. Much difi"erence of opinion continues to exist regarding the size of classrooms. Doubtless a very large classroom — one, say, twenty-six by thirty-two feet — serves social purposes better than a smaller room. In spite of this fact, however, I must give my allegiance to the smaller room, say the German standard of twenty-two by thirty feet. My reasons are: a) The smaller room conserves both teachers' and pupils' energy, because less effort is required in the use of the voice in a room of nine thousand cubic feet capacity than in one of twelve thousand cubic feet. h) The smaller room admits of perfect lighting while using only one side of the room for windows, because the innermost row of desks is brought well within the limit of proper lighting, which is conceded to be one and one-half the height of the top of the windows from the floor. In the larger room windows are generally formed in the side and rear — an arrangement which compels the teacher to face the light. The important consideration, however, to render a classroom appro- priate for social as well as school purposes, is not the size of the room so much as its furniture. As classrooms are now furnished with seats and desks fastened to the floor, they serve only the school purposes of reading, writing, and listening. The seats are too small for adults. The desks are not suitable for drawing or manual training. There is no reform in school construction more needed today than the destruction of the fixed seat and desk and the substitution of movable tables and chairs. The advantages of the latter are these: a) Movable furniture is more wholesome, because it permits the removal of all dirt and dust from the floor. h) It can be better arranged by the teacher either for class exercises or for group exercises. c) The tables serve better for manual training and drawing exercises. I Council] USE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 329 d) By proper disposition of the furniture every classroom may become at will a recitation room, a game-room, a dancing-floor, a gymnasium. e) Each room may be freely used in the afternoon or evening for club or other social purposes. There is only one other reform in school construction comparable in utility with the substitution of movable for fixed furniture, and that is the invention of a system of artificial ventilation that will supply thirty cubic feet of fresh air per pupil per minute, and that will work in all weathers, in all rooms, and whether the windows are open or closed. Recent medical research and experimentation show that breathing pure air, night and day, is the most potent means of curing and preventing tuberculosis — the plague of modern civilization. The schools have properly been called upon to do their part in this all-important work. Started in Germany, the open-air class has also been tried with beneficial results in several European countries. The first class of the kind in America was established by the New York Board of Education some years ago on the seashore at Coney Island in connection with a charitable institution. For this purpose the roofs of buildings, schoolyards, meadows, parks, and, as in New York, old ferryboats, have been utilized. It begins to be evident, however, that, sooner or later, the demand for open-air classes will become so great, that it will be necessary to construct our school buildings in such a manner that each room shall have at least one of the inclosing sides arranged to admit a practically unimpeded circulation of air. The most satisfactory arrangement thus far devised is the use of glass set in compara- tively small frames, supported on pivots and operated by levers and gears, so that it may be placed at will in nearly a horizontal position, so that 95 per cent, of the lighting will also be air-admitting surface. A room with windows of this kind has been found in New York to be practically an open- air room. There can be no more economical use of a school building than to use it for restoring strength to the weak and health to the sick. Suppose, then, we have a building constructed for the largest possible number of uses — a building with an assembly room, large indoor play- grounds, gymnasium, workshops, cooking-rooms, and with each classroom furnished with movable furniture — what are the activities, other than regu- lar day school, that may profitably be undertaken ? First, there are evening schools. Evening schools, however, have not been economically managed. The attendance is almost invariably small — from 20 to 40 per cent, of the enrollment. The suggestion has been made — and I understand the experiment has been successfully tried — that a small deposit of money should be required from each student. I am incUned to think, however, that at least in the case of one large class of evening-school students — those who leave school at fourteen without having completed the elementary-school course — the evening school from eight to ten o'clock is not an efficient institution. No boy of these tender years should be 33° NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National expected, after working all day, to give up his evenings to study. In my judgment, the state should retain its hold on each child until he completes at least the eight years' elementary course. If an employer takes into his service the child who leaves school with no proper equipment for fighting the battle of life in these days of dire competition, the state should see to it that the time required for giving him a moiety of that equipment should be taken, not out of the child's hours for rest and recreation, but out of the employer's hours for labor. I recomniend, therefore, that classes be estab- lished from 7:00 to 9:00 A.M. and from 4:00 to 8:00 p.m. for working-boys and girls who did not complete the eight years' elementary-school course before going to work, and that our compulsory education laws be so amended as to make such a rule effective. Another large class of evening-school students consists of adult for- eigners who come to learn the English language. In New York City the foreign classes — running from the middle of October until the middle of April — have always been successful. This year, however, we are trying an experiment which bids fair to surpass all of our previous efforts along this line. During the summer months we have opened an evening school for foreigners. The attendance and enthusiasm of the students surpass all our anticipations. Should the attendance keep up during July and August, it is safe to say that this summer evening school is only the pre- cursor of a great system of such schools — another means of economically using school buildings for the benefit of the largest possible number of per- sons. In evening lectures to the people the school assembly room, or, in default of an assembly room, the large indoor playground, may be utilized from October until May. From May until cool weather comes again, no one who is not a teacher will endure a lecture. The experience of our New York lecture bureau is that the best lectures and lecturers are none too good for the plain working-people who frequent our assembly rooms; and that, while the lecture illustrated by the stereopticon or relieved by music is still the most popular, the scientific, the Hterary, and the historical lectures given in courses, in which the hearer may question the lecturer and which are accompanied by lists of books for reading, are attracting increasingly large audiences of intelligent students. Last season public lectures in the New York schools were delivered by six hundred and forty-one lecturers in one hundred and sixty-nine centers, to audiences aggregating 1,213,116 people. Akin to the use of the assembly room or covered playground for lectures is their use for special celebrations. On February 12, 1909, the one hun- dredth anniversary of the birth of Abraham Lincoln was celebrated in New York, among other ways, by the delivery of forty-six lectures on Lincoln by prominent citizens in forty-six school buildings to audiences aggregating 65,249 people. On September 29, 1909, the three hundredth anniversary Council] USE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 331 of the discovery of the Hudson River by Henry Hudson, and the one hundredth anniversary of the successful application of steam to navi- gation by Robert Fulton, were celebrated by the delivery of seventy-six addresses by members of the teaching and supervising staff in seventy-six school buildings to audiences aggregating 71,055 people. There is a large class of young working-people who do not attend evening school, and who, if some other provision is not made for them, drift into the saloons, dance halls, and moving-picture shows. For these we have opened in New York evening recreation centers. For these activities we utilize chiefly the indoor playgrounds but also many classrooms. The playground is divided into two parts by folding doors. One part is used for quiet games and reading. The other is used for gymnastics in the case of boys and folk dancing in the case of girls. Classrooms are assigned to debating, literary, and athletic clubs, whose members not only acquire information but learn how to speak in public and learn the necessity for order, decorum, and dignity in their deliberations. A recent addition to this activity is the estab- lishment of study-rooms for children who have no proper place to study their lessons at home. A single story will suffice to show their usefulness. About a year ago a little girl was found to be extremely slow and backward and apparently quite unable to keep up with her grade in which she had already spent more than twice the allotted time. Investigation showed that she was a member of a large family in which English was not the family language and which occupied two rooms in a tenement house. For the poor child reading and speaking English at home were out of the question. A kindly friend led her to the study-room in the neighboring recreation center. There a skillful teacher showed her how to study and helped her over her difficulties. On the next promotion day she was promoted, and by last February she had progressed so rapidly that she was advanced two grades. Another innovation in our evening recreation centers is the permission given to the young women in the girls' centers to invite their young men friends to a dance one evening each week. This experiment, conducted under the watchful eye of skilled supervisors, has been completely successful. Only by setting up legitimate attractions in our school buildings for the leisure hours of our young working-people, can we hope to keep them away from those city pleasures, run for profit, that lure our boys and girls to the very mouth of hell. How shall we utilize our school buildings during the long summer vaca- tion ? In New York we have established vacation schools in the forenoon, and vacation playgrounds in the afternoon and evening. The vacation schools give instruction in drawing and carpentry, Venetian ironwork, chair-caning, and other arts for boys, and cooking, sewing, dressmaking, fancy work, and nursing for girls. Kindergartens are conducted for the little ones. Perhaps the most enthusiastic classes, however, are the con- 332 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National tinuation classes, intended for children who failed of promotion in the day schools in June. Vacation playgrounds are established this year in two hundred and forty centers. About fifty of them are reserved for the tenement mothers and their babies. They are frequented by many of the real mothers and by thousands of the "little mothers." The roof playgrounds are thronged every night by children who eagerly climb five or six long flights of stairs to escape from the heat and the fetid odors of the street to listen to the music of a band or to dance and sing to their hearts' content in the cooler, purer air of the roof. Last summer the average attendance in these play- grounds was over 1 10,000 per day. Such are the out-of-school activities conducted by the board of education at public expense in public-school premises in Greater New York. What other activities might be conducted to utilize these premises to the fullest extent and for the benefit of the largest possible number of people? I believe the following would be successful: 1. Each high school should be kept open practically all summer for the benefit of those students who failed of promotion in June, and of those who desire to complete the course in less than the prescribed four years. Cleveland has set us an excellent example by keeping her technical high school open the year round. 2. Every school playground and gymnasium, indoors and out-of-doors, should be kept open every afternoon thruout the year under the direction of skilled attendants. 3. Every workshop and cooking- room should be open for instruction each school- day afternoon and on Saturday morning. Only in this way can sufficient eye and hand training be given to all the boys and girls who need it. The attempt now advocated in some quarters to separate manual training from industrial training will prove a dismal failure. Manual training is the legitimate introduction to learning a trade. It is only thru manual training that we are able to discover those who have aptitudes for mechani- cal pursuits. In conclusion, there are two conditions which, I believe, experience has demonstrated are essential to the success of any activities undertaken in school premises outside of school hours: 1. The activities should be under the direction of the school authorities and should be supported at public expense. No other agency has the means to conduct them on a sufficiently large scale. No other agency has the staying power to conduct necessary experiments over a series of years in order to determine a policy. No other agency has the power to secure the essential co-operation of the day-school staff with those responsible for the outside work. No other agency is so likely to keep the playgrounds clear of their most insidious foe — ^political influence in the appointment of the directors. 2. It is not buildings or equipment that make a playground successful, but the persons in charge. If the director and his assistants do not sym- pathize with children, if they are not resourceful and inventive, if they cannot play all children's games and guide children in gymnastics and CouncU] USE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 333 athletics, if they have not the executive ability to vary the activities, so that physical exertion, repose, and recreative work have their proper tihie and rotation, the playground, no matter what fts appointments or resources, will be a comparative failure. City children must be taught how to play. As a corollary to the second condition it follows that all normal schools and training schools for teachers should instruct our future teachers in the teaching of gymnastics, athletics, and games. DISCUSSION Lewis H. Jones, president, State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich. — The very able and exhaustive paper which has just been read on "The Economic Use of Education Plants" seems to have covered the ground so well that one can do little more than agree to its suggestions and conclusions. Where such ample appropriations are made for inci- dental work as seems to be the case in New York City, the incidental uses of a school building become almost equal in value to the regular day-school work. This does not, however, apply to smaller places or to rural schools, and the American teacher has before him the problem of convincing the average taxpayer that it would be infinitely more economical for him to pay into the treasury more money to secure larger benefits from the school plants now in existence. Personally, I am very sorry that teachers and others have the habit of exploiting the large total sums expended in education in this country without any adequate perspective, making it seem to the average taxpayer as if his whole burden of taxes were for pubUc education. As a matter of fact, the amount now paid for all phases of public education in this country is a mere trifle as compared with the most incidental personal expenses of the inhabitants. We need to teach people to pay taxes for school purposes willingly, and to increase the amount until it shall have some showing of adequacy for the work that needs to be done. Instead of talking about the large amount expended for education, let us show how meager it is compared with what should be given. Let us show the extravagance of the common personal habits of the men who complain of their tax-rate. Especially is a course like this necessary for people in villages and rural districts. The aggregate amounts paid look large, but persons need to be shown that the individual expense of the particular taxpayer is the merest trifle. Let us encourage a more generous expenditure instead of a more parsimonious one so commonly agitated in the school district. Economy and parsimony are very different affairs. Even tho a plant be used economically, more money must be expended instead of less, and if a parsimonious habit be allowed to form itself and be allowed to control expenditures in education, school plants will lie unused, when a larger expenditure would secure from them greater results in the general education of the people. Robert J. Aley, state superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. — Indiana is attempting to have her schoolhouses used for the good of all the people. Her consohdated- rural-school buildings are made community centers. Lecture courses, farmers' institutes, mothers' meetings, spelling contests, literary societies, debates, and athletic contests are some of the activities that center in and about these buildings. In the buildings of many of our towns and cities similar occurrences are frequent. In some of the city buildings night schools for adults are held. The people generally are growing to feel that the school plants are theirs and that they are entitled to use them for instruction, recreation, and social purposes. J, Stanley Brown, Joliet Township High School, Joliet, 111. — In many communi- ties the school building is looked upon as an institution so divorced from every use except the teaching of the boys and the girls that it has failed almost utterlv to perform its 334 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National greater function in community service by forming a common place of assembly for the discussion of public questions or for public entertainment, or for other legitimate and helpful service which a school building built by the taxes of all the people ought to be expected to perform. It seems that there is no good reason for our failure to look upon the public-school building as in some sense a business institution in which there have been invested certain sums of money and from which the community has a right to expect a fair business return. It is safe to assume that this return could not be made from an ordinary commercial institution if that institution were allowed to remain idle for about 60 per cent, of the time, and it is in the interest of use for concerts, for lectures, for dramatic performances, for the discussion of public questions, etc., that we think that it may be made to perform a much larger public service than it has yet done. A commercial institution of any kind used for the small amount of time which the public-school building is used would unquestionably go out of business in a very short time. And now that education has assumed a somewhat broader view than it once had, and is willingly or unwilUngly assuming some of the duties of the home and some of the functions heretofore performed by the church, it seems only reasonable that the school building be available after the close of the legal school day for late afternoon and evening use. There seems to be defense for such a proposition in the fact that we have emphasized social efficiency in the training of the child and yet there is only a small opportunity to develop this quality of social efiSciency, unless our meetings with the child are extended beyond the ordinary school day. In the interest of a real democratic institution, it is good fo r the people of a commu- nity to feel that they may come together in this institution built for all, and have an opportunity to express their opinions without feeling that they are trespassing upon the rights of private ownership, because they are meeting in a building or an assembly hall not owned by an individual or a corporation. W. T. Carrington, president of State Normal School, Springfield, Mo. — I find myself in accord with Dr. Maxwell's paper, and the discussions. Little has been left to discuss. I wish especially to indorse Dr. Jones's definition of "economics." Larger equip- ment, as a rule, means a more economic equipment. In the construction and the furnish- ing of every type of school buildings, the consideration should be first of all given to the main uses to which they are put, but we must at no time lose sight of the fact that the whole child is at school, and that the school is to administer to the highest and best wel- fare of the community. I also indorse the position that normal schools have grave respon- sibilities and fine opportunities in setting examples and in exerting wide influence in bringing about an extensive use of all school buildings and school furnishings; in pro- moting social, civic, and religious culture. These state institutions in Missouri are doing very much to solve the problem. The newest and latest school buildings have been constructed and furnished very much as described in Dr. Maxwell's paper. These vocational schools are teaching that the pubhc school, thru its pupils, must be the social, civic, and religious center of the community, and that the teacher should be an important factor in all these activities. Please note that I have included in my statement, that it must be a religious center. I am not in sympathy with that sentiment sometimes expressed from the pulpit, that the public school cannot and should not teach religion. It seems to me that worship and devotion are essential elements in character-formation, and that the character is largely determined by what we worship, and the ideals to which we are devoted. If this be true, the public school must teach religion and provide for religious activities. The normal school with which I am associated puts this first, and emphasizes ways and means of promoting large Y.M.C.A. and Y.W.C.A. organizations. Thru these organizations, Council] USE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 335 the social, civic, literary, and athletic activities of the school are controlled. This insti- tution believes that in this way leaders in all such activities are teaching in a most em- phatic way the economic use of educational plants. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal. — In the business and commercial world certain maxims or principles are universally in force. Investments should yield the greatest possible return. To do this implies: (i) The minimum of equipment for the maximum of return; (2) the use of the equipment or investment to its maximum of capacity with constant regard to wear and tear; (3) the use of the investment, equip- ment, or plant all the working-hours of the day, and all the days of the year. If, then, good business in the world of commerce and industry demands this, it would seem that good business in the educational world implies the same. Any educa- tional plant that meets these requirements must be so selected as to provide for the largest number of students with the least possible financial outlay; must in simplicity and quality meet the demands of the world; must be in use not only the five school days, but on Saturdays and during the usual three vacation months. Any manufacturing or industrial plant that is idle one day out of six, or three months out of twelve, yields but an inadequate and partial return upon investment. In a word, our educational plants, to give the greatest good to the greatest number, should be in use on Saturday for those who are able or desire to complete a given portion of work in the shortest possible time. They should be in use in the evenings for continuation classes for those students now in one or another wage-earning capacity, but who desire to per- fect themselves more fully, looking toward advancement. They should be in session during the summer months, thus providing constant schooling for those who choose to avail themselves of such privilege; and to make it possible for those outside to come in, thus keeping children oflf the street. This does not imply that the same set of teachers should be at work constantly. It would help to do away with the idea so prevalent among the American people — that nine months should be devoted to constant rush and three to absolute rest. It would mean better business administration of educational plants, and under proper conditions the equipment would last as long as under the present arrangement. A community would more readily bond itself for adequate school facilities could it know that the return upon its investment would, as in the business world, be constant; that grounds, buildings, machines, libraries, equipment, were not lying idle one hundred and thirty-six days of the three -hundred and thirteen working days in the year, that as the school is the place in which to live, not simply a place in which to learn to live, so the school plant is a constant rather than an intermittent factor in the life of the individual. Maximilian P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J. — The splendid and comprehen- sive paper of Superintendent Maxwell points the way in the right direction. But this way is not free from obstacles, and in order to accomplish our end, we must face these obstacles squarely. The question has been asked, "What objections can be raised to thus making the schoolhouse a social center?" I will mention two. One is a health objection. We are trying to introduce medical inspection of school children so as to pro- tect them from infection and contagion. If we open the doors of the schoolhouses wide to large congregations of people, how can ^e prevent infection and contagion from enter- ing into the buildings and rooms where our children are to spend the best part of their days, and which we are trying to safeguard hygienically with so much anxiety ? Can we devise and carry out methods of control which would reach out to these gatherings? The second objection is this: We are endeavoring to make the schoolhouse a home for the children. Even the assembly hall of each school, its corridors and passageways, are often characteristic, in their appointments, of the spirit of the school as a whole. And certainly every classroom over which a good teacher presides will express, in its decora- 336 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National tions, pictures, flowers, exhibition of work, etc., the genius of that individual class whose home the room is. If such a building, or such a room, is used by others, is there not fear that the integrity of the school home will be invaded and desecrated ? I feel that these objections are serious ones and that I do not know how to answer them even tho I am thoroly in favor of the idea of developing the public schoolhouse into a social and educational center. Miss Julia Richman, district superintendent of city schools. New York, N.Y. — There is nothing that I can contribute to this discussion, but there is one question in connection with this subject which I desire to bring before the Council — a question which some day, if not today, the Council will be called upon to answer. I place the question before you, not in a controversial spirit, not for the purpose of throwing an obstacle in the way of developing to the full the social opportunities of the school plant, not to inject a sectarian or denominational issue, and certainly not to throw a theological firebrand into the discussion, but this is the question that the Council of Education of the National Education Association must one day be prepared to answer: What must be the attitude of school boards and school authorities generally on the question of the social use of the school plant on Sundays? We must remember that the greatest need for the "open school" is in congested districts; that the populace of the congested districts, in the main, has come from continental Europe, bringing with them the standards of those countries; that many of these people, altho Christians, have never known, nor can they understand, the restrictions of a Puritan Sabbath. It seems to me that here in New England this Council must meet and face this issue, and must be prepared to answer the question: Shall we advocate the "open school" on Sundays? NOTE Three papers and following discussions read before the Council, as noted in the Secretary's minutes, on the Report of the Committee on Place of Industries in Public Education, were transferred from the papers and discussions of the Council to follow the full report of this committee, which will appear in the proceedings of Department of Manual Training and Art. REPORT ON EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR FRANK STRONG, CHANCELLOR, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LAWRENCE, KANS. A sketch of the educational progress of the year would include, among other things, the following: First. — There have been distinct criticism and somewhat acrimonious discussion of the American college, its methods, and its results. The out- come of this criticism and discussion has been to eliminate to some degree the lack of definiteness in the American college, and to strengthen its mental and moral tone. One of the most significant happenings of the year was the culmination of the movement against the free-elective system in the substitution by the great exponent of the elective system itself of more definite requirements, on the basis that the student ought to know some- thing of every great branch of knowledge and be well trained in some single Council! EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS DURING YEAR 337 field of knowledge. There has been in general in colleges and universities a trend toward sounder scholarship, toward a sounder and cleaner athletic Ufe, and toward a lessening of the outside interests that interfere with scholarly pursuits. In connection with this, the past year especially seems to have shown that the tj^e of university of ten years ago has passed away never to return. The present university is much more composite in its make-up and addresses itself to a multitude of interests to which little attention was given by university men a decade ago. This is especially true of the state university, which is rapidly becoming the scientific arm of the state to do whatever the commonwealth in its organized capacity may undertake for the health of its citizens, in the scientific development of its resources, in the care and development of its penal institutions, in the geological and biological surveys of the state, and in many other ways. The effect of this movement is felt even by the oldest foundations in our country, and they too are finding it necessary to adjust themselves to the industrial and social needs of the times. The permanent effect of this movement upon the purely scholarship side of our universities cannot be accurately set out at this time. The experience of institutions engaged in this work seems to show that in the end the scholarship side will be stimu- lated by the enlargement of the scope of the institution. But while one must recognize fully that a university is to some extent an industrial institution, and that it must have a definite money- value to the community that it serves, yet one must respectfully protest against the assumption that an institution of higher learning must be judged wholly or largely by the definite money- value that issues directly from its work. This is to assume the commercial standard, the materialistic attitude which is so prevalent in our day and which is the direct foe of what is best in our civic Hfe and in our education. The best, most valuable product of a university can never be measured in money-value, and if an institution should degrade itself to the point where it should do nothing except that which is measurable in dollars and cents, it would contribute largely to the downfall of the civilization that it is meant to uphold. The truly practical education is that which issues in high character, sound intellectual and spiritual life, high civic conduct, and an intelligent and honorable citizen- ship. According to this true standard of measurement the college of liberal arts and sciences — the American college — which has done more for true democracy than any other educational force that ever existed in the world, is the most valuable institution which our civilization possesses and makes the greatest return for the money that is spent upon it. Second. — Public high schools have also come in for their share of criticism and discussion. This discussion has concerned the courses of study and the quality of the work done. The result has been an attempt to relate the courses of study more definitely to the needs of the times without sacrificing the true scholarship so necessary to the best training. High schools have S3^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National been rightly forced to consider their relation to the whole community, to adjust themselves to the great class of students whose life must be one of physical or manual labor, to consider themselves first of all as a general institution with a scope far wider than the preparation of boys and girls for college. All this has involved the relation of the high school to the college or university, and the criticism has been made that the college or university has sought arbitrarily to confine the high school to the limited field represented by college-entrance requirements. In some quarters this criticism is just; in general it is unjust, and the relation of the high school to the college we may very safely assume will be taken care of by the inter- play between the two institutions. For the province of the college or university in its relation to the high school has come to be more and more to insist that the high-school course shall be made up on its merits as a second- ary-school course; that no university credit shall be given for any work of the high school of whatever kind, until it conforms to the best teaching stand- ards, and that when a course of study is so made on its merits and its work conforms to the best teaching standards, such work should be received for entrance to the college or university. It is also becoming more and more the province of the college or university to provide the educational stimulus and inspiration for the whole educational system; to maintain the highest scholarship standards and to assist the high school in the maintaining of such standards; to combat, both in the college and the high school, the immensely strong tendency of the times toward materialism and the wor- ship of the so-called practical; to help the high school to convince the community it serves that to direct all its best energies toward the work which bears the dollar mark is to fly in the face of the experience of many centuries and weaken the foundation of the true culture and scholarship which have so much to do with the real soundness of a high civilization. Third. — In the great body of elementary schools advancement during the year has taken the form of attempted elimination of waste. Numerous scientific investigations of school problems undertaken by the teachers themselves have indicated a tendency toward self-criticism on the part of the schools, toward examination of educational methods in view of results obtained. The cause of industrial education has received distinct impetus, and it is becoming more and more evident that industrial education must be a part of the regular public-school system; that the state should, thru trade schools, provide facihties for education in industries, handicraft, and the like. The relation of the elementary schools, therefore, to a considerable body of students who must look to trades for a living has received more adequate attention. Vocational training in the public schools and in con- tinuation schools has developed in many places, and there is growing up a consensus of educational conviction that while vocational work and indus- trial training are necessary for a large number of children less favored in fortune than their fellows, no individual teacher or administrator should Council] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS DURING YEAR 339 have the power to dictate the destiny of individual children, but that vocational work must be so adjusted to the whole system of public education that no student, however humble his origin, shall in any way be deterred from passing into the very highest grades of the educational system. The problem of individual differences is being recognized by the school authorities in the organization and administration of our education. This, coupled with the tendency in normal schools and university schools of education to add to the usual professional preparation for teachers equip- ment in matters of juvenile ethics, personal and social hygiene, sanitation, and preventive medicine, seems to open a new era in the development of the grammar schools of the country. Fourth. — There has further developed a strong feeling that moral and reHgious training is after all the most important thing in education; that men highly trained, but without sound moral life, are a menace to the community. Notable advances in the study of the problem of religious education in schools have been made. Notable legislation has been enacted in many states pertaining to hygienic and sanitary conditions in our schools. We as a people are coming to the conclusion that our educational system should be reorganized so far as is necessary, on a sound, conservative basis that shall exclude the frenzies of extremists and correct, not emphasize, the weaknesses of the age. The feeling that our democracy must find its sup- port more and more in the character and quality of its public education; that a new type of school and university must slowly emerge which shall be so adjusted to sound scholarship and the economic needs of the times as greatly to increase the efficiency of our population and add to the happi- ness of our people. And perhaps the most significant of all is the growing tendency toward the completion in all our states of the state system of pub- lic education. Signs of this are not wanting in the oldest states of the Union, and it will not be surprising if some of the older foundations are made state universities, or if, in some other way, the public system of edu- cation is completed by the establishment of state higher education. Fifth. — The year has developed in a slight measure a danger to state universities. There are some indications that politics may, unless guarded against, play a part in the spirit and policies of state institutions. And here I do not refer to the ordinary partisan politics which in the early days of almost all state universities was a menace to the growth of these insti- tutions. The new danger comes from the political changes that seem to be taking place among us; from the new questions, largely social and economic, that are obtruding themselves upon our American politics. It arises from the fact that upheavals and reformations always bring with them strife and bitterness; that they often give rise to persons to whom it appears that everything else, even our universities, should be sacrificed to forward the interests of one side or another of the controversy. The state universities themselves have had no small part in arousing the new moral ideals, the 340 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National new democratic spirit upon which the struggle for a sounder and finer national Hfe is based. The state university is therefore in the minds of some to be held in a measure responsible. It was truly said in the opening address before the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the National Association of State Universities that "the supreme test [of the state university] is whether the people of the state will on the one hand tax themselves to support it, and on the other impose upon themselves a self-denying ordi- nance to leave it severely alone, so that it may select its own members by the application of its own intellectual standards and the members thus chosen may be absolutely free to investigate, to teach, and to publish whatever they believe to be the truth." This new danger is affecting but few state institutions, and in them it is at present no serious menace, and there is every reason to believe that with care in administration, with serious attention to the interests of the great body of the people as a whole, the state university, by avoiding entangling alliances, will remain as it is at the present time — one of the freest educational agents in America for the attempted solution of the many perplexing social and economic questions. For, after all, a serious-minded people, whatever extremists may say and do, will not long allow the institution which they support by voluntary taxation, and to which they send their sons and daughters, to be anything other than a free institution for the development of truth without fear or favor. A second danger, which affects state universities and those upon a private foundation alike, arises from the powerful standardizing agencies that have made themselves felt more than ever during the past year. It is easy to go too far in attempts at standardizing education, for there is nothing so deadening as complete uniformity in the development of our schools. In addition, as has been elsewhere pointed out, some of the great standardizing agencies, in themselves extremely powerful, are essentially beyond public control, and outside of the administration of the institutions which they undertake to standardize; nor are they co-operative agencies which arise naturally from the interplay among educational institutions themselves. Their foundation is great wealth. Necessarily they look at education to some degree from that point of view. They desire immediate results and are somewhat impatient at the slow evolutionary process by which per- manent educational results are achieved. Arbitrary action is therefore easy and, unless great self-restraint is exercised, almost inevitable. But no one should for a moment fail to recognize the great value of these agencies in our education. They are a sign of the tremendous importance of education in our country and the value that is placed upon it. The danger, which is a real one, may easily be obviated, for there is every reason to believe that both donors and administrators have the most sincere and disinterested purpose in what they are undertaking to do. We may therefore confidently expect that the outcome of experience will be the adjustment of the admin- Council] PHYSICAL EDUCATION PHASES 341 istration of all standardizing agencies in such fashion that all educational powers shall work together for the highest good of American education. TOPIC: PHYSICAL EDUCATION /. PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN ITS VARIOUS PHASES- ELEMENTARY, SECONDARY, AND HIGHER D. A. SARGENT, M.D., DIRECTOR OF HEMENWAY GYMNASIUM, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. This is a large subject to cover in a twenty-minute paper, but I hope to be able to consider some of the various phases of physical education in the elementary and secondary schools, and to suggest some ways in which the college may further its own aims by improving the physical condition of those who come to it. My paper will be confined to the physical education of boys, since that of girls is considered in another department. Since the average man as we see him today is the resultant of all the varied physical activities of the past, the problem before us is how to pre- serve the development already attained, and to add still further to man's possible perfectibility. It is a recognized fact that the physical activities which, in the past, made for this attainment have been superseded by the inventions of machinery — the use of steam, electricity, etc., taking the place of muscular effort. Moreover, the concentration of population in large cities, and the great multiplication of human interests, add to the complexity of the problem. These social and economic changes have brought about a minute division of labor and greatly modified the develop- mental value of man's occupations, and the healthfulness of the environ- ment in which he Kves and works. The complications growing out of our present condition of affairs are forcing the problems of the farm, the shop, the factory, and the home upon the schools and colleges, which must be prepared to meet them. What part should physical education play in this Important movement ? Assum- ing that there is a mental and a physical side to education, altho they are mutually dependent, the larger part of the elementary-school life should be given over to physical education. Healthy children of six or seven years of age when left to themselves will expend an amount of energy in their daily physical activities equivalent to that required in a continuous walk of nine or ten miles. This amount of muscular movement is necessary for the development of the normal child of the elementary-school age. The best kind of exercises for children of this age are those free and spontaneous movements of trunk and limbs which they naturally enjoy and indulge in — such as bending, twisting, rolling, jumping, running, balancing, tumbling, and cHmbing. These simple exercises should be frequently supplemented by more formal movements in imitation of primitive occupations, such as 342 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National reaping, mowing, rowing, sawing, etc. Then the dramatic plays, such as Indians, cowboys, and soldiers, furnish a large amount of physical activity, as do the games of hunting, shooting, etc. The so-called "constructive" plays, the making of such things as huts and forts, and the digging of caves and wells, all require considerable physical as well as mental effort and are in a way highly educative. In order to produce the best physiological results, the periods of physical activity should be frequently interspersed with periods of rest. And frequently the best kind of rest for a normal child is a change of organic activity. Prolonged attention or prolonged maintenance of bodily positions, either sitting or standing, should never be expected or required. In view of the narrowing and deforming effect of many modern occupations — due to the limited employment of the mental and physical faculties — I believe that it is of the utmost importance that children of both sexes, as early as eight to ten years of age, should be given a series of more or less formal gymnastics as means of physical improvement to fit them for future labor. This is necessary not only to correct the evil effects of posture, etc., in the schoolroom, but also to develop those great fundamental groups of muscles on the back, shoulders, and chest which are so little used in school life and in modern occupations. There is no better way of developing these important parts of the body than by. the so-called heavy gymnastics, and the time to begin the practice of these exercises is when children delight to climb and hang and swing, and do so with excep- tional agility. To postpone these exercises to a later period, on the ground that children from eight to ten are not strong enough to take them, is a great mistake, and one for which similar work attempted later in Hfe seldom compensates. In speaking of the elementary phases of physical education, I have intentionally confined myself to a consideration of the large, simple movements of the trunk and limbs, because it has been found that the development of these parts at this time of life is of fundamental importance. This is an age, however, extremely susceptible to sensory and mental impressions; thus there will come to them naturally all the knowledge that children absorb thru observation, imitation, and experimentation with their toys, plays, and physical activities. Greater efforts should be made to teach, in the same way, the elements of language, music, drawing, arith- metic, geography, and some of the sciences. The secondary-school period, from ten to eighteen years of age, is the most important of all for physical education. These eight years are accom- panied by many mental and physical changes and no simple series of exer- cises will meet the demands of both the youngest and oldest of this group. We have seen that normal children of the elementary-school age, like young animals, delight in activity for its own sake. But at the beginning of the secondary-school age " there is a transition in interest from the control of the body and activity for its own sake, to interest in the control of environ- ment and activity for the end's sake." This transition of interest may be a I p Council] PHYSICAL EDUCATION PHASES 343 source of mental, moral, and physical improvement, or it may usher in a train of evils. The changes that are taking place in the nervous system at this time make it necessary to modify the methods of physical education to meet them. Exercises requiring fine muscular co-ordinations, the develop- ment of keen muscular sense, and nice powers of bodily adjustment may well be introduced now. It is the period most favorable for laying the foun- dations for future skill and expertness in gymnastics and athletic sports. It is also the period when the neuro-muscular habits are formed and fixed, and when the discipline of the daily drill counts for so much; when conduct is molded and character fixed. There is no better way of accomplishing these high aims than thru organized play, educative gymnastics, athletic sports, and competitive games. The value of graded plays and games has been so thoroly considered elsewhere^ that I will not linger here, but will go on to certain phases of physical education which, it seems to me, are not so well understood, altho very important. In order that physical movements may be made educative it is of vital importance that they be executed correctly and according to some ideal standards. The mere careless effort of bodily activity may be of some hygienic value, but such efforts are not strictly educative. This is the school age when boys should learn to run, jump, swim, row, box, fence, etc., as individual accomplishments. They must not only prac- tice them assiduously, but they must know how to expend, for the best results, the required strength, speed, skill, and precision. It is not expected that any one youth shall excel in all these sports, but I wish to emphasize the fact that an important end to be striven for in the practice of these physical accomplishments should be grace, poise, accuracy, order, and beauty of form and execution. This applies equally well to various kinds of light and heavy gymnastics. The movements with Indian clubs and wooden wands, the exercises on the rings and bars, lend themselves to the execution of graceful, pleasing motions requiring perfection of structure and harmony of function. The same laws as to beauty, order, harmony, and rhythm apply to these modes of expression thru activity as well as to other arts, and their practice depends upon the same mental processes and ethical principles. If a boy should become an expert in any athletic or gymnastic performance he would not only conform to the laws of animal mechanics, but to the standards of applied ethics and aesthetics as well. Apply this principle to all of the boy's physical activities, and it will be seen that there is a fertile field here for mental and moral improvement. Boxing, wrestling, football, etc., have served a useful purpose by fostering the love for such sports as test heroism, manliness, and courage; while many of the feats performed on the gymnasium apparatus call for skill, daring, and presence of mind. An arduous feat should act as a spur to a boy of the ^ Johnson, Education by Plays and Games; Bancroft, Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gymnasium; Angell, Play. 344 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National right spirit; and the voluntary self-discipline of conquering a difficulty thru long and persistent efforts, affords a preparation for the struggles of life. Such efforts give all athletic records their true value. The physical education of the last four years of the secondary-school course should con- sist of gymnastic drills, field games, group contests, and athletic sports. By the age of fourteen or fifteen the boy, if properly trained, will have acquired full use of his muscles, taken on some individual accomplishments, and be prepared to enter athletic contests with some restrictions and modifications. I say advisedly "with some restrictions," for when preparatory-school boys enter the field of competitive athletics they incur some physical risks and moral dangers. Practice for exhibitions, contests in gymnastics, or trials for the best all-round performance in several kinds of sports, have within them great possibilities of physical, mental, and moral improvement. But a contest that puts a premium on jumping the greatest height, or Hfting the heaviest weight, puts a premium on a high degree of specialization and on the acquirement of bodily conditions which are more or less abnormal. Games like baseball, basket-ball, or football, where players may advance their side by injuring opposing players, are not games to be encouraged unless the rules are modified to prevent such foul tactics. For this reason these sports have constantly to be regulated to eliminate the evils that arise and to preserve the good that is in them. The question is always arising among school principals and physical directors as to whether something may not be done so that the weaker portion of the students, as well as the physically strong, may enjoy the benefits of these athletic contests. A method has been worked out, under the name of group contests, which furnishes the best solution yet suggested for the problem. This method consists of dividing the pupils into divisions, clubs, or groups, each of which shall include boys of various athletic ability — the short and the tall, the strong and the weak, the slow and the alert. Each boy competes in the several events, and whatever he does will be added to the total score of his group. Then if his group wins, he will have contributed something to the victory and will consequently have a right to share in the honor of it. The tendency of this method is to bring about a spirit of mutual helpfulness and joyous co-operation. The advisa- bility of schoolboys under eighteen engaging in boat races, long runs, tug-of-war contests, and violent athletic games should be determined by a physico-medical examination of each individual, and a full knowledge on the part of the authorities of the nature and length of the contests under consideration. These prolonged athletic contests bring the respiratory and circulatory organs into great activity and are especially valuable for this reason. But as heart, lungs, brain, stomach, etc., do not usually complete their growth until after the twenty-second year it is -very important that these organs are not overtaxed in early youth. During these years, the good that may be done to aboy is so] great, and the injury] often so irre- I Council] PHYSICAL EDUCATION PHASES 345 parable, that it is a matter of anxious solicitude that the best supervision and instruction in physical education be secured for the secondary schools. With such a preparation as outlined, physical education in colleges would be much simplified. Young men would enter college trained in body as well as mind. They would be familiar with the various individual sports, have learned to play the different athletic games and become conversant with the regulations governing contests. Under these circumstances many of the puzzling questions which now vex the college faculties would not arise. Men would choose their favorite sports as they now do their favorite studies. The embarrassment felt by many college men in taking up a new exercise or playing a new game arises from the fact that they have had no previous training. They have postponed learning new exercises until too late and now find themselves with inadequate muscular control and no staying power, his physical deficiency makes them defer beginning training and many of them never attend the gymnasium or frequent the athletic field. Altho leading educators thruout the land, upheld by the researches of the psycho- physiological laboratories, attest to the unity that exists between the edu- cation of the mind and that of the body, it is difficult to realize a practical co-operation between the academic and physical departments in our colleges. If a young man attends a course of lectures on physiology and hygiene, he receives credit for his efforts even if he spends much of his time in pursuits that are injurious to his health. But if he attends the gymnasium or joins some athletic team, and applies the principles of hygiene, he receives no academic credit. The present need is for some academic method by which health and self-control may be measured and given credit in judging the mental efficiency of the college man. The college would render a service by requiring entrance examinations that would determine a boy's potential ability apart from mere book learning. These requirements should consist of examinations to determine general condition of health and muscular con- trol, strength tests, and trials of physical efficiency. Such requirements would give new meaning to the physical work in the preparatory schools, putting their curricula in accord with the impulses of the child and com- bining the constructive forces of brain and body building. Then the work of physical training and development would be largely done in the prepara- tory schools during the formative period of a boy's life, and when he arrived at college his physical work would be recreative rather than developmental. He would have learned the value of keeping fit for his mental work, and with the vigor and energy that come with prime physical condition he would enter his intellectual pursuits with greater zeal. Simply to advise college men to obey the laws of health, without adjusting the system of credits to recognize such obedience, puts a premium on neglecting this advice. Some colleges require those students who compete in athletics to attain a certain grade in their studies; so students who compete for scholar- ship should attain a certain standard of physical efficiency. An athletic 346 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National requirement is one of the distinguishing characteristics of the Cecil Rhodes Scholarships, and marks the beginning of a movement which is to bring the college and the world into more sympathetic relationships, thru the prac- tical efficiency acquired by a sound physical education. //. PHYSICAL EDUCATION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF HEALTH LUTHER HALSEY GULICK, RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK CITY, N.Y. The Need of General Exercise The limitations of the topic are definite. I am to consider physical education, or speaking more concretely, muscular exercise, from the stand- point of physical health. Exercise of the body is not here considered as a curative agent in disease — for example, in the strengthening of a weak heart — but simply as one of the measures which is essential to wholesome living. Health consists in general in the wholesome and balanced performance of the functions of circulation, respiration, digestion, excretion, and the regulation of body temperature. That is not to say that there are no other aspects of health, but in the main these are the physiological processes that are most directly affected by muscular exercise. The kinds of muscular exercise which induce an individual to breathe most deeply, which increase the circulation of blood, which stimulate digestion and the processes of excretion, consist in the use of the large muscles of the body. To get the maximum effect of exercise, these large muscles must be contracted moder- ately many times. We all know the healthful effects of rapid walking, of gentle running, of mountain climbing, canoeing, rowing, the more vigorous dances, tennis playing, and similar exercises. Exercises that involve merely the activity of the smaller muscle groups do not appear to have any particular effect upon the body. Thus exercises involving the use of the arms alone, or of the hands and forearms, as in typewriting, playing the violin, sewing, are relatively useless from the standpoint of health, altho they may have high educational value. The principle back of these different body movements is that exercise affects the fundamental physiological processes of the body directly in pro- portion to the number of foot-pounds of energy expended during the work. The small muscles of the body, just because they are small, are not able to expend such quantities of energy as to make increased demands upon the body for food, for air, for more rapid circulation. For this reason the more general exercises, those working the larger muscles, have a more vigorous effect upon body health. Gymnastics This general exercise of the body may be attained by means of gymnas- tics. The individual may accomplish all these results alone in his room, by CouncUl PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HEALTH 347 bending the body in various directions, by stooping and rising, and by many other physical movements. The fundamental difficulty of getting healthful exercise by these means is that exercise done alonvj is uninteresting, and the probability of any of us systematically keeping up such exercise thruout the weeks and months and years of life is exceedingly remote. It is, accordingly, a matter of first importance to consider how the individual may have his exercise in a form that he will find enjoyable, so that he will carry it on >ecause of the pleasure that he finds in doing it. Play and Athletics Small children, if they can have the use of sand-piles, swings, see-saws, lerry-go-rounds, slides, and ladders, are sufficiently provided for. They will, rith. such facilities, take all the muscular exercise of both the large and small luscles of the body necessary to their wholesome growth and development, i'he school age, however, when for five hours daily the child is confined indoors and much of this time is spent seated before the school desk, pre- sents a set of conditions which must be met by specially devised exercises — gymnastics — which shall correct the direct effects of the school desk. For- mal gymnastics may be so used that they will give a sufficient amount of exercise to meet all the needs of the growing body; but in this connection we must not forget that one of the great functions of the school is to pre- pare the individual for subsequent independent life, and that during the school period we are to establish, if possible, habits of wholesome living which are interesting and which will be feasible under the future conditions in which the individual is obliged to live. We observe as a matter of gen- eral experience that relatively few individuals keep up thruout life the formal gymnastics which they learned so faithfully during their school days. Hence it is incumbent upon us to discover how we may during the school period develop in the young habits which touch them so profoundly that they will continue them during later years. Here we are led to examine the possibilities of athletic sports and folk dances. In relatively few educational institutions in America have athletics been given any adequate consideration from the standpoint of health. In prac- tically all of our educational institutions — and this includes most of our colleges and universities, as well as high schools and many grammar schools — we have installed systems of athletics which aim at providing entertain- ment for the spectators, rather than benefit to the performers. The athletic sports which select those students best endowed by nature and education, and then train them to their highest point of efficiency, are not meeting the physical-education needs of the great body of pupils in any respect. The pupils engaged in these athletics need physical education least of any stu- dents in the institution, and those who have most need of the exercise derived from athletics remain unprovided for. In many institutions the non- athletes are excluded from the athletic fields: the latter are needed for the 348 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION [National training of the athletic teams which are to represent the school. There is no greater blunder being made in the educational world than that of imagin- ing that competitive athletics fulfill the need of physical education of the average student. The only way in which athletics can legitimately be fitted into the educational program of an institution of learning is (i) by providing athletic facilities that will accommodate all the students of the institution; and (2) by providing such instruction and supervision of ath- letics as are given to other academic subjects. Fortunately we have a few private schools and one or two universities that are already successfully carrying out such a program. In these insti- tutions a definite portion of practically every day is given up to outdoor exercises. Every student in these institutions under sympathetic instruction forms habits of interesting, wholesome outdoor exercise of a type which he can to a greater or less extent carry on thruout life. The time is rapidly coming when the establishment of vigorous health will be regarded as the first obligation that rests upon all institutions having to do with the care of the young, for nothing can take its place in practical living. What can be accomplished along these lines is illustrated by the work done at such high schools as that at Springfield, Mass., at such private schools as those of St. Paul's and Lawrenceville, and at such universities as the State University of Missouri. Exercise and Modern Life But the great mass of us are not found in school. There is also an in- creasing tendency among human kind to live in cities. Yet the need of the man or woman — whether he works in the factory or at the desk; whether she works in the home or the store — is for some more or less regular, gentle exercise taken out of doors under enjoyable conditions. The time has passed when this can be done by the individual alone. It is true, there are some individuals whose wills are sufficiently strong, so that even under the adverse conditions of city life they will persist in taking solitary walks and who will in other ways seek outdoor exercise. But these are the rare excep- tions. The need of exercise, however, is a constant if not an increasing one. Hence there rests upon the community the obligation to provide spaces for recreation, to provide facilities for games and sports, and to provide persons who shall organize, promote, and advertise these facilities as efficiently as any commercial body is organized, promoted, and advertised by those who are especially trained in these directions. In former days the librarian was a person who took care of books- in a library, who protected them from abuse. In general he was more pleased to have them remain on the shelves than to have them in circulation; for when they were on the shelves they were safe, but when they were in use they would inevitably be injured. The modern librarian sees his success in empty shelves, and in keeping the books in extensive and rapid circulation. The wear and tear on the books he considers inevitable and necessary. CouncU] PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HEALTH 349 That is, the modern librarian is an organizer, a promoter, an advertiser. If wholesome bodily exercise is to be generally carried on by city people, we need to have done for our parks, our playgrounds, our golf courses, our avail- able camping spaces and other facilities of this kind just what we are doing for our libraries: we need to organize, promote, advertise them. It is necessary that the facilities be adequate. Upon making inquiries in American cities, both in the East and in the West, as to what the people of the communities and particularly the young people do with their leisure time, I have repeatedly been shown a boy's club, a Young Men's Christian Association, or some other organization having a splendid equipment but [so inadequate with reference to accommodating numbers as to make it practically useless from the standpoint of benefiting the entire' community. It is as necessary to provide all the adults with opportunities to keep well, [as it is to provide all the children with seats in school; as necessary as it is to provide streets adequate for transporting the entire traffic of the city, a sewage system that shall carry away all the sewage, and a water supply large enough for the needs of the city. Mere samples are relatively useless. The Socialization of Exercise But having provided such facilities, such systems, such organization, promotion, and advertising as have been indicated, how shall people be induced to use them year after year, decade after decade ? The chief joys of life, its highest rewards, are social in their nature. "The main thing to be said against living in the country is the relative isolation from human beings, and the strongest thing to be said for living in the city is that it affords opportunity for human contact and the selection of friends and associates. The answer to the question which I have asked is that exercise and recrea- tion must be sociaHzed. It is not enough that people shall know the im- portance of keeping well. It is not enough that the city shall furnish places for exercise. Young people must be given opportunity to dance, not merely for the sake of dancing, but for the sake of wholesome, social relations which they may enjoy and because of which they will take the needed mus- cular exercise. This also is true of camping out, of playing golf and tennis, and even of the old-fashioned croquet and curling, of tramping trips. Groups of people who like each other must together express their social delight and their social life in ways involving wholesome muscular exercise. I am not expressing an ideal, a Utopian scheme. I have mentioned nothing but what is already in successful operation to a greater or less extent in many communities in this country, is in practically universal use in Germany, and to a large extent also in England. What I have outlined expresses one of the greatest needs of American life, both rural and urban. It is not merely or mainly quantity of exercise that the adult needs. It is only during the growing period that considerable quantities of exercise are needed. After the body has reached its complete stature we do not need 35° NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National large quantities of exercise, but we do need open air, we do need relaxation from our work, we do need the pleasures of social relations, and these — exercise and social relations — are to be, are being, combined. During the past five years we have seen a shift in public opinion, in community custom, in tradition, and even in fashion, toward wholesomeness and simplicity of living, toward recognizing the need of fresh air. Articles on exercise are being read, implements for exercise are being purchased by the people as never before. The development of the playground movement in America during the past four years — from 90 cities having playgrounds in 1906 to 336 cities in 1909 — indicates the rapidity of growth of one phase of this movement. What we need now is merely the extension of these ideas, until they shall be known to all the people in all the communities. The splendid bathing-beaches of Boston need to be duplicated in New York and every other seaport town. The municipal gymnasiums, the public recreation buildings of Chicago and Los Angeles, are merely the forerunners of a change in national life which is rapidly and surely coming to increase not merely the length, but also the breadth and vividness of human living. ///. FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATION CLARK W. HETHERINGTON, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO. Education is a process in which the infant is conducted from birth thru the period of growth and development to maturity, and in which his powers are developed and adjusted to a social order for complete living. This paper aims to describe the function and place of general neuro- muscular activities, primarily general play activities, in the educational process. We use the term general play to include plays, games, athletics, dancing, the play side of gymnastics, and all play activities in which the large muscles are used more or less vigorously. The interpretation given might be called the new physical education, with the emphasis on education, and the understanding that it is "physical " only in the sense that the activity of the whole organism is the educational agent and not the mind alone. The key to our interpretation lies largely in that suggestive formula concerning the order of growth and development: from fundamental to accessory. With this warning there will scarcely be any confusion between the use of the formula and the title of the paper — " Fundamental Education." Back of the thesis maintained is the general idea that education is neither for body nor for mind alone, but for all human powers that depend on educational activities for development. To present the thesis, four phases of the educational process will be con- sidered: organic education, psycho-motor education, character education, and intellectual education. I CouncUl • FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATION 351 Organic education is the process that develops vital vigor, i.e., high nutrition, perfect elimination, a large capacity for activity with relative immunity from fatigue and the common ills of life. This means a de- velopment of power in the organs of vegetative life. ! All are familiar with the influence of vigorous exercise on the develop- ment of the skeletal muscles. Few are so familiar with the indirect in- fluence of this exercise — the influence with which organic education is chiefly concerned. When a group of muscles is exercised vigorously, the influence spreads thru the whole body, due to the call of the working muscles for oxygen and the elimination of waste products. All the organs involved in nutri- tion and ehmination are heightened in activity as indicated by the throb- bing heart, increased respiration, heat, perspiration, etc. Coincidently, thru the increased circulation, all the organs and tissues of the body are saturated and bathed in a fresh supply of blood, while subjected to a natural massage of joltings, pressures, tensions, and strains resulting from the movements, positions, bendings, and torsions of the body. This pro- foundly increases the influence on the active organs and extends it to the passive tissues. Thus, while we have practically no direct volitional control over the organs of vegetative life, we can control and exercise these organs indirectly thru making them function in service on the voluntary skeletal muscles. This is the method of organic education. We can control the amount of work done by the character, amount, and duration of the work of the skeletal muscles. The familiar and extreme example of this process is the development of the heart of a distance runner — as truly an educational process as the development of language power. Organic power must be gained by organic education during the period of growth and development. It cannot be gained in full after maturity because the nascent periods of the various organs have passed. It cannot be gained in full until after established adolescence because the develop- ment of the latent inherited resources of the various organs must wait on growth. This principle makes organic exercise an essential element in the educational process during the entire period of growth and development. Adult organic efiiciency rests on organic development gained during the period of growth and development. If this organic development has not been gained in full the problem of maintaining organic efiiciency for strenuous living is proportionately difiicult. Given organic development and the maintenance of efiiciency becomes for the adult simply sane living and proper recreation. Organic education has no other concern than the development of power. It is concerned with the power of which health is a by-product. Of the factors controUing growth and development, i.e., activity, proper food and fresh air, sleep and rest, sunshine, cleanliness, temperature, wholesome 352 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National mental moods, and freedom from the inhibiting influences of disease, activity is the only factor that is educational. The other factors give the conditions for growth and development ; activity alone constructs power. The first function of education, then, is to develop the inherited resources of the vegetative organism. The place of general or vigorous neuro- muscular activities, naturally play activities, in this phase of the educa- tional process, is that of the stimulant to activities that develop functional power. Like all educational activities, they are effective in proportion as they have an effective hygienic background. Psycho-motor education is the process that develops power and skill in neuro-muscular activities. It is a simple matter to trace the order of development of psycho-motor activities from infancy onward — first, on the side of locomotion, from crude kickings ar^d squirmings thru creeping and standing, to walking, run- ning, jumping, dancing, etc. ; second, on the side of handUng objects, from crude fumblings to the skill of the gymnast, juggler, artisan, craftsman, and pianist; and third, on the side of speech, from crude gurglings to oratory and singing. In this progress in neuro-muscular powers there are two sides: the development of muscular tissues and the development of nervous centers controlling the muscular tissues. It is in the development of the nervous centers more than in the development of the muscular tissues that we must look for the differences in power and skill between the infant and the adult. The development of power and skill in a neuro-muscular center depends on the exercise of that center by muscular activity. It is purely an educa- tional process. Psycho-motor education is the education of the whole complex mass of the reflex arcs of the nervous system with the crude neuro- muscular reflexes at one end of the system and volitional Ufe at the other. By exercise each level is developed and looped up with higher and lower levels until the mind becomes master of all the complicated activities and special skills of life. The intellectual and character elements in this process are given separate treatment; here attention is confined to neuro-muscular power in action. It is the function of education by general neuro-muscular activities, naturally general play activities, to develop the fundamental neuro- muscular centers. To manual, industrial, and art education is left the development of the accessory centers and powers. In the natural order of development of psycho-motor powers the ac- tivities of the fundamental centers predominate until approximately ten years of age, then the activities of the accessory centers naturally begin to predominate until approaching maturity, when they may be exclusively accessory. The most important piinciple in this shifting of predominance of activity, from fundamental in childhood to accessory in youth, is that the fundamental neuro-muscular centers are not completed in their develop- Council] FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATION 353 ment when the striking development of the accessory begins. The de- velopment of the fundamental cannot be stopped with childhood. The latent inherited resources of the fundamental centers cannot be developed until after growth nears completion. These powers must be developed before maturity or the nascent periods of the various centers pass. This principle fixes the place of vigorous exercise in youth as well as in childhood. Fourteen to twenty is the age for the development of functional power as distinct from growth. Violation of this principle of education has had serious consequences. The rise of modern nervousness has paralleled the emphasis of civilization on accessory activities without a corresponding development of the fun- damental. Power in the fundamental centers is necessary to give nervous stability in sustained effort and capacity to resist the wear and tear of excessive activity in the accessory. There will be no writer's cramp where powerfully developed shoulder neuro-muscular centers carry the burden of excessive writing. The second function of education, then, is to develop a nervous system. The function of general or vigorous neuro-muscular activities, naturally general play activities, in this phase of the educational process, is to de- velop primarily the fundamental nervous centers by exercising the funda- mental muscles until the nervous system can carry the burden of civilization. To manual, industrial, and art education is left the development of the accessory nervous centers. Character education is the process that develops the moral, social, and spiritual powers. Character education during childhood and youth takes place in the home, in the schoolroom (including the Sunday school), and at play. These cover practically the life of the young. Industrial work may take the place of the school, but this is a special problem not considered here. Ideally, the home, the school, and the playground should co-operate in moral education, but as educators have no control over the home, educa- tional effort must be confined to the schoolroom and play life. If the home influence is of the best, all else will follow, but most homes do not present this ideal condition, and even the best need supplementing by outside effort. The Sunday school does not include all youth, and there is mighty Httle of it. The public school has as yet developed no generally effective or prac- tical method of moral training, and the possibilities of instruction in the classroom are limited because the activities are limited. The outside play life is the only agent that touches all children and youth which lasts thru the entire period of growth and development, which is naturally character- forming, good or bad, and which is peculiarly sensitive to leadership, good or bad. The most conspicuous thing about play is its character-forming power. Vices are learned in play, not in the classroom. In the anxiety of earnest 354 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National parents concerning companionship is seen the moral power of leadership. Criticisms of intercollegiate athletics are eloquent testimonials of the moral power of athletics and the quality of the leadership. In 1898, after having studied for two years the careers of 480 inmates of a juvenile reformatory, personal data indicated that 75 to 80 per cent, might have been saved an institutional career had they had a normal play experience. Social workers agree that the "bad boy" is largely the product of restricted or misdirected play energies. Juvenile delinquency diminishes in districts where play- grounds are established. A moral toning-up is the universal testimony of experts on the results of directed play. The character-forming power of play lies in its nature. It is the child's soul-life. Play may be defined as human nature growing up. The immature organism expresses every mental and nervous tendency and every developing instinct and reacts upon every experience according to its grow- ing capacities. Several natural stages of character-development are clear. The first years are spent in gaining elemental adjustments to nature and society. This is followed by the age of aggressive self-preservation, Lee's "Big Injun" age. Then follows the "gang" age, with its co-operation, loyalties, self-subordination, and leadership, and finally comes the age of moral and religious interest. Character-power is gained naturally in this order. Failure to gain development during the nascent period leaves limitations for life. In the supervision of these play tendencies we have the foundation for all moral training. Character education by doing precedes moral education by precept. All higher moral education must be built on these habit- forming activities. They are basic. This is fundamental character edu- cation. This fundamental character education thru the guidance of conduct in play is not completed in childhood. It continues thru youth and long after moral education by intellectual inspiration may be well begun. The athletic field of the later adolescent years is as truly a laboratory of con- duct as is the playground of the child. This is the last-chance age for intensive moral training by direct personal guidance and discipline. Four- teen to twenty is the critical period in which all the larger fundamental social character- traits and moral habits are formed, and they are formed in large measure on the play side of life. These facts indicate the necessity of supervised play in youth as well as in childhood. During infancy nature cares for this fundamental moral education. Every child's mother is his first play director. By instinct she is a play- mate and a play-leader, guiding her infant's developing activities to material and social adaptation. Later this leadership is withdrawn or neglected as the child gains the elemental powers of self-preservation, but the character- forming activities go on and accumulate in intensity and influence as age advances. All the bad habits known to youth are the result. Council] FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATION 355 The third function of education, then, is the development of a character morally and socially sound. This must be done primarily in the natural laboratory of experience of the young — play. All higher methods of moral education must be based on the habits of conduct gained largely in play. These habits are the vital, the fundamental things in moral education. Intellectual education is the process that develops intellectual skill and gives information and culture. On the side of training for intellectual skill, the discipline of perception, attention, memory, judgment, etc., in general neuro-muscular activities, is well recognized. This is, however, only mental discipline in psycho- motor activities. While this discipline is not completed until the mind is master of the accessory activities in industrial or professional occupations, the power gained is only slightly, if at all, transferred to power in the study of science, art, or literature, and vice versa. The athlete may be a fool in the classroom, and conversely the theoretical scholar may be for all prac- tical purposes a motor idiot. Each gains power by thinking in terms of his own activity. Thus while intellectual discipline by general neuro- muscular activities is only a part of psycho-motor discipline, and this in turn only a part of all intellectual discipline, it is discipline on the level of the fundamental. On the side of information, the child learns by doing — primarily thru play. The early years are spent in learning, testing out the material en- vironment in action. This hunger for experience continues thru, and is strikingly characteristic of, youth. Social workers have learned its mean- ing and ere using it in organized excursions, outings, collecting and hunting trips, experience with animals, gardening, and what not. This is reading nature from the sources. In the same direct manner social life is learned. In imitative and dramatic plays of adult activities, for ex- ample, the child plays himself into an understanding of human ways of living and doing. The process is continued among companions in plays, games, and sports, and in later social experience. A great store of insights, sympathies, understandings, habitual reactions are built up, which become the foundation for all social thinking. The ideas thus gained soon sink to the level of the automatic. This is knowledge in the backbone. It con- trols doing, feeling, thinking, and is only another way of saying that all social sympathy, good or bad, has its roots in play. In the hunger for experience and the hunger for expression, we have the natural incentives to intellectual education. If not organized in wisdom for educational ends they will be organized in ignorance for less wholesome ends. By feeding these hungers in an organized play experience education should give a virile contribution to intellectual education along with char- acter education, psycho-motor education, and organic education. The fourth function of education is to develop a skillful intellect, well stocked with insights and information. Education by general neuro- 356 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National muscular activities or general play gives the fundamental intellectual discipline in action and the fundamental knowledge on which higher modes of discipline and the higher information may be built. To summarize: The function and place of general neuro-muscular activities, or primarily general play activities, in the educational process, is to develop power in the vegetative organism, to develop power in the fun- damental centers of the nervous system, to develop character by guiding the expressions of character in play, and to develop the fundamental in- tellectual resources thru organizing and guiding the mental hungers for experience as expressed in play. This function we have called "Fundamental Education," partly be- cause it deals with the involuntary system, the fundamental nervous centers, the basic character-expressions in play, and the crude bulky in- tellectual activities of early-Hfe experience, and partly because it cross- sections the beginnings of all phases of the educational process and gives in general that on which all later education is built. The four phases of the educational process described are but phases of one process and cannot be separated wisely. Neither can this fundamental education wisely be sepa- rated from the latter and more advanced forms of education. We identify the new, growing function of physical education with fun- damental education, and both with the natural function of general play in the life of childhood and youth, while still recognizing the fact that play must be supplemented and often replaced by formal activities because of interferences with efficient play by social conditions. Physical education takes over nature's means of education, organizes it to balance social con- ditions and directs it for the highest educational values. Education by play is the whole of early education. In infancy there is practically no intellectual activity with inhibited action. The organism acts as a unit: what the infant acts he thinks and feels; what he thinks and feels he acts. Only gradually is the capacity for intellectual work differ- entiated from psycho-motor activities. It grows slowly in childhood, may grow rapidly in adolescence until the capacity for long-sustained intellectual effort may be developed in the adult. Education by play predominates as an educational force thru childhood. In adolescence, the prominence of play as an educational force diminishes as the manual, industrial, and purely intellectual forms naturally rise to predominance. General play consumes less time in adolescence, but it becomes more intensive and requires more regulation. In infancy play is not recreation, it is life — ^both work and recreation. In later childhood the recreative element begins to appear and rises rapidly in adolescence (parallehng the rise of work and the intellectual forms of education) until toward the end of the period of growth and development when the fundamental powers are established, play becomes entirely recrea- tive. During the period of growth and development the play of the infant I Council] FOOTBALL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 357 becomes differentiated into the play and work of the adult. Sane and efficient recreation in the adult is based on the fundamental education of the young. Fundamental education is one of the ultimate appeals in con- structive social- welfare work. Physical education or fundamental education, as interpreted here, is a part of the whole process of education. It is fundamental to all that follows and it establishes efficient recreative habits for adult fife which naturally grow out of it. If the thesis here maintained is correct, it seems inevitable that the school system should absorb the national play life of children and youth and organize it, promote it, and manage it. IV. THE AMERICAN GAME OF FOOTBALL AS RELATED TO PHYSICAL EDUCATION DAVID STARR JORDAN, PRESIDENT, LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL. In 1905 the American game of football came under a severe storm of criticism. The academic authorities in many institutions had lost all control of intercollegiate ath- letics; normal athletic eflfort within the colleges had largely disappeared, and expressions of disgust with the game and with the way it was managed were heard everywhere. It was clear that the game must be purified, moderated, reformed, or else abolished; and the abandonment of the game involved tremendous difficulties, so thoroly intrenched had it become by alliance with financial interests outside the colleges. The evils of football at that time were ably set forth by President Eliot of Harvard University in an article in the Woman^s Home Companion. He says: The game is played under established rules; but the uniform enforcement of these rules is impossible, and violations of the rules are in many respects highly profitable toward victory. Thus, coaching from the side-lines, off-side play, holding and disabling oppo- nents by kneeing and kicking, and by heavy blows on the head, and particularly about the ej'^es, nose, and jaw, are unquestionably profitable toward victory; and no means have been found of preventing these violations of rules by both coaches and players The common justification offered for these hateful conditions is that football is a fight, and that its strategy and ethics are those of war. One may, therefore, resort in football to every ruse, strategem, and deceit which would be justifiable in actual fighting. They always try to discover the weakest man in the opponents' line, as for example the man most recently injured, and attack him again and again If in the last encoun- ter a player has been obviously lamed in leg, arm, or shoulder, the brunt of an early attack should fall upon him. As a corollary to this principle, it is justifiable for a player, who is in good order, to pretend that he is seriously hurt, in order that he may draw the opponent's attack to the wrong place. These rules of action are all justifiable, and even necessary, in the consummate savagery of war, in which the immediate object is to kill and disable as many of the enemy as possible. To surprise, ambuscade, and deceive the enemy, and invariably to overwhelm a smaller force by a greater one are the expected methods of war. But there is no justification for such methods in a manly game or sport between friends. Aside from the direct effect on the players the game was open to certain minor objections. Among these were its publicity, the obsession of the student body in the one idea of victory at any cost, with the disproportionate exaltation of the football hero, his artificial training and the necessity of an applauding grand stand audience to bring out his best work; the state of mental distrust and hostility engendered between institu- tions, destroying that broader acquaintance with men which is one of the normal virtues of intercollegiate sport, and finally the essential stupidity of the game to the spectators in its most prominent feature of line-bucking. 