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{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF\n\nAND ADDRESSES\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION\nOF THE UNITED\n\nASSOCIATION\nSTATES\n\n"}
{"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin 2007 with funding from\nMicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1910natiuoft\n\n"}
{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": ".^\n\nNATIONAL\n'\"\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n\nJournal\nOF\n\nProceedings and Addresses\nOF THE\n\nFORTY-EIGHTH\n\nANNUAL\nHELD\n\nMEETING\n\nAT\n\nBOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS\nJULY 2-8\n1910\n\npubliebeD bs1910\ntbe Hssoclatlon\nSECRETARY'S\n\nOFFICE, WINONA,\n\nMINN.\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\n\nComposed and Printed By\nThe University of Chicago Press\nChicago, 111., U.S.A.\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "23\n\nCONTENTS\n\n27\nPAGE\nI\n\nAct of Incorporation\nBy-Laws\nCertificate of Incorporati\nCalendar of Meetings\nOfficers for 1909-10\nOfficers for 19 10- 11\nReport of Treasurer\nReport of Board of Trustees\nSecretary's Minutes of General Sessions\nAnnual Meeting of Active Members\nAnnual Report of Committee on Resoluti\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1909-10\nAdjourned Meeting of Board of Directors for 1909-10\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1910-11\nAddresses of Welcome:\nI. Draper\n11. Fitzgerald\n\nGENERAL\n\n5\n\n108\n\n16\n12\n20\n\n35\n\nSESSIONS\n\nS3\n\nS3\n\nResponse to Addresses of Welcome — Blair\nEducation and American Independence — Kiichin\nWar and Manhood — Jordan ....\nThe Relation of Education to Democratic Government — Taft .\nSome Dominant Tendencies in American Education — Joyner\nA Message from the United States Bureau of Education — Brown\nWilliam Torrey Harris — Greenwood .....\nThe Criticisms of the Public Schools by the Laity — CraUree\nValue of Demonstrative Methods in the Agricultural Education of the Rural\nPopulation — Russell\n.......\nPublic Health and Public Education — Orr\n....\nTraining for Teaching — Miss Johnston\n.....\nThe Education of Women for Home-Making — Mrs. Hutt .\nThe Value During Education of the Life-Career Motive — Eliot .\nDEPARTMENT\n\n87\n\n44\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nS4\n61\nS7 107 \"S\n\n48\n\n38\n\n99 133\n\nIII\n122\n\n143\n149\n155\n\n78 71\n\n(Indianapolis Meeting, 1910)\n\nSecretary's Minutes — Keating\nTopic: Children Differ in Mental Alertness\nI. What Constitutes Retardation ? How May It be Corrected? — Ayres .\nII. Provision for Gifted Children in Public Schools — Van Sickle\nIII. What Consideration Should be Given to Subnormal Pupils? — Groszmann\n...........\nTopic: Children Differ in Moral Responsibility\nI. The Variable Factors in Moral Responsibility — Horn ....\nII. Discipline as Affected by Differences in Moral Responsibility — Lewis\nIII. Methods of Reducing Moral Truths to Practice — Cummings\n\n30\n\n169\n174\n160\n\n180\n\n92\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "vi\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTopic: In Memoriam — William Torrey Harris\nI. Brown, G. P\nII. Gary\nIII. Brown, E. E. .\n.\nTopic: Children Differ in Mental Attitudes, Tastes, and Tendencies\n\n185\n190\niQS\n\nI.\n\nDangers and Advantages of Specialization Prior to the High-School\nAge — StripUn\ni99\nII. The Effects of Electives Upon the Future Welfare of Secondary Education— Brown\n.'.........\n203\nIII. Do Present College-Entrance Requirements Sufficiently Recognize\nDifferent Tastes and Tendencies of Pupils ?— Hill\n.208\nTopic: Children Differ in Physical Condition\nI. Health and Education — Harrington .\n.\n.'\nII. Competition and Culture — Sargent\nIII. The Principle Underlying Modern Physical Education — Horn\nTopic: Children Differ in Environments\n\n.\n\nL Southern Educational Problems — Weber\n.\n.\nII. The Effect of Industrial Environment — Connelley\nIII. Education in the Country for the Country — Zeller\nTopic: Children Differ in Vocational Aims\n\n.234\n.242\n.245\n\nI.\nII.\nIII.\n\nIndustrial Education in the Elementary School — Johnson\nVocational Education in Secondary Schools — Webster\nTrade Unions and Industrial Education — Prescott\n....\nround\n\nRound\n\nTable of State and County\n\n.\n.\n\n214\n223\n228\n\n253\n260\n265\n\ntables\n\nSuperintendents:\n\nTopic: The Country Child\nI. The Necessary One-Room School — Gass\n.\n.\n.275\nII. The Consolidation of Schools — Aley\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.276\nIII. Industrial Work:\nIn the One-Room School, Its Kind and Scope —\nByrd\n277\nIV. Teachers for the Country School:\nKind Wanted;\nHow to Secure\nThem — Alleman\n.........\n280\nRound Table of Superintendents of Larger Cities\nRound\n\nArt as a Necessary Factor in Industrial Education — Sargent\nTable of Superintendents of Smaller Cities:\n\n.\n\n.\n\nI.\n\nThe Purpose and Content of the Elementary Curriculum — Chamberlain\n...........\n\nII.\n\nThe Grading and Promotion of Pupils — H art-well\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n284\n\n286\n.\n\n294\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nConstitution. ............\nOfficers and Members\n...........\n\n307\n309\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.312\nPresident's Address — Swain\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.317\nReport of Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools —\nVan Sickle ............\n321\nThe Economical Use of School Buildings — Maxwell\nReport on Educational Progress During the Year — Strong\n\n326\n336\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\nVll\n\nPhysical Education:\nI. Physical Education in its Various Phases — Elementary, Secondary, and\nHigher — Sargent\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.341\n11. Physical Education from the Standpoint of Health — Gulick\n346\nIII. Fundamental Education — Hetherington\n.\n.\n.\n.\n• 35©\nIV. The American Game of Football as Related to Physical Education —\nJordan\n...........\n357\nThe Vocational and Industrial School — Fish\n.......\nThe Need of Industrial Education in Our Public Schools — Robinson\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\n.\n\n363\n369\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n-377\nThe Principle of Development as the Basis for Kindergarten Method — Miss\nPalmer\n............\n378\nThe Child as the Center of Correlation in the Kindergarten — Miss Tanner\n. 384\nAesthetic Development of Children at the Kindergarten Period — Miss Crawford\n. 388\nThe Test of the Child's Kindergarten Training — Miss Harris\n....\n396\nThe Kindergarten Out of Doors:\nI. Gardens — Miss Harvey .\n.\n. • .\n.\n402\nII. Walks and Excursions — Mrs. Ware .......\n404\nIII. Open-Air Sessions — Miss Colton\n.......\n410\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\nThe Motivation of the Children's Work in the Elementary Schools — Wilson\nEnglish in the Elementary Schools — Miss Baylor\n......\nStrengthening the Work in the Elementary Grades — Greenwood ....\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n443\n445\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n..........\nSchool Activities as an Educational Factor in Secondary Schools — Lasher\nThe High School Itself — Mc Andrew .......\nThe Opportunities of the Modern High School — Cary\n....\nPreliminary Report of the Committee on Cosmopolitan High School — Smith\nThe Practical Aspects of Science in Secondary Education:\nI. The Pedagogical Viewpoint — Hart\n11. The Scientific Viewpoint — Osterhaut\nA. Physics — Orr .\nB. Chemistry — Mills .\nC. Zoology — Mathews on\nD. Physiology and Hygiene — Murbach\nReport of Committee on Encouraging College Entrance Credit in High-School\nAgriculture — Graham\n..........\nROUND-TABLE\n\n417\n418\n430\n436\n\n457\n\n450\n474\n462\n466\n472\n472\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nA. English —\nRebuilding an English Course — Miller\n.\n:\nEssential Principles in Teaching English — Thomas\n.\nC. Latin —\nThe Oral Method of Teaching Latin — Lodge\nNatural and Artificial Stimuli in Teaching Latin — Riess\n\n483\n476\n478\n487\n493\n480\n\n.\n\n499\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "VIU\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nD. Mathematics —\nWhy Do We Study Mathematics A Philosophical and Historical Retro\nspect — McCormack\nThe Practical Limitations of an Ideal Course in Secondary Mathematics\nFrench\n\nPreliminary Report of the \"National Geometry Syllabus Committee\" and\nits Practical Pedagogical Implications — Betz\nApplied Problems — Breckenridge\n....\nE. Modern Foreign Languages —\nModern-Language Teaching in New England — Tuckerman\nThe Direct Method of Teaching Modern Languages, and Present Conditions\nin our Schools — Monteser\nWriting in German — Bole\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSIS\n\nS19\nS23\nS29\n\nS3S\n53^\nS37\n542\nS48\nSS7\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n5^3\nThe Distinctively Professional Content of Normal-School and College Courses\n—Hill\nS64\nLegitimate Spheres of Influence for the Normal School in Public Education —\nMaxwell\n5^9\nThe Special Preparation of Teachers for the Rural Schools:\nA. Thru Secondary Schools — Picken.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n• S7S\nB. Thru the County Normal ScYiool-^Larson .\n.\n.\n.\n.578\nC. Thru Courses in State Normal Schools — Burnham\n....\n583\nReport of the Progress of Simplified Spelling in America\nS88\nReport of the National Committee on Agricultural Education\n.\n.590\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nART EDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nAims and Methods in Modern Education — Monaghan\n.\n•\nOvu: Public Schools as Preparatory Schools for Practical Life — Rumely\nA Practical System for General Training in Industrial Education — Dean\nThe Conservation of Educational Methods — Connelley\n.....\nThe Training of Teachers for Industrial Work — Murray\nArt as a Medium for Liberal Education — Kirby\nThe Advancement of Drawing and Art Teaching in our Public Schools — Miss\nSnow\n............\nDrawing and its Relation to the Arts and Crafts of the Public Schools — Hammel\nThe Vocational Value of the Household Arts — Miss Kinne\n....\nThe Scientific Department of the Secondary Schools and its Relationship to the\nHousehold Arts — Miss McDermott .......\n\nS\"\n\nS\"\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nPresident's Address: Department Problems — Fellows\nUniversity Administrative Problems Outside of Teaching — Baker\n.\n.\n•\nCollege and University Administration: The Office Side of the Question— Kep pel\nThe Relation of the College Faculty to Fraternities — Faunce\n.\n.\n.\n•\nCollege Discipline — Clark\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSOS\n\nS9S\nS97\n603\n612\n616\n621\n626\n630\n635\n642\n646\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n659\nCONTENTS\nReport of the Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Education:\nIntroduction — Burks\n.........\n' The Industrial Factor in Social Progress — Carlton\n....\nThe Industrial Factor in Education — Henderson\n....\nSome Notes on the History of Industrial Education in the United States —\nRichards ...........\nI. Report of Sub-Committee on the Place of Industries in the Elementary\nSchool\n..........\nFurther Suggestions Regarding Course of Study\nII. Report of Sub-Committee on Intermediate Industrial Schools\nIII. Report of Sub-Committee on Industrial and Technical Education i\nthe Secondary School\n.......\nMinority Report\n..........\nA Selected Bibliography on Industrial Education\n....\nReport of Committee on the Place of Industries in PubUc Education:\nA. Introductory Address — Richards\nB. Manual Activities in the Elementary School — Burks\nC. Intermediate Industrial Schools — Snedden\n.....\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n..........\nBoston, the Cradle of Public-School Music in America — Rice\nThe Study of the Appreciation of Music in the High School of Springfield, Mass.Miss Regal\nThe Automatic Player in Schools — Thompson .\n.\n.\n.\nHarmony Courses in High Schools — McConathy\n.....\nHigh School Orchestras — Birge\n........\nThe Educational Value of the Folk-Song — Mrs. Barlow-Smith\n.•\n.\nSome of the E£fects of Music Instruction in Public Schools — Cook\nSuccess in Public-School Music — Marshall\n......\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nOF CHILD\n\n652\n666\n\n680\n692\n76s\n\n710\n774\n731 803\n766\n\n7898iS\n778\n782\n\n8808\n11\n\n8i\n798\n88222\n6\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nPast, Present, and Future of Commercial Education — Curry ....\nHow to Make Commercial Courses More EflScient — Lakey ....\nThe Education and Professional Training of Commercial Teachers — Pitman .\nWhat Business Men Demand of Graduates of Commercial Schools — Healey .\nCommercial Education as a Branch of Vocational Training — Herrick .\n.\n.\nThe Attitude of Academic High-School Teachers Toward Students of Commercial Departments — Green\n.........\nDEPARTMENT\n\nIX 67s\n\n833\n835\n839\n847\n854\n861\n868\n\nSTUDY\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nDanger-Signals in Young Children — Groszmann ......\nCare of Exceptional Children in the Grades — Aley\nThe Exceptional Child: The Influence of Environment and Education Upon his\nDevelopment Beginning with the Kindergarten Years — Goodhart .\n.\nThe National Child Welfare Conference: Its Work and Relations to Child-Study\n—Hall\n\n873\n874\n881\n886\n893\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHow Every School may be a Child Welfare Conference — Allen .\nThe Hygiene of Instruction — Burn ham\n......\nChild Study and School Organization and Administration — Spaulding\nWhat Can the Public School Do for Subnormal Children — Goddard\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.........\nThe Deeper Significance of the School-Hygiene Movement — Cabot\nPsychological Aspects of Physical Education — Hall\nPhysical Education of Girls During Childhood and Pubescent\nStoneroad ..........\n\n-Miss\n\n900\n\n906\n\nPeriod-\n\n927\n\nThe Physical Training of Post-Adolescent Girls — Miss Wright .\nMouth Hygiene in Public Schools — Potter .....\n\n912\n\n921\n922\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n936\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\n949\nScience in the Small High School — Terry\n.......\n950 942\nScience Instruction in the Small High School — Russell\n.\n-955 948\nRelation of Departments of Science in Secondary Schools to Teachers of Elementary Schools — Robison ..........\n960\nPractical Aspects of Biologic Science in School Administration: The Problem of\nJanitor Service — Miss Putnam\n........\n964\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Outlook for Educational Administration — Stoddart\nThe Need for Better School Reports and Publicity — Snedden\nThe Standardization of School Statistics — Cook\nA Decade of School Administration in Boston — Ellis . .\nLIBRARY\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.......\n-Sturges\nThe High-School Librarian — Mc Andrew ....\nThe Training of Teachers in the Use of Books and the LibraryROUND-TABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nElementary-School Class Reference Work in Public Libraries— iWr^. Maltby\nThe Use of the Public Library for Reference Purposes by the Elementary Schools\n— Chadsey ....\nUses of the Public Library in the Teaching of History in the Schools— JWw5 Baylor\nCo-operation with the Schools:\nI. Miss Jordan\n...........\n11. Mrs. Root\nSome Results of Elementary School Class Reference Work in Public Libraries—\nMiss Bayles •••........\nThe School and the Library — Judd\n\n969\n977\n987\n1003\n\n970\n993\n994\n1014\n1014\n1015\n\n1016\n1018\n1022\n1026\n\n980\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\nxi\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\n1033\nThe State's Obligation to Provide Educational Opportunities for All Children,\nNormal or Otherwise — Jones .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.1035\nProvisions for Education of Non-Normal Children— Their Efficiency and Cost:\nThe Deaf Schools, Day and Institutional — Miss Adams\n....\n1039\nThe Blind in Schools With the Seeing — Bruner\n.....\n1044\nInstitutional Care and Training of the Blind — Ray\n....\n1050\nSchools for Backward Children— Mw5 Farrell\n.....\n1054\nConservation of Vision and the Prevention of Blindness — Lewis\n1055\nWhat Kind of Quahfications and Training Should the Teacher of the Special\nClass Have ?— Miller .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.1061\nOralism in Oral Schools — Taylor\n.........\n1067\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL PATRONS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Work of the Department of School Patrons, 1909-1910 — Miss Gill\n.\nThe Work of the Coming Year — Mrs. Barnum\n......\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF RURAL\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\n1073\n1075\n1078\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nField Laboratory Work Accompanying College Courses in Horticulture — Watts\nField Laboratory Work — Davis\nLaboratory and Field Work in the Agricultural High School — Crocker on\n.\nReport of the National Committee on Agricultural Education —\n.\n.\n.\nAgriculture in the Public School System:\n\n1081\n1082\n1087\n1089\n1094\n\nI. The Place of Agriculture in the Public High 'School— W arr en\n.\n. 1094\nII. The Place of the Agricultural High School in the System of Public\nEducation — Crosby .........\n1103\nIII. How the Schools and the United States Department of Agriculture can\nCo-operate — Hays\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.1108\n\n"}
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{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\n\nOF\n\nI 857-1870\nThe National Teachers Association\nOrganized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\nPurpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession\nof teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStates.\nThe name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August\n15, 1870, to the \"National Educational Association.\"\nI 870-1907\nNational Educational Association\nInporporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24,\n1886, under the name, \"National Education Association,\" which was\nchanged to \"National Educational Association,\" by certificate filed November 6,1886.\nNational Education Association 1907of the United States\nIncorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906,\nto succeed the \"National Educational Association.\" The charter was\naccepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Convention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California.\n\nACT OF INCORPORATION\nAN ACT\n\nTO\n\nINCORPORATE THE\nTION OF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION\nUNITED STATES\n\nASSOCIA-\n\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in\nCongress assembled:\nSection i. That the following named persons, who are now ofl&cers and directors\nand trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the\nyear eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the\nRevised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. Schaeffer, Eliphalet Oram\nLyte, John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews,\nof Arizona; John H. Hineman, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, Josiah\nL. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis\nC. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, of\nDelaware; J. Ormond Wilson, *William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of\n* Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nColumbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann,\nof Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, Joshua\nPike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A.\nMott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V.\nStorm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; Warren Easton, of Louisiana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot,\n♦Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White,\nWilliam H. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of\nMinnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, James M. Greenwood,\nWilliam J. Hawkins, of Missouri; Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of\nNebraska; Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M.\nGreen, John Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; *James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble,\nJames C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina;\nPitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L.\nGriswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs,\nof Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert\nLange, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas;\nDavid H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph\nL. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall,\nLucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan,\nof Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths,\nof Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are\nor may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are\nhereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia\nby the name of the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and by that\nname shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and\nrestrictions herein contained.\nSec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause\nof education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of\nEducation and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by\norganization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second,\nof Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth,\nof Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth,\nof Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education;\neleventh, of Child-Study; twelfth, of Physical Education: thirteenth, of Natural Science\nInstruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department;\nsixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties\nand the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education\nmay be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its By-Laws.\nSec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a\ncommon seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any\ncourt of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws not\ninconsistent with the provisions of wis act or of the constitution of the United States;\nto take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal\nestate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational\npurpose within the objects of the corporation.\nSec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia,\n* Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nwhich shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation;\nprovided, however. That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation\nwhich shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational\npurposes of the corporation; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually\nfile, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating\nin detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure\nor other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year.\nSec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of\nmembers — viz., active, associate, and corresponding — whose quaHfications, terms of\nmembership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nSec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and\na Board of Trustees.\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of a President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional tnember\nfrom each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of\none year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former\nPresidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association\nhereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of\nthe Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies\nin their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting\nthose herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as\nshall be conferred upon them by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nThe Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of\nthe Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors,\nto serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for,\nthe Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent\nof carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions\nas may be given by said board.\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors\nfor the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member\nex officio, during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held\nduring the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect\none trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees,\nwhether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board\nshall forfeit his membership.\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \"Permanent Fund of the National\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other\nfunds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the\nprincipal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a twothirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon\nthe recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been\napproved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed\nexpenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the\nPermanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAssociation and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the\ndonation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and\nSecretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When\npracticable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus\nfunds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after\npaying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed\nexpenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be\nsecretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his\noflBce for a period not to exceed four years.\nSec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, provided that the meetings of the corporation, its officers,\ncommittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and\nan office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be\ndetermined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the By-Laws.\nSec. 9. That the Charter, Constitution, and By-Laws of the National Educational\nAssociation shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall\nbe accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until\nnew By-Laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said\nAssociation shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until\nthe expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until\ntheir successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the\nNational Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the\ncharter granted by this Act and adopt By-Laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose\nterms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the \"National Education Association of the United States;\" and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation\nhereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this Act be accepted, receive,\ntake over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and\npersonal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association,\nincorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and\nall its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and\nthe several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other\nperson having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or\npersonal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees\nof the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the\npresiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the\ncharter granted by this act by the National Educational Association shall be legal evidence\nof the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted\nby this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its corporate existence shall be, and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day\nof July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be\nextended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District\nof Columbia.\n\nSec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the\nNational Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage\nof this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or\nobligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand,\nin any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released\nor impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities,\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nand contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action\nor proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued byreason of this act.\nSec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of\nincorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested\nor impaired.\nApproved June 30, 1906.\nAccepted and adopted as the Constitution of the National Education Association of\nthe United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual\nsession at Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907.\n\nBY-LAWS\n(Adopted at meeting of active members held in Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907.)\nARTICLE\n\nI— MEMBERSHIP\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSection i. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of\neducational institutions, including libraries and educational publications, may become\nactive members.\nSec. 2. Any eligible person may become an active member upon application indorsed\nby two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual\ndues for the current year.\nSec. 3. Active members only shall have the right to vote and to hold office in the\nAssociation, in the National Council of Education, or in the several departments.\nSec. 4. All active members shall pay annual dues of two dollars, and shall be entitled\nto the volume of Proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions.\nSec. 5. The annual membership fee shall be payable at the time of the annual convention, orby remittance to the Secretary before September first of each year.\nSec. 6. Any active member may discontinue membership by giving written notice to\nthe Secretary before September first in any year, and may restore the same only on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. A\nwritten application for active membership shall constitute an agreement to continue such\nmembership and pay annual dues, unless written notice of discontinuance is sent to the\nSecretary before September first of the fiscal year for which such discontinuance shall apply.\nCORRESPONDING\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 7. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board of\nDirectors to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall\nat no time exceed fifty.\nSec. 8. Corresponding members shall be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without\nthe payment of fees or other conditions.\nASSOCIATE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 9. Any person on paying an annual membership of two dollars may become\nan associate member.\nSec. 10. Associate members may receive the volume of Proceedings in accordance\nwith the usual \"coupon\" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\nLIFE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. II. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members and\nshall enjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual\ndues.\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nROLL\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 12. The names of active, life, and corresponding members only shall be printed\nin the annual Yearbook, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses,\nand the list shall be revised annually by the Secretary of the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nII— OFFICERS\n\nAND\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nSection i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Directors, and Treasurer shall be chosen\nby the active members of the Association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third\nday of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. They\nshall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election and\nuntil their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nSec. 2. At the first session of each annual meeting of the Association the President\nshall appoint a Committee on Resolutions.\ncommittee\n\non\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nSec. 3. At the third session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be\nappointed by the President a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one member from\neach state and territory represented. Such a committee shall be appointed by the President\non the nomination of a majority of the active members from such state or territory present\nat the meeting called for the purpose of making such nomination; provided, however,\nThat such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination, when the\nactive members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a nomination.\nSec. 4. The meetings of the active members of the several states to nominate members\nof the nominating committee shall be held at 5:30 P. M. on the first day of the annual\nmeeting of the Association, at such places as shall be announced in the general program.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— DUTIES\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSection i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer.\nIn his absence the first Vice-President in order, who is present, shall preside; and in the\nabsence of all the Vice-Presidents, a pro tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nTHE\n\nSECRETARY\n\nSec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the\ngeneral meetings of the Association and of all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall\nconduct such correspondence and transact such other business of the Association as the\ndirectors or Executive Committee may assign, and shall have his records present at all\nmeetings of the Association and the Board of Directors.\nTHE treasurer\n\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trustees\nhold in safekeeping, the current income of the Association; shall expend the same only\nupon order of said board; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures,\nwith vouchers for the latter; which accounts, ending the first day of July in each year,\nhe\nshall render to the Board of Trustees and, when approved by said board, he shall\nreport\nto the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge\nof his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees; and he shall continue in office\nuntil the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting\nof the\nAssociation next succeeding that at which he is elected, and until his successor\nhas been\nelected and has qualified.\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\nAUDITOR\n\nOF\n\nACCOUNTS\n\nSec. 4. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the Association to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the\nsaid fund, shall be attached to the annual report of the Board of Trustees.\nCERTIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nBILLS\n\nSec. 5. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\napproved by the Board of Directors.\n,\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nSection i. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular annual meeting at the place\nof the annual convention, and not less than two hours before the assembling of the Association.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board or\nthe President shall determine.\nSec. 3. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOBJECTS\n\nDUTIES\n\nAND\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSection i. The National Cteuncil of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of public and professional interest;\nthe proposal to the Board of Directors, from time to time, of suitable subjects for investigation and research, and the recommendation of the amount of appropriations that should\nbe made for such purposes; the appointment and general supervision of such special committees ofinvestigation and research as may be provided for and authorized by the Board\nof Directors of the Association; the consideration, discussion, and recommendation to the\nBoard of Directors for disposition of all reports by such special committees of research as\nmay have been appointed on its recommendation or by its authority; the annual preparation and presentation to the Association at its annual convention of a report on \" Educational\nProgress during the Past Year;\" and in other ways shall use its best efforts to further\nthe objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general.\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nSec. 2.* The Council shall consist of one hundred and twenty members, selected from\nthe membership of the Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council.\nSec. 3.* The Board of Directors shall annually elect ten members, and the Council\nshall elect ten members, each member to serve for six years, or until his successor is elected.\nAt the meeting of 1908 enough additional members shall be elected in the same manner to\nmake the total number of members one hundred and twenty. The terms of the members\nso elected shall expire as follows: one-sixth in one year, one-sixth in two years, one-sixth\nin three years, one-sixth in four years, one-sixth in five years, one-sixth in six years.\nSec. 4. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection\nwith the annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any\nreason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by\nthe Council.\nSec. 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the\nCouncil shall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall\nfill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\n* As amended at meeting of active members held at Cleveland, Ohio, July i, iqo8.\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nBY-LAWS\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nSec. 6. The Council may establish by-laws for its government not inconsistent with\nthe Act of Incorporation or with the By-Laws of the Association, provided such by-laws shall\nbe submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they\nshall become operative,\nARTICLE\n\nVI— DEPARTMENTS\n\nSection i. A department shall consist of those members of the Association who are\nespecially interested in the consideration of a particular group of educational problems.\nEach department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, secretary, and such\nother officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its aSairs.\nSec. 2. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time of the annual convention of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may hold\nits annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined\nby the oflQcers of said department.\nSec. 3. The objects of the annual department meetipgs shall be the discussion of\nquestions pertaining to their respective fields of educallpnal work. The programs of\nthese meetings shall be organized and conducted by the respective presidents, in conference\nwith, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, at the time of the annual convention, except that a third session for business or informal round-table conference may be\nheld at the discretion of the department officers.\nSec. 4 Upon the written request of twenty active members of the Association for\npermission to establish a new department, the Board of Directors may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the departments named in the Act of Incorporation.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five directors.\nSec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\nSec. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of\nits departments, in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be\npublished in the volume of Proceedings, without the consent of the Association, upon the\napproval of the Executive Committee.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— AMENDMENTS\n\nSection i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by the\nunanimous vote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present,\nprovided that the substance of the alteration or amendment has been proposed in writing\nat a previous annual meeting.\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nNATIONAL\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNOW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nKNOWN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAS\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCERTIFICATE\nof Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June\n30, 1906.\nWe, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding oflficer, and Irwin Shepard,\nthe secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles,\nCalifornia, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an Act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate\nthe National Education Association of the United States;\"\nDo hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being\npresent, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached,\nand accepted the Charter of the National Education Association of the United States,\ngranted by said Act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected\nofficers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions\nDo hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has\nduly accepted said Charter granted by said Act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is\nthe lawful successor to the National Educational Association.\nIn witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\nVERIFICATION\nresolutions\n\nadopted\n\nby the active members, JULY 10, 1907\n\n1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the Charter\ngranted by an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate the National Education\nAssociation of the United States,\" passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and\nSecretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file\" with the Recorder\nof Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the\nAssociation of the Charter granted by said act.\n2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said\nmeeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately.\n3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the\ntitle \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and the dates \"1857-1907.\"\n4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize\nunder the Charter granted by the Act of Congress.\nFiled in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4,\n1907.\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\nNATIONAL\n\nOF\n\nMEETINGS\n\nTEACHERS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized)\nJames L. Enos, Chairman.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\n1864— OGDENSBURG, N.Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\n\n1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BoLKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n\nZ. Richards, I'reasurer.\ni86s— HARRISBURG. PA.\nS. S. Greenleaf, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1859— WASHINGTON, D.C.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ. W. Bui.KLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\n\n1866— INDIANAPOLIS, TND.\nJ. P. Wickersham, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n\ni860— BUFFALO, N.V.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, President.\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n1.86 1, 1862 — No session.\n\n1867 — No session.\n1868— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkei,en, Secretary.\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer.\n\n1863— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1869— TRENTON, N.J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. CRbsBY, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber, Treasurer.\n\n1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nDaniel B. Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby, Treasurer.\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHANGED\n\nTO\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[871— ST. LOUIS. MO.\nJ. L. PiCKARD, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1877— LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. a. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary\n\n1872— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1878 — No session.\n\nJ. Ormond\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\n1879— PHILADELPHIA. PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1873— ELMIRA, N.Y\nB. G. Northrop, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\nJ. Ormond Wilson. Treasurer.\n1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N.Y.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Pre.sident.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n1874— DETROIT, MICH.\nS. H. White, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n188 1— ATLANTA, GA.\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n1875— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nM. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbell, Treasurer.\n\n1876— BALTIMORE. MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS. N.Y.\nE. T. Tappan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon. Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "II\nCALENDAR\n1884-\n\n1885-\n\n1887-\n\n1800-\n\n-MADISON, WIS.\nThomas \\V. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbei.l, Secretary.\nN. A. Cai.kins, Treasurer.\n\n1896— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nNewton C. Dougherty. President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n-TOPEKA, KAN.\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n-CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1898— WASHINGTON, D.C.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n■'.• C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n-SAN FRANCISCO. CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1899— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nE. Ora-m Lyte, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n-NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1900— CHARLESTON. S C.\nOscar T. Corson, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n\n-ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1901— DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nL. C. Greenlee, Treasurer.\n\nTORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nWilllam M. Beardshear, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCharles H. Keyes, Treasurer.\n\n-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1903— BOSTON, MASS.\nCharles W. Eliot, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nW. M. Davidson, Treasurer.\n\n-CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education.)\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1904— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJohn W. Cook, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Treasurer.\n\n'\n\n1894-\n\n1895— DENVER. COLO.\nNicholas Murray Butler, President\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nF. Louis SoLDAN, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1891-\n\n1892-\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\n-ASBURY PARK, N.J.\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1905— ASBURY PARK AND OCEAN GROVE, N.J.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJames W. Crabtree, Treasurer.\n\nJ906 — No session.\n1907— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer.\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCHANGED\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n-CLEVELAND, OHIO\n1908Edwin G. Cooley, President.\nIrwln Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\nTO\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n-DENVER, COLO.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\n1910— BOSTON, MASS.\nJames Y. Joyner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain. Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOFFICERS\nGENERAL\n\nJames Y. Joyner\nIrwin Shepard\nArthur H. Chamberlain.\n\nFOR\n\nOF\n\n1909-10\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nRaleigh, N.C.\nWinona, Minn.\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nLorenzo D, Harvey, President of Stout Institute\nG. W. A. LucKEY, Professor of Education, University of Nebraska\nWilliam M. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nM. Bates Stephens, State Superintendent of Public Education\nFrank B. Dyer, Superintendent of Schools\nThomas H. Harris, State Superintendent of Education\nWilliam J. Kerr, President of Oregon Agricultural College\nMrs. Katherene M. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nHervey B. Work, Superintendent of Schools\nWilliam A. Millis, President of Hanover College\nLloyd E. Wolfe, Principal of Vocational School for Boys\nBOARD\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman\nHenry B. Brown\nCarroll G. Pearse\nJames M. Greenwood, Secretary\nJames Y. Joyner\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nNew York, N.Y\nValparaiso, Ind\nMilwaukee, Wis\nKansas City, Mo\nRaleigh, N.C\nEXECUTIVE\n\nJames Y. Joyner\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nArthur H. Chamberlain\nNicholas Murray Butler\nJohn H. Phillips\nIrwin Shepard\n\nMenomonie, Wis.\nLincoln, Nebr.\nTallahassee, Fla.\nAnnapolis, Md.\nCincinnati, Ohio\nBaton Rouge, La.\nCorvallis, Ore.\nDenver, Colo.\nWheeling, W. Va.\nHanover, Ind.\nSan Antonio, Tex.\nTerm expires July, igio\nTerm expires July, igii\nTerm expires July, igi2\nTerm expires July, 1913\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by Election\n\nRaleigh, N.C.\nMenomonie, Wis.\nPasadena, Cal.\nNew York, N.Y.\nBirmingham, Ala.\n\nSecretary .\n\nWinona, Minn.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors\n\nex officio\n\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N.Y.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nLife Directors\nBicknell, Thomas W., Providence, R.I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, Washington, D.C.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y.\nCook, John W., DeKalb, 111.\nCooLEY, Edwin G., La Grange, 111.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreen, James M., Trenton, N.J.\n* Deceased.\n\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\n• Harris, W. T., Providence, R.I.\nHarvey, Lorenzo D., Menomonie, Wis.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W. Va.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N.Y.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, 111.\nPiCKARD, Josiah L., Cupertino, Cal.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111.\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C, Harrisburg, Pa.\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "DIRECTORS\n\n13\n\nLife Directors — continued\nSkinner, Charles R., New York, N.Y.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, 111.\nState Teachers' Association, Illinois.\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\n•Stratton, C. C, St. Johns, Ore.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D.C.\n• Deceased\nDirectors by Election\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConne ticut\nDelaware\n\nSamuel S. Murphy, Superintendent of Schools\nMobile\nA. J. Matthews, President, Territorial Normal School\nTempe\nGeorge B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nLittle Rock\nDuncan MacKinnon, Superintendent of Schools\nSan Diego\nCharles E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools\nDenver\nCharles H. Keyes, Superintendent of South District Schools.. . . Hartford\nGeorge W. Twitmyer, Superintendent of Schools\nWilmington\n\nDist. of Col\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\n\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Com'r of Education.. . Washington\nMiss Clem Hampton, Department of Education\nTallahassee\nJere M. Pound, State Commissioner of Schools\nAtlanta\nMiss S. Belle Chamberlain, State Supt. of Public Instr\nBoise\nJ. Stanley Brown, Principal of Township High School\nJoliet\nThomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools\nRichmond\nFrank L. Smart, Superintendent of Schools\nDavenport\nJohn MacDonald, Editor, Western School Journal\nTopeka\n\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\n\nW. H. Bartholomew, Principal of Grls' High School\nLouisville\nWarren Easton, Superintendent of Schools\nNew Orleans\nPayson Smith, State Superintendent of Schools\nAugusta\nA. C. Willison, County Superintendent of Schools\nCumberland\nIrving O. Palmer, Science Master, Newton High School\nNewtonville\nE. E. Scribner, Superintendent of Schools\nIshpeming\nS. L. Heeter, Superintendent of Schools\nSt. Paul\nE. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools\nGreenville\nHoward A. Gass, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . . . Jefferson City\nW. E. Harmon, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nHelena\nA. H. Waterhouse, Superintendent of Schools\nFremont\nRomanzo Adams, Professor of Education, University of Nevada. . Reno\nHenry C. Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instr\nConcord\nM. H. Kinsley, Superintendent of County Schools\nHoboken\nJames E. Clark, Territorial Supt. of Public Instruction\nSanta F6\n\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\n\nAugustus S. Downing, First Assistant Com'r of Education\nAlbany\nW. S. Snipes, Superintendent of Schools\nWinston-Salem\nThomas Hillyer, President of State Normal School\nMayville\nJ. W. MacKinnon, Superintendent of Schools\nBellefontaine\nLynn Glover, Professor of Polit. Econ., Slate Normal School . . . Weatherford\nEdwin D. Ressler, President of State Normal School\nMonmouth\n\nPennsylvania.\"\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\n\nReed B. Teitrick, Deputy State Sup't of Public Instruction\nHarrisburg\nHerbert W. Lull, Superintendent of Schools\nNewport\nDavid B. Johnson, President of Winthrop Nor. and Indust. Coll. Rock Hill\nFreeman H. Hoff, Superintendent of Schools\nMitchell\nI. C. McNeill, Superintendent of Schools\nMemphis\nGeorge H. Carpenter, Superintendent of Schools\nBrownwood\nW. S. Rawlings, Superintendent of Schools\nProvo\nMason S. Stone, State Superintendent of Education\nMontpelier\nJoseph Eggleston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . Richmond\nHenry B. Dewey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . . . Olympia\nMorris P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools\nCharleston\nCarroll G. Pearse, Superintendent of Schools\nMilwaukee\nA. D. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nCheyenne\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nNational Council\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJoseph Swain, President of Swarthmore College\nW. M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools\nJohn W. Carr, Superintendent of Schools\n\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nOmaha, Nebr.\nBayonne, N.J.\n\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\n*W. T. Harris, ex-Com'r of Education of the U.S\nJames M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools\n\nProvidence, R.I.\nKansas City, Mo.\n\nExecutive Committee\n* Deceased.\n\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, U.S. Com'r of Education\n\nWashington, D.C.\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nKindergarten\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMiss Luella A. Palmer, Public School No. 63\nMiss Willette Allen, Principal of Kindergarten Normal\nMiss Lucy Ellis, Principal of Kindergartens\n\nNew York, N.Y.\nAtlanta, Ga.\nPhoenix, Ariz.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nThomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools\nJohn A. Welch, Supervisor of Grammar Grades\nMiss Margaret Canty, Supervisor of Grammar Grades\n\nPresident\n\nDavid E. Mackenzie, Principal of Central High School\n\nDetroit, Mich.\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nW. H. Bartholomew, Principal of Girls' High School\nEllis U. Graff, Principal of High School\n\nLouisville, Ky.\nOmaha, Nebr.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nGeorge E. Fellows, President of University of Maine\nCharles E. Bessey, Dean of Coll. of Science, Univ. of Nebr\nFrank E. Thompson, Professor of Education, Univ. of Colo\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJoseph H. Hill, President of State Normal School\nD. McGregor, Resident Regent, State Normal School\nW. S. Dearmont, President of State Normal School\n\nElementary\nRichmond, Ind.\nSalt Lake City,Utah\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nSecondary\n\nHigher\nOrono, Maine\nLincoln, Nebr.\nBoulder, Colo.\n\nNormal\nEmporia, Kans.\nPlatteville, Wis.\nCape Girardeau, Mo.\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nStratton D. Brooks, Superintendent of Schools\nFirst Vice-President\nWales C. Martindale, Superintendent of Schools\nSecond Vice-Pres.. . . Miss Julia A. Richman, District Superintendent of Schools\nSecretary\nJohn F. Keating, Superintendent of Schools\n\nBoston, Mass.\nDetroit, Mich.\nNew York, N.Y.\nPueblo, Colo.\n\nManual and Art\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJ. C. Monaghan, Sec. of Nat'l Soc. for Prom, of Indus. Tr'g\nNew York, N.Y.\nMiss Ednah A. Rich, Prin. of State Nor. School of Man. Arts. . . Santa Barbara, Cal.\nC. Valentine Kirby, Director of Art Education, Public Schools. Buffalo, N. Y.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCharles I. Rice, Director of Music\nMiss Elsie M. Shawe, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools\nMiss Birdie Alexander, Supervisor of Music\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJames S. Curry, Commercial Dept., Central High School\nCleveland, Ohio\nHarry C. Spillman, Commercial Dept., South Div. High School Milwaukee, Wis.\nW. N. Clifford, Commerce Dept., Southern High School\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWill Grant Chambers, Prof, of Educ, Univ. of Pittsburgh\nA. H. Yoder, Superintendent of Schools\nC. B. Robertson, Supt. of Training, State Normal School\n\nPresident.\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nClark W. Hetherington, Dir. of Phys. Educ, Univ. of Mo\nColumbia, Mo.\nRobert J. Aley, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nMiss A. M. Homans, Nor. Dept., Phys. Educ, Wellesley Coll. . . Wellesley, Mass.\nScience\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nB. M. Davis, Professor of Agriculture, Miami University\nE. L. Brown, Principal of North Side High School\n\nOxford, Ohio\nDen' er, Colo.\n\n^^'^''etary\n\nGeorge A. Cowen, West Roxbury High School\n\nBoston,' Mass.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJ. J. Stoddart, President of Board of Education\nJ. S. Bowers, President of Board of Education .\nW. G. Bruce, Editor, American School Board Journal\n\nColumbus, Ohio\nMoberly, Mo.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nMusic\nWorcester, Mass.\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nDallas, Tex.\n\nBusiness\n\nChild-Study\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nTacoma, Wash.\nCortland, N.Y.\n\nPhysical\n\nSchool Administration\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nLibrary\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nE'Win White Gaillard, Public Library\nChari es E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools\nMiss Mary Hannah Johnson, Librarian, Public Library\n\nNew York, N.Y.\nDenver, Colo.\nNashville, Term.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nSpecial\nEdward M. Van Cleve, Supt., State School for the Blind\nFrank G. Bruner, Child-Study Dept., Board of Education\nMiss Martha Bell, State School for Deaf, Mt. Airy\n\nColumbus, Ohio\nChicago, 111.\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\n\nPresident\nVice-President. .....\nSecretary\n\nKenyon L. Butterfield, President of State Agri. College\nCharles A. Lory, President of State Agri. College\nErnest E. Balcomb, Dept. of Science, State Normal School\n\nAmherst, Mass.\nFt. Collins, Colo.\nProvidence, R.I.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nOrganizations of \"Women\nMiss Laura Drake Gill, Pres. of Ass'n of Coll. Alumnae\nMrs. Hugo Rosenberg, Pres. of Council of Jewish Women\nMrs. Orville T. Bright, Pres. of 111. Congress of Mothers\n\nWashington, D.C.\nPittsburgh, Pa. •\nChicrgo, 111.\n\nRural\n\nand\n\nAgricultural\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\nElla Flagg Young. . .\nIrwin Shepard\nDoRAND W. Springer.\n\nOF\n\n1910-11\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nChicago, 111.\nWinona, Minn.\nDetroit, Mich.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nJames Y. Joyner, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nJulia Richman, District Superintendent of City Schools\nFayette L. Cook, President, South Dakota State Normal School\nGeorge A. McFarland, Principal, State Normal School\nThomas C. Miller, Principal of Shepherd College\nCharles S. Foos, Superintendent of Schools\n\nRaleigh, N.C.\nNew York, N.Y.\nSpearfish, S. Dak.\nValley City, N. Dak,\nShepherdstown, W. Va.\nReading, Pa.\n\nHomer H. Seerley, President, Iowa State Teachers' College\nFranklin O Hays. Superintendent of Schools\nEdward T. Fairchild, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nSamuel Avery, Chancellor. University of Nebraska\nC. A. DuNiw.\\Y, President, University of Montana\n\nCedar Falls, Iowa\nAlva, Okla.\nTopeka, Kans.\nLincoln, Nebr.\nMissoula, Mont.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nHenry B. Brown\nValparaiso, Ind\nCarroll G. Pearse\nMilwaukee, Wis\nJames M. Greenwood, Secretary\nKansas City. Mo\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman. . . New York, N.Y\nElla Flagg Young\nChicago, 111\nEXECUTIVE\nElla Flagg Young\nJames Y. Joyner\nDurand W. Springer\nNicholas Murray Butler\nJohn H. Phillips\nIrwin Shepard\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by Election\n< . . . Secretary .\nBOARD\n\nTerm expires igii\nTerm expires 1912\nTerm expires 1913\nTerm expires 1914\nEx officio\n\nChicago. 111.\nRaleigh, N.C.\nDetroit. Mich.\nNew York, N.Y.\nBirmingham, Ala.\nWinona, Minn.\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex oflacio\nElla Flagg Young, Chicago, 111.\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C.\n\nDurand W. Springer, Detroit, Mich.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N.Y.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nLife Directors\nBiCKNELL, Thomas W.. Providence, R.I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, Washington, D.C.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y.\nCook, John W., DeKalb, 111.\nCooLEY, Edwin G., LaGrange, 111.\nCorson, Oscar T.. Columbus, Ohio.\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGovE, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\n\nGreen, James M., Trenton, N.J.\nGreenwood, James M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHarvey, Lorenzo D., Menomonie, Wis.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans.\nJoyner, James Y., Raleigh, N.C.\nLyte, Eliphalet 0«am, Millersville, Pa.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W. Va.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N.Y.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, 111.\nPickard, Joslah L., Cupertino, Cal.\n16\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "•\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville III.\n\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, III.\n\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C, Harrisburg, Pa.\nSkinner, Charles R., New York, N.Y.\n\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\n\nState Teachers' Association, 111.\n\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D.C.\n\n17\n\nDirectors by Election\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDist. of Col\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\n\nJohn W. Abercrosibie, President, University of Alabama\nA. J. Matthews, President, Territorial Normal School\nGeorge B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nDuncan MacKinnon, Superintendent of Schools\nCharles E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools\nFrederick A. Verplanck, Superintendent of Schools.\nGeorge W. Twitmyer, Superintendent of Schools\nP. M. HaoHES. Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools\nMiss Clem Hampton, State Department of Education\nMas. F. S. Whiteside, 46 Columbia Avenue\nCharles S. Meek, Superintendent of Schools\nJ. Stanley Brown. Principal of High School\nThojias A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools\nO. P. BosTWiCK, Superintendent of Schools\nJohn MacDonald. Editor, Western School Journal\n\nUniversity\nTempe\nLittle Rock\nSan Diego\nDenver\nSo. Manchester\nWilmington\nWa.shington\nTallahasse\nAtlanta\nBoise\nJoliet\nRichmond\nClinton\nTopeka\n\nKentucky\nW. H. Bartholomew, Principal, Girls' High School\nLouisville\nLouisiana\nMiss Mary Stevens. Teacher of English, Ouachita Parish H. S.. . Stevensdale\nM line\nPayson Smith, State Superintendent of Public Schools\nAugusta\nMxryland\nA. C. Willison, County Superintendent of Schools\nCumberland\nMissachusetts\nIrving O. Palmer. High School\nNewtonville\nMichigan\nE. E. Scribner, Superintendent of Schools\nIshpeming\nMinnesota\nS. L. Heeter. Superintendent of Schools\nSt. Paul\nMississippi\nE. E. Bass. Superintendent of Schools\nGreenville\nMissouri\nHoward A. Gass, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .... Jefferson City\nMontana\nJames M. Hamilton,\nBozeman\nNebraska\nA. A. Reeo, Professor of Sec. Education, Univ. of Nebraska\nLincoln\nNevada\nMis. L. C. Booth. 421 Sierra Street\nReno\nNaw Himpshire. . . Hsjjry C. Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Concord\nNew Jersey\nM H. Kinsley, Superintendent of County Schools\nHoboken\nNew Mexico\nJames E. Clark, Territorial Superintendent of Public Instruction. Santa Fe\nNew York\nAuoustus S. Downing, First Assistant Commissioner of Education Albany\nNorth Carolina\nW. S. Snipes, Superintendent of Schools\nWinston-Salem\nNorth Dakota\nNelson Sauvain, Superintendent of Schools\nCasselton\nOhio\nJ0E[N W. Zeller, State Commissioner of Common Schools\nColumbus\nOklahoma\nW. C. Canterbury, Superintendent of Schools\nMarietta\nOregon\nEdwin D. Ressler, Professor, Oregon .\\gri. College\nCorvallis\nPennsylvania\nReed B Teitrick, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction. Harrisburg\nRhode Island\nGeorge F. Weston, Principal of High School\nProvidence\nSouth Carolina\nD B. JOHNSONf. President, Winthrop Nor., and Indust. College . . . Rock Hill\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\nHawaii\n\nFreeman H. Hoff, Superintendent of Schools\n'.\nJ. J. Keyes, Superintendent of Schools\nGeorge H. Carpenter, Superintendent of Schools\nG. N. Child, Superintendent, Utah County Schools\nMason S. Stone, State Superintendent of Education\nJoseph D. Eggleston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nHenry B. Dewey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nMorris P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools\nCarroll G. Pearse, Superintendent of Schools\nA. D. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nPerley L. Horne, President, Kamehameha Schools\n\nMitchell\nNashville\nBrownwood\nLehi\nMontpelier\nRichmond\nOlympia\nCharleston\nMilwaukee\nCheyenne\nHonolulu\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS\nNational Council\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\nCharles H. Keyes, Research Student, Columbia University,\nNew York, N.Y.\nW. M. Davidson, Superintendent of Instruction, Public Schools. . Omaha, Nebr.\nJohn W Carr, Superintendent of Schools\nBayonne, N.J.\nJoseph Swain, President of Swarthmore College\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nJames M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools\nKansas City, Mo.\n\nExecutive Committee Elmer Ellsworth Brown, U.S. Com'r of Education\n\nWashington, D.C.\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "18\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nKindergarten\nPresident\nVke-Preiident\nSecretary\n\nMiss Jane L. Hoxie, Supervisor of Kindergartens\nBerkeley, Cal.\nMiss Mary E. Gamble, Garfield School Kindergarten\nEast Oakland, Cal.\nMiss Harriet E. Huggins, Director Kindergarten Training Class Oakland, Cal.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nMiss Adelaide Steele Baylor, Superintendent of Schools\nH. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools\n\nWabash, Ind.\nDecatur, III.\n\nSecretary\n\nMiss Nellie O'Keefe, Principal, McClellan School\n\nSt. Paul, Minn.\n\nElementary\n\nSecondary\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nH. M. Barrett, Principal of High School\nWaltex F. Lewis, Superintendent of Schools\n\nPueblo, Colo.\nPort Huron, Mich.\n\nSecretary\n\nThomas J. McCormack,\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHigher\nJames H. Baker, .President, University of Colorado\nJ. A. McLean, President, University of Idaho\nFrederick P. Keppel, Dean, Columbia College\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nDavid B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Nor. and Indust. College . Rock Hill, S.C.\nWilliam J. HawkIns, President, State Normal School\nWarrensburg, Mo.\nGuy E. Maxwell, President, State Normal School\nWinona, Minn.\n\nPrincipal, LaSalle-Peru T'w'p High School LaSalle, 111.\nBoulder, Colo.\nMoscow, Idaho\nNew York, N.Y.\n\nNormal\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nW. M. Davidson, Superintendent of Instruction\nFirst Vice-Pres. ... J, A. Shawan, Superintendent of Schools\nSecond. Vice-Pres... C. G. Schulz, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nSecretary\nArthur D. Call, Supervising Principal of Schools\nManual\n\nTraining\n\nand\n\nOmaha, Nebr.\nColumbus, Ohio\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nHartford, Conn.\n\nArt\n\nPresident\nVice-Presiden\nSecrdary\n\nClifford B. Connelley, Dean, Carnegie Technical Schools\nMrs. Ellen H. Richards, Massachusetts Institute of Tech\nMiss May Gearhart, Supervisor of Drawing\n\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nBoston, Mass.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary.\n\nMiss Elsie M. Shawe, Supervisor of Music\nC. A. Fullerton, Professor of Music, State Normal School\nMiss Estelle Carpenter, Supervisor of Music\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nFrank E. Lakey, English High School\nW. S. McKinney, Englewood High School\nSherwin W. Cody, Author of Educational Text-Books\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWill Grant Chambers, Dean, Sch. of Educ, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh, Pa.\nLouis M. Terman, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Jr. Univ. Palo Alto, Cal.\nC. B. Robertson, Superintendent of Training School\nCortland, N.Y.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nClark W. Hetherington, Joseph Fels Fellowship, Univ. of Chicago Chicago, 111.\nMiss Amy Morris Homans, Dept. of Phys. Educ.,Wellesley College Wellesley, Mass.\nMiss Clara G. Baer, Dept. of Phys. Educ, Sophie Newcomb CoU. New Orleans, La.\nScience\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nGeorge A. Cowen, West Roxbury High School\nW. J. V. Osterhaut, Professor, Harvard University\nHarry T. Clifton, Throop Polytechnic Institute\n\nMusic\nSt. Paul. Minn.\nCedar Falls, la.\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nBusiness\nBoston, Mass.\nChicago, 111.\nChicago, 111.\n\nChild-Study\n\nPhysical\n\nSchool\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBoston, Mass.\nCambridge, Mass.\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nAdministration\n\nLinnaeus N. Htnes, Superintendent of Schools\nWii.i.ard S. Small, Principal, Eastern High School\nWilliam G. Bruce, Editor, American School Board Journal\n\nCrawfordsville, Ind.\nWashington, D.C.\nMilwaukee, W is.\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nLibrary\nPresident\nVics-Presiient\nSecretary\n\nEdwin White Gaillard, Sup\\T. of Work with Schools, Pub. Lib. . . New York, N.Y.\nJames Louis Gillis, Librarian, California State Library\nSacramento, Cal.\nGilbert O. Ward, Librarian, Technical High School\nCleveland, Ohio\n\nPresident\n\nFrank G. Bruner, Department of Child Study, Public Schools. . . Chicago, 111.\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nElizabeth E. Farrell, Insp'r of Ungraded Classes, Pub. Schools. . New York, N.Y.\nEdward Allen Fay. Vice-President, Callaudet College\nWashington, D.C.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMrs. O. Shepard Barniim, Principal Academic Dept., Cumnock Sch . Los Angeles, Cal.\nMrs. Hugo Rosenberg, President of Council of Jewish Women. . Pittsburgh, Pa.\nMrs. Orville T. Bright, President of Illinois Congress of Mothers . Chicago, 111.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJames A. Barr, Superintendent of Schools\nStockton, Cal.\nB. M. Davis, Professor of Agricultural Educ, Miami University. . Oxford, Ohio\nErnest E. Balcomb, State Normal School\nProvidence, R.I.\n\nSpecial\n\nSchool Patrons\n\nKural and Agricultural\n\n19\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S^^REPORT\nOF\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJuly i, 1909, to June 30, 1910\nArthur H. Chamberlain, in Account with the National\nEducation Association\nBALANCE\n\nON\n\nHAND\n\nJULY\n\nI, 1 909\n\nBalance brought forward from Treasurer's Report for year ending June\n30, 1909\nRECEIPTS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\n$3,809.00\n\nYEAR\n\nFrom Annual Meeting:\nAdvance Enrollment —\nFrom W. F. R. Mjlls\nConvention Registration\n\n$5,240.00\n6,046 . 00 $11,286.00\n\nFrom Memberships, Indianapolis Meeting of Department of Superintendence\nFrom Secretary's Office during the year:\nMembership fees\nEnrollment fees\nExchange\nSale of back volumes\nSale of Committee Reports, Etc\nMiscellaneous\n\n1,550.00\n\n_\n*\n\n$9,861 . 85\n412.00\n9.37\n755-15\n90.03\n14 . 00\n\nFrom interest on Permanent Fund\nFrom royalty on sale of Reports of Committees of Ten and Fifteen\nFrom interest on deposits in First National Bank of Chicago\nTotal receipts for the year\n\n$11,142.40\n6,761 . 73\n56 . 10\n182.74\n$30,978 .97\n\nTotal receipts including balance brought forward\nBoard of Trustees:\n\n$34,787.97\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\n\nFor expenses\nExecutive Committee expenses:\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by election\n\n$154.40\n139.70\n398. 21\n104.80\n200.00\n\nGeneral Secretary's office:\nSalary of Secretary\nPostage\nTelegrams\nFreight and express\nClerical services\nExchange\nStationery and office supplies\nTraveling\nRent\nMiscellaneous\n\n$4,000.00\n2,098.85\n398.90\n36 .05\n2,676.46\n23.50\n138.94\nm.^i\n600 00\n97 . 59\n\nforward\n\n$295 . 80\n\n20\n\n10,848.10\n\n$12,141 .01\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nBrought forward\nVolumes of Proceedings (q,3oo)\nYearbooks (6,500 copies)\n\n$12,141 .01\n$6,016 . 66\n1,211 .27\n\nReprints from volume\nSpecial Reports\nExecutive Committee Bulletins\nMiscellaneous (letterheads, blanks, envelopes, etc.)\n\n$7,227.93\n\n224 . 50\n641 .09\n1,864.09\n856.17\n\nExpress and Freight:\nDistribution of volumes and reports\nMiscellaneous\n\n$2,802 . 28\n210 . 21\n\nSpecial Appropriations:\nCommittee on Industrial Education\nCommittee on Place of Industries\n\n$10.00\n96 . 73\n\nConventions:\nDepartment of Superintendence:\nClerical service —\nRegistration and Typewriting,\nexpense\nBadges\n\n21\n\nincluding\n\n$10,813.78\n\n$3,012.49\n$106.73\n\nMiscellaneous\n$320.45\n100.00\n\nPrinting —\nPrograms for the Convention\n\n70.00\n\nAnnual Convention:\nDepartment expenses\nState directors and managers\nClerical Services:\nRegistration Bureau\nStenographers and typewriter operators\nPrinting:\n\n$490.45\n\n$312.52\n529 . 30\n$590 . 80\n420.43\n\nPrograms\n•.\nStationery\nMiscellaneous (Expense of speaker — Denver Meeting)\n\n$51430\n55 -65\n10.00\n\nUnclassified disbursements:\n\n$2,433.00\n\nExamination of Securities\nBonds of Secretary and Treasurer\nOfficial Seal and Seal Press\nAuditing books of Secretarj' and Treasurer\nExchange of two typewriters\nConference of Department Presidents\nMiscellaneous:\n\n$\n\nPress Clippings\nRefunds of duplicate payments\nReports of Committees of Ten and Fifteen\nPurchase of back volumes\n\n$60.00\n24 . 00\n5 .00\n30 . 66\n\n3. 00\n50.00\n67 .50\n30.00\n60.00\n908 . 30\n\n$119.66\n\n$1,238.46\n$30,235-92\n\nSUMMARY\nReceipts\nBalance brought forward from the Treasurer's report for year ending June 30, 1909\nReceipts for year July i, 1909, to June 30, 1910\n\n$ 3 809 00\n30,978.97\n$34,787-97\n\nDisbursements\nTotal expenses for the year\nBalance in treasury, June 30, iqio\n\n$30,235.92\n$ 4 ,552.05\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nBoston, Mass., July 2, 1910\n\nThe undersigned, Trustees of the National Education Association, have this day\nexamined and approved the foregoing accounts of Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer,\nwith all statements of receipts and vouchers for disbursements.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Acting Chairman\nHenry B. Brown\nJames Y. Joyner\nTHE\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nAUDIT\n\nCOMPANY\n\nMerchants' Loan and Trust Building\n\nChicago, November 25, igio\n\nBoard of Trustees, National Education Association of the United States\nGentlemen: We have audited the books and accounts of the National Education Association of the\nUnited States, kept by the Secretary, Dr. Irwin Shepard, and the Treasurer, Mr. Arthur H. Chamberlain,\nfor the period from ist July, igog to 30th June, igio, and compared them with the relative vouchers and\ncheques, and find the books to be correct. We compared the Treasurer's records with those kept by the\nSecretary and find them to be in accord.\nWe annex herewith a statement of the Receipts and Disbursements for the period under review, which\nwe have checked with the books.\nWe certify it to be in accordance therewith.\nYours very truly,\nTHE\n\nINTERNATIONAL AUDIT COMPANY.\nBy (Signed) Robert Nelson, C. A. Manager\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "TWENTY-FOURTH\nOF TRUSTEES\nASSOCIATION\nFOR THE\n\nANNUAL\nOF THE\n\nYEAR\n\nREPORT OF THE BOARD\nNATIONAL EDUCATION\n\nJULY i, 1909, TO JUNE 30, 1910\n\nBoston, Massachusetts, July 5, 1910\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Education Association:\nThe Board of Trustees of the National Education Association has the honor to submit its report on the Permanent Fund of the Association for the year ending June 30, 1910.\nThe amounts collected as income from the Permanent Fund and the disposition made\nof the income are shown in the following Income Account.\nThere have been no additions to the principal of the fund during the year, which\nremains, therefore, at $170,100.\nDuring the year one Chicago real estate mortgage and one Lemont, Illinois, school\nbond have been paid off, and the proceeds invested, as shown, in $3,000 Atlantic Coast\nLine, first mortgage bonds, due July i, 1952.\nThe present state of the investments held for the Permanent Fund is shown in the\nfollowing Statement of Securities held for the Permanent Fund.\nStatement A shows the net income of the property at 4762 Lake Avenue, Chicago,\nlUinois, title to which, as has been noted in earlier reports, was taken by the Trustees\nunder proceedings for foreclosure of mortgage. The Trustees hope to dispose of this\nproperty in the near future.\nThe financial operations of the year, and the present state of the Permanent Fund,\nare set out in detail in the accounts and statements which follow:\nINCOME ACCOUNT\nRECEIPTS\n% 7,000 St. Louis and San Francisco R. R. Co. refunding bonds, 1951, at 4 per cent. $\n15.000 Terminal Association of St. Louis general refunding bonds, 1953, at 4 per cent.\n20,000\nPittsburg, Lake Erie, and West Virginia System refunding bonds, 1941, at\n4 per cent\n10,000\nOregon Short Line R. R. Co. refunding bonds, 1929, at 4 per cent\n17,000\nCity of New York registered bonds, 1957, at 4^ per cent\n2,500\nVillage of Morgan Park gold bonds, 191 1, at 4^ per cent. \\\n1,000\n1,500\n10,000\n40.000\n9,000\n10,000\n10,000\n3,000\n10,000\n2,500\n\n280.00\n600.00\n800.00\n400.00\n765.00\n\nVillage of Morgan Park gold\n1912, at 4^ per cent. /\n1916 bonds,\n\\.\nLemont, 111., school bonds, 1912-13, at 5 per cent\n50.00\nChicago drainage bonds, 1916 ,\n> at 4 per cent ....\n2,000 . 00\nChicago drainage bonds, 1917 J '\nWest Chicago park bonds, 19 1„ ,\n•-at 4 per cent\n760.00\nWest Chicago park bonds, 1919/'\ns, ioi8\"l\nPennsylvania R. R. Co. convertible\nbonds, 1915, at 3^ per cent\n350.00\nAtlantic Coast Line bonds, 1952, at 4 per cent\n120.00\nChicago, Indiana and Southern Railway Co. guaranteed bonds 1956, at 4 per\ncent\n400 . 00\nBond and mortgage on 5603 Madison Avenue, Chicago, (Lewis), 1909, at s\nper cent\n62 . 50\nInterest to date of payment of principal on Lemont, Illinois, school bond,\n$500 at 5 per cent\n12 . 50\nInterest on cash balance in First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago\n73.76\n■■^^\"—\nNet income of property 4762 Lake Ave., Chicago (see2 Statement A)\n203.35 ■$7,034-61\n3\nDISBXJRSEMENTS\nFee of First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, Illinois, on new investment\nof $3,000 — i of I per cent\n$\n15 .00\nFee of First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, Illinois, for care of principal of\nPermanent Fund\n206 . 88\nAccrued interest on $3,000 .\\tlantic Coast Line bonds purchased\n51. 00\n■—^i-^\nNet income paid to Treasurer National Education Association\n6,761 .73 $7,034.61\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPRINCIPAL ACCOUNT\nBECEIPTS\n\nCash on hand for investment July i, igog\nMortgage, 5603 Madison Ave. (Lewis), paid July i, 1909\nLemont, Illinois, school bond, paid December i, 1909\n'' '\n\n1,000\n1,000\n1,000\n\n'\n\n1\n\n• <*\n\n^ \"^\n\n$\n\nQ97 • 5°\n2,500.00\n5oo-oo\n\n$\n\n960.00\n963-75\n96s -oo\n1 ,108 . 75\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\n\nAtlantic Coast Line, 4 per cent, bonds at 96\nAtlantic Coast Line, 4 per cent, bonds at 96I\nAtlantic Coast Line, 4 per cent bonds at 96J\nCash on hand for investment June 30, 1910\n\n$3,997.50\n\n$3,997.50\n\nOF SECURITIES\n\nHELD\n\nFOR THE\n\nJUNE 30, 1910\nMUNICIPAL AND SCHOOL\nPar Value\n\nSecurity\n\n$ 8,000\n\nCity of New York registered gold bonds,\ndue November 1, io57, Nos. 554 to 561\nCity of New York »?old bonds, due \\o\nvember i, 1957, Nos. 26,816 to 26.824\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111. gold bonds\ndue November i, 1911, Nos 1 to s . . .\nVillage of Morgan Park. 111., gold h..nd«;\ndue July i, 1913, Nos 4and s, SeriesO\nLemont, 111., school bonds. Nos. 30 and\n32. payable S-^oo December i, 1912,\n\n9,000\n2,500\n1,000\n1,000\n10,000\n40,000\n9,000\n10,000\n\nPERMANENT\n\nFUND\n\nBONDS\nInterest\n\nBook Value\n\n4i% May and Nov.\n\n$8,510.00\n\nAcquired\n\nSanitary Di.strict of Chicago, drainage\nbonds, Nos. 24,516-24,525, due December I, 1916\nSanitary District of Chicago, drainage\nbonds, Nos. 24,«;9i-24,62 5, 24,63624,640, due December i, 191 7\nWest Chicago park bonds, Nos. i,ioi1,109, due .\\pril I, T918\nWest Chicago park bonds, Nos. 615,629631, 1,243-1 248, due April I, 1909\n\nFeb. 29, 1908\nJune 12, 1908\n\n4i% May and Nov.\n\n1897\n1805\n\n4*% May and Nov.\n\nf\n\n}\n\n4i% Jan. and July\n1905\n\n5% June and Dec.\n\n1904\n\n4% June and Dec.\n\n9,810.00\n2,500.00\n1,000.00\n\n10,000 . 00\n\n4% June and Dec.\nJuly 31, 1906\n\n4% April and Oct.\n\nJuly 31, 1906\n\n4% April and Oct.\n\n10,075.00\n9,045 00\n\n$90,500\n$91,940.00\n\nRAILROAD\nPar Value\n\nSecurity\n\n$ 7.000\n\nSt. Louis and San Francisco R. R. Co.\nrefunding gold bonds, Nos. 47-435,\n47,457, 47,537, 49.012. 49,670, 57,373.\n\n15,000\n\nTerminal .\\ssotiation of St. Louis general refunding sinking fund gold bonds,\nNos\n16,311-16,325, due January\ni,\n\n20,000\n\nPittsburg, Lake Erie, and West Virginia\nSystem refunding gold bonds, Nos.\n13,496-13,500, .i 1,236-2 1,250. due November I, 1941\nOregon Short Line R. R. Co. guaranteed\nrefunding gold bonds, Nos. 4,0134,017,\n4,025-4,027,\nDecember\ni, 1929 4,976, 13,810, due\n\n10,000\n\n10,000\n\n10,000\n\n3,000\n$7S,ooo\n\nBONDS\nInterest\n\nBook Value\n\nAcquired\n\nPennsylvania\nR. R. Co. convertible\nbonds, Nos. B-22,823 to B-22,838, inclu-^ive. B-27,65S, B 27,671, B-27,672,\nand B-i 1.258, due October 1. 1915\nChicago, Indiana and Southern Railway\nCo. bonds. Nos. 1 1 .386 to 1 1 .394 inclusive, and ix,7«A, due Innunrv i, in<;6 .\nAtlantic Coast Line 1st Cons. Bonds. Nos.\n5,130, 6,494, 24,601, due July i, 1952 .\n\nJan. 3, 1907\n\nJan. 30, 1905\n\nJan. 13, 1906\n\n4% Jan. and July\n\n4% Jan. and July\n\n4% May and Nov.\n\n19,942 .50\n8 895 00\n\nFeb. 3, 1908\n4% June and Dec.\nJan. II, igog\nZ\\% June and Dec.\nJan. 18, T909\nAug. 3, 1909\n\n3% Jan. and July\n4% March and Sept.\n\n9,500.00\na,888.7S\n9,500.00\n$71,551.25\n\n~\\\n\nSTATEMENT\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE BOARD\nREAL\n\n$S,5oo\n\nESTATE\n\nSecurity\n\nPar Value\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nInterest\n\nAcquired\n\nBook Value\n\n1907\n\n4762 Lake Ave.,\nproperty)\n\nChicago, 111. (Hord\nRent $30 monthly\n$5,500.00\n\nTotal\n$171,000\n\nCash on hand awaiting investment\n\n$1,108 75\n\nTotal\n\n.$170,100.00\n\nSTATEMENT\n\nA\n\nRECEIPTS\n\nRents received by First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, Illinois.\n\nI 84\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\n\n$330.00\n\nTaxes for 1909\n\n6.71\n$101 . 60\n203 35\n16.50\n\nSpec'al assessment (paving 47th Street)\nRepairs\nFees of 5 per cent, of First Trust and Savings Bank on $330.00 rents collected.\nNet income\n\n$330.00\nAt a meeting of the Trustees held on April 13, 1910, Irwin Shepard was re-elected\nSecretary of the National Education Association for a term of four years, from August i,\n1910, at an annual salary of $4,000, and was given authority to employ such person as may\nbe approved by the Trustees to serve as Assistant Secretary, and to receive as compensation\ntherefor such sum, chargeable to the appropriation for the salary of the Secretary, as may\nbe proposed by Secretary Shepard and approved by the Trustees.\nRespectfully submitted\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman\nJames M. Greenwood\nHenry B. Brown\n\nJames Y. Joyner\nCarroll G. Pearse\nTrustees\nChicago, HI.\nTo the Trustees of the National Education Association:\nGentlemen : The above and foregoing is a correct statement of the account of the funds of the National\nEducation Association of the United States from July i, 1909. to July i, 1910, as the same appears on the\nbooks of this bank.\nFirst Trust and Savings Bank.\nBy Louis Boisot, Trust Officer\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Education A ssociation:\nI have this day examined the securities in the foregoing statement made by the Board of Trustees, and find\nall bonds and securities therein named in the custody of Louis Boisot, Trust Officer of the First Trust and Savings Bank, of Chicago, 111.\nChaei,es_H. Judd\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF\n\nFORTY-EIGHTH\n\nANNUAL\nOF\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nMEETING\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\n\nOF\n\nBOSTON, MASS., JULY 2-8, 19 10\nFIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nOpening Session — Monday Afternoon, July 4, 3:30 o'clock\nThe forty-eighth annual convention of the National Education Association was\nopened in the Stadium of Harvard University at Cambridge, Mass., at 3 130 p.m. on July 4.\nA. Lawrence Lowell, president of Harvard University, chairman of the Advisory Committee ofthe local organization of the National Education Association, presided.\nThe hymn ''America\" was sung by the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston ard by\nthe great audience of fifteen thousand, under the leadership of Director Emil Mollenhauer, accompanied by Stewart's Military Band.\nRzv. Paul Revere Frothingham, minister of the Arlington Street Church of Boston,\nled the audience in prayer.\nBrief addresses of welcome were delivered by Hon. Eben Sumner Draper, governor\nof the commonwealth of Massachusetts, and Hon. John Francis Fitzgerald, mayor of\nthe city of Boston.\nAt this point President Lowell introduced as the presiding ofiicer of the remainder\nof the exercises the President of the National Education Association, Hon. James\nYadkin Joyner, state superintendent of pubhc instruction, Raleigh, N.C.\nPresident Joyner introduced Hon. Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public\ninstruction for the state of Illinois, who responded to the addresses of welcome.\nThe hymn \"To Thee, Oh Country!\" by Julius Eickberg, was sung by the Har.del\nand Haydn Society, accompanied by Stewart's Military Band.\nWiUiam Howard Taft, President of the United States, was then introduced and\ndelivered an address on \" The Relation of Education to Democratic Government \"\nThe President's address was followed by the hymn \"Unfold, Ye Portals Everlasting!\"\nfrom \"The Redemption,\" by Gounod.\nAn address was given by Hon. William Walton Kitchin, governor of the state of\nNorth Carolina, on \"Education and American Independence,\" which was followed by an\naddress on \"War and Manhood\" by David Starr Jordan, president of Leland Stanford\nJunior University, of California.\n\"The Star Spangled Banner\" was then sung by the Handel and Haydn Society of\nBoston, accompanied by Stewart's Military Band.\nThe following Committee on Resolutions was27 appointed by President Joyner:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nJulius I. Foust, of North Carolina, Chairman\nJoseph Swain, of Pennsylvania\nGeorge B. Cook, of Arkansas\nHomer H. Seerley, of Iowa\nKatherine D. Blake, of New York\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBy previous arrangement, the sessions of the active members by states for the election of members of the nominating committee were held immediately after the close of\nthe Stadium exercises, at designated sections of the Colonnade of the Stadium.\nThe convention adjourned to Tuesday evening, July 5. •\nSECOND\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSecond Session — Tuesday Evening, July 5, 8 o'clock\nThe convention was called to order in Tremont Temple in the city of Boston by\nPresident Joyner at 8 o'clock p.m.\nMusic by a band of pupils of the Thomas N. Hart Grammar School — Mr. Fred W.\nLewis, director.\nThe annual presidential address was delivered by James Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N.C. The subject of the address was \"Some\nDominant Tendencies in American Education.\"\n\"A Message from the United States Bureau of Education\" was given by Elmer\nEllsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C.\nA memorial address on Dr. William Torrey Harris was delivered by James M. Greenwood, superintendent of city schools, Kansas City, Mo.\nAfter announcements, adjournment was taken to Wednesday evening, July 6.\nTHIRD\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nThird Session — ^Wednesday Evening, July 6, 8 o'clock\nThe convention assembled at 8 o'clock p.m. and was called to order by President\nJoyner. Music by the Oliver Ames High School Band — H. E. Brenton, director.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was announced by President Joyner:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nDavid B. Johnson, of South Carolina, Chairman\nJohn H. Phillips\nAlabama\nW. M. Davidson\nNebraska\nA. J. Matthews\nArizona\nMrs. L. C. Booth\nNevada\nB. A. Spradlin\nArkansas\nClark T. Falknor\nNew Hampshire\nJ. W. McClymonds. . . . California J. M. Green\nNew Jersey\nJames H. Baker\nColorado Inez Cosgrove\nNew Mexico\nEdwin C. Andrews ... . Connecticut Katherine D. Blake. . . New York\nAlice O. Johnson\nDelaware E. C. Brooks\nNorth Carolina\nHarlan Updegraef. . . . Dist. of Col. Clyde R. Travis\nNorth Dakota\nW. M. HoLLOWAY\nFlorida\nO. T. Corson\nOhio\nMrs. F. S. Whiteside. . Georgia\nJ. B. Taylor\nOklahoma\nI. B. Warner\nIdaho\nW. J. Kerr\nOregon\nFrancis G. Blair\nIllinois Charles S. Foos\nPennsylvania\nRobert J. Aley\nIndiana\nWalter E. Ranger\nRhode Island\nW. O. RiDDELL\nIowa\nDaved B. Johnson. ..... South Carolina\nJoseph H. Hill\nKansas\nH. A. Ustrud\nSouth Dakota\nE. H. Mark\nKentucky J. J. Keyes\nTennessee\nT. H. Harris\nLouisiana J. D. Sandefer\nTexas\nH. H. Randall\nMaine\nHorace H. Cummings. . . Utah\nM. Bates Stephens . . . Maryland Merritt D. Chittenden Vermont\nAlbert E. Winship. . . . Massachusetts\nJ. D. Eggleston\nVirginia\nFred L. Keeler\nMichigan Miss S. M. Hummel\nWashington\nGuy E. Maxwell\nMinnesota Thomas C. Miller\nWest Virginia\nM. Rose\nMississippi Emma J. Gardner\nWisconsin\nW. J. Hawkins\nMissouri Kate Smith\nWyoming\nC. A. DuNiWAY\nMontana\nAn address on \"Criticisms of the Public Schools by the Laity\" was delivered by\nJames W. Crabtree, president of the State Normal School at Peru, Nebr.\n\"The Effect of Electives Chosen in College\" was the subject of an address by A.\nLawrence Lowell, president of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n29\n\n\"The Value of Demonstrative Methods in the Agricultural Education of the Rural\nPopulation\" was the subject of an address by H. L, Russell, dean of the College of Agriculture and director of Experiment Station, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nThis address was illustrated by stereopticon views.\nThe session was adjourned to Thursday evening.\nFOURTH\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nFourth Session — ^Thursday Evening, July 7, 8 o'clock\nThe convention was called to order at 8 o'clock p.m. by President Joyner. Music\nby the Thomas N. Hart Grammar School Band — Fred W. Lewis, director.\nA paper on \"Public Health and Public Education\" was read by William Orr, deputy\ncommissioner of education, Boston, Mass.\n\"Universal Education and International Peace\" was the subject of an address by\nP. P. Claxton, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.\nAn address on \"Training for Teaching\" was delivered by Miss Emma L. Johnston,\nprincipal of Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, New York, N.Y.\nThe session was adjourned to Friday evening.\nFIFTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nFifth Session — Friday, July 8, 8 o'clock\nThe convention assembled at 8 o'clock p.m. and was called to order by President\nJoyner. Music by the Oliver Ames High School Band — H. E. Brenton, director.\nThe first paper was \"Education of Women for Home-making,\" by Mrs. W. N.\nHutt, Chairman of Woman's Branch of the Farmer's Institute Work of North Carolina,\nRaleigh, N.C.\nThen followed a paper on \"The Value during Education of a Life-Career Motive,\"\nby Charles W. Eliot, president emeritus of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\nPresident Joyner then introduced the President-elect, Ella Flagg Young, of Chicago,\n111., who spoke as follows:\nIt is with a deep sense of the honor you have conferred upon me, and of the responsibility Iassume in accepting the presidency of this Association that I enter upon the duties\nof the position to which you have elected me. I am well aware that in one short year a\npresident may not influence the character of the Association in a marked degree. The\npresident may, however, conserve the good which has been developed in the past and\nassure one advance step in the future.\nI hope to assist in abolishing the distinction in membership between those who can,\nand those who cannot, pay comparatively high dues. This will never be a truly democratic organization while it shuts out from active membership the men and the women\nwho receive small salaries, teaching in a cramped environment where people have not\nyet learned the value of a teacher. Something certainly can be accomplished toward\nadvancing the spirit of fellowship among teachers so that all will be interested in education not only in the rural district, the village, or the town in which their personal work is\ncarried on, but thruout the land.\nThe Forty-eighth Convention was adjourned sine die by President Joyner.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING OF THE ACTIVE\nOF THE ASSOCIATION\n\nMEMBERS\n\nBOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS— Thursday, July 7, 1910\nThe meeting was called to order at the New Old South Church at 12 m. by President James Y. Joyner.\nOn motion of John W. Cook, of Illinois, the minutes of the last annual meeting of\nthe active members were approved as printed in the Yearbook for 1909.\nJames M Greenwood, Acting Chairman of the Board of Trustees, then presented\nthe Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees. Printed copies of the\nreport had previously been distributed to the active members present.\nOn motion of Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut, the Report of the Board of Trustees\nas presented by James M. Greenwood, Vice-Chairman, was accepted and approved as\nprinted.\nCarroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin: Thru an error the name of Trustee Pearse does\nnot appear on the Report of the Board of Trustees, but it will be duly appended thereto.\nOn motion, duly seconded, it was voted to receive the report subject to that\namendment.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer of the Association, presented his report as\nTreasurer, for the year ending June o, 190. Printed copies of the report had been\ndistributed to the active members present.\nOn motion of Miss Katherine D. Blake, of New York, the report of the Treasurer,\nArthur H. Chamberlain, of California, which was also in printed form, was received and\napproved as printed.\nPresident Joyner: The next business in order is the report of the Committee on\nthe Revision of By-Laws, of which E. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania, is chairman. That\ncommittee was appointed by resolution at the last meeting, when the following motion\nwas passed:\nResolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the President to formulate desired\namendments to the By-Laws so that the same may be submitted at the next annual meeting and be finally considered at the meeting of Active Members in 191 1.\nYou will understand that your committee was appointed by my predecessor,\nPresident L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin. The report is quite a long one, and as it is not\nto be acted upon finally until the Annual Meeting in 1911, and as opportunity will be\ngiven for full discussion of it at that time, I suggest that, since it is to be printed before\nthe next meeting, you can order that the report be received and the committee continued\nin accordance with the resolution for final report at the regular business meeting in 191 1.\nIf this is not your pleasure. Chairman Lyte is ready to read the report to the body.\nAugustus S. Downing, of New York: I move that the report be accepted for printing and distribution to the members prior to the meeting in 191 1, when full consideration may be had.\nThe motion was duly seconded and carried without dissent.\nPresident Joyner: Next in order is the report of your Committee on the Bureau of\nEducation.\nJo EN W. Cook, of Illinois, chairman of the committee: Two years ago the Association provided for the appointment of a committee of five whose special work was to\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n31\n\nendeavor to secure additional appropriations for the United States Bureau of Education,\nand to co-operate with that Bureau in such ways as seemed practicable. I have here a\nbrief report, which it is not necessary for me to read. I will, with your consent, present\nit to the Secretary that it may be made a matter of record. I move the adoption and\npublication of this report.\nThe motion was seconded and carried.\nMr. Cook: I now move the appointment by the President of a similar committee\nof five members for the succeeding year.\nThe motion was seconded and carried.\nREPORT\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED IN igo8 FOR THE PURPOSE\nING FAVORABLE ACTION ON THE PART OF CONGRESS\nFOR\nEQUIPMENT\nOF THE BUREAU\nOF EDUCATION\n\nOF AIDING IN SECURTHE BETTER\n\nMembers of the National Education Association:\nYour committee has endeavored to the best of its ability to serve the purposes for\nwhich it was created. This it has aimed to do by inducing educational men thruout\nthe country to use such influence as they possess in urging members of Congress to favor\nmore generous appropriations for the National Bureau of Education.\nYour Committee is of the opinion that something has been accomplished in this\ndirection. Many other agencies have been active in endeavoring to secure the same result.\nIt is very evident that there is a greatly increased interest in the welfare of the Bureau.\nThis interest is manifested by active co-operation in the form of letters of indorsement\nand resolutions to congressmen and senators from all parts of the country. Among the\nindividuals and organizations that have come to the support of the Bureau, the following\nmay be noted:\nState Association of School Boards and School Superintendents of Michigan.\nState Association of Superintendents of California.\nTeachers Association of North Carolina.\nTeachers Association of Georgia.\nSummer School of the South, Knoxville, Tenn.\nBusiness Msn's Club, Memphis, Tenn.\nCivic Progess League, Memphis, Tenn.\nThree Hundred School Boards and Boards of Education.\nFifteen Hundred individual indorsements.\nColumbia Teachers College.\nDepartment of Education, University of Chicago.\nDepartment of Education, Cornell University.\nDepartment of Child Hygiene of Russell Sage Foundation.\nThese organizations, and many others, have unqualifiedly indorsed the Bureau and\nhave had no small degree of influence in the marked change of sentiment which is observable among members of Congress. A very large number of personal appeals have been\nmade to congressmen by superintendents of public instruction, superintendents of city\nsystems, business men on boards of education, and leading private citizens who are\ngreatly interested in the welfare of the school.\nIt is believed that your committee has accomplished something in the way of awakening public opinion and possibly enough to warrant the continuance of such an organization, although it must be understood as laying no claim for having achieved anything\nlike the totality of results mentioned above. This report is now submitted for the\nconsideration of the members at this business meeting of the Association as it is the opinion\nof the committee that its term of ofiice has expired by limitation.\nRespectfully submitted,\n/ John W. Cook, of Illinois, Chairman\n1 James H. Baker, of Colorado\nCommittee\n/ Calvin N. Kendall, of Indiana\n] James Y. Toynee, of North Carolina\n\\ Thomas M. Balliet, of New York\nPresident Joyner: Next in order is the report of the Committee on Nominations.\nMr. D. B. Johnson, of South Carolina, chairman of the committee, will be recognized\nto make the report of the Committee on Nominations.\nThe following report was read by Chairman Johnson:\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTo the Active Members of the National Education Association:\n\nThe Committee on Nominations duly appointed in accordance with the By-Laws\nof the Association, presents the following nominations for officers of the Association for\nthe ensuing year, viz. :\nColorado\nZ. X. Snyder\nFor President\n, . . . Michigan\nD. W. Springer\nFor Treasurer\nRaleigh, N.C.\nJames Y. Joyner\nFor Vice-Presidents\nMrs. Ella Flagg Young\nChicago, 111.\nFayette L. Cook\nSpearfish, S. Dak.\nGeorge A. McFarland\nValley City, N. Dak,\nThomas C. Miller\nShepherdstown, W.Va.\nCharles S. Foos\nReading, Pa.\nHomer H. Seerley\nCedar Falls, Iowa\nF. O. Hays\nAlva, Okla.\nE. T. Fairchild\nTopeka, Kans.\nSamuel Avery\nLincoln, Nebr.\nC. A. DuNiwAY\nBozeman, Mont.\nAnd for directors for the states and territories the following:\nSTATE DIRECTORS\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\n\nJohn W. Abercrombie\nA. J. Matthews\nGeorge B. Cook\nDuncan MacKjnnon\nCharles E. Chadsey\nFrederick A. Verplanck\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\nP. M. Hughes\nMiss Clem Hampton\nMrs. F. S. Whiteside\nCharles S. Meek\nJ. Stanley Brown\nThomas A. Mott\nO. P. BosTWiCK\nJohn MacDonald\nW. H. Bartholomew\nMiss Mary Stevens\nPayson Smith\nA. C. Willison\nIrving O. Palmer\nE. E. Scribner\nS. L. Heeter\nE. E. Bass\nHoward A. Gass\nJames M. Hamilton\nA. A. Reed\nMrs. L. C. Booth\nHenry C. Morrison\nM. H. Kinsley\nJ. E. Clark\nAugustus S. Downing\nW. S. Snipes\nNelson Sauvain\nJohn W. Zeller\nW. C. Canterbury\nEdwin D. Ressler\nReed B. Teitrick\nH. W. Lull\nDavid B. Johnson\nFreeman H. Hoff\nJ. J. Keyes\nGeorge H. Carpenter\nG.N. Child\nMason S. Stone\n\nUniversity\nTempe\nLittle Rock\nSan Diego\nDenver\nSouth Manchester\nWilmington\nWashington\nTallahassee\nAtlanta\nBoise City\nJoliet\nRichmond\nClinton\nTopeka\nLouisville\nMonroe\nAugusta\nCumberland\nNewton\nIshpeming\nSt. Paul\nGreenville\nJefferson City\nBozeman\nLincoln\nReno\nConcord\nHoboken\nSanta Fe\nAlbany\nFayetteville\nCasselton\nColumbus\nMarietta\nCorvallis\nHarrisburg\nNewport\nRock Hill\nMitchell\nNashville\nBrownwood\nProvo\nMontpelier\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\nKate Smith, Secretary\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nZZ\n\nJoseph Eggleston\nRichmond\nH. B. Dewey\nOlympia\nMorris P. Shawkey\nCharleston\nCarroll G. Pearse\nMilwaukee\nA. D. Cook\nCheyenne\nRespectfully submitted,\nD. B. Johnson, Chairman\n\nMiss Katherine D. Blake, of New York: Mr. President and Members of the\nNational Education Association: As a member of the nominating committee in which\nthe vote for nominee for President was comparatively close, I have the honor of presenting as a minority report to this convention the name of Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, of lUinois,\nas nominee for President for the ensuing year, in place of Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado, named\nfor that office in the report just presented. I understand that the presentation of such\na report as I am making is without precedent in the annals of this Association, and I am\nglad that this woman, who has been breaking records ever since she started, is breaking\nthe record of this Association now. I know of no healthier sign in an organization than\na contest for the presidency. It means that it is of value; that the members are alive\nand active.\nTherefore I welcome this chance to make a minority report. I think all of us feel\nearnestly and sacredly the trust that is imposed in us. We are every one of us more or\nless delegated by the people from our own states. The question of the presidency has\nbeen talked over in every hamlet of this country. For the first time in the history of this\norganization a woman has been mentioned for the high office that has been filled for so\nmany years by so many distinguished men, and for the first time we have a woman who\nstands, frail and little as she is, towering above those that are about her. She has not\nmerely a national reputation.\nShe has an international reputation.\nI regret any mention of a sex line in any contest, Mr. President. We are presenting\nthe name of Mrs. Young as the best human being for this position. She has the record\nof having taught from the rural school to the university. She has done something that\nthrills every one of us; when you can say that man or woman past fifty starts in and obtains\na university education, it is something to thrill one with admiration. I do not know but\nI will try to do it myself.\nMrs. Young merits everything that has been said of her. She has taken a place that\nwas so difficult, as I learned from a gentleman from Illinois this morning, that two distinguished men have failed before her. I beg your pardon, I should not have said that.\nI did not mean that. They did not fail. I mean that she has succeeded more wonderfully\nthan they did. You must forgive me if I make mistakes. It is my first attempt at a\ncampaign, and I expect to make mistakes. I am an amateur at it, and can only speak\nfrom my heart.\nWe women have been criticized for our methods. They have said that we ought not\nto have done certain things. You men have been working for years in this organization,\nwhile we have been taking meekly and quietly the seat in the back of the room. We have\ncome here year after year, many of us, paid our money and listened, and it may seem to\nyou surprising that we now ask to be heard. If our first accents tremble and we say words\nwrong, you must forgive us. We have a woman to speak for us in Mrs. Young who will\nnot speak the word wrong, and I beg your suffrages for her. It has been said that too\nmany of the presidents have come from Illinois. I am not from Illinois; I am fromNew\nYork. I think the question of too many presidents coming from one place is too trivial to\nbe considered. We do not stop to count where the presidents of the United States come\nfrom. A good many of them have come from a western state. Besides that, Mrs. Young\ncomes not from Chicago, but from this whole country. There are women and men from\nnorth and south, from east and west, and from center, all anxious to see her given a chance\nto do in this Association what she has done already in Chicago. Mr. President, I move\nthe substitution of the minority report for the majority report.\nThe motion was seconded.\nPresident Joyner: The motion of Miss Blake is not in order at this point, but the\nChair will recognize her to make that motion as an amendment after a motion has been\nmade to adopt the report of the committee.\nAugustus S. Downing, of New York: I move the adoption of the majority report\nof the Committee on Nominations as presented by the Chairman.\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJohn W. Cook, of Illinois: I second the motion that the majority report of the committee be adopted.\nMiss Blake: I now move the substitution of the minority report for the majority\nreport.\nMiss Isabel A. Ennis, of New York: I second the motion.\nPresident Joyner: We have before us the report of a majority of the nominating\ncommittee, which has been read in your presence, and a motion for the adoption of the\nsame. You also have before you the report of a minority of the Committee on Nominations, dissenting from the report of the majority, and a substitute motion for the adoption\nof the minority report. The motion which has been made to substitute the report of the\nminority of the committee for that of the majority takes precedence of the motion to\nadopt the report of the majority of the committee, and will be voted upon first.\nMiss Grace C. Strachan, of New York: I wish to speak in support of the substitute motion. I have been attending conventions of the National Education Association\nfor many years, and as is well known the women do not fail to attend the lectures and the\nevening meetings, but they frequently do fail to attend the business meetings. For\nforty-eight years the presidency has fallen each year to a man. This time we have found\na woman whom we would like to see President of the National Education Association.\nThere have been some objections made to the tactics used by the women interested\nin Mrs. Young's election. I am very glad to have you know and have you all see that\nthere are many men also who desire the election of Mrs. Young; but when one considers\nthe objections as to tactics one feels that they are very trifling. For instance, I asked\nsomebody what the objections were, and he said, \"Well, in the matter of these badges;\nnever before has the candidate for the presidency had a personal badge passed around.\"\nThis is the age of badges and buttons. We whom I represent wear this red badge. I\nrepresent fourteen thousand women. For several years we have used this badge I.A.W.T.,\nand we did not think of any interpretation for it except Interborough Association\nof Women Teachers, until a man saw it and read it, \"I Am With Thee.\" Since then,\nwe prefer that interpretation. So much for the badges. Another objection is that some\nof the advocates of Mrs. Young began several weeks ago writing around the country with\nreference to Mrs. Young. Now, it may be a matter for thanksgiving that they did not\nbegin earlier, because if they had there would have been so many women from the city\nof New York that we would have had to go to the Stadium for the election. We have\nknown only for a very short time that Mrs. Young would permit her name to be used\nas a candidate for the presidency, and in that very short time we have had the opportunity to reach only a few of the women who are interested in Mrs. Young as an educator.\nThat objection, like the one about the badges, seems to me not important in this discussion. This is a matter of choosing a prominent educator for the most responsible office\nin our Association, and I must confess that of the two names presented to us this morning, those of Mr. Snyder and Mrs. Young, my knowledge of the career of both makes me\nbelieve that Mrs. Young is not the second in the matter of record or ability.\nI hope that the women who have formed so large a part of this Association for so many\nyears, and have asked for nothing, will find that this time the Association will recognize\ntheir request for this high office, and that the election of Mrs. Young this morning will be\nunanimous.\nC. A. DuNiWAY, of Montana:\nvote on the substitute motion.\nSeconded and carried.\n\nI move that debate be closed, and that we proceed to\n\nPresident Joyner: Now we are prepared to vote first on the substitute motion.\nThe Chair desires to appoint tellers to take the vote in this matter.\nA discussion followed as to the proper method of taking the vote on the substitute\nmotion and the Chair was called upon for a ruling.\nPresident Joyner: The Chair rules that as debate has been closed by motion of\nthis house, a vote upon the substitute motion comes first, and that this vote is to be\ntaken by a rising vote. The vote will now occur upon the minority report of the committee to substitute Mrs. Young's name in place of Mr. Snyder's, in the report. If that\nshould be adopted by this house, then the question to come before the house would still\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n35\n\nbe to elect by ballot the amended list of the majority report; the adoption of that amended\nlist by ballot would amount to an election.\nAt the request of President Joyner six tellers were selected by the majority of the\nnominating committee thru the chairman of the committee, D. B. Johnson, and six\ntellers by the minority, represented by Miss Katherine D. Blake, as follows:\nTELLERS\n\nFOR\n\nFrancis G. Blair, of Illinois\nA. E. Winship, of Massachusetts\nMrs. F. S. Whiteside, of Georgia\nTELLERS\n\nFOR\n\nCharles H. Keyes, of Connecticut\nE. H. Marks, of Kentucky\nJames M. Greenwood, of Missouri\n\nTHE\n\nMINORITY\n\nCharles Zueblin, of Massachusetts\nEmma J. Gardner, of Wisconsin\nIsabel A. Ennis, of New York\nTHE\n\nMAJORITY\n\nAugustus S. Downing, of New York\nJ. George Becht, of Pennsylvania\nJames H. Baker, of Colorado\n\nPresident Joyner accepted the tellers nominated and assigned them in pairs to\ndifferent sections of the church to take the vote.\nPresident Joyner: The Chair decides that the vote shall be taken as follows: The\ntellers will go thru the cHurch and take the vote seat by seat, first those voting for the\nsubstitute motion to adopt the minority report rising and standing until counted, and\nthen those voting against the substitute motion report rising and standing until counted.\nThe vote was then taken by the tellers and the result counted and handed to President Joyner.\nPresident Joyner: The result of the vote is, as reported by the tellers, that 993\nvotes were cast; 617 in favor of the substitute motion naming Mrs. Ella Flagg Young\nas nominee for the presidency, and 376 in opposition to said motion. The substitute\nmotion is therefore carried and the majority report of the Committee on Nominations\nis amended accordingly, substituting the name of Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, of lUinois,\nfor that of Mr. Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado.\nIt is now in order to vote by ballot unless otherwise ordered on the adoption of the\nmajority report of the nominating committee as amended by the substitute motion.\nJames M. Greenwood, of Missouri: I wish to move as an amendment to the report,\nbefore vote is taken, that the name of Miss Julia Richman, of New York, be substituted\nfor second Vice-President in place of the name of Mrs. Ella Flagg Young.\nThe motion being duly seconded was carried.\nMr. Greenwood: I now move that the Secretary be instructed to cast the ballot\nof the members present for the election of the nominees as named in the amended report\nnow before the house,\nA. E. Winship, of Massachusetts: I second the motion.\nPresident Joyner: The motion now before the house is that the Secretary be\ninstructed to cast the ballot of this body for the minority report, as amended.\nVote was taken and carried unanimously.\nPresident Joyner: The motion prevails and it is so ordered. The Secretary\nreports that the vote is so cast. I therefore declare the nominees of the majority report,\nas amended in two particulars, elected as officers of the Association for the ensuing year.\nThe next thing in order is the report of the Committee on Resolutions. I recognize\nJulius I. Foust, of North Carolina, chairman of that committee.\nChairman Foust presented the following:\nDECLARATION\nThe National Education Association, now holding its Forty-eighth Annual Convention in the city of Boston, representing every educational interest of the nation, makes\nthe following declaration of principles:\nW\nI. We affirm our faith in the schools of the Republic, believing that it is impossible\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfor the citizens of a great democracy to develop power and efficiency without the public\nschools, owned and controlled by the people.\n2. A Federal Office of Education is necessary to the best development of education\nin the several states. The National Bureau of Education has for many years rendered\na splendid service in disseminating information and developing educational ideals. During the past few years its increasing service and enhanced efficiency have been marked\nand stimulating. The plans which are now projected have the earnest approval and the\nenthusiastic indorsement of the educational interests of the entire country. The members\nof this Association hereby express their appreciation of the provision made for the better\nhousing of the Bureau and the enlargement of its staff. We further respectfully urge\non the Congress an increased appropriation for its support. In particular we urge that\nin addition to the usual appropriations the sum of %1SPOO be made available at the next\nsession of Congress for the organization of a more adequate staff of speciahsts with particular reference to work in the field.\n3. In the judgment of the National Education Association, the time has arrived\nfor the formation of an International Council of Education, to be composed of leading\neducators from all the principal nations of the globe; the first meeting of the Council\nto be held in Washington, D.C., at some time during the year iqii. The Association\nhereby appoints the United States Commissioner of Education, the President, and all\nliving ex-Presidents of the National Education Association, and seven others, to be\nchosen by the above-designated persons, as a committee to formulate plans for such an\nInternational Council and to attend to their execution.\n4. The fundamental consideration in any system of schools is the development of\ninflexible integrity and strong moral character in those receiving instruction. The Republic cannot survive without a citizenship with high ideals of patriotism, duty, and service.\nThis Association, therefore, commends most heartily the growing interest in the moral\ndevelopment of the children of the nation.\n5. While the members of this Association are of the opinion that the old courses of\nstudy, which had as their chief object the giving of culture to the individual and of transmitting tohim the best ideas and ideals of the past, should in no manner be weakened, we,\nnevertheless, very sincerely indorse the movement to make the course of study offered\nin our schools more democratic, that they may meet the conditions of our modern commercial and industrial life. However, to meet adequately these new demands imposes\nupon the schools of the country additional financial responsibilities, and this Association\nappeals to the nation and to the states for more liberal appropriations for educational\npurposes in order that this additional work in agriculture, in the trades and industries,\nand in home economics may be effectively undertaken.\n6. No country that is physically weak or physically diseased can attain its possible\ngreatness. All efforts, therefore, to make the condition of our educational plants more\nsanitary and to impress upon the minds of the children and the citizens of the nation\nthe importance of the proper observance of the laws of health — public and individual —\nshould receive the support and hearty co-operation of American teachers.\n7. The abuses attending the employment of children in industrial occupations tend\nto hmit their educational opportunities, and this Association, therefore, indorses all\nsuch wise and humane legislation as shall make possible the broadest development of all\nthe children,\n8. The character and efficiency of the schools depend in the future, as in the past,\nupon the character and efficiency of the teachers. The profession of teaching should,\ntherefore, attract men and women of the highest intellectual attainments, broadest\nculture, most thoro training, and loftiest ideals; to this end the salaries paid American\nteachers should be commensurate with salaries paid in other professions and in commercial\nand industrial pursuits.\n9. The Association reaffirms its declaration in the year of the last Hague Conference\nof the pre-eminent duty of the teachers of the United States, and of all the nations, to\nadvance this commanding movement of our time for the world's peace; and we record\nour profound satisfaction at the noteworthy development of attention to this high interest\nin our schools and colleges, and the rapid progress of the cause among all peoples. We\nherewith express our special satisfaction in the recent declaration of the President of the\nUnited States in behalf of the settlement by arbitration of all differences whatever between\nnations. With equal gratitude we indorse the resolution adopted by the Congress of the\nUnited States for the appointment of a commission to consider measures for the reduction of the burdensome armaments of the nations.\n10. The National Education Association reaffirms its unalterable opposition to any\ndivision of the public school funds among private or sectarian schools and believes that\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n37\n\nany appropriation from the federal or state treasuries in support of private educational\ninstitutions is in direct contravention of the fundamental principles upon which our system\nof American public-school education has been founded.\nRespectfully submitted,\n/ Julius I. Fousx, of North Carolina, Chairman\nCommittee\n| Joseph Swain, of Pennsylvania •\non\n> Homer H. Seerley, of Iowa\nResolutions\n\\ George B. Cook, of Arkansas\n\\ Katherine D. Blake, of New York\nPresident Joyner: The report of the Committee on Resolutions is before you.\nWhat will you do with it ?\nCarroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin : I move that it be adopted as read.\nMotion seconded and carried.\nCharles I. Rice, of Massachusetts: In behalf of the Department of Music Education, which was in consultation on this matter at the time the Committee on Resolutions\nwas also in session, I was instructed to come to this meeting with a resolution as follows :\nWhereas, The manner of singing our national songs, \"America\" and \"The Star\nSpangled Banner,\" differs widely in various cities and even in different schools of the same\ncity; and\nWhereas, There is therefore a great need of some agreement upon a uniform rendition of these songs;\nBe it resolved^ That the National Education Association heartily indorses the forms\nagreed upon by the Department of Music Education during the present convention and\nrecommends the use of these forms in all the public schools.\nE. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania: I move that the resolution be referred to the Committee on Resolutions.\nMotion seconded and carried.\nAfter announcements, the meeting adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nApproved,\nJames Y. Joyner, President\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF MEETING OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS\nOF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n1909-10\n\nThe annual meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order by President\nJames Y. Joyner in the Parish House of Trinity Church, at 9:30 a.m., July 4, 1910.\nThe following members responded to roll-call:\nJames Y. Joyner, North Carolina; Lorenzo D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Arthur H.\nChamberlain, California; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; Thomas W. Bicknell, Rhode\nIsland; A. W. Akers, representing the Board of Education of Nashville, Tennessee;\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, District of Columbia; Edwin G. Cooley, lUinois; Oscar T.\nCorson, Ohio; James M. Green, New Jersey; James M. Greenwood, Missouri; Eliphalet Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; Nathan C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania; Geoffrey Buckwaiter, representing the Teachers' Institute of Philadelphia, Pa.; A. J. Matthews, Arizona; George B. Cook, Arkansas; Duncan MacKinnon, California; Charles E. Chadsey,\nColorado; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut; Miss Clem Hampton, Florida; J. Stanley\nBrown, Illinois; Thomas A, Mott, Indiana; John MacDonald, Kansas; W. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky; A. C. Willison, Maryland; Irving O. Palmer, Massachusetts; E. E.\nScribner, Michigan; S. L. Heeter, Minnesota; E. E. Bass, Mississippi; Howard A. Gass,\nMissouri; W. E. Harmon, Montana; M. H. Kinsley, New Jersey; James E. Clark, New\nMexico; Augustus S. Downing, New York; W. S. Snipes, North Carolina; J. W.\nMacKinnon, Ohio; Arthur Grant Evans, Oklahoma; Herbert W. Lull, Rhode Island;\nDavid B, Johnson, South Carolina; Freeman H. Hoff, South Dakota; George H. Carpenter, Texas; Joseph Eggleston, Virginia; Henry B. Dewey, Washington; Morris P.\nShawkey, West Virginia; Carroll G. Pearse, Wisconsin.\nDirectors answering to roll-call, forty-five.\nThe Secretary reported that several state directors who were unable to attend the\nmeeting had written asking to have other active members from their respective states\nappointed in their places.\nUpon motion, duly seconded, the following appointments to fill vacancies were made:\nJohn W. Abercrombie, of Alabama, to succeed Director Samuel S. Murphy, absent.\nCharles S. Meek, of Idaho, to succeed Director S. Belle Chamberlain, absent.\nO. P. Bostwick, of Iowa, to succeed Director Frank L. Smart, absent.\nMrs. L. C. Booth, of Nevada, to succeed Director Romanzo Adams, absent.\nC. R. Travis, of North Dakota, to succeed Director Thomas A. Hillyer, absent.\nGerard Taillandier, of Oregon, to succeed Director E. D. Ressler, absent.\nG. N. Child, of Utah, to succeed Director W. S. Rawlings, absent.\nT. P. Bailey, of Tennessee, to succeed Director I. C. McNeill, absent.\nW. M. Davidson, of Nebraska, to succeed Director A. H. Waterhouse, absent.\nArthur Grant Evans, of Oklahoma, to succeed Director Lynn Glover, absent.\nThe following newly elected members responded to roll-call:\nJ. W. Abercrombie, Alabama; 0. P. Bostwick, Iowa; W. M. Davidson, Nebraska;\nC. R. Travis, North Dakota; Gerard Taillandier, Oregon; Mrs. L. C. Booth, Nevada.\nThe total number of directors present at the meeting, fifty-one.\nThe Secretary stated that the minutes of the last meeting had been published in the\nDenver volume, and asked if the directors desired to have them read.\nUpon motion by Director L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, duly seconded, the reading\nof the minutes was dispensed with, and they were approved as printed in the Denver\nvolume of Proceedings.\nIn the absence of the chairman of the Board of Trustees, the President requested\nthe vice-chairman, James M. Greenwood, to read the report of the Board of Trustees.\nThe report was read and printed copies distributed to the directors present.\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n39\n\nOn motion of Director E. E. Scribner, of Michigan, the report of the Board of Trustees,\nwas accepted and adopted, and referred to the active members of the Association.\nThe report of the Treasurer was read by Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California, and\nupon motion duly seconded was received, approved, and referred to the business meeting\nof the active members. Printed copies of the same were distributed to the members\npresent.\nSecretary Irwin Shepard reported that, in accordance with instructions by the Board\nof Directors July 5, 1909 (see p. 39 of the Denver volume) the report of the Committee\non the Place of Industries in Education had been printed and copies distributed to the\nactive members.\nOn motion duly seconded the action of the Secretary was approved.\n• SPECIAL REPORT BY THE SECRETARY\n\nON THE CONSOLIDATION\n\nOF DEPARTMENTS\n\nThe members of this Board will doubtless remember their action at the meeting\nheld in Denver, Colo., July 8, 1909, in adopting with slight amendments the Report of\nthe Committee on Reorganization of Departments.\nAfter the convention was closed many letters of protest came to the members of the\nExecutive Committee which was charged with the execution of the provisions of the\nreport. It was urged in these letters that notice of the proposed report should have been\npublished in order that officers and members of the various departments of the Association might have been present and heard in behalf of the departments in which they were\nrespectively interested. Other difficulties appeared to the Executive Committee to the\nimmediate execution of the plan for consolidation.\nAt a meeting of the Executive Committee in New York City, October 9, 1909, the\nfollowing resolution was presented and its adoption moved by Dr. Nicholas Murray\nButler:\nWhereas, The execution of the plan for consolidating the departments was committed by the Board of Directors to the Executive Committee; and\nWhereas, The departments as heretofore existing had organized for the year 190910 before the action of the Board of Directors was taken consolidating certain departments and discontinuing others, and the officers-elect feel that they should be permitted\nto hold their usual meetings in 1910; therefore be it\nResolved, That the Executive Committee do hereby request the Board of Directors\nto vote, by correspondence, on or before November i, on the question whether the Executive Committee shall be empowered to postpone the execution of the new plan of consolidated departments until after the meeting of 1910 is held.\nSeconded, and adopted by unanimous vote.\nThe following motion was also adopted by a unanimous vote:\nResolved, That, in case of a vote of approval by the Board of Directors, we, as the\nExecutive Committee, do hereby agree to postpone the execution of the plan of consolidation until after the convention of 1910.\nWill you, therefore, kindly vote on the question submitted by filling out the inclosed\nblank memorandum, and mail the same in the accompanying postpaid return envelope\nat an early date, certainly before October 31 ?\nThis action was duly transmitted by the Secretary to the members of the Board\nof Directors in a circular letter dated October 16, 1909, with a blank form for the desired\nvote by correspondence.\nThe vote of the Board of Directors resulted as follows:\nTotal number of directors of the National Education Association .\nNumber of directors voting\nNumber of directors voting in favor of postponement of consolidation\n62\nNumber of directors voting against postponement of consolidation 4\nNumber of directors not voting\n\n78\n66\n66\n12\n\nAccordingly the Secretary, under instructions of the Executive Committee, transmitted llie result of the vote to the officers of the various departments, with the result\nthat all departments are represented on the program for the Forty-eighth Annual Convention, excepting the following:\nI. The Art Education and Manual Training departments had formally requested\nthe Board of Directors to authorize them to consolidate and to be known as the Department of Manual Training and Art Education.\nThis union was authorized by special\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\naction of the Directors at Denver and was not included in the vote for postponing the\nplan for consoUdation.\n• i j\n-r-j\n, t ij\n2. The Departments of Technical Education and of Indian Education had made\nformal requests for discontinuance, which requests were granted. These departments\nhave ceased to exist and are not represented on the program of the convention.\nRespectfully submitted,\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nUpon motion duly seconded the action of the Executive Committee was approved,\nand it was agreed that the Board should adjourn to meet at 2 : 30 Tuesday afternoon,\nJuly 5, to hear representatives of the various departments making complaint, and take\nfinal action thereon; and the Secretary was instructed to notify the ofl&cers of all departments of the Association of this action.\nSecretary Shepard made announcement that at 3 : 30 this afternoon (July 4) the first\ngeneral session of the convention would be held at the Stadium, Cambridge, and that\nas the state meetings of active members to elect members of the nominating committee\nare fixed by the By-Laws for 5 : 30 this afternoon, it had been decided by the Executive\nCommittee that these meetings be held in the Colonnade of the Harvard Stadium immediately after the close of the session.\nDirector A. S. Downing, of New York: In order that there may be no question\nof the procedure as to the holding of these meetings at other places than at the various\nstate headquarters, I move that this Board of Directors authorize each director for his\nown state to designate the headquarters temporarily for that state at the Stadium under\nthe arch of the Colonnade labeled with the state's name.\n(Seconded and carried.)\nPresident Joyner: It has been suggested that I call the attention of the directors\nto the fact that none but active members can vote at the state meetings and that the directors would do well to call the attention of the members meeting this afternoon to that\nfact before the voting begins, as it might save embarrassment on the part of some\nassociate members who might not know that fact.\nWe will now hear a report by Vice-Chairman James M. Greenwood, of the\nBoard of Trustees.\nJames M. Greenwood, of Missouri, Vice-Chairman of the Board of Trustees: Mr.\nPresident and Members of the Board of Directors: A new question has arisen in the Board of\nTrustees that has never been passed upon, and my object is to present the facts at this\ntime. The Board of Trustees is composed of five members, four of whom are elected by\nthe Board of Directors; the fifth member being the President of the Association, ex officio.\nA situation confronts us, concerning which we cannot agree unanimously in regard to^ a\nquestion of law; as to the question of facts we are agreed. The situation is simply this:\nAt the Los Angeles meeting Superintendent Carroll G. Pearse, of Milwaukee, was elected\nfor one year to fill an unexpired term in the Board of Trustees. The annual meeting\nfollowing this election was held in Cleveland, Ohio. The members of the Board of Trustees received notice of this annual meeting and the meeting was held at the HoUenden\nHotel. Superintendent Pearse was not present, but when the Board of Directors met\nlater in the week Superintendent Pearse was re-elected for the full term of four years.\nThe next annual meeting was held in Denver last year. At the time that the Board\nof Trustees were to meet. Superintendent Pearse and myself were engaged in committee\nwork in connection with the National Council. The other three members of the Board\nof Trustees went out at the hour appointed and held the meeting of the Board of Trustees.\nIt was not the intention of Trustee Pearse and myself to be absent, but we were absent.\nOur Articles of Incorporation, Section 6, reads as follows: \"The absence of a trustee\nfrom two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership.\"\nA meeting of the Trustees was held in Chicago on the 13th day of April, 1910. Of\nthe members of the Board of Trustees, the following were present: Trustee Butler, Trustee Brown, and Trustee Greenwood. Absent: Trustee Joyner. Chairman Butler had\nobtained legal advice from Mr. John B. Pine, of New York City, who had been the attorney\nof the Board of Trustees, that the matter should go to the Board of Directors and the\nquestion of a vacancy be determined by them; but in a subsequent statement, copy of which\nI have, he expressed the opinion that it belonged primarily to the Board of Trustees\nto determine and declare a vacancy within its own body; that is, when vacancies occur,\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n41\n\nby resignation or otherwise, the Trustees had the authority to declare that a vacancy\nexists. President Joyner and Trustee Pearse hold that a vacancy does not exist, because\nthey believe that the two absences were not cumulative. Others of us hold that the\nBoard of Trustees is a continuous body and that the absences were cumulative. This\nis the case as briefly as I can state it Trustee Brown also questions whether these two\nabsences ought to be considered cumulative absences.\nWithout going into a lengthy discussion and detaining you, I will say that we are\ntrying to sell a piece of property in Chicago that belongs to the National Education\nAssociation, and I think that it would be better, and safer in a legal sense, either to\nre-elect Mr. Pearse, or to elect somebody else, to fill the unexpired term, so that there can\nbe no shadow of doubt in regard to the legal membership of the board.\nUnder Section 6 of the Act of Incorporation you will find that the Board of Directors has a clear right to fill vacancies in the Board of Trustees. That section reads in part\nas follows: \"All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation\nor otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the\nabsence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his\nmembership.\"\nPresident Joyner: I am going to ask Vice-President Harvey to take the chair.\nVice-President Harvey takes the chair.\nPREsroENT Joyner: It was agreed to lay this whole matter before the Board of\nDirectors and let them take the responsibiUty of a decision. A statement of the facts\nhas been made, and as it was agreed that a statement of the views entertained by the\nmembers of the Board of Trustees who could not agree should also be made, I come\nbefore you to make a statement here.\nI want to say at the outset, gentlemen, that the Board of Trustees ever since its\narrival has labored over this matter, with the earnest hope that three honest men entertaining different views when they started out might after a full discussion agree, rendering it unnecessary to trouble you gentlemen with it. We finally failed to do so, and then\ndeclared that the only thing to do was to come before you and make a calm, honest\nstatement of the facts and throw the responsibility of the whole matter upon you. I\ntrust that the decision of this matter will be approached in exactly the same spirit that\nthe members of this Board of Trustees have tried to approach it and decide it, and if,\nin the final outcome, we cannot agree here we will differ honestly, but do it charitably\nand bow to the will of the majority, whatever that may be.\nYou have had the facts stated before you. The record shows two absences on the\npart of Trustee Pearse, one occurring in the term of office of one year to which he was\nelected to fill an unexpired term, the other occurring in his new term of office, to which\nhe was elected for four years, subsequent to the first absence. The first point of conflict\namong the members of the Board was on the question whether these absences in different\nterms of office should be cumulative and thereby cause a forfeiture of office. You have\nhad Mr. Greenwood's view of the matter, honestly stated. I want to state the view of\nMr,\nBrown and myself on that matter — I believe Mr. Brown finally came to the same\nconclusion.\nMy view from the first was, before I had had any legal counsel or any advice from\nAttorney Pine or anybody else, that no vacancy existed: but, if any vacancy had arisen,\nthat the Board of Directors in whom was vested the power to elect a Board of Trustees\nwould alone have the power to declare a vacancy as well as to elect a successor, and that,\ntherefore, the Board of Trustees had no power, even if Trustee Pearse had been absent,\nwithin the meaning of the Act of Incorporation, from two successive annual meetings,\nto act upon the matter themselves, but should refer it to the Board of Directors for final\ndecision.\nThat was my view of that matter,\nMr. Brown did not agree to that.\nNow, as to that second point: the record showed that one of these absences occurred\nin one term of Trustee Pearse's office, and the other occurred in another term of his\noffice. My view was that those absences could in no sense be cumulative, and that as\nthe record showed that Superintendent Pearse had been absent but once during his present term of ofl5ce, to which he was newly elected for a four-year term, he had not forfeited his membership under this article of the Constitution, which says that if a member\nis absent from two consecutive annual meetings he shall forfeit his membership. That\nwas my view, and entertaining that view I felt that any declaration on the part of the\nBoard of Trustees that Trustee Pearse's seat was vacant was not correct, on account of\nthe fact that these absences occurred in different terms of Trustee Pearse's office, that\nthey were not cumulative, and therefore did not operate under this article of the Constitution as a forfeiture of his membership in the Board of Trustees, That was the point\nabout which we differed, Trustee Brown and myself entertaining the same view for the\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "42\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nreasons which I have stated, Trustee Butler and Trustee Greenwood taking the other\nview of the matter.\nThere was another question of fact also on which we did not pass because we could\nnot agree upon the other points, viz., What constitutes an annual meeting? Whether\nin the correct meaning of the word \"annual\" Superintendent Pearse had been absent\nfrom two \"annual meetings.\" I think President Brown was of the opinion that the meetings referred to were annual meetings. • There was a doubt in my mind as to what was the\nannual meeting in the absence of any declaration or definition of what an annual meeting is.\nPresident Joyner resumed the chair. Then followed a general discussion of the\nquestion whether the clause of the Act of Incorporation referring to this matter should\nbe or should not be interpreted to mean that the two absences should occur within one\nand the same term of office to constitute forfeiture of membership.\nPresident Joyner recognized Director A. C. Willison, of Maryland, who ofifered a\nmotion reading as follows:\nI move that it is the sense of this body that the phrase of the Act of Incorporation\nat the close of Section 6 refers to a single term of office and that the two successive absences\nshould occur within a single term of office to constitute a forfeiture of membership.\nSeconded by Director George H. Carpenter, of Texas.\nSeveral conflicting motions and substitutes were offered in the general discussion\nthat followed, but were declared out of order by President Joyner, who held that no action\ncould be taken to elect a successor to Mr. Pearse as a member of the Board of Trustees,\nor to re-elect him, until the directors had officially declared that a vacancy exists in the\nsaid board.\nDirector L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, called attention to the fact that Section 5\nof Article IV of the By-Laws provides for forfeiture of membership in the National\nCouncil in almost precisely the same language as that clause of the Act of Incorporation\nunder consideration, viz. :\nThe absence of a member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall\nbe considered as equivalent to resignation of membership and the Council shall fill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined.\nDirector Harvey stated that this By-Law had been construed for many years as\ncumulative and that many prominent members of the Council had lost their membership\nwhen one of two consecutive absences had occurred in a previous consecutive term.\nHe urged that this fact had an important bearing on the question under consideration\nand that the same interpretation should be appHed to the language of the Act of Incorporation ashas long prevailed without question in the case of the quoted By-Law applying to membership in the National Council.\nDirector Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin: I have been embarrassed for some\ntime. I cannot conceive that I am not a member of the Board of Trustees to which I\nwas elected two years ago. However, I wish to save you all embarrassment in this\nmatter. It is not vital that I be a member of the Board of Trustees. There are many\nothers who are as capable of filling that office as I am. Therefore I ask you to permit\nme to offer my resignation as such member, and trust that you will formally accept the\nsame, after which you will be free to elect to that office any member whom you may\nchoose.\nDirector Willison: I beg leave, with the consent of the gentleman who seconded\nit, to withdraw my motion in order that the resignation of Mr. Pearse may be considered.\nPresident Joyner: There is now nothing before this house but the tendered resignation of Mr. Pearse.\nDirector E. E. Scribner, of Michigan: I move that Mr. Pearse's resignation be\naccepted.\nThe motion was duly seconded and carried.\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n43\n\nDirector W. H. Bartholomew, of Kentucky: I move that Director Carroll G.\nPearse be elected to fill the \\ acancy in the Board of Trustees for the unexpired term.\nThis motion was duly seconded and carried, and President Joyner announced that\nMr. Pearse was unanimously elected a member of the Board of Trustees for the unexpired\nterm of office caused by his resignation.\nMeeting adjourned until 2:30 p.m.; Tuesday, July 5, 1910, at Parish House, Trinity\nChurch, Boston, Mass.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nApproved,\nJames Y. Joyner, President\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF ADJOURNED MEETING OF BOARD OF\nDIRECTORS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nASSOCIATION\n\nFOR THE YEAR\n\n1909-10\n\nThe adjourned meeting of the Board of Directors for 1909-10 was called to order\nby President James Y. Joyner in the Parish House'of Trinity Church, at 2: 30 p.m., July\n5, 1910.\n\nThe following directors responded to roll-call:\nJames Y. Joyner, North Carolina; Lorenzo D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Arthur H.\nChamberlain, California; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; John W. Cook, Illinois; James\nM. Green, New Jersey; J. M. Greenwood, Missouri; John W. Abercrombie, Alabama;\nGeorge B. Cook, Arkansas; Charles E. Chadsey, Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut; Miss Clem Hampton, Florida; J. Stanley Brown, lUinois; Thomas A. Mott,\nIndiana; John MacDonald, Kansas; Payson Smith, Maine; A. C. Willison, Maryland;\nIrving O. Palmer, Massachusetts; E. E. Scribner, Michigan; E. E. Bass, Mississippi;\nW. M. Davidson, Nebraska; Augustus S. Downing, New York; Gerard Taillandier,\nOregon; Reed B. Teitrick, Pennsylvania; David B. Johnson, South Carolina; T. P.\nBailey, Tennessee; Henry B. Dewey, Washington; Morris P. Shawkey, West Virginia;\nCarroll G. Pearse, Wisconsin.\nDirectors present, twenty-nine.\nThe Secretary stated that every effort had been made to reach all the different\nheads of departments to inform them of this meeting, and he believed all of them had\nreceived notice of the meeting.\nThe Report of the Committee on Reorganization of Departments, which was adopted\nat the Denver meeting, was read by the Secretary. (This report appears on p. 43\nof the Yearbook for 1909-10.) Attention was called to the Special Report of the\nSecretary presented at the meeting of the previous day.\nDirector T. A. Mott, of Indiana: Would a motion be in order to suspend for\nanother year the action of the Board of Directors at Denver consolidating departments,\nwhich was suspended for one year by a correspondence vote of the Directors?\nPresident Joyner: I think so. We have the same right to do that, I assimie,\nas we had by referendum vote to suspend for one year.\nDirector James M. Green, of New Jersey: If there is no vote to that effect, then\nthe action taken at Denver goes into effect at this time ?\nPresident Joyner: If no action to the contrary is taken at this meeting, the report\nof the Committee on Consolidation goes into effect now and will be in effect next year.\nIt now becomes operative unless this Board of Directors, who have the power to do so,\nshall suspend it again or reverse its action of a year ago.\nDirector James M. Green, of New Jersey: As a member of the Committee on\nReorganization of Departments, I desire to state some of the reasons which guided the\ncommittee in making its report. I was President of the Association in 1901 and it was\nowing to certain recommendations in my address as President that this committee was\ncreated. The debate on the question in the committee at Denver was long and earnest.\nIt was believed by the committee that we had too many departments, some of which were\nlogically related to other departments, as Art to Manual Training, Business Education\nto Secondary Education, etc. It was not the thought of the Committee to suppress, cut\noff, or discourage the consideration of the problems of business education, art education,\nphysical training, or any other Une of educational work, but to bring about such unification ofdepartments as to prevent much of the duplication and confusion which now exists,\nand more clearly define the field of each department.\nA general discussion followed reviewing the conditions which led to the appointment\nof a Committee on Reorganization of Departments at the Detroit Convention in 1901;\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n45\n\nand the advantages of the plan for consolidation as proposed by the committee and\nadopted by the directors at their meeting in Denver, July 8, 1909. Attention was also\ncalled to the opposition to the action of the Board of Directors thereon, which was\ncaused in part by the general interest of the members in the various departments as\nrelated to their respective lines of school work, and in part by the fact that no notice of\nsuch a report had been given in advance and no opportunity extended to the oflScers and\nothers interested in the several departments to be heard in behalf of the continuance of\nthe same.\nDirector Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana, presented the following resolutions which were\nduly seconded:\nResolved, That the action of this Board taken at the Denver meeting on the recommendation of the Committee on the Reorganization of Departments of the National\nEducation Association be and is hereby suspended for one year; and\nResolved, That the heads of departments affected by the report of the committee be\ninvited to a conference to be held in this room, at 8:30 a.m., July 6, 1910, for the purpose\nof effecting such consolidations as may appear advisable at this time.\nA brief discussion of these resolutions followed, tmtil President Joyner suggested that\nthe representatives of the several departments who were present by invitation of the Board\nof Directors should be heard.\nA motion was then made and carried to the effect that the department representatives\nbe heard. In accordance with this motion President Joyner introduced the following:\nKenyon L. Butterfield, President of the Department of Rural and Agricultural\nEducation: Five years ago, at a meeting of the Association of American Agricultural\nColleges and Experiment Stations, which is made up of representatives of all the agricultural colleges in the country, I introduced a resolution asking the National Education\nAssociation to establish a Department of Rural and Agricultural Education. I felt at that\ntime, as I feel today, that the National Education Association is the proper body to head\nthe unified movement for agricultural education in this country. The Association of the\nAmerican Agricultural Colleges has developed very largely as a meeting of demonstrators\nto consider questions of general policy, and does not bring together as a rule the teachers\nof agriculture even in the colleges themselves, and has no connection with that growing\nbody of men and women who are teaching agriculture in the public schools.\nI take it that was the beginning for the Association of this department. It was organized soon after that thru the efforts of Mr. D. J. Crosby, of the Department of Agriculture\nat Washington, D.C., who is here, and who I hope may be allowed to say a word on this\nsame subject. I feel today, just as I did then, that this Association ought to recognize\ndefinitely the whole movement for the upbuilding of the rural community thru the schools.\nThe department includes the whole field of the rural schools. It is the Department of\nRural and Agricultural Education. The rural-school problem involves nearly half the\npublic-school interests in the country. Furthermore, the work in agricultural education\nis going forward by leaps and bounds. It was reported a year ago at Portland that\nthere were three hundred agricultural high schools already established, and the number\nwill soon be legion.\nThese facts show, I think, the significance of the work which is represented by this\ndepartment. Whether that work has been adequately represented by the department\nin the meetings that have been held, I cannot say. At our meeting this morning we had\nonly about a hundred people. Perhaps that is not a suflacient attendance to justify a\nseparate department, but those one hundred people came from Maine to Montana, and\nfrom Michigan to South Carolina. They represented agricultural high schools, colleges,\nand normal schools; I think the largest attendance of agricultural-college men that has\never been gathered at an agricultural association was present at this meeting this morning.\nIt is not very long since the rural-school movement as a definite thing has come to the\nfront — not more than eight or ten years. The problems are not by any means all solved.\nThis year we gave particular attention to two or three large questions that are coming up\nbefore our colleges and high schools. The discussion this morning was of intense interest,\nand I think the meeting thoroly justified itself.\nNow, if the National Education Association wants to represent the total agricultural\ninterests, if it wants to be the gathering-place of men and women especially interested in\nthis phase of education, then it seems to me it would be extremely unwise definitely to tie\nthis department up with any other. By the report of the committee, our department\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nis to be tied up with the Department of Manual Training, and the new department is to\nbe called the Department of Industrial Education. That is perfectly logical. Agricultural education is definitely a part of the great industrial educational movement. However, we have had this day a joint session, but not a joint session with the Department\nof Manual Training; we held a joint session with the Department of Science Education\nand with the Department of Secondary Education. Another year it may be wise to hold\na joint session with other departments. Now, if you tie us up permanently with the\nDepartment of Industrial Education, I feel very strongly that you are not going to give\na chance for the National Education Association, thru this department or thru any other\ndepartment that is definitely a part of the Association, to take leadership in this general\nmovement for rural and agricultural education.\nIf the concern of the directors is chiefly to eliminate departments to save expense,\nI do not see why this thing should not go thru; but, if the Board of Directors has an ambition to make the National Education Association the organization which shall take the\nleadership, in so far as conferences and discussions and meetings can take leadership, for\ndeveloping our rural schools, and especially for the enlargement of the agricultural education movement, I think you will make a serious mistake if you eliminate the Department\nof Rural and Agricultural Education.\nPresident Joyner : As I have another meeting which it is necessary for me to attend,\nI shall be obliged to ask to be excused, and will call Vice-President Harvey to the chair.\nVice-President L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, took the chair.\nLinnaeus N. Hines, Vice-President of the Department of School Administration:\nI should like to ask whether it would not be fair to the Department of School Administration, as well as the other departments, to let it take a vote as to whether it wants to be\nconsolidated with any other department. The sentiment in our department is opposed\nto the action that was taken at Denver. The members want to go right ahead with a\nprogram of their own at this summer meeting. I think it would be fair to our department\nto let it vote on the question, and if it wants to go on with a program of its own, no matter\nif there are only twenty members there every year, it should be allowed to do so.\nDuRAND W. Springer, for the Department of Business Education: The members\nof the Department of Business Education during the past year have been in correspondence, and we come to you with a definite opinion that we do not like the combination\nthat you propose.\nPrior to 1892 there was an organization known as the Business Educators Association,\nwhich held summer meetings, and contained as its members the teachers of commercial\neducation in the United States. Application was made to your body for admission as a\ndepartment. We were admitted. Since 1893 it has been my privilege to attend all the\nmeetings except two. We have three members now where we had one in 1893. We\nstarted with eight. Today we have over a hundred active members who are strictly\ninterested in business education. We began with a department meeting that had present\nless than twenty members. Today we had two hundred present. We have been growing.\nDuring that time we have been doing some things: one of which was that, as a result of\nthe work of a committee, we issued a department bulletin. We did not ask for any funds\nfor the printing of that bulletin, since as a department we had not become large enough\nto come to you and ask for appropriations. It must have been pretty fair in quality, for\nwe sold over three thousand copies to those interested in commercial education. We do\nbelieve at the present time that it would not be fair to the National Education Association,\nand it would not be fair to the Business Section, that it should be blotted out. We are\nhere. You absorbed an existing organization, and now merely to blot us out is hardly\nfair. I do not believe the National Education Association can afford to say, \"We can\nonly have so many Departments.\" That is like taxpayers saying they will not pay the\ntaxes because they do not want the tax-rate to advance beyond a certain point.\nThere are problems which we have not as yet solved, and which we have not yet\nworked out, and we believe that there are certain things we can do by ourselves which\nwe cannot do in consolidation. We are your children by adoption, and we do not want\nto be thrown out, even tho you should adopt us again.\nEdwin White Gaillard, President of the Library Department: In taking up this\nquestion of consolidation, I wish to say that the Library Department has not been consolidated at all by the action of the Board of Directors at Denver. It has been absolutely\nwiped out. The schools of the country apparently have no further use for the Library\nDepartment.\nThe Library section was originally established thru the influence of Dr. James H.\nCanfield and Mr. Melvil Dewey, to bring about a co-operation between the public library\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n47\n\nand the elementary school. That propaganda has been far advanced. An entirely new\nfactor has entered into this question which did not appear eight years ago, but has come\nas a result of this closer co-operation between the schools and libraries. There has come\ninto existence a body of school librarians. There is no place for these librarians of school\nlibraries to meet. The American Library Association has its meetings at times and places\nwhere it is impossible for a school man to go. Some years the American Library Association meets when the schools are in operation and the librarians cannot go. Sometimes\nthere is no discussion of matters relating to schools in the American Library Association\nmeetings. We submit for the benefit of this growing body of school librarians that there\nshould be some place of meeting where they can come together and discuss their own separate problems and problems which run all thru the schools. If the department is abolished\nthere is no place for its continuance or the spirit of its continuance. This morning I\ncounted more than one hundred and twenty persons present. They were divided very\nnearly equally between school librarians, teachers who do not attend the American Library\nAssociation meetings, and public librarians. The attendance geographically ranged from\nthe District of Columbia to Wyoming, while Tennessee, New York, New Jersey, Missouri, Massachusetts, Maine, and Canada were represented. There is, then, a growing\nbody of persons who desire to come together and for whom no other provision is made.\nAfter further discussion Director Downing, of New York, moved as a substitute for\nthe pending motion of Director Mott that the action of the Board of Directors of last year\nadopting the Report of the Committee on Consolidation be rescinded. Seconded and\ncarried.\nDirector John W. Cook, of Illinois, moved that the whole subject-matter of the reorganization ofdepartments be re-referred to the original committee on that subject.\nVice-President Harvey ruled the motion out of order on the ground that the directors,\nby rescinding their action taken at the Der>ver meeting, had discharged the committee\nwhich by the same action had been continued.\nDirector Keyes, of Connecticut, then moved that the original committee be\nappointed anew and that the entire question of reorganization of departments be rereferred to this original committee on that subject with the addition of the two members\nwhich had been added to the committee at the Denver meeting, viz., the retiring President, Director L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, and Director James M. Green, of New\nJersey. This motion was seconded and carried by a unanimous vote.\n• The following are the names of the Committee:\nAlfred Bayliss, of Illinois, Chairman\nBen Blewett, of Missouri\nNicholas Murray Butler, of New York\nL. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin James M. Green, of New Jersey\nOn motion of Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin, it was ordered that the consolidation\nof the Departments of Art Education and Manual Training remain unchanged by the\nmotion to rescind which had just been carried, since those two departments had by their\nown action requested the Board of Directors to authorize them to unite as the Department\nof Manual Training and Art Education. Seconded and carried.\nAfter announcements, the meeting adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nApproved,\nJames Y. Joyner, President\n\nMINUTES\n\nOF THE\n\nMEETING\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nFOR 1910-11\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 4:30 p.m., Thursday, July 7, 1910, in the Assembly\nHall of the Parish House of Trinity Church, Boston, Mass., by President-elect Ella Flagg\nYoung.\nThe following members responded to roll-call:\nElla Flagg Young, Illinois; James Y. Joyner, North Carolina; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; Durand W. Springer, Michigan; James M. Greenwood, Missouri; Elmer Ellsworth\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBrown, District of Columbia; Nathan C. Schaeflfer, Pennsylvania; A. R. Taylor, Illinois;\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Wisconsin; John W. Abercrombie, Alabama; A. J. Matthews, Arizona;\nGeorge B. Cook, Arkansas; Duncan MacKinnon, California; Frederick A. Verplanck,\nConnecticut; George W. Twitmyer, Delaware; P. M. Hughes, District of Columbia; Miss\nClem Hampton, Florida; Mrs. F, S. Whiteside, Georgia; Charles S, Meek, Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, Illinois; T. A. Mott, Indiana; O. P. Bostwick, Iowa; John MacDonald, Kansas;\nW. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky; A. C. WilHson, Maryland; E. E. Scribner, Michigan; S.\nL. Heeter, Minnesota; E. E. Bass, Mississippi; Howard A. Gass, Missouri; M. H. Kinsley,\nNew Jersey; J. E. Clark, New Mexico; Augustus S. Downing, New York; W. S. Snipes,\nNorth Carolina; Nelson Sauvain, North Dakota; W. C. Canterbury, Oklahoma; Reed B.\nTeitrick, Pennsylvania; D. B. Johnson, South Carolina; Freeman H. Hofif, South Dakota;\nJ. J. Keyes, Tennessee; George H. Carpenter, Texas; H. B. Dewey, Washington; Morris\nP. Shawkey, West Virginia; Carroll G. Pearse, Wisconsin.\nDirectors present, forty-three.\nThe Secretary presented the following letter:\n\nBoston, Mass., July 6, igio\nPREsroENT James Y. Joyner,\nNational Education Association\nDear Sir: I wish to apply for the Territory of Hawaii to have representatives on\nthe Boai-d of Directors of the National Education Association. Hawaii is a territory, a\nlittle larger in area than the state of Connecticut, with the privileges and responsibihties\nthat pertain to the territories of Arizona and New Mexico. She is not a dependency like\nPorto Rico or the Philippines. We have a number of active members of the Association.\nThe public-school system of Hawaii comprises 154 schools with an enrollment of\n18,564 pupils and employing 476 teachers; the private schools number 51, enroll 4,881\npupils, and employ 218 teachers.\nRespectfully submitted,\n•\n(Signed)\nPerley L. Horne\nDirector E. E. Scribner, of Michigan: I move that the request in the letter presented be granted, and that the Board of Directors proceed to elect a director for Hawaii.\nSeconded and carried.\nDirector D. B. Johnson, of South Carolina: I move that the writer of the letter,\nMr. Perley L. Horne, be elected as director from Hawaii.\nSeconded and carried.\nPresident Young: The next order of business is the appointment of a committee\nto nominate members for the National Council. How do you wish this committee to be\nappointed ?\nOn motion the Chair was instructed to appoint a committee of five members. The\nfollowing committee was appointed:\ncommittee on membership in the council\nJames M. Greenwood, of Missouri, Chairman\nNathan C. Schaeflfer, of Pennsylvania\nAugustus S. Downing, of New York\nJ. Stanley Brown, of Illinois\nMiss Clem Hampton, of Florida\nPresident Young: The next order of business is a communication from the Department of Superintendence.\nThe Secretary read the following communication:\nBoston, July 6, 1910\nTo the Directors of the National Education Association:\nGentlemen: The committee authorized by the Department of Superintendence\nto devise a system of uniform educational statistics has had its first meeting and outlined\nits plan of work. It is thought necessary to plan for at least two meetings of this committee before next February. It will also be necessary to gather material concerning\npresent systems of reporting throughout the United States. In view of the expense\nwhich will be incurred by the committee, we respectfully request an appropriation of\nfive hundred dollars to cover necessary expenses.\nRespectfully yours,\nPayson Smith, President\nApproved:\nG. D. Strayer, Secretary\nW. M. Davidson, President of the Department of Superintendence.\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n49\n\nAfter brief discussion, in which the plan of the committee was outlined, Director\nJoyner moved that the Board of Directors appropriate $500, or as much thereof as might\nbe necessary, for the expenses of this committee, the appropriation being subject to the\napproval of the Committee on Appropriations and Investigations of the National Council. Seconded and carried.\nDirector A. R. Taylor, of Illinois, presented a report by the Committee on a Universal\nSystem of Key Notation. The report was not read, but Director Taylor urged that the\nBoard of Directors authorize the Secretary to print the report and send it to the active\nmembers of the Association at an early date as a report of progress. It was stated that\nthe committee hoped to have the report in final form for presentation to the Department\nof Superintendence at its meeting in February next.\nAfter some discussion a motion was made, seconded, and carried that the Secretary\nbe instructed to print and distribute the report as requested, subject to the approval of\nthe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the National Council.\nPresident Young: The next order of business is the election of a member of the\nBoard of Trustees to succeed Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, whose term expires\nwith this meeting.\nDirector E. E. Scribner, of Michigan: I rise to nominate Dr. Nicholas Murray\nButler to succeed himself as a member of the Board of Trustees for the term of four years.\nThe nomination was duly seconded.\nDirector Augustus S. Downing, of New York: As director from the State of New\nYork I have a very unpleasant duty to perform. Before President Butler sailed for Europe\nhe requested me to say to this Board of Directors, in case there should be a desire to re-elect\nhim, that he should decline to accept re-election.\nH. B. Brown, acting chairman of the Board of Trustees, asked permission to make a\nstatement to the directors. On motion, Trustee Brown was given the floor.\nTrustee H. B. Brown: I should feel that I was not doing my duty by the Board\nof Trustees and by the Association if I did not speak at this time. I have been associated\nwith President Butler on the Board of Trustees for the past three years. He has been a\nmember continuously for twelve years or more. I have been deeply impressed by his\nfaithfulness and devotion to the interests of the Association, especially in the care of its\nPermanent Fund. His knowledge of financial matters and safe judgment in making investments ishown in the high character of the investments of this Permanent Fund. I do not\nthink there is another member of this Association who could fill his place as Chairman of\nthe Board of Trustees and in guiding the Board in the care and investment of its Permanent\nFund.\nIn spite of what the director for New York has said, I wish to suggest that there has\nbeen at no time in the history of the Association so great a need for the sane and wise\ncounsels of President Nicholas Murray Butler as at present. He is more than any other\nman familiar with the history and arrangement of its funds, and with the spirit and genius\nof the Association.\nIt would be little short of a calamity for the Association, and for the Trustees, at this\ntime, to be deprived of his services; and I hope that this statement may be placed in the\nminutes of the Board of Directors, and that President Butler may be unanimously reelected to the Board of Trustees for the full term, and that a copy of the minutes be transmitted to President Butler with the notice of his re-election.\nPresident Young — to Director Downing: How reliable is your information that\nPresident Butler will decline to accept re-election ?\nDirector Downing: I have delivered the message to the Board of Directors, sent\nto me in a letter by President Butler, as I agreed to do. I can say no more, deeply as I\nregret the necessity for delivering such a message.\nPresident Young : Do you wish to submit that letter as a part of the record of this\nmeeting ?\nDirector Downing:\nI do not.\nDirector Joyner: In view of the nomination of President Butler to succeed himself, Imove that the Secretary be instructed to cast the ballot of the Board of Directors\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfor the election of Trustee Nicholas Murray Butler to succeed himself for the term of four\nyears.\nThe motion, being duly seconded, was carried by a unanimous vote. The Secretary\nreported the ballot cast according to instructions, and President Young declared President\nButler re-elected as a member of the Board of Trustees for four years.\nThe committee appointed to nominate members of the National Council presented\nits report as follows:\nTo the members of the Board of Directors :\nYour committee reports the following-named nominations to fill vacancies which\nhave occurred for the reasons stated:\nTO\n\nFILL VACANCIES\n\nOCCURRING\n\nBY REASON\nOF\nSIVE MEETINGS\n\nABSENCE\n\nFROM\n\nTWO\n\nSUCCES-\n\nWilliam P. Burris, Cincinnati, Ohio, to succeed John J. Doyne, Little Rock, Ark. —\nterm to expire in 191 1.\nFrancis G. Blair, Springfield, 111., to succeed Livingston C. Lord, Charlestown, 111. —\nterm to expire in 191 2.\nWalter R. Ranger, Providence, R.I., to succeed Ernest C. Moore, Los Angeles, Cal. —\nterm to expire in 191 1,\nJ. A. Smith, Deland, Fla., to succeed Sarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass. — term to\nexpire in 191 2.\nThomas M. Balliet, New York, N.Y., to succeed Ida C. Bender, Buffalo, N.Y. — term\nto expire in 19 13.\nW. E. Harmon, Helena, Mont., to succeed O. J. Craig, Missoula, Mont. — term to\nexpire in 1914.\nTO\n\nFILL VACANCIES\n\nOCCURRING\n\nBY\n\nREASON\n\nOF\n\nEXPIRATION\n\nOF TERM\n\nJohn W. Cook, DeKalb, 111., to succeed himself — term to expire in 1916.\nDavid R. Boyd, Norman, Okla., to succeed himself — term to expire in 19 16.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis., to succeed himself — term to expire in 19 6.\nEdward B. Craighead, New Orleans, La., to succeed himself — term to expire in 1916.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis., to succeed himself — term to expire in 1916.\nHenry Snyder, Jersey City, N.J., to succeed, himself — term to expire in 1916.\nElla C. SuUivan, Chicago, 111., to succeed Katherine E, Dopp, Chicago, 111. — term to\nexpire in 19 16.\nFrank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash., to succeed Henry C. Morrison, Concord, N.H. —\nterm to expire in 1916.\nRandall Spaulding, Montclair, N.J., to succeed Edwin E. Sparks, State College, Pa. —\nterm to expire in 19 16.\nGeorge B. Strayer, New York, N.Y., to succeed Henry Suzzalo, New York, N.Y. —\nterm to expire in 19 16.\nTO\n\nFILL VACANCY\n\nOCCURRING\n\nBY REASON\n\nOF DEATH\n\nDavid Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Cal., to succeed William T. Harris, deceased\n— term to expire in 191 5.\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nof Missouri, Chairman\nM. Greenwoo\nJames\n!\nClem Hampton,\nof d,\nFlorida\nAugustus S. Downing, of New York\nJ. Stanley Brown, of Ilhnois\nOn motion, duly seconded, the report was received and adopted and the nominees\nwere declared elected as members of the National Council for the terms indicated.\nPresident Young : It is now in order to elect a member of the Executive Committee\nto fill the vacancy occasioned by reason of the expiration of the term of John H. Phillips,\nof Alabama.\nIn response, W. M. Holloway, of Florida, and John H. Phillips, of Alabama, were\nnominated.\nOn a motion to elect by a rising vote, W. M. Holloway received 17 votes and John H.\nPhillips received 19 votes.\nOn motion, John H. Phillips, of Alabama, was declared elected as member\nExecutive Committee for the ensuing year.\n\nof the\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n51\n\nPresident Young announced the next order of business to be the selection of the place\nof convention for 191 1.\nDirector Duncan MacKinnon, of California, requested that Mr. Alfred Roncovieri,\nsuperintendent of schools, of San Francisco, be heard. The request was granted.\nAlfred Roncovieri: From the teachers of the Golden State we bring you greetings\nand tidings of good will. To my colleagues and to me have the entire educational forces\nof the State of California and the public associations and municipal authorities of San\nFrancisco intrusted and delegated the pleasant duty of extending to you a most earnest\ninvitation to select our city for the convention of 191 1.\nSan Franciscans are a hopeful, optimistic people, despite their disappointments.\nGreat preparations were in progress to welcome you in 1906, when we were struck down by\na cataclysm. Again, in 1909, we were encouraged to believe that you would be with us\nthis year. We, however, cheerfully submitted to the trained minds who guide the destinies of the National Education Association, and who, for the greatest number and for\nits best interests, decided to hold the meeting this year in Boston.\nOther cities have had the help of California in other times, and loyal Californians\nbelieve that your response will be favorable to them now. We say, with confidence, that\nthere is no city, north, south, east, or west, that will give you a grander welcome than the\nwarm-hearted people of San Francisco. We renew our pledge of 7,000 memberships from\nthe State of California, and all the railroads west of Chicago have guaranteed a one-way\nfare for the round trip. San Francisco has always been famous for its hotels and restaurants and now has more of them than any other city in the country, and we hold an agreement with the hotel men's association that they will not raise their rates. As a startingpoint for all kinds of excursions, San Francisco has no superior. It can be reached by five\ntranscontinental railways in five days from the extreme East, and in less than three days\nfrom Chicago. Low special-rate excursions to our vineyards and orchards, our wonderful big trees and the Yosemite Valley, our mountains and our cool sea-coast, are guaranteed by all the railroads. Everybody that has ever been there loves California — the land\nof promise, of sunshine, fruit, and flowers; and those who have not been there, I am sure\nlong to see our state and our beautiful, rehabilitated San Francisco.\nAfter our appalling catastrophe of April 18, 1906, the world gave evidence of its love\nfor San Francisco. By land and by sea there flowed to our city streams of relief. The\nsympathy of the Republic and of the nations beyond the seas was awakened, and magnificent was the generosity that was bestowed on our people. Few of us were exempt from\nthe bread line in those fateful days. We are strong again! We ask you to consider the\ntwo keen disappointments of our people in not being able to entertain you, thru no fault\nof theirs. We ask you to come and see our new, twentieth-century, up-to-date San Francisco, the greatest marvel of rebuilding of all time, built on the greatest area of ruin ever\nknown; greater, grander, and stronger, to fulfill her destiny and proud position as guardian\nof the Golden Gate.\nSan Francisco has won the admiration and wonder of the world by the courage and\nenergy of her rebuilding. She stands, today, more fit than ever to occupy her proper\nplace among the great cities of the world. The confidence of her people has been justified,\nand the promise of greater prosperity for the future is here.\nMost characteristic of our people is their hospitality. This quality is one of the proud\nlegacies bequeathed to us by our fathers, the rugged pioneers of the West, and most jealously do we strive to maintain its original standard.\nWe ask you to come and enjoy the cool summer breezes and bracing air of the Pacific\nOcean; visit us in our favored land, in our homes and firesides; our latch-strings will ever\nbe on the outside, and we promise you, like the Gaels of old, a hearty hundred thousand\nwelcomes in true old California style from the people who make the lovely city of San\nFrancisco their home.\nDirector D. B. Johnson, of South Carolina: I move that this Board expresses\nitself in favor of accepting the invitation of San Francisco and the state of California, subject to the decision of the Executive Committee after due consideration.\nSeconded and carried.\nThere being no other business, the meeting adjourned at 5 :30 p.m.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nApproved,\nElla Flagg Young, President\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL\n\nSESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION\nADDRESSES\n\nI.\n\nEBEN\n\nS. DRAPER,\n\nGOVERNOR\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nOF THE COMMONWEALTH\n\nOF MASSACHUSETTS\n\nI have a very pleasant task to perform today in extending a cordial\nwelcome to this great educational association to Massachusetts. The\nfuture of Jthis nation depends on the education of its children, and to you\nwe look to see that they are properly taught the principles which make\ntrue American citizenship. I sincerely trust your meetings here will be of\ngreat benefit toward the cause of education in our state. I trust your stay\nwill be pleasant and that the hospitality shown you all will meet with\nyour approval. I hope you will have a delightful time and come again.\n[To President Taft] Mr. President, it is a great pleasure for Massachusetts to say that you have returned and become a citizen again. [To the\naudience] He tried us last year, and liked us so well he has come back. We\nshall try to make his stay pleasant, but it is fitting on this anniversary that\nthe President of the United States should be in Massachusetts.\nThe history of this country, as far as the Fourth of July is concerned,\nstarted in this immediate vicinity, and we feel it is especially fitting that\nthe President of this great nation should be here in Massachusetts today.\nWe respect him for the great ofi&ce he fills. We love him and admire him\nbecause he is a man of great ability and absolute honesty. We sincerely\ntrust his stay will be pleasant and that later on he will become a permanent\nresident. I realize my function is over but in looking over this magnificent\naudience before I take my seat, I want to tell you I think it is the grandest\nsight I ever saw.\nII.\n\nJOHN\n\nFRANCIS\n\nFITZGERALD,\n\nMAYOR\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\nOF\n\nBOSTON\n\nI am not an educator; I may not even be educated in a highly technical\nsense; yet in my official capacity I represent education as completely as\nany teacher in this gathering. The office which I have the honor to fill\ncould not exist except among a people possessing intelligence and that\nrespect for knowledge which is one of the signs of intelligence. Government\nby the people implies education of the people. That is why tyrants have\neverywhere dreaded the free school, and why the free schoolhouse occupies\na place in our affections second only to the Charter of Liberty itself. Upon\nits powerful influence we rely to prevent the return of tyranny and to maintain ajust equilibrium in the state.\nThis circumstance, I think, explains why Boston has so often taken\nthe lead in the field which you cultivate.\nIf you pay a visit to the Dor53\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nChester section of our city you will find a tablet marking the site of the\nfirst free public school in America. Likewise, our city has been the cradle\nof those ideas of self-government which are now accepted over a great\npart of the civilized world. Long before the Revolution our Puritan colonists had resented the royal yoke. During the last hundred years we have\ninaugurated more than one movement for the emancipation of men. Most\nof our great educators — Franklin, Quincy, Horace Mann, Walker, Eliot,\nLowell — have taken an active interest in government in one or another of\nits phases. In a word, the ideals of democracy and popular education\nare so interwoven with us that any conception except that of a free people,\nschooling all its children free, w^ould be utterly foreign to our way of thinking.\nThe fruits of this temper you may have witnessed in the early days of\nyour pilgrimage among us. You have doubtless seen schools of every\ndescription, public and private, ranging from kindergarten to university.\nTheir numbers and external appearance are impressive. Their enrollment\nincludes every child up to the threshold of manhood and womanhood.\nTheir teaching staff contains the flower of our population. Their courses\nof study are elastic and progressive, growing with the needs of the times\nbut never really departing from basic principles which have stood the test\nof experience. Their support is so generous that the cost of the publicschool system alone this year amounts to over six and a half millions and\nconstitutes the largest single item of our city budget.\nYou come, then, teachers of America, to a city predisposed in your\nfavor and deeply interested in your labors. Your deliberations will be\nfollowed with eager sympathy, tempered and governed by critical understanding. Your calling is honored here as in few other communities. It\nis my privilege and pleasure to speak for six hundred and fifty thousand\ncitizens of Boston, who, differ as they may on other subjects, are unanimous today in welcoming you to the warmest hospitality of this city.\nRESPONSE\nFRANCIS\n\nTO ADDRESSES\n\nG. BLAIR, STATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nSPRINGFIELD, ILL.\n\nOF WELCOME\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, Your Excellencies the President of\nthe United States, the Governor of Massachusetts, and the Mayor of Boston:\nIt is my honor in behalf of the National Education Association to respond\nto the cordial words of welcome spoken by the governor of the State of\nMassachusetts, and by the mayor of Boston.\nAs I sat here listening to these words of praise for the common-school\nsystem I found myself wishing that on some clear September morning these\ndistinguished gentlemen might have been lifted to some height within the\ncentral part of this Republic, and, gifted with superior vision, they might\nhave looked out to its farthest boundaries; for if they had been so posi-\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRESPONSE\n\nTO\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n55\n\ntioned and so gifted they would have seen on that bright morning the\ncommon-school system as a living, breathing, acting force — they would\nhave seen practically sixteen millions of boys and girls coming up to the\ncommon schools. Out from the farm homes, along the dusty roads with\ntheir dinner pails in their hands and their books under their arms, up\nfrom the mining camps and villages, and up from the teeming centers of\n.industry comes this multitudinous army of children — as I like to think\nit, the great grand army of the future Republic. And I hope that in this\ngreat industrial country of ours, in this land of material prosperity, our\ncorn and cotton will never grow so tall, our horses and cattle so big, our\nmanufacturing estabhshments Uft their smoke stacks so high that they will\nobscure from our view this greatest crop, this greatest product, this greatest\nnatural resource of our nation.\nI thank you for your words of welcome to this great body of teachers,\nand in welcoming them you are welcoming the representatives of the\ngreatest democratic institution we have. I believe that there is more of\nthe Declaration of Independence expressed in the common-school system\nthan in any other of our institutions; there is more of equal opportunity,\nmore of the even chance, more of the square deal, more of the recognition\nof the individual merits than in any other institution. At the door of the\npubHc school all social, political, and religious distinctions disappear, all\nexternal marks of rank and classification are laid aside, and these sixteen\nmillions of children enter the public schools as the sons and daughters of\nAmerican citizens, and as the children of the Republic. Here the principle of Bobbie Burns alone obtains:\nWhat tho' on hamely fare we dine,\nWear hoddin gray, and a' that;\nGie fools their silks, and knaves their wine,\nA man's a man, for a' that!