358 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National The game is a struggle between contending groups of excited students who for the most part have no share in it except as onlookers. If one is interested in neither side of the contestants, no game is more tedious to witness than the American game of football. Almost every time the ball touches the ground the game stops, the masses of armored legs are disentangled, and time is given for those who have lost their breath to rise to their feet again. Once in a while a brilliant run stands out as a marked exception, but the interference which makes the run possible is often invisible to spectators. Of course, if football were a true sport, this would be no objection, for a sport has its value in the delight of the players themselves and in their improved physical development. That which is played for the benefit of spectators is a spectacle, not a sport. And no man lives who would play the American game of football for pure sport, knowing that nobody would ever be on the bleachers and that neither his name nor that of his adversaries would resound among his fellows or appear in headlines in the newspapers. On the other hand, were it not for the intense partisan desire to see their opponents defeated the game would appeal but little as an exhibition to the average spectator. Nor was it alone in the colleges that the game was condemned; in the secondary schools conditions were worse. The American game is totally unfit for secondary-school students. High-school boys are too young for such fierce exercise; they have no ade- quate training, no power to enforce standards, no competent umpires. It is rarely possible for them to play an honest game against honest competitors, and the death-rate among secondary students in these games is appalling. It is criminal, and the crime Hes with the public which permits and encourages these dangerous and harmful exercises. The death-rate and the hst of injuries on college teams is relatively far smaller. This means that the greater age and costly training and rubbing have made them relatively immune to injuries. Quite as likely it means that all athletic youths with fragile bones or weak hearts have been disabled and put out of the running before they reach the college. It is again in the high school or secondary school that the evil of "proselyting" reaches its climax. Other objections to the game lay in the presence of the professional coach, the pro- moter of public athletics, who makes his living thru winning victories and who goes as far in securing them as a relaxed public opinion in city and university will let him. The self-respect of the colleges demands that this feature of intercollegiate athletics should be changed. If there must be a paid coach, he should at least be student or alumnus of the institution in which he serves, and the academic life of the paid coach like that of the athlete should be limited to four years. Closely related to the evil of the paid coach was that connected with the gate receipts, immense in amount, resulting from popular games. With this went the attendant train- ing-season expenditures, involving the handling of large sums of money by untrained collegians under the pressure of association and sympathy and the cold machinations of graft. The net result of these and many other similar criticisms during the season of 1905 produced what was known as the New Football of 1906. The most important feature of this revised football was the attempt to clean up the game, to free it from the gross abuses, and to conduct it on the basis of gentlemanly relations. As the worst offenders in the past were such mainly because the students and alumni demanded a winning team, and the faculty acquiesced thru the suspension of ordinary tests of scholarship in favor of athletic heroes, the change of popular feeling met with a ready response on the part of successful coaches. But the cleaning-up did not nearly reach the end of the line, and the old moral evils were left and still exist in many colleges and secondary schools. Besides the moral uplift which in the nature of things cannot be universal or perma- nent, certain changes in the game itself were enforced by public opinion. These are, in brief, making the game more interesting by making it more open for observation and by giving greater scope to individual skill, especially that shown in a scattered field. Again, CouncU] FOOTBALL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 359 the attacking line has been weakened thru requiring ten yards' gain instead of five in three downs. This change has made mass play less successful and hence more likely to be set aside in favor of more open plays. At the same time mass play remains the ordi- nary way of putting the ball in action, however useless it may be with evenly matched teams, while its value for the purpose of breaking down an individual opponent is perhaps relatively enhanced. With this, two additional hazards not germane to the game were introduced. One is the forward pass, perhaps suggested by the passing by the backs in the Rugby football, but under different rules. The other is the on-side kick. Both of these are open to the criticism that they do not naturally rise from the nature of the game. On the other hand they serve as a relief from the line-bucking, a perversion of the Rugby scrum, which by a curious inversion of ideas has come to be known to the pubUc as "straight football." The new rules made the game more open, more of a sport, considerably safer, and on the whole notably cleaner and more interesting. Shall we be satisfied with this ? Is the balance from the academic standpoint in favor of the game or do the evils so forcibly pointed out by President Eliot and recognized by every college man still exist and out- weigh the advantages ? If so, are there other modifications still to be made which shall outbalance these evils, and leave a residue in favor of the game as a means of promoting manliness, physical development, courage, quickness of action, and the spirit of co- operation? If we test the revised American game by its relation to the criticisms which were made against it in 1905, we find that the evils of publicity remain as before. In the mat- ter of injuries to players, these have been somewhat reduced, perhaps by 10 per cent. It may be noted in passing, however, that many injuries which seem trivial may be of a serious nature. The predominating injuries in football are to the nervous system, arising mainly from mass plays and from fierce tackling after long runs. Next in importance come internal injuries, especially to stomach and intestines, arising from illegal kicking and from "kneeing." Injuries to the eyes and head come often from intentional blows and all these are far more dangerous than the occasional fracture of an arm or a leg, which is Hkely to occur in any strenuous sport. In proportion to the openness of the game, the evils of intentional manslaughter are reduced; but many of the great games and most of the minor ones show that this evil is by no means abolished. The noise and obsession remain the same. A writer has claimed that football victories cannot be won by institutions in which the student body does not go wild over the game. Harvard is told that she cannot win over her traditional rival so long as her student body can endure victory or defeat with equanimity. The evils of artificial training, of dependence on noise, have not been reduced by the change in the rules as to the space be to gained in three downs, or by the adoption of the forward pass. The coaches do not wish this changed, and curiously enough, while the American game of football has no existence except as an interacademic function, its control has been largely in the hands of unacademic men, who depend on the game for prominence as well as livelihood. To this we may ascribe the mechanizing of the game — the making of the game a matter of "certainty," depending chiefly, not on the skill of the men who play, but on the skill of the coaches in arranging their quasi-puppets, and utilizing their muscular strength and their occasional fleetness of foot and accuracy of kicking. The great evils mentioned by Dr. Eliot have been in large degree minimized by closer rules as to eligibility and greater insistence by college faculties on tests of scholarship. The forward pass ^ives play for individual skill, for which reason the professional coach, who wants everything made certain beforehand, looks on it with disfavor. The players in a losing game sometimes try it to increase chances. Being an uncertain element, good luck or quick action may bring its chances in their direction. The essence of true sport is to offer many chances, with victory to the team which has most men ready to seize these chances or to back up their colleagues who have done so. 36o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National It is plain, admitting as we may the improvement that has been made since 1906 in the American game, that it offers greater interest as a sport; it has been safeguarded by greater limitations as to eligibility, and there has been diminution of danger to life. It is, however, true that the greater part of the old arraignment of the game still holds true. This is because the evils are inherent in the game. Relaxed vigilance on the part of col- lege faculties will see the old conditions restored. The balance is everywhere against the game. On academic grounds, the only grounds colleges have a right to consider, the colleges generally would be justified in following the example of Columbia University in abolishing the game outright. This is a conclusion I have reached reluctantly, for my natural sympathies are with the struggling athletes. There has been much agitation, much discussion, and much revision with no adequate result. If the game is abolished, is there any substitute that can be offered to take its place? The writer believes that most of the present evils of the football game would disappear by going back to the British Rugby game of football. If this is true, a change to a better game is an experiment to be preferred to the out-and-out abandonment of intercollegiate football. This is probably the only real alternative, and outright abolition may be neces- sary in any event if the colleges are to meet their obligations to the public. It should be remembered that the present American game is a modification of the British game of Rugby introduced in this country in 1876. The chief differences in the two games arise from the legalizing in America of "oil-side play," called by us "inter- ference," which is forbidden by the rules of Rugby. In the latter game no player may run ahead of the player on his side who carries the ball. In legalizing interference any number of men on the attacking side may run ahead of the ball, consequently as many of the defense as can be spared must stand in opposition. Hence arises mass play, the ungraceful and unsportsman-like element, now called "straight football." Secret signals and the fact that the whole attacking side may buck the line together give the attack a marked advantage over the defense. Hence the necessity of holding the ball by the attacking side. In Rugby, when a man is down with the ball the ball is still in play. Only the man who falls is out of the play. The rest go on. In the American game the play is stopped for him and all the others who may be piled upon him to rise. The held ball renders impossible the particular play which is the glory of Rugby and the prettiest as well as tjie most sportsman-hke feature of any football game, the passing of the ball from one to another of the "backs," in a scattered field. In the American game, any such passing of the ball involves the too great risk of losing it. In Rugby, a lost ball may be regained by alertness and speed. In Rugby every man plays his own game; each of the backs is his "own quarterback." For these reasons the game is thruout open. The ball can be followed by the spectators; rough play, if present, can be seen by everyone. Better still, it is a true sport, not an array of battle. As matters are, how does the Rugby game stand related to the evils we have named above? The matters of publicity, of "crude and vociferous public praise and blame," will not be much altered. The huge gate receipts will remain the same. But these invite attack from another quarter. We may make the game free — accessible only on invitation — and an army of evils vanishes at once. But this requires courage and effort and a psychological moment. There is danger in every manly sport, and there are worse things than physical dan- ger to be faced in college. But the players generally enjoy the Rugby game for its own sake. The student body enjoys it also for its spectacular qualities and beautiful plays. Boys are, however, the most con^rvative people on earth, and those of the West are not quite happy unless they play the same games as are played in colleges in the East. This is the only real objection to the restoration of Rugby which the California universities have encountered. The use of Rugby as an intercollegiate game will doubtless yield evils of its own, as well as repeat some of the evils of its American derivative. The worst possibility is that it will fall into the hands of coaches who will stifle its freedom of play and develop the CouncU] FOOTBALL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 361 mechanical battle-like game in which, as now, players would abandon their individuality under the direction of coaches. Foul play in Rugby is plainly visible to spectators, more- over it is ineffective and would lose the game oftener than win it. There is no mass play in Rugby, and a savage tackle is bad play, for to throw the runner and to fall oneself with him does not stop the ball, which has been thrown to some other player. The punting is about the same in the two games, but every man in Rugby must be able to kick quickly and accurately. Punting is not a personal specialty of two or three of the backs as in the American game. In the two great universities of California, the Rugby game, played under varying but fundamentally identical rules thruout Great Britain, Canada, New Zealand, and the northern half of Australia, has been substituted for the American game. The initiative in this matter was due to President Wheeler of the University of California and to Pro- fessor Frank Angell, chairman of the committee on athletics of Stanford. The present writer was an early convert to the wisdom of this action. The game has been played for four seasons and with very gratifying success. Experience shows that the accidents in Rugby football are much less frequent, less severe, and mainly confined to the limbs. Injuries to the legs are almost as frequent as in the American game. The fact that the game is played in cotton drawers instead of padded coats of mail indicates at once a great difference. The Rugby football is a far swifter game, involving adroitness and co-operation rather than great strength. The giant has the advantage even in Rugby, but he must be a giant whose head and whose feet move quickly. As there are thirty players in a game of Rugby instead of twenty- two, and as it is a sport which men will play even tho there is no possible hope of making any team, its introduction tends to revive the life of athletics within the colleges, which the American battle game has done so much to destroy. Men can play Rugby football and carry full work in the classroom as well. It is a rare man who can do this and play the American game even as a scrub. The game of Rugby cannot be planned by a coach. The most he can do is to give form to individual players. In New Zealand, the especial home of clean, swift, strenu- ous sport, every player is his own coach, and professionaHsm of coaches as well as of players, tho not unknown, is condemned by universal popular opinion. To be sure, the Rugby game never gives the thrill that follows the shock when masses of men throw themselves against each other. But this sort of thrill is not a thing to encourage. It is psychologically and doubtless ethically bad. At any rate our laws look critically on the value of prize-fighting, which shares this feature in common with Ameri- can football. The obsession and hysteria of the student bodies are much less in the Rugby game. It is a sport, not a battle, and the fine play of both sides appeals to the higher instincts of the youth. For these reasons, the various attendant evils, the building-up of a team by prose- lyting, the immoderate desire to win, and the machinery of intercollegiate war, are less likely to be developed with Rugby. These evils are wanting in England, in Canada, in New Zealand, in Sydney and Brisbane, and our people in America are of the same nature, and have the same blood, the same ethics, the same love of sport as these. Doubtless the general adoption of the Rugby game would lead to material modifications. The abolition of interference in the American game, carrying with it the abolition of the held ball and the mafes play, would approximate it to Rugby, and a further revision in this direction would perhaps make the game acceptable to college authorities. The outside professional coach should be eliminated in either game. To make him a member of the faculty does not affect the situation. On the other hand the schoolboyish scrum of the Rugby game is sure to be modified in the hands of American students, tho not, I trust, by the substi- tution for it of the line-bucking plays. The difference between the two games — the American and the Rugby — is essentially the difference between a fight and a sport. The latter is sufficiently strenuous to satisfy 362 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National the most exacting; but the player has a chance in the open. The spectator enjoys it, be he collegian or not. Dr. Eliot has said, speaking of football: " Civilization has long been in possession of much higher ethics than those of war, and experience has abundantly proved that the highest efficiency for service and the finest sort of courage in individual men may be accompanied by, and indeed spring from, unvarying generosity, gentleness, and good will." The Rugby game lends itself to the cultivation of the gentler and finer qualities of sportsmanship. DISCUSSION Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, president, American Home Economics Association, Boston, Mass. — Dr. Gulick has most adequately expressed one phase of the subject, but there is yet another. What of the unsocial individual, one who prefers his own walks, who finds his recreation in his work ? Shall not some attention be paid to the exercise gained in the daily task ? If the houseworker carried her body correctly and used her arms and bent her back with skill, she would find the exercise she needed; and if the house were as open to the air as it should be, it would not be necessary for her to seek her health- giving atmosphere outside. If the shopworker had pleasure in his work and a really well-ventilated space to work in, there would be less weariness to overcome. It is all right to increase the number of playgrounds, but at present, the tendency is to widen the breach between play and work and thus increase the cost of living, whereas work should be so well ordered and so interesting as to lessen the need of play. I know of at least one school, a combination of academic and industrial methods, where the "inspirational" teaching causes an interest in the work that is a positive joy in itself. I should like to supplement Dr. Gulick's socializing of play and of exercise by social- izing of work. In our new vocational schools there will be one difference from trade schools. To be skilled in a trade one must use the same set of muscles until the movement is made automatically. This does not preclude a child, as it does an older person after years of atrophy of all else, from learning another set of motions. The development of the child and youth is gained only by a use of several sets of muscles one after the other. Much work may be done in groups, and when work is socialized the cooks of this week will be the waitresses of next. This is not impossible, only unheard of, and that should not be a barrier to an American. To an elderly Puritan with a scientific training all this talk about play and the value of play and socializing play (play has been socialized from the very beginning) strikes somewhat hollow for all but the slum child. Was any play devised better than helping in the planting and harvesting, in going for the cows, in feeding calves and chickens, in berrying and nutting? Filling the wood box, shoveling paths, even tramping to school in the snow, were developing exercises. The cost of living is such a vital topic today, why not consider what part of even city living may be shared in by the children ? Most families could make a distinct reduc- tion in the drain on their resources, much to the physical as well as moral welfare of the children. The child should not be exploited, deprived of schooling, or tied to a bench or a machine; but have we not gone a little too far in considering that the child should be released from all household activity? The social welfare of the race demands habits of thrift and efficiency, and all habits must be learned young. Homer H. Seerley, president. State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. — There has been a notable change in the attitude of society toward the necessity of making physical education a part of the pubhc-school curriculum during the past decade. This has happened not because physical education has been assumed to be a panacea for the physical ills of humanity, but because it has become recognized that harmonious and com- plete development of an individual must include the capabilities of the body as well as Council] THE VOCATION AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 363 the capabilities of the mind and the spirit. Physical education has, therefore, become fundamental to a proper training for life, and its omission from any grade of school is regarded as a neglect of the pupil's rights and privileges. Proper growth, full develop- ment and expansion of capability demand the proper attention to everything that con- tributes to the efficiency and the power of the individual pupil. It is, therefore, true that physical education has more to do with the functions than with the faculties, more to accomplish in securing normal conditions and proper action than in producing skill or establishing occupation. It is preparatory to everything that must later be done to em- phasize the importance and the value of life, and its accomplishment renders possibilities certain that would otherwise be dormant. The importance of this fundamental education during childhood and youth should not be overlooked. It is far too common to think it desirable during secondary and college days and make elaborate provision therefor, and equally common to think it immaterial during the earlier years when it is instinctive and naturally constant and make no suit- able provision therefor. This situation prevents the essential training at the right time and in the right place, and hence produces a lack of interest and of capability that the best civilization needs. The physical director, the playground, and the gymnasium are absolutely essential at this period of education and training, and yet none of these things is provided or even considered as important in the majority of public schools. Some of this condition grows out of ignorance of the people, some of it comes from a faulty and mistaken leadership, and some of it is caused by a lack of appreciation of the actual value of such education in the early years of childhood and youth. Most of the other kind of activities deemed essential to the individual in his relation to civilization, such as the mental, the moral, and the religious, are given elaborate personal attention, direction, and supervision, while fundamental education which regards the functions and the devel- opment of the body is left to chance and to indirection, as the pleasure of the child may incline. It has been ascertained by investigation and experiment that when the children of the helpless and the inordinately poor are to be made interested in work, in becoming identified with occupation, in study in school, or in activities of any kind that make them industrious, self-supporting, and capable of self-defense, physical education is absolutely fundamental to the kind of a beginning that means success in the philanthropic education. It has also been ascertained that these populations are satisfied with dissipation and degradation, with wretchedness and misery, because they have no taste for activity, no interest in any form of outdoor sports, and no ambition to occupy their spare time in any form of physical recreation. The entire absence of fundamental education from their training, caused partly by lack of opportunity to acquire the same and caused partly by the adoption of habits contrary to such kind of everyday activity, is largely responsible for their indolence, shiftlessness, and incapability. To correct such dif&culties as these, to prevent such losses to civilization, to make public education more effective and more complete, it is highly important that the point of view here emphasized receive prompt and continuous attention in all programs of elementary and secondary education. THE VOCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FREDERICK P. FISH, CHAIRMAN, STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. {Abridged) Great is the responsibility of the teacher and of those who have the burden of shaping and administering educational policies. < They deal with all our children and youth. Not only is their work of vital interest to every 364 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National one of us now living, but the progress of the race, the character and capacity of future generations, depend to a substantial extent upon the educational efforts of our time. The future of each individual child is in large part determined by the effect upon him of the education which he receives. No amount of training can do more than modify, enlarge, or diminish his mental, moral, and spiritual characteristics. Education cannot make a dull child brilliant or transform commonplaceness into genius. The place in society in which one is born, his status, does not in our times constitute an insuperable barrier to development in any direction. Unusual talent or marked tastes, coupled with persistency and intelligent effort, not infrequently carry one who is handicapped at the start by dis- advantages, such as poverty or unfavorable social surroundings, to the position in the social world to which he aspires. The handicap exists, how- ever, and it is only the unusual individual that may expect altogether to escape from its repressive control. What each child born into the world may reasonably hope is that he may do as well as possible for himself and for the community, in view of his own inherent mental and physical powers and characteristics, due re- gard being given, as a practical consideration, to the advantages or disad- vantages of his social environment. If he finds the work for which, all things considered, he is best fitted and does it as well as he can do it, there is no doubt of his success in life. The two things, therefore, that are of the greatest importance for each child are these : First, he should be understood. His physical and mental capacity, his character, tastes, and inclinations, his points of strength and weakness, the direction in which he can best be developed, the work that he can undertake with the greatest chance of profit to himself and to society, should be known. Second, he should be trained and developed, not on conventional lines, but in that way which is most effective for him in view of his special character and aptitude. To determine his characteristics and as a basis for adequate training, each child should be studied individually. Parents and immediate as- sociates can do this; but, alas, it is very seldom that they have the capacity to observe and analyze the quality of a child's mind and to determine his traits and inclinations. The subject-matter is too complex. It would be a great gain to our race if parents themselves could be trained for this im- portant duty. As it is, they are, not infrequently, unable to apprehend even the bodily needs, a matter far more simple. The child's own instinct, if it can be developed so as to become conscious, may well be a better guide as to the direction in which he can be trained to the best advantage, than the unintelligent conclusions of his parents or immediate friends; but it is only in rare instances that he shapes into form his vague aspirations and his shadowy conceptions of his tastes and capaci- CouncU] THE VOCATION AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 365 ties. Moreover, he distrusts himself. He seeks the guidance which those nearest to him are unfitted to give. The education of the child begins with his first conscious activity of mind or body and ceases only with his death. The greater part of it comes merely from association with others, from imitation, and from observation attended by reflection, conscious or unconscious, on the matters observed. For most of the men and women who have lived in the world up to the present time, there has been no other education than this. It has been sufficient for the requirements of many periods. It has made not only good hunters, shepherds, tillers of the soil, and artisans, but statesmen, soldiers, authors, and even engineers and lawyers. Many such of high repute re- ceived no real school education. Up to a comparatively recent time the experience and judgment of educators led them to the conclusion that school education should not be very definitely correlated with the practical affairs of life ; that it should be general in its character, aiming primarily at mental discipline and the de- velopment of intellectual and spiritual quality; that the things taught and the methods of teaching should promote culture, should give the child knowledge and right views of life that he might become better and stronger and a more worthy citizen. It was believed that a sound training of this sort would develop character and capacity so that the child, when of mature years, would readily acquire the special knowledge and training in practical work which he must have in order to succeed in whatever vocation he might happen to adopt. It is not so many years ago that even those who were to enter the professions had no special school training for their work. All this has now been changed. We have everywhere professional schools illustrating the universal conviction that for the vocations that are primarily intellectual in character, special school instruction is essential. We must not think that our ancestors were altogether in error in pro- ceeding upon the theory that the matter of prime importance in education was general training as distinguished from special training for practical work. In the old days in which this principle was established, the con- ditions were such that there was not the same need as today for systematic preparation for the ordinary vocations. The apprenticeship system afforded an admirable training for many of the common vocations. Not only in the country, where a far larger proportion of the population lived, but in the cities and towns, all of which were relatively small, every boy and girl had large opportunities outside of school for practical work and the obser- vation of practical work, which definitely fitted them for the life of industry or trade which they were to lead. Their education . outside of school in the practical affairs of the community fitted them so well for their own future vocational work that it would have been largely a waste of time to have given, in school, any attention to the matter. The obvious function of the school was to give them what they did not get elsewhere, but which 366 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [National they needed in order that their Uves might be as satisfactory and as well rounded as possible. The times have changed. No longer does the mere fact that he is alive and among men give to the child the education in practical affairs and the vocational training that were his inevitably a few generations ago. The old-fashioned apprenticeship system has disappeared. People have crowded into the large communities where the opportunities for this out- side practical education are reduced to a minimima. The advent of a new class of immigrants, swarming in multitudes into the cities where the con- ditions are most unfavorable, has accentuated the situation. Their chil- dren above all others must be trained to efficient ejGfort as well as to become good citizens. Their surroundings do not help in either direction. Fortunate today is the child who is brought up in the country or on a farm. He has some of the old-fashioned influences about him. He learns to use his hands. But our other children can look only to the school for a large part of that which, in the old days, they got outside of it. This is the thought that is at the basis of the modern movement toward indus- trial and vocational education. Exactly as we now insist that our pro- fessional men need special school training for their work, altho at one time such training was not regarded as necessary, so now we believe that all the work in the world will be better done if men and women are trained for it in school, in the right way and to the right extent. It is easy to state generally and vaguely the underlying idea of voca- tional education, but far more difficult to organize the curriculum so that the idea may be applied in practice. This is the work of the expert educator. Much admirable thought has already been given to the subject and much work has been done. Results have already been achieved which justify the belief that the problem will be satisfactorily solved. It is clear that as part of the education of the future there will be voca- tional schools in parallel with those of the ordinary type. To these schools will go boys and girls whose future is in the direction of the vocational activities — ^industrial, commercial, or agricultural — ^which are there taught. Their training will be largely that of actual work under the normal con- ditions of actual work. They will, however, also receive book instruction, partly relating to and correlated with their vocational training, but partly "cultural." Pupils will leave these schools with a much better training for many of the vocations than they can get today by going to work to learn the busi- ness in the old-fashioned way. Work in the shop is now necessarily so specialized that, altho wages may be good, the ordinary boy or girl starting in at the beginning, with no special training in the industry, has but little other prospect than to stay at one job, where, by constant repetition of one or a few acts or processes, an automatic skill is acquired which promotes pro- duction. There is the same specialization in the commercial estabHshment. I CouncU] THE VOCATION AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 367 In such an environment men and women are not likely to grow. They cannot become expert, generally, in the work, as did many of them'in like employment fifty years ago. A preliminary school training covering a large part of the field of the vocation will surely enlarge the horizon of the workers, add to their vocational intelligence, and give opportunity for more varied employment and for advancement. Those so trained will be the ones to whom the employer will look when he has to fill positions of greater responsibility. Such schools will undoubtedly attract many who are at the end of the compulsory school period and who would refuse to proceed farther in the ordinary curriculum. The practical character of such a school will appeal to them. They will feel that the work there will be a direct and distinct prep- aration for that of real life. Many children do not have this view of the work of an ordinary school, which seems to them conventional and of no real value. Sad is the lot of the ordinary boy or girl who leaves school and goes to work at fourteen. The skilled employments have no place for such. They are likely to drift into the very lowest grades of work and then to stay there for the rest of their lives. If the vocational school were of no value except as a device to keep at school for an additional two years those who would otherwise go to work prematurely, its existence would be justified. The work of the ordinary schools and particularly of the public schools is already receiving new and careful study with the view of its revision to meet the conditions requisite for suitable vocational training. Such schools have not until recently undertaken, and do not now as a rule undertake, to fit for the practical work of life except very indirectly. Their aim is to develop character and capacity, to enlarge the intelligence, and to stimulate mental power. This is a most worthy aim. Never under any scheme of education must the cultural value of education be neglected or overlooked. Our children must be trained to be good citizens. They must learn as much as possible of the wonders of the universe and the achievements of man. They must acquire sympathy with all that is noble and beautiful. They must learn to observe and to think accurately. Their mental powers and moral sense must be stimulated. It is clear, however, that today they need from their school career a training in the practical things of life. They cannot now get that training to an adequate degree in any other way. This does not mean a revolution. It does not mean the sacrifice of what is good in our present training. It simply means a revision of values, a readjustment of conditions. If some of the school work is obviously related to that of grown men and women and the children secure results in that work which are parallel with those attained in the serious affairs in life, they will begin to realize that all their activities, including the book side which often seems so unreal to them, may, in Hke manner, have a close relation to concrete reality. 368 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National There are many instances of boys who wer€ thought dunces at school, until some form of practical achievement stimulated them for the first time to mental effort, whereupon they at once became scholars. I believe that this would not infrequently happen in our public schools if the boys and girls who are so constituted that their prime need is practical effort had the opportunity for it. No one can contend that practical work and studies based on and re- lating to practical work, or so shaped as to elucidate and dignify it, would not, if properly carried on, develop character and capacity to as great a degree as any now in the curriculum. There is not a side of human nature that would not be benefited by such studies and by such work. The powers of observation, reason, and judgment would be stimulated; industry and accuracy in thought and effort would be promoted; discipHne would be inculcated. A sense of beauty and of the fitness of things would be de- veloped. It is for the expert educators to determine just what must be done to introduce the vocational idea into our public-school system without any sacrifice of the admirable qualities of the system as it exists today. The selection of the particular course of each child should be guided as far as possible. It should not depend solely on the pupil himself as is the case in some of our colleges, where there is almost too free an opportunity to choose courses at will, for vocational or other reasons. It would be an ideal condition if it could be determined for each child exactly the walk of life, large or small, in which he could do the best for himself and the community, and the child could then receive that training which would do the most to develop his capacity for the special work he was to pursue. Under the most favorable circumstances this condition could never be altogether attained. The enormous number of children to be educated makes it impossible to deal with them adequately as individuals. They have to be treated for the most part in groups. This is unfair to each in- dividual child. Let us hope that a way can be found by which the char- acteristics and needs of each may be the subject of some study. If the teacher were not overburdened with work, he is probably in a better posi- tion than anyone else to form a sound estimate of a particular child and to aid generally in his development as well as in the choice of his career. Many teachers are now most helpful in this matter. May they all recognize it as part of their duty, to be performed as well as can be under the difficult conditions of their work. I have endeavored to speak of the general phases of vocational educa- tion. I am not competent to go farther. All depends on the educators and the teachers of the country. They are studying the subject earnestly. A very large number of them have not only grasped the idea with the utmost sympathy but have thought and worked upon it with admirable Council) INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS 369 results. If all will study the problem and each contribute what he can to its solution, our times will surely develop a forward and upward movement in education for which future generations will bless us. THE NEED OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS THEODORE W. ROBINSON, ILLINOIS STEEL COMPANY, CHICAGO, ILL. American standards of living have been made possible by our unpar- alleled resources and have been accomplished by our unparalleled energy and ingenuity. Our wages are much higher than those of European work- men in similar positions. Our cost of living is also higher but the average net difference in favor of American labor has been suflScient to command those things of life which make for happiness and contentment. But new and rapidly expanding economic forces are at work. It is coming to be recognized that our national resources are not limitless; that reckless and extravagant exploitation must give way to careful and scien- tific operation; that a rapidly increasing population necessitates exports more and more of an industrial character, and that successful competition in the markets of the world is bound to be an increasing factor in our pros- perity. In studying competitive conditions one is impressed by the low-priced manual labor of Europe, hut until one has seen, as I have seen, half-clothed, half -fed women, grimy and exhausted, shoveling coal and hauling ore, one has but a slight conception of the physical and intellectual degradation which extreme industrial competition brings about. Taking two nations with equal national resources and equal labor effi- ciency, the competitive advantage is to that country with the lower wages and the lower standards of living. As I have said, American standards have been made possible by our wealth of resource'. But our large contribu- tion of food-stuffs to other nations is rapidly diminishing. We must, there- fore, give more attention to that industrial efficiency on farm and in factory without which we cannot hope to maintain both successful competition and our present standards of living. In a letter written by Lord Macaulay in 1857 questioning the perma- nency of American institutions, the following striking statement appears: As long as you have boundless extent of fertile and unoccupied land your laboring population will be far more at ease than the laboring population of the Old World, and while that is the case the Jeffersonian politics may continue to exist without causing any fatal calamity. But the time will come when New England will be as thickly populated as old England. Wages will be as low and will fluctuate as much as with us. We are approaching the time, in respect to population, which Lord Macaulay foresaw, but we can avert his conclusion as to wages, if we prop- erly train our people. 370 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Our educational question is made more difficult by a million foreigners annually coming to our shores. While the history of the American immi- grant is the history of American civilization, to the average citizen the immigration of the past is a matter of unread history, the immigration of the present is a subject of indifference, and the immigration of the future a problem for coming generations. The problem of the immigrant of the "Mayflower" was the conquest of natural forces. The problem of the immigrant today is the conquest of human forces. Whether he shall prove a unit of strength, or whether he shall prove a center of infectious degeneration, will largely depend upon the education we give him and his children. It is sound public policy to see that the immigrant is not only taught our language as a preliminary to loyalty and patriotism, but that he receives an industrial training that will conduce to self-support, the basis of good citizenship. The intelligent study of any social problem demands the full recognition of two basic principles of life: First, that the primary duty of every man is to gain a livelihood for himself and for his family. Second, that the char- acter of every man depends upon his moral and physical fiber and upon his intelligence. The price of life and advance is work, a fact true of all ages and of all conditions of men. The world owes no able-bodied man a living except as he earns it or his forefathers have earned it for him, and there are some who would even question the right to idleness oq account of a competence inherited from others. But a man's earning power must be above the bare necessities of life if proper opportunity is to be given to his moral and intellectual growth. Further, it is clear that the greater the economic efficiency, in reason, the greater will be the chance for individual develop- ment. I conceive, therefore, that the fundamental object of education is not only to promote moral and intellectual strength, largely thru increasing the economic efficiency, but it is also to bring each of these attributes of civilization into its proper relationship. There may be moral strength with inferior intelligence and high intelligence with low efficiency. The educational requirements of one community will differ from those of another, and the educational needs of one period will differ from those of another period. But every educational system, if it properly fulfills its function, must be adapted to time and place, and its value will be largely measured by its practical application. A few generations ago American life was essentially country life. Be- yond the barest training in the three R's the educational efforts of our forefathers were bent toward fitting men for a professional career. Indus- trial activity was comparatively undeveloped and its needs were largely met by the apprenticeship system. The farmer with his diversified manual occupations found fairly satisfactory conditions in the educational methods Councni INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS 371 that existed. The professional and business men were adequately cared for by the old-fashioned American college. Within a comparatively few years, however, changes have taken place unprecedented either in this country or in the world. America is today essentially an industrial nation with an industrial tendency becoming more intensified and accelerated. Country life is giving place to urban life, and an educational system which fairly met the needs of our forefathers is insufficient for our modern conditions. This is not a criticism of American higher education, for I believe our opportunities are ample for professional training, be it academic or tech- nical. It does mean, however, that the science of pedagogy has not kept pace with the needs of the vast majority of our people and mainly so be- cause the elementary grades are not meeting the new requirements of our industrial condition. A short generation ago the industrial necessities of this country forced the establishment of the technical school for the train- ing of industrial leaders. Today our industrial necessities are demanding an elementary training for industrial workers. The technical school has a splendid record of achievement but it is an achievement of higher edu- cation. There are in the United States about eighty-eight million people. Assuming the average family to be composed of five members, and includ- ing the wife and mother as a bread-winner, there would be in a broad sense about thirty-five million wage-earners. Of these about one million are in the professions, and about one million occupy executive positions. It is clear that our educational system should properly care for the needs of this large majority. Our elementary schools are inadequate and even our manual-training and high schools have largely been perverted from giving a practical foundation for the working-classes to one leading to the professions. Manual training has done good cultural work but as a means to a vocational end it has proved a disappointment. The seriousness of the present condition is indicated by the fact that nearly 90 per cent, of our school children leave school before they are fifteen years of age. This is largely because our schools do not offer an education which will encourage, cultivate, and give a training that can be practically applied to their life's work. There will ever be class distinction, but social differences are transi- tory, and in this country are marked by the right of achievement — not by right of tradition, much less by right of law. The leveling influences of education knock down all social barriers here. The establishment of industrial institutions unconnected with our public schools first emphasized the possibility of industrial education. More recently the Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, which stands as the organized recognition of a vital defect in our educa- tional methods, has done able missionary work by its vigorous propaganda. 372 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION [National The legislation on this subject already enacted by various states shows the enlightenment of the pubHc. The attitude of the federal government has been manifested by the lively personal interest of President Taft and Mr. Roosevelt and by the educational bills before Congress. This country has been sleeping a self-complaisant sleep of confidence, born of stupendous resources. Meanwhile, old nations, like Germany, are rapidly becoming new by industrial education, while our New World will become old unless we wake. The ultimate aim of our public schools is the supreme purpose of producing the highest type of manhood and woman- hood. Let us clearly understand that to accomplish this purpose reason- able individual efficiency as determined by reasonable individual earning power must be attained. As long as 90 per cent, of the youth of our country progress no farther than the grammar school, just so long will an undue number become dere- licts for want of educational encouragement and opportunity. No sane man will disparage any plan of education which seeks its culmination in the university. Nevertheless, the necessities of the many cannot be re- placed by the opportunities of the few. Thousands of industries are sorely in need of skilled labor, tens of thousands of workmen are more in need of educational opportunity. The efficiency of labor would not have to be extraordinarily increased to raise the earning powxr of the individual ten cents a day. Yet such an increase would amount to nearly a billion dollars a year and would pay our national debt in about one year's time. While there will be honest differences of opinion as to the best means of giving our boys and girls their educational rights, mutual confidence and harmony must prevail in our endeavors. We have seen on one hand instances of short-sighted activity by the employer to fill the demand for skilled labor. We have seen on the other hand distrust and opposition from a part of organized labor. Proper vocational training appeals to considerations broader than selfishness or avarice and will not brook oppo- sition born of mistaken self-interest or desire for restrictive monopoly. With fuller enlightenment has come a clearer conception of the fundamen- tal issues involved and it is encouraging to find a broader and more intelli- gent spirit on the part of educators, organized labor, and employers. Evidence of this is shown in the space devoted to this subject in the program of the present meeting of the National Education Association; by the action taken by the National Federation of Labor at its meeting in Toronto last summer; and by the action recently taken by the Com- mercial Club of Chicago. The Commercial Club of Chicago is a small but active organization of business men representing widely diversified inter- ests and is a strictly non-partisan, non-sectarian body. For over thirty years it has been active in civic, state, and national affairs. Its last com- prehensive work with the special aid of one of its members, Mr. D. H. CouncUI INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS 373 Burnham, was the conception, elaboration, and publication of the .so- called city plan of Chicago, of which the original paintings were recently exhibited in Boston. The club has for years maintained an interest in educational affairs and among its other activities established the Chicago Manual Training School, one of the first in the country. The experience so gained convinced the club that no system of industrial training could be permanently suc- cessful unless made part of the American common-school system. Acting upon this conviction, at a late meeting, it was voted unanimously to raise fund to investigate European industrial schools. Mr. Edwin G. Cooley, for many years general superintendent of the public schools of Chicago, ^as engaged to spend a year or more in Europe for the purpose of formu- Lting some concrete plan for introducing industrial education into the ;ommon schools of America. The club hopes thus to assist in the work )eing done by others in this important field. I once heard Grover Cleveland say, "The country that we live in lives us." What our country will be tomorrow coming generations must letermine, but their decision will largely depend upon the education that ^e make possible for them. DISCUSSION Henry Abrahams, secretary, Boston Central Labor Union, Boston, Mass. — If a graduate from the Institute of Technology hesitates to address this audience, what must be the feelings of one whose Alma Mater was the trades union ? Slaves, serfs, citizens; absolute despotism, constitutional monarchy, a republic — such has been the evolution of man and government. A free press, free schools, and public libraries have developed the worker so that most of our people do not know him or his capabilities. The trade union believes in a shorter working-day and a living wage. A living wage is sufficient to support a man and his family, and lay by enough for old age. Anything less is not a living wage. A combination of trade school and workshop is necessary to produce a mechanic. Organized labor indorses education of the worker industrially as well as along the lines of art and science. Today a boy goes out for a job; it may be in a carpenter or a machine shop or to become a barber; the question of the aptitude of the boy does not enter into it at all — he has a job. We surely can do better than this. The American Federation of Labor has declared for industrial education. Carpen- ters have done all in their power to assist the Boston School Committee in their efforts to establish a trade school. There is not an apprentice in carpentry in Boston, due to the refusal of employers to take apprentices. The plumbers succeeded in getting a clause in an agreement with employers providing for apprentices. This shows the attitude of organized labor. Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. — The discussion this morning seems to assume that trade schools have been accepted as a definite part of the public-school system of our cities, and that the only problem is to adjust amicably the relations between them and organized labor. While in our largest cities and in smaller cities where certain industries are of overshadowing importance it is doubtless easy to determine upon certain forms of trade schools for which there will be an assured demand, I question whether this is true of all our cities. 374 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National There are many cities which have no one industry or group of industries which can put forward a claim for trade schools which is in any respect stronger than that which might be made for scores of other industries. When we realize that each trade school demands an equipment expensive in itself and expensive to maintain, it is not hard to see that there exist very practical obstacles to the immediate realization of trade schools supported by pubhc taxation. Is it not, in fact, still debatable whether genuine trade schools designed to furnish highly trained artisans should in all cities be supported from the pubhc-school budget ? That some type of industrial school designed to open the way for more judicious selection of his life-work by the boy is necessary and practicable, I feel assured. That we are approaching the time when every city will support trade schools of all the differ- ent types for which there might be possible demand, seems to me to be inconceivable. Thomas W. Bicknell, 207 Doyle Avenue, Providence, R.I, — ^The discussion of the morning with reference to education and labor both interests and surprises me. Our public educational system has been made a pack-horse for a multitude of social and eco- nomic burdens, and now the demand arises from labor officials that courses of education shall be so thoroly specialized that pupils shall be taught carpentry and plumbing and masonry and dressmaking and store-keeping and blacksmithing to such an extent that they may be qualified to enter upon these trades or fines of business on leaving school. Still further, we are told that the young people are to be classified by the labor leaders and that the exact number of such boys and girls to be so educated shall be determined by some supposed law of local supply and demand. Boston must turn out annually so many "butchers, bakers, and candlestick-makers." Now, in the course of a long life of experience in educational affairs I have never listened to the expression of theories of education so perfectly absurd and un-American, for if there is any doctrine for American democracy that holds good over all others, it is that America is the land of splendid opportunity, and that the doors of our public schools swing on easy hinges, wide and free, for the youth of our land to prepare by school studies and discipHne for any business or occupation they may choose "with none to molest or make them afraid." To add to these strange doctrines we also hear another that each youth must be taught in one school the whole round of the trade or business; a watchmaker must learn how to make the whole of a watch, a machinist all the parts of a steam-engine, a house carpenter and a mason all the details for a dwelling or a cathedral. Doctrines and the- ories of such monstrous proportions must astonish all sane and sensible educators. At the meeting of the National Education Association at Madison in 1884, in the Presidential Address I gave a review of "industrial education," as seen from my stand- point at that time. I befieve the conclusions I then reached are as sound and as apph- cable today, as twenty-six years ago. THE CREATIVE METHOD "The creative method" which makes an elementary training-school subserve intellectual uses, the elevation of the tastes, and the formation of character, is undoubtedly the true one, and this principle determines in a large measure the methods of introducing manual training into the educational work. The common school has no specializing functions, and can only aid in the industrial processes in an indirect and general way. School life is too brief and its opportunities too limited to expect that a youth shall come forth from the school full-armed for the battle of life, as Minerva from the head of Jupiter. What- ever can be introduced into the school curriculum that aids in gaining mental, physical, or moral power is right, proper, and excefient. All else should be dispensed with. PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS ^ I. That the mercenary or mercantile motives for industrial or manual training as a part of the common-school curriculum are giving way to a true educational theory. » Annual Presidential Address, 1884. CouncU] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS 375 2. That the introduction of the workshop into the schoolhouse is a poor makeshift for industrial education of any sort, 3. That the short school life of the average American child demands that up to the age of fourteen, he should be held closely to the cultivation of the powers of observation, and "a scientific habit of thought and investigation," with a broad foundation of ele- mentary and special instruction. 4. That it is of the utmost importance to technology that reforms in methods of teaching the common branches of knowledge in the common schools should be urged most strenuously. This is the thing to do, rather than lunge ofif into manual training. What the polytechnic can do for young men depends as much upon what they bring to her door as upon what they draw from her stores. 5. That by some discreet pruning a place can be made for instruction of all boys in the grammar schools, in the six mechanical powers; this is a kind of knowledge that they need take hold of greedily and find very useful. The necessary apparatus can be bought for $20,000 for each school. 6. That the establishment of free manual-training schools, as at Baltimore and Chi- cago, seems to point to the true solution of the difficulties which beset the problem of securing an increase of skilled labor. 7. That the establishment of apprentice schools, like those in Paris and other parts of France, is the real need of the time. Dr. Philbrick, of Massachusetts, in writing of one of these schools, says: "The school located on the Boulevard de La Villette in Paris, which was opened in December, 1872, is the best school of its kind in the world. It has passed the period of experiment, and the city authorities have decided to establish schools of a similar type in the different industrial sections of the city. This is a real industrial school of the handicraft type. It is for boys who have completed their elementary education, but do not aspire to a high-school education. It is for the benefit of the great working-class. It is designed to form the skilled artisan — not, indeed^ to complete the training required for the finished workman, but to carry the apprentice far on his way to this goal, on which his eye is fixed. 8. That colleges and special schools should adopt their instruction in techniques and scientific methods to the local wants of the communities where they are established. \ DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Miss Luella A. Palmer, kindergartner, Public School No. 63 . . New York City, N.Y. Vice-President — Miss Willette Allen, principal, Kindergarten Normal School .... Atlanta, Ga. Secretary — Miss Lucy T. Ellis, principal of Phoenix Kindergarten Phoenix, Ariz. FIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Morning, July 5, 1910 The Department met in joint session with the Department of Child Study and the Department of Elementary Education. For program see Department of Child Study. Topic: "The Special Child." SECOND SESSION.— Thursday Forenoon, July 7, 1910 The Department met in Normal Art School. The second session was called to order at 9:30 A.M. by the president, Miss Luella A. Palmer, who acknowledged the gavel presented to the department by the second-year class of the Mechanic Arts High School. She then introduced Miss Caroline Aborn, who gave a short address of welcome. It was moved by Mrs. Page, of Chicago, and duly seconded, that a hearty vote of thanks be given to the donors of the gavel to the Kindergarten Department, and the vote was unanimously adopted. Notes of greeting were read from Mme. Kraus-Boelte, Dr. Jenny B. Merrill, and others; also various notices and invitations to kindergartners. The president appointed as a Nominating Committee Mrs. Mary B. Page, of Chicago, thairman, Mrs. Harriman, of Boston, and Miss Norton, of Milwaukee; the committee to report at the close of the session Friday morning. Papers were read by the president. Miss Palmer, Dr. Amy E. Tanner, Department of Experimental Pedagogy, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.; and Miss Caroline Craw- ford, Physical Culture Department, Teachers College, New York City. The president then invited a general discussion, and introduced Miss Ruth Norton, of the Milwaukee Normal Art School, who was followed by Miss Ruth Tappan, of Brook- lyn, N.Y., and Mrs. J. H. Phillips, of Birmingham, Ala. Moved, seconded, and adopted that Miss Palmer's paper be printed in monograph for circulation. THIRD SESSION.— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 19 10 The meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m., at Normal Art School. Notices, greetings, invitations, etc., were read by the president. Miss Ada Van Stone Harris, assistant superintendent of schools and superior of kindergartens, Rochester, N. Y., read a paper on "The Test of a Child's Kindergarten Training." The second topic was "The Kindergarten Out-of-Doors," and papers pertaining to this subject were read, as follows: "Gardens," by Miss Anna C. Harvey, Adelphi College, Brooklyn, N.Y. 377 378 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten "Walks and Excursions," by Mrs. Alma O. Ware, principal, South Bend Kinder- garten Training School, South Bend, Ind. "Open- Air Sessions" by Miss Margaret M. Colton, principal. Grove Street School, Providence, R.I. The Nominating Committee reported as follows: For President — Miss Jane Hoxie, Berkeley, Cal. For Vice-President— Mxss Anna Stovall, Supervisor Golden Gate Kindergarten Asso- ciation, San Francisco, Cal. For Secretary — (Vacant). The report was adopted. A paper was then read by Miss Lucretia Jones, El Paso, Texas, on "Gardens out of Doors." Discussions followed. Lucy T. Ellis, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPMENT AS THE BASIS FOR KINDERGARTEN METHOD LUELLA A. PALMER, KINDERGARTNER, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 63 NEW YORK CITY, N.Y. It is not possible, within the limits of a few hundred words, to treat with any degree of exhaustiveness either the theory or application implied in the title of this paper. The principle of development is the core of the world's history. Our particular problem is concerned with two years in the de- velopment of a human being. The wider view of the principle must be treated very briefly in order to place the emphasis upon our special work. Three main points will be considered: first, a few of the laws of the prin- ciple of development that seem to have a very direct bearing upon the kin- dergarten; second, these same laws as seen in the growth of the human being; lastly, the conscious relation of these facts to the promotion of human development between the ages of four and six. We accept as an axiom that the world is developing; it has in the past, is apparently doing so now, and we have faith to believe that it will be in the future. Some of the signs by which the world has progressed are as follows: 1. Every developing body starts each moment from the point which is the result of all past accumulations. It is not the sum of past accumulations; the later additions may have modified the earUer composition so that what has seemed a quantitative in- crease has produced a qualitative change. 2. Any present result becomes enlarged by coming in contact with material that can be assimilated. This material may vary in its developing possibilities. If it is exactly similar to the body with which it comes in contact, the new merely enlarges the old, leaving the whole but slightly altered; but if the new material be unlike the old, and, at the same time, one which will bring about some possible change in the first body, the combined whole may take on new characteristics, and a new capacity for further change may result. Thus the second kind of material generally aids in more rapid progression. 3. The new material must be assimilated and become an organic part of the whole or it will not add to the developing power of the old. Anything that is not immediately usable in some need of the new whole, becomes a drag rather than an assistance. Department! THE PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPMENT 379 4. Nature develops an organism in all directions possible. She emphasizes the growth of the highest capacity; sometimes this becomes overspecialized and the type ceases to grow. Some form which has kept more equable development of all its parts, and is therefore more unstable, is found more adaptable to conditions that call for change; this latter form will push farther along in the line of evolution. Nature insists that each organism shall gain developing power only in so far as it feels the necessity and unity of all its parts. The higher must aid those which have helped to raise them to their present place. 5. Nature has a goal, one at which she is arriving every moment, from which she departs every moment, toward which she is constantly aiming. She is the complete unity where process and aim are one. The goal is development; the process is development. This is the only dynamic method. Let US consider these five laws as specially applied to human develop- ment. 1. Each human being must start at any moment from the point to which his pe- culiar heredity and experience have brought him. The ordinarily normal person has inherited a certain common physical form as well as certain interests and capacities. Yet each one has something unique in his heredity which marks him off from every other individual. These inherited characteristics are gradually combined with experiences, the sum-total of which differs for each individual. Each human being can develop only from the point which is the result of his particular inheritance modified by his particular experiences. 2. Since heredity cannot, of course, be changed after birth, experiences are the only developing agents, and are therefore the only material that man can assimilate. The new experiences which can be assimilated must have something in common with past experiences or with some latent interest or capacity of the individual. If the new is on the plane of previous experiences, very little extra energy will result; but, if it is enough unlike to modify interests or develop capacities, to change the attitude toward life, the new experience has in all probability helped toward progress. 3. Experiences that do not satisfy some immediate need of the individual are unused and therefore of no value in his life. Those which are available for present necessity acquire power for developing more power. The needs of an individual which must be satisfied vary greatly, but, unless the case is abnormal, they would differentiate into needs for more facts, more beauty, more social participation, more faith. These desires of the expanding human nature, if rightly met, may lead to the acknowledgment of the values recognized by society as of supreme worth: truth, beauty, goodness, faith. 4. In the progress of the world, nations have come and gone. In each case, the cause for the decay seems to have been the overdevelopment of some one side of man's nature. Concentration makes man progress rapidly in one direction, but a slower rate with well-rounded development produces a creature variable enough to continue in the line of development. If nature's laws are read aright, man's higher powers, mentality and spirituality, must not be developed at the expense of what sustains them. The physical and social phases of man's being will be raised to a higher level when viewed as means by which the higher develop. Man will continue developing only as a unified whole. 5. When man becomes conscious of nature's goal and works in accord with her method, he makes the most rapid advance. Man, like lower organisms, can develop; but, unlike them, he can consciously develop his developing power. He can project a goal and pull himself ahead by selecting means to arrive at it. He can select a moving goal that will grow with his growth. He can gain the attitude of believing that any result accomplished is but a step toward something higher and better. Our problem in the kindergarten is: (i) to know where to start with our 380 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten children, what inheritance and experience each child has had ; (2) to select new experiences, like and yet different from the old, which will respond to his needs and develop his interests and capacities; (3) to plan how these experiences can be put to immediate use in order to gain developing power; (4) to study how a unified and therefore fully rounded product can be obtained; (5) to learn how we can help a child toward a consciousness of his developing nature and toward selecting means to realize it. I. Each child begins in the kindergarten with the result of his peculiar heredity and past experiences. Is there any common starting-point for these vastly differing individualities ? They have inherited growing bodies, minds, and souls, but in different kindergartens and even in individuals in the same kindergarten there may be great difference in the stages of development. But we should not plan our programs upon the divisions of the old faculty psychology — physical, mental, spiritual. Bodily expression should be organized by the mind and spirit if the child is to feel himself developing as a unity. What is the common ground upon which to start ? Certain capacities and interests have been inherited by all children. They have a capacity, a possibility, of developing in all phases of human nature — scientific, aesthetic, moral, and religious. They have certain interests that generally appear at kindergarten age; Froebel calls these "talking, drawing, playing." These are the common interests and capacities, but both are variable be- cause they have been retarded or developed by the differing experiences of the children. The little foreigners may be just learning the language and only desire to name things and activities; other kindergarten children may have such good control over words that they wish to play with them, to rhyme. The children of busy parents may have had few opportunities to express ideas thru the hand and few chances to gain ideas; others may have had rich experiences and much help in telling about them manually. Some children may have had opportunities to relate their ideas thru social play; others may be still in the individual stage where only the toy is necessary without other children. Fortunately for the peace of mind of the kindergartner, almost all children have had a few experiences in common, and those that are gathered together in one locality are nearly all alike as regards opportunity for experiences and their expression thru language, handwork, and play. She can make her starting-point one which will touch most of her children, altho, as her program develops, it may be different from that of any other kindergartner that she knows, because she must adapt it to the needs and interests of her own group. Some of the common experiences that may be used as topics of the program are: the new experience of coming to kindergarten and associating with a group of children of equal age, the home and its members, forces of nature, sun, wind, rain, etc., changing seasons, festivals, members of the Department] THE PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPMENT 381 x:ommumty who serve and guard the home directly and indirectly. These last three topics would differ greatly in treatment in different localities. It is well to bring to the children, or take them to, some new vivid experience that there may be some common knowledge and interest for all as a group. 2. The second law of human development, as seen in its more pro- gressive form, gives one-half of a workable rule for the selection of what is to be considered in the kindergarten. If more experiences are given of the same kind as the previous ones, there is Httle developing power as a result. Yet the new experiences must not be so different from the former that they will not appeal to the child. Much that we have hoped would educate kindergarten children has been too far afield from their real interests. We must use what the children have already experienced, or, when anything is taken up with which they have not come in actual contact, we must be careful that the experience can be built up mentally by the rearrangement and new relating of what they have actually experienced. But children of kindergarten age are not adepts at abstracting and re-relating, and allow- ance must be made for their immaturity. 3. The second half of our rule for the selection of program topics is, that the subject taken up, or experience given, must be capable of develop- ing the child in all phases of his nature. What is he trying to do in his search for truth, beauty, goodness, faith? With regard to gaining knowledge of facts, he is trying to relate things in his environment. At a later period, he delights in storing up facts as facts, the mere activity of the memory meets his need at that time. At other periods, facts must be called for by some necessity of living in order to become vital. Knowledge, as such, is unused experience that has no developing power; wisdom is knowledge that is seen in its relation to the affairs of life and results are seen in character. The child already defines things in terms of active relation, of use; and we discourage it, we try to make him classify on the basis of squares and circles or ones and twos. He thinks that God sends the sunshine so that he can enjoy the picnic, that the baker bakes bread for him to eat, that the paper is something out of which he can make a wagon. The relation, the use, is self-centered. We must help him to see the usefulness in a broader aspect, in its relation to his playfellows, and to their families. Later education should show the relation to an increasingly larger community. To aid the child in his search for truth, there must be a selection of his experiences and a choice of those that show in the best way the relations between God, man, and things. We must help him to relate upon the basis of meaning, for the true meanings of things are those rela- tions that they bear to each other and to man. In the realm of the spiritual world, the relation or meaning to be brought out in the selected topic would be God's love and care; in the social world, it would be interdependence and co-operation; in the material world, quaHty and usefulness. 382 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten The experience selected should be capable of being shown as having a beautiful side. In language, its meaning should be given by song and story; in concrete material, by picture or other form; in play, by game or dance. The experiences should be selected because they suggest some form of social activity for the little kindergarten group which in their reliving can elevate the ethical standard. There is a great difference between talking about social activity and actually living it; the latter is the means of vital education Experiences should be selected because they give a deeper understand- ing of the wisdom that governs the universe. Let me sum up briefly the relation of the first three- characteristics of the principle of development to the method of the kindergarten: It will mean that the program will be based upon some actual experience of the children, either present or past; selected because it can be organized thru the children's interests in the activities of "talking, drawing, playing," upon the basis of the individuals' need to expand upon all sides of his nature, which leads to the recognized social values of truth, beauty, goodness, faith. 4. Our children will have well-rounded development and be capable of adaptation, which means continuing development only in so far as they feel the necessity for, and unity of, all of the different sides of their nature. The core of the unity should be the child's own experience. Every ex- perience, that is, every idea, should find expression thru all different channels. Every activity, while emphasizing one phase of the child's nature, should partake somewhat of the others. This means that, given an experience, language in some of its forms should show the scientific, aes- thetic, moral, and spiritual values. Handwork should record its scientific aesthetic, and moral values and play should give expression to these same values. A rhythmic movement, for instance, should seldom be made just for its own sake, but should find its meaning by being brought into relation to some idea. Language should recall to the minds of the children what they know of the subject that is to be expressed rhythmically; then they should strive to control their bodies to give expression in as true and beautiful a way as possible. Handwork should be done not only to show increasing control of materials, but this control should serve the higher purpose of ex- pressing more true or beautiful ideas. The growth or organization of ideas should be the core, if unity is to be preserved, and the growth in control should be sought in order to give adequate expression to the ideas. Many logical steps in technique can be omitted if material is used as often as pos- sible, in its right relation, as a channel for the expression of ideas. The highest type of stimulus is not concrete material but thought material. 5. During the kindergarten period the children grow in their conscious- ness of being able to pull themselves ahead. There are three attitudes that Department! THE PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPMENT 383 can be cultivated which will help the children to develop this power and be- come more conscious of it: {a) the attitude of learning from the outside world; {h) the attitude of having a purpose and selecting means to carry it out; {c) the attitude of following where a wise guide leads. The first attitude is on the plane of the animal world, the second is reasoning and develops human characteristics, the third develops faith and is spiritual in its essence. In language the child should be encouraged to increase his vocabulary; to tell his ideas and choose the right words to con- vey his meaning; to listen to good stories and rhymes and sometimes repeat them. In handwork, the children should be allowed to experiment with material and learn its possibilities; to hold an idea so vividly that they struggle to express it in the right way by choosing material and the way of manipulating it; to imitate what they have seen that is true or beautiful. The children can develop these three attitudes in play {a) by trying to test their ability to relate in imagination; {h) by starting with an idea and organizing a game; (c) by learning a game from one who leads. When children — or adults — struggle for expression, they generally pur- pose to do one of three things with regard to their idea: {a) to learn some- thing more about it; {h) to record what is already known; (c) to show its beautiful aspect. In handwork, we would call an occupation which allowed for the further investigation of the subject a constructive occupation; the second would be graphic; the third, aesthetic. The children should take the constructive occupation home in order to fulfill its purpose. In the graphic occupations, the children should be allowed to tell their story as fully and relatedly as possible. The aesthetic occupations should produce lasting results. Books which the children take home at the end of the year should record the beauty side of every topic, not only in a concrete way, but should suggest the other beautiful aspects in language and rhythm. The children's choice of coloring and arrangement should make the picture an artistic one from the child's standpoint, and should remind him of beautiful stories and songs. In this way, the cultural side of the children's work can be em- phasized. Books which show progress solely in manual skill lay stress upon labor; those which show progression in number and form emphasize the scientific; neither of these rises to the level of the artistic which must be based upon beautiful thought. The kindergartner, in all her relations with the children, should assume the attitude of accepting for the present the result of faithful effort but look- ing for something better at the next attempt. In discipline, in handwork, in play, at every point of contact, she can develop this attitude in the little ones. The test of her work should be whether it has enriched the life of the children. Has she given new and valuable experiences ; has she deepened the meaning of the child's own environment; has she shown as much of the truth in it as he is capable of discovering; has he felt its beauty; has he acted toward it in the best way that he knows and can find out; has he had 384 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten intimations of a controlling love; has he been left with an attitude of striv- ing to gain more experiences along these lines ? Browning says: This world's no blot for us Nor blank; it means intensely, and means good: To find its meaning is my meat and drink. Do the children leave the kindergarten with this feeling pervading every fiber of their beings? If so, the principle of development has been the basis of the kindergarten method. TEE CHILD AS THE CENTER OF CORRELATION IN THE KINDERGARTEN AMY E. TANNER, DEPARTMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL PEDAGOGY CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS. Not geography nor nature-study, nor history, but the child; not the adult, nor adult theories, nor Froebel himself, but the child, is the center of the kindergarten, as well as its source. To see children as they really are and not according to our preconceptions; to live with them in- stead of making them live with us; to become as little children ourselves instead of forcing them to be wizened adults — this is our present ideal. In the past we have overemphasized the oak that lay hid in the acorn. True, the acorn may become a tree, but not without a long process of growth, with much kindly nurture from sun and water and soil; and he who merely em- phasizes the unity of seed and plant is falling into a mysticism in which distinctions become meaningless and the incentive to action and effort is lost. The transformation of the one into the other — the growth process, the de- velopment from relative simpUcity to complexity — ^is the fascinating and meaningful thing. Today I wish to call your attention to three quite disconnected char- acteristics of kindergarten children which are being much emphasized in current discussion. I. First, hygiene in the kindergarten. As you all know, one-fifth of our total death-rate is with children under five years, and the rate dimin- ishes rapidly after the beginning of the second dentition. Various writers, among them Dr. Burnham in the Kindergarten Review for October, 1904, have pointed out that this is in part because the young child's skin has a different structure from the adult's, and he has fewer phagocytes in his blood to destroy dangerous bacteria. He is especially liable, therefore, to contract skin and germ diseases, and such diseases are more fatal, in pro- portion as he is younger. All the common children's diseases — measles, whooping-cough, diphtheria, mumps, etc. — rage with especial virulence among little children, and every year that an attack can be postponed gives the child more chances of recovering, and of recovering without any permanent bad effects. The old idea that children must have these diseases I rtmentl THE CHILD IN THE KINDERGARTEN 385 and should get over them as soon as possible, is now exploded, and pro- gressive hygienists are devoting their efforts to saving the children from having them at all. While, therefore, sanitary schoolrooms and closets, individual drinking- cups and towels, etc., are desirable all thru our schools and colleges, they are far more so in the kindergarten, and the kindergartner, more than any other teacher, should be well informed as to the symptoms of these common contagious and skin diseases, and on the alert to discover them. If her children get measles and diphtheria, they will have worse attacks and more of them will die than in any other school grade. She takes far more responsibility upon herself than do teachers of older children, if she is neglectful of sanitation. Every kindergarten training-school ought to have a course on the com- mon children's diseases, their symptoms, the best ways of preventing epidemics, the treatment of a child displaying suspicious symptoms, etc., and whenever possible these lectures should be illustrated by visiting hos- pitals or cases, to give the kindergartners first-hand knowledge. It would also be highly desirable for the kindergarten magazines every now and then to publish accounts of the common diseases, with the best methods of deal- ing with them. 2. To the child between three and six years, family relationships and the new baby seem to be very puzzling things. At first he thinks, like primitive peoples, that all the people under one roof — or at least in one flat — make up the family. All the men are fathers ; the one who does the house- work is the mother, and if the real mother dies or visits and is replaced by someone else, the child sometimes calls the substitute his mother. Con- tiguity, that is, is the basis for reckoning relationship. Or it may be created by the exchange of gifts, as when two children believed that giving a dog from one family to the other somehow made them cousins. Again, how can the mother be also an aunt ? Or the child himself be cousin to one person and nephew to another ? So the child gets the idea that relation- ship is a variable, and may think that when his mother's hair turns gray she will be his grandmother; or that when he grows up he will be her husband. Closely connected with this is the idea that growth is a cycle, so that grown people will sometime become small, and children were once grown, that sex changes with age, etc. These are not uncommon ideas, but, on the other hand, we also find some children much surprised to learn that their mother has a mother; their teacher, parents and home. In all these cases, that is, the child's ideas depend upon what he sees about him, and so are largely based on superficial resemblances and chance co-existences. Of the great facts of heredity and blood relationship he has no glimpse, altho at four and five there seems to be a period of much questioning and close observation about the new baby. By this time most children have learned that plants and animals come from their like, but they know Httle 386 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten about the details, and so any part of the plant may be considered the pos- sible parent. Children plant leaves, flowers, etc., expecting to get new plants; and, reasoning from analogy, they plant hen-feathers, sardine-cans, and even, as in one case, a rubber boot full of kittens, in the longing to have more. But they are not allowed to carry out their analogies and thinking with respect to man, for they are taught both that man is made of dust and that the doctor or stork brings the baby. So of course the baby is often regarded as an interloper, the idea of relationship is repudiated, and some- times, when first seen, little brother is classed as an animal or a doll. It has been a great surprise to me to see, in these returns, the number of questions asked by Httle children about such things, but it fits in well with what the Freud school of physicians is now telling us. Their studies both of children and neurotics have led them to the conclusion that this question of the origin of life is a serious problem for the child between three and six years, and that if his questions are not satisfactorily answered, he is altogether Hkely to suffer from considerable nervous tension, and to go thru a period of distrust of his parents and dislike of his Httle brother, be- sides possibly laying the foundation for various abnormalities which will appear openly at adolescence. On the other side, we find those concerned with the problem of adolescent sex-instruction saying that if the adolescent knows nothing at all about the origin of life, knowledge first given at the late age of thirteen or fourteen comes with so much of a shock and is so vitally and personally related to the feelings and organs then rapidly devel- oping, that in the heat of feeling and passion the complete truth and its sacredness may be lost. That is, students both of the adolescent and of the little child are coming together in the belief that the Httle child is not yet self-conscious about such matters, and that knowledge given him about the mother's part in the origin of Hfe is absorbed and assimilated without any strong personal feeHng entering, and becomes, as it should, a part of every- day fact. Usually the Httle child is satisfied with this much information and questions no further. Then later on, at adolescence or, some would say, at nine years, the completer knowledge may be wisely and delicately given. This point of view is now being advocated by various careful students of this problem, such as Dr. Prince Morrow and G. Stanley HaU. It puts upon the kindergartner and public-school teacher a grave responsibility. No one can question that the parents, if properly qualified, should be the ones to give such instruction to their children, but what shall we do when they are not quaHfied ? More especiaHy, what shall the kindergartner do when such questions come up in the circle or in talk and play with individual children ? It is dangerous for us to He to children about the origin of life, and still more so to leave them to the knowledge gained on the street or from other children. We cannot even stop by giving them the flower analogy, since on that basis they plant their pets and may think that plant- ing themselves wiU produce a new crop of Johnnies. I I Department] THE CHILD IN THE KINDERGARTEN 387 This much at least kindergartens should do, should they not ? When- ever there is opportunity, they should impress upon mothers the importance of telling their children about this matter when the child questions, and they should be themselves so informed that they can advise mothers as to what to tell. When individual children question the teacher, the teacher must decide in each case, from her knowledge of the mother and the child, whether to send the child to his mother or tell him herself. But never should she put the question aside as of little importance. 3. Thirdly, I have a somewhat complex point to make with regard to imagination on one side, and memory, perception, and toys on the other. I am coming to the conviction that little children are not nearly as imaginative as we give them credit for being. They do indeed have bizarre, amusing, and picturesque combinations of ideas, and they believe readily in fairies — ^but why ? Is it not because, with their limited experience, they have no standards by which to distinguish the probable from the impossible ? Partly, too, it is difficult for them to separate their vivid ideas from memo- ries; and, again, their narrow experience and their predominant motor and visual interests lead them to emphasize resemblances which our adult view of the wider relations of the object has obscured. But how difficult it is for little children really to imagine vividly and with interest for even a short time, the listless occupational games in many a kindergarten bear eloquent witness. What we call the imaginative plays of children are largely imi- tative in origin, and can become imaginative only because the activities involved are very familiar. If the little child led us, we should go directly to his everyday life for our kindergarten material, for when he plays freely, he plays what goes on about him. Here, then, is the point which I wish especially to make: in the occupa- tions, the plays involving animal activities, etc., is not the kindergarten relying far too much upon the children's memory and imagination, and giving them far too little sense-material ? It is a truism to say that children cannot imitate what they do not know, and yet everywhere kindergarten children are made to play blacksmith, shoemaker, etc. Of course the kindergartner tries to take them to see the blacksmith, but usually she can only do this once, and then everything is on so large a scale and the experi- ence is so exciting that the children are likely only to be confused. Is there not needed in the kindergarten a more complete equipment of the tools and implements used in the fundamental life occupations ? Suppose that there were a forge, anvil, and hammer, so that the children could play with them and get the really correct movements, what a different thing the black- smith song would become! It would be comparatively easy to have the simpler agricultural tools like the rake, hoe, and spade, and thus all these plays would be greatly vivified and enriched. Many kindergartens already have the playhouse, fitted up with furniture and dolls, but this is only the begin- ning. The same thing should be done in all activities imitative of real Hfe. 388 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten This, I am well aware, would involve new toy factories, but is it not time that manufacturers took account of the educational possibilities in toys ? Such toys should be large enough to be a fairly accurate reproduction of the real thing, but not too large for the children to handle easily, and it is especially important that the parts should be correctly proportioned. They should be so made that they can be taken apart and put together without damage, and strong enough so that they can be used. Such toys in the kindergarten would lead directly on to industrial training in the grades, and, vice versa, where there is industrial work in the grades much of such kin- dergarten equipment could be made by the grade children with the keenest enjoyment. Will such toys stifle imagination? Far from it. All adult reasoning and activity, the whole volitional and moral life, are based upon perceptions and memories of them, and early childhood is the great period of perception. Then the child's senses are hungrier than ever again, and the impressions then received underlie and bias all the later ones. At this early age, also, imitation is stronger than ever again. It is therefore the golden age for feeding the child's hungry mind with the sense-material which the race has been using ever since it became human, and with those common tools of the hand which have made the hand the tool of thought. Winteler's, Meu- mann's, and Ziehen's studies seem to show that the children who are most imitative and who have the most sense-material to play with are the ones most likely to develop talent later. The reason is plain. They have more memories on the basis of which to infer, imagine, and reason. The child with little sense-material can at most only combine his few and poverty- stricken images into simple and commonplace forms. That is, imagination and sense, imitation and invention, far from being opposed, are interrelated at every point. The most imaginative and inventive man is always also the one who is most docile to the leadings of sense and experience, without being servile — and that is what we mean essentially by "free play" and artistic activity, the mind working spontaneously upon rich and varied sense-materials. Then alone have we the conditions for making a master- workman, a great artist, or a complete man. ^ESTHETIC DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AT THE KINDERGARTEN PERIOD CAROLINE CRAWFORD, PHYSICAL CULTURE DEPARTMENT, TEACHERS COLLEGE, NEW YORK, N.Y. The change that has come about in the educational viewpoint has affected not only the practical and scientific aspects of education, but promises to modify and reconstruct the aesthetic and cultural phases as well. We demand every branch of activity to prove itself with an emphasis never before realized in the educational world. The very term "fads and Department! jESTHETIC DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN 389 frills" seen so often in the daily papers is significant in a vague way of the logical process at work in the socialized consciousness. And to no other subjects so much as to those which come under the general title of art do we find given this particular term of derision and reproach. This usage is in itself proof that we are no longer satisfied with the once-accepted reasons for the teaching of the arts, nor have we, on the other hand, fully arrived in consciousness as to the practical everyday value of the arts in this work-a- day world. Such a statement as this often brings out a challenge from those who have given their lives to the support of the cultural factors in education, and who feel that to recognize the questioning attitude which is abroad begs the existence of any acknowledged value in the aesthetic side of life. It is not that the values of the arts have disappeared — values like these do not dis- appear— but they have changed their base; and this shifting of the ground is due to the forces which are pushing us to justify the arts from the evo- lutionary aspect of Ufe. From this standpoint two conditions are demanded in the treatment of any subject — first, its function must be stated in terms of the process of growth. It must be shown to be a necessary as well as a merely desirable feature in the life-history of the individual. As an isolated and insulated activity is a useless thing, its position and value can be determined only by finding its very definite and practical relations to all the other phases of experience. Second, every subject must be treated as dynamic. Some- where, it has a starting-point as a psychological process. That beginning and the consequent phases of development become increasingly important as the shifted base is realized. Socially, we have become conscious of the first condition, and while we have gone far beyond Spencer's statement of the value of the aesthetic education when he said that play and art were alike in that both were use- less so far as the great ends of life were concerned, there remains a constant questioning of the use and value of the arts. The position finally accorded them will depend upon a definite study of the second condition. We are still working upon the beginnings of the aesthetic instincts and their development in a most fragmentary way. We recognize vaguely some re- lation between play and art and we insist upon the child's right to play because such activity is instinctive; but we are yet attempting to define the process of development of these activities in such a manner as will unify the practical and aesthetic elements. Believing that the further defining and clarifying of the second problem will cause the first to disappear, this paper is an attempt to show the beginnings of the aesthetic instincts, and the phases of their development during the earliest years of life. The first period of growth represents a time when the child is mastering, in the sense that he is experimenting with, certain co-ordinations which give him a partial acquaintance with many 390 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten things. His reaction is directly to the thing presented, and is usually of the duration of the presented object. When that disappears the response fades away, and not until the thing itself is again presented to the senses is there a renewed activity. With the repetition of these experiences there gradually develops a control of the activity which is combined with the establishing thru the continued functioning, a value, which we call an image, and which is due to the qualities acquired thru function. These values, or images, change from day to day, from year to year, according to the what and how of experience. But gradually another manifestation appears. The response to the image is not so direct, a part of an old experience will suggest all of it; then one image will suggest an activity related to it. A stick becomes a horse to mount. One broken dish will furnish the imagery necessary for an elaborate dinner. To a little child, one swallow almost makes a summer. Such a process as this goes on until all the activities which are prominent in the previous time of growth are tried in relation to each other. The images are played together in many forms. The constructive instinct is seen at work in this tendency to try out and find relationships and values. All of the child's doings and all of the actions of the people about him are molded into plots. This second period of growth becomes, then, a time when images are known as they are measured in proportion to each other. They become parts in related wholes. This constructive tendency which shows itself in plot-making, or the building of a whole out of parts, has been misunderstood in the past because we were not sufficiently familiar with the earliest form of expression. The child's first language is the use of the action itself with which to represent his image, then the most emphatic part of the movement is made the symbol of the activity. And this gesture-language (if we use the term in its large sense) is deserving of far greater study than has yet been given to it. The child constructs with movement language while he is gradually building up a translated language of sounds associated with these activities. All sorts of objects are used to help out the plots, and to keep his images before him. One recalls Stevenson's famous description in his essay Child's Play: We grown people can tell ourselves a story, give and take strokes until the bucklers ring, ride far and fast, marry, fall, and die; all the while sitting quietly by the fire or lying prone in bed. This is exactly what a child cannot do, or does not do, at least, when he can find anything else. He works all with lay figures and stage properties. When his story comes to the fighting, he must rise, get something by way of a sword, and have a set-to with a piece of furniture until he is out of breath. As he becomes more expert in his expression the child drops the objects and carries his related images along with movements and sounds (words and tones). Rhythm then begins to play an important part. And this plot-making, which in its first forms we call the dramatic game, is the be- ginning of the expression of relationships, or values. As such an expression, Department] MSTHETIC DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN 391 it is also the earliest art in the child's life. It is important to note that these related images are first chosen from the child's own experiences. It is here in the playtime of life that aesthetic education begins. This very important dramatic game has been looked upon with a varying degree of indifference by three different sets of teachers. In literature it was scorned as played by children, then teachers suddenly tried to make the jingle of Mother Goose rhymes, which represent the dregs of folk games and dramas, stand for the beginnings of literature. Teachers of music dis- counted the old melodies partly because they were considered too simple for musical form, and partly because they were written in old modes and therefore not understood. And teachers of physical education, looking for muscular exercise in all forms of activity, have not even recognized any different end to be attained in the dramatic game than there is in the game of skill. It remained, therefore, for the kindergartners to preserve the older games for us, but even they have been forced by the social pressure to study the game, not as an art form, but as recreation and exercise. We find dra- matic games classified, therefore, according to the form of playing, or the subject, or even as exercises for the different parts of the body. We wish to suggest the principles in the arts of representation as they are illustrated in the evolution of the dramatic game, and show how the composition of the plot develops in complexity of dramatic structure and mode of expression. When the images expressed reveal only the moods of a plot, we find the earliest forms of the dance. This representation is thru what we often call rhythm. The child walks and runs, leaps and hops and whirls. If we see these movements without relation to the mood involved, it seems far-fetched to speak of a plot. But watch a child and you will always see cumulative effect in the repeated movement. The climax may come very soon, and the movement fade away, or there may be a whirling climax to the drama. The representation of joyful or sorrowful moods is always found to have the same relations of beginning, middle, and end, that we find in the highly evolved dramas of grown-ups. Froebel's Mother Play is a fascinating study of the simplest plots in dramatic contrasts presented thru pantomime and gesture. Think of the plays in which the child relates such fundamental things as up and down, toward and away from, here and away, coming and going, fast and slow, sweet and sour, etc. Then we have representation in which the image is more closely defined by contrasting different parts of the body, as hands and feet, hands and head, etc. Many old folk games of these forms are to be found. The element of surprise enters into the plot in many ways. One of the most familiar is when one child suggests something to do. This is a new character in the story that comes and goes in most unexpected ways until the child's experiences are quite exhausted. "Follow my Leader" is a 392 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten story told thru movement. It begins with gusto, works up its climax, and may have either a tragic or a comic ending according to the leader's abihty. As the child's imagery develops, we find a more and more definite pre- sentation of ideas added to the moods. Sometimes this description is in gesture as in the "shoemaker's dance," sometimes in words as in many games beginning, "This is the way," etc. As the child plays on he begins to add words of quality as well as the descriptive terms. Types of well- developed plots are found in such games as "Would you know how doth the farmer?" Here the important parts of a year's life are related in the story and expressed in incremental repetition. We find, on the other hand, as marked illustrations of highly developed games built with contrasting elements. Between such complex games as these, and the folk-ballad, which was sung and danced by the group, there is no dividing line that can be drawn. We have touched the accepted beginnings of both Hterature and music in the history of the race. And this embryonic art is the nucleus from which all the arts develop, for the other two arts of movement — music and literature — are but more highly evolved representations of complex relationship of life. From the evolutionary standpoint, this first art represents the free relating of the values of experience in order to further define their value. And this greatest end of art, to represent the values of life, calls for the plastic manipulation of the forces of daily struggle and enjoyment. Such manipulation can come about only when there is a better understanding of the beginnings of the artistic impulses in the life of the little child, and when there is more definite knowledge of the evolution of art-forms. The kin- dergarten must free itself from a few fixed types of games in order to study intelligently the child's normal growth in artistic representation, and the elementary school must begin the study of the evolution of the arts from the earHest manifestations in the play period of the child's Ufe. Art, from this point of view, is a necessary factor for the process of growth. Such a reading of the meaning of aesthetic education would teach children how to build the daily forces of life into forms of beauty and would teach the values that are worth while, for the ability to choose and promote those activities which produce the most beautiful relationships comes from much experimenting with the relating of life's values thru forms which are beautiful because true. DISCUSSION Miss Ruth Norton. — Miss Palmer has asked me for my conclusions as to her paper, and I find that many of the things which I have to say apply equally as well to the others. Miss Palmer's paper on "The Principle of Development as the Basis of the Kindergarten Method," out of her own thoughtful, loving experience with little children, is entitled to the consideration of us all. I am reminded of the feeling of a certain young kindergartner who was heard to remark, plaintively, that she wished she had chosen a more restful occupation. All too often our experience has been that after we have worked over a cer- Department] MSTHETIC DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN 393 tain phase, and brought to it our most careful consideration, someone comes along and says "Oh, you are all wrong; that won't do at all." I can sympathize with that poor girl, but is it not the price we all have to pay for having taken the principle of development as an ideal factor in our teaching; and, after all, is it not this very circumstance that gives us the satisfying quahty in our chosen line of endeavor ? In the process of development going on in the kindergarten, or in any school work, there are two principal factors, each influencing the other — the teacher, with her comparatively wide outlook on life, acquired by education in and thru life, and the little child, with all his impulses, and instincts, and outreaching for knowledge; and both are being educated. I say both, for surely the teacher, if she be a true teacher, is constantly learning, and it is thru her experience in endeavoring to apply the principles that she has learned that the teacher acquires that wisdom which Miss Palmer so happily distinguished from knowledge. Miss Palmer's paper, and all the papers, it seemed to me, contained many references to the qualifications essential to the teacher, and it has been this aspect, the responsibility of the teacher in the process of development, that has had an especial interest for me. Time was when there was a feeling that we teachers should not attempt to interfere with the natural development of the child — a sort of "hands-oflF," "stand aside" attitude — but now the teacher is being again restored to her rightful place, as the loving, sympa- thetic guide of the children, to which she is entitled thru her knowledge of all the child's impulses, interests, and possibilities. This implies that the teacher should be wise in two different directions: First, that she shall know the child's nature, his tendencies and possibilities; second, that she shall have a good, broad, general education along the line of art, the sciences, literature, and sociology. One great essential in kindergartners is that they should have this background of knowledge which is so necessary to keep the teacher from being one-sided. Now, in the earlier days of kindergartening, the teacher worked as best she could, wholly ignored by the art specialists, the scientists — the very people who could have helped her most. But at last these friends, these specialists, are giving us the result of their ex- perience and "advice, with the result that we are transforming many things in the kinder- garten, and with the efifect, also,. of leading to the enriching of the training school for the purpose of giving broader educations. I cannot help wishing that we might have had the benefit of their guidance from the very beginning. And this lack of real knowledge along these lines has allowed us to make some of the mistakes that have been pointed out to us this morning. We have used the squares, the triangles, and like shapes for the making of beauty forms, and I grant that many of them are very poor, and that very few of the forms which can be made from a combination of these figures would pass muster among our teachers of art. We have gone astray, also, in our forms of literature, in our scientific facts, and in many other lines; but the beautiful and helpful thing about it all is that we are waking up to our mistakes and doing our best to rectify them, and thus making our- selves more worth guiding by informing ourselves; and this we must do if we are to have the responsibility of guiding others. Miss Palmer speaks about striving toward a goal. Possibly I don't understand what she means by "a step toward something higher and better." A child at the kindergarten age, I believe, lives, as a rule, very much in the present. He is too busy absorbing all the new experiences he is passing thru to look ahead very much to a goal not already attained. That would be more, I think, among the children who are just ready to go into the pri- mary school. As the child grows in wisdom each day, and is more and more patient, and begins to plan and watch for results, then I think he may see each victory over selfishness, each acquisition of knowledge, each mastery of technique, as a step toward something higher and better. To a certain extent, we may keep his curiosity as to what lies before, and always we should help him to realize how he has progressed from the lower level. Then I think we should wait until he is older to plan for things not immediately attained. This particular phase of development I, for one, should expect to belong to the elementary 394 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten state of education. To quote from Dr. Dewey, "She shall see what step the child needs to take just here and now, to what use she needs to put his blind impulses, in order that they may gain force." If a teacher works with that end in view, the children under her care will eventually awaken to a realization of higher and better attainments. Miss Ruth Tappan, Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn, N.Y. — When Miss Crawford says that the world has come to some realization of the serious importance of the play of children, we must all heartily agree, but when we approach the manner in which the play of children is connected with the real things of life, there is much room for discussion. No definition of life is complete which does not include the highest activities of the soul. These activities have been stated to be, the aesthetic, the religious, and the philo- sophic. In aesthetics two factors are involved — a material factor and a spiritual factor. Of course the material factor varies with each art, but let his medium be marble and clay, pigment and canvas, or wood and metal for instruments, it is important to remember that in each case the spiritual factor which has power to transform these things into art is the himian spirit, and that alone. Experiment enters largely into the creation of the beautiful. Certain definite facts are revealed by a study of early attempts at art. Ancient peoples liked borders on robes, on jars, on buildings. They liked a crude repetition of simple sound. In their borders repetition of line or leaf or figure is found earlier, in point of time, than symmetrical or harmonious designs. It is felt that exercises in arrangement, giving time for experiment in repeated and symmetrical designs, are suitable in laying the foundation of aesthetic development. Set the child to work with materials, what happens ? Either, left to his own crude experimenting, he mars and destroys the paper or other material we give him, or we show him how to use it. According to the way in which we guide him we place emphasis on either one of two things — constructive utilities or aesthetics. No games, however charming their form or however pleasing their content, are suitable for little children unless they strengthen the tie between the child and the highest activities of life. Music may add to their charm, but the philosophy behind them, deter- mining their selection, must be sound, and the feeling they arouse must be wholesome. Mrs. J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala. — I have but a brief word to say, on accoimt of the limitation of time, and perhaps of material, because we all want to get to the other meeting. It would be unmoral, if not immoral, when there was a duty ahead of us to go to another meeting on time. Miss Palmer has asked me to speak of the attitude of the South toward kindergartens both among the educators and the public at large, and I have about concluded that their attitude has taken the form of what Poe said about man's relation to crime — "first pity, then endure" — and that it is now about to "embrace" it. I am very happy to tell you that the sentiment for the work is going on almost by strides, and yet all the time we have tried to grow very slowly — in fact, we have tried to grow as the grass grows, and not to make any noise for fear we should be interrupted in our growing. And I think that our policy has been a good one. Just a little illustration as to our development. In 1898 the Bureau of Education was sending out, as it does annually, its blanks for statistics in regard to kindergarten work — by the way, perhaps many of us lay them aside unfilled, and I want to speak right here of the good work done by the Bureau and to suggest that the blanks be filled out and returned. Well, when these letters from the Bureau were sent out, not having in many cases the names of the individuals conducting schools, they were simply addressed "Free Kin- dergarten" or "Private Kindergarten," as the case might be. And this one that I speak of was returned to the Bureau marked "Give company and regiment." "Private Kin- dergarten" was unknown. Department] ^ESTHETIC DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN 395 About four years ago, a letter was sent to the Superintendent of Free Kindergartens without any street, and went to that very important department of those who put the proper address on letters that do not contain the necessary information. In that depart- ment, I had a friend, and to this friend I am indebted for the following story: There was a man working opposite to her, addicted to what is considered to be a habit common to the South, chewing tobacco, but this man happened to do it in a way not common to the South, chewing with his two front teeth, and he looked at the letter in question, and mum- bled out, between chews, "Wall, send it to Mrs. Phillips, I hear she is a crank on such subjects," I am glad to tell you that, altho our state law does not provide for the kindergarten work yet, our women's clubs, in the interests of education, have so popularized the idea that we are quietly working in some of our cities thru the co-operation of the school boards. Who was it that said of schools where there were no school grounds for the children — Mark Twain, I think it was — "God tried his hand on idiots, and then He made school boards?" But our school boards have somehow come to believe that we have always had kindergartens, and are constantly asking why we have no kindergarten in that school, and remarking that "We must have one there right away." I disagree with the speaker who spoke as to the instruction to the individual child. We have got into the lock step, which is a dangerous thing, and now we are trying to get out of it. i think the child who asks is the child to whom the answer should be given, and at the time he asks it. And in this way I feel that we sometimes have the unfortunate effect of checking his development, which is unmoral, if not immoral. It would be just as wrong there, it seems to me, as it would have been on an occasion when I was teaching a class in the primary school that five and five made ten. In that class there was a child just full of a burning desire to know — we did deal with figures then, now we don't — and he said to me, " I's done made five and five is ten, and I know that fifty and fifty is one hundred, and won't you show me how tT) write it ?" And now I will tell you what I did. I said, "Yes, honey,'' and I wrote it for him, and I didn't stop to develop that ninety-nine plus one made one hundred, and I have never had any qualms of conscience on that score; but I did have when I have limited a child in his desire to have just a little more. But I do find an unmoral tendency in the turning-out of beautiful, clean, lovely, faultless work from the little child. They don't when they go into the higher work — they can't do the same kind of work to save their lives, and it looks as if they were coming from a high standard of perfection, and falling flat to imperfection. I am not speaking of theory in this regard. I am speaking of what I have seen. My plea is to leave the child more to himself. To be a good leader is all right, but the good doer of the thing the child ought to be. And I think we ought to cultivate, with all the capacity and effort we are capable of, without any nervous strain at all, to make ourselves just as clean doers of good things as is possible, and I have had no greater example given me in my life than that which I received from a nature-study lecturer. He was speaking with great earnestness of a certain bird, and of his notes, and he said, " I think, indee I am pretty sure, from the position of the bird and his throat, that he made a still higher note which we did not hear." You see that there is a limit to the vibrations that conduct sounds within the physical ear, but, O teachers! there is no limit to the vibrations of the spiritual ear, and if we keep always listening we can hear higher and higher; and I think often as the little child stands he makes a note that we cannot hear and we must strive more and more to attune our spiritual ear to hear the highest note that comes from the warmth within of the little soul that, study as we will, we will never be able fully to understand. 396 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten THE TEST OF THE CHILD'S KINDERGARTEN TRAINING ADA VAN STONE HARRIS, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT, KINDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY, ROCHESTER, N.Y. That the kindergarten has been a powerful influence in the educational world by forcing new life into our schools there is no doubt. The happy results which have followed its introduction into the public-school system have induced many in control of school affairs to aim to extend its influence into the grades beyond the kindergarten, or sub-primary stage of education. While, in some instances, results have been charged with contumely and futility because materials were expected to bring results by mere placing without appreciation of their spirit or use, still the kindergarten ideal as embodied in the philosophy of Froebel has helped American education to evolve from the darkness of struggle to the light of triumph. It has helped many communities and individuals, parents and teachers *'to shed the chrysalis of the Dark Ages." Schools that have been little more than cramming factories where children underwent a sort of uniform stuffing process, have been quickened to a new life thru the kindergarten spirit and philosophy. Miss Vanderwalker, in her book The Kindergarten in American Edu- cation, has shown us in a masterly way to what, extent the kindergarten has served to modify and recast educational thought and procedure by opening up an avenue to progress as yet but Uttle developed. It is safe to say that in no other country of the world has the kindergarten taken so strong a hold and made so great progress as in America. That great reforms move slowly, and the inertia of the masses of the people cannot be overcome except by the accumulation of force, even in so noble a cause as the kindergarten, many of us who are in the active field too well know. When the president of this section invited me to appear before this body, I consented from my desire to co-operate, without fully realizing there was not sufficient time before the meeting adequately to gather scientific or accurate data regarding the real test of the child's kindergarten training. Definite data regarding the really tangible results which come from this training can only be given after the most careful research and study of many thousands of children, in different localities and under varying conditions. It is necessary to follow the development of these thru the elementary- school course, and it is a needed study which some society of scientific re- search might well attack in the near future. Those of us who have a working knowledge of the kindergarten philoso- phy and methods and who have watched the progress of kindergarten groups of children thru the elementary school, would be inclined to answer immediately in the affirmative if confronted with the question, "Does the Department] TEST OF KINDERGARTEN TRAINING 397 child who has had kindergarten training pass thru the grades more rapidly than one who has not ?" Of one thing we are confident — ^if the child does not pass more rapidly, experience and observation lead us to believe he progresses more freely and intelligently. He demonstrates at every turn that he is a possessor of self — sees more, gets more, gives more, is more. He compasses a wider range because of his experience. Froebel's central idea of education being the cultivation of the child as a Hying, growing organism, and the purpose of Hfe being to unfold all the latent powers and possibilities of the individual, the need of the school, then, is to bring about such physical, social, and spiritual adjustment as the child's unfolding powers require. Hence the great purpose of education should be to provide such an en- vironment as will best help that Ufe to express itself most perfectly — be the best revelation of the Christ, reflected thru his humanity. Childhood is the same the world over. It, with the laws of development, remains the same. It is, however, greatly modified by variable factors, the many conditions of family and social life, climatic environment, and in- fluences. While the reaction of these influences differs with individuals, two elements — "the child," and "the laws of development" — remain the same. These factors, variable and constant, the true kindergartner keeps ever in view; In the kindergarten the aim is not to give definite knowledge but to give freedom to child nature, to stimulate and fix wholesome interest, to arouse and quicken the senses, to direct his development in channels which, if followed, will lead him to well-balanced, law-abiding citizenship, and make of him a good neighbor and a helpful member of a household. For good citizenship, either in the kindergarten or the larger adult civic community, certain essentials are recognized. There must be civic pride, refinement of tastes, regard for law and order, respect for the rights and privileges of others, love of family, simple virtues necessary in an equip- ment for the better things of life. If an education embodied in the public school is to perform its highest mission, it must do more than teach children the rudiments of know^ledge, give them skill in handcraft, instil patriotism and love of home, tho all these are essential and necessary. There must be an inspiration to higher ideals, there must be created a holy ambition to make the most and best of life and of every opportunity which comes. This the kindergarten holds as its ideal and best motive, and this the kindergarten takes the first step of a school system toward accomplishing. The underlying principles of its scheme of work are the cifltivation of a recognition 'of our dependence and interdependence in life-relationships, in family and society. It seeks to bring about co-operation, that medium of the best results in all human endeavor. It seeks to cultivate the spirit 398 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten of loving service; to train in ability to express in simple, clear language the child's observation and experiences; to quicken the intellect, develop ob- servation and attention; to invigorate the body; to give the trained hand and the watchful eye; thru "doing" and "being" to train in right habits of obedience, punctuality, order, industry, self-control, courtesy, reverence. How does it attempt to fulfill this mission ? Thru the repetition of nursery rhymes, stories, finger plays, interchange of home, school, and playground experiences, and thru the memorizing of simple songs and verses comes the gain in language power and a constantly increasing vocabulary as the result of larger associations and experiences. Thru the stories told and retold the child's literary taste is cultivated and he is lifted out of his personal experience into a larger world. His imagi- nation is directed into worthy channels, peopled with high ideals. Thru the care of animal and plant Hfe, the making of gardens, the collecting of leaves, seeds, cocoons, shells, etc., thru walks and excursions, his powers of observation are directed and nurtured. Thru varied activities furnished by rhythmic movements, by games and plays, he gains strength and control in physical development. Thru music he gains an idea of tone, and an appreciation of rhythm. Thru handwork, building with blocks, outlining and designing with tablets, sticks, and seeds, modeling in sand and clay, drawing, cutting, folding, painting, weaving, and sewing, his powers of attention, discrimination, and association are trained. Thru the constant contact with objects he gains a stock of mental images helpful in grade work. Does the kindergarten really accomplish what it claims ? The following questionnaire was sent to school principals in a limited number of localities: "What proof have we, in your judgment, of 'the Test of the Child's Kindergarten Training' as shown in his work in the elementary grades, under the following heads?" 1. Does he progress thru the grades more rapidly, and if so, by what means is it apparent ? 2. Does the child show any marked abihty in (a) keener observational powers ? (&) language development ? (c) ability to work with his hands ? (d) abihty to adapt him- self to the community ? 3. Is he a better citizen? The replies were most varied in character, and both favorable and un- favorable to kindergarten work. Following are a few of them : 1. They are inaccurate and weak thruout on facts and details which are hard to master, due to lack of application and persistence. 2. Of sixty-eight children who have attended kindergarten in grades three to nine inclusive I find forty-two have had to repeat one or more grades. 3. Children are easily interested so long as teachers can work with them. 4. Their interest soon flags and comparatively little is accomplished if required to study by themselves. Department] TEST OF KINDERGARTEN TRAINING 399 5. They have a scattering versatility, a wide but too superficial interest. 6. The kindergarten children are the leaders in the school athletics and games, doing errands, etc. 7. The general testimony is that the language work is superior. If this is so, it must raise the standard of all subjects to some extent, 8. They revolt against hard work. 9. They have too little ability to work by themselves. 10. They have no interest in the successful accomplishment of a given task. 11. When the child enters the first grade we find that the kindergarten child has a decided advantage over the child who has not attended the kindergarten — in keener observational powers, in language development, and in ability to work with his hands; but by the time he reaches grade two, there seems to be little to distinguish the two classes of children. In other words, the influence is not far-reaching. These replies evidence the lack of any standard of judgment, since there is no definite means of following kindergarten children thruout the grades. Furthermore, in any test of children it is difiicult to ascertain how much is due to specific training, how much is due to general development, and how much is due to contact with outside. Those showing satisfactory results from kindergarten training were from places where a close unity existed between the kindergarten and the rest of the system, a sympathetic appreciation and cordial relationship dominating kindergartners and grade teachers, together with a realization that all are engaged in the same great work and that to work to the best advantage all must work together. Too often the kindergarten is looked upon as a needless appendix to the rest of the system, receiving Httle sympathy and much criticism growing from lack of knowledge. In a certain school system when the question was recently raised re- garding the promotion to first grade of a group of immature children the principal of the school said, "The kindergarten is all right for poor children, children of the slums; but those who have comfortable homes and thought- ful parents do not need it. Children •are better off in first grade. The kindergarten is only a play school." Grant the kindergarten is a play school, at the same time it is a means of transition from the home and free play to the school and its requirements. Madame Kraus-Boelte says: Play rightly understood proves itself a means of assisting the inner growth of the child, independent of formal instruction. No better discipline for the world's work can be found than in the obedience to the laws of a game, the sinking of self or personality, so that the many may participate equally. Play is the natural expression of child life. Plato says, 'Man is only man when he plays'. The philosophy of the kindergarten explains how it is possible to carry the joy of play into a form of constructive effort that moves in the direction of work. All children whether of the roadside or the hilltops • must be trained to be persistent, self-dependent, unselfish, able and ready to over- 400 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Kindergarten come obstacles, and we should study to avoid making too smooth the child's road lest he become desultory and dependent, with an indulged inclination to go around rather than to surmount obstacles. This the best kindergartens keep ever in mind. The lack of opportunities for really authoritative data on a measurable value of the kindergarten makes an absolutely provable conclusion impossible It makes the question a debatable one — at least by those weak in sympa- thetic endorsement of kindergarten work and results. But the results of the kindergarten are qualitative anyway, not quantita- tive, and that many kindergartens fail both in spirit and in accomplishment is undeniable. As each grade is a preparation for the succeeding one it devolves upon the kindergarten as the foundation of the higher school life so, to equip the child that he may enter the primary school armed for its requirements and conditions. These conditions the kindergartner should studiously endeavor to comprehend, not simply theoretically but practically. Inexperience, lack of clear and appreciative understanding, sentimentality, constant supervision by a teacher, keeping the child on diluted infant's food when he is old enough for substantial mental pabulum, were never contemplated by Froebel and are directly contrary to his ideas. On the other hand, there is oftentimes even greater need that the pri- mary teacher should understand the spirit and workings of the kindergarten, the demands on the conscientious kindergarten teacher, and the undoubted need of just the instruction and opportunities which the kindergarten affords the child under school age. While the grades succeeding the kindergarten have undoubtedly been tempered by FroebeUan influence, there is still much to be accomplished to bring about a perfect blend. The elements entering into the composition of the two are so nearly allied that the atmosphere and environment should have much in common. This I know can be realized, for I have seen looks askance changed into a bee-hive of sociability, actuated by a common cause. I have seen inflexible first-grade teachers become joyous, song-lov- ing, game-playing beings, in an unbroken and harmonious connection with the kindergarten. There should be a more careful grouping of children in the kindergarten according to age and ability, and a more careful grading and adaptation of programs and materials to these varying groups. While the kindergarten is not the place for dry facts, set formulas, or formulism, neither is the presence of Froebel's gifts and occupations an absolute necessity for the full rendering of his spirit and principles. Some of the most valuable work accomplished under my observation has been thru the utilization of material immediately connected with and from the child's home life, or the child life. This one feature, that of recognizing that virtue of itself does not exist in the materials of Froebel, will do much DepartmentJ TEST OF KINDERGARTEN TRAINING 401 to constitute a closer unity and sympathy between the kindergarten and succeeding grades. There should be something more than the too common age qualifica- tion as a basis for promotion from kindergarten to first grade. Failure to realize the real benefits of this training for children, and placing them in an environment for which they are not ready, either physically or mentally, is undoubtedly the cause of most of the retardation. In order to understand and appreciate what the kindergarten accom- plishes as a preparation for the larger school life, there should be some standard by which an estimate may be placed upon the development of each individual as he is promoted. Such a standard may be formed thru the co-operation of supervisor and kindergartens. The following may be suggestive: 1. Observation; as shown in development in ability to see and discriminate quickly. 2. Attention; as shown in building, dictation exercises, and in ability to tell stories. 3. Accuracy; as shown thru manual work, drawing, pasting parquetry or pictures, folding. 4. Memory; as shown in the reproduction of games, songs, and stories. 5. Imagination; as shown in originality or inventiveness. Power in the interpreta- tion of thought thru the various gift and occupation mediums, also in plays and games. 6. Discrimination; thru the handling of papers, sticks, and tablets of different form, color, and size. 7. Language. 8. Motor control. 9. Power of self-control. 10. Ability to co-operate. Where kindergartners thus diagnose individual conditions, causes, and effects there will be a perspective of kindergarten work as a whole, its in- fluence, and its adaption to succeeding years. Any first-grade teacher has a right to expect the child entering from the kindergarten to see correctly, to listen intelligently, to have motor control, the right notion of his relations to the group, the ability to respond to direc- tions, to be self -helpful, orderly, able to express himself, to have had the inventive and constructive faculties awakened. Again, it should be the duty and pleasure of every first-grade teacher to make clear and definite all previous sense-impressions, by giving all pos- sible opportunities for continued response thru motor activities. An impression which simply flows in at the pupils' eyes or ears, and in no way modifies his active life, is an impression gone to waste. It is physically incomplete. It's motor consequences are what clinch it (James). It is the responsibility of the teacher in the lower grades to give most careful attention and preparation to that part of the child's life in school which is not actively engaged with the teacher; to keep alive and to direct rather than to suppress and nullify the powers aroused in the kindergarten. This cannot be effected by placing the kindergarten materials in the 402 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten primary grades. While they furnish a medium for the development of children in the kindergarten stage, the same apparatus should not be used as an expression of this philosophy at another stage. Other means must be sought for children in each succeeding stage of development. Neither can this same development be carried on thru mass teaching. The large number of children assigned to a single teacher in the primary school makes it practically impossible for her to give each child the indi- vidual attention that his age demands. The child's energy can be directed only by careful classification and grouping. The primary-school ideal then, is to recognize at the beginning of the year the differing powers and capaci- ties of the individuals and to carry these individuals forward thruout each month each at his own gait, so that the end may find even more un- likeness than at the beginning. The kindergarten aim must be distinguished between entertaining a child and sharing in his education. Unfortunately, the kindergarten cause is wrongly conceived by a large public and an equally large body of teachers because of this failure to discriminate. This work requires highest culture and intelligence, "A thoro knowledge of the universal or typical child, and a constant psychological study of each individual child." May all teachers be led to see, How baser metals in their store May be transformed to precious ore By love's strange alchemy; And let them daily seek to find The childish heart beneath the mind. I. THE KINDERGARTEN OUT OF DOORS: GARDENS ANNA E. HARVEY, ADELPHI COLLEGE, BROOKLYN, N.Y. Lord Bacon says: God Almighty first planted a garden, and, indeed, it is the purest of human pleasures. It is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man, without which buildings and palaces are but gross handiworks. And a man shall ever see that when ages grow to civility and elegance, men come to build stately, sooner than to garden finely. As if gardening were the greater perfection. I do hold it in the royal ordering of gardens there ought to be gardens for all the months in the year, in which severally things of beauty may be there in season. "God Almighty first planted a garden"; and it was in the garden that man first began. Yet tho man was obliged to leave this garden, the garden instinct did not leave man; and, as our first parents turned with longing eyes and looked back, so, thruout the ages, that longing is ever present. It is doubtless true that conditions and experiences may dim the longing in the adult; but the little child, or growing boy or girl, has this undeveloped in- stinct to get nearer to the heart of nature. Department) GARDENS 403 It was an appreciation of the prime importance of this instinct that led Froebel to plan a garden, where each child should have his own plot of ground, and a share in another reserved for united work by all, as a part of his wonderful system of education; and happily and significantly he called it his "kindergarten"; thus doing, he made the garden one of the essential parts of his great system. It is surprising that educators thruout our country have been so slow to recognize this valuable adjunct to-the regular curriculum. We read that the pioneer work in this movement was started by the German States as early as 1 8 14. Yet only since 1895 has England included "cottage gardening" as an optional study for boys; and the United States has been equally tardy. I believe Massachusetts, the state of good schools and good roads, had the first school garden, in Roxbury, in 1891. New York did not be- come vitally interested until 1902, when Mrs. Henry Parsons converted an empty lot, which had been used as a tenement dumping-ground, into "The Children's School Farm." But the work has prospered. We may rejoice that in eight years in- terest in it has grown so that, at present, school gardens brighten the lives of hundreds of our children in the public and vacation schools, and in the settlements. So popular is the work that Mrs. Parsons' son, Henry Gris- com Parsons, has a class at the New York University for training teachers in the "art of gardening." We read of the work in Chicago, Cleveland, Philadelphia, in many of the western states, and in New England, where school gardens have not only attained a high degree of excellence, but are recognized as a most important part of the educational system. The seed is sown and the garden is growing. When the little children of today are the men and women of tomorrow we shall see the fruit. What the fruit will be, we may easily surmise. The longer we keep the child in the garden, and the stronger we make him, the longer we can keep him from the cramping influences of the worldly pursuits of his later Ufe. Happy are the little men and women of the tenements, who may be brought into this little Eden and smell the flowers of Paradise. And happy too the children of the country, who have eyes but see not, to whom familiarity has made nature stale — happy will they be when their eyes are opened to see, and their minds stimulated to appreciate, not only what is in the gar- den, but what is in our beautiful world. So there is work to do. It should not be by the hand of man that the gates should be closed to these little ones who have not tasted of the tree of knowledge. On the con- trary, it is the duty of all to whom little ones are given, to see that ignorance, prejudice, and indifference are thrust aside, and that the little child is given the opportunity to get close to the mother of us all. And why ? Let me tell you one of many significant stories. In the city of Brooklyn a few years ago, a young woman was assigned to a kindergarten in one of the most depraved parts of the city, crowded with 404 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten dirty tenements, built of wood, filled with numberless families. The out- look from the kindergarten rooms was over back yards where ashes, tin cans, bottles, filth, and rubbish of every kind were lodged. The young kinder- gartner began with a window box; then she interested the janitor and then a few parents; and at length she had a tiny garden in the back yard of the school. And that is not all. By patient, painstaking work, visiting in the homes and doing a little at a time, this young woman has been able not only to have a beautiful garden connected with her kindergarten, but she has managed to convert those filthy back yards into gardens that delight the eye and uplift the soul. She tells me that, tho the people of the neighbor- hood are exceedingly poor, their interest in the school garden and in their own is so great that she scarcely expresses a wish for some necessity or even what might be termed a luxury for the garden, but the parents, with com- bined effort, see that she gets it. Now this is more than the story of the planting of a garden. It is a story of Froebel's kindergarten for grown children. It is the story of the sweeping-away of the ashes, the rubbish, the filth of the entire community, the tearing-down of the veil of conditions and circumstances, and the bring- ing into light of that old garden spirit that our first ancestors knew when they loved the simple and the good. It is this love of the simple and the good that the garden develops in the child. He tills the ground. He plants the seed. He fosters it with loving care. He watches it spring into life and come into sturdy growth. And for his reward he sees it bear fruit and flower. No child can do this thing without knowing full well what he means when he sings, "My heart is God's little garden." And furthermore, no child can do this thing without realizing that his garden is not only for himself, but that there are other gardens besides his own, and that in the places where there are no gardens it is for him to plant them. For It is everybody's business In this great world of ours To pull out all the weeds they find, And make room for the flowers; So that every little garden No matter where it lies, Shall be like one that God made, And called it Paradise. //. THE KINDERGARTEN OUT OF DOORS: WALKS AND EXCURSIONS MRS. ALMA OLIVER WARE, PRINCIPAL, KINDERGARTEN TRAINING SCHOOL, SOUTH BEND, IND. We kindergartners have learned that in the big circle of life every seg- ment has its value, and who can say but what that of early childhood is the rainbow of prophecy as to what all the future life may be ? In fact, all Department] WALKS AND EXCURSIONS 405 future educational life is but the unfolding or rounding out from the fun- damental notions and experiences received in some germinal form at this period. The most impressionable time in the child's whole existence is when he is from four to six years of age, just the period when the kindergarten claims him. These early impressions are the germs from which spring all later thought-activities, and however much they may be modified by future experience, they ever remain "the fountain light of all his day." The observations in early life, particular kinds of observations and many of them, will largely determine the quality and strength of the child's mental capacity later on. The quality of thought is influenced by that which re- mains in the mind; and strength by the vividness of that which has been observed or its direct appeal to his interest. There are double doors to the child's consciousness. While impressions are surging in, if that were all, our task would seem an easy one indeed; but in the wonderful working of that much-discussed self-activity, outward swings the door and forth springs an impulse propelled by an instinct which has gained the accumulated strength of many successive generations. On the threshold impulse meets impression and ever they work hand in hand: heredity and environment. These are the two great forces that make or mar the young life. It is our task, O kindergartner, so to adjust the weight of each as to secure the happy equilibrium. We attempt it by giving such environment as will stimulate the best reaction to the impulse, knowing for the unfolding life that each time we do this we increase the possibility of its becoming habitual. What are some of the strong old instincts which ripen at this kinder- garten age ? Ever since the early birth of a self, when our ancestors in an unconscious effort to express individuality reached out to grasp for them- selves the apple of knowledge, has each succeeding generation exhibited a similar investigative tendency. Thru the inherited knowledge which has come to us as the result of suc- cessive stages of experience, we begin to see that the instinct of investigation is legitimate and wholesome if guided in the right direction. In the kinder- garten the consideration of investigation must be a preponderance on the side of environment or the value of "sense-perception." This seems carry- ing coals to Newcastle, as we have carefully studied that dominant word which stands as the keynote to Pestalozzi's method of instruction, but if we hold to this fundamental and add to it the leaven of Froebel's "self- activity," we will have the full loaf of "apperceptive mass" which is the child's most valuable asset when he enters the grade work, and the teacher in the grades finds it uphill work without it. This, I believe, is our contri- bution to the educational life of the child: not what we teach him, but what we help him to find and store away as a basis for future thought. His own self-activity makes him an explorer, but we influence its direction and at 406 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kindergarten this stage the wisest teaching that we can do is that of opening the right gate just at the auspicious moment. Last summer after our Denver meeting I journeyed over the great Rocky Mountain Ridge and rested on the other side at a beautiful ranch in a valley near Glenwood Springs. Here I saw a strong illustration of this idea in the method of irrigating the cherry orchards and alfalfa fields. A bold natural stream came dashing down the well-worn hollow in the mountain-side, making its rapid way to Grand River, but gates were closed or opened which turned that mountain stream into such directions as would gain the most desirable results for the future productivity of the mother earth of which it was a part. That mountain stream symbolized the instinct of the child and its eager, onward rushing, the child's impulsive acts — shall we allow the bold stream of investigation to rush unguided on its way or direct its course to where the result will be a rich harvest of food for future thoughts ? This I take to be the educational value of the walks and excursions of the kindergarten. Do not for one moment think that I am overlooking the purely physical benefits accruing from the exercise in the open air, but that is a foregone conclusion and must be so accepted at every step in this dis- cussion. We must help the young explorer to go in the right direction. Every mother and teacher knows what I mean and could give us many examples of a wrong expression of this instinct because at the critical period of its maturity there was lacking the wholesome stimuli. What does the grade teacher wish as mental content when she substi- tutes textbooks for things ? She immediately begins to find what sorts of images the child has already formed — for abstract thinking is the work of the imagination, and tho the imagination is a wonderful magician, it works in a perfectly scientific way and can no more build up finished conclusions out of nothing, than dreaming of millions could give you your daily bread. No one can fully estimate the working value in education of good, clear images. And this again is our opportunity: to go with the child to where his investigative instinct can gain such images as will be clear and strong and of the right sort, thus forming a storehouse from which the succeeding years may draw and upon which the whole structure of education may be started and evolved from gaining in clarity of concept with each succeeding stage, for images change in quahty. We walk to the park or to the open square, perhaps to the lake-front or to the seashore; it may be there's a hay-ride to some distant country house, some day a street-car ride with a picnic at the end. If you had asked me fifteen years ago what was the pur- pose of all this, I should no doubt have answered promptly that the outing brought relief from the tedium of the schoolroom and helped us in our work of illustration next day. This is still true, but there is more. The kindergarten works no more in an isolated way, but while seeking to do its part as seems best for the immediate stage of the child, yet works with Department] WALKS AND EXCURSIONS 407 a knowledge of what is its obligation to the stage that is to follow. "The intelligent, co-operative kindergartner," says Dr. Dewey, "works not in the grades hnt for the grades." And yet we sometimes find the kindergartner floundering in her unintelligent effort to put the cart before the horse. The child sees that which touches his own personal experience, or which may be intei*preted thru the light of his own experimental life. It is very different when he has an image and we attempt to clarify the concept about it. We had better be careful lest our own be a little hazy or vague, like that of the young lady who was endeavoring to have her group of children understand the colors of the rainbow. She had learned them very correctly in textbook order and stepping to the blackboard drew a small down- swinging crescent. An assistant gasped, which so strongly suggested alarm that the question was asked, " What is wrong ?" The arch was then drawn with the white chalk and then the colored crayon applied in short sections transversely, first red, working to two or three inches, then orange and soon. She had not walked with open eyes but was teaching altogether from text- books, when one good, clear image may be the basis for many textbooks. She, like Mr. Bradley Headstone in Dickens' Mutual Friend, "had acquired mechanically a great deal of teacher's knowledge." Don't you think that we oftentimes forget the stage of the child and expect him to see as we see ? In a kindergarten which I knew, the kinder- gartner and children went out for a walk to the lake-front, and much care was taken to help the children to see "far away on the water to where the sky seemed to meet the lake," hoping that they would be able next day to paint sky and water showing horizon-line. Next day when the time came for the representation of the scene one little lisping fellow of less than five years stolidly refused to take the brush and "paint from left to right above and below the pencil line" placed there by the kindergartner. The young lady asked him if he remembered the walk to the lake. " Yeth," he answered. "Then didn't you stand with us and look out far over the water?" No answer came and in despair she said, "Well, Robert, how have you seen the lake?" Quick came the answer, "Wite and nathty, where my papa let me paddle my toes in it. " He was given the brush, the paint box and water, and allowed to paint the thing as he saw it and it is needless to add that he painted no horizon line, but he made it "wite" and frothy as the waves ripple upon the shore. This reminds me of the great Turner. When an old man, and critics had attacked his " Storm," Ruskin heard him muttering, "Soapsuds and whitewash, say they. What would they have? I wonder what they think the sea is like. They should have been in it.^^ As has been suggested, the kindergarten age is one of image-making and getting acquainted with the world outside, bounded by no horizon-Une as yet. How well I can recall my early school days: no walks to see the new buds on the trees, no hunting for first birds in the spring, no guided tramps to the lake and stream, but day after day books, a desk, and a bench, until 4o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten as Richard Hovey says, ''one grew sick of four walls and a ceiling." That was at five years of age, and when at seven the teacher wished me to under- stand a lake she poured a glass of water on the schoolroom floor, but even today my image is of the spreading water with the floating dust-particles which had to be wiped up. The country child who had to walk a mile, or maybe two, to the country schoolhouse had every advantage. He over- came distance, felt space-freedom, saw complete processes in the woods and homes about him, his images were strong and clear of field, forest, and animal life — the tendency to explore, to investigate, found and worked upon nature's own material where every suggestion was to construction rather than destruction, as is the case where our city children are given everything "ready made." Our kindergarten in America is a modern city institution and a part of that complex civilization where child life is very often most unchildlike. The kindergarten walk begins the habit of going with a purpose, seeking for something that the teacher feels quite sure will be found and that will satisfy some need of the child. The teacher should prepare as carefully for the walk or excursion of the kindergarten children as she prepares her story or other work of the morning. Once when we were talking about the farmer and his animals, the children were asked to tell what they knew about the cow. One boy said, " I know how to get the milk, for I saw a cow at Coney Island, and the man just pressed the button, so, and filled my cup," a pat- ent arrangement like the soda fount. Very soon we had an excursion to where the children could see "real" cows and the discussions which followed were delightfully alive. When those children are ten years of age they will not ask, as a boy did of a farmer, "Don't you have to buy a great deal of gum for all those cows to be chewing ?" One of the strong influences of the outdoor walk on the eager, impression- able mind of the child is the development of a sense of space-freedom. It is impossible to expect free expression of mind or hand from children who live in cramped homes, in dwarfed domestic atmosphere, with no outlook but on chimneys or nearby walls. It has been said that the only way to secure free activity with blind children is to have them play in a large field where there is not a single obstruction, and that after a time they cease that pathetic appeal of the outstretched arm which we usually expect to see in them. If the sense of the space-freedom removes fear and gives free ex- pression to these little ones, its value should be proportionately more to the normal child whose vision goes far afield. It is well known that our largest images are of the sea and the mountains ; the one guides the vision out and far away over the broad and limitless deep, while the other has Hnes which if followed lead up, up — who knows where the imagination may take one ? We have not taken enough thought of this sense of space-freedom ; we have too often been satisfied to go out on the school playground with its fine but adult appliances. This is good, having a most valuable function to per- Departmentl WALKS AND EXCURSIONS 409 form, but cannot do for the little ones by way of enlargement of primal impressions what the stretch of grass, the tall trees, or the flight of birds will do. Freedom of hand comes from freedom of thought and this is a result of larger vision out of an awakened and enlarged sense of space-freedom. Our writing supervisors, our drawing teachers all urge freedom of hand with the use of the larger muscles; we help them when we give our kinder- garten children such images out of a free environment as will stimulate to freedom of expression. In a certain- kindergarten I found the director struggling to carry out my recent suggestion to secure more blackboard ex- pression from the children. She was justifiably disappointed with the cramped, almost invisible, result. Upon inquiry I learned that in that school there never had been a walk or excursion. There is a fine opportunity after an excursion for blackboard work so little used by most kindergartners. Too frequently there is a finely exe- cuted picture put upon the blackboard, perhaps by the art teacher, and left for weeks. There is no objection to that picture, but it serves its purpose in two or three days and should not be considered permanent. I have found that the drawing by the children during the morning circle is also a fine opportunity to secure true criticism from each other, and they learn to meet public opinion. But impression alone is not educative, there must be interaction; the manner in which investigation is directed toward securing right results and the training toward free but sincere accurate expression, however simple it may be, will be our task. In view of the child's future social development and knowing that as soon as he comes to kindergarten he is learning of an institution other than home, his interests are broadening and he feels relationships with the out- side world of society as well as that of nature; do our walks and excursions meet this ? Not by going around the corner that he may see horseshoes at the blacksmith shop only to draw better horseshoes the next day, but that he may feel his kinship with the worker, may see the cold, stiff, unyielding iron serve man's purpose thru action of the wonderful forge fire. He feels the might and skill of the worker, respect follows, and a vague awakening of desire to do strong, skillful work. Anything that stimulates respect for good workmanship increases the possibiUty of better work, even in kindergarten, and it is just here that habits begin of effort to accomplish, and accuracy in the doing. The results are clear and forceful from thus coming into direct relationships, interest is aroused which can be turned into an immediate wholesome channel. Fear of others makes one a coward, but respect and admiration for the deeds of another breed self-respect and stimulation. Stories and pictures are valuable aids in teaching children of their re- lationships but they can never wholly take the place of first-hand impression or experience. Never would a pictured sand-pile give to the children more 41 0 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten than a suggestion of its possibilities, while no one can tell the suggestive- ness of the real experience with one. In the same way there comes to the child's social nature thru the walks and excursions that which nothing else can supply. The walk or excursion brings the child into immediate relationship with the larger world of nature, the broader view of society, meeting his out-reaching interests and stimulating his innate desire to do. In summing up, let me say that the walks and excursions stimulate in- vestigation which is the dynamic factor in education; give opportunity for clear images which are the concrete foundation of thought-activities; and put the child into closer relationship with society, thereby broadening his interests and meeting the development of his institutional nature. ///. THE KINDERGARTEN OUT OF DOORS: OpEN-AIR SESSIONS MARGARET M. COLTON, PRINCIPAL, GROVE STREET SCHOOL PROVIDENCE, R.I. In the current number of a popular magazine the editor calls attention to a new word in the English language. The word is " paidology," derived from two Greek words meaning ''child" and "science" — the science of caring for children. While the term itself may be new to us, the scientific principles of which it treats meet a need long felt by every thoughtful educator. A science which seeks out all kinds of information regarding the body and mind of the child, and which aims to understand all departures from normal standards, physical, mental, and moral, cannot fail to be of inestimable value to the educator and to the child. Into the web and woof of the educational winding-sheet encircling the life of every child, into the web and woof of his every conscious act is woven the strong and controlUng influence for good or evil of a healthful or an unhealthful home environment. The poor we have always with us, and every educator of today is facing the problem of the poorly-housed, ill-nourished child of the congested city tenement with hygienic conditions that have dwarfed his physique and robbed him of a fair physical chance, and with moral conditions ill-fitted to keep him in the paths of rectitude. Who shall be answerable if, suddenly realizing his inability to maintain his place in the competition of the schoolroom, he drifts Httle by little, day by day, year by year, first into truancy and later into outspoken crime, if as the years pass there becomes infused into him a little more of the spirit of the prevented, a little more of the spirit of the denied, until finally he drifts, first into mental, and then into moral, incapacity ? Does the community lose its relation to this child ? No. The ills of Department) OPEN-AIR SESSIONS 41I society are but the aggregate of the ills of the individual, and it is a uni- versally accepted truth that " those who are competent are carrying every ounce of the burden of those who are incompetent, no matter what the nature of that incompetence may be." It is a common weakness of mankind to be caught by an idea, to be captivated by a phrase, but the neglect to carry the idea into practice is a still more common weakness. At first thought the matter of holding open air-sessions for kindergarten children and the Uttle people of the lower primary grades seems a glorious ideal and we wonder that we have not tried the scheme long ago. To those who are fortunate enough to enjoy an environment where conditions are favorable, where schoolgrounds are spacious and well shaded, or near enough to some park or shaded field, here among the wild flowers, close to Nature and to Nature's God, the scope of such sessions is unlimited. With directed games and free play, with an improvised sand-garden, the joint partnership of building the landscape-play, with the fairy story-teller directing the childish imagination to discover landscape friends, and in- terpret landscape sounds: these are but the beginnings of this wonderful out-of-door work with children which will prove an interesting inspiration to the ambitious kindergartner, for there is no limit to the material with which nature furnishes us if we will but open our eyes and make a beginning. Froebel's ideal kindergarten was a playhouse in a garden. Would that inspired educator be able to recognize his ideal in its adaptation to that well- ordered playroom, the average modern school kindergarten of today, with perhaps the nearest square foot of greensward many blocks away ? Are we not battling against odds that were never dreamt of in his philosophy ? Situated as we are in the heart "of the madding crowd's ignoble strife" for progress and wealth, we are daily and hourly struggling with the problem of restoring to the child his rightful inheritance of the gifts of Nature, of which he has been robbed by a thoughtless form of organized civilization which has systematically eliminated the poor. We are told that a child's best inheritance is a mother who knows how to keep him well, being assured that the healthy child grows to manhood and womanhood capable of resisting contagion and defying disease. Does not the neglect of the health of these little children amount to race suicide as truly as does the direct reduction of the birth-rate ? Luther Burbank, in an article on "The Training of the Human Plant," says : The curse of modern childlife in America is over-education, over-confinement, over-re- straint. The injury wrought to the race by keeping too young children in school is be- yond the power of anyone to estimate. The work of breaking down the nervous systems of the children of the United States is well under way. Every child should have mudpies, grasshoppers, and tadpoles, acorns and pinecones, trees to climb, and brooks to wade in, and every child who has been deprived of these has been deprived of the best part of his education. 