\nFor a' that, and a' that,\nTheir tinsel show, and a' that;\nThe honest man, though e'er sae poor,\nIs king o' men for a' that.\n\nBut this great common-school system which we represent is not only\nthe greatest democratic institution in our land — it is the greatest intellectual clearing-house we have in America. It is the greatest medium of\nexchange of ideas and sentiments and knowledge; it is the greatest solidifying, unifying force in our social and political Ufe. We have had the figure\nof the \"melting pot\" appHed to America in a recent play, and the figure\nis a most suggestive one. People from the four corners of the earth are\nflocking to this land of freedom. They come bringing with them many\ncharms of culture and education which enrich our land and make it better\nfor their coming. But many of them come bringing with them varied experiences and notions of social relations and of national government, which\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmake it difficult for them to adjust themselves readily to the real spirit of\nour institution. How out of these varying and conflicting sentiments and\nideals are we to create the ideals and sentiments of American citizens?\nWill our rocks and rills, our woods and templed hills do it ? Will our great\nexpanse of plain and valley do it ? Will our great industrial activities and\nour push and vigor do it ? Will the atmosphere of freedom that hangs about\nus make the transformation ? No doubt all of these will have their influence.\nBut I am inclined to think that the real, the fundamental, the abiding\ntransformation is not wrought upon the adult thru his contact with these\nforces, but rather upon the children of these foreign-born parents in the\npublic schools. It is difficult for us to estimate the far-reaching influence\nof an ideal or a sentiment as a transforming and forming force in the great\npublic-school system, touching the minds and hearts of the children of\nboth native and foreign-born parents. If, as we stood upon that mountain\nof vision a few moments ago with the sixteen millions of children before\nus, a great choirmaster could have stood forth, and catching the attention\nof these children started that great national anthem, written by a citizen\nof Boston:\nMy country 'tis of thee,\nSweet land of liberty,\nOf thee I sing,\nLand where my fathers died.\nLand of the pilgrim's pride,\nFrom every mountain side,\nLet freedom ring,\n\nhow the mighty pulsation of the song would have sounded over mountain\nand valley and plain, catching up and knitting together the hearts and\nminds of these children into a wholesome, clean, upUfting respect for this\ncountry! And as we stood there if some great teacher could have held up\nbefore these children the lives of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln,\nwhat an instant and far-reaching response would have followed! These\ntwo great men represent within themselves the things that are most elemental and of greatest worth in our American life. So simple in their lives\nand in their thought and in their actions, like Greek temples they stand\nforth free from distracting adornment. Great in their simplicity and\nsimple in their greatness, these two men constitute one of our greatest resources— one of our greatest educational assets. Greater than the product\nof farms and mills, of mines and quarries, greater than the wealth of forest\nand stream are the lives of these men. It is easy for us to believe that the\nopen doors thru which not only the children of foreign-born parents,\nbut our own native children, enter into the spirit of our national life\nare the lives of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln.\nNow, Mr. Governor, and Mr. Mayor, in responding to your words of\nwelcome, I must say that this great army of teachers come not to New\nEngland^andJto^Boston'as strangers, they come as friends and kinsmen.\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nAMERICAN\n\nINDEPENDENCE\n\n57\n\nfor thru the great medium of public schools all that is best in Boston, in its\nthought, in its ideal, in its educational, political, and social achievements,\nhas crossed the Alleghenies, swept across the Mississippi Valley, over the\nRockies, and on to the Pacific. It has crossed the Mason and Dixon line\nand pervaded the entire Southland as an all-pervading influence, covering\nthe whole country north and south, making us akin to Boston thru the\nsharing of your ideas and of your sentiments. Thru our great publicschool system state lines and section lines are obUterated. And it is one of\nthe happiest bits of poetic justice that ever came to my attention, that\nthis year, on our natal day, this great National Education Association,\nmeeting in Boston, the heart of New England, has presiding over it as its\nselected president, a man from the great South, representing all that is best\nin its culture, its resourcefulness, and its generosity.\nSo it is, Mr. Governor and Mr. Mayor, that we come not as a great\narmy of strangers. Tho we may never have crossed the boundaries of\nyour city before, tho we may never have walked its streets, yet it all seems\nstrangely familiar. For have we not in our public-school system visited\nBoston every year ? Have we not been attending your Boston Tea-Party\nfor over a century? Have we not been climbing the belfry of the Old\nNorth Church and hanging out the lanterns? Have we not been riding\nwith Paul Revere on his perilous journey, and going right on to Concord\nwhether he got there or not ? Have we not been standing with the embattled farmers and firing the shot heard around the world ? Have we not been\nsitting with your genial Autocrat at the breakfast table and listening to\nthe sweet reasonableness of your Philosopher ? Have we not spent many\na rare day in June with your incomparable Lowell ? Have we not enjoyed\nmany times the Children's Hour with your sweet and gentle Longfellow ?\nAnd so it is, Mr. Governor and Mr. Mayor, that this gathering seems\nto us like a great homecoming, and is a fulfillment of the promise that\nnot only the bread, but the tea, which you cast upon the water is returning\nto you after many days.\n\nPAPERS\nEDUCATION\nWILLIAM\n\nWALTON\n\nAND\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nAMERICAN\n\nINDEPENDENCE\n\nKITCHIN,\nGOVERNOR\nOF THE\nCAROLINA,\nRALEIGH,\nN.C.\n\nSTATE\n\nOF\n\nNORTH\n\nI appreciate the compliment of being accorded a place on today's\nprogram. Among the thousands of Independence celebrations thruout the\ncountry, none will surpass in patriotism, exceed in sanity, or approach in\nthe scope of its constituency and the usefulness of its representation, this\ngreat gathering of American educators.\nA Tarheel should never feel a stranger in any place where the spirit of\n'76 prevails, or on any occasion when liberty is the sentiment.\n\nI almost\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfeel at home in famous Harvard's stadium, in sight of Bunker Hill monument, when I recall that in the olden time when heroic conduct fixed the\npropriety of forever commemorating Independence Day, the old Bay State\nand the old North State performed no small part in laying the foundations\nof liberty on which our Republic is builded. The story cannot be too oft\nrepeated, for it teaches courage, love of country, devotion to duty, and\nconsecration to civil justice which created and secured our national greatness.\nOne hundred and thirty-four years ago was issued the most momentous\ndocument in profane history. It was an indictment of a king for the wrongs\nof ahen government, a resolution for the most blessed principle known in\norganized society — self-government — a plea for the rights of humanity, fit\nfor every age, every land, and every people. It proclaimed the separation\nof a daughter in her youth and vigor from a mother country in her arrogance\nand power, perhaps the best mother country of the centuries. Some who\nwere timid, some who were interested, some who were h5rpocrites, branded\nthe Declaration as incendiary, but those who feared God, loved their fellows,\nand had the faith of patriots regarded it the most inspiring message since\nthe Revelation, and risked their lives to sustain it. Fear put no doubtful\nlanguage in that instrument, deception no falsehood, privilege no favoritism,\ngreed no injustice. A mighty monarchy sought to destroy it. Trenton,\nKings Mountain, Guilford, and Yorktown estabhshed it forever, and\nthirteen states gloried in their sovereignty. To secure the full fruitage of\nthe Revolution a republic was created by the Constitution. What would\nbe her fate ? The highway of history was strewn with the wrecks of governments— monarchies, aristocracies, democracies — which had flourished with\nvarying degrees of success and fallen from various causes. In the history\nof the race the philosophy of statesmen and sages had theretofore constructed no government capable of resisting foreign aggression, and at the\nsame time protecting rights, securing safety, and promoting domestic welfare to such an extent that political perpetuity was assured, and had devised no system suited to every stage of advancing civilization. Ponce de\nLeon searched amid tangled wildernesses for the fountain of perpetual\nyouth and found it not. Our Republic in a generation of unequaled statesmen, when the necessities of the time suggested the mastery of statecraft,\nin her search for the fountain of youth, sought every principle, considered\nevery form, ancient and modern, that had been successful in the government of free people. \"She washed the gold of political wisdom from the\nsands wherever it was found. She cleft it from the rocks. She gleaned it\namong ruins.\" Upon the rights of man and his community, she builded a\nnew structure, capable of expansion, upon principles reaching to the uttermost corners of the earth, destined by the inspiration of her example to\nbless the world with increasing benefit for countless generations. France\nslew her king and is a republic; Mexico and every state southward to Cape\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nAMERICAN\n\nINDEPENDENCE\n\n59\n\nHorn beheld our starry flag and became self-governing. Ancient systems\nof Europe under the steady pressure and stern demands of the masses have\nbeen modified by American principles, and the time will come when the\ndweller by the Caspian may celebrate with our children the birthday of the\nAmerican Republic. As long as the heart beats in sympathy with the\npurposes of the great, and the soul thrills with the exploits of the brave, as\nlong as mankind venerates worthy ancestral deeds — so long shall the children of America honor this day, and devote it to the encouragement of\nnational pride, and the cultivation of mutual respect and good will.\nMy native state is doubly patriotic, for we celebrate two Independence\nDays — this one and the 20th of May — the Mecklenburg Declaration. We\nof the South always had faith in ourselves, and the temper to follow our\njudgment. A half-century ago, we thought we could prosper and be happy\nwithout the North, but the North knew it could not prosper and be happy\nwithout us, and our separation was successfully resisted. We then thought\nas the New England states once thought, as was once taught in the U.S.\nMilitary Academy, that a state had the right to withdraw from the Union\nwhenever she thought it to the interest of her people to do so, but after\nfollowing with unsurpassed courage a bloody trail for four years, marked\nwith monuments of glory, patriotism, and sacrifice, we found we were\nmistaken, and the South is still your country as the North is our country,\nand you honor us and the gallant soldiery of Lee, as we honor you and the\ngallant soldiery of Grant — great captains of a common country.\nWe rose from defeat with the heaviest burden since man's upward\nmarch began. We moved forward, slowly, patiently, surely; sometimes\nnearly stumbling, often misunderstood, often misrepresented, \"sorely\ntried, and sorely tempted, from no agonies exempted\" in the bearing of\nthe burden, in the performance of the solemn duty that destiny gave to us.\nThe burden hindered, we shrank not — ^it were useless to shrink. The\nburden galled, we complained not — it were useless to complain. We\nmoved forward understandingly, with steady purpose, with high resolve,\nwith almost staggering responsibility, but with constant faith in the coming\njustice of the public opinion of the world. We grew strong, we prospered,\nthe burden became lighter, we quickened our pace. In the judgment of\nwisdom and patriotism, in the light of eternal harmony, we have so far\ndone well our duty. We have christianized, educated, developed. We\nhave closed the door of no opportunity. We have been ever ready with the\nhelping hand, the generous spirit. Happiness and progress resulted. A\nkindly feeling exists, such as was never before known under similar conditions. We challenge every page of history for a parallel in firmness, fortitude, magnanimity, justice, and in the magnitude and character of our\naccomplishment.\nMarching forward as if by magic steps, an unstinted devotion to the\nAmerican spirit filling every man, the South stands erect, in her dignity\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand power, proud of the North and the West, her heart filled with good\nwill to all, malice to none. Her wealth exceeds that of the whole RepubUc\nin 1 86 1. The increase of her textile factories finds no counterpart at home\nor abroad. Her soft-coal product is twice that of the whole country thirtyyears ago. Her farm products exceed those of the whole country twenty\nyears ago. In North Carolina last year one farmer made three bales of\ncotton on an acre, and another made 226 bushels of corn, and we are just\nbeginning scientific agriculture.\nBut we are greater in other things. Last month North CaroUna had\nto sell a few milHon dollars of four per cent refunding bonds. The financial\nmarket in the money centers would not absorb them, as investments could\nbe secured with a greater interest rate. We called the North Carolina\nbankers together and explained the situation. They promptly oversubscribed the unsold portion and thus made our third declaration of independence. These bonds are legitimate, and are unrelated to the illegitimate\nspecial- tax bonds of 1868-69, which were conceived in sin and brought forth\nin iniquity, which profited only those who pillaged, and which have from\nthe time of their birth been hawked over the country and sold by the\nbushel — never bought as investments, but secured on the speculator's table,\ngambhng in the fraud of adventurers in the attempted plunder of a commonwealth, and trusting for collection to the methods of the blackmailer.\nMr. Chairman: As citizens of the Republic we have reason to exult.\nToday in material development, in resources, in energy, in all that makes\nnational power, we are a greater people than Alexander or Caesar or Zengis\nor Bonaparte ever knew. \"But let him that standeth take heed lest he fall.\"\nMost jiations die, as most men die, from internal causes. What shall it\nprofit a nation to circle the earth with power, emblazon the seas with\nprestige, and command homage from every capital, and yet fail to remedy\ndomestic evils, forget justice, hear not the cry of the needy, and check not\nthe wrongs of the mighty ? Our forefathers faced no greater problems than\nthis generation has to solve. Every age has its own interests, its own\nrights to preserve. If today every detail of government and everything in\nprivate life were fixed upon absolute right, tomorrow human selfishness\nwould destroy that happy condition and next day man would have to begin\nanew his never-ending struggle. As civilization becomes more and more\ncomplex, the methods of oppression keep pace therewith, and every generation requires more and more intelligence to resist them. In former times\nwe had the highway robber, we now have the gold-brick swindler; then we\nhad oppressive tax levies to support privileged classes, now we have the\nindustrial monopolist; then we needed more force, now more intellect and\nconscience. It is, therefore, highly appropriate for the teachers to celebrate\nthe Fourth and consider well their opportunities respecting the preservation\nof justice and liberty. On the seal of the University of North Carolina\nare two torches and the words: \"Lux, Libertas\" — fitting motto for those who\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\n]^AR\n\nAND\n\nMANHOOD\n\n6i\n\nminister at the shrine of learning. We are safe from foreign foes, we must\nbe safe from domestic ills. Foreign dangers are always direct and bold;\ndomestic ones are indirect, shrewd, insidious. It may require force —\narmies and navies — to repel the former; it requires wisdom, diligence,\nand honor to overcome the latter. A country whose government rests\nupon the will of the people, in order to have a certainly just government,\nwhose burdens are levied and whose blessings are distributed impartially,\nmust have a high-class citizenship — so intelligent that it cannot be deceived,\nso conscientious that it cannot be corrupted, so courageous that it cannot\nbe intimidated. The training of this citizenship largely depends upon the\nteachers of America. You are the worthiest band of captains the world\never knew — leading the grand army of the Republic, the boys and girls of\nAmerica, against the forces of injustice, ignorance, and prejudice — leading\nthem to victory in the fields of light and truth. \"Ye shall know the truth\nand the truth shall make you free\" — free from vice, ignorance, and every\nerror — a liberty worth the cost, a liberty leading to service — service to\nothers, service to country, ser\\dce to the Almighty — the measure of praise,\nthe test of merit.\nWAR\nDAVID\n\nSTARR\n\nJORDAN,\n\nAND\n\nMANHOOD\n\nPRESIDENT, LELAND STANFORD\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY,\nCAL.\n\nJR.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe message I shall give today is a message of peace thru the arraignment of war. My attack shall be made from the side of biology; and my\ntext may be found in these words of Sophocles: \"War does not of choice\ndestroy bad men, but good men ever.\"\nI shall leave to those who have had far more experience than myself\nthe discussion of the advantages of law, order, and arbitration over brute\nforce, which decides nothing, in the settlement of human differences. The\nrelation of war to social, ethical, and religious development I shall not\ntouch. I shall leave to others also all consideration of the horrors of war —\nits legacies of sin, of suffering, and of lifelong agony. I shall not take into\naccount the costs of wars long since fought, burdens strapped for all time\nto the backs of the toilers of Europe. Nor shall I consider the cost of future\nwars, which are never to be fought, but which are provided for in the\nbudget of every nation. These again are a burden unbearable, resting upon\nthose whose chief relation to the Hfe of nations is that of bearers of burdens\nneedlessly imposed. I shall not attempt to depict the growing strength\nof that invisible empire of bondholders who are fast becoming the owners\nof the civilized world and whose silent nod determines the issue of every\ngreat crisis in war or peace. My message concerns solely the relations of\nwar to manhood as shown in the succession of the generations of men.\nBenjamin Franklin once said:\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThere is one eflfect of a standing array which must in time be felt so as to bring about\nthe abolition of the system. A standing army not only diminishes the population of a\ncountry, but even the size and breed of the human species. For an army is the flower of\nthe nation. All the most vigorous, stout, and well-miie man in a kin^lam are to be\nfound in the army, and these men, in general, cannot marry.\n\nWhat is true of standing armies is still more true of the armies that\nfight and fall. Those men who perish are lost to the future of civilization, they and their blood forever. For as Franklin has also said, \"Wars\nare not paid for in war time : the bill comes later.\"\nThe last thirty years have been the period of greatest activity in the\nstudy of biology. Among other things, it has seen the rise of definite\nknowledge of the processes of heredity and their application to the formation\nand improvement of races of men and animals. From our scientific knowledge in this respect men have developed the fine art of selective breeding.\nWith men as with animals, \"like the seed is the harvest.\" In every vicissitude of race of men or breed of animals, it is always those who are left that\ndetermine what the future will be. All progress in whatever direction in\nthe development of animals is conditioned on selective breeding. There is\nno permanent advance without advance in the type of parenthood. There\nis no decline except that caused by breeding from the second-best instead\nof the best.\nThe rise and fall of races of men in history are in a degree conditioned\non the same elements that determine the rise and fall of a breed of cattle\nor of a strain of horses. As improvement in blood is dependent upon normal selection, or the choice of the best for parenthood, so racial decline is\nconditioned on reversal of selection, the choice of the worst for survival\nand propagation.\n\"Always and ever,\"says Novicow, \"war brings about the reversal of\nselection.\" Those traits of character — ^physical strength, agiUty, courage,\ndash, patriotism — desired in the soldier, are lost to the race that decrees\nthe destruction of the soldierly. The belief that war in one generation\nsharpens the edge of warriorhood in the next generation is a delusion and\nhas no biological foundation. It is the man who is left that determines\nalways the future.\nOnce on the flanks of the Apennines there dwelt a race of free people,\nfair and strong, self-reliant and confident. They were men of courage and\naction; men who \"knew no want they could not fill themselves.\" They\nknew none on whom they looked down and none to whom they need look\nup. For all things which men could accomplish these plowmen of the\nTiber and the Apennines felt themselves fully competent and adequate.\nVir they called themselves in their own tongue, and virile, virilis, men like\nthem are called to this day. It was the weakhng and the slave that were\ncrowded to the wall; the man of courage maintained himself and begat\ndescendants.\nIn each generation, and from generation to generation, the\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWAR\n\nAND\n\nMANHOOD\n\n63\n\nhuman harvest was good. The spirit of freedom was the only ruler these\nmen knew. For it is written that men fit to be called vires \"are too selfwilled, too independent, and too self-centered to be ruled by anyone but\nthemselves.\" This spirit of freedom being herself metaphoric called to her\naid four great genii which create and recreate nations — variation, ever\nintroducing change; heredity, holding fast what was developed; segregation, in her mountain fastnesses shutting out the world; and selection,\nchoosing always the best and for the best purposes, casting aside the weakling and the slave, holding the man for the man's work. And ever the\nman's work was at home, building cities, subduing forests, draining marshes,\nadjusting customs and statutes — preparing the way for the new generations.\nThese men begat sons of men after their own fashion, and the men of\nstrength and courage were ever dominant.\nIn these early days when Rome was small, without glory, without\nwealth, without colonies, and without slaves, the Romans were men; these\nwere the days of Roman greatness.\nBut the spirit of freedom gave way little by little to the spirit of domination. Conscious of power, men sought to exercise it, not on themselves,\nbut on others. Step by step this led to their banding together, to aggression,\noppression, plunder, struggle, glory, and all that goes with the pomp and\ncircumstance of war. The individuality of men in the aggregate was lost\nin the aggrandizement of the few. Independence was swallowed up in\nambition. Patriotism came to have a new meaning; it was transferred\nfrom the hearth and home to the trail of the army.\nIt does not matter to us now what were the details of the subsequent\nhistory of Rome. We have now to consider only a single factor. In science\nthis factor is known as \"reversal of selection.\" \"Send forth the best ye\nbreed\" — that was the message of the Roman war-call. The spirit of\ndomination took these words literally; and the best were sent forth. In\nthe conquests of Roman arms, Vir, the real man, went forth to battle and\nto the struggle of foreign invasion; Homo, the human being, the man who\nwas not fit for the army, remained at home on the farm and in the workshop, and he begat the new generations. Thus \" Vir gave place to Homo.\"\nThe sons of real men gave place to the sons of scullions, stable-boys, slaves,\ncamp-followers, and the riff-raff of those the great and victorious army did\nnot want.\nThe \"fall of Rome was not due to luxury, effeminacy, corruption, the\nwickedness of Nero and Caligula, the weakness of the long train of Constantine's ignoble successors. It was fixed at Philippi, when the spirit of\ndomination was victorious over the spirit of freedom. Its beginning dated\neven earlier, in the rise of consuls and triumvirates, and the loss of the\nsimple, self-sufficient race which would brook no arbitrary ruler. As the\nreal men fell in war or were left in far-away colonies, while the life of Rome\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nstill persisted, it was a different type of Roman that continued it; and\nthis new type reproduced in Roman history its own weakling parentage.\nThus we read in Roman history of the rise of the mob and of the arbitrary ruler which is the mob's exponent. It was not the emperor that\nmade Rome's imperialism; it was the absence of the people, the want of\nreal men. The conditional power of Julius Caesar, resting on his own\ntremendous personaUty, showed that the days of Cincinnatus and Junius\nBrutus were past. The power of Augustus showed it still more clearly.\nThe dechne went on and the power of the emperor became greater. It was\nwritten that \"the little finger of Constantine was thicker than the loins of\nAugustus.\" The emperor in the time of Claudius and Caligula was not\nthe strong man who held in check all lesser men and organizations. He\nwas the creature of the mob; and the mob, intoxicated by its own work,\nworshiped him as divine. The people had declined and arbitrary power was\ndominant. By the rise in arbitrary power, as a sort of historical barometer, we may mark the decline of the breed of a people, a decline arising\nfrom degeneration in the type from which it draws its sires. A herd of cattle can degenerate in no other way than this, and a race of men is under\nthe same laws.\nWhat have the historians to say of these matters ? Very few have grasped\nthe full significance of their own words; for very few have looked on men\nas organisms, and on nations as dependent on the specific character of the\norganisms responsible for their reproduction.\nBenjamin FrankHn was, so far as I know, the first thinker to treat man\nthus as an inhabitant of the world, a species in nature among other species\nand dependent upon nature's forces and laws ^s other animals are.\nOtto Seeck, in his great history of the Downfall of the Ancient World\n{Der Untergang der antiken Welt), finds this downfall due solely to the\nrooting-out of the best {Die Ausrottung der Besten). The historian of the\nDecline and Fall of the Roman Empire, or any other empire, is engaged\nsolely with the details of the process by which the best men are exterminated.\nSpeaking of Greece, he says, \"A wealth of force of spirit went down in these\nancient suicidal wars.\" He continues:\nIn Rome Marius and Cinna slew the aristocrats by hundreds and thousands. Sulla\ndestroyed the democrats, and not less thoroughly. Whatever of strong blood survived,\nfell as an offering to the proscription of the Triumvirate\nThe Romans had\nless of spontaneous force to lose than the Greeks. Thus desolation came to them the\nsooner. Whoever was bold enough to rise politically in Rome was almost without exception\nthrown to the ground. Only cowards remained and from their brood came forward the\nnew generations. Cowardice showed itself in lack of originality and in slavish following\nof masters and traditions.\n\nThe Romans of the Republic could not have made the history of the\nRoman Empire. In their hands it would still have been a republic. Could\nthey have held aloof from world-conquering schemes, Rome might have\nremained a republic, enduring even in our day. The seeds of destruction\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\n'WAR\n\nAND\n\nMANHOOD\n\n65\n\nwere not, however, inherent in the race or in the form of government,\nbut in those influences by which the best men were cut off from the office of\nparenthood.\n\"The Roman Empire,\" says Seeley, \"perished for want of men.\" The\ndire scarcity of men is noted even by JuUus Caesar. And at the same time\nit is noted that there are men enough. Rome was filhng like an overflowing\nmarsh. Men of a certain type were plentiful, men \"with guano in their\ncomposition,\" to use Emerson's striking phrase; but the self-reliant farmers,\nthe hardy dwellers on the flanks of the Apennines, the Roman men of the\nearly Roman days — these were fast disappearing, and with the change in\nthe breed came the change in Roman history.\nWith the Antonies, we are told, came\na period of sterility and barrenness of human beings\nbad\nBounties were ofifered for marriage\nrace-suicide.\n\nThe human harvest was\nPenalties were devised against\n\nMetellus speaks of marriage as \" a duty which, however painful, every citizen ought manfully to discharge.\" Wars were conducted in the face of a\ndeclining birth-rate. Bury tells us that \"the effect of these wars was that\nthe ranks of the small farmers were decimated, while the number of slaves\nwho did not serve in the army multiplied.\" Thus Vir gave place to HomOj\nreal men to mere human beings. There were always men enough, such as\nthey were. As Franklin says: \"A hencoop wiU be filled, whatever the\n(original) number of hens.\" Thus the mob filled Rome and the mobleader, the mob-hero, rose in relative importance. No wonder the finger of\nConstantine was thicker than the loins of Augustus. No wonder that \"if\nTiberius chastised his subjects with whips, Valentinian chastised them with\nscorpions.\"\nZumpt, writing of this period, says:\nGovernment having assumed godhead, took at the same time the appurtenances of it.\nOjfficials multiplied. Subjects lost their rights. Abject fear paralyzed the people and\nthose that ruled were intoxicated with insolence and cruelty\nThe worst government is that which is most worshiped as divine\nThe emperor possessed in the\narmy an overwhelming force over which citizens had no influence, which was totally\ndeaf to reason or eloquence, which had no patriotism because it had no country, which\nhad no humanity because it had no domestic ties\nThere runs through Roman\nliterature a brigand's and barbarian's contempt for honest industry\ncivihzation was not a creative kind, it was military, that is destructive.\n\nRoman\n\nWhat was the end of it all ? The nation bred real men no more. To\ncultivate the Roman fields \"whole tribes were borrowed.\" The man of the\nquick eye and the strong arm gave place to the slave, the scullion, the\npariah, the man with the hoe, the man whose lot does not change because\nin him there lies no power to change it. It has been said: \"Slaves have\nwrongs; but freemen alone have rights.\" So at the end, the Roman world\nyielded to the barbaric because it was weaker in force. To the barbarians\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nit was not a conquest; they merely settled and peopled the empire.\nprocess is recorded in history as the fall of Rome.\n\n[General\n\nThe\n\nIn the Roman wars, \"out of every hundred thousand strong men,\neighty thousand were slain. Out of every hundred thousand weakhngs,\nninety to ninety-five thousand were left to survive.\" This is Dr. Seeck's\ncalculation, and the biological significance of such mathematics must be\nevident at once. He speaks with scorn of the idea that Rome fell from the\ndecay of old age, the corruption of luxury, the neglect of military tactics,\nor the over-diffusion of culture. He continues:\nIn condemning the sinful luxury of wealthy Romans, we forget that the trade-lords\nof the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were scarcely inferior in this regard to LucuUus\nand Apicius, their waste and luxury not constituting the slightest check to the advance of\nthe nations to which these men belonged. The people who lived in luxury in Rome were\nscattered more thinly than in any modern state of Europe. The masses lived at all times\nmore poorly and frugally because they could do nothing else. Can we conceive that a\nwar force of untold miUions of people is rendered effeminate by the luxury of a few hundreds? .... Too long have historians looked upon the rich and noble as marking\nthe fate of the world. Half the Roman Empire was made up of rough barbarians untouched byGreek or Roman culture.\n\nSeeley tells us:\nWhatever the remote and ultimate cause may have been, the immediate cause to\nwhich the fall of empire can be traced is a physical not a moral decay. In valor, discipline,\nand science the Roman armies remained what they had always been and the peasant\nemperors of Illyricum were worthy successors of Cincinnatus and Caius Marius. But\nthe problem was, how to replenish those armies. Men were wanting. The empire perished\nfor want of men.\n\nDoes history ever repeat itself ? It always does if it is true history. If\nit does not, we are dealing not with history, but with mere successions of\nincidents. Like causes produce like effects, just as often as men may choose\nto test them. Whenever men use a nation for the test, as with a field,\npoor seed yields a poor harvest. Where the weakling and the coward\nsurvive in human history, there \"the human harvest is bad\"; and it can\nnever be otherwise.\nThe finest Roman province — a leader in the Roman world — was her\ncolony of Hispania. What of Spain in history? What of Spain today?\n* This is Castile,\" said a Spanish writer, \" she makes men and wastes them.\"\n\"This sublime and terrible phrase,\" says another writer, \"sums up Spanish\nhistory.\"\nAccording to Captain Calkins, the Augustinian friar. La Puente, in 1630,\nthus summed up the fate of Spain:\nAgainst the credit for redeemed souls, I set the cost of armadas and the sacrifice of\nsoldiers and friars sent to the Philippines. And this I count the chief loss: for mines\ngive silver and forests give timber, but only Spain gives Spaniards; and she may give so\nmany that she may be left desolate and constrained to bring up strangers' children instead\nof her own.\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nWAR\n\nAND\n\nMANHOOD\n\n67\n\nAnother of the noblest of the Roman provinces was Gallia, the favored\nland in which the best of the Romans, the Franks, and the Northmen have\nmingled their blood to produce a nation of men, hopefully leaders in the\narts of peace, fatally leaders also in the arts of war.\nIn the Wiertz gallery in Brussels is a wonderful painting, dating from\nthe time of Waterloo, called \"Napoleon in Hell.\" It represents the great\nmarshal with folded arms and face unmoved descending slowly to the land\nof shades. Before him, filling all the background of the picture with every\nexpression of countenance, are the men sent before him by the unbridled\nambition of Napoleon. Three millions and seventy thousand there were\nin all, as history tells us — more than half of them Frenchmen. They are\nnot all shown in one picture; they are only hinted at. And behind the\nmillions hinted at are the millions on millions of men who might have been,\nand are not^the huge widening human wedge representing the possible\ndescendants of the men who died in battle.\nThese men of Napoleon's armies were men without blemish, \"the best\nthat the nation could bring,\" chosen as \"food for powder,\" \"ere evening to\nbe trampled like the grass\" in the rush of Napoleon's great battles. These\nmen came from the plow, from the workshop, from the schobl — the best\nthey were, men from eighteen to thirty-five years of age at first, but afterwards older men and younger. \" A boy will stop a bullet as well as a man,\"\nis a maxim accredited to Napoleon. \"The more vigorous and well-born a\nyoung man is, \"says Novicow, \"the more normally constituted, the greater\nhis chance to be slain by musket or magazine, the rifled cannon and other\nsimilar engines of civilization.\" We are told that among those destroyed\nby Napoleon were \"the elite of Europe.\" \"Napoleon,\" says Otto Seeck,\n\"in a series of years seized all the young of high stature and left them scattered over many battlefields; so that the French people who followed them\nare mostly men of smaller stature. More than once in France since Napoleon's time has the military limit been lowered.\" Says Le Goyt, \"It will\ntake long periods of peace and plenty before France can recover the tall\nstatures mowed down in the wars of the republic and the first empire.\"\nI need only touch briefly the story of Napoleon's campaigns. It began\nwith the first consulate, the justice and helpfulness of the Code Napoleon —\nthe prowess of the brave lieutenant whose military skill and intrepidity\nhad caused him to deserve well of his nation. The spirit of freedom gave\nway to the spirit of domination. Campaign followed upon campaign,\nagainst enemies, against neutrals, against friends. The trail of glory\ncrossed the Alps to Italy and to Egypt; it crossed Switzerland to x\\ustria;\ncrossed Germany to Russia. The path of glory is one that descends easily.\nConscription followed, and victory ^nd conscription debased the human\nspecies. The human harvest was bad. The first consul became the emperor.\nThe servant of the people became the founder of a dynasty. Again conscription after conscription.\n\"Let them die with arms in their hands.\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Generil\n\nTheir death is glorious, and it will be avenged. You can always fill the\nplaces of soldiers.\" These were Napoleon's words when Dupont surrendered his army in Spain to save the lives of a doomed battalion.\nThen came more conscriptions. After the battle of Wagram, we are\ntold, the French began to feel their weakness; the Grand Army was not\nthe army that fought at Ulm and Jena. \"Raw conscripts raised before\ntheir time and hurriedly drafted into the line had impaired its steadiness.\"\nOf the Moscow campaign J. H. Rose says in his History of Napoleon:\nAmidst ever-deepening misery they struggled on, until of the 600,000 men who had\nproudly crossed the Niemen for the conquest of Russia, only 20,000 famished, frostbitten,\nunarmed specters staggered across the bridge of Korni in the middle of December.'\n\nHe continues:\n\nDespite the loss of the most splendid army marshaled by man, Napoleon abated no\nwhit of his resolve to dominate Germany and discipline Russia\nHe strained\nevery effort to call the youth of the empire to arms; .... and 350,000 conscripts\nwere promised by the senate. The mighty swirl of the Moscow campaign sucked in 150,000\nlads of under twenty years of age into the devouring vortex\nThe peasantry\ngave up their sons as food for cannon\nMany were appalled at the frightful\ndrain on the nation's strength\nIn less than half a year, after the loss of half\na million men, a new army nearly as numerous was marshaled under the imperial eagles.\nBut the majority were young, untrained troops; and it was remarked that the conscripts\nborn in the Year of Terror had not the stamina of the earlier levies. Brave they were,\nsuperbly brave, and the emperor sought by every means to breathe into them his indomitable spirit\nTruly the emperor could make boys heroes, but he could never\nrepair the losses of 181 2\nSoldiers were wanting; youths were dragged forth.\n\nThe human harvest in France was at its worst.\nThe inevitable result of all this must be the loss to the nation of those\nqualities which are sought for in the soldier. It leaves the nation crippled,\nune nation blessee, to use the words of an honored professor in the University\nof Paris. The effect does not appear in the effacement of art or science or\ncreative imagination. Men who excel in these regards are not drawn by\npreference or by conscription to the Ufe of the soldier. If we cut the roots\nof a tree, we shall not affect, for a time at least, the quality of its flower or\nits fruit. We are limiting its future rather than changing its present. In\nlike manner does war affect the life of the nation. It limits the future\nrather than checks the present.\nThose who fall in war are the young men of the nations, men between\nthe ages of eighteen and thirty-five; they are the men of courage, alertness,\ndash, and recklessness, who value their lives as naught in the service of the\nnation. The men who are left are, for better and for worse, the reverse of\nall this, and it is they that determine what the future of the nation shall be.\nThey hold its history in their grasp.\nHowever noble, encouraging, inspiring the history of modern Europe\nmay be, it is not the history we would have the right to expect from the\ndevelopment of its racial elements. It is not the history that would have\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\niVAR\n\nAND\n\nMANHOOD\n\n69\n\nbeen made had these same elements been released from the shadow of\nreversed selection cast by fratricidal war. The angle of divergence between\nwhat might have been and what has been is measured by the parentage of\nstrong, capable, and courageous men slain on the bloody fields of glory.\nAll this applies not to one nation alone nor to one group of nations,\nbut in like degree to all nations that have sent forth their young men to\nthe field of slaughter. As it was with Greece and Rome, with France and\nSpain, Mauritania and Turkestan, so has it been with Germany and England; so with all nations that have sent forth \"the best they breed\" to\nforeign service, while retaining cautious, thrifty mediocrity to fill up the\nranks at home.\nGermany guards her men and reduces the waste of war to a minimum.\nShe is \"military,\" but not \"warlike\"; and this distinction means a great\ndeal from the point of view of this discussion. In modern times the greatest\nloss of Germany has not been from war but from emigration. If the men\nwho have left Germany have been of a higher type than those who remained at home, then the blood of the nation has been impoverished.\nThat this has been the case the Germans in Germany are usually unwilling\nto admit. On the other hand, those competent to judge the GermanAmerican find no type of men in the Old World his mental or physical\nsuperior.\nWhat shall we say of England and her relation to the reversed selection\nof war? Statistics we have none, and no evidence of tangible decline\nthat Englishmen will not indignantly repudiate. When the London press\nin the vacation season fills its columns with comments on EngHsh deterioration, itis something else which these journalists mean. Their problem is\nthat of the London slums, of the sweat-shop and child-labor, of wasting\noverwork and lack of nutrition, of premature old age, and of sodden\ndrunkenness — ^influences that bring about the degradation of the individual,\nthe inefficiency of the social group, but which, for the most part, leave no\ntrace in heredity and therefore become no factor in the degeneration of the\nrace. The degradation of the slums is at once cause, effect, and symptoms —\na sign of racial inadequacy, a cause of further enfeeblement, and an effect of\nunjust and injurious social, political, and industrial conditions in the past.\nBut with better training and improved surroundings the child of the slums\nrises to normal condition. Given a fair chance in his youth, he will show\nhis normal British heritage.\nBut the problem before us is not that of the slums. The question is,\nWhat mark has been left on England by her great struggle for freedom\nand by the thousand petty struggles to impose on the world the semblance\nof order known as \" Pax Britannica\" ?\nTo one who travels widely thru the counties of England some part of\nthe cost of this is plain. These lines suggest it—\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "•70\n^ ■\n\n■\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Gener^il\n\n1\n\nThere's a widow in sleepy Chester,\nWho mourns for her only son;\nThere's a grave by the Pabeng River,—\nA grave which the Burmans shun.\n\nThis story is repeated in every village of England and is recorded on the\nwalls of every parish church. Everywhere can be seen tablets in memory\nof young men — gentlemen's sons from Eton and Rugby and Winchester\nand Harrow; scholars from Oxford and Cambridge, who have given up\ntheir lives in some petty war in a far-off country. Their bodies rest in\nZululand, in Cambodia, on the Gold Coast, in the Transvaal. In England\nonly are they remembered. Their names are recorded by the score in the\nparish churches, by the thousand in the cathedrals. Visit the cathedral towns\none after another — Canterbury, Winchester, Chichester, Exeter, SaHsbury,\nWells, Ely, York, Lincoln, Durham, Lichfield, Chester (what a wonderful\nseries of pictures this list of names calls up!) — and you will find always the\nsame story, the same array of memorials to young men.\nWhat would be the effect on England today if all these \"unreturning\nbrave\" and all that should have been their descendants were numbered\namong her sons ? Doubtless not all of these were young men of character.\nDoubtless not all were worthy even of the scant glory of a memorial tablet.\nBut most of them were worthy, most of them were brave and true, and\nmost of them looked out on life with \"frank, blue British eyes.\" Their\ninfluence, immediate and future, has been lost to the nation. More than\nall who fall in battle or are wasted in the camps, the nation mourns the\n\"fair women and brave men\" who should have been the descendants of\nthese strong and manly men. If we may personify the spirit of the nation,\nit grieves most, not over its unreturning brave, but over those who might\nhave been, but never were, and who, so long as history lasts, can never be.\nIn his charming studies of Feudal and Modern Japan, Mr. Arthur Knapp\nmentions again and again the great marvel of Japan's military prowess\nas shown in the Chinese War, after more than two hundred years of peace.\nIt has been even more conclusively shown in the Russo-Japanese War\nsince Mr. Knapp's book was written. His astonishment was that after\nmore than six generations in which physical courage had not been demanded,\nthe virile quahties which make up such courage were found unimpaired.\nIn the light of the reverse of this condition which we have been considering inthe case of European nations we can readily see that the experience of Japan was just what we might expect. In times of peace there is\nno slaughter of the strong, no sacrifice of the brave. In the peaceful struggle\nfor existence there is a premium placed upon these virtues. The virile and\nthe brave survive. They and their descendants are not wasted on the\nbattlefield. It is the idle, the weak, and the dissipated that go to the wall.\n\"What won the battles on the Yalu, in Korea or Manchuria,\" says the\nJapanese writer, Nitobe, \"was the ghosts of our fathers guiding our hands\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION'\n\nAND\n\nDEMOCRATIC\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\n71\n\nand beating in our hearts.\" If we translate this from the language of\nShintoism into that of science, we find it a strong testimony to the fact of\nrace-heredity, the survival of the strong in the lives of their self-reliant\nand effective sons. The shades that confronted Napoleon are not guiding\nthe hands or beating in the hearts of the men of Europe today.\nBy the law of probability as developed by Quetelet, it is claimed that\nthere will appear in each generation the same number of potential poets,\nartists, investigators, patriots, athletes, and superior men of each degree.\nThis law, however, involves the theory of continuity of paternity, that in\neach generation a practically equal percentage of men of superior force or\nsuperior mentality will survive to take the responsibilities of parenthood.\nOtherwise this law becomes subject to the action of another law, that of\nreversed selection, or the biological law of \"diminishing returns.\" In other\nwords, breeding from an inferior stock brings race degeneration; and such\nbreeding is the sole agency of such degeneration, as selection, natural or\nartificial, along one line or another is the sole agency of race progress. And\nall laws of probabiUties and averages are subject to a still higher law, the\nprimal law of biology, which no cross-current of life can check or modify:\nLike the seed is the harvest.\nWar destroys the best seed, leaving the inferior to germinate, and the\nharvest is bad. Hence the final and bitter truth: \"Wars are not paid for\nin war time: the bill comes later.\"\nTHE\n\nRELATION\nWILLIAM\n\nHOWARD\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\nGOVERNMENT\n\nTAFT,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nTO\nTHE\n\nDEMOCRATIC\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nMr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: The presence of this audience of\nthousands of those engaged in the education of the youth of the country\non this the natal day of the Republip, suggests the discussion of the relation\nof education to democratic government. We celebrate today the one hundred and thirty-fourth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of\nIndependence. That was an announcement to England and to the world\nof the determination of a majority of those living in the thirteen colonies\nstrung along the eastern coast of America to sever their relations with the\nmother country, and to establish some sort of a government here on principles of democracy. For more than a century each one of these colonies\nhad enjoyed popular government — had enjoyed it thru the instrumentality\nof a charter or fundamental act or constitution granted by the Crown of\nEngland. The hundred and fifty years had witnessed the enactment of\nmany laws by the English Parliament of a character calculated to confine\nthe trade, the growth, and the prosperity of the colonies within Umitations\ninuring solely to the benefit of the mother country. But the supervision of\nthe colonies by the home government was for many decades so neglectful\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand indifferent that it left the control of each colony largely to the wish of\nthe people of the colony themselves. They had their popular assembUes,\ntheir municipal governments, and all those institutions in the operation of\nwhich the colonists acquired a practical knowledge and education in selfgovernment that was exceptional in its thoroness. They or their ancestors\nin crossing the ocean had brought a love of civil liberty and had acquired\nan understanding of its meaning by actual practice in its benefits, unequaled\nin the history of the world. Primary-school education was enjoyed by the\ngreat majority of the youths of the country, and there were many welleducated professional men in every one of the colonies. They had occupied\ntheir minds in studying the principles of government, and were well grounded\nin the teachings of Locke and all the political writers of the seventeenth\nand eighteenth centuries. Having been trained in the actual formation and maintenance of local government, they had had their\nconstructive faculties largely developed by actual use and experience.\nThe list of well-educated lawyers and professional men who had given time\nand attention to the study of the principles of government is a marvelous\none, and can only be explained by the peculiar circumstances surrounding\nthe life of each of the communities that grew up into the political entities\nknown as colonies and subsequently formed themselves into the confederation. Not until the time of Grenville, in 1763, did anyone in the English\ngovernment seriously attempt to regulate the affairs in the American\ncolonies and to adopt and enforce a distinct colonial policy. When this\nwas done, it is now plain — altho perhaps Grenville could not have been\nexpected to see it— that a century's neglect of them had developed an\nindependence of thought and action in these colonies, which made impossible the resumption by England of closer control unless immediate steps\nwere taken by a strong hand to suppress resistance. The Stamp Act, its\nrepeal, the Declaratory Act, the Townsend Act, the repeal of the Townsend Act, and the continuance of the tea tax were first the assertion of\nauthority, then a yielding to clamor against it, then a renewal of the assertion, then a second withdrawal, and then a temporizing attitude with\ndeclarations of authority that were most irritating to the colonists without\nany enforcement of the powers claimed. The thirteen years between 1763\nand 1776 were the one thing needed to eradicate in the colonists their love\nof the union with the mother country, their reluctance to sever the bonds\nwhich had always been light until then, and to implant in their bosoms the\ndetermination to have an independent government and to work out their\nfuture as a separate nation.\nThese conditions led to the Declaration of Independence — an instrument, in the minds of many, the most important ever penned by man. Of\ncourse it is not to be compared with the Constitution of the United States —\nthat wonderful compromise and compact by which a government of the\npeople was formed out of thirteen jealous independent states, a great nation\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nDEMOCRATIC\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\n73\n\nwas founded competent to deal with all the great national questions, and\nlocal affairs were left to the separate states. The Constitution was a\ncharter of fundamental law, the most concise and comprehensive ever\nwritten, elastic enough to meet all contingencies and yet restrictive enough\nalways to preserve intact the original plan. It estabhshed a government\non the principles set out in the Declaration of Independence. It executed the\ngeneral promises of the Declaration. It was the result of the careful deliberation of many minds. It involved constructive statesmanship of the\nhighest order. On the other hand, the Declaration was what its name\nimpHed, an announcement to the world of intention to act, a statement of\nthe political principles upon which the action was justified, and an indictment of the King of England for the many acts of tyranny and usurpation\nof the compact he had made with the colonies, which made such action\nnecessary. It was controversial, it was accusatory, it was declaratory. It\nwas the wonderful product of one man's pen. It was intended to arouse the\nfeelings and to stir to action the people of the colonies. And so it must\nhave differed from the subsequent calm deliberative statement of fundamental law in the Constitution, the result of the discussion of months by the\ngreatest jurists and statesmen of the century. But whatever its intrinsic\nmerit, as compared with the Federal Constitution, there can be no difference\nof opinion as to the importance of the act it evidenced or of the consequences\nthat flowed from it. The style of the Declaration is remarkably clear and\nforceful. The language is striking, and the matter, tho embracing much, is\nreduced to a concise form that was well calculated to attract the attention\nof those whom it was hoped to arouse.\nThe important part of the instrument, from our present-day standpoint,\nis its declaration of democratic principles of government. At various stages\nin our history questions have arisen involving the consistency of presentday politics with the principles announced in the Declaration; and it is to\nsome of these questions that I would this afternoon invoke your attention.\nThe propositions that have given rise to the most discussion in the Declaration are these:\nWe hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they\nare endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are\nLife, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments\nare instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.\n\nWhen the Declaration of Independence was signed, slavery was a\nrecognized legal institution in most of the colonies. It was not a popular\ninstitution in the world at that time. Washington, Jefferson, and all the\nstatesmen, whether from the South or North, deplored its existence and hoped\nfor its abolition. One of the counts of the indictment against King George\nIII contained in the Declaration referred to, altho it did not specify, the\nannulment by the British home government of laws passed in the colonies\nmaking the importation of slaves from Africa a penal offense. After slavery\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbecame a valuable institution to the South from a commercial standpoint;\nafter the development of the cotton industry seemed to make it indispensable to the prosperity of the cotton-growing states; after the feeling\nin favor of abolition had developed in the North to the point of an organized\nabolition party, and after the extension of slavery in the territories had\nbecome one of the most bitterly contested issues in politics, the construction of this clause of the Declaration and its meaning became a frequent\ntheme in political controversy. In the Lincoln-Douglas debates the question was mooted whether slavery was not contrary to the provision that all\nmen are created equal, and whether the proposition that they are endowed\nby their Creator with certain inalienable rights, and among these are life,\nliberty, and the pursuit of happiness, did not make slavery entirely inconsistent with the Declaration. Mr. Lincoln insisted that it did. He insisted\nthat the equality referred to in the Declaration meant equality of opportunity to enjoy life and liberty and to pursue happiness. He said that as\nbetween him and a negro woman there were many respects in which he\nwas her superior; but in the right to earn her living in the sweat of her\nbrow, and to apply the earnings of her labor to the maintenance of her\nlife, to the enjoyment of her liberty, and to the pursuit of her happiness,\nshe was his equal or the equal of anyone, according to the Declaration\nof Independence.\nBy the war for the Union slavery was eradicated from our political and\nsocial systems. The process has left scars, but even those who exhibited\nthe greatest courage and endurance in defense of the Constitutional principles bywhich slavery was upheld are willing now to admit the great good\nfortune of this country in the result by which the manacles were struck\nfrom the hands of four million slaves and they were made citizens of the\nUnited States and given equality according to the definition of Mr. Lincoln.\nThe signing in 1776 of this declaration of principles in favor of equaHty\nof all men in the face of the existence of slavery at that time in the colonies\nindicates that the Declaration was intended to be a statement rather of\nideal conditions and of principles, the attainment of which in practical\nresults was for the future and not for the immediate present. The inconsistency between that Declaration and slavery, the great man who drafted\nthe instrument and the intelligent men who signed it of course realized. We\ncan all now rejoice that after an awful war a change has been effected in\nour social institutions in which that rank inconsistency between the professions ofthe Declaration of Independence and the actual social institutions\nof this country has disappeared.\nBut slavery has not been the only policy and institution of our government that has been attacked on the ground of its inconsistency with the\nDeclaration of Independence. In 1898 we were drawn into a war with\nSpain, on account of the abuses which were alleged to exist and which we\nbelieved to exist in the government of Cuba under the Spanish Crown, and\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nDEMOCRATIC\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\n75\n\nwhich were thought to be so long-continued as to justify us, an immediate\nneighbor, in interfering to secure the independence of the people of Cuba.\nWe entered upon the war in a spirit of true altruism. We declared that\nCuba ought to be free and that we should hold her only long enough to\nestablish a suitable government in the island for the people of the island.\nWe did free Cuba. We did give her an independent government. When\nthereafter revolution threatened the existing government, we intervened\nin accordance with our treaty rights to preserve law and order, and after\nhaving secured for her a fair election under her constitution we turned over\nthe island again to the government thus elected.\nIn the course of the Spanish War, in order to defeat the power of Spain,\nAdmiral Dewey and our fleet visited Manila, captured the Spanish fleet\nand Manila, and with it took over the Philippine Islands. At the time\nthat he took possession of the islands there was then pending an insurrection\nby some of the Filipino people against the power of Spain. The government\nof Spain was there said to be inadequate and ineffective and unjust. We\nused the insurgent Filipinos as allies to aid us in taking Manila and we\ncould not well turn them back to Spain. On the other hand, the insurgents\nwere in no condition to establish and maintain a stable government. We\nfound from seven to eight millions of people in a state of Christian tutelage.\nThey were as ignorant as children, but they were Christians. They took\ntheir ideas from Europe and America, and not from the Orient or Mohammedanism. Not more than 10 per cent, of them were educated in any\nway. They had from twelve to fifteen different dialects of limited vocabulary, little literature, absolutely preventing a progress dependent on a\npopular acquaintance with the advance in world ideas. Some of their\neducated people had adopted declarations in favor of democratic government and had attempted to establish a republic in parts of the islands, but\nits administration was corrupt, tyrannical, and utterly ineffective to suppress disorder. There seemed to be, therefore, but one course for the\nUnited States government to follow, and that was to take over the Philippines, establish law and order, and then to teach the people enough in\nlearning and in the practice of popular government to enable them to take\nover a government and maintain it permanently. Meantime we had to\nsuppress an insurrection in order to initiate such a poHcy. Those who were\nresponsible for the policy have been subjected to the severest criticism, in\nthat they are said to have violated the proposition of the Declaration of\nIndependence that to secure the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of\nhappiness \"governments are instituted among men, deriving their just\npowers from the consent of the governed.