412 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ' [Kindergarten But not every child can have these blessings of the country, and so to the educator falls the double task of supplying the want from the limitless realms of the land of Make-Believe. Upon the sun-parched sands of the familiar city school grounds with no more shade than is afforded by the school building itself, much out-of-door work may be done, and here again the kindergartner will soon surprise her- self with her own inventive powers. The matter of removing the kinder- garten furniture is a simple one; each little tot delights to carry his own chair; tables, too, may be removed to the yards if desirable, by reversing them, feet up, to avoid the danger of throwing these tiny helpers, and the incidental lesson in helpfulness and the improvement of existing conditions is not to be discounted. The man is but the boy grown tall, and these little occasions for assisting and being made to feel an individual responsibility in perfecting the scheme of the whole, are steps in promoting a future Ameri- can citizenship, which, while free and independent, would scorn the spirit of arrogance. Millions of dollars are being spent annually in the erection of palatial- public-school buildings, and in the establishment and maintenance of ex- pensive educational systems, and yet it is a sad fact that, save as housed within these majestic walls, the children of today are forgotten, crowded out in the steady march of the business man, from all that once constituted their rightful share of God's universe, without playground or park, without even the safety of their own home streets which once formed their private realm of mystery, of safety, and of delight. In seeking to condone the administrative oversight in the matter of providing shade trees for many barren school yards and the residential streets of the poorer localities of the city of Providence, a local newspaper, during the past spring, opened a campaign by presenting to the city twenty- five trees, mostly Norway and sugar maples, to be distributed at the dis- cretion of a duly appointed committee. At the same time opportunity was afforded the community to join in the movement. The payment of three dollars covered all expense of providing and setting out one tree with the proper wire protection, and with the guarantee that if such tree failed to flourish it would be replaced. Almost instantly the movement was taken up, until, riding the crest of the wave of popular enthusiasm, the present number of trees to be set out in the fall is close to four thousand. Surely the campaign is worthy of emulation. The American playground movement is an inspired gift to the forlorn children of the street, but if parks and playgrounds are not close at hand, why not accept the suggestion of a New York City principal of setting aside certain shady streets during a specified time each day, and diverting the traffic during such hours to other streets less suited to child's play ? Or has the progress of modern civilization lost all sense of the value of play? In his Education of Man Froebel says: Department] OPEN-AIR SESSIONS 413 The play of the child contains the whole germ of the life that is to follow, for the man develops and manifests himself in play and reveals the noblest aptitudes and the deepest elements of his being. Who can approach a group of boys at play without noting the moral and intellectual power steadily gained and brought under control: justice, loyalty, self-control, truthfulness, together with courage, perseverance, resolution, and prudence ? "But," you ask, "with our present overcrowded curriculum have we time to give so much consideration to play ?" To the spirit of play, " Yes." In speaking of this subject. Dr. Luther H. Gulick, New York's director of physical training, says: Play is the spontaneous enlistment of the entire personality in the pursuit of some coveted end. We do not have to pursue the goal we wish to — it is our main desire. It is the way in which we take the re^onsibilities and problems of life that makes it either a deadly bore — a mere dull round of routine and drudgery — or the most interesting and absorbing game capable of enlisting all the energy and enthusiasm we have put into it. The people who accomplish things in the world are the people who play the game. They let themselves go, they are not afraid. Under the stimulus of enthusiastic play the muscles contract more powerfully than under other conditions. Blood pressure is higher in play. It is far more interesting to play the game than to work at it. When you work you are being driven. When you play you are doing the driving yourself. We play not by jumping the traces of life's responsibilities, but by going so far beyond life's compul- sions as to lose sight of the compulsory element. Play up, and "play the game"! DISCUSSION Miss Ella C. Elder, Buffalo Kindergarten Association, Buffalo, N. Y. — Our president has said that the open-air session has arrived. I think we may also say that the school garden has arrived. At least, that was very decidedly my impression after attending a meeting of the School Garden Association yesterday afternoon, where I saw the most beautiful illustrations of the work that is going on in all parts of the country; the most beautiful pictures of school gardens and waste places that have been transformed by children from public schools. On Tuesday I attended a meeting of the Home Economics Association, and there I heard a very interesting account of the development, from very small beginnings, of what has become such a widespread movement for training in industrial education, or industrial training along the lines of domestic work and agriculture. It was a practical illustration of that word that was given us by Dr. Goddard the other morning — " If you know what you want, and you want it hard enough, and you do not forget that you want it, you may have it." So it seemed to me that that is the situation so far as the kindergarten garden is con- cerned. The problem is with us. It is simply a problem of ways and means, and I must confess that I have felt somewhat that we kindergartners, many of us, have not been quite true to our Froebel ideal, in that we have not gone farther with the garden movement. It should be a part of every kindergarten that has not the limitations of which Miss Harvey has spoken. It is really a question of the personal equation — I might say three personal equations, because we have to take into account the principal and the janitor. And when the attitude of the principal is that of a principal whom I know, who has beautiful school grounds, but who has such pride in his grounds that he won't allow a kindergarten child 414 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten to set foot inside the fence, it makes the problem all the more difficult. And then there is the janitor, who is a very serious problem. He may unplant all that has been planted and replant for his own satisfaction; but as has been said, it does not matter much to the kindergarten children whether they have planted the seeds or whether the janitor planted them. One of the most successful kindergarten gardens I have seen is conducted in a neigh- bor's back yard, has thrived for several years, and is a continual joy from the appearance of the first snowdrop to the disappearance of the last aster. It has taught many, many lessons, not only in gardening, the real gardening, but in the gardening of the spirit. Miss Harvey spoke of the little gardens in glasses. I wonder if any of you have tried planting seeds in egg shells. It is a simple way, and a very easy way for transplanting, because you simply break away the shell and transplant the seedling. And so, as I have said before, I think the problem really rests with the individual kindergartner. We can have some sort of a garden if we try. In this garden movement, the kindergartner should have been in the advance guard. Let us see that we do not bring up the rear. Miss Curtis. — I am at somewhat of a disadvantage. I don't know what has been said on the general subject in your first paper, but I can tell you a little about the outdoor school movement in the different countries. You probably all know that it was begun in Germany about six years ago, with great success, was copied in England, where they have a number of outdoor schools, has more recently been taken up in Switzerland, and is under way now in other countries. And from the physician's point of view it has been very interesting. Of course, educators are interested from a different side, because it gives signs of what might be done with the normal child. Most of the pupils in these schools are defectives, most of them are tuberculous, many of them are anemic, and suff.er from many other troubles, and the educators are interested because it shows what might be done with the normal healthy child. And on the side of the defectives, if this work could be taken up you can see what a tremendous preventive work it might do. Miss Emilie Poulsson. — I thought I would just like to give you a little verse or two, or to have you make a little verse, which the children who are interested in the garden might like to sing. Now, what is the first thing that a child would do to make his garden ? (Ans.) He would dig it. Now this little boy did that — he dug his little garden, and of course he enjoyed digging it. And then what did he do next? (Ans.) He sowed the seeds. Now we call it planting if we make a hole in the ground and put the roots in or a bulb, but we sow the seeds. So he dug his little garden first, and then he sowed the seeds. Then what did he do after he did that, and those seeds were down in the dry ground ? (Ans.) He gave it water. Yes, he dug his little garden and he sowed the seeds, and he gave it water — but something else grew up besides the flower. (Ans.) Weeds. And he pulled the weeds out. Now, then He dug his garden. He sowed the seeds, He gave it water. And pulled the weeds. Then what happened when this plant grew up — it was a nasturtium ? (Ans.) It has a blossom. Yes, and when flowers blossom, where do they go ? He didn't have that gar- den just for the fun of it, just for the fun of digging it, and just for the fun of sowing the seeds and seeing them grow. He had something that he himself, could give away, and to whom did he give the first flower ? (Ans.) To his mother. So, then When it bloomed With flowers gay, He'gave his mother The first bouquet. DepartmentJ OPEN-AIR SESSIONS 415 And that is one of the little songs that Elinor Smith is putting music to and is coming out in a little book. Then I'd like to give you another about the cow, because Mrs. Ware has told us about going to see the cow, and this is also a short one. It gives the child a little country picture. We very often have pictures in the kindergarten of cows coming home in the country, with udders full, with the bells about their necks. ' Tingle, ting, tingle, ting Tingle, ting, again: Here comes bossy cow, Strolling down the lane; Good old bossy cow What does she bring ? Fresh milk for us all, Tingle, tingle, ting. You see how easy it is to have the children make songs for themselves. It is much easier, really, with children than with grown people. Mrs. Page. — Madam President, I think one of the most important things for us to think about, to my mind, one of the things we can remember best at the close of so full a session, is the idea that Miss Harvey voiced this morning — that we are working for qualitative results, not quantitative results. It seemed to me that it would help us to study our individual children with reference to their own growth, from the whole point of view — not simply the intellectual and moral point of view, in which, of course, we should be interested, but from the physical point of view, as well, because we cannot have qualita- tive results of anj' kind unless we know more about the capacity of the children to react to the conditions in which they are placed or with which we are trying to surround them. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — ^Thomas A. Mott, superintendent of schools Richmond, Ind. Vice-President— Josa S. Welch, supervisor of grammar grades Salt Lake City, Utah Secretary — Miss Margaret Canty, supervisor of primary work Milwauk'ee, Wis. FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday Forenoon, July, 6, 1910 The Department of Elementary Education met in South Congregational Church at 9:30 A. M., the president of the department, Thomas A. Mott, presiding. The president accepted with thanks a gavel presented by the second-year class in the Mechanic Arts High School, Boston. The first paper was presented by H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111., on "Motivizing the Work of the Elementary Schools." The discussion was led by L. C. Brogden, state supervisor of elementary schools of North Carolina, Raleigh, N.C, and was continued by S. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn. The second address, "English as She Is Taught," was given by Miss Adelaide Steele Baylor, superintendent of schools, Wabash, Ind. The paper was discussed by Charles S. Meek, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho. Superintendent H. B. Wilson offered the following resolution: Whereas, The greatest problem in the technique of teaching in the elementary schools is that of providing adequate motives for the work of the children; and Whereas, The great need is for combining our forces and accumulating experiences and studying the problem; be it Resolved, That the president of this department appoint a committee of three to study this problem and to collect a body of material showing the best results attained in motiva- tion in the schools of the United States with the idea of reporting progress at the meeting next year, and that funds to cover the necessary expenses of this committee be asked of the proper authorities of the National Education Association. The resolution was seconded and adopted. The president appointed the following Committee on Nomination of OflScers for the ensuing year: Miss Margaret Canty, Milwaukee, Wis. H. B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind. S. L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minn. The meeting adjourned to Friday forenoon, July 8. SECOND SESSION.— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 1910. . The department met in the South Congregational Church, and was called to order by President Thomas A. Mott. President Mott appointed the following committee to report upon the "Motivation of Work in the Elementary Schools" at the next annual meeting: H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111. Thomas Agnew, Jr., principal, School No. 6, Bayonne, N.J. Miss Gail Calmerton, supervisor of kindergartens and primary schools, Fort Wayne, Ind. The report of the Committee on Nominations was as follows: For President — Miss Adelaide Steele Baylor, superintendent of schools, Wabash, Ind. For Vice-President — H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111. For Secretary— Miss Nellie O'Keefe, Principal of McClellan School, St. Paul, Minn. 417 41 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary The report of the committee was on motion adopted, and the nominees were declared elected for the ensuing year. James M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo., presented a paper on "Strengthening the Work of the Seventh and Eighth Grades to Fit for High School." The discussion was opened by E. H. Drake, superintendent of schools, Elkhart, Ind. The topic was further discussed by several members of the Association. The second paper, "Character-Building in the Elementary Schools," was read by John W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Bayonne, N.J. The discussion was led by Miss Georgia Alexander, supervising principal, Indianapolis, Ind. Another phase of the topic was discussed by Charles A. Prosser, deputy state com- missioner of education, Boston, Mass. The department then adjourned. Margaret Canty, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE MOTIVATION OF THE CHILDREN'S WORK IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS H. B. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DECATUR, ILL. The greatest problem in the technique of teaching in the elementary schools is undoubtedly that of supplying adequate motives for the work of the pupils. Such motives, when present, insure progress and "go" in the work of the school as steam insures motion in the locomotive. Charters states the efficacy of motives forcefully and concretely when he says they are " a motor which drives, forces, pushes, impels, and incites the individual." That adequately motived work is not more in evidence in our schools is surprising, at least from some standpoints, when it is considered that such modern views on the place of interest and motivation in education as the following (see Monroe's History of Education, pp. 566 £f.) were enunciated so long ago as the eighteenth century, by Rousseau: Education is a natural, not an artificial, process; it comes through the workings of natural instincts and interests and not through response to external force; it is an ex- pansion of natural powers, not an acquisition of information; it is life itself, not a prepara- tion for a future state remote in interests and characteristics from the life of childhood. We find Godwin, an English follower of Rousseau, urging that all the acquisitions of the pupil shall be preceded and accompanied by desire. The best motive to learn is a perception of the value of the thing learned. The worst motive .... may well be affirmed to be constraint and fear. Modern school practice evidences two very different attitudes toward school work and two approaches in organizing the same. One approach, and it is the older historically, is from the side of the curriculum, emphasiz- ing the logical arrangement of the subject-matter of instruction, and stress- ing disciplinary effects. The other approaches the organization and work of the school from the standpoint of the child, proceeding psychologically and upon the basis of the child's interests. Department] MOTIVATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 419 It is necessary briefly to examine these two approaches, their grounds for existence, and their relative merits. Those who believe in the first approach accept some general end of education as fundamental. This end need not differ from that accepted by those making their approach in the second way. They then proceed to select the knowledge and experience the race has accumulated which seems from their adult standpoint to be related to this goal of education. The matter selected is then graded and' arranged as to difficulty, and the children are required to acquire what has been planned for them. As Professor Dewey says, Subject-matter furnishes the end and it determines the method. The child is simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the superficial being who is to be deepened; his is narrow experience which is to be widened. It is his to receive, to accept. His part is fulfilled when he is ductile and docile. Consequently, the children do not come to their work so much with the idea of solving a problem which has appeared in their play, social, or work lives as with the thought of doing what is next in a series of problems, planned and graded by the higher powers. This method secures work on the part of the pupil largely because he feels an outside impelling force, rather than because of the urgency of an inner, actual need which he wishes to satisfy. Resulting from this "external presentation is lack of motivation." There is not only no apperceptive mass to "appropriate and assimilate the new, but there is no craving, no need, no demand." When this need is present it supplies motive for the learning. A demand which is the child's own carries him on to possess the means of accomplishment. But when material is directly supplied in the form of a lesson to be learned as a lesson, the connecting links of need and aim are con- spicuous for their absence The mechanical and dead in instruction is a result of this lack of motivation. The second approach accepts the child as the starting-point, the center, and end of all school work. His legitimate normal needs and interests afford the basis of approach. The general goal which society sets up for the school's attainment is just as acceptable to those who choose this approach as to those who prefer the first method. Our problem is not one of a goal to "steer by" primarily; it is one of means to an end, altho, of course, what one has when the end is attained may be abundantly affected by the means employed. Two large questions seem to arise in considering the merits of this approach. First, what effect does a definite need for and a deep personal interest in a thing exercise upon one's effort to possess it ? Second, are the needs and interests of children such that they may be made the basis of attack upon such work as is legitimate in the school ? In true interest, one is entirely engrossed, or, as Professor Dewey puts 420 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary it, "taken up with some activity because of its recognized worth." Again he says, "Interest works the annihilation of the distance between the person and materials and results of instruction; it is the instrument which effects their organic unity." Charters shows that Stout and Titchner define interest as the feeling side of attention, and that when one is interested in an object, he attends to it. McMurry quotes Zeller and Osterman to justify defining interest as a feeling of value. Interest, then, from the foregoing, is a motive, since the "energy of experience is upon the focal point of attention," and since the "energy of consciousness is continually focused upon the control of values." " Energy is focalized," as Charters maintains, "when there is some value to control, some need to be satisfied, some inter- est to be fulfilled, or some problem to be solved." Bagley says that " apper- ception functions most readily along lines of interest. Interest attaches most strongly to that which has a vital relation to one's well-being." When one turns from these theoretical views and scientific statements to test them by his own experience, he is overwhelmingly persuaded to accept them. In the life of the school, I observe that the children enter with zest into their games and into their social experiences, and also into those phases of their work which are producing values for which they have felt a need in their simple experiences. Those phases of their school experi- ences, however, which do not arise out of a need which they appreciate are drudgery to them which is both painful and unremunerative. It may safely be posited, I think, that the doing of anything which is meaningless to the worker, which brings him no response to a definite, worth- while desire, is drudgery. Space does not permit me to catalog the large amount of it in the schools, done under the protecting label, education. But let us note a few instances, at least, such as memorizing the text in history and geography; memorizing the language of the text to answer questions printed in the text; most of the defining of terms in language, grammar, geography, and arithmetic in the lower grades; looking up the meaning of words in the dictionary and using these words in sentences; memorizing such writings of the great masters as portray experiences the children cannot understand; writing compositions when the children have nothing they care to communicate; solving long and difficult problems in which the conditions are unlike anything that ever did occur or ever will occur in the'world of practical affairs; and so on. No experienced teacher, I am certain, will attempt to deny that she finds it difficult to get the children to do these things. They are drudgery: the children feel no interest in them because they supply no perceptible need in their lives. If interest and need are so potent and the lack of them so disastrous in life and in the work of the school, the duty is imposed upon the schools of organizing their work and activities from the standpoint of the interests and needs normal to children. As Professor Dewey says. Department! MOTIVATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS « 421 The teacher must be able to see what immediate and proximate use the child's interests are to be put in order that he may be moving along the desired lines, in the desired direction Just how to use interest to secure growth in knowledge and in efficiency is what defines the master teacher. However, it is not sufficient that the teacher see clearly the fitness of the details of the daily work of the school in relation to the child's proper unfoldment. In so far as possible, the child must see the relation of each task he undertakes to some personal natural, or acquired, need. One's joy in his work is dependent upon the relation the worker believes to exist between what he is doing and the largest goal he is seeking to attain. It is also almost an axiom that the happier one is in his work, the greater are his returns, both inner and external, both spiritual and material. Society's aim in establishing the school provides a standard for the teacher's action, but not a motive for the child's daily tasks, except in so far as the school's aim is concretely functional in the child's life. The child's dominating aim at any stage of his development is an outgrowth of his own experience and so is full of vitality and force. Judged by society's ideals, the child's present goal may be temporary or insignificant. For him, however, its realization is meaningful and all-important. Social efficiency and good citizenship are most apt to be developed in any individual, therefore, by planning that the work which the school considers essential in the realiza- tion of its aim shall be done under such conditions that it will seem to the child to contribute directly toward the realization of his chosen goal, be it native or acquired. The school must seize upon the child's legitimate needs and desires, at the various stages in his unfoldment, and, in the light of them, plan tasks and activities which shall be intensely significant to the child, and, at the same time, economically further the realization of the school's aim. By this process, the child's aims become modified in the direction of and in harmony with society's ideals. Thus the child becomes sociaHzed. In this socialization process, it is important that we keep clearly in mind, as Charters shows, that adult standards of value differ from children's standards, but this does not exclude juvenile values as motives. It simply means that they shall be reinforced, where valuable as judged by adult standards, and depreciated where the sympathetic adult sees they will be harmful. While this problem of the adequate motivation of the work of the school is not a recent one, the new education has instituted an attack which promises results totally eclipsing the work previously done upon the matter. Starting, perhaps, with Professor Dewey's work in the elementary schools of the University of Chicago, in which the child's "sweet will" was allowed to dictate to an impractical extent, it speedily arrested atten- tion and was soon taken up, as a problem of fundamental importance, in other experimental and private schools, and the last few years have wit- 422 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary nessed much sane and effective work on the matter in the more progressive public-school systems. It is with no thought of solving the problem that I discuss it here. Like the course of study, motivation must be a living, growing, developing means of aiding school work, or, like the daily newspaper, it must be a living thing, adjusting itself to the conditions and ideals as they vary with communities and with the changes wrought by time. There is a widespread need for an honest effort on the part of capable school officers to secure that organization and execution of school work which is vitalized by the presence of adequate motives for its performance, in the lives of the children. Clearly there are, at least, two standpoints from which to attack the problem. Beginning from the side of the child, the work should be organized, as rapidly as we are capable of doing it, about a series of motives, varying from year to year, and with different teachers, which seem to be normal to the children of a given community in each of the grades or years of the school course. This requires careful study of the child to discover situations in which he lacks control, and then the organi- sation of subject-matter to supply the needed control. Or, working from the standpoint of the present course of study — and some feel this to be the more rational and conservative attack — situations should be developed by the teacher which will cause the child to feel the need for the subject-matter which is to be developed next. It is altogether probable, I think, that the most satisfactory results will be accompHshed by attacking the matter from both standpoints. Each approach has strong points to commend it. The time remaining to me will permit but a few brief suggestions in reference to the sources of inotives in some of the elementary-school branches and a few illustrations of results attained. Motives in drawing grow out of the fact that it is a means of decoration and expression. Ideas not only tend to express themselves in action, but they seek manifold expression, hence a child is moved to greater effort in his drawing work by seeing that it provides an additional and useful means of expression. Children like to decorate or illustrate their compositions; they enjoy planning and executing scenery suitable for their dramatizations; they ^ee the need of being able to execute and interpret a drawing in manual training; they work untiringly in an effort to produce the best cover design for the annual report of the Board of Education, or for the school paper, or the best design for the decoration of the blackboards, the window curtains, the table cover, the office couch cover, the community rug which is woven to spread in front of the teacher's desk, or to secure the prize in the Review's (a local newspaper) drawing contest, and so on. Seeing these needs of ability to draw well supplies motives for the work, stimulates to greater endeavors, and insures greater results. Children evidence much more interest in their manual-training work when they are concerned with a problem of some social significance. Not Department] MOTIVATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 423 only does the making of something which is to render some actual service supply a motive; but this motive is intensified if the work under way is developed co-operatively, as in furnishing a playhouse, in dressing a doll for a sick child, in making a dress for a poor child, in making some laundry bags for a charitable institution, in building a bookcase, a couch, a chair, or a table for the office, in weaving waste-baskets for the schoolrooms, and in constructing needed shop equipment. Finding real use for such ability spurs children to seek to develop skill in manual processes. The desire to acquire this skill vitalizes all of the practice exercises and so lifts them out of the field of drudgery, where they were when, in the earlier history of manual training, these practice exercises were presented for their own sake so far as the child was able to see. Probably the strongest spur to acquire the ability to read is an apprecia- tion on the part of the child of the social value of this ability. He can be led to see that this ability will enable him to gain ideas which he needs in solving some problems confronting him, and that it will render him capable of aiding and entertaining his friends and classmates. Every teacher knows that a child's reading is most efficient when the reader presents some- thing, it m^y be from his out-of-school reading, which to him is valuable, to an audience which is sympathetic, but which is lacking in a full knowl- edge of what he presents. What motive has a child in his reading when he is one of forty all of whom are engaged in reading exactly the same book, and in preparing and reciting the same lessons day after day? What motive for reading aloud has he when all in the class are reading the same matter from their open books and carefully watching to discover any error he may make ? His whole natural tendency to read, to communicate, is ignored by such methods. The motive stimulating the child to effort in his language work is the desire to communicate for the purpose of learning, instructing, or enter- taining. Teachers are beginning to afford children opportunities to write, in the language period, actual expressions of their interest and experience. Formerly "what the school asked children to express they had no desire to express; and what they might choose to say the school regarded as trivial." Children wrote compositions because they had to say something rather than because they had anything to say. Now, children may select superlative experiences and write them for reading to a definite audience. They may write upon themes of value to them and of probable interest to others. Teachers are discovering in training children in mere matters of courtesy and politeness effective motives for the most valuable language work. Teachers are allowing children to use the language period to organ- ize in written form their wishes and desires. Miss Jenkins, supervisor of elementary grades in the schools under my supervision, in reporting to me upon the progress we have made in the motivation of the language work during the past year, calls attention to the fact that 424 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary letter-writing has been a necessity. There have been many people to thank for courtesies extended to a class or a school. Mrs. Evans of the Public Library for opening a branch library in each of the three schools; Mrs. Powers for loaning Indian baskets; Mrs. Mc- Kibbon for loaning an Indian blanket; Mr. Torrence, the superintendent of parks, for furnishing a privet hedge; Mr. Davis for carriages to transport the children who went to sing in the hospitals at Easter-time. The children are learning when and how to say thank you. Again the letter has been used as a means of informing the superintendent, supervisors, and special teachers, of interesting events in the schoolrooms, or as a medium by which requests for needed materials might be made Twice during the year children have seen that their interests might be furthered by addressing dignified bodies, having these interests in charge, so the City Council received a letter telling of Mr. Tor- rence's care for the children in the parks, and the superintendent was asked to bring the matter of improving the playground to the attention of the Board of Education. One of the most effective motives employed in the language work has been the dramatization of some story, a reading-lesson, or some period in history, in the production of a simple entertainment to be executed at a meeting of the mother's club of some school, or before the school during the weekly assembly period, perhaps. When the children are struggling with such live personal problems, need for the mastery of the conventional language-forms naturally arises. Prog- ress is impeded until the need is overcome. Consequently the mastery of form is intensely motivated. The pupil undertakes the mastery of form and of technical matters when he meets the difficulty the form was developed to remove. Pupils are anxious to master a form when they see that language devoid of form is deficient in accomplishing the purpose for which they wish to employ it. The child sees that punctuation is needed to show the relation between his thought for the sake of definiteness in communication. If the child sees an error he regretted to make, he will study punctuation, under the guidance of the teacher as need arises. The time to teach the law of unity in the paragraph is when the pupil sees that his failure to observe the law results in not making clear what he wishes to say, and so on, until motives for teaching correct spelling, proper capitalization, approved sentence-structure, and accepted grammatical English have been supplied. I have purposely limited my topic to the question of supplying motives for the work of the children. I do not wish this to imply, however, that the work of the teacher does not need motivation, also. It does need it, and that badly. It needs it not only that she may be happier, but that the work of the entire system may be improved. She now does an untold number of irksome, unrelated things, the doing of which has developed a high order of drudgery thruout. This condition will not change except as the superintendents of this country come to recognize the importance of the teacher's daily schoolroom experiences in shaping the policies and methods of the school. She alone knows how poorly some of them "work," or rather how they do not "work," and what is needed to bring improvement. How much longer shall we Department] MOTIVATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 425 continue to nurse our "bumps of egotism," neglect the teacher's counsel which the schools so much need for their improvement, and keep the teachers and children leading narrow, dwarfed lives, because they are occupied with drudgery ? Let us take them into our counsel, and in the light of their experiences, readjust the course of study, eliminating the dead, obsolete matter, and improving and vitalizing our methods of attack upon that retained. My discussion must not be understood to imply that subject-matter itself may not be intrinsically interesting, when there is no conscious effort on the part of the teacher to render it so. That children find it so, espe- cially in the higher grades, no experienced teacher doubts. If I have succeeded in saying what I believe, I have not been standing for easy work nor for less work in the schools. I have been maintaining rather that school work is serious, genuine work, shot thru and thru with a keen appreciation by the worker of its value to him. As Bagley says, "Work and effort are fundamental in education, but the task of education may be materially simplified by leading the child as rapidly as possible to see the need in his own life for the work he does in school." This condition insures that the child will accomplish more work and expend more remunerative effort, for he will go to his work under that high pressure which results from the inspiration and urgency of a genuine need. I believe in the authority of the school and in its responsibility for determining the work of the school; but I also believe that, while "authority is the buttress of the school," as Charters shows, "other motives than that of mere obe- dience may and should be used." I do wish, however, to say emphatically that I do not feel that it is a part of the conscious business of the school to provide a certain amount of drudgery that the power of doggedly attacking difficult and distasteful subjects may not atrophy in our children, as our German critic, Professor Foerster, and a large body of sentimental American pedagogs seem to fear it may. I know of no reputable physician nor of any expert in dietetics who maintains that value will result to my body if I aggravate the digestive process and render its performance more difficult. Drudgery is not neces- sary here, altho one's digestive apparatus must do hard work even when the food is entirely wholesome and ideally adapted to satisfy the user's bodily needs. It is not distasteful duties, obstreperous difficulties, and hindering causes, as such, which produce giants. It is capacity, and evidence is yet wanting to show that this capacity does not attain a fuller fruition when occupied in serious, pleasurable work than when occupied with drudgery. There is, however, much evidence on the other side of the question, from physical trainers, physicians, and pedagogs if need required its presentation and time permitted. In concluding, let me remind you that we do not yet see how to supply motives for all of the work it seems wise to ask the children to do. Until 426 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary we do, we must go right on imposing work, and rendering it interesting thru the methods of presentation employed. Let us work faithfully, however, feeling that we are weak until this shortage is almost, if not entirely, eradi- cated. Let us have the courage to omit gradually such work as seems to lack significance for the children. All careful students of the matter know there is more whose significance is evident than it is possible to find time to use, and, fortunately, it is all productive of the values the schools claim to be striving to secure. Let us remember, also, that time will be required to develop a technique of working from this standpoint of interest which will seem as satisfactory as the technique it must supplant has seemed. The establishment of a new technique requires battling against the authority of the old, and against the persistence of the habits of thought and action which the old technique has 'established. Progress is certain in both matter and method if we move conservatively and wisely. Radical departures and unusual experi- ments on this problem must be left to special and experimental schools; but the public school, proceeding upon the basis of a definite course of study, can do much to aid the improvement. Freedom to depart from the prescribed course to test another well-matured plan in some subject, or subjects, may safely and wisely be extended to certain of the strongest teachers in the system. Teachers should be encouraged to take the initia- tive in this way. When the success of such a test warrants, the methods and results can be presented to all of the teachers for their guidance. With all the educational forces unified on this problem, there is reason to hope for rather rapid strides. It will soon come to be true, I believe, that the child'' s motive in study will be far greater than merely getting ready to prove his knowledge in recitation, and that his motive in recitation will be much larger than proving that he knows what his classmates and teacher are all supposed to know. The sitting, looking, listening, and answering, now so much in evidence, are to be superseded by thinking, planning, creating, initiating, and executing. We are going to organize our work and our methods so that the child may come to school, not only with his whole body, but with his whole mind, and all of his rich experiences, and find that they are all related to his school tasks in such ways that he leaves the school with a healthier body and a fuller mind. We are going to adopt, in spirit, if not in form, Baldwin's motto for his elementary school, namely, ''A live child in a live school learning to live by living each day in the school." As Professor Dewey indicates. If we seek the kingdom of heaven educationally, all other things shall be added unto us, which being interpreted is that as we identify ourselves with the real instincts and needs of childhood and seek only after its fullest assertion and growth, the practical ability, discipline, information, and culture of adult life shall all come in their due season. Department] MOTIVATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 427 DISCUSSION L. C. Brogden, state supervisor of elementary schools, Raleigh, N.C. — My own thought so thoroly coincides with the point of view so well defined in Superintendent Wilson's paper that I find nothing to dissent from. On account of the short time allotted to the discussion, I can only hope to refer to some of the underlying pririciples of the subject without going into the details of their application. Motive is interest at work in the realization of the end, or in the solution of the problem which it has set for itself to reach or set for itself to solve, the realization of which it feels will enhance the value of self and therefore has meaning and worth for it. The educational doctrine of motive becomes identical with the educational doctrine of interest. While motive may originate directly from interest, yet both interest and motive have their " primary root " "in inherited impulse" to self-expression, to self-realization. The vital point is that the source of this activity is internal, and not external, that it pro- ceeds from the self-activity of consciousness and is not imposed from without. In the life of the world about us, whether in the industrial or professional activities, we find genuine motive at work. There is a clearly defined end to be realized, a vital problem to be solved, a particular situation to be met, which end, problem, or situation, self thru its own activity has set for itself and which it is struggling to make real. The laboring man is striving to make real his idea of physical comfort and material happiness for himself and family, the teacher is trying to make real her goal of a larger teaching efficiency, the statesman is struggling to make real his idea of a larger social service. In proportion as these ends to be attained, these goals to be reached, and these problems to be solved are the projections of the inner life in its struggle to self-realization, in that pro- portion will they have meaning and worth for the self, in that proportion will interest become intense and motive effective, and in that proportion will voluntary effort become sustained and the sense of drudgery become minimized. If the inner life of the teacher sets up for its clearly defined goal a larger teaching efficiency, then will her voluntary attention be sustained, then will her application be persistent, and then will her daily tedious routine of work take on a different hue and the feeling of drudgery associated with it will become minimized. But it is equally true that in proportion as the ends of action, the goals, and the prob- lems, are not the projection of the inner life in its struggle for self-expression but are im- posed from without and therefore can have no vital meaning for this inner life, in that proportion will genuine interest and motive be impossible, voluntary effort spasmodic and unsustained, and the sense of drudgery intensified. To motivize the work of the school means that in the life of the school, the self-activity of the pupil must count for its full value, that his most dominant impulses must neither be ignored nor repressed, neither indulged nor left to chance, but must be organized and directed. The problem of motivizing the work of the school involves both the organization of the subject-matter of instruction and its method of presentation. The vital principle underlying the organization of this subject-matter is that it shall be organized with refer- ence to the nature of the child, with reference to the nature and needs of the well-recog- nized and characteristic stages of his mental growth; that it shall not only be organized with reference to the present needs of any given stage in his mental growth, but that the subject-matter in each stage shall be organized with reference to an adequate preparation of the higher need of each succeeding stage ; that the subject-matter for the first years of the child's school life shall be organized with reference to the "concrete in pupil activities and the concrete in adult pursuits" rather than measured in terms of quantities of subject- matter to be learned; and that finally, starting from the child's unified and undifferen- tiated experience, each subject shall be organized with reference to its own internal struc- ture, and with reference to its continuity of unfolding in the life of the child. 428 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Elementary According to Dr. Dewey, the mental stages in the growth of the child to which the plan of organizing the subject-matter of instruction shall conform are three, viz., (i) the stage of spontaneous attention with its corresponding period of play; (2) the stage of active attention with its corresponding period of technique; (3) the stage of reflective attention with its period of intellectual questioning. The fundamental principle underlying the scientific presentation of the subject- matter after it has been organized in accordance with the essential principles heretofore suggested, is that it shall be presented according to the apperceptive stages of the child, in accordance with the particular apperceptive stage in which he may be, that the material shall not be ready-made and placed before him, that his problems shall not be solved for him, but that he shall be brought face to face with the real situation and real problems arising out of the needs of his own life and led to meet these situations and to solve these problems thru his own self-activity. To fulfill the demands for genuine interest and efiFective motive from the standpoint of method in the presentation of this subject-matter, in the language of Professor James, Begin with the line of his native interests, and offer him objects that have some im- mediate connection with these; next, step by step, connect with these first objects and experiences, the later objects and ideas which you wish to instill. Associate the new with the old in some natural and telling way, so that the interest, being shed alway from point to point, finally suffuses the entire system of objects of thought. S. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn. — This is no new subject. We are working pretty hard a new word, for "motivation" not only expresses the chief problem in present-day technical teaching but it also expresses the chief characteristic of a movement in education which has been continuous for a hundred years. There has been no advance in education either in Europe or America, whether in theory or practice, in the organization of the schools, in the construction of the curriculum, the selection of subject- matter, the method of presentation, the art of teaching — no advance in the aim of educa- tion which has been set up except an advance toward the child. The dominating tend- ency in educational practice today is to supply the child more and more with motives for action all thru the long process of his development. The appeal to the child, his interest, his conscious needs, and his immediate life, has been and is the chief desideratum. In these closing minutes of this discussion I set before you in large perspective a tendency that we see on every hand, in every modern school, and with every modem teacher — a tendency toward motivation. First, in our attitude toward the curriculum. We have multiplied our subjects, extended the range of our subject-matter, enriched and enriched, introduced arts and crafts, games and plays, occupations and industries, com- prehensive schemes for the training of body, head, hand, and heart; we have democratized, socialized, kindergarten ized, industrialized, vitalized, and psychologized our curriculum, and it has all been in this movement toward motivation. Second, it is not only in our subject-matter but in our methods of presentation. We motivize the work in our schools as we vitalize methods. We have developed the art of teaching. There is such a thing as the fine art of presentation. We now put a premium on development, on objective, concrete, illustrated teaching, on the inductive method of approach. The laboratory system prevails from the kindergarten to the high school. We have not abolished drill, but we have assigned it its proper place in the teaching-process. It now follows rather than precedes development, generalization, rule, and definition. W^e have led our teachers to see that the compelling powers of the child must come from within rather than from without, and that the nature of subject-matter together with skill in its presentation must possess the child with an irresistible impulse to act, to do things. A large part of the teacher's fine art lies in the preparation of her own lesson, in her own lesson plan, in the clear, intelligent, enthusiastic assignment, in the skill of questioning, in the art of conducting recitations, in methods of teaching. Department] MOTIVATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Third, we motivize the work in our schools as we vitalize the teacher, as we raise our standards and render compensation commensurate with the spirit and quality of the service rendered. There is no other labor, vocation, or profession, that calls for so much of vitality, red blood, physical, mental, and moral health. When a teacher fails to find in each new day some new situation, some new stimulus and new enthusiasm; when she ceases to teach with emotional vigor and her interests grow feeble and her actions mechani- cal; when she finds herself giving way to depression and allowing her mind to wander in the dark places of the future; when her temperature goes down under criticism, and she finds herself afflicted with the little worries that belong to her profession; when authori- ties do not act to please her, and she tells her little troubles to everyone she meets; when her conversation begins to run to the minor, and she sees nothing in the world but black — that's the time, if the work of the child is to be motivized, when she must begin some self- treatment of mental hygiene, the time for her to join once more in the songs of her children, to feed her soul upon their youthful eyes, to entertain with one more new story, to read for herself one more romance, to take an excursion in the open air, or to challenge some friend to an outdoor game. Would you motivize the work in your schools ? Vitalize your teacher. Enlarge her sphere to include the aims and interests of her children; let her see her own life and her own life's work writ in large letters; let her make the lives of her pupils her own supreme object, and devote herself unreservedly to the lasting good of childhood. Then your children will no more fail to respond to her appeal than earth's fertile soil will lie dormant under sunshine and rain. Fourth, motivize the work of your children by vitalizing your own aim. I suppose some general end in education must be fundamental. It matters not in what terms you express it. Whether in terms of culture, knowledge, adjustment, experience, character, citizenship, social efficiency; it matters not whether you industrialize, commercialize, vocationalize your courses, or whether your training becomes more and more practical and more and more closely related to the prospective needs of the child, motivizing the work in our schools is opposed to any distant goal. The end must not be remote. The adult's carefully worked out, final aim in education cannot furnish the pupil, day after day, in the schoolroom with sufficient motive to do. Consequently, health, head, hand, and heart may continue to constitute the fourfold aim of education : the first calling for the training of the body, ending in proper habits of health; the second for the training of the head, leading to a usable intelligence; the third for the training of the hand, contributing to a working efficiency; and the fourth for the education of the heart, terminating in an abiding character. Health must come first, for without health one is only an invalid. Intelli- gence second with health, but without intelligence, one is only an idiot. The hand, third, with health, with intelligence; but without the training of the untrained hand, without skill in labor, and habits of industry, one is only a tramp, possibly a parasite, sucking the life-blood out of society. The heart fourth, with health, with intelHgence, with efficiency in daily life, but without education of the heart, without character, one is at least a sinner if not a criminal. The world is still too full of invalids, idiots, tramps, and sinners, and yet if we motivize the work in our schools five days in the week, ten months in every year, in training for health, intelligence, efficiency, and conduct, we must supply the child from hour to hour and day to day with incentives to act on the immediate thing in hand. We must meet the ever-present, conscious needs of the child — needs of the body for his health's sake, needs of the brain for his mind's sake, needs of the hands for very life's sake, needs of the heart for his present and future's sake. Vitalize your subject-matter, vitalize your methods of teaching, and vitalize your teacher, then finally localize and focalize your aims on the ever-present needs of the child, and you will motivize the work of your school. 430 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION lElementaiy ENGLISH IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WABASH, IND. When we consider that from 40 to 50 per cent, of all the time in the elementary-school curriculum is given over to English and the subjects we recognize as most closely alhed to it, while against no portion of the school work — when results are investigated — ^is there greater and perhaps more justifiable criticism, we are confronted with a proposition that is really appalHng. No subject, in recent years, has received more attention at the hands of the teaching force than English. Over a decade ago, more than a dozen national and sectional conferences had been held to repair the gross evils in the teaching of English, while general and local organizations, clubs, and committees have continued to put forth untiring efforts to investigate and improve the work. The courses of study in English in the elementary and secondary schools have become the most elaborate of the curriculum, and the standing of schools has grown to be reckoned largely by the con- formity of the English work to accepted standards. The quaUfications of elementary-school teachers have been based upon their extensive preparation in the subject of English, a criterion that has led to the special pride taken by normal schools and higher institutions of learning in their extensive English courses. But, with all this, behold the results! Children still fail to express themselves correctly, clearly, forcibly, and attractively in the mother- tongue, either orally or with the pen. We have dropped technical grammar and substituted language-lessons in the grades, believing that the concrete things of life and literature are more fundamental, and that formal grammar with its logical and psycho- logical bearings belongs to the mature mind as a study for judgment rather than a guide in speaking and writing. Oral reading is being emphasized — to the sacrifice of silent reading, in many instances — when the main purpose must be to improve speech rather than to reinforce thought, while dramatization has been introduced into every grade of the elementary schools not only to clarify the content of the reading-matter, but to aid language as well. The time-honored essay with its abstract subject of duty, temperance, honor, or liberty, has been put far out of sight and mind, and has been replaced by the daily theme of a single paragraph or a limited number of lines dealing with, "What I Saw in the Park," "How I Spent My Vacation," "Hiawatha and His Friends," or the "Wanderings of Ulysses." The old methods have been abandoned as too formal and abstract. What of the new ones ? Despite our great and honest efforts are we not still emphasizing subject instead of subject-matter, form instead of content, and courses of study instead of pupils? When boys and girls refuse to Department] ENGLISH IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 431 visit the museums and parks, as a pastime, lest they may be called upon to use this experience as a basis for language- work, have we improved sufficiently over the days when Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm compiled her brief but pointed essay on "Joy and Duty"? When, with minds firmly fixed upon the form of speech, we have children repeat over and over again the stories we have told them, as a sort of basis for a species of verbal gym- nastics, are we sufficiently removed from the methods of technical grammar ? When they repeat glibly and in a stilted way, until all the fire of the living characters has been drilled out of them, the speeches put into their mouth by a dramatized text, are we giving the real substance ? Are we not still bowing down to the fetich of form while the content escapes ? The child with his activities, interests, and needs, should be the basis for language-work in the schools rather than elaborate courses of literature and formal exercises. From infancy, all spontaneous expression comes from a need of the organism in relation to the environment, and whatever causes a response to that need becomes the effective instrument for future use. ' The story of Helen Keller's wonderful progress in the use of language shows the superiority of the teacher who recognized neither laws nor formalities in the work, but found the method in the child, herself, with her interests and needs. Remarkable method that gave a vocabulary of four hundred words in about three months! One of the happiest things Miss Sullivan did was when she sat down to think and to ask herself this question, "How does a normal child learn language?" ' "Quite different," we say, "the teaching of one child in the freedom of the home and that of many in the schoolroom." True, but nevertheless we must still admit that Miss Sullivan has developed some splendid pedagogical truths, none of more importance than that which urges us to place the pupil, frequently, in linguistic situations that correspond to his environ- ment outside the schoolroom. With what profit might the language-teacher inquire into the content of children's minds and know something of the vocabulary used in their group activities. It is said that most high-school and college young people have two distinct forms of speech — one the style of speech used in the classroom, that is as unnatural as the etiquette of the drawing-room, and the other, their own breezy, free, natural life. Splendid results for language work must surely come from such in- vestigations as are being carried on at Clark University in child linguistics, of which Dr. John A. Magni, in a recent number of the Pedagogical Seminar, states. To promote a new linguistic pedagogy, based on established facts in child psychol- ogy, to arouse a deep sense of the imperative need of a better, a scientific method of language instruction in early infancy, and all thru the different grades of school, to im- plant, from the first, a genuine love for the very best form of the mother-tongue and create an abiding interest in the hidden phyletic contents of words, phrases, idioms, and structures of speech— these should be some of the practical results aimed at by the child linguistics. 432 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Let the teacher familiarize herself with the outside interests of the pupils and relate these to the language-Work of the school. From the nor- mal school in Oshkosh a circular letter has been sent out among the parents, inviting them to furnish articles constructed or projects undertaken by their children or those of their acquaintance, representing nothing but spontaneous effort. Emphasis is placed upon the fact that this is not an art collection, but one of crude pieces of work that to the child fulfilled the purpose of the moment. What a wealth of materials will come to the language-teacher from such a collection and from such information. In discussing these things the children will need to convey to their listeners information concerning them — and language will come just in proportion to the zeal of their desire to convey to others the same keen enjoyment they felt, in all these special enterprises. Each will know that his special interest can become that of other children and the teacher only in so far as his language will bring them into a like situation and this very appreciation of the requirements will make the reflex mechanism of expression assert itself effectively. A spirited little third-grade teacher in our schools tells me of much valuable information she has received from her pupils thru their outside interests. Some boys spent a summer near an encampment of some peculiar religious sect, of whom the teacher knew nothing. She entered into the spirit of their experiences and descriptions of these people, and finally when she tested their information by authoritative data, she found that the boys had depicted very faithfully these curious people. It has been a pleasure to observe the rapid advance of her pupils in the use of their mother-tongue, and yet at no time have I ever heard what was called a language-lesson. And, too, this young woman who loves to talk and used beautiful language is wiser yet, for she knows how to keep silent and invite speech without feeling that it is her duty to continually suggest something about the form of expression. Her pupils are good linguists because they are good thinkers, and this means they are given time to think before they speak, for the results sought are power and thought rather than definite amount of work. A man of the olden time once said of God, "If you ask me I do not know, but if you do not ask me, I know very well." A girl said to her teacher, "I can do and understand perfectly, if you only won't explain it." Some years ago a young woman undertook to teach geography, in a vital way. To prove the reality of the foreign life, she opened up a cor- respondence between the children far away and those of her own school. National resources, activities, and games were described in these letters and illustrative material accompanied them. But what was the great surprise of the teacher to find that not only was geography improved but the language results were even more wonderful. The children had to express themselves clearly and accurately if they expected the small boy Department) ENGLISH IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 433 in Constantinople to make use of the ball and bat that accompanied the letters describing the game of baseball. It has been said that every lesson should be a lesson in English and every teacher — no matter of what subject — should be an English teacher. Might we not say, with even greater propriety, that every lesson in English should be a lesson in something that has substance and thought and power-producing qualities, and that every teacher of English should know much about other subjects ? But what of the directive and corrective work of the teacher ? The language of the teacher herself will always be a great force in correct- ing the forms used by the child. Literary models, when they serve a present need, will be of value, in connection with a situation that has already arisen. Let the teacher seek for such literary models as will de- scribe the same things the children are discussing, and allow them to express their own views upon the forms they have used and those of the author. Let all correction be positive rather than negative, constructive rather than destructive, coming after freedom and spontaneity of expression have been well established and always supplying a need of the child. "You have not made your thought clear," "I do not get your meaning — can't you say it some other way?" are better from the teacher than "Say it this way, it sounds better," or repeating after the child the correct form. Good clear- cut expressions from the children may be copied on the board and allowed to take root both with and without comment. There is an opportune time and method for correcting the child's speech and the wide-awake teacher will scent such occasions and use them so that the spontaneity and freedom of expression will not be hampered thereby, and the force of the language marred. Thomas Jefferson said, with truth, "When strictness of grammar does not weaken the expression it must be attended to, but when by a small grammatical negligence, the energy of an idea is condensed, or a word stands for an idea, I hold grammatical rigor in contempt." A good thought for the teachers to dwell upon who continually impress the pupil with the idea that a complete statement is always an essential. Good written composition work will result when a need for it is felt. Letter-writing made real by communication with real persons for a real purpose, accompanied — when occasion arises — by the examination of such interesting models of letters to children as are furnished by those of Phillips Brooks, Walter Scott, and Richard Mansfield, will make written composition a necessity and a delight. Fascinating incidents and ex- periences to be used in the future can best be preserved in writing, as the children will readily see, and must be couched in such language as will re-create scenes and events. Let children discuss freely their own and other written work, from the standpoint of the thought they wish to convey. One child's story may be written out by him and taken home by another child to be read to members of the latter's family. The need for 434 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary punctuation will thus be recognized and the principles and rules under- lying it may be wrought out in class as occasion demands, and confirmed by the marks in literary models. Is there a place for formal grammar in the elementary schools ? The young mind is constructive, its work should be synthetic rather than analytic, but occasions might arise where some of the principles now recog- nized as belonging to the field of technical grammar, would supply a need of some child in his constructive work. Teachers should be ready to accept all material and reject nothing, no matter under what name it appears, if they find it a helpful resource in securing language results. But I am of the opinion that formal grammar as outlined at present will need a thoro re- casting before it will serve much purpose in the elementary schools. C. R. Rounds in the June number of the Educational Review shows the absurdity of the varying nomenclatures in grammars, and the necessity for a thoro clearing-up of these metaphysical speculations on the names for word- relations in a sentence. When in the examination of twenty-two grammars it is found that nine different names are given to the relation expressed by the word "good" in the sentence "John is good," and sixteen different ones are given for "red," in the sentence "We painted the barn red," it is no wonder that even teachers lose sight of the essentials of a sentence in their controversies over what to call certain words relating to these essentials. But the great era for language-work will come when the entire school curriculum has been modified by the omission of all that is obsolete and the addition of those things that pertain to group activities. Already have manual-training and domestic science when taught in a vital way proved their helpfulness in these problems. When the school becomes more closely allied with the home and social interests of the children, when mass- teaching has been superseded by that of groups and individuals, when teachers do not know less of literature, formal rhetoric, and grammar, but do know more of the order of development of the parts of speech and the evolution of the sentence, more of the problems of linguistic development, when they think how the child learns language rather than how he shall be taught language, and when language is no longer regarded as a thing in itself but as an instrument of thought, then may we look for a generation loving the great mother-tongue, taking pride in the use of her choicest and best forms, appreciating from infancy the need of proper language for utterance — a generation whose speech will tend to shape itself effectively and correctly because of the thought and power-impelling impulse from within. DISCUSSION Charles S. Meek, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho. — An inventory of the prevailing errors in the speech of the children is a necessary prehminary to a rational attempt to improve language in the schools. Boise, Idaho, has thirty-five hundred pupils enrolled in the eight grades and seventy- Department) ENGLISH IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 435 five grade teachers. This discussion presents a study of the characteristic language- errors of our schools. No claim is made for the statistical merit of this report. The re- sults presented are by no means statistically accurate. They only indicate in a general way the situation. No attempt has been made to tabulate the technical distinctions in language, but the plan has been to deal merely with the glaring evidences of crude speech. At the beginning of the second semester of the school year just closed, teachers in the eight grades were requested to note the language-errors of their pupils and to classify them as verb-errors, double negatives, mispronunciations that can be consistently called bad language-forms such as "git" and "jist," misuse of pronouns, adverbial errors, and colloquialisms. A preliminary report was made in February which was suggestive only in revealing the fact that teachers were careless or unobservant both as to the character and extent of the mistakes in the vernacular of their children, and almost helpless in devising means for accumulating relevant data as to the situation. Yet Boise teachers are earnest and efficient, practically all of them are normal or college graduates and have had successful experience prior to their employment with us. Teachers become immune to the crudeness in the language of their children, just as they become accustomed to poor ventilation. The facts brought out by our preliminary report are not, I believe, such as to make our school distinctive but are typical of what any superintendent will probably learn if he investigates. In grade meetings we discussed the weaknesses of the first report, adopted a classified outline as a basis for the study, and agreed upon a uniform plan of scoring the errors ob- served. The teachers were urged to encourage their children to talk freely and naturally. I venture the assertion that our teachers now, for the first time, know the language- errors of their children with enough precision to begin work effectively for their elimination. In considering the data to be presented you should note that of the thirty-five hun- dred pupils whose speech furnishes the data all but eighty-six were born of English-speak- ing parents. The total numbers of mistakes observed, classified and expressed in percentages are as follows: I St grade 8th grade All grades 1. Verb-errors: percentage of total of all classes 49.5 36.6 40.1 2. Double-negative: percentage of total errors of all classes 3.6 2.9 3.4 3. Mispronunciation: percentage of total of all classes 16.8 17.3 20.4 4. Misuse of pronouns: percentage of total errors 18.8 18.3 17.2 5. Adverbial errors: percentage of total errors 5.3 6.9 5.8 6. Colloquialisms: percentage of total errors 8.2 13.3 12.9 The large percentage under mispronunciation results from the fact that some teachers scored words mispronounced because they were unfamiliar rather than because of a tendency to poor English. Double negatives do not represent as large a percentage of the total because they were not scored as frequently as they occurred. The important fact is, however, that the percentage under each class of errors is relatively constant for all grades. There is no evidence of a change in the distribution as the grades advance, and very little evidence of diminishing errors. CLASSIFICATION OF THE VERB-ERRORS An analysis of the verb-errors brings out the following facts: a) Confusing the past and perfect participles occasioned 48.8 per cent, of the total verb-errors. 436 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary h) The misuse of "have," "ain't," and "got," 20.4 per cent. c) The failure of verb and subject to agree, 8.2 per cent. d) The misuse of "shall" and "will," 5.4 per cent. e) The use of "and" with infinitive for "to," 5.7 per cent. These errors are also constant and uniform thruout the grades. The confusing of the past and perfect participles scores 52.8 per cent, in the first grade, 47.2 per cent, in the eighth grade and 48.8 per cent, for all the grades. Misuse of "had," "ain't," and "got," 22.2 per cent, in the first grade, 18.9 per cent, in the eighth grade, and 20.4 per cent, for all grades. Failure of verb and subject to agree in number, 7.4 per cent, in first grade, 8.4 per cent, in the eighth grade, and 8.2 per cent, in all grades. Sequence of tenses, 1.4 per cent, in the first grade, 4.2 in the eighth grade, and 2.6 per cent, in all grades. The use of "and" with infinitive for "to," 5.5 per cent, for the first grade, 8.1 per cent, in the eighth grade, and 5.7 per cent, in all grades. Colloquialisms, 7.4 per cent, in the first grade, 9.6 per cent, in the eighth grade, and 8.6 per cent, in all grades. Confusion in the use of past and perfect participles represents practically 50 per cent, of verb-errors. The verb-errors are 40 per cent, of errors of all kinds scored. Confusing the past and perfect participles therefore occasions 20 per cent., or one-fifth of all mistakes considered in this paper. Mistakes in past and perfect participles of " see," " come," " do," and "go" represent 50.8 per cent, of all like mistakes, or one-tenth of all mistakes scored. Nine other verbs, 33 per cent, of verbs or 65 per cent, of total errors. If the children might be taught to use correctly the past and perfect participles of thirteen verbs, i6\ per cent, or one-sixth of all the errors in speech would be eliminated. The important facts disclosed by the data subsequently collected are : 1. The field is limited. The poor English heard is due to frequent repetition of a few errors. 2. The percentage under each class of errors is relatively constant for all grades. There is evidence of slight change in the distribution as the grades advance. 3. This is evidence that no consistent or continuous eflEort at elimination of the errors has been made. Confused by the fancied complexity of the task, the teachers' efforts have been sporadic and futile. 4. The verb-errors form a very large percentage of the total errors in each grade. 5. Of the verb-errors, almost one-half are due to confusing the past and perfect par- ticiple forms. A dozen verbs include most of these errors. 6. The exact character and distribution of errors being known and a rational al- lotment of errors for correction in each grade being made, a great improvement in spoken English should result. STRENGTHENING THE WORK IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES JAMES M. GREENWOOD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO. {An Abstract) STATEMENT The contention is that the children, instead of being put to work in the elementary schools, fritter their time away in useless diversions, virtually playing at school and deahng with inane platitudes which lead to educational bankruptcy. An easy education is now the fashion and the practice. Every Httle bit of knowledge has to be thoroly chewed by the teacher and then spooned out in small pellets before the learner can assimilate it. There is great need of teachers who have backbone and sense, the competent, to save the children from the crowd of incompetents who do not draw a heavy line between work and play, between playing at school and working in school. Department] STRENGTHENING WORK IN ELEMENTARY GRADES 437 I The remedy is to put the child when he is old enough and big enough to start to school to doing some things, and keep him at the important things till these can be done fairly well. Not little things, but good-sized things. How shall children be taught so as to reduce waste and wreckage to a minimum? Constructive ability should now be invoked. It is in great demand. I will give some illustrations of what I mean in teaching geography, grammar, and arithmetic. It is held as a cardinal principle in teaching that a teacher who knows one subject thoroly and can pick out the essen- tial truths in it, and can present them in such a manner that all the essential facts of the science will cluster about them, is in the proper mental atti- tude to teach other subjects efl&ciently. To pick out the basic facts in the elementary branches and to teach them well is a necessary prerequisite. Children get their information in shreds and patches with many skips be- tween, and the object of chief concern is to consolidate and solidify the pupil's knowledge of each subject. GEOGRAPHY In geography the pupil should be taught to interpret the history of a country and the chief occupations of its people from studying a good map of that part of the earth's surface. He should, by using the foot ruler and the scale of miles given on the map, noting carefully the latitude and longitude of the country and making due allowance for the distance between the meridians, determine by measurement the approximate area, and then the density of population. By studying the watercourses, the elevation of the surface, the drainage of the country, proximity to the ocean, the prevaiUng winds, the killing frosts, the length of the cropping season, the pupil ought to determine what occupations the people could engage in. How to go from where the pupil lives to that country, the cost of transpor- tation and meals, the nearest seaport, how to get to its capital, and what one would see the people doing when once there, are important steps. The teacher or some of the pupils could give a historical sketch of the country and its people. This is only the merest outline, but it will serve to indi- cate how to study the sixty-odd different nations of the earth. ENGLISH GRAMMAR In the use of the English language, children should begin the classifi- cation of sentences, according to the essential elements composing them, not later than the fourth year. There are only three kinds of sentences, according to structure, in English: (a) subject and verb; (b) subject, verb, and object; and (c) subject, verb, and complement, or attribute. The first is the simplest form of sentence in any language. Little children, if a type sentence is placed on the blackboard, will pick out of their read- ing-lessons sentences of this tj^e till they become very famiUar with this kind of sentence. Next they can attack the second type, and later the 43^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary third. Now they are prepared to use modifiers of these elements, and still later to begin essential elements that contain phrases and clauses, and like- wise of the modifying elements, at first simple and on to the complex. This work should be gradually introduced. From the elements it is an easy matter to teach the parts of speech and their properties. In the last analysis all compound sentences must be reduced to simple sentences, and no sentence can have more than three essential elements in it. The clauses conform to the types of independent sentences, so that the subject may be a word, phrase, clause, or sentence; the verb may be one, two, three, or four words, but not more; the object may be a word, phrase, clause, or sentence, and the attribute element a word, phrase, or clause; the same is true of the modifying elements which are adjective or adverbial. After this the connecting elements may be introduced and will be disposed of easily enough. All good teaching should lead up to general principles, and each prin- ciple always includes a multitude of particulars under it. In learning the structure and use of our language, the pupil needs to get hold of and firmly grasp a few fundamental truths as a working basis. Only a few directions on sentence-making and sentence-testing are needed, or are helpful. They may be stated as follows: a) No needless word or words should be used. h) No necessary word should be omitted. c) Great care should be taken to select the best word. d) Each word, phrase, or clause should be placed in the sentence where it stands for the most in making the sentence correct, clear, and elegant. PRIMARY ARITHMETIC Experience has demonstrated that pupils should begin number work outside of mere counting by using concrete material, interspersed with enough abstract mechanical work to give vigor and energy to the work, and that there is real danger in concreting number work too long. When- ever a pupil or a class has learned any table by doing it and has had a few practical, illustrative exercises to fix this knowledge in making it reason- ably stable, a new topic should be attacked without delay. This applies to all phases of lumber, water, dirt, animal, vegetable, measuring, weighing, doing arithmetic in the lower grades; also to getting the multiplication table by sheer will-power rather than by long over-scientific methods thinly drawn out. Briefly, during the first and second years in school, the pupil will have learned nearly all the essential and useful tables in arith- metic, if he is turned loose on them, and he will, if intelligently taught, get very clear notions of whole numbers and fractions by comparing them with one another. This is the way to lay a concrete-abstract foundation upon which to build a mathematical foundation, the object of which is to teach the learner to think in symbols rather than in things as he advances in this study. Department] STRENGTHENING WORK IN ELEMENTARY GRADES 439 COMMON-SCHOOL ARITHMETIC There is no other subject, unless it be English grammar, in which the subject-matter is scattered in such reckless confusion as it is in arithmetic. There is only one addition in arithmetic, yet there are usually five kinds of addition under separate heads, and so on of subtraction, multiplication, and division. Whole numbers and fractions are not different things. The decimal point comes in with United States money; all length, surface, and volume problems should be grouped and taught together under their respective heads. The only new element is the ratio of the circumference to the radius of the circle, which value is also used in the sphere, cylinder, and cone. Instead of having some of the linear, surface, and volume prob- lems in the early chapters in the common-school arithmetics, and the other kindred chapters in the back part of the book, all should be put together under denominate numbers. Percentage and nterest shou d occupy only about one-fifth of the space and time that they now do in our arithmetic. Every principle in percentage can be taught in the first, second, and third grades before the pupils ever begin a text in arithmetic. To say what part 6 is of 12; the relation of 6 to 12; the ratio of 6 to 12; or what percentage 6 is of 12, all mean the same thing. A pupil should be trained early in his school life to identify the same thing under different names. SQUARES AND CUBES Children thus early can be taught to square and to cube the digits, and to unsquare and to uncube them, and so of other numbers and of fractions, so that when they encounter these subjects in the back of the book they will not be unfamiliar with their nature. Even the multiplication table contains a dozen square numbers. MENTAL ARITHMETIC All pupils should have a tremendous drill in a good mental arithmetic. They need it and they ought to have it, cranks to the contrary notwith- standing. CONCLUSION The illustrations drawn from geography, grammar, and arithmetic, as solid studies, are sufficient to indicate how the subject-matter ought to be selected, arranged, and presented by the teacher to the pupil, and the method of attack by teacher and pupil. Underlying all this should be a fixed and intelligent determination in the teacher's mind to make certain data in each subject automatic in the mind of the pupil so that it is always ready for instant use whenever necessary. This knowledge the pupil should carry in his mind and not depend on his book for it. More time, too, in the upper grades should be spent in teaching the pupils how to study and how to pick out and get hold of the essential facts in each subject, and 440 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary then how to build these into a whole or unity. If this were done, the ele- mentary pupils would come out of school 50 per cent stronger in their studies and save from one-fourth to one-fifth of the time now given to them, and be better prepared for high-school work or for taking up the burdens of life. DISCUSSION Ellis H. Drake, superintendent of schools, Elkhart, Ind. — Among the numerous things that might be mentioned which will strengthen the seventh and eighth grades as preparation for high-school work the following particulars may be enumerated : elimination from the various lines of work of the non-essential or less important work, and at the same time the selection and emphasis of the fundamentally important; greater flexibility in the course; greater flexibility in the plan of promotion; the plan of having smaller classes; the provision of special teachers for the backward and ungraded pupils; the provision of electives as extra work for the bright children. In addition to these, certain powers of the minds of children should be awakened to a greater degree; especially the power to think and study to best advantage and the power of adequate written and oral expression of thought. The habit of diligent application should also be fostered. But I wish especially to emphasize in this discussion the plan of teaching, the depart- mental system as applied to these grades, more especially what I will choose to call the centralized department. There are good pedagogical and psychological grounds for this plan. The average children who have reached the seventh year of the course are in the adolescent stage. It is a natural division point in their lives. New ideals and aspirations are taking hold. New views of life are forming; life is becoming more complex and youth is becoming more versatile; it is groping after greater freedom and greater responsibility. Self-discovery, self-realization, self-mastery, and self-direction are growing and ever-increasing traits of character. If the high school proper is adapted to the needs of the adolescent age, there is reason to believe that the departmental plan of the high school is the one best adapted to the beginning of this age, the seventh- and eighth-year grades. Many advantages accrue from the system, the chief of which are the following: First. — Better qualified teachers and better teaching. The average teacher is not qualified in all subjects. Special aptitude and love for a subject make a strong teacher. To study a certain subject enables her to specialize along the line of her native interests, to become thoro, to concentrate her energies, and enrich and vitalize her teaching. A better quality of teachers is secured, as teachers of high scholarship are willing to take this work. Second. — It gives versatility to pupils. They come into close daily contact with different personalities, each with elements of strength not possessed by the others. Third. — The scheme furnishes a fine preparation for the still more divided influence and more extended changing of classrooms and teachers in the high school. Children at best upon entering high school are more or less bewildered and discouraged by the change. The grade plan of work will prepare them for the high-school plan. Again, the more thoro scholarship of the departmental grade teacher will enable her to give her pupils some insight into the higher work by showing the connection between her subject and the related subject in the high school. This helps bridge the gap between the grades and the high school. Fourth. — The plan as a whole tends to bring about freer, more self-responsible chil- dren, a higher degree of punctuality, attention, and application to study. Self-control and self-direction are fostered in pupils. Fifth. — It tends to dignify the work of teachers and to put it on a professional basis. It augments good qualities in an ambitious teacher. Sixth. — The efficiency of a weak teacher is increased by the standard set by her col- leagues. Seventh. — Greater thoroness of work results. Departmentl STRENGTHENING WORK IN ELEMENTARY GRADES 44] Eighth. — It develops a community of interests and purposes — a school (building) spirit, rather than a room spirit. And it is in connection with this point I wish to speak of the centralized department and its advantages. If these grades in the smaller cities are centralized in one large building, greater interest and inspiration result. Pupils look forward to entering such schools, and the school spirit engendered holds them the longer and more closely to the work. This plan furnishes a splendid opportunity to classify children in groups according to their ability, and thus the needs of bright arxd slow children will be the better con- served. Extra studies can be supplied for the bright and individual instruction for the dull. Groups should not be larger than can be cared for by three or four teachers. Each group should contain both seventh- and eighth-year classes; thus the same teacher would have each class for two full years, carrying the same work thru both years. The outcome of this would be more intelligent direction of the work and greater thoroness in the results achieved. Large cities secure the same results by centering these grades of sections of the city into single buildings in the several sections. i DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION SECRETARY'S' MINUTES OFFICERS President — David Mackenzie, principal of Central High School Detroit, Mich. Vice-President — ^W. H Bartholomew, principal of Girls' High School Louisville, Ky. Secretary — Elus U. Graff, principal of High School Omaha, Neb. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday, July 6, 1910 The meeting was called to order by Vice-President Bartholomew at 9: 30 a.m. in the Central Congregational Church of Boston. The absence of President Mackenzie, due to illness, was mentioned by the chairman with regret. William R. Lasher, Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N.Y., read a paper on "Student Activities as Educational Factors in Secondary Schools." A paper was read by William McAndrew, principal of Washington Irving High School, New York City, on the subject, "The High School Itself." The third paper of the program, "The Opportunities of the Modern High School," was given by Charles P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. These papers were discussed in three-minute speeches by J. Archer Smith, dean of J. B. Stetson University, DeLand, Fla.; Principal J. Remsen Bishop, Eastern High School, Detroit, Mich.; Principal Thomas, High School, Newton, Mass.; Principal H. P. Swett, Franklin, N.H.; Principal William H. Smiley, East Side High School, Denver, Colo. A preliminary report of the Committee on the Cosmopolitan High School was pre- sented by Spencer R. Smith, principal of Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago, 111., chairman. This report was adopted. .The following resolution was adopted in regard to the articulation of high school and college: Whereas, A wide range of high-school subjects is now demanded in view of the varied needs of society and the diversified interests of different students; and Whereas, Manual training, commercial branches, music, household science and art, agriculture, etc., when well taught and thoroly learned are worthy of, and justly en- titled to, recognition in college-entrance credits; and Whereas, Colleges in certain parts of the United States continue to require two foreign languages from every applicant regardless of his dominant interest; and Whereas, This requirement, in addition to such work in English, mathematics, his- tory, and science as is essential to the high-school course of every student, precludes the possiBility of giving adequate attention to these other subjects; therefore be it Resolved, That it is the sense of the Secondary Department of the National Education Association that the interests of high-school students would be advanced by the reduction of the requirements in foreign languages to one such language and the recognition as electives of all subjects well taught in the high school; and be it further Resolved, That it is the sense of this department that until such modification is made by the colleges, the high schools will be greatly hampered in their attempts to serve the best interests of boys and girls in the oublic high school. The following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the chairman: J. Stanley Brown, principal, Township High School, Joliet, 111. E. E. Scribner, Superintendent of Schools, Ishpeming, Mich. J. M. Guise, principal. High School, St. Paul, Minn. The meeting then adjourned. 443 444 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary SECOND SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 7, 1910 The department met in joint session with the Departments of Science and of Rural and Agricultural Education in the main room of the Central Congregational Church, with Vice-President Bartholomew presiding. The general topic of the session was "The Practical Aspects of Science in Secondary Education, with Special Reference to the Introduction of Materials from Agriculture, Household Arts, Technical Industries, etc." A paper was read by William R. Hart, professor in Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass., on "The Pedagogical Viewpo.nt." W. J. V. Osterhaut, professor in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., presented a paper on "The Scientific Viewpoint." These papers were discussed with reference to the various subjects of science as follows: Physics — William Orr, deputy state commissioner of education, Boston, Mass. Chemistry — Joseph S. Mills, High School of Commerce, New York City, N.Y. Zoology — Chester Mathewson, Brooklyn Normal School, Brooklyn, N.Y. Physiology — Louis Murbach, head of high-school biological instruction, Detroit, Mich. A report of the Committee on College-Entrance Credit for Graduates of High Schools Teaching Agriculture, A. B. Graham, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, chairman, was read by C. H. Robison, Montclair State Normal School, Montclair, N.J. The papers above presented were discussed by Professor Hall, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. The Committee on Nominations made the following report: For President — H. M. Barrett, principal, Pueblo High School, Pueblo, Colo. For Vice-President — W. F. Lewis, principal, High School, Port Huron, Mich. For Secretary — W. J. McCormack, principal. Township High School, LaSalle, III. These officers were elected. The meeting then adjourned. THIRD SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 1910 The department met in round-table conferences at 9:30 a.m. as follows: A. English — Chairman, Edwin L. Miller, head of the English Department of the Central High School, Detroit, Mich 1. "Two Ideals of Teaching Composition," Fred Newton Scott, head of the Depart- ment of Rhetoric, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 2. "Rebuilding an English Course," Edwin L. Miller, head of English Department, Central High School, Detroit, Mich. 3. "Essential Principles in Teaching English," Charles Swain Thomas, head of English Department, High School, Newton, Mass. B. History — Chairman, George Edward Marshall, principal, High School, Davenport, Iowa. Introductory remarks by the chairman. Topic: "What Facts in American History Should Be Emphasized Today in Sec- ondary Schools?" Discussed by F. R. Goodwin, Ohio; Harry P. Swett, Franklin, N.H.; J. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111. Topic: "What Is the Proper Aim of History-Teaching in Secondary Schools?" Discussed by Miss Bucknam, J. P. Womack, Magnolia, Ark.; Mr. Moore; Mr. Christo- phelsmeier. Topic: "Has the Historical Novel Any Value as an Aid to History-Teaching?" Discussed by C. R. Gates, Mary H. Leonard, C. C. Kohl. C. Latin — Chairman, Ernst Riess, Boys' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. Department) SCHOOL ACTIVITIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 445 1. "The Oral Method in the Teaching of Latin," Gonzales Lodge, Professor in Teach- ers College, New York City, N.Y. Discussion opened by John C. Kirtland, Phillips Exeter Academy, Exeter, N.H. 2. "Natural and Artificial Stimuli in Teaching Latin," Ernst Riess, Boys' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. Discussion opened by J. E. Barss, Hotchkiss School, Lakeville, Conn., and W. F. Abbot, Classical High School, Worcester, Mass. D. Mathematics — Chairman, Thomas J. McCermack, principal, Township High School, LaSalle, 111. "Why Do We Study Mathematics; A Historical and Philosophical Retrospect," Thomas J. McCormack, principal, Township High School, LaSalle, 111. Discussion a) "The Practical Limitations of an Ideal Course in American Secondary Mathe-- ;•''' matics, and the Educational Waste or Economy in the Proposed Sequences of ,§tt^ifis,"'- nv^ John Shaw French, principal, Morris Heights School, Providence, R. I. , ,=o>:-?r';--.:t;|^ b) "Preliminary Report of the 'National Geometry Syllabus Committee ' and its Practical Pedagogical Implications," William Betz, East High School, Rochester, N.Y. c) "Applied Problems and the R61e of Formal Drawing in Secondary Mathematics," William E. Breckenridge, Stuyvesant High School, New York City, N.Y. E. Modern Foreign Languages — Chairman, Frederick Monteser, De Witt Clinton High School, New York City, N.Y. Topic: "The Direct Method of Teaching Modern Languages." a) "Modern Language Teaching in New England," Julius Tuckerman, Central High School, Springfield, Mass. b) "The Direct Method of Teaching Modern Languages, and Present Conditions in Our Schools," Frederick Monteser, De Witt Clinton High School, New York City, N.Y. Discussion opened by Carl A. Krause, Jamaica High School, Jamaica, N.Y. c) "Writing in German," John A. Bole, Eastern District High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. Ellis U. Graff, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS SCHOOL ACTIVITIES AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS WILLIAM R. LASHER, ERASMUS HALL HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N. Y. In bringing together the large numbers of pupils who constitute the attendance of the ordinary urban high school, the condit ons for a great deal of student activity are of necessity created. The desire to associate with others for the accomplishment of a common purpose is inborn. At the secondary-school period of life lasting friendships are formed. Boys and girls of this age delight in forming clubs, and, as a consequence, organi- zations, some social, some athletic, and some scholastic, spring up in large numbers. The control and direction of athletics is now quite generally recognized as a school funct'on; but toward the many other forms of student activity, school authorities assume various attitudes. Some authorities are in. general hostile, the larger number are indifferent and allow these activities 446 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary to develop and proceed in their own way with little or no direction or inter- ference, a few actively support and encourage them in all their legitimate phases. It is safe to say that in no school in this country is there a greater num- ber and greater variety of student organizations than in Erasmus Hall High School of Brooklyn, N.Y. Since its foundation in 1896, it has been the policy of this school to welcome every organization that arises among its pupils provided the purpose for which the organization exists is a good one. One group of pupils formed an excursion club for the purpose of visiting manufacturing and power plants of scientific interest; another group of pupils formed the "Monday Club" for the encouragement of original work in literature; a group of girls who were doing especially good work in mathematics formed the "X Y Z Club"; other groups formed fraternities and sororities for purposes largely social; and so on thru a long and exceedingly varied list. Toward all of these the principal has assumed a uniform attitude of approval and encouragement, the main restriction imposed being that each organization must secure some member of the faculty to be respon- sible in a general way for seeing that the affairs of the organization are conducted in a proper manner. The result of this liberal policy has been that the school has become the center of a great deal of student activity, some of it purely social, some of it scholast c and connected more or less intimately with the work of the classrooms. The field covered by the many organizations engaged in this work is so wide that few of the three thousand pupils are likely to remain in school for the full course without having some part in it. A new and unique organization is the Arista League inaugurated during the past year. It is an honor society. Its purpose is the recognition of a high grade of scholarship combined with exceptional character. It has aroused a great deal of interest, and has been extended to a number of the New York City high schools. It is expected that this organization will occupy in these high schools a position somewhat analogous to that occu- pied by Phi Beta Kappa in the colleges. The presidents of the sections have lately been organized into a con- gress of presidents. These class presidents are regarded as school ofiScers. They take charge of their rooms if the teacher happens to be absent. They are elected by the pupils, but a recent regulation places certain qualifica- tions of scholarship and faculty approval upon the candidates. This movement is an attempt to secure student co-operation in the general management and discipline of the school. As these pupils combine scholar- ship and school standing with the quahfications of leadership necessary to secure their election by their fellows, they undoubtedly form an organi- zation which is a powerful factor in developing the right sort of school sentiment. Departmentl SCHOOL ACTIVITIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 447 The class sections and the eight grades of the school are encouraged in any form of social activity in which they may choose to engage. They have spreads and dances, and give entertainments. A rather elaborate lawn production of the Midsummer Nighfs Dream was given a year ago by one of the grades. The work of the different organizations is unified by certain central bodies. The athletic and scholastic organizations are financed by the General Organization which is composed of practically the whole student body. The fraternities have a fraternity congress, and the class presidents have the before-mentioned congress of presidents which unifies the activi- ties which center round the classes as units. In this way the school is able not only to keep in close touch with all of its many activities but also to exercise a salutary direction and control over them. Admission to many of the organizations is conditioned upon scholarship. This is true of organizations like the fraternities, which exist largely for social purposes. Reports of the scholarship of fraternity mem- bers are made to the principal each term, and pupils who have lapsed badly in their school work are suspended from these societies. The interest in some of these activities is exceedingly keen, the rivalry often intense but practically always good-natured and healthful. One of the events of each term is the election of the officers of the General Or- ganization. This election is conducted as nearly as possible like a general state or national election. Each candidate must be nominated by a speech in chapel before the whole student body; no other restriction is placed upon nominees. The pupils are provided with printed ballots. Each class section constitutes an election district. The votes are can- vassed by a committee composed of teachers and pupils and the scenes in the big chapel when the results from the different ''precincts" are being announced is as animated and as interesting as are the scenes around the bulletins on the night of a general election. The method involving public nomination of candidates and a full vote of the school by secret ballot works admirably. The pupils vote with careful discrimination. A candidate must have character and standing in the school in order to win. Fine athletic ability alone is not sufficient. It is found that publicity and a full expression of the popular will work in a great high school much as they do in the larger world of poHtics. The great mass of voters are, in general, on the right side of things. Another feature of this election consists of the elaborate picture posters used to set forth the qualifications of the respective cand dates. So much time is spent by pupils in the preparation of these that it has been thought wise to encourage the making of posters of real merit. Accordingly, at the last election, medals were offered for the finest posters, and awards were made by a committee from the Art Department. Summed up in brief, the general policy of the school is so to control 448 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary these student activities as to eliminate any harmful tendencies that may- exist in them, and to make them an influence for good, not only to those who have part in them, but to the school as a whole. The principal (Dr. Walter B. Gunnison), believes thoroly in these various forms of student organization. He believes that he has a much more intimate and personal control over the hundreds of pupils under his charge, thru and by means of these organizations, than he could possibly have without them. The general attitude of the school toward these organ 'zations and the participation of teachers in their work has had an appreciable effect upon the general morale of the student body. Certain characteristics of the school are traceable in a considerable measure to its policy upon this question. An unusually fine personal and friendly relation exists between the members of the faculty and the students. There is an intense and lasting loyalty to the school among its pupils and its graduates. The pupils are interested in the school, happy in its work, and consequently remain, thus reducing the school mortaHty. Erasmus Hall has, comparatively speaking, a small percentage of pupils who are discharged before graduation. Speaking of the general problem, we must of course recognize the danger that organizations composed of young and inexperienced pupils may develop along harmful lines. Everyone knows of the difficulties that have arisen in many parts of the country in connection with the high- school fraternities, upon which societies this National Education Associa- tion placed the ban of its disapproval in a series of vigorous y worded resolutions at Asbury Park. Everyone who has had to do with school athletics knows the many difficulties that arise in connection with that phase of school activity. How to eliminate bad games and the bad fea- tures of good games; how to organize games in which a large percentage of the pupils may particpate instead of catering only to those of unusual athletic abihty; how to create a proper spirit in athletics, i.e., how to develop good winners and good losers; all these are questions which tax the patience and the ingenuity of those who have to deal with this work. Members of scholastic and social organizations may be intolerant and snobbish in their treatment of members of organizations other than their own. Pupils with a genius for organization and leadership, a genius by no means to be despised, may give too much time to school organizations and too little to their books. All of these are harmful tendencies, some of them of considerable magnitude. All of them emphasize the need of careful regulation of student activities and in flagrant cases, of vigorous suppression. It can be safely laid down as a general rule that the school that does only repressive work in connection with these organizations will have little success n dealing with them. It is better to spend a little time in building up good organizations than to spend a great deal of time in the demoral- zing, animosity-engendering process of tearing down bad ones that have grown up without direction. Department] SCHOOL ACTIVITIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 449 The school which has this work well organized has the most efficient means for remedying its difficulties. It has been found possible at Eras- mus Hall so to regulate social affairs that they shall not occur on evenings that are followed by a school day and also that they shall not be continued to an unseemly hour of the night. The most efficient remedy for intoler- ance and hostility among these bodies is the central organization in which the members of the various branch societies can meet and discuss matters of common interest. Nothing removes misunderstanding so readily as to be able to meet on some common ground those against whom we have an unreasoning prejudice. A spirit of toleration for organizations other than one's own is worth going far to inculcate. The field of this work is so broad that school men of the strongest likes and dislikes can find much of which they may approve. Few teachers have ever entered heartily into this sort of work without feeling amply repaid for their endeavors. A teacher who confines his life-work to the mere giving of instruction in the classroom is losing most of the things that are really worth while in a teacher's life. It is far more delightful to work with pupils than to work at them. The days when the teacher drives are unhappy days. Unfortunately these days are many. Corporal punishment has been aboHshed, but the air of many recitation rooms is full of the sound of metaphoric lashings as the teacher drives unwiUing pupils on to their tasks. The changed attitude which pupils assume toward tep-chers who work with them in their organizations is alone worth the effort the teacher gives to the work. It will be objected that it is not practical to encourage student organi- zations without destroying scholarship. None of us likes to be called visionary or impractical. Yet there is thruout all society a large amount of narrow-minded egotism parading itself under the title of practicality. If you don't want to be criticized, keep in the narrow rut of rigidly pre- scribed procedure. If your pupils dance and give entertainments there will be plenty of thoughtless persons to cry out that your school is doing nothing but having a good time. On the contrary, even the social organi- zations, rightly used, can be made to promote scholarship. Dr. Luther H. Gulick has commented on the beneficial effect that athletics, properly organized, have upon scholarship. Boys will work hard at their books to be allowed to play on a school team. They will also work hard to be allowed to join a fraternity or to take part in a play if a scholarship require- ment is a necessary qualification. There can be no question but that French clubs, German clubs, history clubs, etc., are conducive to a very fine and effective degree of scholarship. Indeed, they form a very good measure of teaching efficiency. If there is an active, well-organized history club in a school, depend upon it some one is teaching history in that school and doing it well. The high schools of our country have had a wonderful growth. If 1. 450 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary the indications of the times point truly, they are to have a far greater development in the future. There is no reason why much of the lasting charm that clings about the college should not exist in connection with these great secondary schools. Much of it does exist at Erasmus. On Alumni Day, which occurs each year just before the Christmas hoHdays, hundreds of graduates and former pupils come back to greet each other and their teachers in a sort of school jubilee. The scenes about the chapel and on the gymnasium floor are exactly what one would expect to see at a great college commencement. If we are to educate these young people, using the word educate in its broadest, fullest meaning, the more entirely we can fill their field of vision with the school and its allied activities, the greater hold we shall have upon them for the accomplishment of our purpose. Let pupils organize for special work. Let them organize for play. Organized play is more interesting and effective than unorganized play, just as organized work is more interesting and effective than unorganized work. There are but few things that a large body of individuals can do as a unit. We recognize this in society and so break into groups for play, for work, and for worship; nor are we less democratic because we do so. We shall not lose the democratic spirit in our schools so long as we insist upon equal opportunities for everyone to develop his own particular bent and so long as we cultivate a spirit of mutual respect and regard among our various activities. The work of student organizations properly conducted gives vitaHty to a school. It has in it the spirit of progressive activity. It gives pupils opportunities for self-expression. It helps to connect the school days with later hfe, for the enlightenment of any community depends largely upon the virility and enterprise of its organizations, social, civic, educational, and rehgious. The school that fails to take advantage of the varied possi- bilities of student associations is neglecting one of the most forceful instru- mentaUties for effective education. THE HIGH SCHOOL ITSELF WILLIAM MC ANDREW, PRINCIPAL, WASHINGTON IRVING HIGH SCHOOL NEW YORK CITY, N.Y. Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: I recall the sensation made by an analytical youngster in our high school who announced that his question naturally divided itself into three parts: Firstly, what are we for; Secondly, why are we for it; and Thirdly, whether we are for it or not. Firstly, what are we for ? Six weeks ago, in order to get an up-to-date review, I addressed to the principals of high schools in the fifty largest Department] THE HIGH SCHOOL 45 1 cities in the country inquiries to which I received forty-five replies, repre- senting, it may be said, important public high schools of all parts of the country. In answer to the question, "What is your idea of the proper purpose of a pubic high school?" there is a diversity of opinion. Six principals answer " To fit for college " ; one adds, " This must be a secondary purpose." Of other purposes the following are nxentioned: Eighteen times is found "to fit for life or living." Under this head seven men mention "earning a living"; two, "the development of mind and hand"; three, "moral and ethical development"; three, "a training of as many powers as possible"; three call it "efiiciency"; three specify "the power to think"; one in- cludes health; one, culture; one, "power to work." Six times occurs the purpose "to meet the demands of the community." Two of these demands are listed as "citizenship," three as "social effi- ciency," three times are given the purpose "to do for older children what the elementary schools do for the younger." One says, "The high school should give the best possible education." Two say the purpose should be "to offer the conventional studies." Five principals give no answer to the question, one saying that he has not time to tell what a high school is for, and another that he "leaves the reply to younger and wiser heads." If, just as an assayer of ores tests a mine from samples, I may be per- mitted to draw conclusions from the replies of the forty-five gentlemen whose courtesy assisted me to prepare this paper, I would call attention to the large number of high-school principals who declare that the purpose of the public high school should be to prepare for life, or service, or efl5- ciency. Do you recall that the last time our Association met in this city, Dr. EHot's presidential address was upon the thesis that the product of edu- cation should be an efficient person ? He analyzed the educated man as to his abilities: to use his hands, to enjoy nature, to possess knowledge, to express himself, to imagine, to grow in character. The year before, President Cook had analyzed "a clearly conceived individuaHsm" as the purpose of schooling. The year previous. Presi- dent Beardshear chose the personal product as his theme; he showed what the educated man should be as to head, heart, and hand. At the meet- ing at Asbury Park, President Maxwell chose "Education for Efficiency" as his subject. He showed the need of health, of deft hands, of accurate observation, of correct reason'ng powers, clear comprehension, clean living, happy disposition, helpful desires, co-operation with others, knowledge of the world today. He expounded the new demand upon education to "fit for environment." Observe, please, that our forty-five sample high-school principals in- clude those who declare that the purpose of their schools should be to secure the efficient life. They include also those who think their busi- 452 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary ness should be merely to offer the conventional h'gh-school studies. They embrace also those who think college preparation is purpose enough, and those who have not time nor inc ination to formulate the object of a high school This is a diversity of purpose, is it not? But if you examine the means employed you will be struck by the remarkable uniformity of the courses of study. All of these forty-five schools offer the conventional studies — Latin, ancient history, a uniform list of Enghsh classics, algebra, physics, French, and German. In these forty-five scattered schools the only work listed by their principals as considered by them distinctive is: current events (in one school), psychology (in one), public speaking (in two schools), astronomy and geology (in three). The uniformity of things taught is impressive. So is the diversity of results aimed at. It is worth observing that all the presidential addresses to which I referred declare the purpose of education to be a personal product, the eflGicient man. It is notable that each address analyzes the efficient man into his virtues and says these should be the product of education, but it is most remarkable that we do not start with these virtues as our chief busi- ness and devise the best exercises we can invent or discover to produce the personal result we say we want. If you should say to me, "You are not so desirous of manhood as you are of algebra-manhood or Latin-manhood," I should have hard work to prove you wrong. If you should cla'm that the purpose of our high school is chiefly algebra and Latin and physics or portions thereof, I could not successfully contradict you. Would it be fair to formulate the situations Hke this: A clearly con- ceived individuahsm, the perfect head, heart, and hand, clean living, patriotic citizenship, personal efficiency, etc., are the purposes of high- school education which we have in view when we write a paper on educa- tion, while the conventional course of study is our main consideration when we are in the schoolhouse ? When I hear myself and other high-school men telhng the high-school teachers the different human efficiencies we are aiming at, all with the same course-of-study formula, it reminds me of Calkins' Compound, a mixture of rhubarb, turpentine, and some other things that a Michigan man dispensed over the counter of his drug store. If you wished relief from a cold, you got Calkins' Compound; if you felt feverish, he gave you Calkins' Compound. There could be nothing the matter with you that did not indicate Calkins' Compound. The druggist told his clerks, "I hope you understand that your main business is to sell 'em Calkins' Com- pound." Here, too, are these forty-five high-school principals, and probably a great many hundreds more administering to many different sorts of children; some of these schoolmasters think the greatest service is to fit their young- sters for another school; some that the power to think is^the chief deside- ratum, others that the strengthening of the moral nature is the main end Department) THE HIGH SCHOOL 453 in view, but their methods and material are all the same. And it is not greatly different from what it was when our only purpose was to inform the young mind with facts. James Sullivan has been studying the cur- ricula of the schools for young men in the fourteenth century. He is sure that any of those lads would feel quite at home in the course of study of the Brooklyn High School today. Some years ago a certain Michigan man having amassed a large fortune set out to build himself a house. On the banks of the Hudson River he had visited an imposing castle that appealed to him. His architects reproduced it for him. The Hudson River pile stood on the side of a* mountainous elevation surrounded by sharp crags, and by pointed cedars. Its towers, spires, and windows all responded to the suggestions of its surroundings. But the site our Michigan man chose for his mansion made with hands was a gently sloping meadow by the riverside amongst broad flat-topped trees. The new building was a disappointment. Its rooms and arrangement were not suited to the Michigan man's family. The whole thing was an expensive misfit. All the improvements attempted upon it seemed mere makeshifts. His project had not been based on any study of the location or of his own needs. Neither he nor his wide-awake western children could get satisfaction out of their antique imitation. The majority of the opinions I quoted to you as to the purpose of high- school instruction seem modern and progressive. How about the ancient architecture of our house? What was it built for? Not far from this spot nearly three hundred years ago the first American secondary school arose, in close imitation of the English institutions for the preparation of the sons of English gentlemen to enter the college which would make of them members of the learned professions. In the course of time on the same model with the same purpose similar secondary schools sprang up in America. Meantime on the broadest foundation with the most remarkable de- mocracy of purpose common schools arose and flourished. At length the communities were rich enough to carry upward for children of fourteen years of age and over, provision for education at public expense. There were hundreds of private schools for the youth of that age. The nation adopted them and imitated them. That's all. The old purpose was to fit for college, to give a conventional brand of schooling to a select few. But the only equitable purpose of tax-supported education is to educate everybody in any way that the people who are papng the bills want. Now if the old curriculum which was built for its narrow specific purpose is the best medium thru which to secure this broad democratic service, then we have a miracle. There does not exist in educational literature any analysis of the pur- poses of education which applies the test of fitness to subjects of the high- school course and compares them to other known departments of knowledge 454 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary not in the high-school course. There is no treatise establishing the fact that the high school has the best scheme for accomplishing its purpose. Why then do we find this remarkable agreement of subjects in the high schools ? Let our sample forty-five high-school men replying independently give the answer. "Do the requirements of colleges determine the procedure in your high school?" These are the answers: Yes 15 Yes; and it is desirable, or proper, or a good thing 5 Yes, too much, or we're going to break away; yes, to an unwarrant- able extent; yes, sorry to say 12 This makes: Who say "yes" 42 Who say " no " 3 On examining the courses of study of those who say "no" only one has a curriculum which differs at all from the curricula of some of the schools whose principals say that the colleges dominate their procedure. Knowing, therefore, that the public high schools were originally copied from a college annex, we find that 93 per cent, of them are confessedly dominated by the colleges now. But under their direction the colleges say we have not advanced; their problems are different from ours, they themselves "have no clear-cut notions of what education is," "vagueness of aim and lack of intellectual stamina" mark them.^ The college has given us the fixed curriculum. The subject, not the student, is their center. This gives us the depart- mental system of teaching with instructors who have speciaHzed upon a division of knowledge and know nothing of boyhood or manhood, which ought to be their chief concern. They teach the same limited portions of Latin they taught twenty-five years ago; their English classics are limited to an arbitrary list. This makes them dull and narrow companions. • They travel in a rut. They are able to interest and hold only a few children as compared with the total number in the community. The high school itself has now reached a place where indifference to its own problems, where reference of them to so unsuitable an authority as a college board, is inexcusable and base. It is dishonest for a high- school man to let the entire body of taxpayers support his school while he expends that money upon a course of study that engages only a small fraction of the children. It is dishonest for a high-school man to take the pubHc funds and fail to study the public wants and needs. It is inhuman for a high-school man to see the majority of the children in his district unattracted to the high school while he makes no effort to try new methods and new subjects to get them in. We have assumed that our duty ended ^ Harvard Report, 1905-6, p. 45; Cornell Report, 1906-7, p. 20; Carnegie Foundation, Second Annual Report, p. 28. Department] THE HIGH SCHOOL 455 with the management of such a high-school system as we are pleased to maintain. If hundreds of young persons in our district never desire to take the course, no blame of ours. This is as if a minister would care nothing for the sinners in his parish. We have been calling our high-school education a privilege for such as were willing to take it. We have repeat- edly driven out those whom we have rated as unfit, lazy, inattentive, poorly equipped, of low mentality, etc., etc.,' thru all the long Hst of our own miserable excuses for our failure to improve the people's children. Our high school itself as a secondary institution, its conventional rules and traditions have been of more importance than the intellectual and moral life of our community which hires us. We have driven away those who most need us. God knows a child of fourteen is not as well equipped for the service and enjoyment of Hfe as we can equip him if we turn our minds and hearts toward him and not toward scholastic bigots whose conception of a high-school teacher is that of a door- tender to a college hall. I am tired of the restrictions of an unproved curriculum. I am tired of being obhged to read the same books they read in South Hadley. My people want to talk about the big things of life, the latest books, the newest pictures, the extension of the suffrage, the conquest of the air, the aboHtion of war, the future of the repubUc. My girls want to study the social amenities that make life more pleasant and friendship more enjoyable, they want to know more about music than they do about algebra, more of present-day Italy than of ancient Rome. They want to get in 1910 something they can use in 191 1. And I ? I want to serve them. I don't care a picayune for the hor- rible nightmare they call the scansion of Latin verse, nor for the kind of useless pedant that sort of thing lets loose on hopeful expectant children. I want a company of wide-awake men and women concerned with sharpen- ing the wits, perfecting the tastes, poHshing the graces, improving the health, and strengthening the morals of the children of my district. I want our school to be free to pick from the whole field of learning and practice whatever kind of exercise these teachers can use to bring the children farther along from what they are to what they ought to be. Can't we have this absurd dogma that education runs in courses broken up ? In- stead of the conception of a high school as a place where courses of study are doled out, can't we run one on the theory that a high school is a resort of young persons of fourteen and upward who are to be assisted one year, two years, three, four, five, or six years to grow into the best kind of man or woman we can conceive ? What is the reason a high-school principal cannot require his teachers to let expertness in physics or chemistry give way to expertness in man- hood and womanhood? Instead of dividing high-school procedure into Latin, Greek, science, and history, why could I not divide it for actual classroom work as presidents of this Association divide it for pubHc ad- 456 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary dresses into health, muscular control, manual skill, morals, mental powers, observation, judgment, etc., oral expression, written expression, artistic expression, taste, courage, patriotism ? In other words, why niay we not make personal characteristics the direct purpose of high-school instruction instead of having them made prominent only in conventions ? Why must we confine education for efiiciency to the narrow means con- tained in even the broadest curriculum known in any American high school today ? Is it because the subjects in the curriculum are as effective for develop- ing the boy and girl to health, morals, courage, taste, and patriotism as a teacher would be who was required to devise and give exercises directed toward health, morals, courage, taste, and patriotism? No one has ever proved that the subjects in the high-school curriculum are the best selections for the education of children. Why may we not try any decent kind of exercise we can find anywhere: biography, current history, Latin literature that moves the heart, Greek prose and poetry that isn't befuddled with a lot of microscopic grammar, orchestra playing, physics that opens the wonder and dehght of science, geometry that lays hold on life and makes the mind a useful instrument in other problems than those of points and lines, conversation, manage- ment of schoolhouse and grounds, musical appreciation, acting, abstract- ing and cataloging books, caring for babies, serving school luncheons, magazine and novel reading, newspaper reporting, dairy-keeping, garden- ing, spending money, use of wood- and iron-working tools, elements of suc- cess in life, wage-earning processes and their financial rewards, making and care of clothes, human conduct, politics, receptions and festivals, beauti- fication of cities, anything that any inventive teacher can convince a prin- cipal is educative? Why, I ask, may we not try any avenue until per- chance we have some point of sympathy with the unschooled boy or girl whom now we abandon untrained by any regular application because our conventional assortment of keys does not unlock the door to his powers ? Are we afraid of experiment ? The path of medicine, surgery, engineer- ing, and business is strewn with discarded practices. Must we be the only ones to hang on to our "eternal verities"? Our present uniformity is scandalous. It means that either we are too lazy or too unintelligent to devise any solution of the problems of the day, but must get everything by imitation. Must the thousands employed in high-school faculties go thru life without even attempting to turn their minds toward the discovery of new paths of progress? To every engineer the world cries "invent," to every physician "discover"; to every high-school teacher custom and convention whisper, "Conform or get out"; and so we see our most virile and alert deserting us by hundreds. Aroimd us hover problems clamoring for answer; we see crime increas- Department] OPPORTUNITIES OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 457 ing, wedded loyalty renounced without a tear, literature and drama fes- tering with immorahty, city governments weltering in corruption, business in the vise-like grip of monopoly and special privilege, while we, in whose hands are the citizens to be, consider the character of these coming men and women as a possible by-product or neglect it altogether. What would I propose? Exactly what any intelligent father would do for his children. Set out to find the best that can be done for them, for them, not for the course of study. "Ho, schoolmaster, here's a boy. Help him grow to be a man." If you can do it with algebra, hurrah for you, but don't feel tied to Cal- kins' Compound. If you can't improve him by conventional studies, find cut what you can reach him with and add them to your list of specifics. That's what you are for, not for uniformity or system or the conservation of tradition, but for the children of fourteen years of age and upward, all of them, good and bad, who respect you or who laugh at you, who mind you or who disobey. For you are a citizen of no mean city bounded by a row of college elms, but the guardian of the future of a band of living souls. THE OPPORTUNITIES OF THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL C. p. GARY, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS. The opportunity to address the high-school section of the National Education Association is a privilege and an honor that I keenly appreciate. From the standpoint of one whose interests and work are coextensive with the entire field of public education, permit me to say, without flattery or exaggeration, that I believe the American high school is destined to be our greatest democratic educational institution. It is even now scarcely beyond its infancy. The outlook for the future puts to the test the imagi- nation of the most gifted. The college and university are splendid demo- cratic institutions; nevertheless, an attendance of four years at college is expensive both as to time and money and is steadily growing more costly. Opportunities for the student to earn his way thru college are decreasing, at least relatively. Unless there are great and unforeseen economic changes college education will soon be largely a luxury for the well-to-do and the rich. Elementary education brings all classes together, it is true, but only for the rudiments of an education and at a period when the pupils are children, or but Uttle beyond. The high school, however, is a local institution where rich and poor, high and low, mingle in a homo- geneous group. All are measured by the same standard of excellence, and that standard is one of merit and not of circumstances or external conditions. The education received in the high school will soon be a fair substitute for college training. It is the people's college. But recently I spent a half-day in a high school that cost, equipment, 458 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary building, and grounds together, a million dollars. It was sanitary enough for a sanitarium of the highest grade. The air that was furnished the pupils was measured as to quantity, was washed by forcing it thru water, and was graduated as to moisture. The equipment for science work was such as would have been a source of pride to any college. So far as build- ings and equipment go, it is marvelous, but tomorrow it will be surpassed. The modern high school at its best is a splendid institution of learning and it is adapted to the needs of the masses. It deals with pupils at the age when they are forming the ideals, acquiring the intellectual habits and the physical co-ordinations that will be theirs thru Hfe. Nowhere else, perhaps, do we need teachers with such infinite tact, such genuine enthusiasm, such big-heartedness, such a grip upon real Hfe, and such optimism for the future. This for the reason that in such a school the students' lives and characters are taking shape as never before and never after. Its course of study is almost indefinitely extensible. It may readily be extended down- ward two years, or upward two years. Truly, the high school has a great opportunity and a great future — unless the high-school men and women sell their birthright. There are, however, hindrances of a grave and serious kind to the proper development of the high school. The one that impresses itself upon me most constantly and most forcefully is the unnecessary and inex- cusable one of college domination. The colleges with their narrow and false ideals of culture, their unwillingness to recognize the educational value of subjects that possess direct utihty, their insistence upon college and university methods in secondary education, their insistence that graduates of their own, particularly those who have specialized in a high degree and whose interests are in the subjects rather than in the students they teach, shall fill the teaching positions, have molded high-school edu- cation, so far as they were able, into a thing of narrowness instead of breadth, into a thing of relative uselessness instead of large usefulness, and have thus dominated to a degree that has become in many states of the Union an intolerable impertinence. The first requisite for the proper development of the high schools of the country is adequate freedom. High-school men of far-sightedness and determination must fight this battle to a finish. To do less than this is, in my opinion, inexcusable. The colleges of the country have no more right to dominate the high schools than the high schools have to dominate the colleges. It is the business of the high school to study the deepest and most genuine needs of its pupils and to furnish the kind of instruction and training necessary to meet these needs in the most direct and efficient manner possible. The high-school men and women are on the ground, they know what is, needed. They may get excellent help and suggestions from the colleges and universities, but those who are directly responsible for the management of the high schools should accept or reject such sug- Department] OPPORTUNITIES OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 459 gestions in a perfectly free and independent manner. Anything less than this is, to speak frankly, beneath their dignity. Many high schools in their desperation are drawing a line of cleavage between those who are fitting for college and those who are not. They are establishing prepara- tory academies within the high school itself. This is foreign to the spirit of the high school. It is undemocratic. It is wasteful of time and energy, and, furthermore, it is entirely unnecesj>ary. That the course of study so pursued is ordinarily not the best adapted to the pupils who are forced to take the course under penalty of not getting into college would, I believe, be the consensus of judgment of the great majority of those who have made a comprehensive and thoro study of adolescent Hfe, its interests, capacities, and needs. A second difficulty the high school experiences is the selection of suit- able teachers. The difficulty is to find in sufficient abundance men and women possessed of the splendid natural quahfications necessary for a high-school teacher, together with broad and generous equipment in edu- cation and training, for the salaries that even the best high schools are able to pay. Many of our best high-school teachers teach for the love of the work while recognizing the inadequacy of the compensation. The high school is in danger, on the one hand, of securing teachers with insuffi- cient preparation, or, on the other, of securing men and women who have specialized to such a degree that they have lost interest in everything but the subject, and their minds are out of focus with reference to the subject itself. They look at their subject thru a microscope and endeavor to get their pupils to see it thru a microscope, when by looking with the naked eye they might perceive the thing in all the beauty and wealth of relation- ships to other things and at the same time in sufficient detail to satisfy the needs of the young student. We can well afford to dispense with a high degree of specialization if by so doing we can secure teachers thru whom the great currents of humanity flow unimpeded and who are splendid exponents of the finest things in modern civilization. The most sagacious high-school principals today are seeking for teachers in whom personality is strong and sane and balanced and who have warm, five, human interests and can bring to the school some element of strength in addition to that which is their daily stint of instruction. It may be that the teacher has athletic interests and ability, or musical interests and ability, or the capa- city to organize the students into societies that will aid in training for citi- zenship. Many high-school principals are today seeking teachers who have had experience in elementary schools for the reason that they often seem to adapt themselves to the needs of high-school pupils better than those who come down from the mountain heights of the seminary and university research. A third difficulty is in the pupils, or perhaps one should say in the spirit of the times. It is manifest in Hstlessness, inattention, low ideals 46 D NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary as to thoroness and accuracy, lack of intellectual snap and verve. I recently sat thru a class exercise in a high school that is famous thruout the United States, and listened to the give-and-take of a recitation con- ducted by a man of mature years and fine teaching ability. He was deal- ing with a subject that was of intense interest to me and of such a nature that I can scarcely understand how young people could have failed to be interested. Yet probably at no time was half the class attending with more than one ear, and several members were chewing gum and occasion- ally communicating with those near them about matters that did not per- tain to the lesson. When pupils were called upon they made a stab at the answer. Their replies were usually incorrect and yet I think it caused them little, if any, embarrassment. Humiliation at failure rarely seems to be the attitude of the high-school student. He seems to take failure as a matter of course. Indeed, I am not sure but that the college student's attitude of distinct disapproval of anything approaching earnestness or enthusiasm in study on the part of any members of the class has reached and permeated the majority of our high schools. Such unpleasant epithets as grind, shark, and the like are hurled at the earnest high-school student as they are at the earnest college student; but all this is deeper seated than the school itself. As a nation we are a slap-dash, hit-or-miss people as compared, for instance, with the Germans. As a people we lack capacity for taking pains and we have an amazing self-complacency. The typical American child is quick, keen, alert, but shallow, lacking in self-control and thoroness. He accomplishes much after a fashion, but what he does is slipshod and lacks precision. He almost knows a lot of valuable things, but falls short at the critical point. There is a supplementary cause for this state of affairs in connection with the high school, and that is that the colleges have demanded so much of the high school that the best it can do is to give a smattering — the shadow of knowledge, but not its substance. The high school has also, because of its relation to the colleges, come to ape, to its detriment, many college ways. Perhaps the worst example is that of secret societies within the high school. The high school should by all means be made thoroly democratic. Those in authority should effect- ively insist on simplicity of dress, should root out all clannishness, and the clique spirit, and should train all to love justice, equality, and fair play. The ends of the school are social ends. The school is intended to fit the individual to perform his part in the social whole. The moral aspect of the high school presents difficulties of a profound and serious nature. The high school should distinctly be an instrument of social progress, but this it cannot be unless it learns the art of developing ideals that have a controlling force in the lives of its students. At present the school, to a large degree, lacks motivation. The school life is not connected in the life of the pupil, in any vital sense, with what has been or what is to be in his experience. The work thus suffers from isolation, whereas it should II Department] OPPORTUNITIES OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 461 use every atom of valuable experience that the child has undergone and it should be related intimately to the life the pupil is to live in society. In this way only can the high school be made thoroly moral and truly valuable. The needs of the high school are many if it is to reach the full measure of its greatness. As before remarked, it must have freedom as the essen- tial condition of growth. It will then, J believe, expand in the same gen- eral way that the university has expanded, guided and limited only by the needs and the financial ability of the community supporting it. There is no reason to suppose that ultimately every vitally important industry of the community will not bft represented, in its fundamentals, at least, in the high school, and I trust the time will come when every student will by compulsion, if not by choice, carry two lines of work, one academic, the other industrial. The industrial phase need not occupy more than a quarter of the time, but it should be a part of the curriculum of every student for the sake of its physical effect, for the sake of its mental effect, and for the sake of its moral or social effect. The school must do its share, and that a large share, in teaching the rising generation to work and to take pride in work that is well done. No better opportunities can be found than in this connection, to teach lessons of economy as against extravagance, the dignity of labor as against the parasitism of idleness. A heavy respon- sibility rests upon the high school, and the burden will grow heavier, as time goes on, for the physical welfare of its pupils. Industrial training, gymnastics, athletics, play, are already banking large in the minds of those who view, their duties toward the school most intelligently. Sanitation and hygiene in all their aspects are rapidly becoming matters of the great- est solicitation and for the most expert advice. That the needs are now great, we have a practical illustration in the fact that a third or more of the girls in one of our great coeducational universities have serious spinal curvature for which, doubtless, the lower schools are largely responsible. In the same university it has been shown that boys that come from the farm are larger and stronger than the boys who have grown up even in small cities and villages. There is probably good authority for saying that at least 25 per cent, of the students who drop out of high school do so be- cause of ill health or physical defects. Biology tells us that the vital organs have in the course of evolution developed in response to the needs of the muscular system thru which the animal acted upon its environment, both offensively and defensively. If this is the natural history of the vital organs of the human body, as it doubtless is, we can readily understand that the disuse of the muscular system which is coming about in modern civilization will, if permitted to do so, result in a reverse process of degeneration and atrophy of the vital organs. We must promptly set about it to preserve for the human race good physique, good digestion, and sound health. The vital organs and nervous system must be so co-ordinated that the outcome is grace, the poetry of motion. 462 NATIONAL EDUCATIONf ASSOCIATION [Secondary In the JFuture, as never before, the high school must aid pupils in finding out what they are good for. To fail to do this thru ignorance or negligence will be to fall short of a vital duty to the individual and to society. Thus far the school has largely tried to answer the question whether the child is adapted to the academic and professional life. This will always be an important question, but henceforth it will be only one of many. My time is too limited to do more than touch upon a few of the more important phases of the high-school question. I wish to make a final suggestion. An unparalleled opportunity lies immediately before you. If you are to meet this situation in a large and compreherfsive way you must, I believe, take counsel, not of the colleges and universities, but of those who broadly comprehend the general welfare of society. I advocate no narrow, cramp- ing, utilitarian scheme, but one that appeals to all that is found best and most worthy in each and every child that passes within the portals of the high school. The teachers who meet him there must be free to give him that which will best develop him; and when this is done and he wants to go to college he must be granted the privilege. The best and wisest course of study for him in the high school is the best preparation for college. What this course is the high-school faculty and the pupil should know if anybody knows. The college knows the child only as an abstraction and cannot possibly prescribe for him except on an absent-treatment basis. DISCUSSION Harry P. Swett, principal of high school, Franklin, N.H.— Our educational system must be regarded as a unit. In endeavoring to strengthen the position of the high school, we should not allow it to be alienated from any part of the system whether above or below. The high school is asserting itself thruout the country, but, at the same time, the colleges are looking to the high schools and are asking the teachers in them what changes they desire as to college-entrance requirements. The answer is too often indefinite and uncer- tain. If we teachers will have a definite reply, the colleges will certainly heed it. Dr. Harris has said that much cannot be expected from a study until its subject- matter has been reduced to pedagogic form. We cannot hope to gain acceptance for any subject before it has attained such form. I have this one suggestion only: if the high-school teachers will introduce studies and systematize them so that they can be defended in the face of any opposition, and if the claims of these studies are then clearly presented to the colleges, the latter will gladly accept them in their entrance requirements. Of this there is no doubt. PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON COSMOPOLI- TAN HIGH SCHOOL SPENCER R. SMITH, PRINCIPAL, WENDELL PHILLIPS HIGH SCHOOL CHICAGO, ILL., CHAIRMAN The commission appointed in concurrence with the resolution adopted by the Secondary Education Department at the Cleveland meeting of the National Education Association begs to submit herewith a preliminary report. Department] REPORT ON COSMOPOLITAN HIGH SCHOOL 463 The functions of the commission are defined by the resolution, as follows: Resolved, That a commission of seven be named by the Department of Secondary Education to make a study of the conditions surrounding our city high schools with a view to the development of a rational system of constants, the reorganization of the electives on the basis of study value, and the preparation of a curriculum that may be considered basal in the organization of a system of study foj: the cosmopolitan high school. Further, That this commission co-operate with a similar committee from the Depart- ment of Technical Education and with such other bodies as may be interested in the work of secondary schools. And, further. That this commission be herewith empowered to invite the co-operation of other organizations thru invitation to appoint committees of conference. It is the aim of the commission to make a thoro study of the present status of conditions environing our cosmopolitan high schools, and, when these have been properly collated, to base recommendations thereon with the view to developing a curriculum in which the proper emphasis will be placed upon the value of the respective subjects taught and their proper place in a given course of study, several such courses being organized, so that the whole curriculum may be so varied and flexible as to meet the social and economic needs of the constituents of the schools. The chairman of the commission sent to the several members a proposed program of study for a cosmopolitan high-school curriculum, asking for emendations. Many valuable suggestions have been received. These suggestions have been incorporated in the program of study herewith sub- mitted. Later the work will be divided among the membership, a question- naire prepared to be sent to the several principals for answers, conferences arranged with bodies interested in similar economic and social questions, and, in short, all the machinery set in action necessary to complete in a satisfactory manner the work undertaken. You are asked to consider briefly an outline of the plan of the commission with such suggestions as it may seem wise to offer at this time in furtherance of such plan. The high school is a social institution. As such the high school influences and is influenced by other social institutions. It is a vital factor in society. It has been handicapped by tradition and is in danger of foreign invasion. The problem is ours. How shall we solve it ? This study is an attempt at a solution and its success will depend much upon the enthusiastic support of high-school principals and teachers thruout the country. Dr. Dewey of Columbia University, Dean Davenport of the University of Illinois, Professor Bolton of the University of Iowa, and others have pronounced for the wider high school, against the divorcement of the tech- nical or commercial high school from the old academic high school, for equal rights for all the youth of our land to all the facilities secondary education is willing to offer. To this end it is intended to study: 464 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary I. The plant and its maintenance. a) Comparative cost of building high schools: academic, technical and manual- training, commercial, combined. h) Comparative cost of equipment of high schools: academic, technical and manual-training, commercial, combined. c) Comparative cost of repair of high schools: academic, technical and manual- training, commercial, combined. d) Comparative cost of teachers in high schools: academic, technical and manual- training, commercial, combined. II. Organization. a) Teachers: how appointed, sex, salary, and social standing, treatment of the inelBficient. h) Pupils (thruout this report the number by sex is desired) : 1. Number in the city between fourteen and twenty-one years of age; number of these in school, public or private, by grades and age; number in private and public institutions, in hospitals, or out of school on account of ill health; number at work in factory, store, office, at home. Reason for working, training therefor, remuneration; attendance upon school out of working hours. 2. Comparison of enrollment in high school by years with theoretical number that ought to attend, from 1900 to 19 10. The same study may be made of the seventh and the eighth grades as a preparation for later comparison. 3. Comparison of number graduated from the eighth grade and those that entered the ninth grade, 1900 to 1910. Same for graduation from the seventh to the eighth grade. Comparison of graduates with non-graduates as above (for a given number of years). a) How many pupils entered your school in September, 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903, 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909? b) How many pupils graduated in 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909, 19 10? How many pupils in the second and third year respectively in June, 19 10 ? c) Causes of habitual absence: i) Physical condition. 2) Economic condition. 3) Distance from school. 4) Scholarship. 5) Age. 6) Grade. d) Members leaving school or discharged without graduation during the ten years above indicated. e) Relation of elimination of pupils to : i) Regular attendance. 2) Need to go to work. 3) Change of schools. 4) Overage. c) The pupil and the curriculum. 1. Number pursuing different high-school subjects offered in first, second, third, and fourth years, for the year ending June, 19 10. 2. Number gaining certain standings in such subjects. 100-90; 89-75; 74- 70; 69-50; 49-0. Indicate by semesters — first and second for same year. 3. Passing-mark of school reporting. 4. Percentage of failure in subjects pursued. 5. Msthod of promotion. Number of promotions February, 1910. Rela- tion of promotion to membership (not enrollment) June, 19 10. Department] REPORT ON COSMOPOLITAN HIGH SCHOOL 465 6. Intensity of study — number pursuing complete courses in Latin, mathe- matics, history, commerce, manual training, household arts, June, 19 10. In report indicate number of years offered. 7. Habit of failure. What proportion of those failing in subjects as indicated above has taken the subject a second time or has failed in other sub- jects? (Considering failures it is noted that "those who are making reasonable progress in a study but discontinue it for good and sufficient reasons — and those who drop out 6f school for reasons other than scholarship should not be reckoned as failures." The latter are provided for under elimination.) 8. What means do you employ to keep your pupils in school ? III. Relation of parent to pupil: effect on pupil and curriculum. a) Nationality of the parents of the pupils in the high schools compared with the nationality of those of the same age not in the high schools. To be gotten from reports of Immigration Bureau, school census, etc. h) Occupations of the parents of the pupils in high school. IV. What means do you employ by way of medical inspection to prevent elimination of pupils or to promote survival ? V. High school and college. a) Number prepared for college, higher, technical, and normal schools, 1900-19 10. h) Related negatively is the suggestion that a study be made of the activities pursued by high-school graduates who do not continue their studies formally beyond the high-school. May it not be possible for several principals to gather information on this subject ? c) College influence. 1. To what degree is the course of study based on what colleges want? 2. To what degree is it based on consideration of capacities and needs of children ? 3. To what degree is college domination evil? To what degree good? 4. To this end a comparative study of the changes in college requirement and the high-school curriculum is suggested. d) Examination system. e) Certificate system. VI. High-school control: state, county, city — standardization. VII. Self-directed work, social and cultural. A mode of development of responsibility. VIII. Study values. a) Constants, basis of selection. h) Elective subjects, or c) Elective groups so arranged as to meet the demands of environment and choice. This study naturally brings one to a consideration of the curriculum. When the above data have been collected, there follows the task of develop- ing a curriculum for these schools that shall meet the demands of the varied constituency of the city high school. It is the purpose of the commission to send a questionnaire based on this report to all cities of a size to warrant two high schools, the inference being that in all other cities the cosmopolitan high-school curriculum will be found, or at least that the conditions found in our large cities will not be found therein and that therefore the local demand will be more apt to be met. In addition to the work outlined above it is the hope of the commission to fulfill the further instructions of the resolution by co-operation with a 466 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary similar committee from the Department of Technical Education and with all other bodies interested either socially or economically in the work of the secondary schools. From the Immigration Bureau, the National Child Labor Committee, the Bureau of Labor, the Bureau of Education, and the Bureau of Municipal Research of New York we shall seek advice and information. In all we shall bear in mind what Mr. McAndrew of the commission wrote to the chairman in February: I. The public high school is the natural resort of children thirteen and fourteen years of age and upward. ^. Its duty is to give the best kind of service to those children. 3. What the nature of this service is may be safely left to their parents as reported by public-education committees, clubs, etc., presenting suggestions to boards of education. 4. The persons employed as teachers and principals of high schools erred in prefer- ring allegiance to a conventional line of procedure established by college examination boards and others but only secondarily planned for service to the children of the com- munity. In behalf of the commission, Respectfully submitted, Spencer R. Smith, Chairman THE PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF SCIENCE IN SECONDARY EDUCATION /. THE PEDAGOGICAL VIEWPOINT WILLIAM R. HART, PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, MASSACHU- SETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASS. Instruction in scientific knowledge has two motives. These motives are quite distinct and can be rather clearly defined. One of these motives is commonly spoken of as practical or applied. This motive for the study of science is clearly indicated in the statement of the topic of this program. The statement of the topic carries a pretty clear implication also that the study of science has a non-practical aspect. That is to say, we study science with reference to the applications we intend to make of the knowledge, or we study it for the sake of the knowledge as a possession and for its own sake with no intention of applying the knowledge in our specific vocation. Each of these aspects of science study has its pedagogical viewpoint. Most teachers of science during the past thirty or forty years have been so absorbed in the fascinating hunt for facts, and the proofs for other facts, that they were hardly aware that lying alongside of the science of facts is' the science of teaching those facts. When one of these devotees has occa- sionally risen from his microscope or put aside his test tubes long enough to make an utterance on the subject of method, his creed is very brief and to himself perfectly clear. Reduced to untechnical terms it says, "Apply the Department) THE PEDAGOGICAL VIEWPOINT 467 sense organs to the facts and let the mind do the rest." This is a comfort- able doctrine. It puts the responsibility upon the learner, where the teacher of "science for science's sake" thinks it belongs. This makes it easy of acceptance. The more or less unconscious acceptance of this simple creed accounts in large measure for the collapse of "object of teaching" a generation ago, for the drooping of nature study today, and for the waning interest in secondary science in recent years. The easy-going doctrine that if the facts are once lodged in the mind, the mind will take care of them is a fruitful source of trouble; more so in science teaching than in almost any other field. The doctrine assumes that the mind is always in a receptive mood for this or that class of facts which the teacher finds it convenient to present, or that come next in the textbook arrangement of material. The mere incident that one fact is related to another is no guaranty that the mind will make the proper use of the one merely because it may be in possession of the other. Nearly all that has been said on the subject of apperception has been a sort of striving to show that the incidental connection of facts is not the true warrant for their being presented in sequence, or even in con- junction. The real warrant for presenting to the mind of the learner a group of facts lies in the mind itself. The systematized text in a specialized science must, for purely practical reasons, disregard the laws of acquisition and arrange the matter logically. The highly trained specialist uncon- sciously thinks of his field of facts as being logically arranged. He sees the field from the standpoint of achievement and possession rather than from the standpoint of acquisition. In many cases, perhaps in most, this mental attitude renders him an indifferent, if not a poor, teacher of those who are still in the earlier stages of acquisition. His sense of the use or application of the knowledge has been in large measure submerged in his vision of laws, principles, and relationships. Not a few of us have felt a surge of impatience at the oft-recurring question, "What is the use of it ?" No doubt many of us have tried to justify our procedure on other than merely useful grounds, or have resorted to the argument that the principles and laws are the only really useful things about a subject. This is a valid statement as among ourselves, but it is unfair to the immature mind, because it silences rather than satisfies the inquiry. This brings us to the threshold of the problem of the order of presenta- tion, whether it shall be logical or psychological ; whether it shall be system- atic or, as some would say, haphazard; whether it shall be thru principles to their application or thru applications and concrete cases to principles. The general arrangement of the program for this session raises the whole question of correlation. Correlation has been discussed hitherto largely by the administrators of educational machinery and professional educationists. It seems a good omen that the problem of correlation is coming to be dealt with by those interested in the teaching of science as well as by those more especially interested in the science and art of teaching. 468 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary The grand divisions of the field of science as well as the increasing im- portance of the chief subdivisions tend more and more to make correlation a persistent problem for pedagogy. The more especially is this true be- cause of the growth in magnitude of some of the aspects of a number of the subdivisions under such names as economic entomology, soil physics, domestic science, and the like. Such a title as economical entomology, by the way, prompts the inquiry as to whether or not the solution of the vexed problem of correlation may not lie in the domain of applied science rather than in the field of pure pedagogy or of pure science. If it should turn out so, then correlation is more a problem for sociology than for either pedagogy or science. The mere pro- posal raises a strong presumption that no complete solution of correlation is attainable without considering the testimony and claims of sociology; without pressing the inquiry too far, some considerations seem pertinent in this connection. These may be presented in the form of questions. Is it unfair to say that most of the attempts looking toward the corre- lation of subjects have sought their basis in relations which exist in the subjects themselves ? Have we not tried to tie up history with geography because of the mere incident that an event in time had to happen somewhere in space ? Have we not tried to correlate nature work and reading simply because someone had written something interesting about natural phe- nomena? All schemes for the correlation of studies will be more or less futile which find their only justification in the fact that the subjects cor- related occasionally occupy the same or contiguous territory. This is true whether the correlation is attempted by the educationist or by the scientist. Such a process instead of being a vital correlation is merely putting together in an artificial way parts of subjects which had been artificially pulled asun- der in the process of building up groups of knowledge. To merge the study of history with civics in the name of correlation is a barren subterfuge. All important civic ideas are merely institutionalized facts of history. They have little or no meaning outside of their historical setting and atmosphere. Let us look a little farther into the pedagogical significance of economic or applied entomology. The name is highly suggestive. Here we have an aspect of insect life, differentiated from the field of zoology. As a science, entomology concerned only with problems peculiar to itself is capable of indefinite development. But as soon as you designate it "economic," a number of new suggestions are forced upon us. Economic entomology is a term which relates the science to man in his organized fellowships. It can do this only on account of man's dependence upon the plant world for sustenance, shelter, and clothing, and of his efforts to protect himself from disease. The whole cyclopedia of facts about the life-histories of all the insects in the world, with all their habits and modes of existence, is of little moment either for mental discipline or humanizing culture, if it were not for the fact Department] THE PEDAGOGICAL VIEWPOINT 469 that at certain points the circle of knowledge about insects becomes involved in man's welfare, if not in his very existence. Botany, like entomology, when concerned with problems peculiar to itself is capable of an indefinite development. Thus may these two important divisions of biology pro- ceed in the accumulation of facts and the demonstration of principles in constantly divergent lines, till human organization becomes involved. When entomology becomes involved in human welfare it is economic. From the standpoint of parasites it is plant pathology and human medicine. From the standpoint of cross fertilization it is plant physiology. How inti- mate is the entanglement is due to the human interest injected into the matter. Is it not possible that economic entomology is a common meeting-ground where the entomologist, the botanist, and the horticulturist may join hands ? Is not soil physics a common ground for the geologist, the physicist, and the chemist ? Is not what has come to be known as agricultural chemistry a good meeting-place for the chemist and the biologist ? Is it not in these three fields and others of like nature where the men of many sciences must strike hands with each other and with the common man who needs the knowledge as a means of lightening the burden of his daily tasks ? Is it not possible that herein is both the justification and solution for correlation — the application of knowledge to the supplying of human needs ? A not too dogmatic pedagogy will recognize in this a basis for interest which is social rather than individual in its scope — an interest that has more of the elements of permanent vitality and less of transitory curiosity. It is a sort of interest that grows out of man's relation to his fellow-men as well as his relation to the world of things. Interest from this viewpoint is socio- logical because of the use the individual may make of the knowledge as a serviceable unit in society. Interest is a powerful stimulus to learning. It should be created when it seems to be wanting. It should be stimulated wherever found. It implies a much more serious attitude than curiosity. Curiosity may strike the attention momentarily, but interest absorbs the entire mind. Nature is full of interesting things. Some of them excite our curiosity and fill us with astonishment. Others both stimulate interest within us and possess an abiding interest for us. It is a more or less curious fact that insects have six legs ; that some have two pairs of wings ; that the wings of some are shaped and colored for what we have called protection; that some pass thru the winged period of their existence without nourishment; that some are dependent upon a watery environment for part of the life-cycle and upon atmospheric environment for the remainder; that some lead a hermit life, while others live in organized colonies, and still others appear to have no fixed habitation; that in some cases quite elaborate preparations are made for the deposit of eggs, in other cases eggs are deposited only in places best adapted for the nourishment of 470 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary the young, and that still others deposit their eggs with no apparent reference to the continuation of the species; that the more elaborate the preparation for the deposit of eggs the lower is the probable death-rate among the progeny; that the young of some are nurtured and protected with a sort of family solicitude, while the young of others are left to shift for themselves and fulfill the function of their part of the life-cycle more by a lucky chance than by a prearranged design. Now, however curious and however interesting to the advanced student in his search for the laws of life, and however vast the body of knowledge that has been accumulated about insects under the foregoing heads, if it were all swept away in the night it might be missed from the sum-total of human knowledge, but human and social interests would scarcely feel the loss. If, however, the loss of such knowledge as is indicated in the fore- going paragraph should carry with it the knowledge of such facts as that some insects feed by sucking the juice from the body of a plant, that others feed by eating the tissue, that some feed only from the under side of leaves, that others deposit their eggs about the stem in such a way as to become incased in the growing fruit, that some do their feeding in the larval stage while others feed during both the larval and the winged stage, that the feed- ing activities of some are the sole means of preserving certain species of plant life, and of giving greater vitality to other plants by cross fertilization — ^if a knowledge of these facts that relate to the food and feeding-habits of insect life were lost, civilized man would soon be driven from the cultivated field as a source of his own sustenance. Thus does a group of facts, in a unique way, relate the study of a subdivision of zoology with sociology. The method of feeding on the part of insects has controlled in large measure the science of man's warfare with his insect enemies. Insecticides are chemical in their make-up. In the mode of applying them the process is physical. In their action they are physiological. In their aim and result they are economic and therefore sociological. Man's fight with insect life makes entomology a factor in economics. Wanting in this, it will puzzle the best of entomologists to tell what the vast store of insect lore is worth. Wanting in this sociological or economic element, it will try him sorely to justify its study, except by those interested in the study of life in the ab- stract rather than in human life. Having this economic factor the study justifies itself without the aid of the nature-study enthusiast, or the scien- tific specialist. The application of such knowledge is so varied that it appeals to interests which are almost universal. To the tiller of the soil economic entomology renders agriculture scientific and more profitable. To the town improve- ment league it becomes a willing handmaid in the art of beautifying streets and parks. To the grower of fruits, a knowledge of this branch of ento- mology is as essential as a knowledge of the plants or trees he cultivates. Without further elaboration, I wish to raise the question right here, as to Department] THE PEDAGOGICAL VIEWPOINT 471 the place and method of beginning the study of such a subject as entomology. Should it proceed from the economic to the scientific aspect or from the scientific to the economic ? Should it start from the interest society has in the application of the knowledge, or from the vantage ground of the scientist enthusiastic for systematized knowledge ? I wish to raise this question in the name both of good pedagogy and of good science. I wish also to raise it, not merely with reference to entomology, but with reference to all branches of science that have such a direct bearing on the vocational aspect of a people's life. We frequently hear the work of a chemist like Liebig extolled on account of the light his work has thrown upon the processes of scientific agriculture. In the next breath we hear expressions of regret or astonishment at the fact that a boy in the high school or college doesn't burn with enthusiasm over his set problems in chemistry. We read of some achievement of Edison or Marconi and stupidly wonder why students in physics lack interest in the subject. We learn of the victory of Pasteur or Koch and wonder why biology isn't more popular than Latin. We have been so intent upon the teaching of science that we have about lost the art of teaching the mind. Chemistry as a pure science doesn't need to bother with fertilizers. Physics as a science doesn't need to concern itself with sandy or clay soils. Biology as a science can get along without giving much attention to steril- ized milk. But fertilizers, soils, and milk are socialized forms of matter. They are intimately related to human welfare. It is therefore legitimate to look to the science of chemistry for whatever light it may throw upon the source, composition, and character of fertilizers, to the science of physics for aid in the solution of problems for the use of soils, and to the science of biology for whatever aid it may give in securing pure milk. This viewpoint makes fertilizers, soils, and milk the motive for going to chemistry, physics, and biology for solutions to the problems raised in connection with these several substances. Stated in another way, this makes servants of the sciences whose most important duty is the answering of questions. Science can never answer questions which are not clearly formulated in the mind of the learner. There can be no question framed which does not grow out of an experience of a difficulty, or of a clearly conceived situation. When a student has to deal with a difficulty which can be resolved by the application of some scientific principle, he is then in the only true state of mind for a study of this or that science which will throw light upon the difficulty. In this way the search for principles has a motive which is immediate and practical. In this way the truths of a science are vitalized as soon as learned because they fit a situation rather than a scheme of classification. The formal standardized performances required in the name of experi- ments in chemistry and physics are supposed to introduce the young student to the elementary principles of these sciences. Is he or is he not better 472 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary educated after these have been done than he would be if he had been con- fronted with even half as many real situations involving scientific truths for their solution even tho he may have only a one-sided view of the few prin- ciples, and only a partial solution of his difficulty ? When the foregoing is reduced to its lowest terms it may be stated in the old formula — the concrete before the abstract. But the concrete here con- tended for is not merely the objective or sensible. It is the economic, the sociological; in other words, the vocational. It is my belief that modifica- tions of secondary science along these lines will result in a wider dissemina- tion of scientific knowledge, and consequently an increasing number who will enter with zeal the higher realms of scientific learning. II. THE SCIENTIFIC VIEWPOINT W. J. v. OSTERHAUT, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. {Synopsis) Science in the secondary schools may be greatly improved in the follow- ing respects by the introduction of the right kind of material dealing directly with the pupil's daily experience: First. — The teacher with a mere book knowledge of the subject will be unable to handle such material and must in consequence secure better preparation or cease to teach the subject. Second. — Nothing can operate more effectively to do away with mere memory work and undue reverence for book authority than the appeal to the pupil's daily experience. Third. — The pupil who has become interested in the principles of science as illus- trated in everyday affairs will continue to think of them after he leaves the schoolroom for the day. And he may be shown how to put questions to nature with very simple means outside the laboratory, provided his conclusions are afterward reviewed in a sym- pathetic spirit by the teacher. Fourth. — Correlation of the different sciences is in general best effected by applying them to some interesting problem growing out of the pupil's experience. For example, in the growing of plants and the study of the soil all the natural sciences are involved in an elementary way. Fifth. — A very elementary study of the principles underlying certain subjects (such as sanitation) will do much to insure enlightened pubUc sentiment in these matters. A. PHYSICS WILLIAM ORR, DEPUTY STATE COMMISSIONER OE EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. During the last two decades the principal methods employed in the teach- ing of secondary-school physics have become established and standardized. No course in this subject today is considered effective unless it includes both quantitative and qualitative laboratory exercises, demonstrations with reg- ular apparatus by the instructor, with collateral reading in both textbooks and general books of reference. There has also been established a balance of proportion in the time-allotment given to each particular mode of in- struction. Corrections are also being made where excessive quantitative Department] PHYSICS 473 requirements, and the formal demands of college-admission definitions have interfered with the proper presentation of the subject of physics in the work of the secondary school. With this ground gained, and these modes of ap- proach fully settled, there still remain two results to be secured, and these two objectives are now clearly in sight. First, it is desirable to arouse and maintain interest by bringing into the study many illustrations drawn from outside the schoolroom, whereby application can be made of the principles of science in the daily life and ex- perience of the pupil. It has been found helpful, from the pedagogical standpoint, to approach the discussion of generalizations thru concrete illus- trations. Members of a class, for instance, may secure data in regard to water-pressure in different points of a city system, study the situation of the aqueduct and reservoir, and from this material acquire the general prin- ciples of hydrostatics. One result of such a method will be a certain differentiation of physics as taught in different schools. When a proper value is once placed upon the illustration found in the vicinity, the classroom methods will necessarily undergo modifications. Topics well illustrated will receive larger emphasis. The pupil's interest will also be a guide in outlining the course, and that will be the criterion to decide the material and its order of presentation rather than any formal logical outline. In the second place, teachers of physics are sure to profit by this mode of approach from the practical and concrete. The instruction, under such circumstances, in order to be effective, must be direct and vital, and can be given only by a teacher who is thoroly acquainted with the real facts of physics, as expressed in nature and in industry. Moreover, as pupils learn to connect their school work with their daily experience, with the devices used in their homes and in factories, there comes not only interest but ability to apply the knowledge gained in the classroom. An intelligent under- standing of many of the public utilities of the community is a result of no small importance, as thereby civic interest and spirit are promoted. The pupil is also guided in some measure by such instruction into a wise choice of a vocation. It is clear that this new conception of the teaching of physics is in oppo- sition to a theory of instruction based on the presentation of physics as a body of organized information. While the teacher must be well informed in all phases of the science, there must also be a clear understanding of that which appeals to the pupil, that which arouses his interest, and an intelligent application of means whereby the activities of the recitation are connected with the world of men and affairs. 