\" I affirm that there is nothing\nin the Philippine policy of this government which is at variance with the\nlanguage from the Declaration of Independence which I have quoted, when\nthat language is properly understood by the same sort of construction as\nLincoln gave to the language, \"All men are created equal.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "^ 76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIn order properly to judge of the meaning of an instrument like this,\nthe circumstances surrounding the men who wrote it and signed it are to be\ntaken into consideration. These words were applied in the minds of the\nframers of the document to the people living in the thirteen American\ncolonies, than whom there never were people of better skill and practice\nin the science of self-government. As already said, for a hundred and\nfifty years they and their ancestors had carried on government, practically\nfree from any control by the home government. They had worked out\ntheir municipal institutions, and they had held their assemblies, and they\nhad framed their laws, all with a view to the maintenance of a successful\ndemocracy; and of course there could be no just government of them\nwhich did not depend upon their consent. But the framers of the Declaraation would be the last persons to apply this principle to people like the\nFiUpinos. Even Lincoln in his debates with Douglas said that he did not\nbelieve that under the principles of that instrument negroes should be\nplaced upon juries or that they should be entitled to vote. Progress was\nmade after that and doubtless he changed his mind as to the rights which\nshould be extended to them; but I only refer to this to show what his construction ofthe language was. The truth is that the language is to be\nunderstood as applying to people who have intelligence, education, and\nself-restraint enough to know what is their best interest, to understand\nwhat civil liberty is, and what their rights in a government securing civil\nliberty are. Until they reach this stage in political education they must be\nhelped. This is not to say that men in this country who do not measure\nup to the standard I have given should be shut out from the ballot, because\nthere are enough men of intelligence and political education and self-restraint\nto neutralize the evil effects of mixing some ignorant and uneducated\nin our electorate. But where a country is inhabited, as the Philippines\nare, by seven millions of people with \"only a small percentage educated\nat all, and with no percentage having real political education and experience, they must be helped, they must be given assistance in ordinary\neducation and in the experience that comes from actually practicing partial self-government.\nThe problem presented, when the United States took hold of the Philippines was a most difficult one, and it had to be solved by the schoolmaster.\nA thousand teachers were imported, and they were set to work teaching\nthe young Filipinos EngHsh in the primary classes, and teaching the Filipino teachers how to talk and teach English. After ten years we have now\na body of eight or nine thousand Philippine school teachers, and we have\nin the islands a half-million young Filipinos reading, writing, and reciting\nEnglish. The native dialects were unfitted, any one of them, to become\nthe language of a great country; the Spanish language was known only to\nabout 7 per cent, of all the people; the people wished to learn the English\nlanguage; the language of the United States, which had taken over the\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nDEMOCRATIC\n\nGOVEkNMENT\n\n77\n\nislands, was English; the business language of the Orient is English; and\nso English was adopted as the language of the Philippines. Today there is\nmore English spoken in the islands than there is Spanish, and in two generations English will be the general language of the Archipelago.\nThe authorities of the United States helped the Filipinos to form municipal governments, then provincial governments, and finally Congress provided aPhilippine Assembly, elected by the eligible voters of the islands,\ndivided into sixty or more districts. The electorate is now made up of\nabout 15 per cent, of the males in the islands over twenty-one years of age.\nThere is an educational test which as education spreads in the islands\nrapidly fits the men of the islands for voting. There are two chambers,\nthe Assembly and the Commission. The Commission is appointed by the\nExecutive. There are three Filipinos upon the Commission and five Americans. In this wise the government goes on, and those who are fitted by\ntheir primary and secondary education become electors, they are trained\nin the public schools, they have the opportunity of going to an industrial\nschool in each province, and many of them avail themselves of this opportunity. Thus we are carrying on in the islands two kinds of education —\nthe primary and secondary, and industrial education in English for the\npresent and coming generation of Filipino youth, and again, by actual\npractice in government we are teaching the adult Filipino who is eligible\nto vote the responsibilities of government, and the necessity for self-restraint, so that as a member of the majority he can accord to the minority\nthe right to which they are entitled, and as a member of the minority can\nabide the government of the majority and insist only on the maintenance of\ncivil liberty and his individual rights. It is necessary to give the first\nkind of education — that is, the primary and secondary education — in order\nthat the Filipino may learn what his rights are, and learning them may assert\nthem. The great difficulty in dealing with the present condition there is\nin implanting in the minds and breasts of the Filipinos, whose rights are\ninfringed upon by their own people, what their rights are and how they\ncan be vindicated in court or elsewhere. The government of the United\nStates owes a great debt to the thousand American school teachers who\nwere induced to go to the Philippines to assist in working out the problems,\nand it is they who have made a success of the policy in the islands. As the\neducation shall spread, the theory upon which the policy was begun is\nworking out. After a generation or two the people of the islands will be\nso well grounded in English and in the primary and secondary branches\nof education, and in actual practice in government, that they can probably\nbe trusted to run their government alone. Meantime the United States\nis dealing with the Philippines in a spirit of the utmost justice. The government which has existed there for ten years is well run; the money drawn\nfrom taxes is economically spent; and the islands have changed their\ncharacter from a country in which there were but few roads and only one\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niGeneral\n\nrailroad to a country in which the railroad mileage has increased more\nthan five times, and in which the wagon roads have had a similar increase.\nWe have now dealt justly with them by granting them in the last tariff\nact the markets of the United States, with limitations upon the importation\nof sugar and tobacco, and the opportunity to come into our market has so\nimproved business in the islands that everybody there is prosperous. The\ntrade between the United States and the Philippines has nearly doubled\nin a year. The question is whether this work which has been done by the\nUnited States for ten years at a very considerable cost and at practically\nno advantage to it in a pecuniary way is a violation of the Declaration of\nIndependence in that the government thus established is not one entirely\ndependent upon the consent of the governed. It is one in which the governed have only a partial voice, but it is one which is gradually educating\nthe governed to a point where they can be trusted to carry on their own\ngovernment.\nWhen the time shall arrive in which the Filipinos can be safely trusted\nto organize and maintain permanently their own government, and this\ngovernment shall withdraw from the islands or offer to do so, the\nproposition of the Declaration of Independence will then have been fulfilled and the government will be a just one, for it will rest on the consent\nof the governed. Meantime, however, in the absence of the full effects of\neducation, and until the Filipinos as citizens are able to walk alone, there\nwill continue to be a seeming inconsistency between the policy of the\nAmericans in the Philippines and the language of the Declaration of Independence. But I maintain, in the presence of this great audience, whose profession isthat of teaching and whose object is that of educating and fitting\nmen to meet the responsibihties of government and to become intelligent\npatriots, that the methods taken and the procedure that is being followed\nare in entire accordance with the spirit of that great Declaration, properly\ninterpreted, and are only another instance with that of Cuba of a purely\naltruistic poHcy that does credit to the American Republic and is in entire\naccord with those high principles which were embodied in its Declaration\nof Independence, and carried into practice in its Federal Constitution.\n\nSOME\nJAMES\n\nDOMINANT\nY. JOYNER,\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nTENDENCIES\nSTATE\n\nADDRESS\nIN AMERICAN\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nRALEIGH, N.C.\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\nINSTRUCTION\n\nThe relation between education and civiHzation is so intimate and logical\nas to constitute an unbreakable bond of cause and effect, and to render it\ndifl5cult to determine which is cause and which is effect. Changed and\nchanging conditions of life and civilization demand and produce changed\nand changing conceptions of education.\nChanging needs arising out of\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDOMINANT\n\nTEfVDENCIES\n\nIN AMERICAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n79\n\nchanging life and civilization must be met by changing systems and methods of education.\nAny educational system to be vital and useful in a democracy must have\nits roots in the life and needs of all the people, must be shaped in accordance\nwith the demands of the present and the ideals for the future. Not only\nmust the needs of an existing civilization be met, but the seeds of future\nprogress therein must be sown thru education in each generation. Education, therefore, must develop the power of modification and mutation as\nwell as the power of adaptation.\nIn the United States, where the changes in civiUzation and life have\nbeen so rapid and revolutionary, it would be exceedingly strange and distinctly unfortunate were there not continuous educational discussion and\ncriticism, fermentation and unrest, experimentation and investigation,\naccompanied by changes in conceptions, systems, and methods of education, some progressive and some reactionary. So long as human needs\nincrease and human life grows more complex, there can be in a democracy\nno cessation in the development of educational systems. To arrest the\nprogress of education is to arrest the progress of civihzation. A static\nsystem of education means a static system of civilization.\nThe thoughtful student may easily discern a few potent and permanent\ntendencies in American education. The greatest good to the greatest\nnumber and equality of opportunity to all are fundamental principles of\ndemocracy. One logical demand of democracy, therefore, is a system of\neducation that shall provide equality of educational opportunity for all,\nand that shall best fit each for the greatest service to the greatest number.\nOut of this logical demand of democracy has grown the demand for industrial or vocational education. This is the first marked tendency in American\neducation to which I desire to invite your attention.\nIn the aristocratic civilizations of the past, the educational systems\nwere based upon the idea that education was for the preparation of the\nprivileged few for leadership. In their life and industry, the masses of men\nwere left untouched, unlifted, blind followers in the ways marked out by\nthe leaders. With the growth of the democratic spirit, the recognition of\nthe civil and religious rights of the common man, there dawned a new era\nof liberty on earth. The common man has slowly come to understand that\nthere is no liberty without learning, no equality of opportunity without\nequality of educational opportunity, guaranteeing to every child, as an\ninherent right, the chance to develop to the fullest every power in him for\neffective service.\nWith this new conception of his educational rights, the common man\nfirst demanded an equal chance for his child to obtain the same sort of\neducation that the favored few alone had heretofore enjoyed. In obedience\nto this demand, a system of free elementary schools was first established,\nfurnishing equaUty of opportunity to the children of the rich and the\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npoor, the high and the low, alike, to obtain therein the essentials of\nintelligence.\nWith increasing intelligence and broadening vision, this common man,\nin further declaration of his rights, demanded equality of opportunity for\nhis child to enjoy the advantages of fuller development, thru higher education, until here in America in most of our states, democracy has constructed\nan educational ladder, from the door of the hovel and the door of the palace,\nfrom the kindergarten to the university, without a missing round, up which\nevery child may climb as far as he has the capacity and the time.\nWith still-increasing intelligence and broadening vision, this common\nman with his saving common-sense has seen that even this system, modeled\nas it was at first largely after the traditions of the past for training for\nleadership alone, was failing to meet the varied needs of the many with\ntheir varying tastes, talents, and environment, that the elementary schools\nwere leading only to the secondary schools, the secondary schools only to\nthe college and the university, the college and the university only into the\nthree so-called learned professions — law, medicine, and theology — overcrowding these professions, misleading many unfit ones into them, leading\nmany of the brightest and most ambitious of the children of the industrial\nmasses away from the pursuits of their fathers, and leaving the major\nindustries of the world, in a commercial and industrial age, largely untouched byskill, culture, and training.\nThen came his protest and his demand that his schools and colleges\nshould provide courses of study ministering to the varied needs of the many,\nto fit the common man to meet and solve the common, everyday problems\nof his life, and to lift his life to a higher plane of efficiency, service, and happiness. In obedience to his protest and demand, the colleges and universities first established elective courses of study, adapted to the varied\ntalents, tastes, and needs of the varied classes of students. The democratization of the courses of study in the colleges and universities, stimulated\nby the passage of the land-grant acts and the establishment of the landgrant colleges for special education in agriculture and the mechanic arts,\nhas grown apace, until they are now meeting the needs of a much larger\nclass of students and touching helpfully, by preparing leaders, many of the\nmajor industries of our country.\nBut 90 per cent, of the people of the United States make their living by\nindustrial pursuits. Scarcely 5 per cent, of our population ever reach the\ncollege or the university. It was, therefore, but another natural evolution\nof democracy, but another inevitable demand of the common man, that\nthe courses of instruction in the secondary schools should be adapted to\nthe needs of the 95 as well as of the 5 per cent., should lead into life as well\nas into college, and into industrial pursuits instead of away from them.\nOriginating in a fundamental need of democracy and humanity, enforced bythe insistent demand of ihe industrial masses,jWho are^the people,\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDOMINANT\n\nTEN'DENCIES\n\nIN AMERICAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n8i\n\nand whose expressed will must at last be the law in a democratic republic,\nthis movement for industrial education must become a fixed part of our\neducational system everywhere. To guide it wisely is the work and the\nduty of our profession.\nIt has its dangers. The apostles of this new truth, blinded by its first\ndazzling burst of light, in an enthusiasm amounting almost to fanaticism,\nmay lose their educational perspective in their insistence upon industrial\nor vocational education, may forget that education has any other end but\nthe vocational. In an almost revolutionary reaction from an educational\nsystem in which the so-called cultural was made the chief and almost the\nsole aim of education, under which universal education meant the same\nsort of education for all sorts of people, it is not unnatural that there should\nbe an over-emphasis of the utilitarian, the vocational, the adaptation of\neducation to the environment and the individuality of every sort of child.\nIn swinging from one extreme that produced men with an education without a vocation, we must not swing to the other extreme that will produce\nmen with a vocation without an education.\nIn making our schools minister to the new needs of men, arising out of\nan ever-changing civilization, we must not fail to make them continue to\nminister to the eternal, the common, the universal needs of men arising\nout of their common nature and the nature of their common life as parent,\ncitizen, member of society. In making them minister to the material, we\nmust see to it that they also minister sufficiently to the emotional, the\nimaginative, the aesthetic, in a word, the spiritual. That civilization which\ndoes not provide in its educational system for the cultivation of those faculties that fit men to make a Hfe is as surely doomed as is that which fails to\nprovide for the cultivation of those that fit men to make a living.\n\"Every man needs and should be provided two sorts of education — one\nto fit him to work, the other to fit him to live.\" The two sorts should be\ncombined in the same system, proceeding side by side in proper proportion.\nI agree with those who hold that it would be a fatal blunder to permit in\nour system of American education the establishment and the maintenance\nof entirely separate systems of vocational or trade schools. There is no\nplace for peasant schools, for separate schools for special classes of any\nsort, in a democracy. Such a separation of the purely cultural from the\npurely practical or vocational in our American system of education would\ninevitably increase social cleavage along vocational lines, would be uneconomic in effort, time, and money, would prove a disintegrating force,\ntending to destroy the unity of education and the homogeneity of our\npopulation.\nBy one-sided education for the many we must not drag our civilization\ndown to the deadening level of mere materialism, our average man down\nto the low plane of a mere machine, fitted to do his work with skill, but\nwithout fitness to live his life with happiness and satisfaction to himself\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand to others. For the preservation of our democracy and the continuous\nelevation of our civilization, we must hold together in our system of education, from bottom to top, the cultural and the useful, the practical and\nthe ideal, the material and the spiritual, mingled in proper proportion with\ndue regard for the common needs and also for the special needs of all in\nevery community.\nYou cannot elevate work unless you elevate the worker. You cannot\nelevate the worker unless you include in the scheme of his education not\nonly special training for skill but also general training for manhood. For\nthe elevation of the industrial masses to their proper social and civic plane\nin a democracy, you must send into the industries men trained not only to\nskillful work but educated also to think, to dream, to feel, to love, to lead,\nto lift. You cannot measure the greatest worth of a man in our democracy by a money-mad world's tape-line of dollars and cents.\nNot on the vulgar mass\nCalled \"work\" must sentence pass,\nThings done that took the eye and had the price;\nO'er which, from level stand,\nThe low world laid its hand,\nFound straightway to its mind, could value in a trice;\nBut all the world's coarse thumb\nAnd finger failed to plumb,\nSo passed in making up the main account;\nAll instincts immature,\nAll purposes unsure.\nThat weighed not as his work, yet swelled the\nman's amount:\nThoughts hardly to be packed\nInto a narrow act.\nFancies that broke through language and escaped.\nAll I could never be.\nAll men ignored in me.\nThis I was worth to God, whose wheel the pitcher shaped.\nTHE\n\nOTIOSE\n\nTENDENCY\n\nA distinctly undesirable tendency of American education is otiosity —\nthe antithesis of strenuosity. It is noticeable in elementary, secondary,\nand college education. Elementary and college education probably suffer\nmost from it. In the elementary school it is probably an extreme reaction\nfrom the old education of grind and drudgery. It threatens, however, to\nend, if unchecked, in an education of gush and dissipation. The old education ofgrind was based too much, perhaps, upon the pedagogy of birch\nto force the child to unpleasant tasks. There is danger that the new education will become too dependent upon voluntary interest and will develop\nno power to drive the will to the discharge of unpleasant duties and to the\nperformance of unpleasant tasks.\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nDOMINANT\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nIN AMERICAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n83\n\nWill you pardon me if I suggest that I sometimes fear that a fault too\ntommon in many of our best American schools is that of making the way\ntoo easy for the child, of leading him too constantly along the line of least\nresistance, of helping him too much, of explaining too much for him, of\nworking too hard to save him from working ? In some of our elementary\nschools it has come to pass that the children are even forbidden to take\nbooks home or to do any studying upon their own initiative, in their own\nway, out of school, and that little time has been left from recitation for\nindependent study in school. May we not expect from such made-easy\nand rapid transit methods a crop of intellectually spoiled children, flabby\nof mind, weak of will, superficial in character, inaccurate in scholarship,\ndoing nothing well except what they like to do ? Should they not be taught\nor trained to do well whatever it is their duty to do, and to find a stimulus\nof interest in tasks at first unpleasant in the very joy of mastering them ?\nIn seeking to make the way too easy for him, in lifting him too quickly\nover the hard places, in depriving him of the intellectual and moral struggle\nfrom which come strength and power for self -guidance and self-reliance, the\nteacher wrongs the child. Out yonder in life there will be rough places in\nthe road, there will be mountains of difficulty to overcome, there may be\nnobody there to help. The child should learn in the little world of the school,\nwhich is his life then, to face difficulties bravely, to grapple with them\ncourageously, to rely upon himself to overcome them, and to acquire in\novercoming them the strength, the courage, and the confidence to overcome\nother and greater ones. Thus passing from strength to strength will he be\nfitted at last for the greater struggle and the greater victory in the greater\nworld.\nMay not we modern teachers, with all our boasted new pedagogy, still\nlearn some valuable lessons from the old-fashioned schoolmaster, who, if he\ntaught nothing else worth while, taught industry and duty and obedience\nand self-reliance, hatred of shirking and willingness to drudge where drudgery was necessary for mastery? There is no mastery without drudgery;\nthere is no strength without struggle.\nIn the moral, the spiritual, and the intellectual world, things worth\nhaving have been divinely hedged about with difficulty, with hardness even,\nmayhap that those attaining them might in the very struggle for their\nattainment gather the strength that will make them worthy of them, and\nteach them how to appreciate and use them when attained. The wise in\nall ages have recognized this great truth. It has found expression again\nand again in the proverbs and the philosophy of pagan and Christian, even\nin the myths of the child races. The golden fleece still is guarded by the\nfiery dragon; Jacob still must wrestle with the Almighty before he wins a\nnew name and has power as a prince with God and man; the flaming sword\nstill stands by the gate of Eden, and work, work, is still man's doom and\nblessing.\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nA similar tendency to otiosity is noticeable and alarming in college and\nuniversity education. It is attributable in part perhaps to previous training, but more to the influence of wealth and luxury, of fraternity life,\nathletics, and \"soft\" elective courses, which offer temptations to ease and\nidleness that are well-nigh irresistible to young men of unformed character\nand unfixed habits.\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAs character always determines the use to which knowledge and training\nare put, it is of prime importance in education. Unless accompanied with\nthe development of character, conscience, and conviction as guiding principles, the development of power and efiiciency thru education may, thru\nmisapplication, become a means of degradation. It is not surprising, therefore, that one of the most marked tendencies in American education is\nincreased emphasis upon moral education, whereby there shall be woven\ninto the warp and woof of the character of the growing child and youth the\nhomely virtues needed for the proper guidance of everyday life. It is as\nneedful and as democratic that our system of education should minister to\nthe moral needs of all classes of our population as that it should minister\nto their industrial and vocational needs. In this land of teeming immigration, of multiplying factories and shops, of growing cities with their apartment houses and crowded tenements and numberless temptations, when on\nevery hand the forces that tend to cast asunder the home ties, to shorten\nthe hours of family association, to weaken the bonds of parental control,\nand to decrease the opportunities for moral training in the home are daily\nmultiplying, an increased burden of moral education has been thrown upon\nthe American school.\nFor the formation and fortification of good character, it is wisely insisted\nthat moral instruction should be given in all our schools by precept, example, and systematic teaching. It should be based, I believe, upon the fundamental teachings of the Book of Books, and the open Bible for moral but\nnot sectarian instruction should have and hold its place in every public\nschool. Example is more potent than precept, willing and doing the right,\nimpelled by the right motive, the formation of right habits from right living,\nmore potent than systematic teaching about right and wrong. \" School is\nnot preparation for life; school is life.\" In schoolroom and on playground\nthe child finds as varied and typical opportunities as men find in the wide\nworld beyond for doing right, for refraining from wrong, for acquiring under\nproper guidance and stimulation, by observation, imitation, association, and\npractice, self-restraint, industry, obedience, courage, courtesy, kindness,\nhonesty, purity, charity, and all the other virtues that form and adorn\nhuman character.\nThere is scarcely a school task, duty, or play that cannot be made by a\nskillful teacher to contribute to the moral education of the child. History\nand literature and the drama of the world's daily life furnish abundant\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDOMINANT\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nIN AMERICAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n85\n\nmaterial for illustration and inspiration. But over all, above all, more than\nall, is the daily example, the personal touch, the dynamic influence of the\nteacher with soul and consecration.\nMoral character is not formed by the mere memorizing of moral maxims\nand ethical principles. Feeling is the real key to it. Right feeling must\nprecede right acting. Feeling, desire, motive, action — these are the steps to\nvirtue or to vice. As a man thinketh in his heart, so is he. The heart of a\nlittle child must be kept with all diligence, if out of it shall come the issues\nof life. More and more are the methods of moral instruction conforming\nto these fundamental principles taught and illustrated in the writings and\nlives of the greatest moral reformers and teachers of the ages.\nTHE\n\nALTRUISTIC\n\nTENDENCY\n\nSelfishness and separateness will eat out the heart of any civilization\nand sow seeds of decay in any system of education. The spirit of all true\ndemocracy is essentially altruistic. There is much cause for rejoicing, therefore, in the growth of the altruistic spirit in American civilization and\nAmerican education. In the business world where competition is sharpest\nand selfishness most to be expected, there is manifest evidence of a constantly growing sense of obligation by the rich to hold their wealth in trust\nfor the advancement. of society and to use it for the benefit of humanity.\nPerhaps no other century in the annals of time has to its everlasting credit\nso much of princely philanthropy. Is it too much to hope that even before\nthe close of this twentieth century we shall witness the adoption by the\nrich everywhere of the high creed of one of the century's princeliest philanthropists, that to die rich should be counted a crime ?\nThe true scholar no longer seeks scholarship solely for personal enjoyment\nand individual superiority, but rather for social service and the happiness\nof humanity. Consecration of individual talent and power, of intellectual,\nmoral, and spiritual wealth of every sort to the uplift of all shall at last\nbecome the dominant doctrine in every American school.\nEvery child born into the world in a democracy is not only the parents'\nchild, but also the community's child, the state's child, the nation's child,\nand humanity's child. Out of every one of those relations grows a duty\nand an obHgation from every one of us to every one of these American\nchildren, which we neglect at peril to the family, the community, the state,\nthe nation, society, and all civilization. The school-less child is a menace\nto the best in all. If the child be not so educated as to lay upon him a\nreciprocal duty and obligation to render in return when he reaches manhood's estate a service to all, commensurate with that which he has received\nfrom all, then education is a failure and the vast expenditure for it a criminal\nwaste.\nThe fundamental basis of all public education in a democracy must be\nsocial and the fundamental aim of it must be altruistic. The individual is\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\neducated at the expense of the public, that he may be able to render to the\npublic the best service of which he is capable; and he should be so educated\nas to desire and to determine to consecrate his education to such service.\nThere can be no other justification of public education by general taxation.\nThe old education was individualistic; the new education must be altruistic.\nThis altruistic spirit is but a recognition and an application of democracy's fundamental principles of universal brotherhood, individual responsibility, and social obligation.\nTHE\n\nPEACE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nThis peace movement that promises to sweep the world into universal\npeace, what is it but the natural product of this spirit of democracy and\naltruism, the fruit in due season of a Christian civilization whose founder\nwas the Prince of Peace, and one of whose cardinal principles for two\nthousand years has been \"Peace on earth, good will toward men\" ?\nBut we may cry \" Peace, Peace\" ; we may prate of its beauty to children\nand to men; we may form our peace societies and hold our peace conferences\nand enact our peace laws, but peace cometh not by observation — the seat of\nit is within the heart — the scepter of it is wielded by the spirit. Therefore\nthru education in the home and school must be cultivated those virtues\nthat make for peace — love, justice, mercy, recognition of the rights of others.\nThese must reign in the hearts of children and rule the spirits of men in all\nlands before peace can reign o'er all the earth.\nIt is well to begin with the children in the schools, before the heart is\nfull of din and the world's fierce battles begin, when their tender feet can be\nmore easily led into the paths of peace and their innocent souls more easily\nattuned to the music of peace. The lion and the lamb shall some day lie\ndown together, but not until a little child shall lead them.\nFor a' that, and a' that,\nIt's coming yet, for a' that,\nThat man to man, the warl' o'er,\nShall brothers be, for a' that.\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC-HEALTH\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nThis public-health movement that is enlisting the activities of men and\nwomen everywhere for the prevention of disease and the preservation of\nhealth and life — what is that but the product, too, of this growing spirit of\naltruism in society, government, and school, a recognition of the fundamental value of healthy bodies as a necessity for the effective appHcation\nof every sort of education to the doing of a man's work in the world, of the\ncivic duty of preserving the health and prolonging the life of all, to increase\nthe efficiency and prolong the service of all ? Disease decreases efficiency,\npremature death ends it ere it is well begun. What shall it profit a nation\nif, thru education, it gain all knowledge and all power, intellectual and\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions] MESSAGE\n\nFR6m the bureau\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n87\n\nspiritual, but, thru disease, lose its physical vigor, its body, by which alone\nit can translate these into action upon the world ?\nSuch are some of the dominant tendencies in American education shaping and molding the destiny of our democracy. There are conflicts and\ndiscords now. There shall be victorious adjustment and concord by and\nby, for\nI see in part,\n\nThat all, as in some piece of art,\nIs toil co-operant to an end,\n\n\"In the Sistine Chapel,\" says George Herbert Palmer, \"Michelangelo\nhas depicted the Almighty moving in clouds over the rugged earth where\nlies the newly created Adam, hardly aware of himself. The tips of the\nfingers touch, the Lord's and Adam's, and the huge frame loses its inertness\nand rears itself into action.\"\nTeachers of America, go forth to your work of lifting humanity into\nfinger touch with the Almighty, unawed by fear, unrestrained by pessimism,\nsustained by faith in the holiness of your mission, assured that you hold\nthe strategic point in education, which ever must be the strategic point in\ncivilization.\nA\n\nMESSAGE\n\nFROM\n\nELMER\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nBROWN,\n\nTHE UNITED\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSTATES\n\nUNITED STATES COMMISSIONER\nWASHINGTON,\nD.C.\n\nBUREAU\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIt was an extraordinary legacy that was left to the Bureau of Education\nby Commissioner William Torrey Harris. The present administration of\nthat office has no finer responsibility than that of maintaining at its best\nthe spirit and tradition which constitute that legacy. There are undoubtedly\nvery few today who would accept in its entirety the philosophical system\nwhich Dr. Harris represented. There are few, indeed, who would accept\nunmodified his plan of educational administration. But his plan and system\nwere the outcome of an elevated and unselfish patriotism. He was an\nAmerican, and his x\\mericanism was permeated by such devotion to the\nloftiest thought and the widest learning, that it can never disappear from\nthe educational organization of this country without incalculable loss. At\nthe opening of this report, I desire to pledge anew the office over which he\npresided, in loyalty to that massive and dominant moral purpose to which\nDr. Harris gave his lifelong devotion, and call upon the representatives of\nall educational systems and educational institutions thruout the land to\nrenew allegiance to that ideal.\nThe President of the National Education Association has asked me to\nbring at this time a message from the Federal Bureau of Education, and\nhas intimated that such a message might properly find a place on each\nannual program of this organization.\nThere is an historic reason back of\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthis suggestion. The Bureau of Education is, in a sense, the child of the\nNational Association, having been brought into being at the immediate\ninstance of the National Association of State and City School Superintendents, which was the forerunner of the present Department of Superintendence.\nMy statement made in response to this call shall be a brief one; but I\nhope it may show that the Federal Education Office is maintaining its\ncontinuity with the work begun by Dr. Harris and his predecessors, while\nat the same time it is facing the new needs of these later days in ways in\nwhich there is no precedent for its guidance.\nThe task is the double one of making an effective instrument and then\nof turning it to some worthy use.\nWithin the past year the instrument, that is, the Bureau as it may be\nseen from without, has been greatly changed. It has left its outgrown\nshell by the unresting sea of Eighth and G Streets and has entered into\ndignified and commodious quarters under one of the Federal Government's\nown roofs. It has, indeed, been taken into the bosom of the national family.\nIts library, which had previously been reorganized, has now been rearranged\nin its new quarters for practical service. A vigorous new division has been\nerected, that of school administration, which deals particularly with matters of interest to state and city education offices. A beginning has been\nmade in what may be termed a field service, a service which has already\nengaged a good portion of the time of two specialists, those in school administration and in the work of the land-grant colleges. This service is to be\nfurther extended. Provision has been made by Congress for two important\nadditions to the staff, namely those of Editor and of Specialist in Higher\nEducation. The new specialist will be engaged, both at the office and in\nthe field, with work in connection with our colleges and universities. A\ngreat campaign has recently been undertaken by friends of the Bureau\nwith a view to the wide extension of this new service in the field, which\npromises to give us within the near future an instrument for more generous\nand far-reaching activities. It is earnestly desired and hoped that this\ncampaign may meet with abundant success.\nIt is not generally known that this Office is equipped with one of the\nmost extensive educational experiment stations in the world. It is an experiment station embracing some five hundred and eighty thousand square\nmiles of territory, with two thousand five hundred miles of sea coast,\nsparsely populated with some thirty thousand natives of different backward races, Indian, Aleut, and Eskimo. Such a practice school presents the\nwhite man's burden in its most concrete form, with all of the difficulties\nand all of the inspiring opportunities presented by the world-education\nmovement of our time. There in Alaska the school physician and the school\nnurse are now going up and down, helping the people in their sicknesses,\nand teaching them how to live clean and wholesome lives. The girls are\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\nI\n\nSessions]\n\nMESSAGE\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\n89\n\nlearning to cook and to sew and to make good homes. The boys are learning to earn an honest livelihood under their new conditions, by new industrial pursuits, by the raising of reindeer, by improved fishing, gardening,\nand the use of common tools. They are learning something of the white\nman's wisdom and the white man's better aims in life. These things are\nto help them in their new relations with the white man, who must inevitably be their neighbor and their fellow-laborer. The end in view is the\ntraining of these people to self-reliance and ultimate self-government.\nThere is only one thing more to be said at this time about the strengthening of the Bureau as an instrument, and that is to refer to the strengthening of its relations with other government ofiices. It is true everywhere,\nand notably true in Washington, that an isolated office is likely to be a\nweak and crippled office. Among the most important steps that have been\ntaken of late in the building-up of this Bureau have been the arrangements\nwhich have been made for close co-operation with the Library of Congress\nand with the Bureau of the Census. Connection with the Census Office\nhas received especial attention during the past year. That office is now\nrendering invaluable assistance in the effort to secure more nearly uniform\nand therefore more informing statistics concerning our great state and dty\nsystems of education.\nThe chief accounting officers of a number of our city school systems\nhave now formed a national association which in its turn will co-operate\nwith these two offices at Washington. A committee was appointed at the\nIndianapolis meeting of our Department of Superintendence for a somewhat\nsimilar purpose. This gives us a strong combination of those interested in\nthe improvement of school accounts and school reports. We have now\nmore reason than ever before to hope that the reproach which has lain\nagainst our school reports, that they do not tell an intelligible tale, is soon\nto be a thing of the past. Everybody has a personal interest in such a\nchange, for to have more illuminating reports will mean to have so much\nthe better schools.\nThis is all that it seems necessary to say at this time regarding the tool.\nNow, what is the larger work which the improved tool may be expected\nto do?\nIt is the business of the Bureau to collect and diffuse such information\nas shall help the people of the United States to establish better systems of\nschools. On the face of it this business would seem to be simply that of\ninformation and not that of propaganda. In a sense this is true. The\noffice is to be a scientific office, with scientific impartiality toward the facts\nwhich it reports. But it cannot be indifferent to the facts which it reports.\nIt must view them with reference to the improvement of our educational\nsystems. The field in which its investigations shall be made must be\nselected with reference to public needs. It must call attention to the significance ofthe facts presented, with some positive conviction as to the\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndirections in which there is need of improvement. It has indeed a mission.\nIt has a propaganda. It is concerned all of the time with the effort to make\nfor this country a better education of all of the people. Some of the directions\nwhich this endeavor should take in the immediate future may be mentioned\nhere.\nWe are still unable in this country to give to all of our citizens anything\nlike a fair chance at an education. We still have some illiteracy. We still\nhave great numbers of pupils leaving the schools before they have received\na proper elementary education. There are portions of the country which\nare at great disadvantage as compared with others in these respects. This\noffice of information must keep on setting forth the actual state of our\nschool attendance, so far as it can be determined, and must reiterate the\ncall of these simple facts to efforts for the improvement of school attendance.\nThe improvement of school attendance must go hand in hand with the\nabatement of child labor and numerous other undertakings for the general\nwelfare of childhood. It is the business of a central office to call repeated\nattention to these relationships, and to help those who are at work in\nneighboring fields to work together for their common ends.\nWe need to press home such information as will lead to the improvement\nof our school buildings. In a country which is spending seventy-three\nmilUon dollars a year for the construction, equipment, and repair of its\nbuildings for school purposes, such information as would lead to an improvement of only I per cent, as regards this expenditure would cause an aggregate annual saving of no mean sum; while the saving of the health of\npupils, which can be accomplished thru more hygienic construction, is an\nincomparably greater concern.\nIn a thousand ways the improvement of health thru education is now\nin progress. An agency which, thru the gentle force of clear information,\ncan bring these ways into unison and prevent the waste of misdirected\nefforts, will prove itself a national benefit.\nIndustrial education is with us, in its three main forms of trade schools,\nschools of housekeeping, and schools for rural life. It is every day raising\nmore questions than anyone as yet can answer. Such an office as the\nBureau of Education is to overlook this whole field and keep incessant\ninquiries under way, all over the world, with a view to finding the best\nanswers to the most urgent of these questions. But here again, it is not\ninformation alone that is needed. Our new efforts at industrial education\nare pulled this way and that by inharmonious aims and conflicting interests.\nA National Office concerned with these things must make the constant\nendeavor to persuade those discordant forces into unity of aim, and that\neffectiveness which comes from unity. At this point alone there is a patriotic service to be rendered, the value of which no man can estimate.\nI shall make no attempt at any complete enumeration. It is easy to see\nhow important are many of the other undertakings which must be passed\n\nI\nI\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nMESSAGE\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\n91\n\nover here from sheer lack of time: the supervision of rural schools, improvements in the training of teachers, the relation of secondary schools to\ncolleges and universities and to the life outside of colleges and universities.\nAnd then the great work of higher and professional education — a world\nwithin itself — there never has been a time when a mediating agency was\nmore needed in this field. Such an agency should help our institutions of\nhigher learning to do a common work for the country at large. State institutions and those under private control; graduate schools, which are beginning to appreciate the evils of institutional isolation; and schools of medicine and law, in which the problems of isolation, affiliation, and standards\ngenerally are reaching their acute and critical stage: the time calls unmistakably for a central agency strong enough to deal with questions such as\nthese, and wise enough to deal with them by way of effective influence\nwithout arrogating any fictitious authority.\nIn the near future, without doubt, a general reorganization of the\nfederal agencies of education must be frankly considered. Some of the\nquestions subsidiary to such reorganization are already under discussion.\nFour of them may be mentioned here :\nShall we have a National Department of Education, co-ordinate with the nine departments now in existence ?\nShall we have at Washington a National University ?\nShall we have an extension of federal aid to education in the states, particularly in\nthe form of federal aid to industrial education ?\nShall a federal office be erected to concern itself with the general welfare of our child\ncitizens ?\n\nThese questions are a challenge addressed to the educational thought of\nthe nation as well as to the political thought of the nation. I have confidence that the educational leadership of our time will meet those questions\nsquarely. Our political leaders have a right to expect courageous and competent advice from the leaders of education, when questions such as these\nshall come up for legislative action.\nI will not take your time for any extended discussion of these proposals.\nOne general point of view, however, calls for emphasis.\nEducation is no longer an interest subsidiary to other interests. It has\nbecome one of the independent and dominant concerns of modern societies,\nand particularly of democratic societies. We may make such administrative\narrangements from time to time as may be found workable and possible.\nBut we must expect education to be eventually the organizing center which\nshall draw to itself and adjust to one another all of those governmental agencies which are directly concerned with purely human betterment.\nBut while the greater things are taking shape, the Bureau of Education\nis to go on doing more and more of its appointed work. That appointed\nwork, stated in other than legal terms, is to make sporadic educational\nexcellence contagious, and make the contagion of educational improvement an epidemic. Let me close with an illustration:\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNATI\n\nNAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nNot long ago I was at a university commencement, where, among others,\na class from the law school received their appropriate degrees. When he\ncame to one of the young men, the president stopped and explained to the\naudience this candidate's peculiar case. To begin with he was deaf, and\nwas unable to speak. Early in his senior year, in a football accident, he\nhad lost the sight of one of his eyes, and that of the other was threatened\nfor a time. When he was nearly recovered, his president, visiting him in\nthe hospital, offered condolence in view of the probability that he would be\nunable to complete his course. He took the pad and wrote across it, \"I've\none good eye left and I'll make it yet.\" That young man was a negro in a\nsouthern negro school. His neighbors, white and colored, had confidence\nin him, and they joined in long applause when he received his diploma. He\nmade it, with a single eye; and I am glad to acknowledge the lesson that I\nlearned from him. If by any means we can make such educational spirit\nas his contagious and even epidemic in this wide and susceptible country of\nours, no one of us will have labored in vain.\nWILLIAM\nJAMES\n\nM.\n\nTORREY\n\nHARRIS\n\nGREENWOOD,\nSUPERINTENDENT\nKANSAS CITY, MO.\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nToday there is a vacancy in each heart here that ever came in close\ncontact with the vigorous personality of William Torrey Harris, who died\nin his seventy-fourth year, November 5, 1909, at Providence, Rhode Island.\nIn my office his picture hangs on the wall, and as I turn toward it, the eye\nand the Hps seem ready to speak to me of things eternal. Somehow I feel\nas I look upon his face pictured there, that this life is only earth's vestibule\nto a higher and a better one. It is the same calm face that said to me scarce\ntwo years ago: \"I have now commenced the reading of Hegel's Philosophy\nof History for the seventeenth time, and I shall get more out of it at this\nreading than at any previous one.\" This simple statement is characteristic\nof his entire life, indicating energy, courage, and great tenacity of purpose,\nand forming a background of character as clear cut as polished steel. Handicapped, yet as h(iusekeeper and cook, student and athlete, he emerged from\nYale College after reaching his majority and settled in St. Louis in 1857.\nHere he worked and studied for nearly a quarter of a century, becoming the\ngreatest and sanest intellectual and educational force in this country which\nhas been lavish in its production of vigorous men and women. His personal\nexperience was wide and deep among men and women of keen perceptions\nand strong convictions.\nHe possessed ability of the very highest order, an intellectual energy\nthat was tireless, and a physical constitution that could endure equal to\nNapoleon's. Thruout these years he studied the greatest thoughts of the\ngreatest men that this earth had produced.\nIn all his work he displayed\n\nJ\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWILLIAM\n\nTORREY\n\nHARRIS\n\n93\n\nthe genius of industry, a keen insight, and a well-balanced and unbiased\njudgment upon every subject that he investigated. His mind was titanic\nin its structure and modes of thought, and as he rose and passed across\nthe educational horizon of his native land, he cast a light that will shine\nundimmed down the ages. He always looked for and sought the genesis\nof things. Whether with the microscope, the telescope, or the eye of reason,\ninto whatever region of knowledge he penetrated, he always came back to\nman as that something which remained unchanged thru a changeable\nworld — a something that bound the life of the child, the adult, and the\naged man into one continuous stream of purpose and action. In whatever\nregion he turned his thoughts, he saw clearly beneath this fleeting phenomenon the permanent and the real — the clear idea of the individual and of\nthe absolute reason. His mission was not to startle men and women with\nnew doctrines founded upon false or doubtful hypotheses, but to make clear\nto them the great truths that lie about us everywhere which are wholly or\npartially obscured. By pondering over the fundamental questions of existence, of institutions, of history, of the sciences, of art, of religion and philosophy, hewould bring into the field of thinking that certainty which each\nhas that he exists, and to know he is a rational being that feels and loves\nand aspires to satisfy yearnings yet unsatisfied.\nWilliam Torrey Harris was fortunate indeed when he chose in early\nmanhood St. Louis for his home. His intellect there was unfettered by\ntraditions that would have cramped his aspirations in some other localities.\nThe society- into which he flung himself was in a continual flux not tied\ndown between leading strings. For years he associated with a coterie of as\nprofound and brilliant men and women as could be assembled elsewhere on\nthis continent. This, too, was the era when some of the greatest thoughts\nin the scientific world were startling and challenging the attention of thinking men in Europe and in America. The doctrines of Kant, Laplace, Lagrange, Humbolt, and Lyell, were in some respects being replaced by those\nof Wallace, Darwin, Mayer, Huxley, Spencer, Baird, and others in the\nnatural sciences; while Boole, Sir William Rowan Hamilton, and other\ncontinental analysts, building mostly on the foundations of the great masters who had preceded them, were making wonderful contributions to the\ndepartment of pure and applied mathematics. Bold minds were pushing\nout into new and unexplored fields everywhere. Upon every hand was an\nundercurrent of feeling that in the physical universe from the minutest\nparticle to the largest sun in infinite space, law rules supreme — that every\ndepartment of knowledge is subject to an unvarying uniformity in the organic and inorganic realms; nay, that all human institutions embracing the\nnations of the earth, formed no exception to the rule of the universality of\nlaw. While these schoolmasters of the race were formulating and giving to\nthe world their theories, William Torrey Harris was studying most closely\nand analyzing and inventorjdng most patiently and accurately what these\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand others had done and were doing in their special fields of investigation;\nand while believing most firmly in great underlying principles as the groundwork of everything permanent and valuable, he decided to do a similar\nkind of work in education for the unfoldment of human character as Laplace,\nLagrange, Gauss, Peirce, Boole, Sylvester, Cayley, and others had done for\nmathematics; what Humboldt, Lyell, Agassiz, Wallace, Darwin, Huxley,\nSpencer, and others had achieved in the organic and inorganic sciences;\nwhat Marshall, Story, Webster, Calhoun, Hayne, Wright, and Choate,\nguided by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, had done in fixing the principles of\nconstitutional government for the United States. It is true that Jefferson,\nHorace Mann, Bishop Potter, the elder Beecher, and Alexander Campbell\nin our own country had spoken powerfully in favor of education of the\nmasses in order that repubUcan form of government might be saved from\nanarchy. But his sphere of work lay in another direction, that of critically\ninterrogating human nature and human institutions, and then determining\nwhat factors in these are permanent and what ones transitory and whether\nthey could be brought within the realm of educational law as implicitly\nexisting in man's thinking-processes. Across the historic pages he saw\nthat some men had cut deep channels in every part of the world's history\nwherever men had combined to secure and maintain permanent possession\nof property within prescribed limits. All his investigations were confined to\ncivilized races. Savages had no history anterior to civilization, and the\nwild man had no great attraction for him prior to the taming of his instincts\nin obedience to the civil and moral law. A scheme of education, however\nwell de\\ised, without a thoro knowledge of the persons to which it can be\nappUed, would have only an abstract value. And all his reflections centered\nabout estabhshed and well-organized institutions, the home, the church,\nthe school, and the state. As others studied plants and animals in the wild\nor domestic state, he studied man in civil society. Whatever line of research\nhe undertook he brought the highest order of analysis and constructive\nabiHty to its investigation. Thus he stimulated others in their activities\nby virtue of his clear thinking and judicial attitude. His special work was\nto gather up and to arrange concrete phenomena under general law and\nshow how these included the highest results of human reason. By the most\nsearching analysis, he separated complex phenomena into their simplest\nelements and placed each where it belonged. Literally he would pluck up\na subject by its roots, and in the clearest sunshine examine each of its\nconstituent elements and classify them one by one. In this respect his\nmind was one of the most searching and critical of any age. Whether dealing with abstractions or real things, he never wavered in his steadfast\ncourse. Having sounded the depths of knowledge with unerring fine and\nplummet, he moved forward from premise to premise with a force as irresistible asfate. He built up his arguments into a system out of which he\nformulated the laws of logical analysis and classification.\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nW^/Z'^/yllf\n\nTORREY\n\nHARRIS\n\n95\n\nWhen he had passed in review thru the first stage in knowing and entered\nupon the second, or the relativity of knowledge, he clearly perceived that\nany one science is only a bough of something else deeper down. Every\nscience touches other sciences at numerous points of contact. He was preeminently atruth-hunter who would know what a thing is and what it is\nnot in order to know its history and its destiny. His materialistic problem\nwas to convert the forces of the world into such forms that man could\nhandle them. His spiritual problem was freedom and immortality of the\nsoul, guided by higher specialized inteUigence. The ablest Uving advocate\nof the freedom of the human will as opposed to a conscienceless mechanism,\nhe recognized for each the privilege of making the most of himself as an\nindependent and self-centered personality. It was only a step then to the\nachievement in the realm of matter and mind as man's special prerogative.\nBy looking steadfastly at institutions he saw their significance in the\nsystems of administration and jurisprudence which safeguarded property,\nconferred personal rights and privileges, and enforced contracts. There\ncould be no higher degree of intelligence developed above that of the uncivilized tribes, unless these rights and duties were enforced. Man can be\nelevated only thru a good system of religion, a good system of morals, and\na good system of politics. Physical causes produce physical effects and\nintellectual and moral causes produce their corresponding effects. These\nprinciples being deeply imbedded in the universal consciousness of mankind,\nhe longed to see humanity not living in the basement, but on the first, second,\nand third floors. History had taught him the great lesson that in the stream\nof life men are sifted and sorted, the few to rise, the majority to sink into a\ndead level; but the hope of the world was in the elevation of the masses,\nguided by intelligent leadership in the active practice of the highest forms of\nmoral and civic virtues. Because men succeeded by honorable means in great\nundertakings, he did not regard their successes as crimes against humanity.\nThe most important of the world's work, as he saw it, was to elevate the\nnatural instincts of man thru the appointed channels of civiHzation by\nreducing his habits of thoughts and actions to a reasoned system of rights,\nduties, and obligations, and among these he recognized duties, customs, and\nactions as of pre-eminent worth in the formation of character.\nIn education he dug down into the neglected and forgotten elements to\nfind a sure foundation upon which to build. In this search he brought to\nlight the \"five windows of the soul\" thru which the different kinds of\nknowledge reach the mind and are systematized by it. A human being\nthus became of infinitely more value than a mere animal which turns what\nit lives on into a manufactured article for man's consumption. The silent\nforces of life, working like the molecular forces in the department of physics,\nare the most powerful in the shaping of character. Education, character,\nlife itself, all combined are properly classed as a growth purposefully developed, and learning is also a process of continuous growth.\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nHis outward speech was the expression of his inward thoughts and feelings which had been maturely considered before utterance. Whether he\nfollowed Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Edwards, Kant, Hegel, Hamilton, John Stuart Mill, or Herbert Spencer, he would classify all their\nthoughts by the three phases of knowing which he had discovered and elucidated, and then further test the conclusions each had reached by an apphcation of the valid and invalid modes of the syllogism. Back of the syllogistic\nforms he instituted a critical investigation as to why the modes of the figures\nare arranged in definite orders. Starting with the conclusion that grammar\nshows the logical structure of language, and that language reveals the structure of reason, and that all speech takes the form of a judgment, he ascertained that the mind acts in conformity to the syllogistic modes in a specific\nmanner when interpreting sensuous ideas, abstract ideas, or ideas of the\nabsolute. Even the mind itself, unless unhinged, works according to law.