474 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary B. CHEMISTRY JOSEPH S. MILLS, HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, NEW YORK CITY, N.Y. Nearly all of the high schools in New York City give their pupils the uni- form examinations prescribed by the State Board of Regents — examina- tions, in general, of the college-entrance type. The school work must of course be planned to meet these tests. The growing conviction that such work, while possibly suitable for the future university men, is neither necessary nor particularly desirable for the average city boy, has found forceful expression in a recent action of the New York City High School Principals' Association. While adhering to the orthodox scheme for fourth-year pupils, these men recommend a pre- liminary or alternative course in practical chemistry to be given preferably in the second school year. From a number of suggested topics, selection is to be made to fit the needs of the pupils or the special character and sur- roundings of the school. Only enough pure and theoretical chemistry is to be taught to give comprehension of the subjects chosen, the predominant idea being to use chemistry to gain an understanding of commonly met substances and processes — reversing the usual procedure of teaching pure chemistry with practical illustrations as side issues. The list of topics proposed, twenty-seven in number, is as follows: Water. Coal and Coal Products. Burning. Wood Distillation Products. Air and Ventilation. Foods. Corrosion of Metals. Adhesives. Acids, Bases, and Salts. Putrefaction and Its Prevention. Oils and Fats. Garbage Disposal. Paints and Pigments. Beverages. Textile Fibers. Poisons and Antidotes. Cleansing. Photography. Dyeing. Explosives, Leather. M ^tallurgy . Glass. Metal Plating. Clay Products. Alloys. Petroleum Products. In the High School of Commerce, Manhattan, we have for the past two or more years had chemistry courses similar to those just outlined. In the fourth school year, boys can elect college-preparatory chemistry, and a fair proportion do so. In the second year of the school, however, commercial chemistry, as we term it, is required of all pupils. In this course, we have, during the past two years, taken up such topics as water, fuels, metallurgy, fibers, bleaching, dyeing, inks, drying oils and paints, fats and soaps, dairy products, starches, sugars, other food-stuffs, and alcoholic beverages. In this work, practically no attention is given to theory and very little to chemical arithmetic, the latter being confined to simple problems in per- centage composition and in weight relations. With the exception of oxygen, Department] CHEMISTRY 475 hydrogen, and carbon, the elements are studied only incidentally in connec- tion with the topic under consideration at the time. As in such a course the laboratory work must be the main feature, only that will be further touched upon. With us the working period is about forty-five minutes long and the class is sent to the laboratory or classroom as is found desirable. Simple apparatus and short experiments must be the rule. To illustrate the work, two sets of experiments have been selected, the choice having been made to show possible drawbacks as well as excellences. Under "Fuels and Metallurgy," the experiments now given are: Eflfect of heating hard coal, soft coal, and wood. Coal gas. Reduction by means of carbon. Preparation and reducing action of carbon monoxide. Water gas. Acetylene. Distillation of petroleum. Fire test of kerosene. Every experiment, it will be noted, has a direct commercial bearing. In criticism it may be suggested: (i) The resemblance of the laboratory apparatus to that used commercially is slight, and (2) The sample of metal obtained in the third experiment is so small as to produce upon the pupil inadequate impression of the real magnitude of the metallurgical industries. For our work on "Fibers," my colleague, Mr. O. R. Flynn, has during the past term given the following experiments : Distinction between cotton, wool, and silk. Separation of cotton from wool. Preparation of chloride of lime. Bleaching of cotton cloth. Direct dyes — salting out and dyeing. Basic dyes — properties; tannic acid as a mordant. Basic dyes — antimony salts as mordant; dyeing. Ferrous and ferric salts — preparation and properties. Logwood dyeing with iron and chromium compounds. Inks — iron tannate. Inks — logwood. Preparation and properties of indigo white. Indigo and vat dyeing. If no attempt be made to teach the formulas of the dyes, and if time can be given to complete it, this course can be given with decided success. It is certainly practical in a city whose clothing industry is so important; the laboratory samples can be sufiiciently large to seem "real" to the boy; the methods are practically those of the factory; and the pupil has something tangible and striking to show for his labor. If one may judge by the observations made in our school, the laboratory work would better consist of one or both of two things — either the prepara- tion of some definite substance, or the working-out of some specific problem, not too hard. 476 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary C. ZOOLOGY CHESTER A. MATHEWSON, TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS BROOKLYN, N.Y. The history of the teaching of zoology in this country shows a consider- able variation in both the aim and the content of the courses in secondary schools. The earliest teaching sought an extensive knowledge of the natural history of animals, for the sake of general information. As with all science of that period the method was that of learning out of a book. Laboratory work and training in scientific method had no place whatever in this work. In the latter part of the nineteenth century the influence of Huxley began to be felt. Huxley wanted to train up men to become advocates of the theory of evolution and with the able assistance of Martin of our own country devised laboratory courses which could not but convince the minds of the students of the correctness of that doctrine. So successful were they that all who fell under their influence either directly or indirectly felt that the sine qua non of zoology was the proper presentation of a series of animals in the laboratory, which would give the learner even in the secondary school the evidences of evolution. The use of the textbook was deprecated and as a consequence "training" and "discipline" became the supreme aims of the work. This happens to be the period that has impressed us most strongly, as our training was secured at the time when this sort of work had become most prominent. It is therefore difficult for us to change our point of view in the teaching of the subject. In the early part of the present century there was somewhat of a reaction against this sort of work, the emphasis being placed upon habits, classifica- tions, and life-histories as against details of structure, especially internal structure. This last can scarcely be said to have resulted in a widespread reform. The outlines of courses in the best high schools show the persist- ence of the principle of "training" advocated by Huxley and Martin. Within the past five years, in accordance with a widespread popular demand, serious efforts have been made, first, to simplify and unify the secondary biology, and second, to make the work more practical from the standpoint of the everyday life of the pupil. The feeling as to the futility of the secondary biology is shown in one instance by the attitude of the Board of Education of New York City. Their special committee recom- mended some time since that biology be summarily dropped from the high- school curriculum, and a course in civics adopted in its place. This action set many able teachers to thinking very seriously. Why emphasize civics above biology ? Could biology do anything for the boy as a future citizen that the study of civics could not do ? Retaining our idea of the " training " and " discipline" afforded by our scientific method, is it possible by applying the searchlight of a new aim to the whole field of biology to discover ma- terials which would be of more practical value to boys and girls ? Department] ZOOWGY 477 The content of courses in secondary biology is determined by these four factors: 1. The preparation of the teacher. 2. Tradition. 3. The pedagogical aim. 4. The ultimate aim, in relation to the general scheme of education. Our efforts to improve our courses practically are necessarily somewhat slow and faulty because of the first two factors. It is the last aim that acts as our most effective stimulus to reform. Our students must be taught not only to know but to do. They ought to do those things that will give them healthier bodies, that will make their homes and surroundings healthier and better, that will make them better citizens in their community, and they ought, in one way or another, to make their community a better place in which to live and work. What topics receive emphasis then under this new interpretation of the function of zoology ? The more important are the following; I. Micro-organisms and their relation to health and disease. II. Conservation of natural resources. 1. Mammals. a) Mammals most important to man. b) Game laws. c) Mammalian products. d) Study of some typical industries based on a mammalian product, e.g., tanning, sheep ranching, cattle industry. 2. Birds. a) Protection. b) Game laws — origin and object. c) Most useful birds. d) Bird products. e) Birds in relation to agriculture. 3. Fish. a) Useful species. b) Spawning and its significance. c) Fish hatcheries. d) United States Fish Commission. 4. Shell fish. a) Life history and habits studied with respect to their protection. b) Processes involved in gathering and shipping them. 5. Crustacea. Same as 4. III. Insects. 1. Useful insects. a) Life-history and habits of one or more types. b) Study of a typical industry founded upon an insect product. 2. Harmful insects. a) Disease-carriers. b) Destroyers of orchards. c) Destroyers of shade. d) Destroyers of farm products. e) Work of the Department of Agriculture in checking them. /) Economic significance. 478 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary IV. Animal breeding. 1. Object. 2. Methods. 3. Results. V. Economic forms of Amphibia and Reptiles. VI. Sex education. 1. Correlation of the study of propagation of fish with the details of human reproduction. 2. Care of animals for their young and its bearing on the process of reproduc- tion in man. D. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE LOUIS MURBACH, HEAD OF BIOLOGY INSTRUCTION, DETROIT, MICH. From the nature of the subjects today and the papers presented, dis- cussion will hinge on the so-called practical aspects of the study of human physiology and hygiene. In both nature study and elementary science the problems have been manufactured for the lessons. The present almost universal agitation in science teaching will bring about, if I mistake not, natural problems and more useful applications. It has been something like a child who hunts a board into which he may drive nails given him; it will be like a boy who looks for nails to hold together the boards he has cut for a box. Both learn to drive nails and this is practical, but only the boy who makes the box learns the real use of the nails. Now if he has wanted that box the practical value of manual arts is more fully illustrated. I remember a discussion some years ago in a medical journal of good standing, on the value of the teaching of human physiology in high schools. One of the ablest surgeons in the city of publication of that journal stated that he thought the chief use of such teaching would be that patients might understand their physician better; could tell him better about their ailments, when afflicted. What shall we expect of laymen when such an opinion is deliberately given by a practitioner who must always be on the alert for the subjective way in which the sufferer puts his maladies ? A layman or even a teacher cannot be blamed for having some doubt as to the practica- bility of the teaching of human physiology when the stigma of "poor teach- ing in the high schools" is put upon it by its own professors in colleges and universities. Let them rather profit by the examples of their colleagues in other high-school branches, prepare better teachers, and encourage those that are teaching it fairly well. Not long since a teacher of experience visited an exhibition of the work of physiology students in the second year of a high school. He was struck by the accurate scientific explanation a girl gave of the experiment she was assigned, but also by her utter ignorance of the commercial application of the same principle. The dentist would have scholars know not only the structure and care of the teeth but also their origin and the ailments result- ing from defective teeth. Even a teacher of the subject in a recent article Department] PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 479 says, " . . . . books have overemphasized certain evils, and other evils, i.e., those attendant upon overfeeding and the neglect of the teeth, .... have been sadly overlooked." The state's expert on poison cases would no doubt have his children learn something more of poisons and their antidotes than of other subjects. The dairyman would see the best part of .the book in the pages on the sani- tary housing of his cows and the production of cleanly milk. One recent school textbook devotes thirteen pages out of three hundred and six of the whole book to this subject; and this does not include what the cheese-maker would have in it, if he had the making of the book. And if you challenge the miller's interest, you may learn that he would have the growing citizen informed as to the proper way of making flour of different kinds from grain. Why should not those interested in the commerce of hides and furs be repre- sented in the chapter on the skin ? Why would not the huckster take new interest in his vendage when he learns from his children how valuable are vegetables and fruit, in our diet ? And these are only a few of the interested claimants for recognition even in the study of physiology and hygiene. It is natural, then, that we have been called on to consider the practical aspects of science in secondary education with especial reference to the introduction of materials from agriculture, household arts, technical in- dustries, etc. These newest arrivals in the high school are seeking organic connection with their allies already in the curriculum. Before going farther it may be well to consider the pedagogical and the scientific viewpoints. They are not two divergent views that are presented by the papers, the pedagogical and the scientific aspects. It is not the prob- lem of science versus practice which was in the mind of the teacher before mentioned. It is rather the question to what extent materials may be taken from agriculture, household arts, technical industries, etc., and peda- gogically presented in a course in human physiology and hygiene. Point of contact with daily life and correlation would satisfy the peda- gogical side. Both interest and attention would be gained and the view of the pupil would be broadened. These things are the apparent progress in the present tendency of school science teaching, i.e., the correlating of any part of a study with daily experience or needs. It is not difficult to see, e.g., that a boy studying agriculture would take greater interest in the germina- tion of seeds when he learns that the digestion of starchy food in his own body is accomplished by means of similar ferments; or after learning about the bacterial diseases in man he will understand that the same principles will apply to domestic animals. Again, the animal origin of the fibers of woolen cloth, the heat-reflecting and absorbing qualities of cloth of different colors and different weave could be made correlative in either domestic art or in hygiene. And in cooking, there is a direct bearing on the physiology of the digestive organs, e.g., cooking for digestibility, for flavor, etc. The use of wood and metal in the construction of utensils and homes may 48o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary be made of great importance in the study of hygiene. And in so far as our health may be affected by our comfort, the use of color and form may come under the same head from the aesthetic point of view. This is only a glimpse of some of the practical applications that might be justified from the educational point of view of contact and correlation. There is, on the other hand, the danger that our ends in such education may become narrow, even utilitarian, when we allow branches or groups to become segregated. What I mean is that all attempts to establish special industrial schools, e.g., agricultural, manual-training, or art schools, in secondary education, are dangerous to the welfare of general education. The superstructure will scarcely be broader than the narrow foundation. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON ENCOURAGING COLLEGE EN- TRANCE CREDIT IN HIGH-SCHOOL AGRICULTURE A. B. GRAHAM, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO, CHAIRMAN No college oflScial replying to inquiries concerning college-entrance credit in agriculture has questioned its informational or disciplinary value. On the other hand, many of them have been inclined to encourage the teaching of agriculture in the high school as a phase of applied science and further to quicken the power of observation. The chief diflSculties to be encountered in giving college-entrance credit for high-school agriculture are the determination of what should consti- tute a unit or a half-unit and the quality of the teaching of this subject. Since most colleges and universities are unwilling to give more than one- half or one full unit of credit, it must so far be considered that the subject of agriculture taught as a high-school branch is a science branch worthy of no greater consideration at present than any other branch for which one-half or one unit of credit is given, even tho the subject be taught during a longer period of time than one year. Few, if any, colleges or universities have been found that are willing to give any credit on the science of agriculture if such agriculture as is taught is only some appli- cation of general science. In a condensed form, the following definition of a unit and a half-unit seems to be acceptable to most institutions: One-half Unit — One half-year given to the study of soils and plants and their relation to each other. There shall be sufficient experimental work to accompany the subjects discussed. One Unit — One full year given to the study of soils, plants, insects, and farm animals. There shall be sufficient experimental and demonstration work to be equivalent to one full year of laboratory work. In some institutions there is a high-school visitor whose duty it is to determine the quality and quantity of work in the high-school branches; therefore it becomes his duty to determine whether a unit or one-half unit Department) CREDIT IN HIGH-SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 481 of work is being done in agriculture. In other institutions the head of one of the science departments or of a department most closely related to agriculture determines whether or not the standard of an entrance-credit unit has been offered. A great many institutions signify a willingness to give credit for high- school agriculture provided a student offers it. The general disposition of most colleges and universities in the north-central, western, and southern states is to give credit for this branch of applied science which the high schools themselves are not offering up to any reasonable standard of en- trance requirement. Some high schools are offering work in elementary agriculture that is little, if any, above the standard of requirement for the eighth grade of an elementary school. Colleges will be much more will- ing to accept agriculture as an entrance branch as soon as high-school teachers will prepare themselves for the teaching of this important subject with a little more than just the practical experiences which they have some recollection of experiencing on a farm. Below will be found a list of colleges from whom replies have been received concerning the giving of entrance credit. COLLEGES GIVING CREDIT. 36 New Mexico Agricultural College, Agricultural College, N.M. University of North Dakota, University, N.Dak. University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz, State Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colo. University of Alabama, University, Ala. Montana Agricultural College, Bozeman, Mont. University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho. University of Montana, Missoula, Mont. Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. University of Middle Tennessee, Tullahoma, Tenn. University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. South Dakota State School of Mines, Rapid City, S.Dak. Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Washington State University, Seattle, Wash. Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore. University of California, Berkeley, Cal. State University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. Mississippi Industrial Institute and College, Columbus, Miss. Kansas City Veterinary College, Kansas City, Mo. Wesley College, North Dakota. Lenox College, Hopkinton, Iowa. Cotner University, Bethany, Nebr. Grand Island College, Grand Island, Nebr. Greer College, Hoopeston, 111, Knoxville College, Knoxville, Tenn. Central Wesleyan College, Warrenton, Mo. 482 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Macalester College, St. Paul, Minn. Milton College, Milton, Wis. Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. Ohio Wesleyan College, Delaware, Ohio. Ashland College, Ashland, Ohio. Defiance College, Defiance, Ohio. University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. COLLEGES GIVING NO CREDIT. 23 University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C. The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. South Dakota State College, Brooking, S.Dak. Columbia University, New York City, N.Y. New Mexico School of Mines. Illinois College, Jacksonville, 111. Montana School of Mines, Missoula, Mont. Wooster University, Wooster, Ohio. Occidental College, Los Angeles, Cal. Hamilton College, Clinton, N.Y. Central College, Fayette, Mo. Erskine College, Due West, S.C. (a) Colleges Giving No Credit hit Willing to Consider the Matter Vanderbilt College, Nashville, Tenn. Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Ind. Earlham College, Richmond, Ind. Missouri Valley College, Marshall, Mo. Cornell College, Mt. Vernon, la. Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago, 111. Denison University, Granville, Ohio. Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio. (6) Colleges Not Giving Credit at Present hut Matter Put before a Committee Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Butler College, Indianapolis, Ind. COLLEGES PREPARING TO GIVE CREDIT. 8 North Carolina College of Agriculture amd Mechanic Arts, West Raleigh, N.C. St. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo. Wheaton College, Wheaton, 111. Bellevue College, Bellevue, Nebr. Wittenberg College, Springfield, Ohio, Rio Grande College, Rio Grande, Ohio. Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio. Wilmington College, Wilmington, Ohio. COLLEGES WHO WOULD GIVE CREDIT IF ASKED TO OR ARE WILLING TO GIVE CREDIT FOR WORK PROPERLY DONE. 27 Iowa Wesleyan, Mt. Pleasant, la. Missouri Wesleyan, Cameron, Mo. Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. State University of Iowa, Iowa City, la. Mississippi Agricultural College, Agricultural College, Miss. University of Nevada, Reno, Nev. I I REBUILDING AN ENGLISH COURSE 483 Stanlord University, Stanford University, Cal. University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore. University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Cal. St. Lawrence University, Canton, N.Y. Nebraska Central College, Central City, Nebr. Amity College, College Springs, la. Penn College, Oskaloosa, la. Drake University, Des Moines, la. Ouachita College, Arkadelphia, Ark. Westfield College, Westfield, 111. Simpson College, Indianola, la. St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minn. Redfield College, Redfield, S.Dak. Des Moines College, Des Moines, la. McKendree College, Lebanon, 111. Moore's Hill College, Moore's Hill, Ind. Ohio Northern University, Ada, Ohio. Mt. Union College, Alliance, Ohio. Marietta College, Marietta, Ohio. Buchtel College, Akron, Ohio. University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. ( A. B. Graham Committee j C. H. Robison ( E. E. Balcomb ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES A. ENGLISH REBUILDING AN ENGLISH COURSE EDWIN L. MILLER, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. Ever since I became a teacher of English, I have heard teachers of English abused. Before that, I abused them myself. Tho all sorts of people join in this chorus of de- traction, the voices which are most frequently and vociferously lifted up to condemn us are those of young college professors and old business men. Anybody, they say, can teach English; but nobody succeeds in doing it. If one is to judge solely by the results secured, these charges are in large measure just. If the problem is considered steadily, however, and considered whole, the wonder grows, not that we do so badly, but that we succeed at all. "To be a well-favoured man," says Shakespeare, "is the gift of fortune; but to read and write comes by nature." Nothing is truer. It is easier to convert a Caliban into an Apollo than it is to make out of a child whose associations are vulgar a writer or a reader. Among autoists there is a belief which amounts to a certainty that it is much easier to build a new car than to repair an old one. Now, there is a rough analogy be- tween the English teacher and the repair man. Each has to make what he can out of a machine wrenched and bumped by careless driving on rough roads. It is not so with teachers of Latin and physics; they work in a factory, not in a garage. These are unalterable conditions. But there are some circumstances that hamper high-school work in English which can be changed or removed. In Detroit we have been trying to do this; and it is the object of this paper to report progress, so to speak. 484 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary I say to report progress, for as yet, to say nothing of solving, we have attacked only a part of our problem. In teaching English, our object is to train the pupil in such a way that he will be master of the art of communicating ideas by means of the mother-tongue. This sounds a bit grandiloquent, and it would probably be better to say (as it would surely be clearer) that we are trying to teach him: (a) to read and listen; {h) to speak and write. In other words, we wish him to be able to make other people understand in the largest and best sense what he thinks, feels, and wills, and to be able, with equal sympathy and under- standing, to enter into their thoughts, feelings, and desires. Of course this is an unat- tainable ideal. We shall be abundantly satisfied if, when he is graduated, he can write a good letter and likes to read a good book. With us the greatest stumbling-block in our efforts to secure these results have been : (a) lack of equipment; (&) lack of teachers; (c) lack of time; {d) lack of organization. a) Every EngHsh teacher's classroom should be so furnished, decorated, adorned with pictures, and filled with books as to suggest, not a schoolroom, but a scholar's den. It should be pervaded, in other words, by an atmosphere of literary elegance. This we have not attained. h) When I say that we lack teachers, I refer to quantity, not to quality. Our teachers are overworked. There are not enough of them. The 2,518 pupils in our department last semester were taught by 16.3 teachers. Each teacher, in other words, had 154.5 pupils. Six of them had six sections apiece. The rest had each five. No teacher of English should have more than one hundred pupils or more than four sections. Under these conditions only is it possible to give to each pupil that individual attention which is essential to successful work in composition and hardly less essential if one is to awaken in the pupil a loving regard for books. c) and d) We have been able, however, to readjust our courses, so as to get more time and to secure a better organization of our work. We have recently added eight one-hour courses in reading and speaking, two four-hour courses in English, and two four-hour courses in literature. We have also separated our courses in interpretation from our courses in constructive English. Detroit Central High School outline of courses in english, february-june, i9io Course i. — Grammar: Buehler's Modern English Grammar — Introduction and Part I. Composition: Sykes's Elementary English Composition — Part I, chaps. 1-7; Part VI, chap. 3. Course 2. — Reading: Coleridge's Ancient Mariner; Dickens' David Copper field; Homer's Iliad and Odyssey; Irving's Sketch Book; Lowell's Vision of Sir Launfal; Ma- caulay's Lays of Ancient Rome; Shakespeare's Julius Ccesar; Stevenson's Treasure Island. Course 3. — Grammar: Buehler — Part II, chaps. 1-6. Composition: Sykes — Part I, chaps. 8-10; Part II; Part VI, chap. i. Course 4. — Reading: Blackmore's Lorna Doone; Goldsmith's Deserted Village; Scott's Ivanhoe and Lady of the Lake; Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice and As You Like It. Course 5. — Grammar: Buehler — Part II, chaps. 7-1 1 ; and Review. Composition: Sykes— Parts III, IV, and V. Course 6. — Reading: George Eliot's Silas Marner; Lincoln's Speeches; Lowell's Present Crisis; Macaulay's Johnson, Clive, and Hastings; Shakespeare's Henry V. Course 7. — Theme Writing. Course 8. — College-Entrance Study Books: Macbeth; Milton's Minor Poems; Burke's Conciliation; Carlyle's Essay on Burns. Literature i. — American Literature. History of American literature and reading: Emerson's Essays; Franklin's Autobiography; Hawthorne's House of the Seven Gables; Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish; Lowell's Commemoration Ode; Parkman's Oregon Trail; Poe's Poems; Thoreau's Walden; Whittier's Snow-Bound. Literature 2. — Nineteenth Century English Literature. Textbook: Halleck. Reading: Browning's Poems; Byron's Childe Harold and Prisoner of Chilian; Dickens' Department) REBUILDING AN ENGLISH COURSE 485 Tale of Two Cities; Mrs. Gaskell's Cranford; Huxley's Lay Sermons; Palgrave's Golden Treasury, Book IV; Scott's Quentin Durward; Stevenson's Inland Voyage and Travels with a Donkey; Tennyson's Princess. Literature 3. — English Literature down to Milton. Textbook: Halleck. Read- ing: Tennyson's Idylls of the King; Chaucer's Prologue; Spenser's Faerie Queene; Shakespeare's Hamlet and Lear; Bacon's Essays; Palgrave's Golden Treasury, Books I and II. Literature 4. — English Literature from Milton down to the Year 1800. Textbook : Halleck. Reading: Palgrave's Golden Treasury, Books III and IV; Milton's Paradise Lost; Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley Papers; Macaulay's Essay on Addison; Pope's Rape of the Lock and Essay on Criticism; Thackeray's English Humorists; Defoe's Robinson Crusoe; Johnson's Rasselas; Goldsmith's Vicar of Wake- field and She Stoops to Conquer; Sheridan's Rivals and School for Scandal; Burns's Poems. 1. All students must take English 1-6 inclusive. All students preparing for colleges or normal schools should take in addition 7 and 8. 2. All of these courses are four-period courses. An additional period each week is devoted to reading and speaking. 3. Home-reading is required in all courses. 4. In Courses 1,3, and 5, six weeks are set aside for grammar, fourteen for composi- tion. 5. The Literature courses are for eleventh and twelfth-grade students. The books set for reading are mostly those in the last college-entrance list. Nearly all of them are well adapted for our purposes, but, a wider list, or a supplementary list for home reading, is, I think, in the highest degree desirable. Irving's Sketch Book is the least and David Copperfield the best calculated to stimulate first-year high-school students to feel a genuine interest in literature. We intend to replace Macaulay's Clive and Hastings as soon as possible with Gladstone's edition of Macaulay's speeches. These speeches not only exhibit Macaulay at his best, but are, on the whole, except Lincoln's addresses, if not the best specimens of argumentation in the language, the best adapted to the comprehension of high-school students. Dealing as they do with questions which have long confronted Englishmen and are beginning to darken our own horizon, they are vital in subject-matter. Trevelyan truly describes the speeches on "Copyright" as being as convincing as a proposition of Euclid and as entertaining as an Essay of Elia; and I am inclined to think that the same may be said with propriety of those on "The Reform Bill," "Chartism," "The Ten Hours' Bill," "The Gates of Somnauth," "May- nooth," and "Education." The course in American literature appears to me to be not only desirable in itself, but necessary, if we are to avoid the reproach of graduating pupils who are ignorant of everything respectable that has been written on this side of the Atlantic. We look upon it as an essential tribute to patriotism. It is put first on the theory that our American classics, for the most part, are more on a level with the intelligence of eleventh-grade students than are those of foreign lands or remote periods. On the same theory we study nineteenth-century English literature before we attack Chaucer, Bacon, Spenser, and Milton. I sometimes think that we might even reverse to advantage the order of Literature 3 and Literature 4. Of the books included in Literature 2, 3, and 4 we get the best results from the Tale of Two Cities, The Princess, the Idylls of the King, Chaucer's Prologue, Hamlet, Lear, and the Golden Treasury. The Idylls of the King are put in Course 3 ahead of Chaucer, because in subject-matter they go back to the days when the Romans had just left Britain and the Saxons had just come, and because they will excite an interest, if anything will, in Layamon and Sir Thomas Malory. Puck of Pook 's Hill might be added to Course 3 to brighten up several other dark spots between the days of Julius Caesar and the days of King John. So much for our reading as it stands today. We have added, I think, in two other ways to the eflficiency of ovir course. 486 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Of these the first is the efficiency due to increased size and weight. Formerly a pupil could take, in the four years of his high-school course, only thirty-two hours of English. He can now take fifty-six. This fact is bound to increase the amount of English studied and the amount learned. The separation of the work in constructive English from the work in interpretation is of even greater importance. Our old method was to have grammar on Monday, com- position on Tuesday, reading on Wednesday and Thursday, and speaking on Friday. This had about the same relation to a real course that a dish of chop suey has to a thick sirloin steak. If it was a proper arrangement, it would be equally proper for the Science Department to have geography on Monday, botany on Tuesday, zoology on Wednesday, chemistry on Thursday, and physics on Friday. In his Essay on Burns, Carlyle says that Burns failed because he lacked unity of pur- pose; his life was like a wedge with two edges. He could read nothing but himself. This is a good description of our old course. In trying constantly to do two things at one time we did neither. While reading, we were always worrying about "that dreadful composition work"; and, as reading is so much easier than writing, we often did nothing with composition but worry about it. There was never any impetus to our work. Each side, instead of helping, hindered the other. There were also some homely practical difficulties. Students were continually pre- tending that they thought grammar days were reading days and writing days speaking days. A student who was a glib talker and good reader often got a passing mark, even tho he thought that the subject should always be separated by a semicolon from the verb. Even when such a case was properly diagnosed, the bookkeej ing incidental to its correction was cumbersome, and it was not fair to the student who had failed in compo- sition to require him to do over a term of reading which he had already done in a perfectly satisfactory manner. Separation has removed these difficulties. If a student can read he now gets credit for it. If he cannot write, his deficiencies are discovered and corrected with no waste of his time or his teacher's. There is no longer any chance for Tom to bring the wrong book to class. The teachers no longer worry about what they ought to be doing. The work used to go like a pay-enter car; it proceeds now with the speed of an express train. The value of this added impetus is indescribable. The students are beginning to take the work more seriously. It is no longer, as they put it in their quaint and vulgar patois, a "snap". 'Pass slips have acquired a new meaning. "So decided is the improvement," said one of our teachers to me the other day, "that I would not go back to the old arrange- ment for anything." "My pupils," I was recently told by another, "have learned more the last three weeks than in the previous three years." Altho most of the teachers with whom I have discussed this subject agree that separation is desirable, three or four objections have been offered. Of these I wish briefly to speak: a) A whole semester of composition will crush a teacher. We have provided for this by giving teachers, as far as possible, half of their work in composition and half in reading courses. Thus nobody works any harder than before, unless there be some teachers who, under the old regime, slighted the work in composition. h) The adolescent mind is so constituted that it cannot concentrate itself for forty- five minutes on one thing, i.e., on reading, composition, or grammar. Therefore we should have fifteen minutes of each in each recitation. If so, why not, in each mathe- matics period, have ten minutes of arithmetic, ten of bookkeeping, ten of algebra, ten of geometry, and five of trigonometry? Or, better still, why not have in each period a mixture of French, chemistry, cooking, basket-ball, and biology ? Absurd as this objection sounds, it indicates a real danger. Not all of our teachers have been trained in the art of teaching composition. Some of them think that there are in it only two steps: (i) assigning of a subject; (2) correcting the papers. Such Department] PRINCIPLES IN TEACHING ENGLISH 487 teachers naturally take refuge in the mixture theory. They think that they must have something to fill in the intervals between compositions. These teachers must be educated. c) The study of composition should be based on literature. It should and we do it. Only we do it more efifectively than we could prior to separation. Instead of asking our pupils to imitate Spenser's Faerie Queene and Browning's Saul, we select for their models bits of writing that they can and do imitate with ease and pleasure. On the other hand, we still have written work in our reading courses. To state the point in another way, we write in our reading courses in order to help* our reading; in our writing courses we study Hterature in order to learn how to write. d) One objection remains. It will be said that a whole semester of composition is too much like real work. It will bore the pupils. To this I answer that such an objec- tion is an injustice to our pupils. If there is any one thing that really interests them, it is work. They do not want a diet that is all frosting and whipped cream. It is just the fact that English has been made such a "nice, lovely, inspiring" study that, more than anything else, has brought the study of English into disrepute. But of real interest there need be no lack in a composition class. If it be organized and conducted as a serious study, it is more interesting than a class in literature, just as it is more interesting to play football than to stand on the sidelines. There is abundant testimony on this point from pupils, teachers, and parents. What we have thus far accomplished leads me to believe that, when our new arrange- ments begin to have their full effect, we shall come a good deal closer than hitherto to getting satisfactory results in grammar and composition. The problem of teaching literature is more difl&cult. It cannot be said to be solved until every graduate has the reading habit. How far we are from this goal I was rudely reminded the other day when a dealer in second-hand books showed me a copy of Palgrave's Golden Treasury which one of our graduates had just sold to him for twelve cents in order to get the price of a ticket to a moving-picture show. Nor is this situation peculiar to Michigan. A few days later I met in Chicago a man who teaches literature as if he were inspired and gets $4,000 a year for doing it. He said to me: "I am in despair. I have just read a set of papers written by a class that has been studying Milton for twelve weeks. One of them ascribes the authorship of Paradise Lost to Alexander Pope and another to John Wool- man. Now what can one do about it ? " What, indeed, except perhaps, as one of my students in his guileless ignorance of orthography recently suggested, to go up to the top of Vesuvius to see the "creator smoke," and to take such comfort as may be derived from one of Burns's sagest reflections: If honest nature made you fools, What sairs your grammars ? ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES IN TEACHING ENGLISH CHARLES SWAIN THOMAS, HIGH SCHOOL, NEWTON, MASS. The problem of teaching English literature to pupils in the secondary schools is not to be considered an easy task. To approach the work with the misconception that it need be fraught with little effort or anxiety is a sure method of steering directly toward disaster. But to say that it is difficult and to urge that it demands painstaking labor, is not to stigmatize it. Rather because of these inherent hindrances we can assert that it is supremely interesting, and that the task can he made to yield genuine pleasure and constant enlightenment. To discuss in a general way how joyful and intelligent interest may be made to pervade the difficult task of teaching English literature to pupils of high-school age is the object of this address. This discussion will be adequate only when, together, we have answered the general query, "What are the essential principles which should guide instruction in English literature?" To this query there are two general replies, and each reply will allow detailed comment. 488 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary 1. The pupil must be made to apprehend the objective meaning of the message. 2. He must be made to comprehend the subjective meaning of the message. In saying that the pupil must be made to apprehend the objective significance of the message, I mean simply and solely that he must understand the message of the text; he must see what facts the writer is trying to impart; he must translate into mental con- cepts these arbitrary signs which we call words. "But this," the inexperienced teacher may say, "why, this is easy; the pupil can pronounce these words, and if he can pronounce them, surely the words instinctively carry with their pronunciation the intended meaning!" But could that inexperienced teacher have a photograph of the mental pictures which a selected bit of literature has imprinted upon the several minds in the pupils before him, he would be appalled. And the most appalling feature of the situation would not be the array of false concepts, but it would be the array of hazy concepts; or, in many cases, the absolute lack of any con- cept whatever. Let us play a little longer with this photographic trope. This inexperienced teacher of literature is much like the very amateur photographer. Our neophyte artist has read his book of instructions carefully; he now thinks he knows the mechanism of his instru- ment, and he takes it out into the landscape, sets up his tripod, and fires his several shots. Everything apparently works well, and he goes to his dark-room in high expectancy. He thinks he knows what each plate will reveal. He eagerly anticipates the beautiful cloud efifects in plate number one; the lights and shadows that the willows cast in beauti- ful intermingling over the brooklet in plate number two; and the splendid contour of the tree-bestrewn and rock-laden mountain in plate number three. But alas! under the the weird light of his ruby lamp the new chemicals in their dish of shining japan reveal no such aesthetic delights. The outlines refuse to stand out in bold relief; rude blotches mar the cumulus clouds; the willows are covered with spiteful air-globules of varied diameters; the mountain is a dismal, dead blank. And the ambitious artist, when he leaves the dark-room, goes sadly to the library, picks up his Coleridge, and wearily sits down to read that splendid definition of dejection: A grief without a pang, void, dark, and drear, A stifled, drowsy, unimpassioned grief. Which finds no natural outlet, no relief. In word, or sigh, or tear. Our photographic figure, however, does not walk on all fours. The tyro in English teaching is not so efifectively saddened; for he, working with sensitive minds rather than with sensitive plates, has no such positive and enlightening way of knowing of his failure. Accordingly he is too often content to go ahead, until finally by some hook or crook he is rudely shaken into the conviction that by his inane teaching the pupils are having all their literary nerves devitalized. Instead of these neurones being set a-tingle by the suggested color-concepts falling on fair Madeline's fair breast in the crypt of the moon- lit church; instead of a brilliant re-creating of the notes of the pealing organ and the full- voiced choir which dissolved the devotee of melancholy into ecstasies and brought all heaven before his eyes; instead of these highly desirable and complacently assumed con- ceptions, we have, alas! a dim and misty grayness shadowing all. Not in every case, let me hasten to say. We who have taught have had the exquisite pleasure of hearing the voice tremble and of seeing the eye glisten its appreciation of sensitive effects, and in those moments we have thanked the gods — and not amiss — that they had allowed us to play a part in leading a young companion to a plane where his horizon of beauty was suddenly and richly expanded — and then at a glance toward the stolid and the unaroused, our thanks retreat to seek the ebon shades of some dark Cimmerian desert. But merely to point out defects in teaching is not to eradicate them. The physi- cian after he has made his diagnosis must try to effect a cure. What, we may ask, is the Department] PRINCIPLES IN TEACHING ENGLISH 489 cure for frowsy habits of reading ? How can the amateur teacher of English become a professional expert ? The teacher must first convince his slipshod readers that their reading is slipshod. He must make them realize that true reading involves the re-creation in the reader's mind and heart of the essential concepts and the essential emotions which dictated the master's writing. The mere mechanical pronunciation of words as an end in itself this true reader will gradually learn to spurn; the revisualizing of concepts and the revital- izing of emotions he will learn instinctively to demand. Along with this will come the conviction that literature cannot be effectively studied while the pupil reclines on a soporific couch, or lolls luxuriously in a Morris chair. For most of us the study of liter- ature demands the posture of a straight-backed stool. But what specific pedagogical effort will establish the conviction that words must be vitalized, that sentences and paragraphs must be transfused with the glory and the strength of imagination ? As a mere device try this: Read to your pupils — or have the pupils read to them- selves— a stanza of poetry, or a paragraph of prose; then immediately demand that books be closed. Open a series of questions. What pictures, class, have you in your mind? What senses are appealed to? sight? sound? feeling? odor? taste? Is there any sensation of movement ? Is this upward ? downward ? straightforward ? crooked ? zigzag? winding? Are there any words which refuse to yield a definite meaning? If so, why ? What is the strongest appeal made to your imagination ? Let's take a concrete case from Tennyson's Passing of Arthur and see what sort of questions and comments will create concepts, vivify language, and arouse emotions: Then saw they how there hove a dusky barge. Dark as a funeral scarf from stem to stern, Beneath them; and ascending they were ware That all the decks were dense with stately forms, Black-stoled, black-hooded, like a dream — by these Three queens with crowns of gold — and from them rose A cry that shiver'd to the tingling stars. And, as it were one voice, an agony Of lamentation, like a wind that shrills All night in a waste land, where no one comes. Or hath come, since the making of the world. Then murmur'd Arthur, "Place me in the barge," So to the barge they came. There those three queens Put forth their hands, and took the King, and wept. But she that rose the tallest of them all And fairest laid his head upon her lap. And loosed the shatter'd casque, and chafed his hands. And call'd him by his name, complaining loud, And dropping bitter tears against a brow Striped with dark blood; for all his face was white And colorless, and like the wither'd moon Smote by the fresh beam of the springing east; And all his greaves and cuisses dash'd with drops Of onset; and the light and lustrous curls — That made his forehead like a rising sun High from the dais-throne — were parch'd with dust. Or, clotted into points and hanging loose, . Mixt with the knightly growth that fringed his lips. So like a shatter'd coltunn lay the King; Not like that Arthur who, with lance in rest. From spur to plume a star of tournament. Shot thro' the lists at Camelot, and charged Before the eyes of ladies and of kings. Immediately after the passage is read let all books be closed. Some pupil may first be called upon to describe the picture which was in Tennyson's mind. Omitted details may then be supplied by the class. Or perhaps the teacher will prefer to test the pupils by asking questions that will at once bring out certain details. 49° NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Now we must remember that the concrete image is the basis of all sensory imagery, for sensory imagery means simply and solely the concrete impressions that strike the senses — sight, hearing, feeling, smell, and taste. When we remember that originally all language was pictorial and that the modern civilized child cares little for the unillus- trated book, and that even we who are more mature smile approvingly when we learn that the lecture we are to attend is to be illuminated with the stereopticon — when we remember all this, we begin to have an idea of what an important part these concrete, visual images play in our daily life. When we apply our study of sensory imagery to the interpretation of literature, it means that we are not getting the exact picture that was in the author's mind unless we know the exact details — real or imaginary — that were in the author's mind. Now for the purposes of sympathetic reading it is of course not necessary that the exact image originally in the poet's mind be re-created — the essential thing is that the reader study the particular passage he is reading with the idea of securing as nearly as possible the writer's point of view. Then by the proper arrangement and massing of details, the alert, sensitive reader — provided his experience be sufi&cient — can create the adequate image and come into proper sympathy with the author. But in all our teaching we are too prone to forget that the experience of our pupils is severely limited. The trouble with them and with ourselves is just this — we have not seen enough. Or if we have seen enough, we have not observed closely enough. The solution here, I believe, is the same as in the realm of practical ethics — the in- stillment in the individual mind of the necessity of a wise unselfishness, the partial efface- ment of the individual egoism — a liberal Catholicism. Applying the dictum to ourselves as readers, we must learn to feel how extremely narrow has been the experience which has come to each one of us and do all we can to widen it. One passage of Shakespeare's — the speech of Lady Macbeth in the sleep-walking scene — is one of the best illustrations in all literature of the effective use of the sense of smell. Verplanck, after mentioning the fact that the more agreeable associations of this sense are often used for poetic effect, adds: But the smell has never been successfully used as a means of impressing the imagina- tion with terror, pity, or any deeper emotions, except in this dreadful sleep-walking scene of the guilty Queen, and in one parallel scene of the Greek drama, as wildly terrible as this. It is that passage of the Agamemnon of Aeschylus, where the captive prophet- ess, Cassandra, wrapt in visionary inspiration, scents first the smell of blood, and then the vapors of the tomb breathing from the palace of Atrides, as ominous of his approach- ing murder. As an example of other sensations of odor, I may quote from the King James Version of Solomon's Songs, chap. 3, vs. 6: Who is this that cometh out of the wilderness like pillars of smoke, perfumed with myrrh and frankincense, with all powders of the merchant ? All of you will recall the famous scene when Jacob, pretending to be Esau, goes to his father: And his father Isaac said unto him. Come near now, and kiss me, my son. And he came near, and kissed him: and he smelled the smell of his raiment, and blessed him, and said. See, the smell of my son is as the smell of a field which the Lord hath blessed. When we come to the consideration of touch imagery we find it to include sensations of movement, muscular pressure, and temperature. The exhilarating movem.ent of a fast-plying ship, the grasp of the hand, the sense of warmth and cold — all these are freely employed in literature. Perhaps in some cases they have been too freely employed. I have a friend who has cared nothing for Keats since he noted the poet's allusion to kisses as slippery blisses. Now among all the touch images in literature I know of none that makes a more delicately sensuous appeal than the one used by Rosetti in The Blessed Damozel. All Department] PRINCIPLES IN TEACHING ENGLISH 491 of you will recall the picture of the maiden leaning over the bar of heaven. To this visual image the poet adds details beautifully illustrative of the tactile sense, And still she bowed herself and stooped Out of the circling charm; Until her bosom must have made The bar she leaned on warm, And the lilies lay as if asleep Upon her bended ar/n. We must not assume, however, that the pupil's apperception of such sensory images as these, their analysis and their labeling, is the sine qua non of English teaching. There should be merely enough of this to arouse the inert and to stimulate the curious. To many these concepts will of course come without the teacher's aid, and we must be care- ful that students of quick insight be not satiated with the mere routine of analysis. There are two or three other practices corollary to this visualizing process, which are vital to the apprehension of the objective meaning in literature. The pedagogical significance of these we may now briefly examine. Among the most valuable practices which an English teacher may employ is the illumination of the abstract by concrete illustrations. Take, for example, that well- known couplet from Locksley Hall — Love took up the harp of Life, and smote on all the chords with might; Smote the chord of Self, that, trembling, past in music out of sight. In elaborating the meaning of these lines which show the power of love in effacing self, the teacher should draw upon the great realm of life and story, and tell — or have his students tell — of some great sacrifice which a mother has made for a son, a wife for a husband, or a sweetheart for a lover. Let the narrator bring forward in its detailed con- creteness that splendid immolating spirit of Sydney Carton — that greatest of all charac- ters in the greatest of Dickens' novels. Carton's love for Lucie Mannette was so su- premely great that he would not even offer himself in marriage, for he knew too well that his dissolute, impractical nature was ill-suited to the office of husband. But he bided his time in pitiable isolation of spirit, faithful always to that early promise that he would willingly make any sacrifice to keep her, or any dear to her, safe from any evil or any peril. And when, in that strange and intense situation in the prison of the Conciergerie, when he found that it was possible for him, by a vicarious sacrifice, to liberate the husband of her whom he loved so unselfishly, then willingly he laid down his life in order that Charles Darnay might be saved to Lucie and to Lucie's children. With the example of this sacrifice fresh before us, shall we not revert with renewed interest to the abstrac- tion of the poet, and read with keener delight the words which a concrete example has clarified ? Try it now in your own instance as we repeat the couplet: Love took up the harp of Life, and smote on all the chords with might; Smote the chord of Self, that, trembling, past in music out of sight. Finally, the message of the text, its objective significance, cannot be understood without understanding the meaning of words and the references. This conquest will always be a portion of the work fraught with great difficulty. If as students we are to progress in our education, these words and references will not come without physical and mental effort. They often demand a trip downstairs to the dictionary or to the encyclopedia. Oftentimes they will invoke the reading of other literary selections. What they most insistently urge is intelligent effort toward the comprehension of their application in a particular case. In this it often happens that the reference books give little aid; we must rely upon a concentration that will yield its natural mental product. And now together I think we are agreed on one answer to this query concerning the essential principles which should guide our instruction in English literature. In our first reply— //fg pupil must he made to apprehend the objective meaning of the message~vft emphasize the importance of an imaginative translation of words into concepts. By 492 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary insisting upon the definite re-creation of those images which appeal to sight, hearing, feeling, odor, and taste, we insure a sympathetic interpretation which mere pronuncia- tion of words does not necessarily convey. Aside from questions designed to re-create these sensory images, we insist upon concrete examples to illustrate the abstract, upon expressive oral reading, and upon such a conscientious use of the dictionary and the encyclopedia as will aid in vitalizing the obscure. But necessary to the full enjoyment and the full comprehension of literature there must be a concurrent reaction which the second reply suggests. You will recall the phrasing of this second reply. The reader must comprehend the subjective meaning of the message. And just what do I mean by this ? I mean that there shall be some appreciable reaction; there must be a turning-in of these literary sensations upon the individual reader. The sensation must not volatilize; it must re-create; it must refer itself back to the reader's view of life and there recognize its contrasts and establish its comparisons. It will stimulate the personal question and generate the personal comment. It will arouse such inquiries as these — Do I believe this? Does my experience support the view ? Just what differences are there between the situations described and my own situation on a particular occasion ? How would I have acted in such circumstances? May the author's teaching be accepted as universally true? As teachers we must ever bear in mind the enlargement which this subjective view means. It means that all these images, these pictures in the mind, the sensory impres- sions— in a word, the imaginative concepts — find their basis in experience. Imagination takes these experiences, enlarges, reduces, readjusts, revamps; and out of the old emerges the new. Oftentimes the spirit of a passage allows us to take a familiar scene — perhaps from our childhood home — and a simple repeopling or recostuming creates the proper effect. Whether this message comes in the form of story, essay, or poem, the method is the same. The objective message of the writer is interpreted, vivified, and re-formed by the subjective mind of the reader. The struggles of the character are the reader's struggles, and all the victories and the defeats are thus vicariously shared. Sympathy is gener- ated, views of life enlarged, and the reader begins to feel his kinship with the universal heart of mankind. May I add in conclusion that I assume that it is apparent to all that the compre- hension of the objective and the subjective meanings of literature is not in ordinary life distinctly differentiated ? Nor is it to be supposed that they would under all conditions be mutually exclusive. It is merely for purposes of analysis and intelligent apperception that we consider them separately. We are to understand that the great province of literature is the interpretation of life. The literary sensation will produce upon each mind which receives it a slightly different percept, depending upon the fabric and the experience of the receiving individuality. And yet the general tone and temperament of human souls have so much in common that there is a wide gamut of general appeal. As we progress from infancy to maturity our tastes and our capacities are in constant evolution. As teachers we must study these changes in our pupils and offer in each progressive period the sort of literary pabulum which will best secure the existing mental grasp and best incite the healthy reach. With growing strength and tenser fiber the mental power expands and the varying emotions find freer expression. The counter- play of life and literature grows more interesting, and each becomes a helpful interpreter of the other. Literature reveals its warnings, its encouragements, its wisdoms, its humors, and its beauties; and life absorbs these to its ultimate growth and good. It is to this great task — this task so rich in possibilities for the pupil's enrichment — that we English teachers have pledged our devotion. Who is there among us that will not be willing to pray the prayer which John Milton prayed in preparation for his great epic: What in me is dark Illumine^ what is low raise and support ? DepartmentI ORAL METHOD OF TEACHING LATIN 493 In teaching literature we shall constantly make earnest endeavor to increase the student's power to perceive the objective meaning of the literary message in order that there may come, coincident with this, a fuller conception of the subjective message. And all this we shall do in the faith that this expansion of intellect and emotion means the constant expansion of character. C. LATIN THE ORAL METHOD OF TEACHING LATIN GONZALEZ LODGE, PROFESSOR OF LATIN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY, N.Y. The oral method of teaching Latin is, properly considered, not a novelty. Its apparent novelty consists in its application to the present conditions of the study of the classics in our schools. For the oral method has been employed in the teaching of modern languages regularly in our schools for a number of years, and it was employed in the teaching of Latin universally down to a comparatively recent period, say, a century or more ago. The introduction of the oral method in the teaching of Latin and Greek, then, at the present day is, on the one hand, a reversion with certain modifications to a form of teaching prevalent centuries ago, and, on the other hand, it is an adaptation of a form of teaching well known among our modern-language teachers. The insistence upon a modification of our present system of teaching the classics is loud and widespread. It proceeds, as we all know, from a profound dissatisfaction with the results of our present teaching. In a democracy like ours the appeal must be made ultimately to the majority, and, if they are not convinced, they labor in vain who try only to convince the cultivated classes. Democracy is only just now coming to its own in the field of education. Nowhere has conservatism held its place more stubbornly. Murmurs of the people against the systems of training to which they have been sub- jected have become seriously effective only in comparatively recent times. In the minds of the unthinking criticism means immediate reform, and that reform is apt, sometimes, to take the form of obliteration, if it is opposed without due caution. Now the people at large are profoundly convinced of the inefiicacy of the training in the classics which has come down to us as the traditional training of a gentleman. Almost everywhere the college graduate up to a quarter of a century ago had studied Latin for from four to six years. Not one in one hundred, when he left college, was convinced of any genuine command of the language, and the utter lack of knowledge of Latin which he displayed in later years was always coupled with the feeling that he was woefully ignorant of it when he left college. We may say that the college student forgets in after- life what he knew on leaving college, of physics, of higher mathematics, of the details of history, etc., and that is true; but, as he looks back upon his college course there was a time when he knew something about these things, and there was a period when he showed a certain facility in his knowledge. Very rarely does a college student show facility in his knowledge of the classics. It is a common thing to hear educated people laugh about their ignorance of Latin, which they once studied. You rarely hear them laugh about their ignorance of the other subjects that they studied. In the defense of our work as teachers of the classics, we have fallen back upon the affirmation that they are of particular importance as mental gymnastics, and to that in our modern times we have added another reason which we maintain with great enthusiasm, the importance of the study of the classics for a proper knowledge of the intricacies of usage of our mother-tongue. The public is not interested in either of these reasons, and is not inclined to accept our ordinary explanations of the lack of attainment of our students in our classes in Latin and Greek. This age is an age which demands results, and, if results are not forthcoming, is apt to visit its indigna- tion not so much upon the teacher as upon the subject, as we have learned to our cost. 494 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary What, therefore, people demand is that if the student studies Latin he should gain some genuine knowledge of it; and while some of us may regard that attitude as unjustifiable, it is nevertheless one which we have to face. If such a demand were impossible of fulfill- ment, then we might lie back and face the worst, but we are not willing to admit that we are unable, with the time at our command, to develop a reading knowledge of Latin; and inasmuch as we have failed to do this according to the old method, thinking teachers are turning their eyes to the lessons of the past, and to the lessons that may be drawn from the experience of their colleagues in the modern field, and so has arisen the advocacy of the oral method, or, as it is sometimes called, the direct method. The first question that presents itself in this discussion is: By the employment of the oral method, do we mean that we desire to teach our pupils to use Latin in common con- versation, as if it were a modern language ? Now this question may be answered unhesi- tatingly in the negative. Latin, in spite of the dreams of some enthusiasts, cannot be made a spoken tongue. What, then, do we mean to do ? In brief we lay down this premise , that the prime necessity for ready reading of Latin is ready knowledge of it, its pecuHari- ties of structure, its peculiarities of form, and, furthermore, that this reading knowledge can best be obtained by constant employment on the part of the pupil of the knowledge that he gains as he gains it. It must be remembered that, while modern languages are taught now by the oral method, very few of those who study them may be expected to employ them in current speech. Nay, even those students who go on to the higher aca- demic degrees, for which all universities now require a rudimentary knowledge of French and German; even they are not expected, nor do they themselves expect, in the vast majority of cases, ever to speak the language ; but the experience of our modern friends shows that the best preparation for reading is the oral use of the tongue, and a proper theory of teaching would declare that what is true with regard to the modern language is true with regard to the ancient. The literature of Greece and Rome, which has come down to us, is what we want to read, and what we want to teach our pupils to read, with a certain amount of ease. That literature is, with slight exceptions, an elevated literature, and it does not embody the language of the street or the home. There is, therefore, no occasion to employ in Latin, to any great extent at least, even in reading, the language of everyday life. This is an additional reason why in advocating the oral method we do not claim to teach our pupils to speak Latin as an everyday language. In brief then, when we speak of the oral method we mean the constant employment of that which has been learned, in speaking. What will be spoken, the material of the classroom, will depend very largely, therefore, upon what is being studied at the time, not upon any merely conversational aim. For reading Latin or any other language, the first thing that the pupil has to learn is forms, the next necessity for reading is vocabulary, and the third is syntax. Of these three, so little syntax is actually needed in the 'initial stages of study that what is needed may come almost without consideration as a by-product. The main emphasis is to be laid upon forms and words. Forms must be committed to memory, a truism everywhere acknowledged, but the committing to memory of a set of forms involves an amount of waste if along with that acquisition does not go constant practice. It used to be custo- mary to have declension bees and conjugation bees, and pupil was pitted against pupil in the ready giving of detached forms. While there may be some value in that practice, it is very slight, for experience shows that a pupil may be able to give the forms of a para- digm with exactness and still not translate correctly the individual form when he sees it in a sentence. But this is not all. A student who is well drilled in the isolated forms will stumble badly when a number of different forms are associated in a sentence. If we take a simple sentence, like "The father gives to his son a book," we would expect our pupils to translate that sentence into Latin with ease and correctness. Now, as a matter of experi- ence, the number of mistakes that a class of twenty can make in such a sentence, when Department] ORAL METHOD OF TEACHING LATIN 495 every member of the class can inflect every one of the words necessary thruout correctly, is remarkable. I have seen a class of graduate students, with teaching experience, stumble pitifully over such little sentences as that. I have seen a woman of ten years' experience in teaching when asked to render a sentence like "He wished to see his mother," do it in this way; "Volo" — a pause — a reflection — and finally — "vult," "video" — a similar pause for reflection, and finally " videre," and in the same way with the third word. Now that is not knowledge — that is a more or less pitiful make-believe which may readily be remedied if the student has been trained from the start to tl»e difference between forms, as shown by their distinct signs, as distinct from the difference of meaning, as shown by distinct stems. The oral method says, therefore, that we must not teach forms as mere tours de force of memory, nor must we trust to laborious translation of Latin sentences — with perpetual reference to the printed paradigm — but while we have the complete paradigm learned, we must exercise the knowledge continually in actual utterance. Given in the first declension the words regina, rosa, ptiella, agricola, and the verb forms dat, dant, dahat, dabant, the teacher will ring the changes as follows: "The queen gives the rose to the girl of the farmer," varying to "queens give roses to the girls of the farmers"; "rose of the girl to the farmer," "girl of the queen"; "to the farmer"; "of the queen," in the plural, etc.; all rapidly, orally, and vivaciously. The employment of Latin in oral speech in the classroom requires, to be sure, a certain apparatus, particularly interrogative pronouns, such as quis and quid, quantum, qualis, quando, and the like, and also a certain number of imperative forms, such as die, narra, responde, a certain number of particles, like sed, and at, and igitur, perhaps; but this appara- tus is very small. Practically it can be entirely committed to memory during the first couple of lessons in the first year. It does not require any particular book, that is to say, it can be employed with any book. In the majority of our beginners' books, the reading material in the early lessons is extremely artificial. It is an unfortunate fact that the vocabulary of the first two declensions does not lend itself to the reading and conversa- tion, but in spite of this, by the device of question and answer and with some ingenuity on the part of the teacher, the oral method may be employed with every beginners' book now on the market. Some are better than others, and in fact there have been attempts, in recent years, to provide material for oral practice in many beginners' books in the form of short dialogues or narratives, but in all these books the oral work has been incidental, and the written work and the set recitation have been essential. The oral method reverses this, and makes the oral work essential and the written work incidental. It is evident from what has been said that a very important side of oral work is the continual rendering of English into Latin. I know that some distinguished scholars main- tain that the translation of English into Latin should be deferred for some months until the student has acquired a fairly complete knowledge of simple forms. The oral method denies this, and maintains that the boy who can render quickly at dictation a sentence like "The girl loves the rose," has a better knowledge of the forms involved than the one who can laboriously spell out "Puella rosam amat." In the majority of our beginners' books the exercises for translation have a definitely graded length. We have usually some ten sentences for translation from Latiji into English for every lesson, and perhaps half that number of sentences from English into Latin. Now if the pupil has studied a lesson that contains two or three substantives and the same number of adjectives and verb-forms, the ordinary teacher can, as I have shown above, ring innumerable changes upon these elements and instead of the paltry ten sen- tences can form thirty or forty, and as the lessons go on, with the increase in vocabulary the number is practically unlimited. There are, however, some books that have been made especially for this kind of work. Here we find the exercises consisting of a short piece of narrative with directions for expansion on the part of the teacher. We have Enghsh and German books made after this fashion, and it is likely that we shall soon have American 496 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary ones as well. That translation of Latin sentences is valuable is freely admitted, but in the initial stages its value is slight as compared with the translation of English into Latin. It is evident from what I have said that at the outset very little attention will be paid to syntax. The use of the infinitive mood after a verb of saying, and subjunctives after the particles ut and ne, and the indicative after a few particles like uhi and postquam give material, together with the ordinary concords, for an immense amount of practice in verb-forms. The characteristic meaning of the cases, by which I mean the indirect object for the dative case, particularly with verbs of giving and the like, the direct object with the accusative case, the simple objective and partitive genitives, and the ablative of means, manner, separation, and place where, will afiford ample material for the most extensive drill in the forms of the noun; in fact, it is quite pos^ble, if it were desirable, to spend the whole of a year on reading which would involve practically no more syntax than what I have mentioned. How this amount of syntax is to be taught is a matter of small moment. If the teacher can do it inductively, there is no objection. Most teachers will probably find it preferable to give it deductively. In the matter of vocabulary it is necessary to have a strict limitation. The ultimate aim of Latin study, as indicated, would prevent any extensive employment of the collo- quial phrases of the street. But even so, the work of the students should be devoted primarily to learning those words that are likely to prove most useful in their reading, by reason of their relative frequency of occurrence; but even with the limited word-list of the first year much can be done, for the study of vocabulary can be combined with rudimentary study in word-formation, and just as a child can make an adverb from an English adjective or an adjective from an English noun, so elementary training in such work in Latin very early in his course, will increase his command of words surprisingly. The oral method lays very little stress upon home preparation of original work. Re- viewing at home is entirely in place, but studying the advance lesson at home is somewhat to be discouraged with ordinary pupils, because in many cases it is ineffective, either on account of assistance rendered to the child or by reason of the incorrect results that we are so familiar with. The translation of passages set for reading in the book should come from the study of the elements from which they are composed, and the home study would be better devoted to this. In some of the European schools a small piece of translation is put on the board, and the meanings of the words being known, or given, the translation is elicited and the class drilled on the material involved in it, the home work being confined almost entirely to reviews. But here particular objection must be made to the use the vocabularies so commonly provided in our textbooks. The remarks of Professor Rippmann on the bad effects of the use of vocabularies in the case of modern-language study are so thoroly applicable to our own problem that I quote them {Modern Language Teaching, IV, 239) : The worst thing is to let the pupils use a dictionary or a special vocabulary. To look up a word in the dictionary or vocabulary is to get the meaning with the least effort and the least effect. The pupil who has been allowed to acquire the dictionary habit does not stop to see whether he can make out the meaning unaided. He turns the word up at once, and the impression is a slight one, even if he proceeds to write the word down with the meaning beside it. Sometimes there is a little diflSculty that remains unsolved by the dictionary; a phrase occurs which cannot be made out by word-for-word translating, but requires a little thought before the right English equivalent is obtained. Many editors do not allow the pupil to do even this for himself; they supply notes which contain render- ings ready made. A comparison of such editions and those on reform lines throws an interesting light on the familiar charge that the newer methods are designed to make things unduly easy for the pupil. Often, when I have advised the abandoning of dictionaries and vocabularies, teachers have asked: "How, then, are the pupils to prepare their work?" My answer is that, generally speaking, home work should be revision and application rather than preparation; that preparation with a dictionary has grave disadvantages; and that there are two ways in which a fresh portion of the text can be prepared without a dictionary, both of them edu- cationally sound. The first method is the one which I should recommend for ordinary Department] ORAL METHOD OF TEACHING LATIN 497 use: The teacher glances thru the page or pages he is going to set for preparation, and underlines such words as he knows to be unfamiliar to his pupils; when giving out the home- work, he points out these words and explains them. Now what I have said of the oral method is applicable particularly to the first year of study. It is there that the foundations of accuracy are laid. It is there that iteration upon iteration is absolutely essential, and it is in the first year, in our ordinary system, that slovenly habits of thinking are so frequently developed. In the subsequent years increasing stress will be laid upon prepared translation outside of the classroom, but at the same time the oral method always lays particular stress upon oral exercises. A favorite exercise of the kind is for the instructor to read before the class a piece of simple narrative in Latin, and quiz the members of the class as to the meaning of the passage, to see whether they comprehend it thoroly. He then requires that the members of the class bring in on the following day the story as they remember it. It is to be ODserved that here the train- ing of the ear is continued in that the original Latin is understood only thru the ear. Another exercise of a different character is to read a short narrative in English before the class, so that they may have some connected idea of the story, and have them write out the story in Latin. Such exercises as these afford plenty of opportunity for training in syntactical discrimination, for with every exercise special constructions can be required of the pupil. Naturally, if this were not done in the case of many pupils, the written Latin would take the form of a congeries of short detached sentences. Now I have only attempted in the foregoing to give an outline sketch of the main characteristics of the oral or direct method. Perhaps the chief advantage of the method is that it is extremely elastic, and the fact that by reason of the demands that it makes upon the teacher it renders him at the same time practically independent of the textbook. It makes the teacher a teacher indeed, not merely a hearer of recitations, and the inter- rogator of the lesson Jearned. It emphasizes the personal relation between teacher and pupil. This very fact makes the method a more exacting one than the ordinary one of question and answer from the pupil, but at the same time its results are so much better that it is worth the additional exertion. DISCUSSION John C. Kirtland, Phillips-Exeter Academy, Exeter, N.H. — Professor Lodge's premises I accept without reservation. The prevailing methods of teaching Latin furnish a good example of stereotyped incompetency. They must again be humanized, if the study of the language is to perform its educational function and maintain its high place in our school curriculum. It is difficult, too, to deny the conclusion of our protagonist, fortified as it is by the authority of so acute an observer, so profound a scholar, and by the results of his own experiment in practicing what be preaches. If I presume to offer some opposing arguments, it is only because of my feeling of responsibility as advocatus diabolic for I can present only theoretical considerations. I take it that, despite the propaganda of Dr. Avellanus, it is scarcely worth while to discuss the question of the practical utility of the conversational use of Latin. In this country we have discarded the teaching even of Latin composition as an end in itself, and restrict this side of our work to purely grammatical exercises. In the case of Latin, the oral, or direct, method rests its claim upon its a-priori validity and its supposed greater effectiveness as a means of learning to understand the written language. If we could put to one side all considerations of expediency, we should be forced to acknowledge this claim. One can never entirely enter into the spirit of a foreign language until he is able to read it without the intermediation of words of his own tongue and the ideas they suggest, and this immediate apprehension is difficult of attainment by one who has begun with careful translation of every word and sentence. We must reckon, however, with certain hard facts. The most important of these is 498 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary that the majority of the students who begin the study of Latin in the United States any given year will not go far enough to learn much Latin, whatever the method. As for those who will study the language four years, I will not venture to express an opinion as to whether they would learn more Latin in that period by the direct method than by the present method, but I do feel sure that they could not be prepared in the former way for college-entrance examinations such as are now set. Viewed in this aspect, I believe the entrance examinations are sound. With the strongest conviction that they should be a real test of the candidate's mastery of the language," I feel, nevertheless, that this mastery is valuable chiefly for the acquaintance with the laws of language which it involves and for the training in English style which is, in translation, its outward and visible sign. In saying this I have in mind, of course, those who will not carry the study of Latin beyond the school. Now, a strict application of the direct method would mean the disuse of translation and of formal grammar. The student's knowledge of the meaning of the original would be tested by the expressiveness of his reading and his ability to paraphrase or to explain in the language of the original. Grammar would be taught by the inductive method. I believe that we often, in this country, emphasize the wrong things in teaching Latin grammar, or emphasize the right things at a wrong time and in a wrong way, but I should be unwilling to abandon entirely the systematic teaching of the forms and the laws of the language. I hope I have made my position clear. I do not for one moment suppose that the highest knowledge of a language consists in familiarity with the grammatical categories in which its usages are classified, or that it has any inherent and necessary connection with translation. I am concerned only with the pedagogical problem of teaching Latin with the greatest profit to the American boy or girl who can give to the study only a fraction of from one to four years. Finally, I am apprehensive that the adoption of the direct, oral method would render it still more difficult than it now is to convince the public of the educational advantage of Latin as compared with the modern languages. We should have to surrender the arguments based upon our scientific procedure, the logical and lin- guistic discipline afforded by the conscious comparison of two languages so dissimilar in their expression of thought as Latin and English, and the training in the use of English which is conceded to be gained from conscious, laborious translation. I shall not try to develop this line of reasoning, but what I mean is this: that we should be substituting for ratiocinative processes the imitative processes of the so-called natural methods of teaching the modern languages. I have purposely spoken as if the adoption of the direct method would imply rigorous adherence to it thruout the course. Professor Lodge would not go so far, nor is it neces- sary to go so far; but it has seemed to me likely to be helpful if we should consider how far the method might carry us, and recognize that each step would take us just so much nearer certain things and just so much farther from certain other things. But, as I agree with Professor Lodge in aim, so I agree with him also in placing emphasis upon oral teaching. What I mean by oral teaching is, however, not the direct method. I would have sentences turned from English into Latin off-hand and orally, discussed, and perfected, and only then written out; the constant reading of the Latin text; memorizing of fine passages and sen- tences illustrative of usage, such as Ovid's line : Si quis qtti quid agam forte requirat erit; translation of the short sentences of the beginners' book at hearing and without previous preparation. This sort of an oral method I myself employ, and not simply because of the importance of the auricular impression, but because I have found that it is easier in this way to put the stress upon things that are vital and to insure a correct attitude in the preparation of lessons. I am inclined to think, on the other hand, that we have too little careful, deliberate written translation. It is by no means easy to criticize convincingly the form of a halting oral rendering. The student's understanding of the substance of the original is perhaps not best discovered in translation. He should be asked frequently Department! STIMULI IN TEACHING LATIN 499 to repeat the description, or narrative, or argument in his own words — but I would have the words English, not Latin. A valuable exercise is the summarizing of a passage of unfamiliar Latin read by the teacher. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL STIMULI IN TEACHING LATIN ERNST RIESS, CHAIRMAN, DEPARTMENT OF CLASSICS, BOYS' HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N.Y. The condition of Latin-teaching at the present time calls for serious reflection on the part of every person interested in the continuance of classical education. No matter how consolatory the statistics as to the number of Latin-students may sound, there are other figures that threaten like the Mene Tekel of Belshazzar. Latin occupies the distinguished place at the bottom of the report of the College Entrance Examination Board. Dr. Max- well of New York in his report for 1909 states that in the number of students Latin has been surpassed by German, and he adds: "Not that Latin holds second place, but that it still does so, is the surprising fact. For the teaching of Latin does the very best in its power to kill all interest in the subject." It is rumored, even, that the New York Board of Education is considering the curtailing of the time given to us Latin-teachers, and we have had occasion to discuss this question in all seriousness with at least one member of the board. There is, too, a noteworthy unrest among the more thoughtful of our brethren. Conflicting proposals are made on every side : reduction of the amount to be read, changes in the authors to be studied, changes of method, all these thoughts are uttered not only in the privacy of Latin clubs, but also in the market-place. Once more Wisdom crieth aloud and, I am afraid. Foolishness crjeth still louder. It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss any of these proposed changes. Some of them, no doubt, are valuable. Others, no doubt, are mere concessions to the cry of the Banausoi. Against these we should set ourselves like the adamantine walls of Erebus. This country is suffering too much, in every field, from the contempt shown to the expert, the so-called theorist, as compared with the much-vaunted practical man. We shall earn the respect of the community by asserting our self-respect. It is we who must be listened to when a change is to be made. But no matter what is done, no teaching has any value unless it appeals to the interest of the student. This must be our pedagogical Alpha and Omega. Many teach- ers feel this deeply, and many devices have been proposed to stimulate this interest. This paper means to distinguish between true or natural and false or artificial stimulation. Natural stimulation here denotes such helps as grow naturally from the subject to be taught or from the method of its presentation, while artificial stimuli are brought in from the outside. A-priori reasoning, based on the principles of psychology, would favor the former. The latter, however, are by far the more showy and therefore, when published, attract much more attention. We will gather these latter under several heads. There is, in the first place, the "Milieu Fallacy." This has largely been borrowed from modern-language teaching. In this a great deal is made — and perhaps rightfully so — of plunging the student into the French and German atmosphere. For this purpose, pictures illustrating French or German life are hung on the walls of the classroom, the life of the people is made the subject-matter of instruction, as in Le tour de France, or in Pope's German Composition, and the whole material is adapted to this purpose. Now, any archaeologist will tell you that imitations of ancient works of art can always be recognized by the fact that certain features of the originals are unduly exaggerated. In the same way, our imitators among the Latin and Greek teachers have proceeded. Instead of being satisfied with pictures illustrating phases of ancient life, they have established, where they had the means, Greek and Roman rooms, with all the features of the ancient house, from the mosaic floor to the statues adorning the walls. Here their teaching is supposed to 500 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary gain a mystic enlivening from the surroundings. The fallacy in this is the violation of the apperceptive principle. In modern-language teaching it is not the Carolingian or the mediaeval France or Germany which is brought home to the pupil, but the manners and the life of his own times, which, while different, still present sufl5ciently numerous points of contact with the student's own life to be of benefit. To plunge the student, however, into Greek and Roman surroundings is like putting him on Dr. Faustus' cloak and trans- porting him into absolutely strange countries. Instead of arousing a sustained interest, they bewilder the student, and the fever heat of the first excitement soon passes away, leaving matters where they were at the outset. The second is the "Building Fallacy," which, being less costly, is more widely spread. Here belong the building of Caesar's bridge, of Roman houses, and so forth. This is much less dangerous than the first, its deception lying largely in the fact that no self-activity on the part of the student is involved. I am a strong believer in visualization, but it must be a spontaneous process, not urged by the teachers, and not simply carrying out the teacher's suggestions. One of the best cases on record is that of a very successful woman teacher, who, with the expense of much labor and time, has with her students reconstructed a Roman house on a very large scale. The work is admirable, and was very helpful to the students who built it, but — what of the future generations of students? The chief ob- jection to all this activity is the same which lies against much of our science laboratory work, and against a great many of our textbooks that claim to emphasize the inductive or observational method. Instead of learning how to observe, the student is told what and how to observe, a process not at all more valuable, and requiring much more time than the deductive method. The "Presentation Fallacy" comes next. This is largely concerned with scenic pro- ductions, such as presenting on a stage scenes from Roman life, the dramatization of parts of Cicero's speeches, of scenes in the Aeneid, and so forth. These have indeed a missionary value, in that they may arouse the interests of the parents of our students. But they are far from doing this for the individuals chiefly concerned, namely, the pupils. On the con- trary, they consume too much of their time which is only too Umited. There is lastly the "Roman Commonwealth Fallacy". This, again, is borrowed from those elementary schools which try to foster civic education by establishing a school city. While opinions on this topic seem to be as yet hopelessly divided, I belong to those who see in the experiment a great danger. As it is, the public high school has constantly to fight attempts to do away with its democracy by establishing cliques within the school. The unavoidable rivalry in regard to offices, the heart-pangs of the unsuccessful candidates, the remoteness from the actual life of the community, all these are drawbacks compared with which the slight advantages dwindle into insignificance. To sum up: all our objections may be condensed into the one sentence: all these at- tempts are forced and lack spontaneity. Were they a voluntary offering on the part of the student body, they might, within bounds, be acceptable. As it is, however, they are all of them moribund and they demand too large a sacrifice of time and energy. Neither do they produce the desirable results of Latin-teaching. These I take to be : 1. Sharp and accurate linguistics, with a reflex action upon an improvement in the English style; 2. Appreciation of the literary merit of the reading-matter; 3. Understanding the social and poHtical lessons to be drawn from the study of the authors; 4. Engendering in the student the desire to continue his Latin after the high-school period. Which, then, are the stimuli in this direction, naturally springing from the subject ? In linguistics, especially during the beginning year, an appeal must be made to self- activity. This may best be done by doing away with the paradigm, having the student form his own examples. We like our own children best, and the student who has, in a few Department! STIMULI IN TEACHING LATIN 501 successive lessons, built up his own tuba, tubae, etc., who has found for himself the identity of the personal verb endings, will retain and employ them with greater love and with greater tenacity. Hand in hand with this goes the development of a feeling of power, both productive and critical. This is best achieved by emphasizing co-ordination, as between first and second declensions and conjugations, by making the pupil find, in his work, parallels from the old to the new. Finally there is the stimulus of association and contrast which is implied in the study of word-groups and synonyms, and the finding of cognates and erivatives. All this demands, not a new textbook, but the cutting-loose from any textbook, I should welcome the day when our beginners' classes shall have placed in their hands merely an exercise book with vocabulary, while all grammatical teaching shall proceed viva voce and at the blackboard under the guidance of the teacher. In literary appreciation the greatest stimulation comes from sight reading. This does not mean reading more than the prescribed texts, but reading these differently. Those are golden rules embodied in the recent report of the Committee on College En- trance Requirements appointed by the American Philological Association. Take each sentence exactly as it stands, and with strict attention to cases, moods, and tenses, have your students translate it. It is only in the rarest cases in my experience — and I have pursued this method for many years — that a student, even if dull-witted, fails to grasp the drift of the thought. Stopping now, let the class give the meaning, at first in their own words, then again as a faithful, yet idiomatic translation. Slow as the process is in the beginning, there is a surprising growth in power, and in a brief time the students come to like the exercise very much. Nor do they receive less grammatical benefit than by the old way. Much of the spirit-killing oral examination on constructions can be dispensed with and the time saved given to the real essentials. Even in classes beginning Caesar it becomes possible to read the whole assignment for the next day in class. This enables the teacher to assign definitely the new grammatical points to be looked up, thus removing the great objection to Latin, so well illustrated in the story of the man who asked all students in the morning whether they knew their lessons. In mathematics and other subjects the answer was a clear "yes," but in Latin it was a hesitating "I hope so." This method further allows the teacher to make his students see the real nature of Latin word-order as based on principles of thought rather than on arbitrary rules. Take as an example the passage in the second book of Caesar (chap. 17) : adjuvabat etiam eorum consilium, qui rem deferebant quod Nervii antiquitus, cum equitatu nihil possent — neqiie enim ad hoc tempus ei rei student, sed quicquid possunt pedestribus valent copiis — quo facilius Unitimorum equitatum, si praedandi causa ad eos venissent, impedirent, teneris arboribus incisis atque inflexis crebrisque in latitudinem ramis enatis et rubis sentibusque interjectis effecerant ut instar muri hae saepes munimentum praeberent, quo non modo non intrari sed ne perspici quidem posset, and after following it closely have the student show you how logically each subsequent statement grows out of the preceding one — and you will notice the eager interest with which the class undertakes and grasps this analysis. There is, furthermore, the stimulus most persistently advocated by Professor Lodge. The attention of the student ought to be directed toward the pictures and episodes in which the three authors abound. I instance only the battle with the Nervii, with its climaxes and anticlimaxes, the undaunted general appearing every time, like the deus ex machina, when affairs seem to be most hopeless, or the delicious picture of the delicati in the second Catiline, or the races in the Aeneid. The teacher who fails to have his class feel this falls far short of doing his duty toward his class. For years, now, editors and critics have been harping on the necessity of drawing parallels from modern literature. Here, however, I believe a decided reform to be neces- sary. Nobody can value more highly than I do the efforts of Professors Kittredge and Mustard in this field. Yet I consider their work inappUcable to the classroom, for the 502 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary reason that our students lack, for the most part, the apperceptive basis; for their acquaint- ance with Milton, Dryden, Pope, Herrick is practically nil. Nor do I think they would much benefit by these verbal parallels. The comparisons that ought to be drawn are of content, not of form, and even where they advert to the latter, they ought to bring out the difference in the modern treatment, not the mere verbal dependence. A much clearer appreciation of the Catiline speeches may be gained from showing how evidence is relied on in modern forensic speeches. The Volusenus episode in Caesar may be brought home by showing the treatment of similar topics by Kipling. Lastly, one of the most important stimuli in arousing literary appreciation is the effort at model translation. Here, too, self-activity is to be incited rather than mere receptivity from the study of existing works. I remember with great pleasure the work of a senior class in Greek under one of the most successful teachers I have ever known, work which resulted in a complete metrical rendering of Iliad I by the combined efforts of the class. Hours taken from the mere mechanism of reciting for this kind of work are most fruitful. I need the less to dwell on the lessons to be learned from the study of antiquity, as I have years ago expressed myself to some length on this topic (Latin Leaflet I), and as this point is beginning to find attention from an ever-widening circle of teachers. The only caution required here is tact coupled with fearlessness. Students are only too eager to find parallels to Caesar, Cicero, and Virgil in the events of their own community, and it -requires a gentle but firm restraint on the part of the teacher to keep them from hasty conclusions. Nothing can stand the instructor in better stead in this particular than a thoro training in the methods of historical research, and I can but again voice my regret at the ever-widening breach between classicists and historians in secondary education. But even if we cannot persuade our colleagues in the history department to allow us to teach some history, we can borrow from them a leaf in adopting their method of collateral reading and reports. The boy who has read some chapters from Boissier's Cicero will have a better understanding of the relations between Caesar and the orator, and Baring-Gould's CcBsars will furnish him with a truer key to the understanding of Virgil's aims than all lectures and introductions can do. Lastly, all of the work on the part of the teacher has gone for naught, if it does not result in the mature fruit of the desire to read more widely than the limited range of high- school literature. Here we fall most frequently short of our own ideals. Even the best among our pupils leave us with a sigh of relief, and were it not for the compulsory Latin of the freshman year in college, they would never again open a Latin book. And yet it should be our greatest pride to have our students return to us in later years with the statement that they have continued their pursuit of Latin beyond what was demanded. I know it can be done: in the first place, the teacher must be an enthusiastic specialist in his subject, not merely looking upon it as the cow that furnishes him with a livelihood. In the second place, our students must leave us not with knowledge, but with power. The teacher who has given his class the ability to tackle any Latin text with the help of a vocabulary is sure to have engendered in their hearts the desire to make use of this power, even if it should manifest itself only in a few chosen breasts. So that this is the sum- total of all our requirements: be widely read yourself, and your pupils will be widely read and appreciative disciples of their masters. DISCUSSION J. E. Barss, Hotchkiss School, Lakeville, Conn. — The fallacies cited by Dr. Riess all have the same origin — the confusion of means with ends. Devices which may attract a pupil's attention, but which do not further stimulate interest, are useless. Any subject is interesting in the hands of an interesting teacher. Our problem is how to be interesting men and women. One immediate way of making Latin interesting is to show pupils the Department] STIMULI IN TEACHING LATIN 503 enormous debt English owes to Latin, and that no one can possibly be a master of English who does not know Latin and Greek. Then grammar has its dramatic side. Sketch for your class, as roughly as you please, a football game. The boy kicking the ball represents the nominative case; the ball itself, the accusative of the direct object; the goal toward which it travels, the accusative with ad; the other goal, a separative ablative; the crowd of excited spectators, the dative — the case of the interested looker on. William F. Abbot, Classical High School, Worcester, Mass. — I shall confine my remarks to natural stimuli, as I have had practically no experience with the artificial. My feeling in regard to the latter has been one of distrust, due to the inability to see how the time which is absolutely needed for the mastery of essentials can be increased so as to include interesting but non-essential details. The strongest stimulus, it seems to me, in arousing interest in a subject, is the feeling that the knowledge of it is worth while. This insures a desire on the pupil's part to study faithfully. This interest a teacher can arouse by showing how important a part Latm has played in the development of our modern civilization, and how necessary is an ac- quaintance with it for anyone who desires to be well trained in modern life. Another stimulus is the growing sense of mastery over a new and difficult language, which a pupil gains under skillful guidance. This is a very strong incentive in arousing an interest in his work. Ability to do something well naturally tends to create a fondness for doing that something. In order to enable a class to acquire this feeling of power the teacher must himself feel the value of what is taught and show a deep interest in the sub- ject. Hence he must read widely in various authors and be himself a thoro student of many details of his subject, which he can never expect to use in his class except in the most incidental way. From observation of my own classes, I believe that one reason for pupils' lack of interest in Latin has been the narrow range of the curriculum allowed by college require- ments. Therefore I welcome most heartily the recent proposed enlargement of the Latin course laid down for the secondary schools. My hope is that the results will be so suc- cessful that the list of authors will be still further extended. The result of narrowly defined amounts of Caesar, Cicero, and Virgil has been to lead the teacher into ruts and thereby deaden his interest in what is taught. The inevitable outcome has been a cor- responding lack of interest on the part of the pupil. In the senior year of the school with which I am connected it is customary to review the chief points of Latin grammar. I frequently discover that pupils have been using words unintelligently. For instance, take the familiar rule of the agreement of a finite verb with its subject. I have never yet found a class in which the pupils were not puzzled by the question, "Why called finite?" The stimulus supplied by an under- standing of the technical terms used, I consider an essential and necessary one; yet in this respect classes regularly show a serious deficiency. To the ordinary pupil the Romans appear a remote and strange people. Any method of instruction which will convince him that the Romans were just as wide-awake and alive as he is himself will stimulate his interest. One method of accomplishing this is by fre- quent comparisons, suggested by the text read, between ancient and modern customs. For example, what high-school pupil who has attended the track games of his school will fail to note, when he reads in the fifth Aeneid, "Ipse omnem longo decedere circo infusum populum et campos iubet esse patentis," that the throngs of ancient and modern times are alike in their eagerness to crowd in upon the contestants ? Another stimulus which is useful in kindling the enthusiasm of a class is the oral reading of some anecdote, sentence by sentence, to be interpreted sometimes individually, sometimes by the class collectively. The only trouble with this method is the eagerness of the quicker members of the class to give their renderings before the slower ones have com- prehended the meaning. This can be obviated at the expense of some loss of time by 504 NATION A J. KDVCATWN ASSOC! ATION |Sr...,„i».y (c'llInK llir ( lnhrt l(» willr llirlr lrun»livtl()nH, Kovcrul of whl( h ran br rriid mIiukI wIkmi iIm- I. Ill III rniilliiK liiut hrrii iiiiliilicd, ill (OIK IiihIom I wotihl Miiy llwit I liritrllly lifter willi Dr. KicHHVrxi fllctit prcHciitiilioii of Ihn Hiilijtu t. i licllcvr Unit llic iiiiii ul' hrKindiiry lulionl iiihlriiclioii In Liilin Ih ii iIioid KnniiKlliiK '»t' «»f tlir ntiidy iirc of conrHr prrmlHwIhIti. I »hoiild, howcvrr, coHNidrr tlial a pupil who roiild not triiUNlutr Into fair I'IiikIIhIi wllli KuhHlantlal iiccuriuy a pircr of onll- imry Latin provlouNly uiiHrrn liiul fallrd to gain tho tlcHlrnl rrnult of IiU »iUidy, niiaration for the actual buildiiiK they made IhiMunelvew familiar with the lilrttory of the T'oruiii in cvt i \ .!< l.ul. mul ^iiveoiily their Kpare time to mich work. The Hecond of thene experlmenlH wait the buihliuK of a Koiiian liounc the year after by Home HtudeiitH who were takltiK a courwe of lecturen on the private life of the Ktimans, and who (lume that form of wmk Instead of wrltluK the Ioiik paper re(|uiie() II / sri n\ 1/ I ////!/ wrCS: A PUILOSOPUJCAL AND mSTORI- (1/ l^iiKOSPECT TUDMAS I MCCOKMACK, I'UIM ll'Al. Ult' lUi; LA SAltK-VKWl' lowNSIIII' UIOH SCHOOL LA 8ALLB,,ILL. MATHEMATICS AN BCONOMIIATXON OF THOUOUT The moit lalient practical foature of all identlAc thought it Iti economic or labor- laving purpose. The lawi of phyiici, of astronomy, of geology, etc., are, on their i^rac- tical tide, mere shorthand or rather thort-mind formulae or rules for recoverlnK. with a minimum of mental labor, by means of little brains and the mechanical manipulations of ti pencil, the past and future facts of nature, which, without these rules and laws, we should have indefinite labor and take indefinite time in recovering. Such are the so-called physical laws of refraction and of falling bodies, the prediction of eclipses, etc.; millions of cases reduced to a single case; all a saving of intellectual labor. < But this economy of mental effort is most conspicuous in mathematics. Memorised addition-results save not only frirt ion of aboriginal fingers and toes, but save also brain- strain~nn economy still furtlicr lioiKhtened and typified by the modern addinK-mnchines. Tlic multiplication table, the Arabic decimal machinery, determinants, intcKiution are all thought -saving devices. But pre-eminent among all these economic meclwtni/ations of huiniiii think inn are the tables of logaritluus, products, powers, roots, etc., in which thr in Ilium 1 1 ;. il l.iliors of generations have been capitalised and amassed for all time. Ill III N h \ III. development of mathematics becomes a continuously progressive iil> Il > I . n .1)11 III .11 in. I petrifaction of quantitative thought, a permanent crystalli- /.iii Ml >i .|iiiniii iin. in iiiiertonir thinking, a standardising of the machinery of the mind, wiiu ii n-.i, ii, iii, |.inii,M !,■ mi i|. i, hnnnrni ui I ho shorthsttd symbolism, or, as I l>n'iVi I.. ..ill II. Ill, ii,.ii „i ,,i I, ih.piM, 1,1, i.i. distinguished from stenographic) s\ini...ii 111 ,.i .ii". 1,1.11, .m.iU 1 \i-. I ill, 111 I III', vii'w, to quote the lucid words of an old ''dii I in, ii,i, I , 111, I ■•|,.ii.i.ii , ,,i 111. iiMiid. where it may enjoy the fruits of all itsioiiii. I i,,i>,,i .Willi. .Ill 111,- i,iiir.iir..i iiiiiii 111" ■• Il 1 111, .-isential, paradoxical purpose of ma 111. mill, , 111 iiii . ...II.. i.ii,.ii, 1,1 r. I 11,1 ,,i iiiiiii iir- i,s \cry dint of thinking. I 111 , 1. 111. 1.111, i\ ml, II,. Ill ,1 1,1, r.iii iiii . ,,,11.. nil .11 i,,ii of mental and manual lid Mil . .111 !.(■ r\ni I II,. I, |.,il|..il,l\ 1 1 I, , ,| ri III. .I,.iii.iiii ,.| .ijnihcil nialhfnuitirK, in cnjiinecr- iuK, surveying, i»a\ PMi 1,'M, .111,1 III, i, i Now wli.il i'i (lie I, ,,11 ,.| ill Mil . ■ I I""" . '" Il 1'"" I ""1 Hll|.|. I I , III ini. II, , hi.il .1, iiMi\ , II, I, , , II, ,■ .. K.im, .1 llii |„,iiil ,.| V I, M ,,., . ,M,i.i. I Willi I 11, .|im.' . Ii,.iii II .1 ,11 , ,,| ml, II, < lii.d |>..w,' to linn Willi ,',,,i.,l I, .1,1 l.\ III, 1,1, In ..I n,. it an ii'.IIm'Ii, m |.ii.ili,,ii iImI Ih iHil, n 1,1 of fill i^',1 lie mil. Ill III 1 1 I lull (OUII' ii|..ii I ,,ii Willi 1 1 1,1 1 of any ollu i .li . i|.lm, . .111.1 I I like i I Ilia! iln , i .i \ icw whlch, l..i iT | .i .i. I i. 1 1 . , in, .ilional Vllhic, ii.r n..l m l 1. , I i\ ,(| proper einplia.si;. in pcd.i.'.ni, .,) ilii,,i\ And the sec«)nd Ir, ., ,ii i ,, ih.ii i In ■. i, w , ,,ii ii nli i., pi.i, 1 1, ,,l i,l, , , onnects OUr so-ealled formal theoretical :.iii,l\ i.\ ., In mr. Iml wiih ,,ni in.ii.ii.il mdiii.irial civillxa- ' Sco Hip worlo* of Krimt Mm li, ( In. mj;,. I Ik- ( tp.u ( ' i I'uM, .Inur < .,iiii, my • I'roin fiiBi'ik, short, ttiid i/i/i'(i«, miiul. ,' 111 ll Iw.. Ilimr 1 11 1 ll .111.1 |.iiiii,,i.li.ii 1 \V(" have, in this >l all human ill illl II. Ill 111. III. li lin 111.' V^il . ll in inteiiHe 1 ..i n i.nl.il .11, ,11 1 1,, 1 11,1 III who has nil. mi 111. .li .111.1 . |.. . i.iIIn , i|.lm. . will, ll ..111 1,. 1 liiaic study, loiifiht lionie 1 11, 1 1 1 111. ll Ol kliowl, tion 220,000 Painting and glazing 270,000 Plumbing and pipe-fitting 100,000 / Structural ironwork 100,000 i Foundry work 100,000 II. Metal and machine trades ( Machine-shop work 280,000 I Blacksmithing 220,000 \ Engineers and firemen 400,000 ! Weaving of textiles 250,000 Clothing manufacture 170,000 Shoemakmg and leather work 200,000 Other metal working 80,000 IV. Electrical work 100,000 V. Printing 140,000 VI. Agriculture g, 000, 000 VII. Mining 500,000 A classification so general must be far from satisfactory. Thus the building trades have very little in common on the purely technical side; plumbing, pipe-fitting, and structural ironwork are intermediate between Groups I and II and about as appropriate to one as the other; engineers and firemen and many printers belong technically to Group III, etc. On the other hand, it would seem that relations among the building tpades are so intimate that any serious study of one would lead to measurably clearer notions about others; that the structural iron-worker is, on the whole, more nearly related to the machinist ! Department] INDUSTRIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 689 than to the builder; and that engine operators also require much of the machinist's equipment. Upon the basis of the five considerations already mentioned, each "group" would seem entitled to a place in the curriculum and in the order named, barring special local conditions. Each should be studied by means of at least one of the subordinate industries; more, if possible. Each, however, of the first four at least is held to outrank any'one of the included trades; e.g., the course of study should not undertake a second or third trade under the building or machine industries until it has assigned some place to electrical work. The building-trades group being so populous, and representing so dominant a proportion of skilled labor, seems clearly entitled to first place, and the large number of woodworkers goes far toward justifying the usual manual-training course from the present point of view. If but one industry is to be dealt with, clearly this is the one. Yet it is doubtless in some senses a waning industry and it would not be surprising if the approaching census reduces its pre- ponderance materially. In Group II the machinist certainly has first place, not because of the plurality indicated, but because his work and his knowledge are fundamental to so many other industries. Technically he is a builder of machines; but this involves some ability as a metal-worker combined with some understanding of machinery in general, its adjustment, alteration, and repair. Men with such equipment, whether nominally machinists or not, are to be found in any type of industrial establishment and are the ones whose special talents gain the promptest recognition and advancement. Two aims should characterize the school work at this point: (i) to give the general notions of the processes in the building of machinery; (2) to study and, so far as practicable, to con- struct various mechanisms with a view to the development of mechanical ingenuity. The taking-apart and reassembling of any mechanism, the con- struction of any mechanical project or moving toy and experimenting with various adjustments to secure its proper operation — all of these may be expected to increase the pupil's understanding of machinery and to disclose and develop any latent mechanical talent which he may possess. Group III, that of machine-handling, is seen to consist largely of what may be called semi-skilled industries, which command a wage distinctly better than that of the common laborer but below that of the journeyman mechanic. The ability here required is ordinarily that of deftness or speed in the operat- ing of a machine rather than any thoro understanding of the machine itself. The question of what special types of education, if any, will be advantageous to the very large number of pupils who are destined for this group, is doubtless the most difficult one of all. What may be done for the person who is confined to a single process in an industry or a small part of a process ? Clearly a perspective view of the indus- try, from the sources of its raw materials to the social functions of its product, 690 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training is one of the first services required, and this should doubtless be the foremost aim of any attempt to deal with these industries. Further, any work leading to the better understanding of machinery, such as has been suggested for the previous group, will have value from two viewpoints: (i) It will have a selec- tive influence, encouraging the more capable operatives to rise above the rank of operative. (2) For the operatives who are to remain such, this would hardly have the same practical value; but the ability of these to understand and appreciate the mechanism of their machines ought surely to mean a much more intelligent interest in their work and much more satisfaction in its con- duct. It would appear then that the treatment of this group of industries must be very largely cultural in its purpose. The electrical industries while employing fewer men are considered as a separate group for several reasons. Electricity is a factor which no cultural survey of modern .industry, no matter how elementary, can possibly ignore, and on the vocational side two special factors require its emphasis : {a) It is constantly becoming a more significant factor in the fields of the leading industries, so that some acquaintance with its theory and applications is of practical value to many times the number listed in the census as regular elec- tricians, {h) It demands a unique type of ability both mental and manual — an ability frequently discovered in pupils whose progress in many other lines is unsatisfactory. This is one of the industries in which study by actual repro- duction is most available, since the construction, alteration, and operation of simple bells, motors, telegraph sounders, etc., is fully practicable at small expense in the usual school shop, and is a type of work well calculated to develop a general conception of the nature and application of electricity. Brief reference may be made to the remaining groups bracketed above because of special difficulties involved in centering the school constructive work upon them. Printing, like electrical work, is classed as a group rather than as a trade because of its marked individuality and the fact that it has so little in common with other industries. It is of the last three the most feasible in the school, altho requiring special equipment and also, possibly, smaller classes, tho further experiment is necessary to prove this fully. The school can of course make use of a great variety of printed matter and this is apparently the one point at which industrial work may be carried on in continuous service of the school as a whole, and one which should therefore have special value as a socializing influence. That it could be in so large a sense a regular industrial enterprise, conducted by the school, should give a peculiar sense of reality to the whole process and particularly to such considerations of cost of supplies and economy of materials, which in the usual types of constructive work must be developed in a somewhat artificial way if at more detail. That agriculture occupies nine million men shows in how great a degree this is still a farming nation. Unquestionably the city school as well as the country school must find means for its presentation, but it is usually considered Department] INDUSTRIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 691 apart from the lines of industry already discussed and space does not permit its detailed consideration here. Mining is also seen to be of high rank numerically and it is in many aspects worthy of a place as a skilled industry, but it is so highly localized and so difi&cult of reproduction in the school in any typical aspects that it would not seem available for treatment except in the most general way. In the treatment of any of these industries it is clear that the school work should aim consciously at developing a comprehensive view of the industry as a whole, and some appreciation of the value of this may be counted on from the pupils, tho continuous attention to these aspects cannot be expected from children of this age. Almost any manipulation of the materials involved will be of assistance here, but very few industries have sufficient fascination in their mere processes to secure the most desirable quality of attention and interest from the pupils. This' is ordinarily dependent upon the securing of a product embodying in a vivid, concrete way the knowledge and technique that has been acquired; such product to be a unity, a project complete in itself, not simply a series of exercises or experiments. Thus in the case of carpentry, the framing of a model house would be appropriate; in the case of concrete construction the erection of a model building or possibly the laying of some sidewalk on the school grounds. If in addition the product is usable as a toy or otherwise, so much the better; e. g., in studying the strength of materials a bridge would be good but a multiplane kite possibly better. Similarly in electricity a motor would be good, but an electric motor boat better. This whole field, however, is one in which the school is just beginning to feel its way, and until the results of much further experimentation are available, details of method may be suggested only in the most tentative way. The one certainty is that the content of the industrial arts is such as to demand a much more serious exploitation on the part of the elementary school, and that fuller knowledge of this content will be an important influence toward the better after-adjustment of pupils to their industrial environment. (Appendix B contains more detailed suggestions regarding work of this type.) SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL CLASSES However, even with the fullest development of the industrial element in the regular course, the educational needs of a large percentage of the pupils will not be met. This is especially true in the cases of those pupils who do not readily respond to our usual methods and who, therefore, do not progress regularly from grade to grade. These pupils leaving school at fourteen, especially when they leave from the lower grades, are unable to secure occupation which promises regular and satisfactory advancement. These workers, entering as they do into unskilled or into highly specialized industries where the subdivision of processes is minute, require for their own well-being and for the benefit of their employers a general rather than a specific industrial training. 692 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training For these reasons it is extremely desirable to introduce special industrial classes in connection with the regular work of the last two or three years of the elementary school, that will appeal directly to the above groups of children and occupy four or five hours a week. In order to make the best adjustment and to secure the best results from such classes, it will be necessary to institute a variety of experiments — experi- ments that may be as varied as the size of the school system permits. These experiments should be governed to a considerable extent by the varying indus- trial conditions prevailing in the different localities and should connect with the other work of the school at as many different points as possible. Such special classes give promise of doing much to solve the problem of the backward or non-progressive pupil, the problem which conscientious and thoughtful teachers have ever taken seriously to heart. Another type of special class might deal even more specifically with individual pupils just on the point of leaving school, occupying perhaps two or more of the afternoon school sessions per week. Pupils taking this course would continue for the remainder of the time in the regular school classes, the work there being so arranged that they would drop certain subjects entirely rather than parts of different subjects. The more fundamental subjects would naturally be confined to the forenoon and in these no distinction between regular and special pupils would be required. Admission to such a class might be limited to pupils fourteen years of age, or those on whom the school has no further legal hold. It would obviously interfere with entrance to high school, and should presumably be placed before the pupils as an inadequate substitute for a secondary course, none being admitted except upon evidence of inability to afford or profit by the conven- tional high-school course and upon written consent of parents. The work of such a class might deal with a small or a larger number of industries according to local conditions and requirements. In either case, however, with such a time-allowance it could clearly be much more thoro, systematic, and technical than that of the regular manual-training courses. It might well be expected not only to give a semi-vocational preparation to a con- siderable number of the more mechanically minded boys but also to lengthen materially the terms of their school life — in which case both the industrial and the academic work secured would be for the pupil just so much clear gain. FURTHER SUGGESTIONS REGARDING COURSE OF STUDY It has not been found possible to offer a complete course of study represent- ing any phase of the work which has been discussed. The following pages therefore deal with isolated topics only with a view of illustrating certain types of treatment available for a study of the industries. In order to make this material as practical as possible in its suggestion, it Department] INDUSTRIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 693 is confined for the most part to an account of work which has had actual trial within the schoolroom. As has been suggested earlier, there are various les of constructive work which deserve place within the school from the view- )int of the child's immediate interests and requirements, but are without lirect bearing upon the industries. These are omitted here as lying outside le scope of the present discussion. A. STUDIES OF INDUSTRIES IN THE PRIMARY GRADES I. THE EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH First Example — Study of the Textile Industry^ (Second Year, Horace Mann School, New York) The work centers about the main lines of thought during the year, in connection with e study of social occupations as they are found among the pastoral and early agricultural pies. As these types represent very simple conditions, the activities are still largely ose involved in thp securing of food, clothing, and shelter. The study of the first grade rms a basis for comparison, and aids in the solution of similar problems under new con- lions. In the pastoral stage the domestication of animals, especially sheep, determined very gely the life and occupations of the people, and greatly enriched their sources of supply, rticularly that of clothing. The child brings with him into the second grade a vivid picture of the dress of the primitive hunter. He has learned that he used woven grasses, leaves, and skins for clothing. He remembers that the skin garments were very hard to prepare, and that the cloth of woven grass and rushes was not strong nor soft, nor close and fine like his own clothing. The children are now given pieces of silk, cotton, and woolen materials, and some raw wool from a fleece. By the sense of touch and examination of the raveled threads they decide upon the woolen cloth as being of the same material as the fleece. They are asked to find out which articles of their clothing are made of wool, at what season we wear wool, and to name other things made of wool. Having traced the woolen materials back to the wool, they are ready for the study of the sheep. They are then taken to Central Park, where they see the sheep in flocks. They notice the shape of the body, head, legs, and tail; his manner of moving and feeding, and his way of giving alarm. Memory sketches are made on the return to the classroom. In the lesson following, a fleece is shown and by ^■examination the children notice where the wool is thickest and softest, where finest, and ^Birhere coarsest. Different methods of shearing are discussed, and the old way compared ^Brith the new. Pictures help very much. Each child cuts a handful of wool from the ^Hleece and examines it very carefully. One child discovers that it feels oily, another that it ^Hb not white, another that it is full of burrs and sticks. It is decided that it must be cleaned ^^>efore it will be ready for spinning. They try cleaning by hand, but this method is decided to be too slow. Some one suggests washing. While talking, some of the children try to twist the fibers with their fingers and usually succeed in producing some short, uneven threads. This gives them a chance to imagine how the pastoral women must have started their spinning. Then they try to use their pencils to wind the thread, and suggest that sticks of some kind might have been used long ago for this. Gradually by getting used to the motion they are able to keep the pencil with the threads whirling, and the idea of the spindle is evolved. These are made of wood by the children and they spin a short length of the coarse wool. As they decide to wash the wool, tubs of warm water and soap are brought to the classroom. They discover that much energy makes the wool mat together. They also discover that the oily feeling is gone, and that it does not spin as easily. The question now » Teachers College Record, Vol. VII, pp. 344-47. 694 ^^ TIONAL ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Manual Training arises as to the best manner of getting the matted condition smoothed out, and finally comb- ing is suggested. It -is found that combing with the fingers is not a success, and that even the ordinary comb does not seem strong enough, so it is decided to make special carding combs. These are made of wood ^"Xg". The children use rulers, knives, hammers, and nails in construction. Four rows of nails about }" apart complete the comb. The children tried a few experiments with dyeing in their Indian work, so they are asked to suggest vegetables, berries, or roots that might give color to the wool. Such things as grapes, tomatoes, beets, onions, squash, poke berries, and blue-berries are usually tried by the children. They cook the vegetables and crush the- berries, and dip the wool only to find that most of the colors will not hold. Out of all the materials tried they find only a few, such as grape skins and tomatoes, that are satisfactory in giving a fairly good and fast color. In the first grade the children had woven grasses on a rectangular frame making use only of their fingers. They now construct a somewhat similar frame and study various methods of securing the finer woven warp thread to the two end-pieces. For the woof they use a manufactured yarn of difi'erent colors — blue, brown; black, and white. With this fine material the great length to be pulled thru each time proves very awkward, and discussion of some way to relieve the difficulty develops the idea of winding the entire weaving thread on a small stick, thus producing a primitive shuttle. After some further work the amount of time and labor required to raise and lower the individual warp threads becomes very evident, and the advantage of some means by which a whole set of alternate threads may be raised or lowered at one time is apparent. After much study and after some suggestions and experiments several forms of string heddles are developed and put into use. It is decided that the rugs to be made will be more attractive if several colors are used, and a study ensues as to the easiest and best w-ay to arrange the different colors. Stripes are decided upon, and a few suggestions are placed on the black-board, discussed, and compared. After this each child decides upon his color scheme, and draws a pattern for his rug, which he carefully follows in the weaving. As a result there is much originality displayed, and a great variety in the productions made. This work occupies the principal part of the first half-year, and in connection with it visits are made to the Natural History Museum, and to the Department of Domestic Art in Teachers College, where illustrations and demonstrations of the different processes are seen. The modern methods of carrying on these same processes are also touched upon. As there are no factories in the imme- diate neighborhood which can be visited, most of this work is illustrated by means of pictures enlightened by the experiences of children and teacher. Second Example — Candle Making in the Third Year (Francis W. Parker School, Chicago) An illustration of how the study of an industry may be combined with the meeting of a present social need — in this case the making of candles for a Christmas tree. The first thing to do was to choose the material of which the candles were to be made. Wax, paraffin, spermaceti, stearin, and tallow were shown to the children. Spermaceti and stearin were excluded on account of expense. To help in making a choice of paraffin, wax, or tallow, candles of each of these materials were burned. The paraffin flame was the largest, and that material was the one chosen. How to make the candles was the next question. One of the boys said his father had read to him of boys making candles in bamboo canes. This idea was quickly taken up by the children and modified in various ways. The children were asked to work out their plans at home. The result was candles made in five different ways. One was made in a paper mold. A piece of heavy paper had been wrapped around the handle of a duster and the edges of the paper glued. Darning-cotton was used as a wick Department] INDUSTRIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 695 and the tube stood upright in a low tin can, being held in place by paraffin that had solidi- |fied around the tube. Paraffin was poured into the mold — the mold, of course, having to broken to release the candle. Another was made in a bottle, and another in a wooden lold. A wooden mold was made from a block 7X2X2. A half-inch hole was made length- rise, almost thru the block. The block was split, and the two pieces fastened together rith hinges and a clasp. (Help had been given in putting on the hinges and clasp.) A (piece of string was used for the wick. Another candle was made by dipping a piece of string in and out of wax repeatedly; lother, by rolling paraffin, partly warm, around a string. We liked the size and appearance of the dipped candle, and thought, too, that it was le easiest of the five ways shown for making candles; so it was decided to make the -istmas-tree candles by dipping. Five pounds of paraffin were melted. Three wicks were tied to each of two sticks, lils being tied to the wicks to make them sink easily into the paraffin. These nails were It off as soon as the paraffin stiffened the wick. Two dozen candles were made in this The children thought they would like to make candles for home, so we planned to lake larger candles, and candle-sticks of clay to fit them, as Valentines or Easter gifts. The children were shown some tin candle molds. These they thought would make nice candles of just the right size. To the paraffin for these candles was added some stearin to make them harder. A candle made of paraffin alone will bend in a warm room. The children drew plans for their candlesticks. They were then shown some simple candlesticks of good design, and their second plans were better. Many wished that the candles might be colored. Green is the only color we have managed successfully. This is made by dissolving green and yellow aniline dye in stearin. The candlesticks for the green candles were glazed green; for the white candles blue. 2. THE NEIGHBORHOOD APPROACH TO INDUSTRY Third Example (Plan of work in the University of Missouri, Teachers College)^ Acting in accordance with this view the Elementary School at the University of Missouri is using the following curriculum: In each of the first three years the playing of wholesome games, the observation of anything interesting and profitable to children, and the making of things useful and ornamental. In the fourth year, local industries, as found in the blacksmith shop, the post-office the laundry, the grocery store, the meat- market, the dairy, the shoe factory, the farm. In the fifth and sixth years, industries at large, such as fishing, lumbering, mining, manufacturing, transportation, government. In the seventh year, the development of important industries, especially within the United States. In pursuance of such a course the three R's — language, drawing, geography — con- tribute what they can. A bit of handwork in the making of a calendar by the first grade just before Christmas is much enriched by a personal account of the making which is read by the pupils. Further, it is the occasion for writing, number-work, artistic decoration, language. The simple game of tossing bean-bags into concentric circles on the floor is a wholesome occupation and greatly ennobles the social instincts. The game itself is much enriched by the oral discussion on how to play, by the reading of a personal account of the game, by the number-work involved in keeping score, by drawings illustrating the game. Further illustrations would show all the formal studies in the first three years wholly • From Fundamentals in the Elementary School Curriculum, by J. L. Merriam, Ed. Rev., Apnl, 1909, pp. 396-97. 696 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training subservient to real activities in wholesome games, profitable observation, and useful handwork. In the fourth grade a study of a local dairy — occupying ten days — includes the follow- ing: (i) an excursion of three hours, (2) reading from twenty references, (3) thirteen com- positions amounting to twenty pages, which include (4) forty problems with additional drill exercises involving the four fundamental processes, fractions, United States money, liquid and avoirdupois measurements, (5) chemical experiments in the souring of milk, (6) handwork in the making of butter and cottage cheese, (7) science work in the study of various kinds of cows and the care of them, (8) sentence-structure to make clear their own compositions, and (9) seventy-four words liable to be misspelled. All these various "studies" serve as means in the study of the larger problem, that of the dairy as a local industry. This is a type of the work done by the fourth grade in one year's work on local industries. In the fifth grade the lumber industry is given twenty-five days. It includes the follow- ing work: (i) four excursions to a forest, a sawmill, a planing-mill, a lumber-yard; (2) readings from eighty references, (3) eighteen compositions covering forty-two large-size pages, (4) twenty-three concrete problems, involving the four fundamental processes, square measure, board measure (in both this country and foreign countries), common fractions, decimals, percentage, and considerable drill exercise in all of these topics; (5) geography of almost every country on the globe, with the maps carefully drawn; (6) science work on trees, lumber, other forest products, sawmills, etc.; (7) drawing in twenty- two illustrations; (8) literature in both poetry and prose fiction. It needs but a little study of the manufacture of cotton cloth, for example, in the sixth grade, to call for much arithmetical work, geographical data, studies in science, drawing, reading, etc. Fourth Example — Garden Work (Francis W. Parker School, Chicago) The garden of the Francis W. Parker School occupies a plot of ground one hundred and twenty-seven by fifty feet, some fifty feet east of the building. The area is well adapted for the purpose, being open on all sides and shaded only at the southeast corner by some tall Cottonwood trees. Fortunately for the drainage of the plot, the subsoil consists of coarse sand and gravel, which was placed there when the excavation for the school building was made. Upon this foundation a heavy layer of properly fertilized loam was placed. Each succeeding year the garden has been plowed and fertilized. This has been the cause of one difficulty. The plowing excluded from our available plants all perennials. Each year the garden was planned anew without "an old year's brand to light the new." That deprived the gardeners of many experiences which are absolutely necessary in the growth of those who are to "love the green things growing." According to the plan followed for the first three years, every grade planted a bed of some grain or vegetable for the common use of the school. A second bed was assigned to each grade, to be divided into individual plots. It is evident that under this plan the garden presented a motley appearance, since every child planted in his bed whatever he chose, irrespective of what was in his neighbor's bed. Sometimes several kinds of vegetables and flowers were planted in a bed two by three feet. Tall plants shaded and interfered with the growth of low ones; vines overran and crowded out other crops. The effect of the whole was not beautiful. The crop was limited in quantity and poor in quality. The care of the garden grew into a burden rather than a pleasant task. What is more important, the great opportunities which garden work offers toward unifying the school and enriching the social life were not realized. After three years of such experience the children were ready to combine and organize their efforts, and last year, with the help of the teachers, a new plan was made, the teachers Department] INDUSTRIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 697 keeping in mind that the garden should be beautiful; that each child should be allowed to choose what he would plant; that he should have a feeling of ownership about his garden bed and the crop he would harvest; that all plants should be placed in the environment best suited to them; and that every part of every bed should be easily accessible to the smallest child. First, every member of the school wrote a paper indicating in order of preference his choice of vegetables and flowers to be planted in the garden. The accompanying lists include all plants mentioned: VEGETABLES Lettuce Turnips Beans Cotton Radishes Carrots Peas Watermelon Onions Spinach Watercress Pumpkin Potatoes Parsley Celery Cucumbers Tomatoes Corn Beets Muskmelons Cabbage Popcorn Peanuts FLOWERS Pansies Violets Geraniums Morning-glory Sweet Peas Mignonette Sweet Williams Nastvu-tiums Cosmos Bleeding Heart Heliotrope Lady Slipper Asters Forget-me-nots Hollyhocks Candytuft Bachelor Buttons Moss Roses Daisies Coreopsis Sweet Alyssum Roses Lilies of the Valley Easter Lilies To this list were added names which the teachers suggested of plants which would be of service in the science, industrial, and art work of the school and which would add new acquaintances to the children's flower friends: VEGETABLES Wheat Dill Lavender Plum Tomatoes Sugar beets Sage Kale Asparagus Flax Bohnenkraut Pepper Gourds Kohlrabi FLOWERS Nicotine Stock Marigolds Celosias Caladium Wallflower Amaranthus Canterbury Bells Four 0' clocks Salvia Scarlet Runner Cypress Vine Ageratum Ornamental Pepper Sunflowers Zinnias Committees were formed, composed in each case of children who had chosen the same plants. The first two choices of every child were adopted. If, as in several cases, these committees were too small, the third, fourth, or sometimes fifth choice of a child was con- sidered and sometimes volunteers were called for. After these groups had been formed, a detailed outline of the work necessary to make the garden a success was as follows: a) Making of the general plan. b) Drawing of a plan for each teacher, indicating the parts of the garden for which her pupils were responsible. c) Writing lists of names of children to act on various committees, these lists to be posted in the hallway. d) Making individual seed envelopes. e) Labeling same with name of seed, name of child, and grade. /) Apportioning seed. 698 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training g) Writing and attaching to each envelope clear and concise directions for sowing the seed. h) Surveying the garden. i) Digging-out of the paths (marking beds with string has not been satisfactory). j) Making garden stakes and labeling same to correspond with envelopes. k) Making large stakes with small signboards attached, to aid in readily finding the beds. \- , I) Placing of stakes in garden. m) Making of a hotbed. This list was presented to the school and the various kinds of work were either chosen by or assigned to the grades where they were best adapted. For instance, the plans were drawn by the seventh grade, envelopes made by the third grade, and directions for planting formulated by the fifth grade. The making of the plan was the most responsible piece of work. It required con- sideration of many phases, most important among which were beauty, proper shapes of beds for convenience in planting, relative sizes of beds and their positions as to best con- ditions of light and moisture, and numbers of children acting on the various committees, for example, the favorite vegetable was lettuce. The amount of lettuce seed likely to be used was calculated, and this, with the size of the committee, was considered in determin- ing the dimensions of the lettuce bed. In some cases an entire bed was assigned to one class, for the special study of some crop necessary to the work in that particular grade. For instance, the sixth grade took charge of sugar beets, the fourth grade of flax, the fifth grade of wheat, and the first grade of popcorn. The work mentioned under b was important. From these plans every teacher knew what was to be planted in every nook, and by the colored spots knew at a glance where she might expect to see some of her pupils working. The names of the children did not appear on the plans, because the teacher in charge had a plan which included the names and directed the placing of the individual stakes. The beds were marked ofi" by means of a board, the edge of which was pressed into the ground. The depression made was filled with sand, which stayed in place long enough to serve the purpose. The flower garden was more diflScult to plant, because the rows overlapped, and the general arrangement was more complicated. Here the beginning and end of every row was indicated by a stake, the two stakes being labeled alike and facing one another. With this plan every child had all the information necessary to make him independent in locating his bed nnd doing his work. All stakes were marked with paint or ink to make them proof againvt the rain. A red chalk mark was the means by which the children indicated thai a bed had peen planted. Formulating directions for planting was an interesting piece of work. The motive of making all the directions so simple and clear that they might be read and understood by a child in the first grade made a demand for good concise English which the fifth-grade child could thoroly appreciate. Directions poorly stated might mean failure, disappoint- ment, and a mar to beauty. The interest shown in making the hotbed is worthy of mention. The science work on decomposition, generation of heat, plant food, and germination was done with zest. The hotbed was so generous in its productiveness that there v/as a good supply of plants to give to all children who wished to start home gardens. Many children made small gardens along the edges outside of the big garden. All summer good reports came of tomato and cabbage crops, fine specimens of flowers, etc. After the planting was accomplished a careful record was kept in writing and painting of the date of planting and the date of germination and appearance of plants in the first stages of growth, and the changes from week to week. This record was made in order to enable us anotheryearto distinguish the young plants from the young weeds. Many Department] INDUSTRIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 699 mistakes in weeding were made this year. In some cases the children were temporarily discouraged because they expected the plants to appear too soon. One little girl who planted ageratum waited five weeks to see signs of growth. Just as school closed she found a few minute leaves. Four weeks later the plants were one foot high. This fall she supplied every classroom with blossoms for several weeks. Another year the data recorded will prevent this discouragement. The school garden was a great benefit to the work in the art department, as it furnished ^abundant material and afforded the opportunity for continual use of flowers and vegetables the study of elementary composition. Some of the sources of special pleasure to the children were: the asparagus hedge jlanted to separate the vegetable garden from the flower garden, this hedge having been )lanted in May and started from three-year-old roots; the bright red and yellow celosias, )me of which grew four feet tall and waved plume-like on either edge of the long center Lth of the vegetable garden; the muskmelons, which grew so thick and luscious that [from a bed of twenty-four by nine feet were harvested over forty melons; the watermelons, mmpkins, gourds, and green peppers; the celery bed, which supplied the school for seven ireeks; the caladiums, which grew from bulbs two inches in diameter to plants five feet tall, nth leaves two and one-half feet long. Last, but not least, the garden gate, and the senches which the small boys made from an old tree trunk which they chopped down, lould surely be mentioned, for they would appear in any child's list of the special attrac- tions of the garden. One grade took complete charge of the grounds in front of the building. There they planted all favorite flowers, making every effort to have a variety great enough to insure blossoming plants thruout the seasons. Some children made frequent visits to the garden during the summer. They weeded and watered at those times, but coming irregularly could not give the garden proper care. The watering and weeding during the vacation time was kindly done by the man left in' charge of the building, and by other interested people. Some children expressed a commercial instinct by selling vegetables to their parents and to other children. They agreed to put the income into a common bank, the money to be used in buying some of the seeds for next year's garden. The treasury was also increased by funds coming from a neighboring grocer, who bought at regular market prices what produce was not given away. In August Canterbury bells, Sweet William, and hollyhocks vy^ere planted. The young plants have a good start, and there are enough hollyhocks to plant along the entire front of the building. This fall the flower garden was cleaned and spaded. A large number of bulbs were planted and by this means the children may enjoy the garden for many weeks before June, while other years they have had few blossoms before the close of school. At present many children are nursing geranium cuttings and old stocks planted in window boxes. The pepper plants are adorning several classrooms. All are waiting for the spring when we shall make a much larger hotbed and supply the home gardens and perhaps some children in other schools. Aside from the definite knowledge gained and its all-around educative value, if the work in our school garden adds a few names to the list of those who will always love and make gardens, it would seem that it has been well worth the time and labor expended upon it. Fifth Example — A Study 0} Transportation. Third Grade^ (Francis W. Parker School, Chicago) The following reports were given by the children of the third grade at morning exer- cises. They are the outgrowth of a year's work in the study of the history of Chicago, and. illustrate one phase of the development of transportation. « From the Elementary School Teacher, January, 1905. 700 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training Last year the third grade studied about early Chicago, and the different ways of traveling in the early days. We decided to make a train of cars in the sloyd shop. We chose the cars because they are made just outside of the city, and because Chicago is such a very large railroad center, and because going by train is the most rapid way of traveling. The reason we did not make a passenger train is because there is so much shipping and commerce going on in the city, and the passenger cars are too hard to make. We also made plans for the truck, the wheels, and the track. We thought it would be nice to give the cars to the kindergarten children. Josephine Palmer Two people worked on a car. If each child made one car, there would be too many cars, and we would not get them finished. One worked at the sides and floor; the other one made the ends, the top, and the running-board. We put two coats of paint on them. One child put on one coat of paint, and the other put on the last coat. We grooved the sides and ends with a carving tool to make it look like boards running up and down. We used large staple tacks for the steps. We named each car and planned the lettering. We called the cars the "F.W.P. Fast Freight." Mildred Zenos We did not go to the carshops to measure the cars, as we had all seen freight cars, and we had a good book with pictures and measurements given. Each child used the book and selected the car he liked the best. I chose the coal car. It was 34 feet long. We decided upon the scale to use in making the cars. We first thought we would make them i inch to i foot, but 34 inches would make them too long. Then we thought that i inch to i foot would be better. Helen Stauffer We wanted to know the capacity for our cars. We used inside measurements. The box car is 18J inches long, 4 inches wide, and 3 inches high. I made a drawing of the floor of the car. We used i-inch cubes to see how many cubic inches there were in one layer. We found 74 cubic inches. In three layers there were 222 cubic inches. I made a drawing of the floor of the coal car too. In the first layer there were 58J cubic inches. In two layers there were 116J cubic inches. Frieda Maynard How we made our wheels: We wanted to have iron wheels for our cars, but we could not make them. We used Frank's wooden model for casting wheels in lead because we wanted to know how they cast large wheels. We took two flasks and pounded molder's sand into one of the flasks, and set the wooden wheels half way in. Then we sprinkled dry sand on so that the molder's sand in the other flask wouldn't stick. Then we put the other flask on it and the pegs held it in place. We then took the two flasks apart and took the wooden model out. We made air holes in the flask on top with a hatpin and a larger hole to pour the melted lead in. We put the flasks together again and poured the lead in the hole. When cool we took the flask apart and this is the way the lead wheels looked. The reason there are these holes in them is because there were not enough air holes in the flasks and the melted lead couldn't push the air out. Dorothy Wing When we made the wheels we used the same scale that we did in making the cars, only we made the flange bigger. The reason we did this is because the little cars are not heav>' enough to stay on the track. I made a model of the wheels on the lathe. Frank Packard Department] INDUSTRIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 701 Everybody in the third grade last year made a drawing for the truck for our cars, and we at last decided upon one. The truck is made of some metal. It fits on the bottom of the car and holds the wheels onto the car. We are going to screw our truck to the car so it can turn a little when going around curves. We did not plan to keep the side of the truck from hitting the wheels, and if it did the car could not move very easily, so we think we will put a washer between the truck and the wheels. The wheels are | inch below the bottom of the car. We made them that way so the wheels will not hit the bottom of the car. We shall make the hole that we shall put the axle in larger than the axle, so it will have plenty of room to turn around. Lucy Smith If we were to use these cars we would send the stock car west to the cattle ranches to filled with cattle and bring it back to the Stock Yards to unload. The refrigerator cars ire would send to the Stock Yards, fill with fresh meat, and ship to the East where the )ple need it most. The coal car we could send right down in Illinois and fill with coal to lelp carry on the great manufacturing in the city. The furniture car we could fill with rniture here and ship West, where the people need it most. The box car we could take Minnesota to fill with grain, or it might be used for any common freight. The caboose used for the people who work on the train and the men who look after the stock. We went down to measure the kindergarten circle, and found it was sixteen feet in imeter. We found there was room just outside the circle for the track. It is to be made in sections so it can be stored away when not in use. As we have done all we can on the cars, we have asked the big boys to help finish them, so the kindergarten children can use them very soon. Owen White There were many problems in arithmetic not suggested in the children's reports, such as finding the capacity in real cars, and finding the number of board feet and the cost of the lumber used in making cars. B. STUDIES OF INDUSTRIES IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES I. THE CERAMIC INDUSTRIES^ It is the purposfe of pottery teaching not to develop a craft nor, primarily, skill, but to present for the first time in school life a complete view and knowledge of some one industry (ceramics), and to call attention to artistic excellence as something to be desired; in other words, to develop a high order of industrial sense, and this involves design. lObjects to be modeled should in every case have a real use, and that use should be in mind *to the last. They should be familiar objects and usually admit of a bit of decoration or decorative treatment. The following list will be suggestive; Tiles (square, round, oblong, triangular) for flower-pots and teapots. Square tiles of various weights for paper weights. Incised, inlaid, and modeled decoration. Shallow saucers and trays. Bowls. These if well modeled are an addition to the tea or dining table. Incised or modeled decoration. Ash-trays, match-holders. Ink-wells, which may have space provided for pens. Flower-pots. These furnish one of the best problems in fine proportions and reserved decorative treatment. Incised or modeled decoration. Receptacles for flowers. The vase should be designed for characteristic kinds of flowers — those with long or short stems. Incised or modeled decoration, suitable color. ' From "A Course of Study in Manual Training," by C. L. Boone, Manual Training Magazine, December, 1908, February, 1909. 702 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training Fern-boxes. These are usually square but may be oblong like a miniature window- box. Each of the four sides offers a most tempting space for decoration. Jars with covers, for crackers, candies, tea, tobacco, etc. These are fine technical problems representing the greatest development of fourth- or fifth-grade work. The design problem here is simple and definite. The above exercises aggregate more than any class can do in one year but they repre sent work which has been tested in the fourth and fifth grades Processes The teaching is begun in the following way: pupils are instructed in the handling of clay and in the manner of making good tiles that will not crack or warp. Tiles are built most easily on common school slates. The size of the tile having been determined, a thin layer of clay is built with small pieces well worked together, making a foundation somewhat larger than the required size. On this foundation other small bits of clay (as large as a marble or walnut) are thoroly worked until the tile is f inch thick, homogeneous and perfectly smooth and level. The edges can then be cut straight and the corners square with a thin-bladed wooden or wire-end modeling tool. One tool with a wire loop at one end is sufficient for every pottery purpose in the intermediate grades. This tile is the foundation for all other pottery problems. It is the first thing made, serving as the bottom for jars, flower-pots, and boxes. Bowls, trays, and other vessels are usually built by the method still used by the Indians. It is the practice which has been followed by most primitive people and can be made to produce very perfect ware. A lump of clay is rolled into a thick rope, \ inch in diameter. This is coiled to form the bottom, and the coils well worked together on one side, the whole turned over and the opposite side treated in a similar manner. Additional rolls are laid around the edge of the foundation, on the tile, making the wall of the pot. When the wall has been built up three or four layers these should be worked together both inside and out to make the wall solid and firm. Each layer must be securely fastened to the one below, otherwise the vessel will crack in firing. This practice of using rolls of clay produces pottery rather quickly and enables the pupil to soon learn to control the shape of the piece. To make the pot grow larger in diameter as it grows up, each successive layer is laid a bit toward the outer edge of the rim; to contract the top, the successive rings of clay are attached to the inner edge of the roll beneath. To be successful the rolls should be made with the fewest possible manipulations, as clay tends to dry and crumble with much handling This primitive process is quite as satisfactory for rectangular things, only care must be used to keep corners square and the sides straight. Pottery, even built ware, should be as thin as possible. As pupils gain skill their building ought to be more true and they should make lighter pieces. All pieces made in this way must be scraped down smooth on the outside, and this process can be carried on until the walls of the pot are quite thin. The scraping (with the tool mentioned) should be done if possible after the work has stood a day or two and become somewhat stiffened, so that handling will not put it out of plumb Decoration Ornament should keep its proper place as a part of the whole design. The application of ornament should be consistent with the material of the object decorated. Clay pieces may be embellished by motifs scratched in the soft material, or modeled in relief, or even painted on, if the painting be done in color that will stand fire. The most direct orna- ment is that incised in the clay itself and this kind is the backbone of design for pottery decoration. (These articles include detailed directions for applying decoration, firing, glazing, etc., with lists of material required and their cost.) Department] INDUSTRIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 703 2. A STUDY OF THE MACHINE SHOP IN GRADE VI' (Horace Mann School, New York) From the handicraft work of the preceding year the sixth grade advances to a study of the factory, or mill, as illustrating the modern method of production. In carrying forward this study, the class constructs a model of some type of factory and installs models of machines, which are belted to lines of shafting and driven with water-wheels. Along I with the constructive work, and of fully equal importance, is the study of an actual factory, its system of organization and division of labor, the source of power, and the nature of its processes and products. Visits to shops and mills are an important help in this part of the work. Just how the study is conducted may perhaps best be illustrated by describing the work of last year. After a discussion of the importance of the factory in modern industry, how its great development was made possible by the introduction of power and by the division of labor, the boys suggested various kinds of factories that they would like to build. The machine shop was most popular, and it was proposed to combine with it the wood- working mill, second in choice, in order to represent a complete equipment for manufactut- ing in wood and metal. The erection of a suitable building for this equipment was dis- cussed by the class. The problems were presented as to what kind of construction was required to accommodate heavy machines, and how these machines should be arranged with reference to their operation and the use of power. The boys thought out the different problems quite intelligently, and gave a number of good suggestions as to how the factory should be built. They suggested that the most particular work needed the best light, that the heaviest machines should be near the walls, that machines of the same kind should be grouped together, and that they should be placed in rows in order to receive the power from the lines of shafting. The ideas brought out were reduced to a definite plan which was drawn on the board, and from it a lesson was given on the names and functions of the principal structural parts of the mill, and the methods of framing them. The class was then organized into several construction squads for the purpose of erecting the factory building. Long strips of wood were provided, and each squad pro- ceeded to make and assemble its assigned part. When the boys on the sill and plate group had completed their part, they located the places on the sill and plate for the studs, floorbeams, and stringers. As each portion was finished, it was put in, the roof trusses were placed, the floor laid, and the entire class of twenty to twenty-five boys was kept busy up to the time the building was completed. The next part of the work taken up was the machine equipment. The boys were asked to describe some kind of machine that they had seen in operation. While most of >the boys could describe a machine as to its outward appearance, few could tell how it worked, or what was its value as a producer. Their observations as a rule had not pene- trated below the surface. Visits to shops were made with the definite aim of securing the important facts about the things seen in these shops. Previous to taking a class on a visit, questions were given to the boys to be written in their pocket notebooks with spaces between the questions for answers. The boys were asked to note the name of each machine and its purpose, to describe the cutting tool, the kind of power used, and how the work was held in the machine. When the class went on a visit to a mill, and the use of the various machines was observed, each boy was kept busy filling out his answers and making sketches, and as a result he came away with certain definite ideas, and was too much occupied during the visit to get into trouble. It has been said that it is useless to take classes of young boys on visits to shops, because they have little knowledge of what they see, and do not appreciate the meaning of it all. We find, hov.ever, that if the boys have become interested in the work of such shops, and if they know definitely what they are to look for, there is no question ' From the Teachers College Record, Vol. VIII, No. 3, pp. 56-60. 704 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Manual Training that the results realized are worth while. Papers were written describing these visits as part of the homework, and at the next lesson a discussion on the meaning and value of the division of labor was held. The boys described how the work was passed from man to man, each doing a part, and only one part. Reasons for having a man do but one small part of the work — just one operation — were asked for, and the suggestion was soon forthcoming that repeated practice enables a man to do one thing better and quicker. This, it was seen, meant less cost in labor, power, and room, and made the workmanship more uniform. On the other hand, it was suggested that to do but one thing all day and to know nothing else, was a disadvantage to a man as it hindered his advancement and gave him little to think about. Models of machines were made for the mill, each boy making one machine. The woodworking mill was equipped with models of wood-planers, circular saws, and lathes, and the machine shop with drill presses, lathes, and planers. As each boy completed his machine, he installed it in the place planned for it, and then helped to build and put in a line of shafting and pulleys, and to run and adjust his belt. Class discussions were held on the subjects of shafts, bearings, hangers, and belts, as these elements were met with in the progress of the work. The subject of power was then studied. The boys named the varioiis sources o power with which they were familiar, as the steam-engine, electric motor, gasoline engine, hot-air engine, water-wheel, and windmill. The value and general uses of each were discussed, and the boys decided that the water-wheel was the one type that they could make. Different kinds of water-wheels were considered, making use of the observations of the boys in the country and in traveling. Catalogs and pictures were also shown. The impulse or jet wheel was chosen as the one best suited to be run by the city water supply. A model was shown the class with a demonstration of its operation and the question of the best form of buckets was brought forward. Various shapes of copper buckets were made and tested to find out which was the most efficient. The double-cupped pattern was proven to be the best, and a set of dies was provided at the suggestion of the boys, so that the buckets could be stamped out in copper in modern fashion. Each boy built his own wheel, and made the buckets for it. When the wheels were finished they were tested, and four of the best were picked out and coupled to the driving-shafts of the mill. These four were sufficiently powerful to drive the entire plant. The project as a whole combined co-operative group work with individual work. Each boy, when the project was finished, had a machine and a water-wheel to drive it. At the same time he had co-operated with the other boys in his class in building and equipping the model mill, he had met the problems this work presented, had played a part in solving them, and was rewarded by seeing his work form an essential element in the whole result. Owing to the group organization of the work, the boys showed little of the tendency to lean on the teacher that is often the case in individual work. With responsi- bility placed upon them they found it necessary to act on their own initiative and to do their own thinking. The subject of the power-driven factory, complicated and difficult as it appears at first sight, is in reality admirably suited to the boy of the sixth grade. His awakened interest in things mechanical, things that "go," is here given play and utilized to accumulate ideas. Individual ingenuity and initiative are aroused to the utmost by the constructive problems that the work presents, and the fundamental ideas of the factory organization are grasped with surprising readiness thru this intimate constructive experience. The boys obtain a broader experience in handwork in making this project than they would in making a course of useful models in some one material. There are a greater number of simple tool pro- cesses, and a larger variety of materials to work with. The subject is intensely interesting to the boys, and the ideas and principles are of value in the writer's judgment, far beyond the possibilities of any course of so-called useful models. Department] INDUSTRIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 705 3. A STUDY OF PRINTING! Printing is essentially a democratic art. It does not lend itself readily to the selfish uses of the few. Knowledge formerly in the hands of the few became the property of the many with the advent of printing. Its development has been parallel with the develop- ment of humanity, whose servant it has ever been. This quality is one which recommends it especially for use in the schools. The average school is organized on an individualistic basis". Pupils are there for selfish motives — to gain knowledge. Social service in the ordinary schoolroom is so seldom met with because no opportunity is afforded to practice it. At times the spirit of social service reeps into some of our school subjects in a spasmodic way and then shamefacedly retires, id the old selfish, individual spirit reappears. We find this the case in our woodworking shop, when the occasional group-project is worked out for the school, and then the relapse to the individual model. On this side, len, of providing opportunity for social service, the value of printing as a form of manual :tivity is noteworthy. A boy may go to the workbench to do a piece of work. This is 5ually for selfish motives. Seldom more than one piece is made. On the other hand, it hard to conceive of type set up for one impression; it is seldom done. Printing pre- ipposes many copies to benefit many individuals. Take an inventory of the things a boy could print and enjoy selfishly, all his own, and ley would be few indeed. I confess I have tried and find the list very small. His personal ird, letter head, book-plate, and a few others would probably cover the list. Now take a list of the things he could enjoy with others and see the vast possibilities: motto cards, calendars, invitations to school parties, tickets to school entertainments, school paper. Again make a list of the things which are a daily necessity in the life of this community, i.e., the school, and where does the list end ? Report cards, blanks, spelling-lists, arith- metic lessons, labels for shop, labels for library shelves, circular letters, etc., etc. Do you -^ not think the boy is more a part of his community, more in sympathy with it thru having served it ? He is an important, valuable part of it. This feeling of responsibility, of value thru service, is an important lesson in citizenship. SUGGESTIVE OUTLINE FOR COURSE IN PRINTING I. Talks on History of Printing. 1. Early methods of transmitting knowledge. 2. Discovery of movable type; Gutenberg; effect, c) Improvement in type-making; lead. b) Improvement in press; Franklin. c) Modern methods; cylinder press; linotype. II. Practical shopwork. 1. Names of material used in printing-ofl5ce. Practice in holding stick and in setting type properly. Setting type from "pied" matter for practice in holding stick. 2. The type-case; lay of the cases, cap and lower. Type-faces; prominent names. Point system; lining system described. Distribution of type set in previous lesson, III. Excursion to a typical job office to see all the processes of printing in operation, especially noting workmen and their methods. IV. Practical shopwork. I. Simple composition; spelling-lists. Margins: top, bottom, and sides. ' From "A School Print Shop," by L. W. Wahlstrom, Manual Training Magazine, December, 1908, pp. 134-48. 7o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Manual Traini Justification of lines. Removal of type from stick; tying up type. Removal from galley to stone. Correcting. 2. Plain reading-matter. , Rules for spacing; indenting paragraphs. Space between words and at end of sentence. Size and style of type in relation to nature and use of job. ' Consideration of paper: size, quality. Margins: bottom, sides, and top. Size of type-mass in relation to shape of page. English composition, reprints of lessons, school papers, etc., will furnish abundant material of this nature. A long job may be divided into paragraphs, each boy setting one or more paragraphs. This makes possible rapid work. 3. Tabular work with rules and leaders. Mathematics necessary to figure out job. Program blanks, report blanks, statements, charts, diagrams, etc. 4. Broken reading-matter. Work calling for considerable judgment in regard to spacing, margins, and general planning; programs, invitations, posters, and similar work. This should be attempted only after considerable practice in other forms above mentioned. V. Talks on methods of illustrating. a) Woodcuts. h) Stereotype and chalk plate. c) Zinc-etching, d) Photo-engraving. e) Half-tones. /) Electrotyping. g) Stereotyping from linotype composition. ome of the fundamental principles of sewing. Millinery affords the girls a broad expression of individuality and aims to create an appreciation of artistic color combinations and appropriate- ness. The subject is closely connected with the courses in dressmaking and applied art and consists of talks on materials used in millinery, wiring hats, making buckram and straw hats, wire frames, facings, building bows and cov- ering frames, renovation of old material, and trimming hats. Attention is given to economy, simplicity, suitability, and the cultivation of artistic taste in all lines of work. The work in applied arts correlates in very definite and practical ways with dressmaking, millinery, domestic science, and the mechanic arts and crafts and with the many occasions in daily life in which an intelli- gent appreciation of fitness and beauty add greatly to vocational success or irsonal happiness. Complete courses in plain and hand sewing, machine jwing, spring and fall millinery, and the applied arts are available to women evening classes. Plain cooking and whatever allied courses may be called for by a sufficient number will also be within the scope of the night school. MINORITY REPORT As a member of the Subcommittee on Industrial and Technical Education in Secondary Schools I have signed the foregoing report; but while I agree in the main with the other members of the committee, I find that my observa- tion and experience constrain me to take exception to the definition of the "technical high school" as it appears in the main, report. In my opinion technical high schools should occupy the field just below that of the engineering schools or technical colleges without losing their naturally close relation to them. To give them this relation is not necessarily to make them merely preparatory schools for such higher institutions. Rightly directed they may give thoro training for industrial service in the lower sphere without losing sight of the possible engineering student. On the other hand, to deny them all preparatory-school functions is to specialize them to such an extent that they cannot, in my opinion, become a large element in the secondary-school system of the country. In all cities where it is possible to organize highly differential types of secondary-school work in separate schools, designating them so that they will assist parents and pupils in making a wise choice, the specialized technical high school, as contemplated in the definition to which I would take exception, may be of great service; but my strong conviction is that the development of secondary technical schools in cities of moderate size and in the country at large might receive a serious set-back if a broader definition of their function is not recognized. In fact, a few technical high schools are already successfully carried on under this broader definition. Owing to local conditions they could not have been organized under any other definition. They offer an encouraging example to other communities similarly situated. Their existence should be made consistent with this 766 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training report without necessarily compromising the point of view which recognizes the value of a more highly specialized form of secondary technical education for certain other communities. Furthermore, it is generally recognized that the open-at-the-top policy is a natural characteristic of American education. I am not able to see in the existing educational situation any universal condition that demands that all secondary technical schools should frankly abandon preparatory work for higher institutions and especially for higher technical schools or for engineering courses in college or university. I therefore offer the following DEFINITION The secondary technical school or the technical high school is a school of secondary grade, the distinctive tho not sole purpose of which is to prepare its students for industrial leadership — i.e., for positions of great responsibility in industrial life, requiring technical knowledge, tho not so profound as that of the engineer, and a certain skill, tho not so highly specialized as that ot the skilled mechanic. In such a school much of the instruction deals not only with the important manual operations but also with those principles of science and mathematics and their direct applications in industrial work which will help to prepare a student for successfully mastering the more fundamental processes and problems of those groups of industries which the school is designed to reach. It assumes to be the finishing school for large numbers of boys and girls and therefore must contain in its curriculum the essentials of those studies which give breadth of view and inspire to self -improvement. To many of its students it may open up new prospects and reveal a capacity to realize them. If any considerable number of students in such a school wish to prepare for continuing their studies in higher institutions, special provision should be made for them without interfering with the distinctive aim of the school. Charles F. Warner A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION NOTE In preparing this bibliography of the literature on Industrial Education to accompany the report on '*The Place of Industries in Public Education," the principal aim has been to select the most serviceable books, reports, and periodical contributions dealing with the various aspects of the subjects which are considered in the report. While but few of the writings listed deal exclusively with European Indus- trial education, many foreign references and illustrations occur in the literature dealing with the American phase of the problem. In order to keep the lists within reasonable limits only books published since 1892 and articles from periodicals and society proceedings since 1900 have been selected. The list has been revised to July, 1909. Department] BIBLIOGRAPHY 767 BOOKS Addams, Jane. Democracy and Social Ethics. New York: Macmillan, 1905 281 pp. Chap. vi. Apprenticeship and Skilled Empbyment Association. Trades jar London Boys and How to Enter Them. London: Longmans, 1908. 