\nSo far as I know, he was the first who analyzed the different figures of\nthe syllogism for the purpose of showing what kind of knowledge each\nrepresents and how it is arranged. He demonstrated how in sense-perception, which is a low grade of thinking, the mind \"uses the second,\nfirst, and third figures; in the handling of abstract ideas, the third, first,\nand second figures; and in the absolute idea, it uses the third figure.\" From\na critical examination he was led to inquire — what significance have the\nsyllogistic figures in psychology? This clue was no doubt derived from\nHegel, who was the first to point out that each form of life had a corresponding \"syllogistic structure and likewise the inorganic world is correspondingly dominated.\" A deeper meaning is implicitly involved in the\nfigured syllogisms as not only furnishing rules for testing thoughts, but\nhow the mind unconsciously thinks its thoughts according to the principles\ninvolved in the very structure of the syllogism. His special interpretation\nand application of the syllogism revealed to thinkers a deeper meaning in\nthe logic of thought as to its background than any others had ever discovered, and of which only Hegel and Everett had caught ghmpses. Once\nin this field and seeing how fruitful it was, it was an easy step to take up\neach of the subjects that entered into the curricula of the elementary school,\nthe high school, and the college, and to determine its bearing on all the other\ndepartments of learning, and to map out the special sphere of each. Thus,\nit is evident how this mental procedure gave rise to his famous expression —\n\"The five windows of the soul.\"\nFrom his reflections on the dominant ideas composing each of the\nbranches pursued in the elementary schools, the secondary schools, and the\ncolleges, he perceived how they naturally fell into five co-ordinate groups\nand that each group ought to be represented in each year's work thruout\nthese continuous courses. His chief contribution to the philosophy of\neducation lies in this classification, in which is demonstrated what categories\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWILLIAM\n\nTORRE Y HARRIS\n\n97\n\nof the mind are actually employed in pursuing any one of these groups of\nstudies.\nIt is thru mathematics as an instrument that a tool is furnished for\ndealing with bodies and their various kinds of motion in time and space.\nMathematics thus enables man to command nature in its quantitative\naspect. As powerful as this solvent is, it has its limitations. Its realm,\nhowever much extended and symbolized in measuring space, time, matter,\nforce, and energies, cannot be apphed to any considerable extent to the\nprocesses of organic life. While one may study the mechanical action of\nforces as manifested in the plant, even here everything quantitative and\nmathematical is of a different form from that of the life-principle itself.\nThere is a biological something in the plant or the animal which determines\nit to follow after its kind. All the mechanical forces, such as light, heat, electricity, and gravitation, are best studied and comprehended from the standpoint of mathematics. Yet thought in its practical aspects as well as in its\ndeeper phases will be static, dynamic, or combination, just as human minds\nmay be fixed, fluid, or plastic.\nRising out of the inorganic world which presupposes the organic, the\nsecond includes all the studies relating to plants and animals — the growth\nof material for food, clothing, shelter, transportation, and culture. This\ninternal principle in inorganic nature builds for itself from the surrounding\nmaterial a structure in which to dwell. The animal uses the inorganic and\norganic substances, drawing from its surroundings salts and acids, and thru\nits instrumentaUties converting vegetable substances into tissue by the use\nof heat, light, and electricity. It is a striving to express itself after its own\nform.\nThis Hfe-process is not mathematical, neither is it mechanically moved\nby a force without or within. There is a formative principle which is the\nprime mover and modifier that mysteriously builds up the organic structure.\nIt is true that at many points these two phases, the inorganic and the\norganic, overlap, nevertheless they exhaust the field of nature. They include two vast areas of science, pure and abstract, in their wide applications,\nand some have gone so far as to make them include all knowledge. From\na few fundamental conceptions pure and applied mathematics have been\nbuilt up into one of the most comprehensive' and far-reaching systems that\nthe mind of man has yet constructed. Yet there are vast fields where it is\nutterly helpless as an efficient agent. Neither can the most skillful biologists apply the methods of their department to outside spheres. Projected\nin bold relief, Dr Harris showed what instruments as tools man employs\nto comprehend the inorganic and the organic kingdoms in standard terms\nof his own thinking.\nThe significance of his discoveries and classifications was not fully\nrecognized or comprehended while he was among us. Had they been, a\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ngreat deal of fruitless effort and senseless experimentation on the children\nwould have been avoided. He formulated new and safe lines of pedagogical\nprocedure which are rational. Unwittingly would-be reformers often\nstumble into bottomless pits. To cause leaders of educational thought to\nconsider the whence and the whither of what they were doing was his\nobject in speaking to the educators of the world. He was a conspicuously\nclear and safe leader in educational philosophy. He had worked thru each\nsubject and determined its bearings on the Hfe of the citizen in a free government under the conditions of time and opportunity. Under his conception the world for helpful co-operative purposes was growing very small,\nand he was writing on the world's blackboard for all time. As he often\nexpressed it: \"We can afford to wait.\" His instincts were always centered\non the eternal verities in each subject. The superficial he never tolerated,\nand passing popular bursts of educational reformation had no charm for\nhim any more than red-handed anarchy as a substitute for constitutional\ngovernment. His earliest training had been to look at all things straight\nin the face and to see what they contained. To bring truth to Ught among\nmen was his mission and this he did in many ways. When the entire country went wild on supplementary reading in the elementary schools, he\ncalled attention to the great value of strong, short Hterary unities for young\nand growing minds; these selections were to be taken from a large list of\nthe choicest authors, thru a careful study of which the learner's mind\nwould be influenced by noble thoughts and enriched by a select and extensive vocabulary.\nThe universal cry from the secondary schools, colleges, and universities\nin regard to the chaotic conditions of teaching Enghsh and the woeful\nresults now obtained are mainly traceable to methods and their tendencies\nwhich he clearly foresaw twenty years ago and pointed out. He saw the\nneed of something logical and eternal in the elementary schools.\nUnder the influences of superficial science teaching in many high places\nand in magazines and the daily press, he saw that a mechanical explanation\nof the world is a system of mere surface thinking which was making deep\ninroads on reUgious faith in the unseen. A mind so constituted as his was,\nanalytical, critical, constructive, and with a firm behef in human responsibihties and the immortality of the soul, would naturally view with deep\napprehension the undermining of the Christian faith and the loosening\nof the unseen foundations of society. To combat the agnostic influences\nat work in society, he studied most diligently the Church Fathers, Dante,\nChristian art and hymns, fate and freedom, and all phases of materialistic\nand spiritual philosophy, and in his lectures on the Christian religion\nand its necessity to humanity, he was the ablest defender that appeared\non the platform during the last quarter of a century. He met the scoffer\non his chosen field and there answered him most completely. In thus\nspeaking of him in this connection, I class him with Professor C. C. Everett\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCRITICISMS\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nLAITY\n\n99\n\nand Professor Borden Bowne, and these three, as I estimate ability, were\nthe clearest and ablest and sanest thinkers in this special department our\ncountry has yet produced.\nDr. Harris was one of the most philosophic and artistic interpreters\nof music, Hterature, sculpture, painting, and architecture that either\nEurope or America has produced. These were all expressions indicating the height and the depth of the aspirations of the human soul in\nendeavoring to transcend the world of sensuous impressions. They were\nmeans of conveying to humanity what man strives to accompHsh and\nto transmit his thoughts and feelings to the oncoming waves of future\ngenerations. Only the few who came in close personal contact with him\nknew the riches of his wonderful mind or the sweet persuasive influence of\nhis nature. On another occasion I have drawn the curtain partly aside\nthat others may catch some glimpses of him as a few knew him.\nHe shed a steady and clear light on every question that he ever presented\nto the National Education Association. His contributions covered the\nmost diversified fields of thought. He was equally at home in all. Undoubtedly hewas the best-informed all-round citizen of this country. For\nmore than sixty-five years he had been a learner and a thinker. In farreaching constructive statesmanship, he would have ranked with the very\nablest in Europe or in America. As an interpreter of history, of poHtical\ninstitutions, of the civil and moral law, and of sociological, economic, and\nsocial conditions, he was unexcelled even by those who are speciahsts each\nin his own chosen field. But in the realm of psychology, philosophy, and\nlogic in their bearing on systems of education, he stood head and shoulders\nabove all others on this continent if not in the world. He was the manysided scholar, philosopher, and educator — great in the simplicity of his\ncharacter.\nLittle appreciated while here among us, yet the living and those that\ncome after us will turn more frequently to his published addresses as\nsources of information, of inspiration, and of wisdom than to those of any\nother of America's great educators and philosophers. His rank is among\nthe world's greatest men and his statue should be placed in the \"Hall of\nFame\" in our national capitol as a recognition of his contribution to\nscholarship, education, and philosophy.\nTHE\n\nCRITICISMS\nJAMES\n\nW.\n\nOF THE\n\nCRABTREE,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nPRESIDENT,\nSTATE\nPERU, NEBR.\n\nBY THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nLAITY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSociety is divided into two classes — teachers and the laity. These two\nclasses are very intimately related to each other. All teachers formerly\nbelonged to the laity. They passed successfully the examinations, received\ncertificates, secured schools, and became teachers.\nThe laity likewise\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[General\n\nreceives recruits from the teaching ranks, receiving each year, it is said,\nnearly one-fifth of all those engaged in the teaching service.\nTeachers and laity have not only come largely from each other but\nthey have intermarried to such an extent that there is no telling how much\ndissatisfaction and adverse criticism among the laity comes directly or indirectly from teachers themselves. It may be shown in this same way that\nthe confidence of the laity in the public schools is also largely traceable to\nthe teacher's influence.\nThere are three classes of the laity who pass criticism upon the schools:\n(i) the smallest, least important, but most annoying, is the class known as the\nchronic faultfinders; (2) a much larger and more dangerous class composed\nof those whose disapproval has back of it something personal and selfish;\n(3) the larger class of people whose criticism grows out of their loyalty to\nthe pubHc schools coupled with their interest in young people and a genuine\ndesire to promote their welfare.\nA somewhat careful study of the faultfinders, in ten typical country\nschools and in ten typical smaller city schools, shows:\n(i) That the number is limited, there being only nine who could properly be called\nchronic kickers in the ten districts and thirty-seven in the ten towns.\n(2) That in every instance these same people complain about other things besides\nschool affairs, as a rule fighting most bitterly that in which the community is most deeply\ninterested.\n(3) That the criticisms are trivial, usually reflecting on the methods of teaching,\nmethods of discipline, personality of teacher or superintendent, and the methods of business employed by the board of education.\n(4) That while the criticisms are exceedingly annoying to the teacher in charge of\nthe particular school, they are of little value to those who are gathering suggestions for\nimproving the efficiency of the schools. They seldom touch upon essential points or upon\norganic weaknesses.\n\n■ The chronic faultfinder is one of the teacher's worst problems. At\nsome period of his life every school teacher has dreamed of the time when\nall the faultfinders would be dead, or else transformed into angels of kindness ;of the time when all the bitter tongues would have grown tired and\nstill, and the only sounds to reach his ear, the pleasant tones of commendation. But always in the gray of dawn he awakes to find that the kickers\nstill live, and that their numbers have not decreased.\nThe person who has made a careful study of facts and conditions is\nworthy of listeners at least. The chronic faultfinder, however, has no\nplace in this class. He is the obstinate individual who is never suited.\nWhatever is, is wrong. Whatever plan is adopted, he attacks. If the discipline istrong, it is an outrage; if it is mild, he brands it as a failure. In\none breath the children are worked almost to death ; in the next they are\nnot forced to study at all. He can see that other schools are all right, but\nthis particular school is a fraud and a delusion.\nThe faultfinder does not represent the educational poHcy of the laity.\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCRITICISMS\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nLAITY\n\nlOi\n\nThe people ridicule and disown him. His conduct is just as irritating to\nthe Board of Education, and to citizens interested in the welfare of the\nschools, as it is to the teacher, or to the superintendent. But these are the\nburdens that every teacher, principal, and superintendent must bear.\nEveryone must learn to accept with resignation the fact that the chronic\nfaultfinder is now and always will be a part of Jiis life. He has a right to\ncriticize, and he is going to do it. The teacher must learn to bear it all with\ncomposure, and to reduce to a minimum the worry resulting from it.\nNow, as to the second class — those who criticize because of some personal grievance and for other selfish reasons. It is well knpwn that city\nsuperintendents are in the habit of searching for the motive, or as they\nterm it, the \"sore spot,\" and that they often find back of the criticism\nsomething like the following: defeated for a place on the board; daughter\nfailed to secure a position in the schools; the superintendent or teacher\nbelongs to the wrong church; a relative or political friend not chosen as\njanitor; competitor given the contract for coal or for school supplies;\nchild received low grades; boy punished for some school offense; daughter\nnot promoted or graduated; dislikes personally some teacher or member\nof her family.\nThese people are the cause of most of the more deep-seated difficulties\nthat confront the management of the school. They are the more dangerous\nbecause they are often able to conceal their real motives from the community. They claim to have and are often supposed to have a genuine\ninterest in the growth and prosperity of the school, and yet they resort to\nany extreme in order to get even with the superintendent, teacher, or\nboard member.\nIt sometimes looks as if a man fights harder to punish someone he\nhates, than to protect one in whom he has confidence; that he devotes\nmore time, energy, and ingenuity in an effort to retard the progress of the\nschool, because of some trifling grievance, than an equally strong man\ndeeply interested in the schools puts forth in defending worthy teachers\nand in protecting a good school. A man actuated by the motive of revenge\nhas little difiSculty in ferreting out real mistakes of those managing the\nschools, and of discovering organic weakness in the school itself. Then\npresenting these with earnestness and apparent sincerity he easily convinces his neighbors that there is something radically wrong. His motive\nmay not be discovered in time to prevent more or less damaging results.\nHowever contemptible, this man is likely now and then to uncover\nsome real defect which the superintendent would not know without his\nassistance. Of course the superintendent wisely profits by such knowledge.\nWe do not disregard truth simply because it is picked up by soiled hands.\nBut the greatest good comes not from the worst but from the best people.\nTo the school it comes from those most deeply interested in young people,\nand in their education for efficiency.\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nTho we naturally dread the criticism that comes from faultfinders and\nfrom men of questionable motives, we welcome the opinion of any thoughtful man. There is no war on honest criticism. It is the breeze that keeps\nthe educational atmosphere clear. True criticism is a corrective agency\nand the teacher's best friend. It is the impelling force that leads one to\nsearch for that which is best.\nThis leads to a discussion of the third class, those who believe in the\nschool, and who are loyal to its interests. Again, a meager investigation\nhas been made to gather a few concrete facts, and some data from the\npeople themselves, before arriving at a conclusion. The effort has been\nmade to get the actual views of the people, from different standpoints.\nFirst, the following questions were sent out to over three hundred thoroly\nrehable business men in the various parts of a western state, the aim being\nto get their honest opinion as to whether the schools as at present organized\ndo their part in preparing young people for the places they must occupy\nimmediately after leaving school:\nQuestion: In the case of a young person entering your employ, would you consider\nhis school record of any value?\nOf the two hundred and ten replies, the tabulation shows two hundred and seven\nyes, three no. The letters, however, of those answering yes usually indicate also that the\nschool might give a still better preparation for service.\nQuestion: Would you give high-school graduates the preference over those who\nhave not taken such a course?\n\nSome of the typical answers to this question are:\nEverything else being equal, I most certainly would.\nIt depends on the kind of work done in the high school. Some high schools lead\npupils to despise honest toil.\nI would prefer the high-school graduate but would be glad if he were more practical.\nI seldom make inquiry as to scholarship, but it would be better, I think, if I should.\nI prefer the young man with an education as soon as he can be brought down to earth.\nI think the preparation the schools give excellent, but I prefer to teach them the\nprinciples of my business after they come to me.\n\nAgain, many suggest that the high school might give a better preparation. One hundred and ninety-six prefer the high-school graduate, whereas\nfourteen are either uncertain or prefer those who are not graduates.\nQuestion: Is a college education desirable for a business man?\nAnswers:\nAlways desirable.\nDesirable but not essential.\nThat depends on the man and the college.\nNot essential to the business but to the outside Ufe.\nIt is important in making life mean more,\nI fear a college education hinders from the standpoint of making money, as college\nnotions and college habits do not prepare for a business life.\nIf valuable, it must be obtained in early life.\nWorth as much to a business man as to a professional man.\nGraduation from technical colleges means more than graduation from general groups.\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCRITICISMS\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nLAITY\n\n103\n\nThe tabulation: Yes, one hundred and fifty; No, twenty; DonH know,\nthirty- two; No answer, eight. Many of those who answer \"Yes\" show\nby their answers that they are not entirely satisfied with the kind of training given in the colleges, tho better satisfied, evidently, than with the high\nschools.\nIn order to test further the attitude of these same men toward the\nschools, the following questions were included in the list sent out:\nQuestion: Are the moral standards of the high school satisfactory?\nAnswers:\nHigher than could be expected when the home life of students is taken into account.\nThe moral standards do not vary greatly from the ideals of the superintendent and\nfaculty.\nIt is to be regretted that dancing and card playing are encouraged so much by the\nschool.\nOne indiscreet, careless high-school teacher may perceptibly lower the standard of\nconduct of the entire body of students.\nIt all depends on the teachers.\nThe moral standards are good enough. Parents of low ideals are the ones who\ncriticize the schools.\n\nThe tabulation shows: Yes, ninety-five; No, thirty; Don't know, fiftysix; No answer to this question, twenty-nine. Again the answers are more\nfavorable than the tabulation indicates, as many of those answering \"No\"\nshow by the tone of their replies that they are not necessarily dissatisfied\nwith the school but that they believe further improvement should be made\nalong this line.\nQuestion: In the main are the public schools making the progress that should be\nmade?\nAnswers:\nMaking better progress than could reasonably be expected.\nGoing so fast that it makes our heads swim.\nIf measured by the increased taxes for school purposes, the progress is ample.\nThey are broadening and spreading; not so sure of real progress.\nThe progress is not in the right direction.\n\nThe answers to this question, tho not in form for tabulation, show in\nthe main that these men are proud of the progress that has been made.\nThe answers to these questions, and to several others not included in\nthis paper, show that business men are reasonable in their criticism. They\nhave the fullest confidence in the superintendent and are quite willing to\nleave the problems of the school to him. They will evidently be satisfied\nwith his judgment. This does not mean that school conditions cannot be\nimproved. It does not mean that teachers and superintendents should let\nwell enough alone. It simply means that school experts have the good will\nand the confidence of business men in their efforts to improve upon present\nschool conditions.\nThe great majority of business men are pleased with the work of the\ncommon school, the high school, and the college, but, Uke the educators in\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthat respect, they see certain weaknesses that demand thoughtful attention\non the part of those in charge of the schools. They have serious doubts as\nto the wisdom of some educational policies, and very often they are right in\ntheir views.\nThe following question was sent to each of one hundred and ten other\nrepresentatives of the laity in order to get at a few specific weaknesses of\nthe school from the standpoint of the people:\nIn your judgment, what is the greatest weakness in our public high school as at\npresent organized and conducted?\n\nEighty-two answers were received. Some few supposed there were\nweaknesses but preferred to leave it to educators to find them. Only one\nwas greatly dissatisfied with the schools.\nThe answers show faith in teachers and great confidence in the schools.\nOften the writer apologizes for assuming to criticize at all. Some of the\ntypical answers are:\nThe high school does not fit boys and girls to earn a living.\nThe work is theoretical, visionary, and impractical.\nIt prepares too much for college and not enough for making a living.\nNot sufl&cient emphasis is placed on the common branches.\nThe greatest weakness is the lack of accuracy and thoroness.\nNot teaching to do things.\nNot teaching the proper care of public property and respect for older people.\nThe school neglects the development of the moral and physical nature.\nIt interests young people too much in late evenings.\nThe pupil is not taught how to study.\nLack of attention to agriculture, domestic science, and other forms of industrial work.\nPupils' energies scattered over too many subjects in school and among too many\nschool interests on the side.\nLowering moral standards by football, basket-ball, etc.\nWaste of time and effort.\nToo Httle attention given to the vocational.\nAn inexcusable weakness is the gap between the grades and the high school. Why\nnot let the high school follow the grades naturally instead of hooking onto the college\nand leaving its feet dangling in the air as at present?\n\nIt may be interesting to note that out of fifty-four of the answers most\nconscientiously and carefully prepared:\nTwenty-six mention in some way or other that the high school is not doing enough in\nfitting boys and girls for earning a living;\nEight seem to hold the college in a measure responsible for the lack of balance in\nhigh-school courses;\nNineteen complain that pupils are not taught how to study;\nFourteen mention the need of greater attention to agriculture or other manual and\nindustrial subjects;\nFour refer to the bad effects of athletics;\nSeven think students are forced to study too many things;\nFour object to the so-called practical subjects in the high school, such as agriculture,\nbookkeeping, and shopwork.\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCRITICISMS\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nLAITY\n\n105\n\nThe following is selected as one of the best answers given to the question\nand also as one which seems to be typical of the feeling that exists among\nthe most thoughtful members of the laity everywhere at the present time:\nThe school does not attach enough importance to what the pupil is to do immediately\non leaving his studies. My boy has received his college degrees, but unless he secures a\nposition as a high-school teacher or as a college professor, a kind of work for which he\nhas no desire, I do not know what in the world will bCcome of him. He is a scholar but\nhelpless as a child in going up against things as they actually are, and worst of all, he\nseems to have lost the pride in doing things with his hands which he had when he entered\nthe high school. We must either keep our children out of the high school a portion of\nthe time and teach them to do things, how to earn money as well as how to spend it,\nhow to live among people today as well as how folks have lived and acted in the past,\nor else the schools should in some way meet this need, and why may not the schools do\nthis double service for our children?\n\nThe laity is proud of our public-school system and greatly pleased with\nthe trend of its development. Because of the high esteem in which teachers\nare held, and because of unlimited confidence in the judgment of educators\nin all matters pertaining to the school, the criticisms are expressed more\nin the form of desires than as actual adverse criticisms on the schools.\nThe views of the laity are for this reason deserving of additional respect\nand consideration. It will be observed that the criticisms of these thoughtful, dependable people, even tho mildly expressed, touch upon basic principles and point out organic weaknesses well worth the educator's most\ncareful thought.\nThere are two groups of educators, neither group very large, but each\none trying desperately to bend the trend of public-school progress in its\ndirection. One group, in pursuing its educational ideals, has forgotten\nthat men are beings of flesh and blood to be housed, clothed, and fed.\nThe other group sees little in life beyond earning a living and making\nmoney, and desires to cast overboard the languages and every other subject that does not contribute clearly and directly to strictly utilitarian ends.\nThe laity views either of these extremes with equal alarm.\nAristotle says that virtue is a mean between two extremes. For example, he says wise economy is a virtue, but too little or too much economy\nproduces the spendthrift or the miser, the worst of vices. On the same\ngeneral principle, a very wise educational end or purpose, when pushed to\nthe extreme of neglecting its important bearings and its inherent connections with other things, not only loses its real value but leads to unsound,\nunbalanced, and dangerous results.\nThe laity appreciates just as we all appreciate that there is little danger\nof either of the two extremes mentioned gaining permanent possession of\nthe schools. It is not difficult to see that the great majority of thinking\neducators are centering on the safe and sane educational mean of educating\nfor both culture and service, the most splendid progress having already\nbeen made by schools in many places in working out this double idea.\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "io6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe laity is not unconscious, as these investigations show, of the use\nthat many universities and colleges still persist in making of the high\nschool. Young men and young women have a strong desire to continue\ntheir education, and their parents have a growing desire to give their\nchildren a college education. Both student and parent are anxious for an\narrangement by which the student may be admitted to the college without\nhaving to go thru the ordeal of the entrance examinations. Superintendents and high-school teachers, and others interested in young people\nare also anxious that a connection be established that will enable graduates\nto enter college on their high-school diplomas. This desire is so strong\nthat the college is permitted to form its entrance requirements into a course\nof study for the high school. However rational as entrance requirements,\nit' does not necessarily follow that they shape themselves into an ideal\nhigh-school course of study.\nNow, the laity feels that the bargain has turned out to be a bad one\nfor the high school. In order to accommodate one out of five, or one out\nof ten, as the case may be, the interests of four out of five or nine out of\nten have often been sacrificed.\nIn fairness to the college it must be made plain that leading professors\nin many colleges have already espoused the high-school cause. The state\nuniversity of my own state does not permit any change in entrance requirements or in rules of accreditment without first gaining the consent and\nadvice of the superintendents and principals of the state. Dr. Charles E.\nBessey insists on the high schools giving students that training in botany\nwhich means most to them at their particular age, whether they remain\nin school or drop out. Then he makes that the foundation for his courses\nin botany in the university. He does not see why that cannot be done in\nevery other high-school and college subject. A few other colleges are\nshowing tendencies in this same direction. Those in charge of high schools\nas well as the laity welcome this insurgency on the part of colleges and\ncollege professors.\nThe colleges thruout the country, however, too often use the club of\naccreditment in getting control of the high school in all such matters as\nlaboratory and library equipment, methods of teaching high-school subjects, courses of study, and quahfications of high-school teachers. It is\nstrange how difficult it is for some of our excellent colleges to tear away\nfrom the academic serfdom of earlier days.\nNo one person has done more in emancipating the high school from college control than that city superintendent who recently refused to comply\nwith the red tape and petty regulations prescribed for accreditment by\nthe Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges of the North Central\nStates. Thousands of people had been waiting for someone to speak, so\nwhen Superintendent Ella Flagg Young of the Chicago schools spoke, an\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions] DEMONSTRATIVE\n\nMETHODS\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n107\n\nexpression of approval and appreciation swept over the entire United\nStates. Her action forced important changes in the rules.\nIt is just as absurd and unreasonable for the college to assume to dictate high-school courses as for the high-school to assume to dictate courses\nof study for the grades. The best things do not drop down from heaven.\nThey grow up out of the earth. The helping hand may be extended from\nabove, but growth must be upward and not downward. So, build the\nhigh school on the foundation of the grades. Let its mission be not only\neducating for culture but also training for service. Let it give a rational\neducation for the masses. Then let the college build its courses on this\nhigh-school foundation. Let each year from the kindergarten on up thru\ncollege be built upon and grow out of the year next below, making every\nyear contribute not only its full share of knowledge and of power, but also\nsome preparation for service.\nThe members of the laity look upon education as something that ought\nto better one's condition. They consider that it is something that ought to\nmake their labor more effective and more profitable. They firmly believe\nthat it is something that will at the same time enable them to live fuller,\nricher, and happier lives, and they look upon an educational system as\nfaulty which cannot accomplish this.\nThe school is the public's practical way of expressing its interest in the\neducation and efficiency of its offspring. This gives to the school the\nhighest purpose of all agencies and institutions estabHshed by society, a\npurpose almost equal to that of the home itself. It must be clearly understood that the pubhc school does not belong to the college. It does\nnot belong to the teacher. It does not belong to the church. It does not\nbelong to the political parties. It belongs to the people and it must he operated\nfor the people in promoting the interests of their children.\n\nVALUE\nH.\n\nL.\n\nOF DEMONSTRATIVE METHODS IN THE AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION OF THE RURAL POPULATION\nRUSSELL,\n\nDEAN\n\nOF COLLEGE\nOF AGRICULTURE,\nWISCONSIN,\nMADISON,\nWIS.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nThe growing interest in the matter of agricultural education has doubtless led your program committee to assign a place on this general program\nfor the consideration of the subject here announced.\nThe question of agricultural education is generally considered as merely\na phase of the broader problem of industrial education as apphed to the\nschools, whether it is a specialized school, or in the general public-school\nsystem as we know it today, but it is our belief that the benefits of this\ntype of education should not be confined to the education of the youth alone..\nIt is well within the province of the college and secondary school interested\nin the development of agriculture to carry the teachings of modern agri-\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "io8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncultural science to the rank and file of those who support our entire economic\nstructure. The schools, both secondary and higher, are unquestionably\nmolding at a rapid rate the youth of our land, and the beneficial results of\nsuch training are becoming increasingly evident. But what of the miUions\nwho are struggling with the problems of impoverished fertility, of wasting\ndiseases, of lack of knowledge regarding the essentials as to the proper\ncare and handhng of crops, conditions which are easily possible of improvement, but which are as yet too frequently neglected for lack of proper\nknowledge ? Are these to be left alone in their struggle, while attention is\ndirected solely to the youth of the land ?\nIf these matters which should be taught our youth could be presented\nin such a way as to influence our present practice, the public school would\ndevelop a stronger hold on the community, as it would then to a greater\ndegree enter more vitally into the life of that community.\nThe economic need of the hour is increased production, and we as a\npeople are rapidly passing from the status of a creditor to that of a debtor\nnation. Rapidly increasing prices of our products, and the rapid increase\nof home demand have robbed us largely of our European markets, and\nunless our production is materially increased within the next decade, or\neven less, that time will see us importing our bread stuffs. As a nation\nwe are practicing extensive rather than intensive, or even intelHgent, farming, and as a result, our production is pitiably low.\nPresident Brown of the New York Central Railroad has presented\nstatistics which well show our comparative condition, for instance, with\nGermany. If we were to produce on our tillable areas crops of wheat,\noats, corn, and barley today, equal to those produced on the soils of Germany, which are not nearly so rich on the average, it would amount to an\nincrease in the value of our products that would approximate three and onehalf billions of dollars — or more than one-third of our present total agricultural output. The low yields which this country shows exist in spite of the\nfact that new lands of virgin fertility have been constantly opened up for\nsettlement. But the reckless single-crop system has reduced the original fertility ofthe Dakota wheat-fields from twenty-five to thirty bushels per acre,\nto eleven to fourteen bushels per acre. Last year America surrendered to\nArgentina our position as the leading meat-exporting nation of the world.\nWith a soil that was once of surpassing richness, our farms now yield fourteen bushels of wheat per acre to thirty-two in Old England where the\nland has been cultivated for more than a thousand years. England, Germany, and the Netherlands produce from two to three times as many oats\nper acre as America, while the staple food supply, the potato, yields in\nthese countries two hundred and fifty bushels per acre to our eighty-five or\nninety. With the general appHcation of well-recognized principles of improved agricultural practice, our products could easily be doubled. See\nwhat this would mean.\nOn the basis of present conditions, it would be\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions] DEMONSTRATIvk\n\nMETHODS\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nicc;\n\npractically equivalent to the discovery of a continent of arable land, equal\nto or larger than that now under cultivation.\nWhether as a nation we heed the lesson to be learned before hunger\npinches us, is a question. The remedy we know, if we will but apply it,\nand the application of it can only be made intelligently thru education.\nThe urgent necessity of the case already requires that the father of the\nchild should again go to school, but if he goes,'it must be to a different kind\nof school. It must be to a school of doing, rather than to a school of recitation, for hands cramped with toil cannot well adapt themselves to books\nand figures. The most feasible method of expression is the seeing with one's\nown eyes just how the thing should be done. This has led to the development, by our agricultural colleges, of demonstration work, which carries\ndirectly to the man on the soil the results which have been gained in the\nlaboratory and experimental field.\nThe past few decades have witnessed an enormous advance in agricultural science. The federal experiment stations and the United States\nDepartment of Agriculture have worked out the science and applied the\ntheoretical principles to practice, which, if followed by the rank and file,\nwould immediately result in at least doubling, if not trebling, our present\noutput, and yet this enormous mass of accumulated information at present\nlargely lies fallow, because it has not been brought directly to the man on\nthe farm with sufificient force to grip him with the conviction that forces\nimmediate action. This opportunity is the field for agricultural extension,\nand as Commissioner Draper of New York has well said:\nThe schools, from highest to lowest, should act in accord not only in training students\nand in scientific research, but in carrying knowledge to the very doors of the farmers.\nEvangelistic work in agriculture should go everywhere. Seed specials should be run over\nthe railroads. The blood of the best farm animals should be distributed thruout the state.\nObject-lessons of special interest to both men and women should be carried in all directions. The applications should be especially adapted to every section, and the fullest attention should be given to the less favored rather than to the more favored counties of the\nstate.\n\nThis is exactly what a number of the agricultural colleges are now doing,\nand also some of the secondary agricultural schools.\nWith us in Wisconsin this attempt to reach the actual farmers takes\ntwo modes of expression:\n1. Actual demonstration work held during the summer on selected farms.\n2. Extension courses held at university; also at county agricultural schools and\nelsewhere, giving by demonstration exercises and stereopticon lectures the results of the\nsummer work.\n\nA few salient examples of this work were then presented, using lantern\nslides to show the different phases of the work.\nCorn. — By breeding and selection types of corn were perfected which were peculiarly\napplicable to Wisconsin conditions. Thru the medium of the Experiment Association,\nconsisting of persons who have attended the various courses of the Agricultural College,\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfifteen hundred com centers and twelve hundred barley centers have been established for\nthe propagation of pure-bred grains that have been developed at the college, sufficient\nquantity having been distributed for development of increase plots. During this last\nyear over $300,000 worth of pure-bred seeds was disposed of by members of this association from this selected stock.\nCounty demonstration farms. — On the farms associated with the state charitable and\npenal institutions, also the county-asylum farms, demonstration plots have been developed,\nin which tests of seed taken from surrounding farms are made under comparative conditions. Tests of new, improved, and varying kinds of crops are made. During the course\nof the summer a farmers' picnic is held at which speakers are furnished to present the\nresults of the work and actual demonstration of improved methods thereby made.\nYoung people's corn contests. — Thru the aid of the county superintendents and secretaries ofthe county fairs, samples of improved corn and barley are distributed to school\nchildren, for them to grow and enter samples for comparative judging contest at the county\nfair in the fall. This year twenty thousand young people are engaged in this work, for\nwhich several thousand dollars in cash prizes and several educational scholarships in each\ncounty are given, which provide for the payment of the expenses of the winners to Madison in the winter to attend a special course given for young people. In this way the interest of the school youth, as well as their parents, is enlisted in this improvement work.\nImprovement of animals. — Cow-testing associations, organized for the determination\nof the production of dairy animals and the consequent ehmination of unprofitable cows,\nare fostered. Over thirty community breeding-centers have been established for the breeding of single types of animals, so as to make a community center for the development of\nthese special dairy breeds.\nSoils. — Several hundred co-operative fertilizer tests are in progress on soils where\nphosphate and ground limestone are furnished the farmer to compare the results of this\nsoil-improvement process with the crop returns under ordinary conditions. The drainage\nservice affords the owner of wet, swampy lands an opportunity to begin drainage improvement for which there is a large demand thruout the different portions of the state. Not\nonly is it necessary to drain the swamp and muck lands, but even a large proportion of\nthe clays of the state are too wet for a profitable cultivation without drainage.\nRestriction of diseases of plants and animals. — This is forcibly shown thru the potatospraying demonstrations which are held in the different potato districts of the state, the\ncollege furnishing the machinery and chemicals and showing how the spraying solutions\nare compounded, the farmer giving the labor necessary for the application of the spraying\nmixtures and digging the crop.\nThis same type of work is carried on in connection with the spraying of orchards for\nthe control of the apple scab and codling moth.\nInterest in the restriction of such animal diseases as bovine tuberculosis has been\ngreatly increased by holding postmortem demonstrations on animals that have reacted\nto the tuberculin test. In such instances animals in an apparently healthy condition have\nbeen found to reveal an advanced stage of the disease, which could be readily recognized\nonly upon postmortem examination, and the institution of this demonstration method\nhas rapidly increased the amount of voluntary tuberculin-testing among the farmers of\nthe state.\nWeed eradication and control. — The distribution of weeds is frequently looked upon\nas a comparatively minor matter, and yet many farmers are paying a very heavy tax in\nthe matter of the control and eradication of noxious weeds. Demonstrations made as to\nthe influence of the iron-sulphate treatment on the eradication of mustard, dandelion, and\nsuch weeds have been very successful.\nExtension courses. — During the winter extension courses are held. Thru the medium\nof lectures and demonstrations and practical tests farmers who attend these courses are\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\niii\n\ngiven the results of the summer's work, and thus the influence of these demonstration\nmeetings is further extended. This work was begun five years ago by holding a ten-days'\nfarmers' course at the Agricultural College, and it has increased rapidly in popularity\nuntil last year there were over fifteen hundred men and women present. This work has\nbeen still further extended by taking similar courses out to the different agricultural schools,\nand last year seven such courses were held, the attendance upon each of these ranging\nfrom three or four hundred up to nearly two thousand.\nThe work of these extension courses has been still further intensified by holding\nspecial schools of one week's duration in which definite and regular laboratory exercises\nare given on not more than two or three special phases of agriculture. An experimental\nschool of this sort was held last year at which the subjects of milk-testing, tuberculintesting, and seed-testing were taken up and mature farmers gave to the consideration of\nthese topics the same degreee of care and attention as would be required of regular college\nstudents.\n\nIn these practical ways, aided by the farmers' institutes, which are held\nin all portions of the state and which are also under the immediate direction\nof the Agricultural College, the mature rural population of the state is\nbrought in contact with the latest and best in agricultural practice.\nPUBLIC\nWILLIAM\n\nORR,\n\nHEALTH\nDEPUTY\n\nAND\nSTATE\nBOSTON,\n\nPUBLIC\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nEDUCATION\nOF EDUCATION\n\nMASS.\n\nProbably no movement in education has made such rapid progress in\nforming public opinion, in defining its aims, and in achieving positive\nresults as that which seeks to benefit the human race thru a ministry to its\nphysical needs. When one considers the ideals now so largely current as to\nbodily growth and development, the searching criticisms of all conditions\nwhich operate against good health, and the insistent demand that schools,\nsocial agencies, and governmental power should be exerted in behalf of\nsanitation, pure food, and observance of the laws of hygiene, the showing\nthus made for the advocates of physical education is certainly creditable.\nIt is now an accepted axiom that the failure of the individual to secure\nthat physical development which makes for the highest efficiency in life,\nand the failure on the part of the race to show the same jealous care for its\nvigor and virility are to be accounted as crimes, either on the part of the\nperson concerned, or of organized society, or of both. We have now attained\nto what may be called a public conscience in the matter of health.\nAn achievement in the cause of education for health has been the great\nextension of our knowledge, and the application of the discoveries of science\nin the advancement of physical vigor. More and more the aim of research\nis to discover the underlying causes for weakness and debility, and then to\nremove those causes. Prevention rather than cure is the maxim of the day.\nOne might note illustrations : the warfare against tuberculosis, laws against\nimpure food, quarantine in case of contagious disease, the relentless search\nfor noxious germs, coupled with a like earnest quest for the proper means\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "112\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[General\n\nwherewith to destroy them before entrance into the body, and, if they have\nattacked the individual, to render them comparatively harmless. And other\ninstances of this desire to make much of disease that has ravaged mankind\nimpossible may be found in the insistence upon proper conditions in the\nschoolroom, methods and courses of study adjusted to the needs and capacity of the child, and, more than all else, the recognition of a rightful place\nin any rational system of instruction for definite, direct teaching on the\nproper care of the body and proper respect for its functions.\nNor is this new movement to be attributed in the main to personal,\nselfish considerations. It grows in large measure out of the spirit of human\nsolidarity; it is an expression of the altruism which is more and more\nbecoming a dominant tone in the life of the day. There is a quicker and\nkeener sympathy between man and man. Disease and suffering on the\npart of one's neighbor call forth a desire to rid the world of such shadows\nand such distress. There is, to be sure, a recognition growing out of this\nsame sense of human solidarity that, if evil be tolerated in any portion of\nthe world, then its effects are sure to be felt by all in some way, in some\nform, or at some time. The legislation which has grown out of this public\nopinion constitutes a remarkable body of statute-enactment — that which\nrelates to the schools and their conduct is no small achievement in itself,\nand there is abundant evidence that the end is not yet. Soon we shall\npractically realize that which has been said by a firm believer in the securing of health thru proper instruction, that \"the city or state that does\nnot adequately care for the health of its children may well be considered as\nsubject to a charge of criminal negligence.\"\nAnother motive for this widespread interest in better health is based\nupon a faith in humanity, a large hope, a buoyant optimism. No longer\nis it accepted as inevitable that mankind should suffer the scourge of pestilence and disease. Scientific knowledge has shown so many epidemics to be\npreventable that men are confidently looking forward to the time when\ntyphoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and the white plague shall be no\nmore. There is also a growing confidence that many bodily evils, heretofore\naccepted as inevitable results of heredity, may be counteracted by proper\ntraining, nutrition, and a wise attention to the vital forces granted the\nindividual. The old doctrine of determinism is passing away before a conception of the plasticity of humanity, and the possibility of bringing to\nbear remedial agencies and of calling upon forces heretofore unsuspected\nin the physical nature of the child and the youth.\nBut the progress of education for public health is not free from hindrances and obstacles. The movement must overcome the inertia which\nclings to customs, usages, and existing modes of thought. The old order, to\nbe sure, changes, but it changes slowly. Specific illustrations of this conservatism are easily found by one who studies the condition of many school\nbuildings, and those buildings are by no means confined to country districts.\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n113\n\nThe routine of the school day is in too many places not such as to give a\nproper opportunity for the best development of the child's physical nature.\nWe are still far from establishing a proper co-ordination between the\nmaterial presented in instruction, the mode of teaching, the demands upon\nthe child's mental power, with the order that nature prescribes as necessary\nto the highest development, not only of the mind, but of the other powers\nof the individual.\nAgain, laws are too often but laxly enforced. The individual in too\nmany cases does not realize his duty to society in safeguarding its other\nmembers against the possibility of contagion, against neglect in his own\nhousehold of the primal principles of health. Organized society tolerates\nin cities many conditions which do not make for physical growth, development, and vigor. Consequently, the betterment is sporadic instead of\ngeneral. There is a comparatively slow advance in the practice of the\nteachings of science in regard to bodily health. Knowledge spreads but\nslowly, and only by iteration and reiteration are people impressed with\nthe importance of the new gospel of health for all. Especially in a democracy, where there is no power to issue by edict the command, is progress\nnecessarily dependent upon the slow education of public opinion, and upon\nthe consequent readiness of all individuals to follow the law.\nIn education, with the best intents, much still remains to be done. We\nknow as yet but in part. The importance of play is a comparatively new\nnote in the discussion of teachers. In the practice of the schoolroom only\nwithin a few years has attention been called definitely to the opportunity\noffered at the intermission of the school on the athletic field, in the realm\nof games and sports, and on the gymnasium floor. The larger values of\nathletic training, of gymnasium work in the advancement of mental vigor,\nin the development of moral qualities and of social virtues, are now just\ngaining consideration. A great field for investigation in regard to the order\nand development of the mental powers as compared with the physiological\ngrowth is just being approached. Much still remains to be done in determining thru experiment the exercises adapted for different ages, and the\ndifferentiation between the sports and the gymnasium work set for boys\nand for girls. The field of adolescent physiology and psychology is one of\nvast extent in which only a few landmarks have as yet been erected. New\nconditions brought about by the increase of the factory system, the demand\nfor workers not yet developed in body, the artificial conditions in the city —\nall these are demanding thoro and exhaustive study. How then is progress\nwith some degree of rapidity and certainty to be assured ?\nFirst: We must seek for a better and more adequate organization of\nexperience. Trial and experiment are widespread but as yet no effective\nmeans has been established of securing co-operation between workers.\nHow slowly, with all our associations, conventions, institutes, periodicals,\npublic addresses, does the knowledge of the good thing that has been\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[General\n\ndone, that is possible elsewhere, spread! One may find in cities adjoining\neach other, even in the same community, greatest extremes in the matter\nof regard for the good things of education, in school conditions, and\nin the surroundings which make for health of body.\nAgain, more effective methods of educating pubHc opinion must be secured. It is unfortunately true that the school man and the investigator\nhave not yet learned the art of publicity. Any merchant who followed the\nstereotyped, formal methods used by educators in their gatherings would\nfail utterly in calling the attention of the pubhc to the goods which he\nwishes to sell. We may learn much from the terse, pithy, concise, and telling way in which the newspaper reporter puts his items in the columns of\nthe press. It is of the utmost importance that in such a practical way the\npublic should be informed of the methods and practices used in the schools\nin securing a knowledge of the laws of health.\nChildren constitute an invaluable medium for spreading knowledge that\nhas been put before them so as to make a real and genuine appeal.\nOne might warrant the statement that instruction on the use of improper\ningredients in prepared foods, if put so that the children could bring it to\ntheir homes, would in two years make the business of preparing and placing\nsuch goods upon the markets a financial failure.\nWhen once this knowledge of proper conditions for the health of the\nindividual and the race has become a part of the warp and woof of human\nconviction, legislation will be ample in scope, comprehensive in the ground\ncovered, and will be effectively enforced, because backed by dominant public opinion. There is also need for a fuller and wider knowledge. For\nthis, we must look mainly to institutions devoted to research. There is\nample reason for rejoicing in the growth, number, and effectiveness of such\nagencies. The time has also come when the general knowledge of the\nsubject is such that those investigations may be directed along definite\nlines, toward results of positive value to mankind.\nOut of all this, then, comes an imperative demand for the development\nof the local, state, national, and international agencies which make for the\nconservation of human life. A study of the expenditures of local and general government shows that far more is spent in meeting the evils of crime,\npoverty, and disease than is spent in aiding the agencies which work for\nthe eUmination of these foes of human society. It is not without reason\nthat one hopes that in the near future the civilized state will spend five or\nsix times the amount for conservation, for improvement, that it expends\nfor remedies, and thus reverse the present program.\nIt is emphatically necessary that in the United States the hands of the\nBureau of Education should be strengthened in its endeavors to establish a\nclearing-house whereby information bearing upon the best methods in promoting health shall become the common property of school men everywhere.\nOne discovers in this movement for physical well-being a common current\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHING\n\n115\n\nwherein the representatives of all the manifold phafees of education may\nmeet. The laws of the human body are fixed and fundamental. The\nmethods whereby children and youth are taught and trained to observe\nthese laws must be essentially the same. As our scientific knowledge\ngrows, then, we are going to have an increasing body of common practice\nfollowed by all schools, and thus establish a universal basis for public\neducation in health.\nAgain, sufficient data are now at hand to make possible a quantitative\nmeasurement of the results of such teaching and training, both on the economic and on the social side. If it is found that attention to the physical\nconditions of the child diminishes the percentage of retardation, if contagious diseases are checked, if certain diseases are banished from mankind,\nif the length of human life is increased, if economic eflSciency is multiplied,\nthen these results will show a definite money value to society from better\nschool methods. The social values are also easily determined. Men and\nwomen who are well are more congenial, co-operate more effectively, are\nhappier, are more disposed to join in the common work of betterment of\nconditions in the state and the nation.\nAn efficient democracy demands that the leaders of education should\ngive heed to this primal consideration of health as the basis for all effective\nwork.\nTRAINING\nEMMA\n\nFOR TEACHING\n\nL. JOHNSTON, PRINCIPAL, BROOKLYN TRAINING\nTEACHERS, NEW YORK CITY, N.Y.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nIt is fortunate for each new generation that the ability and the desire\nto teach seem to be natural to most human beings. As a matter of course\nparents teach their children, the housewife teaches her maids, the farmer\nhis men, the factory foreman the hands, the business man his clerks, the\npreacher his congregation. As teaching is so natural an occupation for\nhuman beings and the need for it so great it seems a pity that any teachingpower should be allowed to go to waste. It is safe to say that it is being\nwasted in most of the cases where teachers are failing in schools. These\nmen and women are probably not without teaching-power; they are merely\ntrying in vain to use their power in the wrong place.\nIt is easy to declare that the person who does not make good in some\nteaching position lacks the ''gift,\" and to advise her to try some other kind\nof work. It is much harder to acquaint oneself with her tastes, her temperament, her sympathies, in order to be able to direct her to the part of\nthe teaching-field where the particular kind of service that she can render\nis needed. We whose duty and privilege it is\" to train teachers — and there\nare really none of us that have been long in the profession who are not directly or indirectly doing this work — we must bear in mind the necessity\nof conserving teaching-power.\nSome other kinds of power or ability may\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbecome useless on account of changes in the industrial or social world, but\nwhile generation succeeds generation, and while life grows more and more\ncomplex, it is inconceivable that the need for teaching-power will grow less.\nBesides letting it flow along the ways of least resistance which custom has\nestablished, we must send it thru channels of our digging that it may\ncarry refreshment, health, vigor, Kfe itself, to the arid regions of the\nearth.\nSometimes when we are laboring with a young woman, trying one plan\nafter another in our effort to fit her for teaching, onlookers suppose that our\nonly concern is to put her in the w^y of earning a living at a genteel\ncalling for which apparently she was not intended by nature. But they are\nmistaken. Our chief concern is for the young people at our doors or mayhap in some remote corner of the world who are hungering for the food that\nperhaps this person better than any other can give, and we dare not declare\nher unfit for this mission until we have tested her to the uttermost.\nTo help teachers-in-training to direct their powers we must extend\ntheir study beyond the general problems of education. Their work will\nbe to assist in adjusting pupils to their environment, but the task of adjustment will vary with the individuals to be adjusted. For instance, the\nchild of kindergarten age lives and should live in a different world from that\ninhabited by the boy or girl in the elementary school; the pupils of the\nsecondary school have entered upon another stage of living, the students in\ncollege upon still another. The teacher who undertakes to lead any one\nof these classes of young people into their spiritual inheritance must know\nthe peculiar nature of the individuals whose guide he hopes to be. There\nmay be some teachers whose services would be equally valuable in a kindergarten and in a college, but they are certainly not common. I have in mind\na teacher whose failure in an elementary school was of the most dismal kind.\nExperience made her even less successful than in the beginning, and she\ncame to feel that her case was hopeless. At length a vacancy occurred in\nthe teaching-staff of a secondary school for girls. It was remembered that\nthis unsuccessful .elementary-school teacher had on many occasions manifested apractical interest in the life-problems of young women, and she was\ninvited to fill the vacancy. Then the miracle happened. From the very\nfirst moment she was a success. The minds and hearts of her students were\nto her an open book; the world of young womanhood was as familiar as\nthe world of childhood had been strange. Hundreds of her former students,\nnow teachers themselves, testify that she did more than any other one person\nto inspire and guide them. When, after many years of service, she passed\naway, it was found that the character of the work she had been doing was\nwell expressed by the sculptured figures of the Alice Freeman Palmer memorial atWellesley College — a woman of heroic build with outstretched arm\nand hand unwavering, showing to the slim young girl graduate who goes\nforth with lamp and book, the path she must follow, but with head bent that\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHING\n\n117\n\nthe smooth young brow may feel the teacher's last warm touch of love and\ntenderness.\nWhat a waste of power there would have been had this woman been told\nafter her failure in the elementary school that she did not possess the teaching \"gif t\" ! And what gain there might have been if, while she was receiving\nher preliminary training to teach, she had been encouraged to specialize\nfor immediate service in secondary school or college.\nWithin a somewhat narrow field the opportunity for deliberate choice\nis wisely provided in some training schools that offer kindergarten courses\nin addition to courses fitting for service in the elementary school proper.\nHere all students have met equal entrance requirements and all pursue the\nsame course for the first semester. But during this half-year they observe\nthe two kinds of work being done in the model school, they are encouraged\nto seek the advice of their teachers with regard to their choice of course,\nthey are themselves observed and studied by these teachers to the end that\nthey may be assisted to make a wise selection. It seldom happens that\nstudents who choose one course so deliberately have cause to regret later\nthat they did not select the other.\nTo teachers engaged in schools in any grade from kindergarten to college, opportunity for specialization is offered by the sex of the pupils.\nThere are teachers who succeed equally well whether their pupils are boys\nor girls, but there are many who are clearly fitted to teach pupils of one sex\nrather than the other, and there are some who fail with both because they\nlack sufiicient knowledge of boy and girl nature, and because they are not\naware that the possession of such knowledge is absolutely essential. When,\nfor instance, a certain young teacher took charge of her first class she discovered that she had never made any special study of boys. She learned\nher lesson eventually, but at the expense of too much of her own vitality\nand of the children's time. This extract quoted exactly from her diary will\nshow how the struggle began:\nMay 13. My first day as a teacher.\nChildren remarkably good.\nMay 14. Children again good. My predecessor has them well trained. I doubt\nmy ability to keep them there.\n(Blank pages)\nJune 2. The blank pages represent the most painful fortnight I ever knew — a time\nof unremitting, furious struggle — of being crushed between the knowledge of the impossibility of ruling the boy^, and, on the other hand, the knowledge of the impossibility of\ngiving up.\nSeptember 3. I especially need practice in fierceness. I am going to be fierce right\nalong now.\nI was fierce today, but not enough.\nThe boys were good, but 7 know them.\nFriday, September 6. I've done fairly well this week, but next week I'm going to\nmake those children afraid of my glance. I must be a perfect tigress. The other teachers\nsay that I have all the notorious boys in the division. Next week it shall be my first\nfirm, fixed purpose to inspire fear. If I can't do it, I am no good as a teacher. I wish\nI was more fluent in abuse.\n\nBecause a teacher has sufficient personality and force of character to\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nkeep boys quietly and good-naturedly industrious in a classroom is no\nproof that he understands boy-nature well enough to be the best guide for a\nboy at any particular age. \"Little Hartopp,\" overhearing the uncomplimentary remarks of Stalky and Company as they mimicked him and their\nother schoolmasters, showed his fitness for his task when he said, \"It isn't\nbrutality — it is boy, only boy.\" If the schoolmaster and the schoolmistress\nare only half-way tolerable, the majority of boys will submit themselves to\ntheir authority in the classroom and will take on the intellectual veneer that\nthe school gives, but all the while they will Hve their real lives among themselves, acquire knowledge which has no relation to the prescribed course of\nstudy, and form habits too strong to be broken by any force that may come\nlater into their lives.\nBoys are likely to ignore you if you do not manifest your fitness to be\nreceived into their inner circle, but girls will, in general, take it for granted\nthat their elders are in sympathy with them, and to most women teachers\nthey will, upon the slightest encouragement, show the treasures of their\nworld. The pity of it is that so often a teacher does not know how to act\nin this wonder-world to which she has been introduced thus trustingly\nby its inhabitants. If boys have suffered because of lack of sympathy\nresulting from lack of knowledge on the part of their teachers, what shall be\nsaid of girls ? There are teachers in schools whose call to teach girls is as\nclear as was Mary Lyon's, but there are others who, having shown a\ndecided lack of abiUty-to keep order in a boys' classroom, chiefly for\nthat reason have been termed girls' teachers, and have been permitted\nto take charge of classes of girls. Because on account of their gentle\nmanners, their limited physical strength, their lack of the habit of\ncombination, girls seldom outlaw, seldom resist authority in school, these\nso-called girls' teachers stay with them year after year, giving them the\nhusks of schoolroom knowledge but faihng to give them the food their\nnatures crave. Because girls do not live together in their own world as\nmuch as boys do, it should not be left to this world of theirs to develop\npowers that should make for the uplift of the home and the state. A\nwoman noted for her success as a boys' teacher was asked how the girls in\nher class responded to certain stimuli, and she answered, \"I cannot tell, I\nnever notice them.\" I sometimes wonder whether it would not pay us well\nto notice our American girls a little more, since the girl is mother to the\nwoman. It is not enough to say that intellect has no sex, that since the\nindustrial, the commercial, and the professional world are opening their\ndoors to women, girls should be trained in company with boys and as boys\nare trained. No matter what opportunity may be offered to women to\nshape the life of society in general, including the economic and political life,\nthe fact will remain that men and women have different ways of thinking\nand feeHng and that they were just as different when they were boys and\ngirls. I am not maintaining that boys and girls should be in different\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHING\n\n119\n\nschools or classes. I am asking only for a differentiation between the\ntraining of boys and girls whether they are educated together or separately,\nthis differentiation to be brought about thru their teachers' understanding of the difference between their natures.\nRural and urban schools offer the teacher another opportunity for\nspeciaHzation. Too often country children and youth are put in charge of\nteachers whose chief aim is to fit them for the industrial or commercial life\nof the city to the neglect of the rich possibilities offered by their present\nenvironment. The teacher who selects the rural school for his field must\nstudy not alone the characteristic ideas and habits of his country pupils, he\nmust study the community which he is called to serve, must recognize the\nimportance of the part it plays or should play in the life of the nation.\nA teacher whose field is any portion of a great city system of public\nschools, especially when the city is a port like New York, receiving its\nthousands of immigrants every year, needs the preparatory training of the\nforeign missionary. He should know something of the language, the history, the occupations, the social condition of the people whose children he\nis to teach. It is not enough.to resolve that these children of aliens — alien\nin language, in thought, in feeling, in habits, in aspirations — shall be made to\nconform to the American type. What is the American type ? Is it fixed ?\nIs it desirable that it should be ? May it not be that it is destined to become\nsomething finer than we have known, and that a study of these different\nclasses of strangers so soon to become an integral part of the American\npeople may lead to a determination to aid them in realizing their ideal\ninstead of trying to supplant these ideals by others less suited to them and\nless valuable to the nation as a whole?\nAs one community after another makes a place in its public schools for\nphysically, mentally, and morally defective children, there arises a need for\nteachers specially trained to care for the blind, the deaf, the feeble-minded,\nand the incorrigible. There must be knowledge, of course, plenty of it,\npossessed by the teachers of so-called special classes, but there must be\nsomething else that transcends knowledge. Who can define this essential\nthing ? The spirit of self-sacrifice that always responds to the call of misfortune may send the good shepherd out into the cold and darkness to seek\nthe lamb lost among the hills, but what is it that sharpens the shepherd's\near so that above the noise of the storm he clearly distinguishes the faint\nappeal of loneliness and helplessness ?\nA certain young woman was considered a hopeless case by those who\nwere attempting to train her for teaching. Slow to learn, apathetic, apparently resentful of criticism no matter how tactfully it was offered, she\nseemed to lack every quality of mind and heart that a teacher should possess. One day a volunteer was called for to give temporary assistance to a\nteacher of mentally defective children. This young woman was the first\nto offer her services.\nShe had not been with the children half an hour be-\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "I20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfore their teacher said, \"This is the best assistant I have ever had. She\nunderstands my children, and they turn to her for help as naturally as they\ncome to me. It is rare to find a person so well qualified by nature for this\nkind of work.\" The young woman resumed her study of the science of\neducation with interest and enthusiasm. At last she had a strong motive\nfor overcoming the difficulties that stood in the way of her obtaining a\nlicense to teach. What a corps of learned professors could not do for her\nhad been accomplished by a handful of feeble-minded children.\nWithin the limits of this paper it would be impossible to point out all\nthe kinds of service for which teachers need special training. The instances given may be sufficient, however, to show the necessity for such\ntraining and also to show that there is a field for the employment of a great\nvariety of natural aptitudes. When aU the richness of opportunity is\nrevealed to enthusiastic young students of education whose interests in\ntheir kind as yet know no limits, they are likely to feel like Bottom in the\nplay, who wanted to act all the parts.\nThe teacher may select his specialty early, and this choice may even provide him with a motive for adopting teaching as his profession, but until\nhe has studied education as it applies to the whole nature of an individual\nin the successive stages of development, and to the race in all periods of\nits history, he is not prepared to specialize at all either in theory or in practice. Certain studies have come to be regarded as a necessary part of a\ncourse for the professional training of teachers — ^psychology, the history and\nprinciples of education, and methods of teaching. Less generally accepted,\nbut, it seems to me, no less essential, are logic and ethics. In time it may\nbecome customary to offer the teacher-in-training a brief survey of the more\nimportant phases of philosophical and scientific thought in order to render\nclear to him the great historical phases of education in connection with the\nthought-movements to which they are due.\nWhere or how shall the teacher receive the general and the special\ntraining which we maintain are essential ? In a university ? In a normal\nor training school? From self-directed reading and observation? From\nexperience ? The ideal plan would seem to be that by which, before independent practice is begun, complete preparation should be made in an\ninstitution offering courses to teachers-in-training for service of many kinds.\nBy this plan a mutual understanding would be established among the workers in all parts of the educational field and many barriers would be broken\ndown.\nWhile would-be teachers continue to be as different from one another\nas are the members of any other class of human beings, even the best plan\nfor preparatory training will not altogether do away with the costly teaching of experience. In a certain training school for teachers three young\nwomen listened to convincing lectures on the evils attending corporal\npunishment in schools, and each resolved to avoid the use of the rod. _When\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHING\n\n121\n\nthey became teachers, tho they were in the beginning equally unskilful in\nclass management, one of them quickly learned to control her class thru\nthe application of certain principles of teaching which she kept before her\nmind. The second needed the discipline of experience, but fortunately\nreceived her lesson in time to prevent any appreciable waste. She tells\nher own story as follows:\n\nI\n\nOn the first day of my teaching one of my sixty-six boys, seeing his coat in the hands\nof a monitor at the back of the room, decided to make a dash for it. Instantly my hand\nwas on his collar, and he made no dash, but he said that I had hurt his leg. Thoroly\nfrightened, I sent for the principal to attend the injured boy, take away my license, and\ndischarge me. She came, but she did none of these things. Instead she first made the boy\ndraw down his stocking and show the leg which (thank the Lord) was unmarked and whole;\nthen she sent him home with the firm belief that I not only had not hurt him, but had\nsaved him from a serious accident. But when the door was closed behind him, she gave\nme a strong initiative of a habit which is mine to this day — that is, when teaching, if\nexcitement or anger comes, to get my hands behind me, and the greater the excitement\nor anger, the tighter to hold them there.\n\nThe third young woman, like the second, had to be taught by experience,\nbut her lesson involved more waste.\nShe says:\nThe idea of ruling by fear speedily arose and dominated me. Corporal punishment\nwas recommended to me by my fellow-teachers, and the time came when in desperation\nI tried it. I do not know that it injured the child. It made me ill. Fortunately I was\nshortly afterward transferred to another school where law-breaking was not winked at.\nHere, with the assistance and encouragement from my superiors in command, the training-school ideal of ruling thru interest revived. I put forth extreme efforts to make my\nlessons interesting. My daily program was constantly novel. The strain was great,\nbut I did rule thru interest. However, the time came when I did not need to perform\nprodigies of ingenuity to keep the children good, and of late I have perceived that the\nsecret of a contented, orderly class is the conscious feehng of growing power in the children.\n\nThe essential thing in preparing a person for teaching is to make him believe that he needs broad professional and intensive specialized training for\nhis work. This belief, whether it be slow or swift in coming, is for every\npossessor a lamp to the feet. This belief \" touched with emotion \" accounts\nfor the method and the secret of all the great teachers the world has known.\nThere may have been much for experience to teach, but nevertheless\nthe essential thing was accomplished, the lighted lamp was firmly grasped\nby the student who could write at the end of her preparatory training\ncourse:\nWhen I came to the Training School heartbroken because I could not go to college,\nI thought of school teaching as petty drudgery unworthy of ambition. I thought that\nin joining the teachers' ranks I parted from all hope of honor or high achievement. I\nlearned in the Training School that teaching is a great art, with a great history and a great\nmission; that to join the teachers' ranks is to join a mighty army of earth's noblest — past,\npresent, and future; and that to fill worthily the least place in those ranks is itself high\nachievement and honor.\n\nAnother young woman was for only two weeks a student in a training\nschool for teachers, being compelled at the end of that time to accept a\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "122\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nposition in an elementary school. But in those two weeks she had a vision\nof all that is meant by the word \"teacher,\" and she set herself deliberately\nto deserve the title. .Reading, observation, experiment, conferences with\nassociates, were some of the means employed. The waste, when there was\nany, was of the teacher's own vitahty and never of the children's powers.\nThe struggle was hard, but the task ''in hours of insight willed\" was at\nlast accomplished, and then an appreciative board of education singled her\nout from scores of able men and women trained in professional schools and\nuniversities and appointed her to help supervise the work of the largest\npublic-school system in this country.\nIt is not necessary to say to you who have listened to this simple address\nthat no attempt has been made to treat fully or systematically the subject\nassigned. I have been making a single plea — that, in training for teaching,\nthe individuahty of the student be respected. We make it our study to\ngive the pupils in the lower schools an opportunity to develop their native\npowers and to fit themselves for that particular kind of service to society\nwhich they can perform most efficiently and cheerfully. Let us treat the\nwould-be teacher in the same way, remembering that the field of education\nis about as broad and diversified as society itself, and that it can furnish\nwork and the highest kind of satisfaction to almost everyone thg,t will\nprepare for it with sufficient intelligence, courage, and conscience.\nTHE\nMRS.\n\nW.\n\nEDUCATION\nN. HUTT,\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF WOMEN\n\nCHAIRMAN\nWORK\nOF\n\nFOR\n\nHOME-MAKING\n\nOF WOMAN'S\nBRANCH\nOF THE\nFARMERS'\nNORTH\nCAROLINA,\nRALEIGH,\nN.C.\n\nIt is very fitting that North Carolina should have one of her representatives to speak on education of women for home-making, because down\nthere we so highly regard things domestic, that, as you learned at the\nStadium on Monday, we even went so far as to elect as our governor the\nman Mr. Kitchin.\nThere are two words in the English language that it is absolutely impossible to dissociate, \"woman\" and \"home.\" Consider one and you are\ninevitably led to think of the other. Home is the oldest and greatest human\ninstitution; it was a woman's hand that first formed it. During all the\ngradual evolution from the glimmering dawn of antiquity to the modern\nday, it is about her that it has grown and developed. The home is the unit\nof nation-building. Whatever exalteth woman exalteth the nation. The\nposition of any nation in the scale of civilization can be accurately judged\nby the enlightenment of its women. Since the home, with woman as its\ncenter, is the bedrock of our whole social fabric, can there be any education more important than the education of women for home-making ?\nIn order to get a comprehensive view of woman's accomphshments, and\ntherefore a just estimate of her educational needs, let us go back to the\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF WOMEN\n\nFOR\n\nHOME-MAKING\n\n123\n\nbeginning of things and review briefly the progress of woman's educational\nevolution.\nLong centuries ago, in the dim and shadowy past known as the Dark\nAges, man fought the wild beasts and from his conquest of them provided\nfood for the family. The woman did all else, skinning and preparing the\nflesh for cooking, roasting it over fire of her own make, tanning the skins\nand shaping them into garments, grinding the grain and making it into\nbread, and bearing and guarding the children. In this unequal partnership,\nman followed the chase while to woman's lot fell the ceaseless grind of\nunending drudgery that in her early years reduced her to a hopeless, haggard menial. This is also a true picture of woman in the home life of the\naboriginal inhabitants of our own land.\nFrom classic lore we learn that the nations of antiquity, particularly the\nGreeks and Romans, occupied very high positions as regards literature and\nart. From this one might assume that their education was of a high standard and that women received their due share of training and culture. From\nthe literature of the Greeks and the present-day remains of their houses we\nlearn that home and family life, as we now understand it, was almost\nunknown to them. Their dwellings were within walled cities and were of\none story with stone floors. The absence of any provision for family life\nis very evident. The two principal divisions are the courts for men and\nwomen. It is said that the Greek woman was not expected to leave her\nhome more than once a year and never appeared at dinner with her husband\nand family if a guest were present.\nThe Roman women enjoyed greater freedom than their Greek sisters,\nbut they had practically no education except what they acquired by observation from their brothers and husbands.\nFrom sacred history we learn that the Hebrew women received religious\ninstruction. They were not, however, permitted to learn at first hand from\nthe great religious teachers as do the women of today, but must get their\nknowledge of it at home from the men of their households. They were\nencouraged in all domestic duties, tho untrained in them except as instruction was handed down from mother to daughter. Thousands of them came\ninto the world and passed away again and the world was no better for their\nhaving been here. The woman of today desires to make the world a good\nplace.\nComing down thru the mediaeval times there was a slow unconscious\ndevelopment of woman's personality like the slumbering growth of the\nbutterfly within the confining walls of the dormant chrysalis. As the\nRenaissance, the golden age of literature, was preceded by the literary\nbarrenness of the Dark Ages, so the modern development of women's\neducation was preceded by a long brooding period of mental quiescence.\nThis brings us down to a generation or two ago, to the time of our\nmothers and grandmothers.\nIn their days there were no schools of domestic\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nscience, but each well-regulated home was a school in itself where the\ndaughters of the family were taught the useful arts of housekeeping. The\noccupations and duties of the home were then much more numerous than\nthose of the modern household, for each home was a little world in itself\nwhere were performed many of the operations now relegated to the shop or\nfactory. Our mothers and grandmothers had of necessity to be their own\nbakers and pastry-cooks, and every good bread-maker was known and revered\nin the community. They carded wool and flax and spun them into fabrics\nwhich they later shaped into garments for the various members of the\nhousehold. Carpets they made, and blankets, and even the designs that\nornamented them. In the learning of these useful duties the artistic side\nwas not neglected, for mothers prided themselves on the beauty and elaborateness oftheir daughters' samplers, quilts, and wax flowers.\nIn those good old days housekeeping and home-making were the sole\nemployment of women and domestic accomplishments were at a premium.\nThe manners of some of our modern women who pride themselves on saying,\n\"I never cooked a meal in my life,\" or \"I don't do up fruit in summer;\nit's just as cheap to buy, besides it is a lot of trouble,\" would have been\nheld in high disdain by our grandmothers.\nBut the good old colonial days have passed, nor would we recall them,\nfor the busy striving world of today has brought to women opportunities\nbroader and grander than our mothers ever dreamed of. The factory with\nits economy of material and energy has taken from the home the burden of\nproduction where the only motive power was woman's energy. Manufacturing at such expense was the consuming of gold to smelt iron. Under\nthe changed economic conditions of today the labor of spinning and weaving,\nof tailoring and dressmaking, of brewing and curing has almost entirely\npassed from the home to the shop and factory. Relieved of the drudgery\nof uneconomic production, woman has now time for the development of\nherself and the proper rearing of her family. She has been relieved of a\ntrade and in place of it she has been given a profession.\nThis modern age is remarkable for many wonderful discoveries, not the\nleast of which is woman's discovery of herself. What is known as the age\nof science is also the age of woman; not, we hope, of the so-called new\nwoman with her fads and fancies, her mannish ways, her aggressive manners, boldly asserting her so-called rights and demanding the franchise,\nbut the real woman with the trained brain and heart and hand, the maker\nof the home and the helper and inspiration of mankind.\nHow may we best fit ourselves for this vastly important position ? By\neducation, training.\nJust how early the education of the girl for home-making may begin is\nhard to say. The line which divides the muscular actions that are the\nresult of nervous stimuli and those motions which are the result of intelligence isindefinite indeed. True it is, nevertheless, that a certain amount\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF WOMEN\n\nFOR\n\nHOME-MAKING\n\n125\n\nof knowledge and memory are awakened at a very early age. The babe in\narms is influenced by color, light and shadow, and the tone of voice. If a\nlively tune is played on the piano, the babe laughs; a loud, noisy ragtime,\nand it grows fretful and nervous; a soft lullaby, and it is lulled to quietness\nand slumber.\nDid you say that babies are tbinkless things,\nWith no other light than what instinct brings,\nWith brains as downy as butterflies' wings\nAnd heads as empty as a bell that swings\nWhen muscular motion is moving the strings?\nDid you say that babies are thinkless things?\nThen when does the think begin to grow?\nAnd when does the mind begin to show?\n\nSince the child has memory and intelligence it is possible for a certain\namount of education to begin. By this, I do not mean the would-be education which is evidenced by the repressive command with the usually appended threat or punishment. It is, \"No, baby, not touch,\" or \"No, no,\nnot drop spoon. Mamma slap hands. Mamma spank.\" Instead of being\ntrained to development, the child is trained to repression. By the time a\nchild is a year old it should have learned many things that will stand it in\ngood stead, things which unlearned at that age will mean trouble later. By\nthat time it should have acquired the art of self-entertainment, personal\nregularity of habit, and acquaintance with the law of obedience. Of course\nas yet that must be obedience to higher authority and not obedience to a\nsense of right and wrong. Such knowledge comes later.\nBetween the first and second years th^ memory of the child become's\nastonishingly developed. There is related of Helen Keller a very interesting\nexample of the early development of memory. She became deaf and dumb\nin her nineteenth month. As is known, she hears music by placing her\nhands lightly on the piano and receiving the vibration. Her mother obtained two songs that Helen had heard sung when she was an infant in\nAlabama but that she had not heard since. The minute they were played\nshe clapped her hands and said, \"Father carrying baby up and down,\nswinging her on his knee. Black Crow, Black Crow!\" Black Crow was a\nthird song her father had sung. It is wonderful what early impressions the\nplastic mind of a very young child can receive. In its tenderest years it\nmay have absorbed the beautiful impression of a well-ordered home, presided over by a loving and intelligent mother, or an impression of confusion,\nbare walls, and irritable tones. The nurse, kind and cheerful in the presence\nof superiors but cross and neglectful when away from them, may cause the\nchild to use similar methods with those who later come under its power.\nWhile sitting one day on my verandah I noticed children playing house\nduring recess-period at a school across the street. A number of them sat\non a low fence while the would-be mother stood in front of them. Her\nidea of parental bliss seemed to be to thrash and scold her family to her\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nheart's content. After a while it became the turn of another little girl to\nbe the mother. For a moment she looked smilingly at her charges, then\nquietly said,\" Mary, it's time for you to practice on the piano. Flora, you\ntake little Sara for a walk,\" all the time wrapping her up to the point of\nsuffocation. Then she took on her lap the infant, really a girl as big as\nherself, and began to sing her to sleep. If the mothers of those two children\nhad been there to look with seeing eyes they would have learned a lesson\nwell worth their while.\nThe little girl child loves the things of the household; whether it be\nattributed to instinct — hereditary memory — or what not, the child certainly\nloves these things. Watch the little girl as she plays with her first doll and\nsings the lullaby to it, in fancy putting it to sleep. Watch her as she makes\nher first playhouse, the deft use of the broom, the washing of doll clothes\nin miniature tubs over tiny washboards, the familiarity with the use of the\nlittle flat-iron and cook-stove. This is mother instinct, the house-making in\nminiature, and the mother can crush these impulses or she can guide and\ndirect them, cherish and encourage them. As Mrs. Ellen Richards said the\nother day, \" Put your play into useful work.\" The little girl says, \" Mamma,\nlet me help wash the cups and saucers\"; the mother says, \"No, you're\ntoo little, you run along and play,\" and she does run along and play and\nfinds her own employment and finds her own happiness. Her mind is\ndiverted. Too late the mother sees she has lost her most precious opportunity, that of fostering the natural instinct toward housekeeping while\nthe child's mind was still a clear page ready for her to write upon and while\nthe child was exclusively her own and not the world's. Suddenly she wakes\nup to the reahzation that her daughter is grown, and she says, \" Come here,\nyou great big girl, and help your mother.\" She does not want to come in;\nher interests are, by training, elsewhere. The time has passed when there\nwas pleasure in learning these things.\nOh, you say, the child must have exercise and freedom and fresh air.\nDudley A. Sargent said a couple of days ago, \"The child should swing and\nleap, run and play, swim and box to develop muscles.\" Is there any less\ndevelopment in running upstairs for mother, sweeping off the porch with\nher little broom, wiping the dishes, or making beds ? Whether, of course,\nthis work is made play or not, must depend on the attitude of the mother.\nAs for being in the free air, it is time that we made the inside more free\nfrom germs rather than less free than the great world of outdoors. I do\nnot mean that I would give her no play as we know it today. I would;\nbut her work-play, or help-play, would be a necessary part of each day.\nIn the school training of future home-makers I would begin with the\nlittle folks in the primary grades. A large percentage of the children who\nenter public school never go beyond it except into the world's stern school\nof experience. If they do not get in their brief school life some of the rudimentary principles of home-knowledge, they seldom get them at all. For-\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN\n\nFOR\n\nHOME-MAKING\n\n127\n\ntunately, during the early school age young children are very apt at learning\ndomestic science, especially if they are allowed to do things.\nThey take the greatest delight in the active duties of the household.\nOne of the most interesting sights I ever saw was a cooking-class of little\ngirls, every one standing on a soap-box so that she could reach the top of\nthe table built for older people. The big pink, blue, and white bows on\ntheir heads, the dimpled arms, and tiny hands were incongruous with the\nearnest faces and pursed lips as they gravely stirred the contents of big\nbowls. These little girls could tell a great many useful things about proteids, starches, and food-materials generally. By such 'instruction the\nwise mother and the helpful teacher first place the little girlish feet on the\ndefinite path toward home-making. Children are at this age interested\nin elementary science. If anyone doubts it, try Ritchie's Primer of Sanitation on any little daughter and see if she ever pursued you as much to\nread to her any fairy story. Such books will array them against flies,\nmosquitoes, dusty corners, and closed windows as no later training ever\ncould. It is not necessary to wait for the child to grow up before giving\nher a certain amount of technical training. Also, could there be a more\nauspicious time for inculcating in the minds of these children the fact that\nthey were learning that which will be useful to them when they become\nhome-makers ?\nNor would I, because the girl has had training in home knowledge in\nthe primary schools, consider it superfluous in the high school, college, or\nuniversity any more than I would discontinue a man's training for business\nbecause he had begun it in the grades.\nThe practical question now arises, how are we to incorporate such instruction inthe already overloaded curriculum ? With what is it overloaded? For one woman who remembers her trigonometry or German\nthere are five hundred who are compelled to remember and use all their\ntraining in home-knowledge. Those who have never had occasion to consider the subject of home economics are apt to think of it as so much\ncooking and sewing. It is not that any more than cabinet-making is\ncutting a mortice, or civil engineering running a line.\nI shall not enter into a discussion of the detafls of the school training,\nbut the course, simplified or elaborated according to circumstances, which\nhas proven most successful is:\n1. Physiology (the knowledge of the body).\n2. Personal hygiene (care of the body).\n3. Public hygiene (that great study of what the world has done and is doing for\npublic health).\n4. Bacteriology (the knowledge of micro-organisms in relation to food, health, and\ndisease).\n5. Cooking (the preparation of healthful and nourishing food).\n6. Dietetics (the study of food materials).\n7. Chemistry (as applied to the things of the household).\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n8. Sewing, millinery, and textiles.\n9. Child study.\n10. Home nursing. •\n\nIt is impossible to estimate what even a part of this training would mean\nto the farm home.\nThe study of these subjects has been too long neglected, especially in\nour exclusively women's schools. We have behaved as tho we seemed to\nthink such knowledge would be poured out upon us in time of need from\nheaven above. The proud young father will say, \"Why, dear, you take as\ngood care of oui» baby as if you had studied them all your life.\" Does she,\nwhen from one-fourth to one-half of all that come into the world die the\nfirst year ?\nWhen a man is yet a boy, he begins thinking of his vocation. Having\nchosen it, he selects his college. Upon the completion of his course he is\nfairly well equipped to fulfill the duties of his calling. On the other hand,\nwhat of the girl ? What is she to make of herself ? It is seldom that the\ngirl, beyond her 'teens, even on her wedding day, will acknowledge the\npossibility of her marrying. Why should she be ashamed of it ? Is there\nanything more noble ? The vocation of every woman is marriage. She may\nnot adopt it, but that, as Kipling says, \"is another story.\" A woman may\nstudy elocution or philosophy, medicine or music, but she will, with it all,\nwake up some fine morning and find herself in some man's kitchen, and woe\nbe unto her if she has not the knowledge with which to cook his breakfast.\nAt the marriage altar a man does much more than put the ring on a\ngirl's finger and with all his worldly goods her endow. He gives into her\nhands that which is of more value than the gold that any merchant ever\ngave to a banker for safe-keeping: his health, his digestion, his success, his\nhappiness.\nThe day comes in the life of almost every woman, wKen the duties of\nmotherhood press heavily upon her and it might be asked, \"Is there any\ntraining that will help her then ? Since no two children can be the same in\ntemperament, would she not need individual training for each particular\nchild?'\"' Not necessarily. In dealing with the faults of the children,\nwhether it be with selfishness, untruthfulness, temper, or what not, the\nremedy is largely in the attitude of the parent rather than with the child.\nThe impulse of the mother is apt to be to use compulsion rather than\npatience.\nThe clothes of the child are, according to the trend of the parent's mind,\nsimple or elaborate, whether they be made in the style of today or a hundred years ago. The ailments and their treatment in children require good\ncommon-sense and a knowledge of how to follow the doctor's advice. The\nmanagement of the home will be largely dependent on her knowledge of\nhousehold system, hygiene, bacteriology, and food.\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN\n\nFOR\n\nHOME-MAKING\n\n129\n\nChildish fingers weave into the very fiber of a woman's being much of\nlove and sympathy and wisdom, but not knowledge. It reminds one of\nthe oft-told story of the good mother and the wise one. Wisdom does not\nmake knowledge, however great an adjunct it may be to it. A man may\ndesire to be a successful occupant of the chair of theology. He may have\ngreat wisdom and good judgment, but to do it he must have the training.\nCan or should any less be expected of the mother who puts the stamp of\nher knowledge on her children where it shows in health of body and strength\nof brain, character, and all that makes for perfection ?\nWhen all is said and done, it is the attitude, the principles of the parents\nthat mold the child. Just as an architect plans no two houses alike, but\ndoes nevertheless apply to each house, whether bungalow or castle, those\nprinciples and theories which he learned in his training for the work, so will\nwoman deal with no two problems alike, but will nevertheless apply the\nsame fundamental laws.\nThe studied deference to the father's opinion, the consideration that\nwill not allow the family to depart to mountain or seashore, leaving the\nbread-winner to a summer of empty home and boarding-house meals, the\nhonor that is as apparent in the privacy of the home as when company is\npresent, the Christian love and charity that are evident in small things as\nwell as in large ones — these are the real, if unconscious, education by which\nthe child is taught to be, in her turn, a home-maker.\nThe problems of the mother are unlike with each child, but so do they\nvary with the same child in different ages. A tired mother quoted to me:\n\"When one's children are little, they walk on one's feet, but when they\nare grown up they walk on her heart.\" \"Yes,\" I said, \"but is your happiness, your pride, also proportionately great ?\" She thought a minute and\nwith a smile said, \"Infinitely greater.\"\nThe wife is mother, nurse, seamstress, cook, housekeeper, chambermaid, laundress, dairy-maid, scrubwoman, confidant, playmate, teacher,\nand social arbiter, all in one. She may not perform all these duties herself,\nbut she says who shall do them and how they shall be done. The few are\ntrained to this duty; the many, we hope, will be.\nThe world at large realizes the need, as is shown by mothers' congresses,\nfresh-air funds, child-relief campaigns, and pleas for a national Department\nof Health. Only the schools and the government are slow to recognize it.\nIn Bible times it was the father on whom all this responsibility for the\nchildren rested. Somehow, somewhere, I do not know when, this responsibility became shifted to the shoulders of the mother, things became turned\naround. This reminds one of the little boy whose father said, \"You at the\nhead of the class, Johnnie ? Why, I thought you were at the foot. \" \" I was,\npaw,\" he said, \"but teacher turned the class around.\" All this talk would\nmake one think and hold the opinion of the little boy who was asked what\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "I30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npart of speech \"girl\" was. He said, \"She ain't no part of speech, she's the\nhull blame thing.\" One would think she was the hinge to the door of the\nuniverse, and she is.\nI thought so when I read in a magazine the other day that \"there are\ntoday few occupations a young man can take up without fear of a woman's\ntaking the bread out of his mouth. There are prize fighting, ladies' tailoring, and domestic service.\" It went on urging men to prepare themselves\nas cooks, butlers, etc.\nMany girls find it necessary to look upon school as but a path to the\nbusiness world. Others, of more ample means, regard it only as leading to\nsociety and marriage. To anyone, however, may come the day in which\nit will be necessary for her to earn her living. Under the changed social\nand economic conditions of modern .life a great many occupations have\nopened up for woman's activities that have lain fallow from the foundation\nof the world.\nIn the business and financial world the typewriter and telephone are\ntwo great dynamic forces, both of which are almost entirely in the hands\nof the woman worker. In the teaching profession all the kindergarten\ntraining is given by women, practically all the primary teachers are girls,\nand in high schools and colleges a growing percentage of instruction is given\nby female teachers. The triumphs of modern surgery in saving and prolonging life would be abortive but for the healing touch of the woman nurse.\nHow often has her ready wit and skillful hand held back the destroying\nangel ! What myriads have passed into the great beyond before her coming !\nA good general education is fundamental, practically essential, to success in any profession, nor is the profession of home-making an exception\nto the rule. Our girls, like our boys, should have just as good literary and\nscientific education as we are able to give them, for this is the master key\nthat unlocks the portals to avenues of opportunity. We must always have\na care, in our desire to specialize, that we do not forget this foundation\nknowledge.\nWoman has not thrust herself into the work-a-day world; she has been\ncalled there and business has been benefited by her coming. The number\nof girls who go into commercial life to gratify selfish whims, for excitement,\npleasure, or fine clothes, are few and far between. The heart of woman\nis ever true to home; she leaves it only thru necessity and the call of love\nwill always bring her back. Education for business does not in any way\nunfit a girl for home-making. Would that every married woman had the\nknowledge of affairs to be a help and counselor for her husband. The same\nknowledge of business would leave fewer helpless widows and dependent\nchildren.\nProbably, however, there is no one training which prepares her for\nmore varied occupations, and occupations in which she does not compete\nwith man, than does that of home economics.\nThe graduate in home eco-\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN\n\nFOR\n\nHOME-MAKING\n\n131\n\nnomics may teach cooking, sewing, bacteriology, chemistry, and any of its\nvarious branches. She may have supervision of the food and sanitation\nof institutions such as hospitals, asylums, mercantile establishments, cotton mills, and homes of correction. They are more and more recognizing\nthe need of such supervision. An ever-widening field is that of social extension in the great factories or business corporations. The duty is to\nstudy and guide the girls in moral standards, dress, literature, entertainment, and health. The Woman's Branch of the Farmers' Institute today\nreaches thousands of farmers' wives far back in the country. It is an institution that could not have existed ten years ago because there were then\nso few trained workers. The missionary, whether in slum or foreign field,\nis effective as she never was before because, instead of having only zeal and\nsympathy, she is now equipped with a knowledge of her powers and limitations, a cool head, a calm outlook, and a well-directed enthusiasm born of\nher knowledge of the fundamentals.\nI know one girl who is a food-chemist, another a water-analyst, another\na flour-tester, and so on, almost without end. Women are starting laundries, violet farms, dairy, chicken, and bee farms, rest-rooms, tea-rooms,\ndarning and patching establishments for worthy bachelors.\nAll these occupations are not the direct outcome of home training.\nThey do, however, utilize the combination of trained brain and hand. A\nfriend, one evening, urged that the trained hand was not necessary. Next\nmorning at breakfast time I said, \"How did you burn your hand?\" \"I\nwas taking muffins out of the oven. I am not much accustomed to cooking,\" she explained. ''Ah, then,\" I said, \"you do acknowledge that it is\nwell to have a trained hand, that the trained mind was not sufficient!\"\nAfter all, education does not consist of the number of facts stored away\nin the chinks of the brain. It is the power to systematize, to correlate, to\napply those facts. It is the point of view, the outlook on life, the mental\nattitude. If we have found in household economics that form of education\nwhich gives the trained faculties as well as the stored-up facts of homeknowledge, then we have reached the ideal form of education, the one\nsuited to this day and age in which we live. I was struck with the inscription on your public library. \"The Commonwealth requires the education\nof the people as the safeguard of order and liberty.\" What we are all\nworking for is not this or that training, or supremacy of this or that sex or\ntype of people. We want the condition best for all.\nMy recommendation would be to educate our girls for living and doing.\nModern life has less and less place for the unskilled and the non-producer.\nOur girls, like our boys, should be taught to do things. They should not,\nof course, be taught to do the same things, except in their elementary-school\nwork, for as woman's work and life differ from man's life and activities,\nso must her later activities differ from his. That looks as tho I did not\napprove of coeducation.\nI do most heartily approve of coeducation.\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nOne of the greatest defects of the schools of a generation ago was that\nthey sought to teach the so-called cultural subjects and to turn out ladies\nand gentlemen. Nowadays there is no place for dilettantes and trifiers and\nthe world is knocking on the doors of our schools asking for men and women.\nThere is no less call today for the lady and gentleman, but these, like the\npoets, are born, not made. They are the product of the home and not of\nthe school. Culture, that is, true culture, is more needed today than ever\nin the past; but it is not the culture of a little Latin and less Greek, or a\nlittle music and less painting, that marks and labels off the lady and gentleman from the great productive mass of mankind, but the culture of the\ntrained mind and the skilled hand that does not selfishly segregate itself\nfrom the general mass of humanity, but enters into the struggle and leads\nand helps and directs. Culture can be as readily and surely acquired from\na lesson in cooking or textiles as from one in music, languages, or art.\nIn recommending practical education for women, I wish it to be well\nunderstood that I have no quarrel whatever with what are commonly\nknown in women's colleges as cultural subjects. Let us have all the culture possible, the more the better, but let it be the culture that makes\nwomen useful to society and not a parasite upon it. As Roosevelt said in\nhis Paris speech, \"Let us never become so refined and so highly educated\nthat either the man or the woman will be unfitted to do the rough, useful\nwork of life.\" Let culture go hand in hand with utility and helpfulness.\nLet us have all the purely cultural subjects for which the girl has time,\nbut let them be accessories to the useful subjects rather than substitutes\nfor them. The woman does not exist who would give up her music, art,\nlanguages (until she does so by a slow process after marriage) or whose life\nis not brightened by her beautiful gowns, well-arranged coiffure, or an\nability to grace a reception line; but again, I say, let these things\nbe accessories.\nThe educated woman of the future should be so trained in girlhood and\nyoung womanhood that when the responsibilities of life come upon her,\nshe will be found thoroly competent; indecision and vacuity will have no\nplace in her. She will have a fundamental knowledge of foods and how to\nprepare them, and since she is not a mere drudge, her kitchen will be a\nlaboratory so equipped with labor-saving devices and modern conveniences\nthat the viands coming from it will be the products of dexterity, chemical\nknowledge, and art. Sickness and disease will be foes to be fought and\nnever again visitations from the Lord.\nHand in hand she will stand with her husband. The finances of the\nhousehold will be as carefully computed as are those in her husband's store\nor factory. When the call of public welfare comes she will be ready, whether\nit be for pure milk, a national Department of Health, schools, or art. Then\nmight it be said, \"The heart of her husband doth safely trust in her,\" and\n— it might truly be added — his head also.\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nTHE\n\nVALUE\n\nCHARLES\n\nW.\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE\n\nDURING\nELIOT,\n\nLIFE-CAREER\n\nEDUCATION\nMOTIVE\n\nMOTIVE\n\nOF THE\n\n133\n\nLIFE-CAREER\n\nPRESIDENT EMERITUS\nOF HARVARD\nCAMBRIDGE,\nMASS.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe teaching profession nowadays fully recognizes the fact that only\nthose processes of education are successful which procure the active interest\nand co-operation of the minds and wills subjected to them. During early\nschool life the intelligent teacher tries in every way to rouse and maintain\nthe interest of the pupil in the subjects of study, and endeavors to select\nstudies for the individual pupil which are likely to hold his interest. For\nmany children this animating and selective task on the part of the teacher\nis a difficult one; and for the great majority of American children of from\ntwelve to sixteen years of age the schools fail to perform it. Hence, multitudes of American children, taking no interest in their school work, or\nseeing no connection between their studies and the means of later earning a\ngood livelihood, drop out of school far too early of their own accord, or at\nleast offer no effective resistance to the desire of unwise parents that they\nstop study and go to work. Moreover, from lack of interest they acquire\nwhile in school a listless way of working. Again, interest in their studies\nis not universal among that small proportion of American children who go\non into a secondary school; and in every college a perceptible proportion\nof the students exhibit a languid interest, or no interest, in their studies, and\ntherefore bring little to pass during the very precious years of college life.\nThere are, however, certain regions in the total field pf American education in which the internal motive of interest in the work comes into full\nplay, with the most admirable results. In general, professional students in\nthe United States exhibit keen interest in their studies, work hard, advance\nrapidly, and avail themselves of their opportunities to gain knowledge and\nskill to the utmost limit of their strength and capacity, no matter whether\nthe profession for which they are preparing be divinity, law, medicine,\narchitecture, engineering, forestry, teaching, business, or corporation service. In secondary education the high schools of commerce and mechanic\narts have a decided advantage as regards motive power within the pupil\nover the ordinary high schools. The industrial schools, trade schools, continuation schools, evening and summer schools, business colleges, and Y. M.\nC. A. classes in secular subjects show a large proportion of strongly interested pupils. The part-time schools which some of the great corporations,\nlike the General Electric Company, the New York Central Railroad, the\nGrand Trunk Railway, the Ludlow Manufacturing Associates, the Yale\nand Town Manufacturing Company, and the International Harvester Company have been conducting for a few years past have no difficulty in interesting their pupils in those academic subjects which make part of their\ngeneral shop instruction. When one goes thru the shops and schoolrooms of\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nHampton Institute, where hundreds of negroes and scores of Indians are\nunder instruction, or thru the working-rooms of the Tuskegee Institute,\nthronged with negroes of all shades, one is struck with the eager application\nto the work in hand which is exhibited by the students. One sees no loafing\nor inattention, or uninterested work. Everyone,- whether bright or dull,\nseems to be doing his best, and to be doing it with hearty good will. What\nis the motive power in the mind and will of the pupil or student in all\nthese various successful educational institutions ? It is the motive of the\nlife career.\nA professional student has chosen his life-career. A pupil in a commercial high school or a mechanic-arts high school has made a primary decision\nwith regard to his life career; he has determined the first direction of his\npreparatory work, altho later he may come to branchings of the way where\na new decision will be needed. The apprentice in a railroad shop or an\nelectric works has in like manner decided on one kind of a life-career, and\nis bent on pursuing it to advantage. The journeyman who has chosen one\nof the fundamental trades enlists in a public or endowed evening school or\na Y. M. C. A. class with the purpose of improving himself in his trade or\nart, and believes that good work in the school will increase his earning\ncapacity. The negro or Indian student at Hampton sees clearly that the\nstudies and labors of the place will make him a better farmer, or a carpenter,\nmason, or wheelwright with good earning capacity; and he has decided to\nfit himself as well as he possibly can for some one of these gainful occupations. The apprenticeship method in education, tho slow and liable to\ngreat abuses, produced for many centuries highly skilled workmen, who\nacquired all the accumulated skill of preceding generations and transmitted\nit with additions to the next. When, under the factory system, apprenticeship almost disappeared, it turned out that a successful method of education\non a large scale had been well-nigh lost. Its success was due to the continuous play of the motive of the life-career. The intelligent leaders of\nAmerican industries are now trying to recover the apprenticeship system\nwith the modifications made necessary by the factory system. The students\nin a university summer school, a business college, or a technical school are,\nas a rule, persons who have chosen their calling, and believe that by taking\nappropriate additional instruction they can further themselves in that\ncalling\nOf the pupils or students in all these educational institutions which give\nfull play to the motive of the life-career, from the lowest industrial evening\nschool to the highest professional school, that delightful thing can be said\nwhich Mr. Shrigley, President of the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades near Philadelphia, said in 1908 about trade schools:\nThe young men who are being trained in a properly conducted school of that type\nshow great interest in their work, and are so enthusiastically devoted to it that their\nprogress is wonderfully rapid and gratifying.\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nUFE-CAREER\n\nMOTIVE\n\n135\n\nIndeed, on account of this enthusiasm and rapid progress among the students or pupils of such institutions, earnest teachers always enjoy working\nin them, and teachers who work both in schools where the life-career motive\nis recognized, and in those schools where it is not, invariably find the first\nsort of school more interesting and inspiring than the second.\nWe ought not to be surprised that schools which avail themselves of\nthis strong motive get the best work from their pupils, and therefore do the\nbest work for the community. All of us adults do our best work in the world\nunder the impulsion of the life-career motive. Indeed, the hope and purpose of improving quality, or quantity, or both in our daily work, with the\nincidental improvement of the livelihood, form the strongest inducements\nwe adults have for steady, productive labor; and the results of labors so\nmotived are not necessarily mercenary, or in any way unworthy of an intelligent and humane person. There is nothing low or mean about these motives,\nand they lead on the people who are swayed by them to greater serviceableness and greater happiness — to greater serviceableness, because the\npower and scope of individual productiveness are thereby increased — to\ngreater happiness, because achievement will become more frequent and\nmore considerable, and to old and young alike happiness in work comes\nthru achievement.\nWe come here upon the ancient controversy between pure and applied\nscience, cultural and technical subjects in education, idealism and utilitarianism, and on the old distinction between living and earning a living.\nThe immense increase in knowledge during the past hundred years, and\nthe innumerable new applications of knowledge for the benefit of mankind\nought long ago to have persuaded us that a greatly enlarged definition of\nculture and of the cultivated man was indispensable. We also need to\ndiscard forever the notion that there is something vulgar or degraded about\nthe useful and the serviceable. After all is said to the discredit of ''bread\nand butter\" motives, it is no moral or philosophical objection to a discovery or a field of knowledge that it has useful applications. Even in the\nrealms of the beautiful, fitness for some human use enhances or contributes\nto beauty, or is an important element in it. A ripening field of grass or\ngrain billowing in the summer wind is not less beautiful because it promises\nwelcome food for man or beast. The apple blossoms are not less beautiful\nbecause apples w^ill later be developed from them. The root of landscape\nbeauty is adaptation to the delight and service of man. The useful invention\nof a Tungsten filament for an electric lamp is no less worthy or dignified\nthan the apparently useless discovery attributed to Thales, that a piece of\namber rubbed with a bit of silk would attract a light body delicately suspended by a fine thread. Moreover, the mental capacity involved in the\ninvention of the Tungsten filament is, to say the least, just as strong as\nthe capacity which Thales exhibited in his amber experiment. The student\nwho masters the Tungsten-filament facts in their connection is just as\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nworthily occupied as the student who makes himself acquainted with the\nexploit of Thales, altho the observation on amber was innocent of applications tohuman welfare for two thousand years. Again, there is nothing\ninherently selfish or low-minded about hard mental work done in order to\nimprove one's chances of earning a good livelihood, whether in overalls or\napron, or in street clothes. Indeed, the earning of a good livelihood, whether\nby man or woman, is, as a rule, an altruistic performance in high degree —\nat least after twenty-five years of age, and often before that limit. The\nconception that useless knowledge is purer and loftier than useful belongs\nwith the feudal system and with that conception of religion which makes\nit to consist largely of ceremonial, detaches it from ordinary human life,\nand regards it as in great part an other-world interest. American society\nhas pretty well got over the feudal idea that a gentleman can have no other\noccupation than that of the soldier, the priest, or the landowner, and is\nbeginning to understand that religion is primarily a matter of loving serviceableness in this world. It is high time that our teachers and leaders of\nthe people understood that every civilized human being gets the larger\npart of his life-training in the occupation thru which he earns his livelihood,\nand that his schooling in youth should invariably be directed to prepare\nhim in the best way for the best permanent occupation of which he is capable.