170 pp. Trades for London Girls and How to Enter Them. London: Longman^ 1909. 145 pp. Carlton, F. C. Education and Industrial Evolution. New York: Macmillan, 1908. 320 pp. Chamberlain, A. Standards in Education. New York: American Book Co., 1908. 265 pp. Creasey, C. H. Technical Education in Evening Schools. London: Sonnenschein, 1905. 309 pp. Dewey, John. The School and Society. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1900. 129 pp. IDuTTON and Snedden. The Administration 0} Public Education in the United States. t New York: Macmillan, 1908. 601 pp. Chap, xxii, "The Administration of I Vocational Education"; Chap, xxvii, "The Administration of Evening and Con- I tinuation Schools." Cordon, Mrs. Ogilvie. A Handbook 0} Employments. Aberdeen, Scotland, 1908. I 444 PP- Hanus, Paul. Beginnings 0} Industrial Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., I 1908. 199 PP- How.\RD, E. D. The Cause and Extent 0} the Recent Industrial Progress in Germany. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1907. 147 pp. Monroe, Paul. A Brief Course in the History of Education. New York: Macmillan, 1908. Chap, xiii, pp. 393-397. Person, H. S. Industrial Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1907. Sadler, M. E. Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere; Their Place in the Educational System of an Industrial and Commercial State. Manchester, England: Sherret & Hughes. Shad WELL, Arthur. Industrial Efficiency. New York: Longmans, 1906. 2 vols. 346 and 488 pp. Chaps, xvi and xvii. Teachers College Record. "The Elementary School Curriculum with a Course in Manual Training." New York: The Columbia University Press, 1908. 526 pp. Vanderlip, F. a. Business and Education. New York: Duffield & Co., 1907. 563 pp. Ware Fabian. Education Foundations of Trade and Society. New York: Appleton, 1901. UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT REPORTS "Agriculture and Industrial Training." Report, Commissioner of Education, 1908. Vol. I, p. 125. "Apprenticeship System, The, in Its Relation to Industrial Education." By Carroll D. Wright. Bulletin No. 6, Bureau of Education, 1908. 116 pp. "Conditions of Entrance to the Principal Trades." Bulletin No. 67, Bureau of Labor, 1906. ibo pp. "Conference on Industrial Education by State Superintendents of Public Instruction." Report, Commissioner of Education, 1908. Vol. I, pp. 11-14. "Continuation School in the United States, The." By Arthur J. Jones. Bulletin No. I, Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Education, 1907. 157 pp. "Elimination of Pupils from School, The." By E. L. Thorndike. Bulletin No. 4, Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Education, 1907. 63 pp. "Federal, Municipal, and State Aid for Industrial Education." Report, Commissioner of Education, 1908. Vol. I, pp. 84-89. 768 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training "French Technical and Industrial Schools." Report, Bureau 0} Education, 1907. Vol. I, pp. 165-67. "German Views of American Education, with Particular Reference to Industrial Develop- ment." (From Reports of Royal Prussian Industrial Commission, 1904, collated by Wm. Kallmann. ) Bulletin No. 2, U.S. Bureau of Education, 1906. 55 pp. "Hand and Machine Labor." 13th Annual Bulletin, Bureau of Labor, 2 vols., iSgg. 1,604 PP- "Industrial Education in Canada under the MacDonald Fund." Report, Bureau of Education, 1907. Vol. I, pp. 225-40. "Industrial Education in the City Schools." Report, Bureau of Education, 1907. Vol. I, pp.' 428-32. "Industrial Education in Germany." Special Consular Reports, Dept. of Commerce and Labor, 1905. Vol. XXXIII, 147 pp. "Statistics of Manual and Industrial Training Schools." Report, Bureau of Education, 1909. Vol. II, chap, xxiii, pp. 1161-1201. "Trade and Technical Education." lyth Annual Bulletin, Bureau of Labor, 1902. 1,333 PP- "Wages and Hours of Labor, 1890-1905." Bulletin No. 65, Bureau of Labor, 1906. STATE AND CITY REPORTS "Apprentices, School for." Chicago: 50th Annual Report, Board of Education, 1904,. pp. 1 16-17. "Apprenticeship System, The." Report, Massachussetts Bureau Statistical Labor, 1906. 86 pp. "Discussion on How to Fit Industrial Education into our Course of Study." New York State Education Dept., Albany, igo6. 43d University Convocation, pp. 59-67. "Industrial Training." By C. R. Richards. Special Report, Dept. of Labor, New York State, 1909. 500 pp. "Manual Training Course of Study for Elementary Schools." Report of Chicago Board of Education, 1906-7, pp. 921-23. "Manual Training Course of Study for High Schools." Ibid., pp. 655-79. Massachusetts Commission on Industrial and Technical Education, Report of, Boston, 1906. 196 pp. (Reprinted by Teachers College, New York.) Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, Report of, Boston, 1907. 71 pp. Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, Report of, Boston, 1908. 682 pp. New Jersey Commission for the Purpose of Investigating and Promoting Industrial Educa- tion, Report of, Trenton, N.J., 1909. 177 pp. New York State Education Dept., Division of Trade Schools. 1908-9. Circulars on General Indiistrial and Trade Schools, October i, 1908; Discrimination between Trade, Technical, Industrial, and Manual Training Schools, October 22, 1908; Evening Industrial and Improvement Schools, Bibliography of literature and list of schools, January i, 1909. "Our Children, Our Schools, and Our Industries." By A. S. Draper. Report of New York State Education Department, Albany, 1908. "Principles and Methods to be pursued in Organizing Trade Schools." By A. D. Dean. Labor Bulletin, No. 43, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 1906, pp. 313-22. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCTATION 1901 — Warner, C. F. "Education for Trades in America," pp. 665-74. 1903 — Balliet, T. M. "Manual, Trade and Technical Education," pp. 65-71; "The Organization of Trade Schools; From the Point of View of a Superintendent," pp. 609-12. ^ Department] BIBLIOGRAPHY 769 HiGGiNS, M. P. "Education for the Trades; From the Point of View of the Manufacturer," pp. 597-602. Chamberlain, Arthur, H. "The Demand for Trade Schools; From the Edu- cator's Point of View," pp. 603-7. WiLLiSTON, A. L. "The Organization of Trade Schools; From the Point of View of a Trade School Director," pp. 612-17. 1905 — TiLDSLEY, J. L. "The Study of Local Industry and Trade," pp. 682-88. Vanderlip, F. a. "The Economic Importance of Trade Schools," pp. 141-45. Walker, J. B. "What Should Be the Education of a Business Man ?" pp. 674-78. Warner, C. F. "Industrial Training in Public Evening Schools," pp. 570-76. 1906 — "Titles of Papers and Discussions in the Department of Industrial and Manual Training, 1875-1906," pp. 604-7. "Bibliography of Topics on Industrial Education," 1863-1906, pp. 695-96. "Bibliography of Topics on Manual Training," 1869-1906, pp. 700-3. "Bibliography of Topics on Technical Education," 1874-1905, pp. 728-29. 1907 — Lyttle, E. W. "Relation of High School to Industrial Life," pp. 698-700. Harvey-Dyer, "Is There Need for Industrial Schools for the Elementary Grades?" pp. 310-15. Brown, J. S. "Meaning and Function of Manual Training," pp. 701-5. Ahrens, Dressler Keyes. "Development of a Course of Study in Manual Training," pp. 760-78. Leavitt, Johnson Burks. "Relation of Industrial Education to Public Instruc- tion," pp. 778-96. Alexander, M. W. "Industrial Training as Viewed by a Manufacturer," pp. 796-804. "Department of Technical Education, Report," pp. 1,031-55. 1908 — Schaeffer, N. C. "Education for Avocation," pp. 56-57. Brereton, C. H. B. "The Problem of Vocational Training in London," pp. 58-65. Draper, A. S. "The Adaptation of the Schools to Industry and Efl&ciency," pp. 65-78. Department of Superintendence, Symposium; Russell, Elliott, McElroy, Langley, Morse, Martin, Hayes, Harvey, Discussions, pp. 155-94. 1908 — Harvey, L. D. "Report of Committee on Industrial Education for Schools in Rural Communities," pp. 385-95. Seerley, H. H. "Industrial Arts in The Normal Schools," pp. 710-15. Snedden, D. S. "Differences among Varying Groups of Children," pp. 752-57. Department of Manual Training, Addresses on the Social Aspect, Importance and Function of Manual Training, pp. 757-98. ROWE, H. M. "Commercial and Industrial Education in the Grammar School Course," pp. 888-91. 1909 — Department of Superintendence: Addresses: Brov^^n, E. E, "Industrial Education as a National Interest"; Butter- field, Kenyon L., "The Dignity of Vocation as a Fundamental Idea in Industrial Education"; Cooley, E. G., "Continuation Schools"; Daven- port, Eugene, "Shall Industrial Education be Treated as a Phase of General Education?" Round Table Discussions: "Industrial Training." What is Feasible in Cities of Fifteen Thousand to Sixty Thousand Population and of What Kinds ? (a) Grammar Schools; (6) High Schools; (c) Vocational Schools. national society for the promotion of industrial education Bulletins of the Society: No. I. Proceedings oj the Organization Meetings. (Out of print.) 770 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training No. 2. Selected Bibliography on Industrial Education, annotated. By C. R. Richards. July, 1907. No. 3. A Symposium by Employers and Employees in Regard to Industrial Education. Prepared by James P. Haney.' September, 1907. No. 4. Industrial Training for Women. By Florence Marshall. October, 1907. No. 5. Proceedings 0} First Annual Meeting. Chicago, 1908. Part I. Addresses by Chas. W. Eliot, J. W. Van Cleave, H. S. Pritchett, C. D. Wright, W. R. Warner, W. B. Prescott, J. F, Deems, L. W. Miller, A. L. Williston, C. W. Cross, H. Schisteider, M. P. Higgins, Anthony Ittner. April, 1908. No. 6. Proceedings oj First Annual Meeting. Part II. Addresses by C. F. Perry, M. P. Higgins, Graham Taylor, Florence M. Marshall, C. S. Howe, Henry Wallace, O. M. Becker, Mrs. A. G. Spencer, C. W. Ames, Luke Grant, E. G, Hirsch, L. D. Harvey, S, B. Donnely, C. H. Morse, Jane Addams, T. S. Moseby, Paul Kreuzpointer. May, 1908. No. 7. Circular of Information. "Officers, Members Purposes of the Society, Consti- tution." November, 1908. No. 8. Education of Workers in the Shoe Industry. By A. D. Dean. December, 1908. No. 9. Proceedings of the Second Annual Meeting, Atlanta, Ga., 1908. No. 10. Proceedings of the Third Annual Meeting, Milwaukee, Wis., 1909. ^ council of supervisors of the manual arts Year Book, 1903. Haney, J. P. "Supervision of the Manual Arts," pp. 13-45. Pierce, L. "Bibliography, including Articles on Manual and Industrial Education," pp. 117-33- Year Book, 1904. Haney, J. P. "The Course of Study in the Arts," pp. 13-36. Cremins, Julia C. "Constructive Work in the Primary Grade," pp. 47-64. Griswold, E. D. "Woodwork in the Elementary Grades," pp. 78-87. MoHR, W. M. "Working Drawing in Elementary Schools," pp. 88-97. Bailey, H. T. "The Professional Schools of Paris," pp. 129-51. Davis, S. P. "The Manual Arts in Extension Schools," pp. 152-69. Pierce, Louisa. "Bibliography of the Manual Arts," p. 177. Year Book, 1905. Davis, S. P. "PubHc Evening Courses in the Manual Arts," pp. 182-205. Pierce, Louisa. "Bibliography of the Manual Arts," p. 227. Year Book, 1906. Murray, M. W. "The Manual-Training Room and Its Equipment," pp. 69-86. Mathewson, F. E. "First- Year Drawing in the Technical High School," PP- 87-97. Shinn, y. I "Educational Aspects of the Manual Arts," pp. 165-80. Pierce, Louisa. "Bibliography of the Manual Arts," p. 203. Year Book, 1907. SOPER, Mabel B. "Constructive Work in Town Schools without Special Equip- ment," pp. 13-19. Boone, C. L. "Centers of Interest in Handwork," pp. 20-26. Bennett, C. A. "The Relationship between Drawing and the other Manual Arts," pp. 27-31. Murray, M. W. "Woodworking for Elementary Schools," pp. 51-57. Dearborn, Pierce. "Bibliography of the Manual Arts," p. 139. eastern art and manual training association Proceedings, 1906. Dewey, J. F. "Culture and Industrial Education," pp. 21-30. I Department) BIBLIOCjRAPHY 77 1 Wahlstrom, L. W. "The Place of Typical Industries in the Elementary School," pp. 89-107. Balliet, T. M. " Shall the Manual-Training School become the Technical School ?" pp. 166-72. Proceedings, 1908. Park, J. C. "Fundamental Principles in Manual Training," pp. 15-21. Senson, T. D. "Industrial Education as applied to the Needs of Rural Schools," PP- 55-61. Morse, J. H. "The Time and Place for Industrial Education," pp. 62-65. WESTERN DRAWING AND MANUAL TRAINING ASSOCIATION Proceedings, 1906. ^LSON, W. H. "The Place of Arts in the High-School Course," pp. 20-28. Langley, Euphrosyne E. "Report of the Committee on Handicraft in the Public Schools," pp. 69-87. Proceedings, 1908. Thompson, W. O. "The Place of Manual Arts in the School," PP- 28-33. Barker, J. T. "Manual Training in High Schools," pp. 58-61. JOINT meeting, eastern AND WESTERN MANUAL TRAINING ASSOCIATIONS Proceedings 1907. Richards, C. R. "Relation of Manual Training to Industrial Education," pp. 77-85. MISCELLANEOUS American Academy 0} Political Science, Annals of, 1909. "Industrial Education." Twenty-three valuable contributions on the subject of Industrial Education. Vol. XXXIII, No. i, pp. 187. American Society for the Advancement of Science, 1906. "The Correspondence School — Its Relation to Technical Education and Some of its Results." Reprinted in Science, Vol. XXIV, September 14, 1906, pp. 327-34. American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Proceedings of, 1909. Schneider, H. "Fundamental Principles of Industrial Education," pp. 307-29. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Proceedings of. Alexander, M. W. "Plan to Provide Skilled Workmen," Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, pp. 487-502. Russell, W. B. "Industrial Education," Vol. XXIX, pp. 11 21-43. National Child Labor Committee, Fifth Annual Conference, 1909. " Childworkers of the Nation," p. 255. National Consumers League, 1907. "Child Labor Legislation." Edited by J. C. Goldmark. Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, Proceedings 1909. "Report of Committee on Industrial Education," pp. 363-405. periodicals Alexander, M. W. "An Experiment in Industrial Training," Machinery, Vol. XIII, pp. 1-8, September, 1906. Bain, A. VV. "Preparation in the Elementary School for Industrial and Domestic Life," Elementary School Teacher, Vol. IX, pp. idy-yj, December, 1908. Barker, J. F. "The New Technical High School at Cleveland," Manual Training Magazine, pp. 51-58, October, 1908. Batchelder, E. a. "Advance in Industrial Education Abroad," The Craftsman, Vol. XV, No. 2, pp. 34-42, October, 1908. Burks, J. D. "Democracy in Education," Elementary School Teacher, Vol. VIII, pp. 130-42. 772 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training . "Getting Our Bearings on Industrial Education," Elementary School Teacher, Vol. IX, pp. 445-54, May, 1909. Butler, N. M. "Training for Vocation and Avocation," Educational Review, Vol. XXXVI, No. 5, pp. 471-74, December, 1908. CusHMAN, L. S. "Government Co-operation in Industrial Education," Elementary School Teacher, Vol. VIII, pp. 603-7, June, 1908. — . "A Broader Interpretation of Technical Training," Elementary School Teacher, Vol. IX, pp. 269-70, June, 1909. Dean, A. D. "Vital Needs of Evening Schools for Industrial Work," Machinery, Vol. XIII. pp. 244-46, January, 1907. DeG ARMO, C. " Relation of Industrial to General Education," School Review, Vol. XVII, pp. 145-53. March, 1909. Draper, A. S. "From Manual Training to Technical and Trade Schools," Educational Review, Vol. XXXV, pp. 405-11, April, 1908. Elson, W. H. "Cleveland Public Schools," Elementary School Teacher, Vol. VIII, pp. 568-75, June, 1908. Emerson, H. "Efficiency as a Basis for Operations and Wages," Engineering Magazine, Vol. XXXV, p. 529, July-October, 1908. Hanus, Paul H. "The Technical Continuation Schools of Munich," School Review, Vol. XIII, pp. 678-83, November, 1905. Herrick, C. a. "The Place of Applied Education," Educational Review, Vol. XXXI, February, 1906. Howard, — . "Helpless Youths and Useless Men," American Machinist, Vol. LXVII, pp. 51-56, November, 1908. Hubbard, C. W. "Industrial Education," School Review, Vol. XV, pp. 391-99, May, 1907. Jevons, H. S. "The Causes of Unemployment, Defects in Elementary Education, Industrial Education as a Remedy," Contemporary Review, No. 521, pp. 548-65, May, 1909. Johnston, C. H. "The Social Significance of Various Movements for Industrial Educa- tion," Educational Review, Vol. XXXVII, No. 2, pp. 160-80, February, 1909. Jones, E. D. "Education and Industry," Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LXIV, pp. 431-44. Kent, E. B. "The Elementary School and Industrial Occupations," Elementary School Teacher, Vol. IX, pp. 177-85, December, 1908. Langley, E. E. "Constructive Activities in the Elementary School," Elementary School Teacher, Vol. IX, pp. 32-7, September, 1908. Larsson, G. "Manufacturers' Opinions as to the Qualities Needed in Boys Whom They Wish to Employ," Manual Training Magazine, Vol. X, pp. 393-401, June, 1909. Leavitt, F. M. "Industrial Education in Elementary Schools," Manual Training Magazine, Vol. IX, pp. 377-84, June, 1908. MacDonald, M. I. "What It Would Mean to Have Vocational Subjects Added to the Public-School System," The Craftsman, Vol. XV, pp. 466-71, January, 1909. MacGregor, D. H. "Ethical Aspect of Industrialism," International Journal of Ethics, Vol. XIX, pp. 284-96, April, 1909. Mann, C. R. "Industrial and Technical Training in Secondary Schools," School Review, Vol. XVI, pp. 425-38, September, 1908. Manny, F. A. "German Contribution to Education for Vocation and Citizenship," School Review, Vol. XVI, pp. 154-61, March, 1908. McAndrew, W. "Industrial Education from a Public-School Man's Point of View," Educational Review, Vol. XXXV, pp. 109-28, February, 1908. Department! BIBLIOGRAPHY 773 Mead, G. H. "Industrial Education, the Workman and the School," Elementary School Teacher, Vol. IX, pp. 369-83, March, 1909, Melville, G. W. "The American Boy and the American Mechanic," North American Review, Vol. CLXXXIX, No. 6, pp. 864-68, June, 1909. Merriam, J. L. "Fundamentals in the Elementary-School Curriculum," Educational Review, Vol. XXXVII, No. 4, pp. 390-98. April, 1909. More, L. T, "A New Scheme for Engineering Education," Educational Review, Vol. XXXVI, No. 3, pp. 255-62, October, 1908. Morrison, H. C. "Vocational Training and Industrial Education," Educational Review, Vol. XXXVI, No. 3, pp. 242-54, October, 1908. Orr, W. "Vocational Training in Large Cities," School Review, Vol. XVII, No. 6, pp. 417-28, June, 1909. Person, H. S. "The Ideal Organization of a System for Secondary Schools to Provide Vocational Training," School Review, Vol. XVII, No. 6, pp. 404-16, June, 1909. Pritchett, H. S. "Industrial and Technical Training in Popular Education," Educa- tional Review, Vol. XXIII, pp. 281-303, March, 1902. Richards, C. R. "The Problem of Industrial Education," Manual Training Magazine, Vol. VIII, pp. 125-32, April, 1907. Russell, H. E. "The Trend in American Education," Educational Review, Vol. XXXII, pp. 28-41, June, 1906. . "The School and Industrial Life," Educational Review, Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 433-5o> December, 1909. Schneider, H. "Co-operative System of Technical Education," Engineering Magazine, Vol. XXXIV, p. 354, November, 1907. . "Co-operative Course in Cinncinnati," Engineering Magazine, Vol. XXXV, p. 929, September, 1908. Selvidge, R. W. "A Study of Some Manual-Training High Schools with Suggestions for an Intermediate Industrial School," Manual Training Magazine, Vol. X, pp. 373-87. June, 1909. Siepert, a. F. "Engineering and Industrial Problems as Factors in Seventh and Eighth Grade Manual Training," Manual Training Magazine, Vol. X, pp. 193-99, February, 1909. Snedden, D. "The Combination of Liberal and Vocational Education," Educational Review, Vol. XXXVII, No. 3, pp. 231-42, March, 1909. SNOVi^DEN, Albert. "Industrial Improvement Schools of Wuertemberg." Spillman, W. J. "Education and the Trades," Science, Vol. XXIX, pp. 255-56, February, 1909. Stebbins, H. W, "Industrial Education as a Social Force," Educational Review, Vol. XXIII, pp. 462-67, May, 1902. Stratton, G. F. "Problems of Industrial Education," Gassier, Vol. XXXIV, pp. 99-104, June, 1908. Thurber, C. W. "Industrial Education," School Review, Vol. XV, pp. 375-81, May, 1907. Vanderlip, F. a. "The Urgent Need of Trade Schools," World's Work, Vol. XII, pp. 7619-24, June, 1906. Woolman, Mary S. "The Manhattan Trade School for Girls," Educational Review, Vol. XXX, pp. 178-88, September, 1905. . "Trade Schools — an Educational and Industrial Necessity," Social Education Quarterly, Vol. I, pp. 74'-79, March, 1907. . "Trade Schools and Culture," Educational Review, Vol. XXXVII, No. 2, pp. 181-87, February, 1909. Yalden, E. G. "Industrial Education in Public Schools," American Machinist, Vol. XXX, pp. 575, April 18, 1907. 774 NA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Manual Training The following are papers and discussions presented before the National Council at Boston on the REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES IN PUBLIC EDUCATION A. INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS CHARLES R. RICHARDS, DIRECTOR, COOPER UNION, NEW YORK, N.Y. The report upon the Place of Industries in Education submitted to the Council is confessedly, in one respect at least, not comprehensive. It is written by school men and deals solely with schools. This means that it represents, almost inevitably, a common weakness of such studies in that it discusses a part of a whole process without setting forth the nature of the conditions, limitations, and results that obtain in the other part. In other words, the present-day problem of industrial education is one that cannot be adequately dealt with by the school alone. It is an affair in which the largest element is the training, experiences, and development obtained in commercial practice, in which the office of the school is either supplementary or preparatory. To make the school an effective instrument in industrial education we need to place it in intimate co-operation with the industrial situation. To do this wisely and successfully we need to know as school men much more about industrial conditions. We need to know more about the exact con- ditions under which boys and girls enter the industries, the nature of the educational influences that surround them in the learning period, and the limitations of these influences. The data that we need are not a matter of generalization, for in an exact sense there is no general problem of industrial education, but a thou- sand specific problems. To meet the situation intelligently and successfully we need to know the exact conditions that the learner faces in all the important industries of the country. We need to know the degree of speciaHzation or division of labor repre- sented in each trade; the proportion of unskilled, low-grade skilled, and high-grade skilled workers and the nature of the tasks performed in each grade; the wages of workers in each group; whether the trade is localized or general in its distribution. We need to know the qualities demanded in workers, such as strength, endurance, intelligence, accuracy, quickness, and artistic feeling; and most particularly we need to know the conditions under which beginners enter the various trades and the influences that surround them; whether they are confined to a narrow range of operations leading only to low-grade and low-pay positions or whether they have opportunities for a broader range of experiences and the chance to develop into high-grade work; whether the tendency is to reduce them to a cog in a Department] REPORT ON PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 775 machine or whether the influences are such as to stimulate intellectual growth and ambition. Such data are not at the present time available. They exist only in piecemeal. For their development we must rely either upon comprehensive investigations undertaken by state or national government or upon local studies of particular situations. The need of such data is vital in the present situation. We still talk of industrial education in purely general terms, but until the school provisions of a locality shall bear an exact and intimate relation to the needs of its particular industrial community we shall not have industrial education in any true sense. We have heard much of late years concerning the schools of Germany, but we have not yet had in any full sense an exposition of the German scheme of industrial training. The fundamental fact, and the fact that constitutes the essential strength of the German system of industrial education, is that it is primarily an adjustment of school instruction to the conditions of the shop and factory. Not until we know the facts as to the training of the young worker in the industries, and the way the school dovetails into this training, shall we have the full story of German industrial education. Not until we appreciate the work that the German government has done to restore and to sustain the influence of the old guilds, and thru them to pro- tect, advance, and safeguard the apprenticeship system and other methods of industrial training shall we understand rightly the German attitude toward industrial education. Industrial education in Germany is never a generaHzed affair. It is always a studied attempt to supplement arwl round out the training obtained in some specific trade in accordance with the needs of advanced modern industrial practice. Furthermore, and a very significant fact for us, a very large number of the industrial schools of Germany are directed and largely supported by trade guilds or associations, and when this is not the case, such associations often have a great influence in their control. While we have this great principle of co-ordination to learn from Ger- many, it is very true that conditions in this country differ so materially from those in the older nations that our specific institutions for industrial educa- tion must necessarily take on different forms and methods. In Europe, particularly in continental countries, a boy's career is vir- tually fixed by family traditions and family resources. At fourteen years of age the son of a craftsman or mechanic almost inevitably enters upon a trade similar to that of his father and the problem of industrial education for the boy after this point is, consequently, a problem of sup- plementary education thru the continuation school. In our country these conditions do not obtain. All the influences that bear upon the boy in school and out of school life tend to confuse rather than settle his ideas as to a career and arouse a spirit of restlessness and disinclination for industrial work. To bring a neutralizing element into 776 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training this situation and to influence boys well fitted for industrial work toward the industries, we need first of all varied, stimulating courses of manual training in the elementary schools. Not manual training that is merely busy- work with tools or the making of decorated knick-knacks, but well- organized constructive work that will give at each step some knowledge and experience in real industrial processes and that will have for its total result added insight into industrial methods and added interest in the doing of real industrial work. Such a provision we would do well, it seems to me, to consider as a peculiarly American need. Altho suggestions for such work have in the past come to us from Europe, and altho extensive systems of manual train- ing exist in many of the older countries, it is apparent that the tendency toward congestion in our large cities, the almost complete l^ick of construct- ive manual experiences by the youth of these cities, and the disturbing character of our social ideals as they bear upon boys and girls, make such work for us a peculiarly important and necessary foundation for an effective system of industrial education. It is apparent, on the other hand, that the vocational school for boys and girls from fourteen to sixteen is an institution demanded peculiarly by American conditions. The practices and prejudices obtaining in our indus- tries shut out, to a large extent, the boy and girl below sixteen from oppor- tunities leading to skilled or high-grade positions; the character of our labor laws adds to these restrictions, and the terms of our educational statutes show clearly that it is more and more the tendency to hold Ameri- can youth within the sphere of educational influences until sixteen years of age. We have, because of these facts, a situation essentially American in which the social, industrial, and educational elements all clearly demand further provision for industrial education for boys and girls between four- teen and sixteen years of age. The high school, again, presents a problem in this field that is particularly our own. We have what might be called a great high-school population in this country. The high school is the educational ideal of the middle-class homes thruout the length and breadth of the land, and sacrifices are con- stantly made to allow boys and girls to attend such schools that are com- parable to the efforts made in these same homes to send boys to college. These schools exercise a tremendously fine and steadying influence in our national life, but viewed from the standpoint of the practical world they come clearly within the field of vocational education, and it would seem as if specific provisions in this direction cannot much longer be post- poned. We are beginning to have high schools of commerce, and by all indications we need equally high schools of industry — schools that shall be frankly recognized as vocational and that shall devote themselves to inten- sive technical preparation for industrial life. Such schools should be sharply differentiated from trade schools and Department] REPORT ON PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 777 from intermediate industrial schools. Their students will come necessarily from homes with somewhat larger resources and somewhat different ideals, and their function should be to afford educational advantages that in the long run will count toward superior industrial opportunities. In the matter of the continuation school, which so far with us is almost solely an evening school, we come to a more general proposition — a supple- mentary school for those already entered in the trades. In this field our needs and our conditions are very similar to those of the old countries. Such schools constitute the corner-stone of the German system of indus- trial education and are by far the largest factor in that system. They are also the largest and the most important element in such development of industrial education as we already have in this country. Much has already been accomplished in this direction by private foundations but in the pub- lic schools we are hardly at the beginning. The admirable work of the Springfield evening school of trades in this state presents many suggestions for the organizations of such schools. Progress in this field would seem to demand greater and greater differentiation of courses toward the needs of actual industrial workers in place of the amateurish and indefinite type that sometimes constitutes the patronage of so-called evening technical schools. In connection with the subject of continuation schools it is perhaps a fact that our committee would have done well to emphasize the need for a special type of continuation schools for boys and girls between fourteen and sixteen years of age. Such schools would not properly be evening schools but classes providing instruction especially adapted to the voca- tional needs of boys and girls of this age during the daytime, or at least before the hour of 7:00 p.m. Trade schools are not included in the affirmative proposition of the report because in the judgment of the committee the need for such schools is limited to a comparatively few industries where the conditions are such as to render training in commercial practice difficult or inadequate, and to special communities representing exceptional industrial concentration. The question of general public support of such schools is, in the judgment of the committee, one that must be further tested and worked out by the experiments of the next few years. These are the phases of industrial education that have seemed to your committee to represent the largest possibilities before the public schools of this country, whether considered from the side of practical results or the possibilities of public support. Taken singly your committee feels that each division represents an element of far-reaching importance, and in their entirety it submits them to you as an attempt in the light of today to out- line a comprehensive program of public industrial education. 778 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Manual Training B. MANUAL ACTIVITIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JESSE D. BURKS, DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF MUNICIPAL RESEARCH, PHILADELPHIA, PA. For thirty-five years educational leaders have had much to say concern- ing the need for manual activities in elementary education. During the latter part of this period the number of schools having manual training in their curricula has rapidly increased, until now one-half of the thirteen hundred organized local school systems in the United States have this subject in one or more of their elementary grades. In only one hundred and fifty of these cases, however, does handwork extend thru all of the grades of the elementary schools, and of the six hundred school systems having manual training, three hundred give less than an hour a week to the subject, and only thirty-seven as much as half an hour a day. These facts justify the statement that the country at large has not taken seriously the manual-training propaganda. Vastly more has been said than done and, with a few notable and gratifying exceptions, manual training remains in the main an isolated, abstract, and unprofitable fad, attached to, rather than incorporated in, the curriculum of the elementary school. This means, of course, that, notwithstanding the notable advance in a few communities, the country as a whole has lost a magnificent opportunity for educational achievement. Enough time, money, and energy have been expended upon manual training in elementary schools during the past twenty-five years to have demonstrated the claims of its advocates; to have convinced the entire country that manual activities are not only desirable, but indispensable, in elementary education. Taxpayers have waited for facts while educational leaders have furnished opinions. An inquiry was recently made among one hundred and fifty superin- tendents of schools, in cities having elementary manual training, as to the available evidence concerning the value of manual training. These super- intendents were asked to indicate what records they had of work done and results obtained that would show the effect of manual training upon : a) Regularity of attendance; h) Continuance of pupils in school (elimination) ; c) Rate of progress of pupils (retardation) ; d) Progress of pupils in other school subjects; e) Physical welfare of pupils; and /) Success in vocations. They were asked also as to the available evidence concerning: g) The most profitable time-allowance; h) The value of manual training as an index of specific mental and physical traits; i) Specific abilities developed by various types of handwork; j) The relative importance of native abilities and special training in determining success in various types of school work and vocations. Department! MANUAL ACTIVITIES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 779 It is extremely significant that 67 per cent, of these superintendents stated that they had no data whatever upon these points, and that only 15 per cent, stated that they had evidence on as many as five out of the ten points in the list. In the absence of concrete evidence, school boards and taxpayers quite naturally and quite properly have maintained a skeptical attitude toward manual training. If there were no other reason this would be sufficient to explain the weak grip that manual training now has on the educational practice of the country. But there is another important explanation of the failure of manual training to win its way. The very term "manual training" suggests the now discredited "faculty psychology" with its will-o' the-wisp of general discipline. In the general movement toward social aims and social motives in education, manual training has to a very large extent lagged behind. Pos- sibly it is no farther behind than other subjects in the curriculum; but by reason of its early promise much more was expected of this subject than of others in support of a social program for the elementary schools. It is this demand for a more concrete and more distinctly social program that explains the extraordinary transformation of manual training that is now in progress. The remarkable interest in industrial education, which is now probably the most dominant factor in the educational thought of the country, has all but eclipsed the interest in elementary manual training. It is significant that the program of the Manual Training Department at the present session of the National Education Association is given over almost entirely to the consideration of industrial education, and this has been true of the programs of this department for the last three or four years. Other evidences of the rising tide of interest in the industrial as opposed to mere manual activities in the school are of course familiar. Laymen and professional leaders of education alike have deplored the social injustice of a school system which provides directly for the special needs of the 25 per cent, of children who ultimately enter the commercial and professional pursuits, but ignores the requirements of the 75 per cent, who enter indus- trial pursuits. National and state teachers' associations have devoted a large part of their programs to the discussion of this urgent issue; a new- department of the National Education Association has been established for the study and promotion of technical education; state legislatures, special commissions, a national society for the promotion of industrial education, manufacturers' associations, the United States Commissioner of Education, the governors of many states, the President of the United States, the Ameri- can Federation of Labor, and numerous other bodies and individuals have added the weight of many preambles and resolutions to the nation-wide demand that the schools draw nearer to human needs and equip our boys and girls for the struggle of modern industrial life. The educational and general press have given the subject a degree of publicity that is rarely accorded any similar matter. The whole country has repeatedly been ySo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training astounded by the statement that, according to the report of the State Commission on Industrial Education, twenty-five thousand children in Massachusetts between the ages of fourteen and sixteen were either idle or at work. During these years, elementary manual training, with only a distant relationship to vocational pursuits, like Cinderella has remained demurely in the background, waiting for some fairy godmother to change her tattered rags into silken robes. More important than these reasons for the failure of manual training to hold its own in the struggle for recognition and support, however, is the fact that educational leaders themselves have not yet found a consistent and defensible basis upon which to develop a orogram of handwork in the elementary school. One of the most significant features of the report on the place of indus- tries in public education is the fact that it definitely recognizes the place of industries in elementary education, and presents a program which it is hoped will hasten the metamorphosis of manual training. The report was originally projected "for the purpose of collecting data concerning the manual-training work done thruout the country," and to suggest "courses adaptable to various conditions." While the report in its general scope is somewhat larger and possibly somewhat diflterent from that originally proposed, the committee believes that, in view of current tendencies in thought and practice, it has properly interpreted the spirit of the resolution under which it has carried on its work. The report of the Subcommittee on Industries in the Elementary School attempts to sum up and put into coherent and concise form the results of the best thought and practice of recent years. If this service has been acceptably rendered the reports should furnish at least a provisional starting-point for a more intelligent program of manual activities in the elementary school than has heretofore been attempted. That such a plat- form is sorely needed is evidenced by the striking lack of agreement among educational leaders as to the significance of manual activities in the ele- mentary school. In the inquiry before referred to, the superintendents were asked to indicate the importance which they attached to each of eight suggested values of manual training in elementary school. These eight suggested values were as follows: a) General mental training — e.g., accuracy, honesty; h) General manual skill — e.g., precision, dexterity; c) Industrial intelligence — e.g., ability to learn a trade quickly; d) Specific abilities — e.g., skill in a particular process; e) Vital motive for school work otherwise uninteresting; /) Makes stronger and more lasting the results of instruction; g) Intelligent appreciation of industrial life; h) Culture — enrichment of intellectual and social experience. Department) MANUAL ACTIVITIES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 781 In order to summarize these estimates of value, I have counted the number of cases in which a superintendent placed each of the suggested values in the upper half of his own list, that is, first, second, third, or fourth in order of importance. Rated in this way, the list stands as follows: General mental training, 65; Industrial intelligence, 57; General manual skill, 55; Vital motive for school work, 50; Intelligent appreciation of industrial life, 45; Strengthening the result of instruction, 40; Culture, 40; Development of specific abilities, 20; General training is given first rank by 29; culture by 20; and general manual skill by 17. It is instructive to note that while the great majority of the superintend- ents were perfectly frank in admitting the lack of concrete evidence as to the effect of manual training upon the mental and physical development of children, they had no hesitation whatever in making a definite rating of each of the suggested values for manual training. One of the superintendents frankly states that he has not studied the question, and gives no answers. One states that his estimates are guess- work; one feels much uncertainty beyond the first two or three; and one states that in his judgment the importance varies with the pupils. The others give definite estimates, in almost all cases assigning weight to each of the eight suggested values. These answers make it evident that there is no general agreement among our active leaders in education as to the place of manual training in the elementary school. Unless there can be a more widespread agreement, tentatively at least, upon the place of industries in the elementary school, we cannot expect results during the coming decade to be more favorable than those of the past decade. If the conclusions of the committee's report can command the confi- dence of educational leaders, and can be accepted as a point of departure, a tremendous step in advance will have been taken. In addition to this there should be a concerted effort to avoid one of the most serious mistakes of the past, by providing for definite records of work undertaken and results accomplished, that will enable teachers, superintendents, members of boards of education, and citizens everywhere to read the story of achievement for any school or system of schools that has such a story to tell. When educational leaders are in position to support their arguments by adequate records of work done and results accomplished, they will get not merely the uninformed and passive approval, but the active and intelligent co-operation of the communities whose educational interests they serve. With such co-operation, under informed leadership, in every community, 782 NA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Manual Training we shall approach the time when sham and inefficiency will be eliminated from our system of education and 100 per cent, of our children will get 100 per cent, of the value that school training should represent. C. INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS DAVID SNEDDEN, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR MASSACHUSETTS BOSTON, MASS. Discussion and experimentation in vocational education have proceeded to that point where we begin to get more detailed and particular problems before us. This movement toward plans and specifications will have to continue much farther before we shall be on secure ground in this new field of education. We are beginning to make surveys of the special situations before us and to examine the problems which they suggest. It is the purpose of this part of the report of the Committee on Place of Industries in Public Education to examine a limited field — limited as to the age and attainments of children concerned, as to the vocational field considered, and as to a particular type of education. Several assumptions underlie the discussion of this chapter; these are absolutely necessary to the argument. It must be remembered that we are in a region where little experience is available. These assumptions them- selves may legitimately be made the basis for discussion and for difference of opinion; but that some kind of assumptions must be made, is evident. 1. Vocational education which shall be of significance to the rank and file of workers must, under present conditions, find its beginnings at or about the age of fourteen. We may make school attendance compulsory for whole or part time to the age of sixteen, or later, in the course of time; but it is repugnant to all students of education that the schooling of all boys and girls between fourteen and sixteen should remain abstract and bookish. 2. It is agreed that for the majority of children in the industries the economic value of their work, between fourteen and sixteen, is not often profitable and the educational value of this work is only seldom so. 3. Genuine vocational education must involve considerable work under actual con- ditions of production with a usable and valuable product resulting; but the production of usable output must be subordinated to the educational necessities of the pupil. 4. The academic, technical, and book studies must grow out of, and relate closely to, the practical (that is, shop or field) work. The great danger of present industrial education is its tendency to have the practical work and the academic on planes so widely apart thut they do not reinforce each other. 5. Only occasionally will it prove practicable to teach specialized trades in the stages from fourteen to sixteen. We must discover the general foundations for groups of related industries and from these derive the productive practice and technical studies that will give a broad foundation and at the same time make possible specialization either in factory or trade school after the age of sixteen. 6. It is po'ssJble to divide industries now representing many hundreds of special subdivisions into a score or more of fundamental groups, each one of which possesses many common characteristics in materials used, tools employed, and technical studies basal thereto. In other words, we must discover those industries which possess a large Department] INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 783 number of common elements and from them derive suitable material for vocational education. 7. It is also assumed that industries are sufficiently specialized or localized in a geographical sense that schools may be erected which shall minister in a fairly full measure to given communities. On the basis of these assumptions the report is erected. It is not neces- sary here to review the positions taken or the conclusions reached. The report should speak for itself. It seems to the writer that the chief defect of the report is its failure to utiUze more fully the experience of existing schools. This experience should be gone into and its successes and its failures pointed out in considerable detail. The report should also present a more detailed analysis of other situations which may be reached by industrial education corresponding to those in which some results have already been achieved. On the whole, however, it would appear that the most conspicuous defect is the failure of the report to discuss the possibilities of the so-called part-time solution of vocational education. It should be obvious that the kind of vocational education described in the report must prove very expen- sive if the schools are obliged to reproduce so many of the conditions of an actual industrial plant. On the other hand, where factories and shops are found themselves, the opportunities for practical work should surely be abundant. Theoretically, it would appear that the most probable solution of the problem of intermediate vocational education is to be found in the co-operation of school and industrial plant, the former to give the tech- nical training and the latter the practical concrete experience. In this way, too, the maximum of productivity could be realized from the labor of the youth. The solution of the problem along these lines will involve a degree of co-operation between employer, and skilled laborer, and school, such as we know little about at present; but undoubtedly it is a solution of which the American spirit is capable. This solution would require that some one authority should have final control of the entire educational program of the pupil, but subject to these limitations the work of the pupil in any department should be for the benefit of the department. DISCUSSION John G. Thompson, principal, State Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass. — The Ameri- can elementary public school with its education derived almost entirely from books has built up in the minds of its pupils an erroneous idea of the world in which they are to live and has developed a wrong attitude toward industrial life. The school has taught — perhaps not intentionally — that education enables a man to earn his living without work, and that one of the prime objects in attending school is to avoid the necessity of laboring with the hands. We are beginning to realize our mistake, and to see that the school should introduce its pupils to the industrial side of human activity as well as to the literary. In attempt- ing to do this we are, it seems to me, facing a grave danger in the possibility, perhaps the likelihood, that thru differentiated courses in the elementary schools the future industrial worker will come to be looked down upon by those fitting for literary and professional 784 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training pursuits. The course of the future industrial worker must finally diverge in the second- ary schools from that of the future literary or professional man, but we must in the elementary school so present manual labor and human industry that every pupil, rich and poor alike, will come to look upon them as being always as worthy and often as more interesting than mental labor. To assure this, it is absolutely necessary that every child in the elementary school, without regard to his probable future, shall work with his hands — not in the dilettante, emasculated manual training too common today — but in doing a part of the world's work — doing something that needs to be done — doing it under competent direction, in a workman-like manner, and with proper dispatch. When this phase of elementary education is recognized as of as much importance as the study of books and is required of everyone, the desired reform will have been effected without making the American school an agency for creating or for emphasizing class distinctions. H. B. Brown, president, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Ind. — ^That new sub- jects should be injected into the already overcrowded curriculum of the public schools simply because there is a seeming demand for them, is not wise. In the large majority of these cases the new classes are fads and are shortlived, and have no educational value. Really, what is most needed in all our schools is that a lot of the rubbish which has from time to time found its way into the curriculum should be culled out. Even if no addi- tional work were placed in its stead the course of study would be stronger and the pupil would more intelligently comprehend what he does study. The result would be a sounder preparation for the vocation which the child might choose to follow. Whether industrial education shall become a part of the public-school system or not scarcely admits of question. It is only necessary to consider the trend of progress in the industries in order to find the answer. Time was when the boys and girls received at home sufl&cient training in this direction to make them strong, vigorous workers in any occupation, but that time has gone by and now the training of these young people must come firom the schools or from the factories. The schools deferred it until the necessity of the factories became so great that they were compelled to organize training schools for their needs. This in almost every case, however, has been found unsatisfactory simply because the education thus afforded was one-sided. The preparation of young people for the duties of life cannot be delegated to any activity outside the school. Formerly it was only necessary to prepare students for the professions, because they had already been equipped by home training for farm, shop , and factory work, but on account of the meagerness of the necessity for the use of tools no thought whatever was given to training in this direction. This was proper considering the conditions then existing. The going away from home to school was the equivalent of bidding farewell to farm and trades. Nothing but some one of the professions was in view. The false notion was entertained that by means of an education followed by one of the professions the young man would become prominent in the affairs of the world and wealth would flow into his hands. To such an extent did this idea prevail that no small part of the encouragement given by parents to children to attend school was that they might make a Hving without working so hard, and no sacrifice was too great on the part of parents that the children might complete a course of study. This idea prevailed to such an extent that the chang- ing conditions in the industrial world were overlooked. The introduction of machinery, the settling of the great prairies, the establishing of great factories — all called for the very best element of rural as well as of city life. Opportunities were offered to all who were willing to make the effort for rapid and remunerative advancement. Marvelous inven- tions and almost incredible discoveries were made in the various industrial departments. Still the schools kept on educating for the professions. The only wonder is that existing conditions are as satisfactory as they are. Industrial training is manual training, mechanic arts, agriculture, and trade school Department] INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 785 all combined. This discussion, however, relates to that embracing manufacturing and mechanic arts, referring to the needs of the child from fourteen to sixteen years of age. These questions confront us: (i) How shall industrial training be introduced? (2) When shall it be introduced? (3) What shall be the character of the work? Of course in the three minutes which are allotted to me for presenting this subject statements only can be given, but not reasons. I have stated above how industrial training t,hall be introduced — by omitting non- essentials in the curriculum and placing essentials in their stead. This brings us to the second question, "When shall industrial training be introduced?" We all will agree, perhaps, that it should be in the early education of the child. What is most needed is a thoro systematic course of training in the essentials of an industrial education. Then when the child has completed his elementary education he will have enough of his latent power developed to cause him to see the value of a literary education reinforced by the industrial, thus bridging over the chasm between the elementary course and the high school. This would obviate the necessity for any special work for the child from fourteen to sixteen years of age, thus preparing him for all classes of work. We do not teach geometry for the sake of geometry but as it may be an aid in engineering, physics, chem- istry, etc.. So should industrial training be considered. It must be such an education as can be used in all of the industries. As to the character of the work, if it be a part of the curriculmn the demand of the industries will indicate. Judging from this it would be necessary to have elementary manual training, benchwork, woodwork, pattern-making, mechanical drawing; of course- followed in the high school by lathe, forge, and metal work. The course of study must be of such a character that its mastery will compel the child to think in the work of indus- trial training, not about it. This awakens his inventive faculty and enables him to see into the future. It teaches exactness and completeness and his habits are formed along these lines, so that when he undertakes anything he finishes it. This will prove a great factor toward encouraging him to take a higher course of study. If, however, industrial training is not a part of the course of study, then there should be a course occupying two years at least which would be open to the student who cannot continue his literary work beyond the elementary stage. This course should consist of bench, wood, metal, forgework, pattern-making, descriptive geometry, and drawing, and should occupy such time as may be found most practical for preparing the student for the duties which he must meet. These subjects can be taught in all the schools without any great expense. Full equipments need not be placed in any excepting town, township, and city schools, as these will place the real work within the reach of everyone. James M. Green, principal, State Normal School, Trenton, N.J. — The statement has been made that the attitude of organized labor toward the apprenticeship system is such as to make it practically necessary that our schools give industrial education if our people are to be skilled in industries suflSciently to compete successfully with other nations. This statement suggests the wisdom of ascertaining exactly what the attitude of labor organizations is, that we may consider whether it offers a sufficient reason for the modi- fication of the school system and to what extent. It is quite possible that discussion and education might modify the attitude of labor. We must assume that laboring men, at least as parents, will be reasonable. The real educator cannot escape any part of responsibility. He must consider what will be for the best interests of the people as well out of the schools as in them, and plan his curriculum accordingly. Again, we are puzzled to know exactly what was the apprenticeship system we are to substitute, and what constitutes a trade. As I understand it, this problem is simplified for the German by the fact that the industrial school is very often practically a part of a factory and is chiefly supported by that factory, as for instance in the case of some of the 786 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Manual Training great hosiery mills, where the town is practically given over to the one occupation and where the subjects in the school are applied to that occupation, as the chemistfy of dye- ing, etc. We do not know so well what our pupils are to do. I was asked to refer especially to the paper read by Commissioner Snedden. This paper seems to me very clear and sound. He calls attention among other things to the fact that there is no trade awaiting the boys from the age of fourteen to sixteen, and that as we cannot anticipate exactly what they are to do we should give industrial education that would apply to groups of subjects. For example, "There is no inherent reason why a school for woodworking should not receive boys at fourteen and in the course of two or three years give them a wide amount of practical experience with productive work and the related technical studies, the outcome of which would be youths prepared for further specialized training, or for the subdivided factory processes." I should like to emphasize this statement and to say there is no necessary discord between it and a defini- tion of manual training. Arthur D. Dean, chief of Division of Trades Schools of the New York State Edu- cation Department, Albany, N.Y. — ^The Subcommittee on Industrial and Technical Education in the Secondary Field discovered some interesting facts in collecting its data. Some of these are enumerated: 1. A difference of opinion was evident as to whether the manual-training high school was to continue along its present lines. Nearly every correspondent expressed his belief in trade education. A few stated that such education should be given apart from the manual-training high school. More implied that the latter institution could, with some adjustment, take care of the problem of fitting for the trades. A very few seemed indifferent to any phase of secondary education beyond the confines of the par- ticular school which they administered. 2. There was a very general feeling that more time should be given to handwork, but no one seemed to see his way clear to bring this about, as the college-entrance require- ments appeared already to be crowding the handworking courses into a few hours per week. In fact, some school principals said they were obliged to neglect the fourth year shopwork altogether in the case of individual pupils who were preparing for higher insti- tutions. 3. A very general satisfaction was expressed with regard to the kind of shopwork which the manual-training schools were doing. In many instances this complacence is unwarranted, for the drawing courses do not approach the methods pursued in the best commercial and drawing-room practice. Much of the shopwork is out of touch with present methods of production in high-grade shops. In these shops there has been intro- duced within a few years the molding machine, screw machine, individually driven machinery, steam hammers, drop-forging equipment, jig and fixture making, and a hun- dred and one devices for producing more accurately and economically the products, yet the schools have shop methods and equipments twenty-five years behind the times. 4. When the question came up regarding the close correlation of book work with shopwork, no school, with one or two possible exceptions, gave satisfactory answers. The committee inferred that the academic work was determined by college requirements, that the textbooks were similar to those of other secondary schools of dissimilar purpose and scope, and that the teachers were comparable with other high-school teachers so far as training and experience were concerned, without any reference to practical technical experience. It is evident that the manual-training high school is missing a large opportunity in that it fails to relate the shopwork with the ordinary high-school studies. The leading purpose of such institutions — the preparing of boys for higher positions in industrial life — offers a magnificent opportunity to vitalize the two lines of work. 5. Few courses of study in the manual-training high schools havQ connected them- Department] INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 787 selves with the leading industries of the community. These courses have been made like some other school in some other section of the country. It even appeared as tho courses of study had been compiled by striking an average from the data furnished from courses of other schools. 6. The last point brings us to the question of how a secondary technical school should be planned. Undoubtedly it is best developed when it is related to the local field; when its building is adapted to the needs of the local situation; when its equipment is in accord- ance with best modern shop practice; when its courses of study are developed after con- sultation with leading industrial experts of the local community. This is not the usual procedure. Courses of study, plans of buildings, and lists of equipment are sought from all sections of the country. The local school is built in accordance with other schools after the local architect has done what he can to add to the beauty of the outside by destroying the effective workings of the inside. It is well to know what other places are doing but it is also an excellent idea to know the local industrial problem and the ways to meet it. 7. Ignoring the question of evening trade work for those already employed in the industries is a grave matter in the manual-training high-school situation. There is an urgent need for evening trade and technical classes for bettering the opportunities of men and women employed in industrial vocations during the day. Existing day schools which have well-equipped shops and drawing-rooms can render no more important service than to offer such facilities to the industrial workers. 8. The minority report of this subcommittee, as signed by one member, expresses the belief of those who would have the technical high school meet all the industrial and educational requirements of the community. It ignores the fact that the report of the committee was so worded that it impUed that there was a high school of another type in the community in which the high-school pupils could prepare for higher institutions. The main business of the subcommittee was to bring before the Association the question of industrial and technical education in secondary schools, and it was not primarily con- cerned with the question of college preparation. However, there is no need for any dif- ference of opinion, for undoubtedly the technical high school may contain three lines of activity: (a) The preparation of boys and girls for industrial careers. This is its primary purpose. (6) It may serve as a finishing school for a large number who will not go beyond it. (c) It may prepare for higher technical colleges. Such a plan involves three distinct courses or departments, with three distinct lines of academic work as well as an amount and kind of shopwork varying with the purpose of each course. Otherwise this plan of a cosmopolitan technical high school (if I may use this term) will fail of its true purpose. Unless care is used in organizing the various courses the school will merely contain a number of classrooms, a series of shops with jumbled courses of study, indefinite in their aims, illogical in their workings, and unsatis- factory to every group of students. The course which prepares for the technical college is definitely laid out by the requirements for entrance to the college. May not the course for preparing for industrial careers be laid out as definitely ? There need be no argument over the name plate on the door of the school. The main point is to see to it that a class of pupils, now unprovided for, receive the industrial education they need. Z. X. Snyder, State Normal School, Greeley, Colo. — I. The curriculum of the public schools should contain manual training all along the line. II. The material for any subject so far as possible should grow out of the immediate life of the child. This should take into consideration: (i) The stage of development of the child; (2) his community; (3) his taste, tendencies, and powers. III. This industrial training should, as it moves along, reveal the child's tastes, powers, and aptitudes, and become vocational so that he may have, or be near, his earn- ing power if he has at any time to drop out of the schools, or when he finishes his course. 788 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Manual Training IV. The industrial and vocational work should be organized in a rich curriculum that is vital in its nature, embracing history, civics, mathematics, nature study, art, and such subjects as the child's stage of development may warrant, (i) Everything should be real. (2) It should be co-ordinated. (3) It should meet the necessities of his life. (4) It should be cultural in the sense that it grows out of his life and back into it to enrich it. DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Charles I. Rice, director of music, Public Schools Worcester, Mass. Vice-President — Miss Elsie M. Shawe, director of music. Public Schools St. Paul, Minn. Secretary — Miss Birdie Alexander, supervisor of music. Public Schools Dallas, Texas. FIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Morning, July 5, 1910 The Department of Music Education met at the New England Conservatory ot Music. The meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m., the president, Charles L Rice, presiding. The program opened with an address by the president, Charles I. Rice, director of music, Worcester, Mass., on "Boston, the Cradle of Public-School Music in America." The topic, "Phases of Music Education in High Schools," was treated in the follow- ing papers: a) "The Study of Music Appreciation in the High School of Springfield," by Miss Mary L. Regal, West Springfield, Mass. This was followed by a discussion in which Miss Elsie M. Shawe, director of music, St. Paul, Minn., Mr. Timothy L. Roberts, supervisor of music, pubUc schools, Utica, N.Y., MissM. Teresa Finn, supervisor of music, St. Louis, Mo., Philip C. Hayden, director of music, Keokuk, Iowa, and others participated. h) "The Automatic Player in Schools," by John G. Thompson, principal of State Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass. John B. Shirley, supervisor of music, Lansingburg, Troy, N.Y., Edward B. Birge, director of music, Indianapolis, Ind., and others spoke on the subject. c) "Harmony Courses in High Schools," by Osbourne McConathy, supervisor of music. Public Schools, Chelsea, Mass. d) "School Orchestras," by Edward Bailey Birge, director of music. Public Schools, IndianapoHs, Ind., followed by a general discussion. The following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the president: C. H. Farnsworth, Teachers College, New York City, N.Y. Miss Maude L. Davis, Worcester, Mass. Timothy L. Roberts, Utica, N.Y. Mrs. Constance Barlow-Smith, in charge of pubhc-school music, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111., read a paper on "The Educational Value of the Folk-Song." Illus- trations of German, English, Russian, Scotch, Swedish, Irish, and Welsh folk-songs were given by ninth-grade pupils from the Maiden, Mass., pubhc schools, under the direction of Melville E. Chase, director of music, Maiden, Mass., and by the following adults: Miss Miriam J. Rice, sopi ano, Mr. Herbert E. Gather, baritone. The selections were as follows: ( "Little Dustman" Pupils German .... ] " Must I Then Go ? " Pupils (" How Can I Leave Thee ? " ..... . Mr. Gather ( "With My Flocks" Pupils English .... ]" Under the Greenwood Tree " Pupils ( "Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes". . . Mr. Gather P . ( "The Three in Hand" (Troika) Miss Rice Russian .... ^ a-pjjgQj^Qj^^n Miss Rice 789 790 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music „ ^, < "Scots WhaHa'ewi' Wallace Bled" Pupils ^^^^^°^ .... i "The Campbells are Comin'" Pupils c, J. , ( "Now Far, Far Eastward" Pupils Swedish .... j "Like Crystal" Pupils ,., < "When Love Is Kind" Miss Rice ^"^^ } "The Harp That Once thro' Tara's Halls" . . Mr. Cather Welsh "All thru the Night" Pupils The department adjourned to meet the following morning. SECOND SESSION, ROUND TABLE.— Wednesday Morning, July 6, 19 lo The meeting was called to order by the president at 9:30 a.m. The greater part of the morning was devoted to a musical program as follows: The Tel-electric Piano Player in Solo and Accompaniment instrumental program Artists Mr. Frederick Blair Cellist Mr. Thomas Moore Cornell Player Accompanist Piano: Scotch Dances (Op. 41) Dvorak Intermezzo, Scherzoso (Op. 21, No. 9, D Flat) Von Billow Cello: Vito (Op. 54, No. 5) Popper Spanish Serenade (Op. 54, No. 1) Friml Piano: Hungarian Dance (No. 6) ... * Brahms Fire-Flies (Op. 15, No. 4) Mrs. H. H. A. Beach Lecture Recital by Mr. and Mrs. Arnold Dolmetsch on the music and instruments of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. PROGRAM 1. "John, Come Kiss Me," with Divisions For the Spinet and Octavina Anonymous English, c. 1600 2. "Heart's Ease" For the Viola da Gamba Anonymous English, c. 1560 3. Fantasie for Treble and Bass Viol: "La Caccia" Thomas Morley,i5gg 4. Two Pieces for the Harpsichord: a) Toccata Henry Purcell, c. 1670 h) " Soeur Monique " Franqois Couperin, 1700 5. Two Pieces for the Viola da Gamba, ace. by the Harpsichord: a) La Plainte Marin Marais, c. lyoo h) Les Vendengeuses de Montguichet .... De Caix d^Hervelois, 17 31 6. Harpsichord Pieces: a) Sonata in D Major Domenico Scarlatti, 171 5 h) "Le Rappel des Oiseaux" J. P. Rameau, 1721 c) Musette en Rondeau J. P. Rameau, 1721 d) Tambourin J. P. Rameau, 17 21 7. Sonata for the Viola d'Amore, accompanied by the Harpsichord . Attilio Ariosti, 1715. 8. Harpsichord Pieces: a) Introduction, Gavotte et Musette from English Suite in D Minor h) Toccata in G Major J.S. Bach 9. a) Prelude and Fugue in C Major h) Prelude in F Minor c) Prelude in B Flat For the Clavichord (from " Das wohltemporirte Klavier ") . . . J.S.Bach The Pianola in Solo and Accompaniment PROGRAM I. Concerto, Op. 59 Moszkowski Moderato Allegro Animate Mr. Earl Willla.m Smith Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 791 II. The Daisy Chain Liza Lehman Soloists Miss Annie E. Hollis Soprano Miss Adelaide J. Griggs Contralto Mr. Charles F. Hackett Tenor Mr. Leverett B. Merrill ' Bass Mr. Earl William Smith, Accompanist with the aid of the Pianola The Daisy Chain a song cycle I. Foreign Children Words by R. L. Stevenson Quartette II. "Fairies" Anonymous Contralto III. Keepsake Mill Words by R. L. Stevenson Baritone IV. If No One Ever Marries Me Words by Laurence Alma Tadema Soprano V. "Stars" (Escape at Bedtime) "^^OT^s.hy R. L. Stevenson Tenor VI. "Seeing the World" From "Little Men and Women" Quartette VII. "The Ship That Sailed into the Sun" . . . . Words by W. B. Rands Contralto VIII. "The Swing" Woidshy R. L. Stevenson Soprano IX. Mustard and Cress Words by Norman Gale Baritone X. The Moon Words by R. L. Stevenson Tenor XI. "Thank You Very Much Indeed" Words hy Norman Gale Quartette XII. "Blind Man's Buff" Quartette A. J. Gantvoort, Director of College of Music, Cincinnati, O., chairman of the Com- mittee on National Songs, submitted the report of the committee concerning the best version to be standardized of "America," "Star Spangled Banner," "Hail, Columbia," and "0 Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean." Since only a part of the report of the Committee was considered by the department it was deemed unnecessary to print the entire report. On motion of Leo R. Lewis it was voted to consider the melodies only as presented in . this report. A lively general discussion followed this report and at i :$o the department adjourned to 3 P.M. Wednesday, July 6, 3 p.m. The meeting was called to order at 3 p.m. and discussion on the report of the Com- mittee on National Songs was resumed. The following arrangements of the melodies of "America" and of "The Star Spangled Banner" were finally agreed upon as the versions which the Department of Music Educa- tion recommends as the standard: 792 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER Francis Scott Key, 1779-1843 As reported by the Committee Dr. Samuel Arnold, 1740-1802 U 1. Oh! say, can you see, by the dawn's ear-ly light. What so As adopted by the Department of Music Education 1. Oh! say, can you -^ ^ -^ ^ see, by the dawn's ear-ly light. What so 2S=S: ^ d^i -75*- ^ ^ i 2. On the shore dim - ly seen thro' the mist of the deep. Where the m ^'=i- W~A-*- 4. Oh! thus be it d-s*- ev - er when free-men shall stand Be i :fc* proud-ly we hailed at the twi-light's last gleaming, Whose broad ^^^B^^ m ^^^ proud-ly we hailed at the twi-light's last gleaming, Whose broad £^ WEi foe's haughty host in dread si - lence re - pos - es, What is fc=i e^P tween their loved homes and the war's des - o - la - tion; Blest with DepartmentJ SECRETARY'S MINUTES 793 The Star-Spangled Banner iSE^ :^-— ?r ^si m -s^^- stripes and bright stars, thro' the per - il - ous fight, O'er the I ^ tnZZfL atz=^ stripes and bright stars, thro' the per - il - ous fight, O'er the ;^ W v=t: ^=^4 -^- that which the breeze, o'er the tow - er - ing steep, As it I i^— jv P ^y- — r ^^ -* — * — I vie - fry and peace, may the heav'n-rescued band Praise the fcs: ^m i=g W -^ \ x-^ ram-parts we watched, were so gal - lant - ly streaming? And the « fci= a:^::^ J=d= W^, :tn=F ^^=^ f=^ i V — V- ram - parts we watched, were so gal - lant - ly streaming? And the m rnH — y '- — ^— ^--=g A \- -V — V- i fit - ful - ly blows, half con-ceals, half dis - clos - es? Now it 5=E :F 5Et Pow'r that hath made and pre-served us a na - tion. Then 794 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music The Star-Spangled Banner -^ vz±it V — u^- rock-ets' red glare, the bombs burst -ing in air, Gave fci=HE :p=i: ti-^-i-F — v^=^=^ kY rock - ets' red glare, the bombs burst -ing in air, Gave I fe-.— H*- ?^ V^ -(^ I^tZ^ catch -es the gleam of the morn-ing's first beam, In full i=i=E g ^ # SE^ e^ con - quer we must, when our cause it is just. And I i^ tcpJ: i^^ 1=d: rz^^E^F proof thro' the night $ :^=i= that our flag was still there. 5^ 1=^J that our flag was still there. proof thro' the night :6=5: S= ^^ -^5^- glo - ry re - fleet - ed, now shines on the stream. :e=*^ i^ t=3: 1=1: this be our mot - to In God is our trust. Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 795 The Star-Spangled Banner Refrain or Chorus 'JZZXL ^^^^: -^—0- Oh! say, does that star - span-gled ban - ner yet wave ^^^m =p=i" 3^^:^ Oh! say, does the star - span-gled ban - ner yet wave ^^^ 1^=:^ Si *: — #- jt=Jt I 'Tis the star-span - gled ban -ner, oh! long may it wave 1 I ^ta. I <^ 1N — ^- - ifZZit ^— # ^ :Q= ^ And the star-span - gled ban - ner in tri - umph shall wave ^r=HS= -N N- ^ Utl^Ml O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? f^ ^ i^tEtt ^ -V — ^ O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave ? $ ]] -^ ^ ■#— fc:^ i^"E •— ^: and the home of the brave. O'er the land of the free i !5=ltE 3^ ■*— -V — \^ -\/—V- V — h-- ^] O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. America As reported by the Committee I As adopted bv the Department of Music Education t=^^^ US The department adjourned at 5 : 20 p.m. to meet again the following morning. 796 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music THIRD SESSION.— Thursday Forenoon, July 7, iqio The meeting opened at 9 : 30, the president in the chair. The department expressed itself in sympathy with the ideas of the High School Teachers Association of New York City, viz. : That the requirements for college admission be enlarged so as to include subjects not now on the specified list, thus enabling pupils who decide during the latter part of their high-school course to enter college, to present sufficient credits for admission. The first paper of the morning, "Some of the Effects of Music Education," was pre- sented by John W. Cook, president of Northern Illinois State Normal School, DeKalb, 111. A general discussion followed. The following resolution was submitted by the Committee on National Songs to be presented to the Committee on Resolutions of the National Education Association: Whereas, The manner of singing our national songs "America" and "Star Spangled Banner" differs widely in various cities and even in different schools of the same city; and Whereas, There is therefore a great need of some agreement upon a uniform rendition of these songs; Be It Resolved, That the National Education Association heartily indorses the forms agreed upon by the Music Section during the present meeting, and recognizes the use of these forms in all the public schools. On motion of Miss Elsie M. Shawe, of St. Paul, Minn., seconded by Miss M. Teresa Finn, of St. Louis, Mo., it was voted that the above resolution be adopted by the Depart- ment of Music, Education and presented to the general body as the recommendation of this department. As it was too late for this resolution to be submitted to the Committee on Resolutions, it was ordered on motion that the president of the Department of Music Education submit the resolution at the annual meeting of active members if possible, "Success in Public-School Music" was the subject of a paper by Leonard B. Marshall, assistant director of music, Public Schools, Boston, Mass. Grant Drake, assistant director of music in the Boston public schools, led the discussion. On motion of John B. Shirley, of Troy, N.Y,, duly seconded, it was voted that the present Committee on National Songs be continued for another year. The committee is as follows: A. J. Gantvoort, Chairman, director. College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio. Miss Elsie M. Shawe, director of music, St. Paul, Minn. Osbourne McConathy, supervisor of music, Chelsea, Mass. R. G. Cole, Madison, Wis. Thomas Tapper, lecturer, New York University, New York City, N.Y. Mrs. Jessie L. Gaynor, St. Joseph, Mo. Edward B. Birge, director of music, Indianapolis, Ind. Mrs. C. B. Kelsey, Grand Rapids, Mich. C. H. Farnsworth, adjunct professor. Teachers College, New York, N.Y. Mrs. Frances E. Clark, supervisor of music, Milwaukee, Wis. On motion of C. H. Farnsworth, of New York, duly seconded, it was voted that the Committee on Terminology be relieved from reporting this year, and that the present committee be continued for another year. The committee is as follows: Charles I. Rice, Chairman, director of music, Worcester, Mass. Mrs. Constance Barlow-Smith, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Leo R. Lewis, professor of music, Tufts College, Mass. William B. Kinnear, supervisor of music, Minneapolis, Kans. Philip C. Hayden, director of music, Keokuk, Iowa. The nominating committee then submitted its report, which was as follows: For President — Miss Elsie M. Shawe, director of music, St. Paul, Minn. For Vice-President — C. A. Fullerton, professor of music. State Normal School, Cedar Falls, Iowa. For Secretary — Miss Estelle Carpenter, supervisor of music, San Francisco, Cal. Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 797 A motion duly made and seconded was carried that the report of the nominating committee be accepted and that the secretary be empowered to cast the ballot for the election of these officers for the ensuing year. William L. Tomlins, lecturer on music, New York City, N.Y,, gave a lesson talk, dealing largely with the moral influence of music. In order to carry out the instructions of the department to present to the active mem- bers in session the action of the department concerning the two national songs, the president left the hall before the time of adjournment and at the close of Mr. Tomlins' demonstration (the vice-president presiding) Mr, Farnsworth's motion, in so far as it relieved the Committee on Terminology from making report at this meeting, was recon- sidered, and the department adjourned to meet for the consideration of the report of the Committee on Terminology at 2:30 p.m. Thursday, July 7, 2 : 30 p.m. In the absence of the president, the vice-president, Miss Elsie M. Shawe, opened the meeting. Leo R. Lewis, professor of music. Tufts College, reported for the Committee on Ter- minology, stating that the committee felt that there was great need of more unification in musical notation. President Rice here took the chair. He reported that he had Ijeen unable to bring the resolution prepared by the Committee on National Songs, before the annual meeting. The resolution would, therefore, have to hold over till another year. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TERMINOLOGY . I will read an extract from the report prepared for use at the Denver meeting, and relate a little history. " While the following is not, strictly speaking, connected with terminology reform, it is the opinion of the committee that some plan ought to be devised by which the many unnecessary irregularities and duplications in the notation of rhythm may be avoided. The remedy for this evil seems to lie in the uniform use of the quarter-note as the beat- unit in all forms of so-called simple measure (2-4, 3-4, 4-4) and in slow movements of 6-4, 9-4, and 12-4 measures. "In rapid movements where the 6, 9, and 12 beats are compounded into 2, 3, and 4 beats, each beat divisible on a basis of three, it is suggested that the numerals 2, 3, 4, be used as measure-signs with a dotted quarter-note below them. The note-groups are famihar, being precisely like those of 2-4, 3-4, and 4-4 measures with triplets. This idea will shortly have a wide circulation in an article by Mr. vSamuel W. Cole." Prior to presenting the report I was told by several men from the Middle West that they had seen printed music which employed the idea embodied in the proposition to use a note instead of a numeral as the lower member of the measure-sign. Believing that there might be something in the story I withheld this part of the report, preferring to wait and see whether Mr. Cole had innocently rediscovered something which had been mislaid and forgotten. After a correspondence which covered three months and extended into most of the states of the Middle West, I received a letter on December i which cleared up the matter. In 1877 Mr. S. W. Straub, now deceased, published a book called Convention and Choir, in which the measure-sign consisted of a numeral above, and a note below, the third hne of the staff. I have tried to obtain a copy of this book in order to see what was said concerning the innovation at its birth, but the best I have been able to do is here in the shape of a copy of Splendor, published in Chicago in 1888, which the preface says is the tenth book published by Mr. Straub. Mr. Cole's newly published I ntervallia hocks will show you the appearance of the printed music. The proposition that the quarter-note genus shall always represent the beat in printed music seems to me undebatable. It is in the nature of simpHfication without loss. By following this plan only one set of proportions needs to be learned. The quarter-note, either plain or dotted, always means : sing once in the time of one beat. The group of two eighths always means: sing two tones of equal length in the time of one beat. The group of three eighths, with or without the triplet sign, always means: sing three tones of equal length in the time of one beat, etc., etc. 798 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music The last report of the committee recommends as the best form in speaking of the meaning of the measure-signs: two-quarter measure, three-quarter measure, etc., in place of two-four time, three-four time, etc. Thus: " 'Yankee Doodle' is written in two- quarter measure; 'America' is written in three-quarter measure." The measure-sign with the note as the lower member would make it easier to conform to that standard. Mr. Straub seems, then, to have made, thirty-three years ago, the simplification we are dis- cussing today. The plates from which his many books were printed were destroyed by fire, so that the records of the idea have disappeared almost as completely as if the idea had never been. Respectfully submitted, Charles I. Rice, Chairman After considerable discussion, on motion of Dr. Rix, of New York City N.Y., seconded by Mr. Kelsey, it was voted : that the quarter-note or dotted quarter-note be recommended as the beat-unit in all printed music. On motion of Miss Shawe, seconded by Dr. Rix, it was voted that this department approves the adoption of a measure-sign which shall consist of a numeral above and a quarter-note or a dotted quarter-note below. On motion of Professor Lewis, duly seconded, it was voted that the matter of actual terminology to cover these innovations be referred to the Committee on Terminology, to report next year. On motion of Mr. Hayden, of Keokuk, Towa., duly seconded, it was voted that sec- tions *^ 2)'^" and "3