\nIn other words, the motive of the life-career should be brought into play as\nearly and fully as possible.\nIt is obvious, however, that the early recognition and selection of the\nbest life-work for every child is a difficult matter. Let us next consider,\ntherefore, first, the natural helps in performing this great function of the\nhome and the school, and secondly, the precautions which can be taken in\nindeterminate cases. There are numerous cases in which an occupation is\nnaturally transmitted from parents to children, or from one generation in\na broad sense to another. Thus, in an agricultural region, or in a town of\none industry or two or three industries, it is altogether probable that large\ngroups of children will follow the occupations of their parents. Again,\namong the children in a given school there will always be a fair proportion\nwhose natural gifts and tendencies become obvious to the observant teacher\nwho watches them for years. Such children should be turned toward appropriate occupations by the teacher in consultation with the parents. There\nwill also be a small proportion of children who know their own minds by\nthe time they are fourteen years old. They too should be helped to the\nlife-work which attracts them. Finally, in every community and every\nschool there will be a considerable number of children who can be fairly\nprepared for any one of several occupations, tho not, perhaps, for the\nhighest success in any one. To some one of these sets or classes the great\nmajority of children in any community will be found to belong.\nIt is wise, if family circumstances permit, to postpone the actual training\nfor a specific trade or occupation till at least the sixteenth year, because in\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE-CAREER\n\nMOTIVE\n\n137\n\nmost cases the body is not sufficiently developed before that age to undertake the real work of a trade. Most boys are not fitted for apprenticeship\nor a trade school until they are sixteen, and in general seventeen is a better\nage at which to begin. Children who must leave school at fourteen because\nof home conditions should be required to attend continuation schools or\npart-time schools; but to this end new legisFation and the co-operation of\nmercantile establishments are necessary.\nIf, then, the motive of the life-career cannot be brought into full play\nbefore sixteen years of age, what precautions ought to be taken to maintain\nthe interest of pupils in school studies up to that time, and to give them a\ntraining which will not only increase their mental power and their capacity\nfor rational enjoyment, but also their earning capacity in a variety of\noccupations ? In the first place, instruction in every subject taught at\nschool should be accompanied to the utmost extent possible by concrete\nillustration and fresh, current exemplification. Real shop problems should\nbe used to illustrate the theoretical principles of geometry, mechanics,\nchemistry, and physics. This sort of illustration is available not only in\nmathematics and elementary science, but also in languages, literature, and\nhistory. Secondly, much attention — much more than is now given — should\nbe paid in every elementary and secondary school to the training of the\neye, ear, and hand, for the reason, among others, that well-trained powers\nof sight, hearing, and touch are of high value in any life-occupation. Thirdly,\nthe elements of the arts applicable in ordinary households and in various\ntrades or callings ought to be carefully taught in all schools, public, endowed,\nor private, such as drawing and designing, domestic science and art, and\nhome economics, carpentry, and joinery, and, in rural communities, agriculture. Rural schools have an advantage here over urban schools, because\nagriculture has become such an admirable subject of school instruction\nsince successful farming came to involve acquaintance with plant-breeding,\nanimal-breeding, and a variety of crops, animals, manures, motors, and\nmachines. For children between the ages of twelve and sixteen it is particularly important to provide various forms of training which they can see\nwill be of use to them in after-life. The provision of well-graded courses of\nthat nature, with constant concrete illustration of every mental process or\nproblem, will go far to hold the interest of the children in their school work,\nand prevent premature withdrawals, or diminish the number of them.\nThe next question is— and it is a grave one — who is going to guide the\ninexperienced child to a wise preliminary choice of the life-career ? The\nanswer must be — the parents and the teacher, but mainly the teacher. The\nparents and the teacher together ought to be easily able, in the first place, to\ngive the right direction to that small proportion of children whose education\nclearly ought to be prolonged thru the secondary school and the college\nbecause of good parts or favorable circumstances, and to that other small\nproportion whose natural bent is strong.\nThese two sorts of children,\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhowever, together make but a small minority; the great majority show no\ndecided bent, and seem about equally fit for any one of several callings, so\nthat some authority must make a tentative sorting and an experimental\nassignment. Moreover, since the circumstances of the parents unfortunately determine for a large proportion of all children an early discontinuance of systematic education, the selective function of the teacher will at\nthe best have serious limitations. Democratic society has as yet found no\nremedy for this undesirable abridgment of school life. The profession of\nteaching must recognize this fact and cope with it, so far as possible. At\npresent we are permitting the great majority of American children to go\nout into the world as unskilled laborers, without having chosen any trade\nor other occupation requiring skill, and without having felt in their school\nwork the motive of the life-career. This is an evil which is not to be cured\nby additional legislation merely. It must be cured by serious modifications\nof the programs of American elementary and secondary schools, by the\nacceptance on the part of teachers and school authorities of the function of\nguiding children into appropriate life-work, and by providing new kinds of\ninstruction and new organizations like continuation schools and trade\nschools. When Benjamin Franklin's father thought it was time for the\nboy to choose a trade, he took Benjamin about the town and showed him\nmen at work in all the trades then practiced in Boston, and it was only\nafter this comparative survey that Benjamin decided to be a printer. A\nvery skillful printer he became by the time he was eighteen years old.\nAmerican schools should perform this office for all pupils who ask for such\nguidance.\nIf this guiding and selecting function for the public schools looks\ndifficult, we may get encouragement from the fact that it is by no means\nuntried in the wide world of education. Germany, France, Switzerland, and\nBelgium can all show this thing actually done. Do you say, \"True, but\nthose countries are not so free industrially and socially as ours is. Their\ninstitutions, or their industrial conditions, or their family habits give them\nmeans of directing children into trades which we do not possess.\" It is\nwell that we do not possess any means of compulsion; for success and happiness in life depend on the individual's following a congenial calling. It\nis highly inexpedient, as well as unjust, to force any child or youth into a\ntrade which does not attract him, for in it he will be both inefficient and\nunhappy.\nMany interesting experiments in this direction are already started in\ndifferent parts of the United States, and most educational authorities are\ntaking a keen, tho sometimes uninstructed, interest in the general problem\nof vocational training. It will doubtless occur to many minds that an early\nchoice of a trade or occupation may turn out to be an unwise one. Such\nmistakes, if soon discovered, will not be very serious under American industrial and social conditions, which are more mobile than those which prevail\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE-CAREER\n\nMOTIVE\n\n139\n\nin Europe, so that an early mistaken choice of the calling can be more easily\nrectified here than it can be in the old countries. Moreover, a good training\nfor any one trade will always contain many elements which are applicable\nin another trade; and if the motive of the life-career has been in good play,\nthe animated mental and manual work done by the pupil will have been in\nsome fair measure profitable toward the ultinlate career.\nWhen all available means have been used to discover the best vocation\nfor each child and to direct him to it, there will remain in the mass of children who are approaching the end of their school life numerous indeterminate cases which afford no clue to the best calling — at least at the age at\nwhich choice urgently needs to be made. What policy should a wellorganized school system follow in regard to such children ? The first thing\nto be done is to keep such children interested in their school studies as long\nas possible, in the hope of preventing them from going to work as unskilled\nand immature wage-earners. To maintain interest it will be expedient to\noffer in the school a considerable variety of studies, so that each child may\nhave a chance to pursue the studies he most affects, whether chiefly manual,\nor chiefly mental, whether bookwork or shopwork. This involves a school\nprogram stated in different groups, or offering options. A program of this\nsort will provide the best security a school system can furnish for a wise\nultimate choice of a calling, for it will enable the undetermined pupil to\nselect the studies to him most congenial. When at a later date he discovers\nand adopts the trade or occupation for which he is best adapted, it will\nturn out that by selecting the most congenial studies he will have prepared\nhimself for the congenial trade or calling, because the same natural tendencies which directed him to the selected studies will direct him safely to\nthe ultimate calling. A single uniform course of study prescribed to all\noffers no such security for pupils who cannot determine their trade or calling\nat fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, or seventeen years of age. This principle has\nalready been thoroly worked out with students of college age. Those who\ndo not yet recognize their best calling in life should choose under a free\nelective system the studies they severally most affect, because those studies\nwill in all probability prove later to have been the appropriate preparation\nfor the calling, when discovered, in which each can best succeed. Both in\nschool and college diversity, not uniformity of product, should be the aim.\nThe fortunate pupil or student is he who early discerns his life-career, and\nmakes his school training or his school and college training an appropriate\npreparation for it. The vocation once known gives clear guidance to those\nknowledges and skills which will best contribute to success in it.\nWhoever advocates the introduction of concrete illustration and the\nelements of industrial training into the common schools will at once encounter three objections: (i) there is no time for more subjects; (2) the\npresent amount of instruction in the so-called academic subjects is already\ninadequate and ought not to be reduced; and (3) instruction in applied\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "I40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n«\nscience and industrial subjects is costly, and there is no money to pay for it.\nTo meet the first objection, the best way is to increase school time per day\nand per year. This would now be possible with due regard for the health\nand vigor of the children; because many of the new subjects call for bodily\nexercises, and also because improvements already effected in school grounds\nand buildings make the hours spent in school quite as healthy as those\nspent at home, healthier indeed under many urban conditions. An extension of school time from twenty-five hours a week to from thirty-three to\nforty-four hours a week, according to the age of the pupils, would make\ngreat improvements possible. In cities and large towns the summer vacation should be much reduced. This lengthening of the weekly school time\nhas already begun in day schools which make much of manual training\nand industrial teachings, and the vacation schools, summer camps, and\nsummer sessions are making head against the evils of the long vacation.\nIn connection with the increased interest in all school work resulting from\nthe admission of the life-career motive, the increase of school time will meet\ncompletely the second of the above objections. There will be no need to\nreduce the academic or cultural elements of the present high-school programs. Itwill be possible to give the essentials of the common high-school\ncourse and also much manual and industrial instruction. This is not prophecy, but merely the recognition of existing facts. Finally, the third objection— no money — must be met by getting more money, public and private,\nto spend on schools. Some unobservant and unimaginative people say\nthat it is impossible to increase public expenditure whether for schools or\nfor any other object. The answer to that pessimism is that public expenditure for schools and for many other objects has been greatly increased\nwithin the past thirty years, and that almost all citizens hold that school\nexpenditure ought to be increased even tho the total expenditures of the\ncommunity should not rise, because, if judiciously made, it yields a larger and\nquicker return — material, mental, and moral — than any other expenditure.\nThruout the discussion of the expediency of introducing vocational\nsubjects into American schools, it is important that one fact be kept clearly\nin mind, namely, that to provide more subjects of instruction does not\nmean that each individual pupil is necessarily to study more subjects.\nThus, the city of Munich provides instruction in some sixty trades, but the\nindividual Munich boy or girl learns only one trade. So American schools\nfor children of twelve years and upward must teach many subjects, but\neach pupil will pursue only that number of subjects which is expedient for\nhim.\nTo the question where it is most important to introduce industrial\ntraining, and to give the motive of the life-career the freest play possible,\nwill not the answer of our profession be well-nigh unanimous — in the publicschool system, from the seventh grade to the twelfth grade inclusive?\nMany other organizations and instrumentalities will share in the good work,\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE-CAREER\n\nMOTIVE\n\n141\n\nbut the free public-school system should be the chief field of this great\nreform. The ample and discriminating report recently published by this\nAssociation's Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Education\nexhibits the immense confusion of nomenclature, opinions, plans, and\nefforts which clouds the subject of industrial education, but out of this\nconfusion emerges one unifying and integrating conception — 'that of the\nsupreme value of the life-career motive in the lifelong process of education.\nOn being installed as rector of the University of Edinburgh in 1866, Carlyle\ntold the students what \" a man is born to, in all epochs. He is born to\nexpend every particle of strength that God Almighty has given him, in doing\nthe work he finds he is fit for; to stand up to it to the last breath of life,\nand to do his best.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nINDIANAPOLIS\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\nMEETING,\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMARCH\n\n1-3, 1910\n\nMINUTES\nDAY\n\nMORNING SESSION— Tuesday, March i, 191 o\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in\nthe Assembly Room of the Claypool Hotel, Indianapolis, Ind., at 9:30 A.M., President\nStratton D. Brooks, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass., presiding.\nAfter a few introductory remarks President Brooks declared the meeting ready to\nproceed with the following program:\nTopic: Children Differ in Mental Alertness\n1. Retardatioh: What Constitutes Retardation? How Significant Are Retardation\nStatistics ? When Is Retardation Justifiable ? How May It Be Corrected ?— Leonard P.\nA.yres, secretary of Russell Sage Foundation, New York City.\n2. What Consideration Should Be Given to Gifted Pupils ?— ^James H. Van Sickle,\nsuperintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md.\n3. What Consideration Should Be Given to Subnormal Pupils ?— Maximilian P. E.\nGroszmann, Plainfield, N.J.\nGeneral Discussion — Leaders: Lightner Witmer, director of the Psychological\nLaboratory and Clinic, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; F. B. Dyer, superintendent ofschools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nAt the close of the morning session President Brooks appointed a committee on\nresolutions consisting of the following named persons:\nBen Blewett, superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo.\nCharles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.\nCharles H. Keyes, supervisor of schools. South District, Hartford, Conn.\nE. H. Mark, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nA committee on nominations was also appointed consisting of:\nZ. X. Snyder, president of State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.\nS. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn.\nJ. Stanley Brown, superintendent of schools, Joliet, 111.\nCharles J. Baxter, state superintendent of public instruction, Trenton, N.J.\nF. B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nMr. Milton Fairchild, of Baltimore, Md., special instructor of the Moral Education\nBoard, was introduced and allowed ten minutes to explain plans which have been formulated\nfor moral instruction by means of stereopticon lessons.\nHe spoke as follows:\nDuring the past thirteen years serious efforts have been made to devise a satisfactory\nmethod of teaching morals in American public schools. Something like $50,000 worth\nof work has been done with results that are satisfactory to a large circle of prominent\neducators. I have devoted my entire time since 1897 to the problem with a definite purpose\nof inventing, if possible, a method of instruction\n143 that would hold the interest of boys and\ngirls and influence them in their daily lives, and yet be suitable for American public-school\nconditions. In this effort I have had the assistance of a large circle of educational leaders\nand now appear before you under the sanction of the Moral Education Board, which has\na membership of 150 distributed over the entire United States.\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nOur plan of moral instruction is as follows:\n1. Photographs of things that actually happen in real life are taken especially for moral\ninstruction.\n2. Lantern slides from these, 50 to 100 for each lesson, are projected on a screen and\nthus enlarged to life size before large audiences of pupils in the school assembly halls.\n3. Carefully prepared instruction as to what is right and fine in conduct is given as an\nexplanation of the photographs while the pupils are studying them upon the screen.\nIt has been generally recognized both in the home and in the school that what is called\n\"incidental instruction\" carries real influence. The trouble has always been that there has\nbeen no possibility of controlling such instruction. The \"incident\" will often happen\nwhen instruction is inappropriate, or will not happen at all, and nothing like thoro instruction has ever been possible along these lines. It seemed to us if these episodes in real life,\nwhich ought to be the basis for moral instruction, could be photographed and lantern\nslides made from them, so that when the pictures were thrown on the screen life-size the\nboys and girls would be willing, and perhaps anxious, to discuss them from the standpoint\nof morals; and that \"Illustrated Lessons in Morals\" could thus be prepared, which would\nbe under the control of the teacher, and which it would be possible to utilize for thoro\ninstruction in morals — the most important topic in education.\nAlong these lines extended experiments have been made. A special camera taking\nthirty pictures a minute was invented, and fully six years have been spent in gathering an\nextensive collection of photographs especially for moral instruction. Several illustrated\nlessons have been made up, and delivered over a territory including twenty different states\nto aggregate audiences numbering over 100,000 boys and girls in public and private schools.\nThe interest is real, and often intense. The presentation of the real things of life which\ninvolve morals makes it seem natural to the pupils that the morals involved in the pictures\nshould be discussed. Large audiences of 600, and sometimes 2,000, have listened to these\nillustrated lessons with intense interest for an hour. The discussion among the pupils\nthemselves following the delivery of the lesson on \"The True Sportsman,\" for example,\nhas been prolonged for days, and sometimes weeks, in a perfectly natural way and with\npermanent results on the moral convictions of the school.\nThe lessons which are at present available for general use thruout the entire United\nStates have the following titles:\n1. High School Lessons: \"The Gentleman\"; \"Personal and National Thrift\";\n\"The True Sportsman.\"\n2. Upper Grammar School: \"What I Am Going to Do When I Am Grown Up.\"\n3. Lower Grammar School: \"What Men Think about Boys' Fights.\"\nThe preparation of an \"Illustrated Lesson in Morals\" involves about $10,000 in\nadvance expense. The photographs are difficult to get, because the photographer must\nhappen to be on hand when the incident worth while for moral instruction happens to come\noff. A psychological chart is first made covering the topic. Then the photographs illustrating the ideas to be taught are selected and the text very carefully written, to insure the\nargument taking firm hold of the minds of the grade of boys and girls before whom the\nlesson is intended to be used. The pictures and texts are then printed and sent to members\nof the Moral Education Board for criticism and suggestion. After thoro revision the\nlesson is printed in its final form and, together with its accompanying lantern slides, is\nsent out by express as there may be demand for it. The natural interest of the pictures,\nand the direct, simple character of the text, make it possible for a local teacher with some\nability as a lecturer to make an effective delivery of the lesson.\nThis interesting formal instruction in morals is given in assembly halls to large audiences, and is then supplemented by personal discussion and instruction by the various\nteachers to their own classes. The plan is to take such a lesson as \"What I'm Going\nto Do When I'm Grown Up\" and give it in rapid succession in all grammar schools of a\ncity, provoking interest in the entire body of grammar-school pupils and affording general\nopportunity for discussion by the teachers simultaneously. It is possible in this way to\nexert powerful influence over the moral convictions of boys and girls themselves.\nMr. Bernard N. Baker, of Baltimore, is furnishing a fund of $10,000 on which this\nsystem of moral instruction can be fully tried out in America. He is giving his personal\nattention to the business organization, and planning for the incorporation of the Moral\nEducation Board as an educational institution. The schools are to pay a small rental\nfee to sustain headquarters, but part of the expense is to be borne from the endowment\nfund.\nThe address is. Moral Education Board, 903 Calvert Bid., Baltimore, Md.\nMr. Fairchild then invited the superintendents interested to visit his exhibit, and called\nattention to a historical sketch written by Walter H. Page, which appeared in March, 191 o,\nissue of World's Work.\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\nAFTERNOON\n\nMINUTES\n\nI45\n\nSESSION\n\nAt 2 P.M., President -Brooks called the meeting to order and the following program\nwas presented:\nTopic: Children Differ in Moral Responsibility\n1. The Variable Factors in Moral Responsibility. — P, W. Horn, superintendent of\nschools, Houston, Tex.\n2. Discipline as Affected by Differences in Moral ^Responsibility. — Walter F. Lewis,\nsuperintendent of schools, Port Huron, Mich.\n3. Methods of Reducing Moral Truths to Practice. — Horace H. Cummings, general\nsuperintendent L.D.S. Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah.\n4. A Richer Moral Ideal. — P. P. Claxton, professor of education, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.\nIn Memoriam, William Torrey Harris. — George P. Brown, editor. School and Home\nEducation, Bloomington, 111. (Read by John W. Cook, with introduction by Mr. Cook.)\nC. P. Gary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. Elmer Ellsworth\nBrown, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C.\nEVENING SESSION\nThe evening session was called to order at 7:45 o'clock. President Brooks presiding.\nHon. Albert J. Beveridge, United States Senator for Indiana, delivered an address\non \"The School and the Nation.\" Following the address of Senator Beveridge a reception was tendered to the visiting members by the Board of School Commissioners, and the\nsuperintendent and teachers of the public schools of Indianapolis at the John Herron\nArt Institute.\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION— Wednesday,\n\nMarch\n\n2\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Brooks at 9:30 a.m.\nprogram was presented:\n\nThe following\n\nTopic: Children Differ in Mental Attitudes, Tastes, and Tendencies\nr. Dangers and Advantages of Specialization Prior to the High School Age. —\nW. E. Striplin, superintendent of schools, Gadsden, Ala.\n2. The Effects of Electives upon the Future Welfare of Secondary Education. —\nJ. Stanley Brown, principal of Township High School, Joliet, 111.\n3. Do Present College-Entrance Requirements Sufficiently Recognize the Different\nTastes and Tendencies of Pupils ?— A. Ross Hill, president of the University of Missouri,\nColumbia, Mo.\nGeneral Discussion — Leaders: A. H. Yoder, superintendent of schools, Tacoma,\nWash.; J. George Becht, principal of State Normal School, Clarion, Pa.; W, A. Godward,\nsuperintendent of schools. Devil's Lake, N.Dak.\nThe annual business meeting followed the program.\nInvitations to hold the meeting of the Department for the year 191 1 were received\nfrom Chattanooga, Tenn., Dallas, Tex., Richmond, Va., St. Louis, Mo., Mobile, Ala.,\nand Chicago, 111.\nThe following resolution was offered by President John W. Cook of DeKalb, Illinois:\nResolved, (i) That the action of this Department with respect to its location for 191 1\nshall be advisory only, and subject to the approval of the officers of the Department, including the General Secretary of the National Education Association; (2) That no action\nrespecting the location of this Department for the year 191 1 shall be regarded as even\nadvisory by the officers of the Department unless supported by a majority of those voting,\nand if three or more cities shall be voted for in any ballot the city receiving the smallest\nvote shall be dropped on the succeeding ballot.\nThe motion was duly seconded and adopted.\nAfter two ballots were taken, Mobile received 371 votes, a majority of the votes cast.\nSuperintendent Ella Flagg Young, of Chicago, moved to make the vote for Mobile unanimous. This motion prevailed.\nPresident Brooks called for the report of the Committee on Nominations and President\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nZ. X. Snyder of the State Normal School of Colorado, chairman of the committee, submitted\nthe following nominations:\nFor President, W. M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr.\nFor First Vice-President, J. A, Shawan, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio.\nFor Second Vice-President, C. G. Schulz, state superintendent of public instruction,\nSt. Paul. Minn.\nFor Secretary, Arthur D. Call, supervising principal of schools, Hartford, Conn.\nThe report was unanimously adopted and the nominees declared elected.\nThe session then adjourned.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION— 2:30 p.m.\n\nROUND-TABLE\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nThe afternoon was devoted to the respective round-table conferences with programs\nas follows:\n(a) round\n\ntable of state and county\n\nsuperintendents\n\nLeader — T. H. Harris, state superintendent of public education for Louisiana,\nRouge, La.\n\nBaton\n\nTopic: The Country Child\n^\n1. The Necessary One- Room School: (a) When necessary; (6) What it should do;\n(c) How do it. — H. A. Gass, state superintendent of public instruction, Jefferson\nCity, Mo.\n2. Consolidated Schools: (a) Advantages; (&) Obstacles; (c) How obtained. — Robert\nJ. Aley, state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.; Robert Lee Jones,\nstate superintendent of public instruction, Nashville, Tenn.\n3. Industrial Education in the (a) Consolidated school; kind and scope; (6) Oneroom school; kind and scope. — C. E. Byrd, superintendent of schools, Caddo Parish,\nShreveport, La.\n4. Teachers for Country Schools: (a) Kind wanted; (6) How to secure them. — L. J.\nAUeman, state institute conductor. Baton Rouge, La.\n(b) round\n\ntable of superintendents\n\nof larger\n\ncities\n\nLeader — Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nTopic: History and Art as Requisites in Making the Curriculum for Industrial Education\n1. The Importance of History in Industrial Education. — ^James H. Robinson, professor of history, Columbia University, New York City. Discussion led by Wm. H. Maxwell,\nsuperintendent of schools, New York City.\n2. The Study of Art as a Requisite in Industrial Education. — Walter Sargent, supervisor ofArt and Manual Training departments. School of Education, University of Chicago,\nChicago, 111. Discussion led by Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction in public\nschools, St. Louis, Mo.\n(C)\n\nROUND\n\ntable\n\nOF\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF\n\nSMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\nLeader — W, J. McKone, superintendent of schools, Albion, Mich.\n1. The Purpose and Content of the Elementary Curriculum. — A. H. Chamberlain,\ntreasurer, N.E.A., Pasadena, Cal.; F. E. Downes, superintendent of schools, Harrisburg,\nPa.; E. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich.; H. L. Smith, superintendent of schools, Bloomington, Ind.\n2. The Grading and Promotion of Pupils. — Charles S. Hartwell, secretary Joint Committee on School Organization of New York City Teachers' Association, Brooklyn, N.Y.;\nF. E. Converse, superintendent of Schools, Beloit, Wis.; H. B. Wilson, superintendent of\nschools, Decatur, 111.; E. J. Brown, superintendent of schools, Dayton, Ohio.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nA joint session of the Department was held with the American School Hygiene Association, The American Physical Education Association and The Public School Physical\nTraining Society; President Stratton D. Brooks presiding.\nThe\nfollowing program\nwas presented:\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n1 47\n\nTopic: Children Differ in Physical Condition\n1. Health and Education. — Thomas F. Harrington, M.D., director of school hygiene,\nBoston, Mass.\n(Representing the Department of Superintendence.)\n2. The Health of the Teacher. — Luther H. Gulick, M.D., director. Department\nof Child Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation. (Representing the American Physical\nEducation Association.)\n3. The Principle Underlying Modern Physical Education. — Herman H. Horn, professor of education, New York University. (Representing the Public School Physical\nTraining Society.)\n\nTHIRD\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION— Thursday,\n\nMarch\n\n3\n\nThe Department was called to order at 9 : 30 a.m. by President Brooks.\nwas the program of the session:\n\nThe following\n\nTopic: Children Differ in Environment\n1. Southern Educational Problems. — Samuel E. Weber, inspector of state high schools\nfor Louisiana, Baton Rouge, La.\n2. Education in the Country for the Country. — ^John W. Zeller, state commissioner of\ncommon schools for Ohio, Columbus, Ohio.\nGeneral Discussion — Leaders: Thomas P. Bailey, superintendent of schools, Memphis,\nTenn.; C. B. Connelley, dean of the School for Apprentices and Journeymen, Carnegie\nTechnical Schools, Pittsburg, Pa.; John F. Haines, county superintendent of schools,\nNoblesville, Ind.\nAt the conclusion of the discussions of the topic of the morning, William L. Kallmann,\nof the City Normal School of Cleveland, Ohio, read the report of the Committee on Music\nEducation and moved its adoption. Superintendent Blewett, a member of the committee,\narose to explain why he could not sign the report. He objected to the adoption of the report\nbecause he feared that in adopting it the Department would be establishing a precedent\nthat might in the future be quoted by private interests seeking to use the Department for\nprivate gain.\nOssian Lang, editor of the School Journal, of New York City, defended the report on\nthe ground that it did not represent a private interest, but one of universal importance.\nThe motion to adopt prevailed.\nSuperintendent Blewett, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, then read the\nfollowing resolutions and requested that the first and second sections referring to William\nT. Harris and George P. Brown be voted on separately and that a rising vote be taken.\nThis request was granted, and on motion the first and second resolutions were adopted\nunanimously by a rising vote.\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS\nResolved:\n1. That in the death of William Torrey Harris our country lost its most profound\nphilosopher, American education its most distinguished leader, and the National Education\nAssociation its most respected and best-beloved member. The memory and the record of\nhis work in this association will be cherished as one of the richest heritages of our body.\n2. That this Association learns with the deepest regret of the recent death of George\nP.. Brown, for many years one of its most honored and conspicuous members. His likeness\nto his illustrious friend. Dr. Harris, was often remarked. In philosophic insight, in clear\ngrasp of fundamental principles, and in beauty of character they were singularly alike.\nBoth devoted their lives mainly to the solution of educational problems, more especially\nto those of the elementary school. As teacher, educational writer, and philosopher,\nMr. Brown made a distinguished place for himself in the annals of public education in this\ncountry.\n*3. That the increasing efficiency of the Bureau of Education is establishing faith\nin the importance of its function in the national life. It is the hope of the Department of\nSuperintendence that, because of the Bureau's broad influence upon national ideals in\neducation, the nation shall within a short time place it among the departments of the\n* Not adopted : referred to a special committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nexecutive branch of the government and recognize it thus as the department to which is\nintrusted the development of the nation's most precious resource, her children.\n4. That the Department of Superintendence is in full sympathy with the ultimate\nmotives of those who have suggested to Congress the establishment of a children's bureau;\nbut unquestionably believes that the work proposed for such a bureau is naturally part of\nthe work of the Bureau of Education, and that any division of responsibility would result\nin confusion and waste. The Bureau of Education must consider all conditions that\naffect the education of the children favorably or unfavorably, and such research should\nbe intrusted to its experts with specialized training for such investigations carefully selected\nand adequately paid.\n5. That the Department while heartily approving every agency that may be used\nto advance the educational interests of both state and nation, places itself on record as\ndisapproving any appropriations made by either legislatures or Congress for any institution\nwhich is not supported exclusively by public funds and which is not subject to complete\nfederal or state control and investigation.\n6. That, because the statistics published in school reports are inadequate for the purpose of comparison, the president of this Department is hereby authorized to appoint a\ncommittee of five to formulate and report at the next annual meeting of this Department\na system of statistics which will secure uniformity in reports on all points of common\nconcern.\n7. That the problem of retardation in our schools demands our careful consideration.\nSuperintendents should emphasize all means which will reduce the amount of retardation\nwithout sacrificing the efficiency of the work. Late entrance and irregularity of attendance\nare important causes of retardation which can be overcome to a great extent thru more\nintelligent co-operation of the home. The poor adjustment of the elementary curriculum\nto the needs of many retarded pupils can be remedied in part by modifications in the course\nof study to suit it to the local problems, and each superintendent must attack this problem\nin the light of local conditions. There must be a clear recognition of the fact that the\nassignment of a child to a grade should depend upon his ability to profit by the new work\nrather than upon the specific knowledge already attained, or upon the failure measured\nby marks and grades of the preceding term. The superintendent should hold the principal\nresponsible for the individual promotion of exceptionally bright pupils, that there may be no\nretardation of a pupil in grade or work below his ability to carry successfully. The principal should understand that this case is one of his most important obligations and\nprivileges.\n8. That the i8th of May, the anniversary of the first Hague Peace Conference, be\nobserved in the schools by setting aside a portion of the day for appropriate exercises in\nrecognition of the endeavor of the nations to establish a higher moral ideal in international\nrelations.\n9. That we favor the encouragement of agricultural education by national and state\nassistance.\n10. That the thanks of the Department be hereby expressed to Superintendent Calvin\nN. Kendall, the local committee, and the press for the many courtesies shown to the\nofficers and members of the Department.\nRespectfully submitted\nBen Blewett, Chairman\nCharles E. Chadsey\nCharles H. Keyes\nEdgar H. Mark\nCommittee\nAfter some discussion of the resolution recommending that the Bureau of Education\nbe made a department of the national government, to be represented by a member in the\nPresident's cabinet, an amendment prevailed referring this question to a committee of five\nto be appointed by President Brooks; this committee to make recommendation at the next\nannual meeting of the Department. The remaining resolutions were then adopted by a\nunanimous vote.\nSuperintendent Blewett moved that a delegate be appointed by the president-elect\nof the Department, to represent the Department at the coming Educational Conference\nat Brussels.\nThis motion prevailed.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe last session of the Department was called to order at 2 p.m.. President Brooks\npresiding.\nThe following topic was considered:\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWHAT\n\ncdNSTITUTES\n\nRETARDATION?\n\nTopic: Children Differ in Vocational Aim\n1. Industrial Education in Elementary Schools. — Ben W. Johnson, director of manual\narts, Seattle, Wash.\n2. Vocational Courses in Secondary Schools. — W. F. Webster, principal of East High\nSchool, Minneapolis, Minn.\n3. Trade Unions and Industrial Education. — W. B. Prescott, secretary, International\nTypographical Union Commission on Supplementary Trade Education.\nGeneral Discussion — Leader: George H. Whitcher, superintendent of schools, Berlin,\nN.H.\nAt the conclusion of the discussion there being no other business the Department\nadjourned sine die.\nJ. F. Keating, Secretary\nSUPPLEMENTARY\n\nThe following-named committees authorized by the Department of Superintendence\nwere appointed by President Stratton D. Brooks subsequent to the close of the convention.\nAll of the appointees have accepted appointment, viz.:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSTATISTICS\n\nPayson Smith, state superintendent of public schools, Augusta, Me., Chairman.\nCharles M. Lamprey, head of the Department of History and director of the Model\nSchool, Boston, Mass.\nWilliam H. Elson, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\nE. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools, East Saginaw, Mich.\nGeorge D, Strayer, adjunct professor of elementary education, Teachers College,\nColumbia University, New York City, N.Y.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON THE BUREAU\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nA DEPARTMENT\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\nWilliam H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools, New York City, N.Y. Chairman.\nBen Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\nJ. Stanley Brown, superintendent, and principal of Township High School,\nJoliet, 111.\nJohn W. Abercrombie, president of the University of Alabama, University, Ala.\nIrwin Shepard, General Secretary, N.E.A.\n\nPAPERS AND\nTOPIC:\n\nCHILDREN\n\nDIFFER\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nIN MENTAL\n\nALERTNESS\n\n/. WHAT CONSTITUTES RETARDATION ? HOW SIGNIFICANT\nARE RETARDATION STATISTICS? WHEN IS RETARDATION JUSTIFIABLE?\nHOW MAY IT BE CORRECTED?\nLEONARD\n\nP. AYRES,\nOF THE\n\nASSOCIATE\nDIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT\nOF\nRUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION,\nNEW YORK\nWHAT\n\nCONSTITUTES\n\nRETARDATION\n\nCHILD\nCITY\n\nHYGIENE\n\n?\n\nDuring the past few years the term *' retarded\" has been applied with\nincreasing uniformity to describe the condition of school children who are\ntoo old for their grades. It describes but does not attempt to explain. It\nis applied to all children of this class whatever may be the cause or causes\nwhich account for the fact that they are above the normal age for their grades.\nThey may have entered school late, or they may have made slow progress:\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "150\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nunder both circumstances they are termed \"retarded.\" It is in this sense\nthat the word will be used thruout the present paper.\nNow many able educators, and among them some of the keenest thinkers\nin the profession, have taken issue squarely with those who use the term in\nthis way and have argued that the proper criterion for judging backwardness\namong school children is not age in grade but rather rate of progress.\nHere then we have two criteria, one setting up an arbitrary standard v/hich\nsays that the boy who is eight years of age or older in the first grade, nine years\nold or older in the second grade, etc., is \"retarded\" and the other claiming\nthat the child who takes more than one year to complete the work of one\ngrade is retarded.\nThe criterion which judges the extent of retardation in a school system\nby telling how many of the children are too old for their grades has won its\nway into nearly universal use because it gives the quickest, clearest, and most\neasily understood answers to these questions. To discover how many over- age\nchildren there are in his school system a superintendent has only to draw up a\ntable showmg the distribution of children by grades and ages and to draw thru\nit a line separating the over-age children from those of normal age.\nThe objections that have been brought against this method are: first,\nthat it exaggerates the extent of the evil; and second, that the facts shown are\nnon-significant because the child who enters school late is not retarded at all\nbut will make such rapid progress as to more than catch up with those who\nentered earlier.\nConsidering now the first of these two objections, is it true that the age\nstandard of measuring retardation exaggerates the seriousness of existing\nconditions? In New York City 16,000 children graduated from the eighth\ngrades last June. Of these children 42 per cent, were retarded according to\nthe age standard, and 43 per cent, had required more than eight years to\ncomplete the eight grades. In another study of the school histories of 19,000\nchildren in New York it was found that 23 per cent, were over age but that\n40 per cent, had made slower progress than that called for by the course of\nstudy. In an article published in the Educational Review for September,\n1909, Dr. Roland P. Falkner published data from a number of cities showing\nthat when we can apply both the age-in-grade and the progress criteria we\nfind almost without exception that the age standard understates rather than\noverstates the extent of the evil.\nTurning now to the second objection we are confronted by the claim that\nthe child who enters school late readily overcomes his initial handicap and by\nrapid progress soon catches up with the children who entered early and even\npasses them. Here again the question at issue can only be answered by an\nappeal to fact, not to opinion.\nReference has been made to a study of the school records of the 16,000\nchildren who graduated from the eighth grades in New York City last June.\nOne part of that study consisted of a tabulation of the records of progress\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "WHAT\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nCONSTITUTES\n\nI5i\n\nRETARDATION?\n\nmade by the children who entered at each age. In this study only the records\nof the children who started in the first grade and completed the eight grades\nwere taken into'consideration.\nAGE\n\nAT ENTERING\n\nThe results are shown in the following table :\n\nAND MONTHS\nREQUIRED\nEIGHT GRADES .\n\nTO\n\nCOMPLETE\n69\n63\n\nNumber of\nChUdren\n\nAge at\nEntering\ne\n6\n7\n8\n\nMedian Number of\nMonths to\nComplete Course\n81\n82\n\n:\n\n1,521\n2,936\n\nQ\n\nlO\nII\n\n80\n\n5,828\n26\n142\n\n79\n\n9\n2\n\n66\n\n721\n\n74\n\nThe lesson taught by the table is that children who enter school late make\na little more rapid progress than do those who enter early, but that it is only a\nlittle more rapid. To state it another way, the lesson is that the child who\nenters late will not, as has been claimed, catch up with the child who enters\nearly. The figure which tells us how many over-age children there are in\neach lower grade is an important figure because it helps to tell us how many\nchildren are not going to be able to stay in school long enough to graduate.\nTo summarize: retardation is a term used in educational economics to\nsignify a condition and a result, not an explanation or a process. A retarded\nchild is a child who is too old for the grade he is in. Why he is too old the\nterm does not attempt to explain. Retardation is found to a greater or less\nextent in all school systems. Because of it half of the children who enter our\ncity schools fail to graduate. Retardation as calculated by the age-in-grade\nstandard has not been overstated. This standard is more easily applied than\nth6 progress standard and the conditions it discloses are of the utmost\nimportance.\nHOW\n\nSIGNIFICANT\n\nARE\n\nRETARDATION\n\nSTATISTICS?\n\nWhen a superintendent has before him a table showing just how many\nchildren there are in each grade who are older than they ought to be for that\ngrade the information is certainly significant.\nBut suppose that last year's figures show the superintendent that 30 per\ncent, of the children were then retarded and this year's figures show him that\nnow only 25 per cent, are retarded. How significant is this change ? The\nanswer is that it may or may not be significant.\nIn the first place if last year's computation was based on the total enrollment for a term or the entire year and this year's figures were secured on the\nbasis of the enrollment or attendance on a given day the two figures are not\ncomparable.\nThe reason is that figures giving the total enrollment almost\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nalways give a fictitiously large membership to the lower grades and the percentage of retardation computed on the basis of the total enrollment for a\nterm or year will be untrustworthy.\nThe lesson here is that retardation statistics are not to be trusted for\npurposes of comparison for different years in the same system or in different\nsystems unless they are computed on just the same basis of enumeration.\nBut there is another factor which has the greatest influence in affecting\nthe figures showing the percentage of retardation in any system. This is\nthe date on which the computation is made.\nIn 1908 the cities of Springfield, Mass., and Springfield, Ohio, published\ntables showing the age and grade distributions in their school systems. These\ntables showed that in the Massachusetts city the percentage of retardation\nwas 22 while in the Ohio city it was 38. Are these figures significant in\nthe sense that they show that conditions are very much better in the Massachusetts city than in the Ohio one ? We find that the Massachusetts data were\ngathered in September while those in Ohio were gathered in June.\nIf the over-age children had been enumerated in the Massachusetts city\nin June instead of September they would have constituted 42 per cent,\nof all of the children instead of 22 per cent. On the other hand, if the backward children had been enumerated in Springfield, Ohio, in September instead\nof in June as they were, they would have been 23 per cent, instead of 38 per\ncent. The result of all this is that we see that the conditions in the two cities\nare very nearly equal with perhaps a slight difference in favor of the Ohio\ncity.\nThe principle underlying this is most important. It is largely because\nthis fundamental difference has been ignored that inter-city comparisons of\nretardation have been so unsatisfactory and have given results that we have\nall mistrusted.\nIn the considerations that we have reviewed we have an answer to our\nsecond main question, which was: How significant are retardation statistics?\nThe answer is that they are important and significant in disclosing to the\nsuperintendent important facts about his schools. They are unreliable and\ndeceptive for purposes of comparison unless the children are enumerated on\nthe same basis and the ages of the children are recorded in the same month\nof the year.\nWHEN\n\nIS\n\nRETARDATION\n\nJUSTIFIABLE?\n\nThe answer to the question. When is retardation justifiable? seems to\nbe, When it is the result of circumstances beyond the control of the school\nauthorities.\nIf a boy is older than eight years of age when he enters the first grade he is\nbound to be numbered among the retarded in the following grades.\nWe may put retardation because of late entrance in the category which we\nare calling ** justifiable retardation\" in the sense that the school and the school\nauthorities cannot be held blameworthy for its existence.\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWHAT\n\nCONSTITUTES\n\nRETARDATION?\n\n153\n\nThis brings us to the retardation that is caused by slow progress. In\nan investigation in New York City it was found that of every hundred retarded\nchildren 30 were retarded because of late entrance; 13 were retarded because\nof late entrance combined with slow progress; and 57 were retarded because\nof slow progress alone.\nThus we see that slow progress is by far the greatest cause of retardation.\nHow much of it may be termed justifiable ? In the first place the school is\nnot to blame for the fact that there are in every considerable community some\ngenuinely mentally deficient children. They are apt to constitute perhaps\none-half of i per cent, of the school children.\nThese children should not be in the public schools at all. They cannot\nbe taught by regular classroom methods and are really institution cases.\nRanking above these unfortunates we find a much larger number of children\nwho are not mentally deficient, subnormal, atypical children, but are genuinely\ndull. They may be taught in the public school but need special classes.\nSuch children are apt to constitute 2 or 3 per cent, of the school membership.\nThe children of these two classes, the mentally deficient and the dull, are\njustifiably retarded in the sense that their backwardness is no fault of the\nschool system.\nA third class consists of the immigrant children who enter our schools\nignorant of the English language and who often enter at advanced ages.\nIt is no fault of the school that large numbers of such children enter its\ndoors.\nA fourth cause of slow progress is physical defectiveness. Studies in the\nNew York schools have shown that it takes the child who has seriously defective teeth on the average of one-half of a year more to complete the eight\ngrades than it does the child who has sound teeth. In a similar way the child\nwho has adenoids requires more than a year longer to get through than does\nthe child who is not so handicapped.\nWe have considered four causes of the sort of retardation that we may\nconsider wholly or in part justifiable. The extent of such retardation varies\ngreatly in different localities and under different conditions. It is probable\nthat often from a third to one-half of all of the retardation in our school systems\nis justifiable in the sense that the responsibility for it cannot be laid directly\nat the door of the school and the school authorities.\nHOW\n\nMAY\n\nRETARDATION\n\nBE\n\nCORRECTED?\n\nRetardation may be corrected by measures that reduce late entrance and\nencourage normal progress. The measures which will tend to reduce late\nentrance are of two sorts. The first consists of extending the lower limit of\nthe compulsory-attendance period so that children will be required to attend\nschool at the age of seven rather than at tlie age of eight. The second measure\nconsists of ceasing to educate the parents of our children in the belief that the\nchild who enters school at the age of eight or nine is certain to more than catch\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nup with the one who enters at five or six until we have definite, reliable data\nto support those statements.\nTurning now to the measures which will result in more children making\nnormal progress we have first to consider the question of special treatment\nfor the three special classes of children already mentioned.\nThere is no division of opinion on the proposition that in all school systems\nit is a duty owed to the community, the teachers, and the children to discover\nwhich of the pupils are feeble-minded, and segregate them in institutions if\npossible. It is almost equally true that we are all agreed that it is good economy to organize special classes for the dull children and the non-Englishspeaking children.\nA second sort of remedial measure consists of the developing and perfecting\nof measures for conserving and increasing the physical soundness of the pupils,\nfor discovering and excluding cases of contagious disease, for finding and\nhaving remedied physical defects, and for making the entire school and its\nsurroundings happier, healthier, and more wholesome.\nThe next sort of remedial measure consists of the sort of record-keeping\nthat shall enable the school to keep track of each individual child from the\ntime he enters school until he leaves and to tell when he fails and why he fails\nand guide in preventing him from failing.\nThe third consideration, and in this limited paper it must be the final one,\nis that if we are to correct retardation we must so change our courses of\nstudy or our methods of grading and promotion that the children who make\nrapid progress through the grades shall be at least equal in numbers to |;hose\nwho make slow progress. At the present time this condition does not exist\ncommonly, if indeed it does anywhere.\nAt present our courses of study are not fitted to the abilities of the average\npupil but to those of the unusually bright one. In- an investigation in New\nYork it was found that for every child making rapid progress through the grades\nthere were eight who made slow progress. Last year in a Massachusetts\ncity for every one making rapid progress there were twenty-one making slow\nprogress. In a large city in Pennsylvania the slow pupils are fourteen times\nas numerous as the rapid ones. In five other cities in different parts of the\ncountry the slow pupils are from ten times as numerous to 150 times as numerous as are the rapid ones. It is probably a most conservative statement to\nsay that in the average city there are at least ten times as many children making\nslow progress as there are making rapid progress. To change this condition\nis the great school problem.\nTo summarize: The problem of retardation is the problem of finding the\nleak through which half of our children escape before they complete the\nelementary course. The causes of retardation are late entrance and slow\nprogress. Not all retardation can be done away with, but it can in most cases\nbe materially reduced. The measures whereby it may be reduced are none\nof them untried experiments.\nAll of them are measures which may be put\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nGIFTED\n\nCHILDREN\n\n155\n\nin practice by any community.\nMost of them are now being used with entire\nsuccess in more than one city.\n//. PROVISION\nJAMES\n\nH.\n\nVAN\n\nFOR GIFTED\nSICKLE,\n\nCHILDREN\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nIN PUBLIC\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBALTIMORE,\n\nMD.\n\nDuring the past decade much attention has been given in public-school\nsystems to the problem of the backward, delinquent, and defective children\nwho clog the lower grades of our schools and retard the progress of the children\nof normal mentality. The movement for special classes for the few — possibly\n2 per cent, of the whole number — who cannot profit by instruction as given\nunder ordinary school conditions, is undoubtedly in the right direction. I\nwould go farther and say that another group of children, numbering possibly\n8 or 10 per cent, of the whole enrollment, intermediate in mental grasp between\nthe extreme cases and the great body of average children, should receive such\nindividual attention as cannot be given in large classes because many of them\nwill later develop marked strength, if they are now enabled to proceed at\nthe moderate pace needful for them.\nThe topic assigned to me assumes that there are children at the other\nextreme of ability for whom, also, special provision should be made. President\nEliot has often called attention to the importance of discovering these capable\nindividuals and giving them opportunities commensurate with their abilitirs,\nso that society may use them \"to lift the whole population to a higher pline\nof intelligence, conduct, and happiness.\" Theoretically, most people are\nwilling to admit that the general tendency in a democracy is to bring ail men\nto a common level; and that the level toward which we tend is the level of\nthe average intelligence rather than that exemplified in the genius; and that\nthe only way to lift the whole population is to develop capable individuals\nto take the lead in the lifting. It cannot be denied that the graded-school\nsystem, by its tendency toward uniformity, has operated toward making us\nsatisfied with a medium level of attainment. Undoubtedly, one of its effects\nhas been to raise many individuals to a higher level than they might otherwise\nhave attained, and this is good; but, on the other hand, it has made many\nother individuals satisfied with lower attainments than those of which they\nwere capable, and this is not good. It is not easy to break the \"cake of custom\" that fifty years of uniformity have created; but now that such signal\nprogress has been made in the proper education of children at the lower levels\nof ability, we may hope for at least equally valuable results from special\nattention to children of exceptionally strong mental endowment. For the\npurpose of this discussion these children are spoken of as \"gifted.\" By the\ngifted child we do not mean the genius in the sense in which Mr. Galton uses\nthe term. We refer to a more numerous class of children endowed with\nsomewhat more of intellectual power and energy than the great mass of children in our schools.\nOf course there is no clear-cut line of division anywhere\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nMAT\n\nION\n\nAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nbetween the various groups. They shade into each other, and we shall often\nbe in doubt as to the group in which a child belongs, but even under such\ncircumstances there is a gain for education, because we shall sooner solve\na problem by recognizing it as a problen than by ignoring it altogether.\nStatistics are available showing about how many subnormal childern there\nare among every one thousand, but we do not know how many gifted children\nthere are among every one thousand. We do not know because we have\nnot been looking for them. Under the operation of school-attendance laws, instead of easily getting rid of the dullards and laggards, as we too often formerly\ndid, we are undertaking to hold them and teach them, and it is an easy problem\nto discover who they are. They force themselves upon our attention. Too\noften, on the other hand, we fail to notice that some children in our classes\nmight do much more work than we are requiring of them. From time to\ntime a few, by reason of their special aptness, have commanded our notice,\nbut we have not considered that they needed any special opportunities. We\nhave, as a rule, held that these bright children would in some way take very\ngood care of themselves; that if a child had any special ability he would make\nhis way in spite of all obstacles. This may be true of the extremely limited\nnumber of individuals included in Mr. Gal ton's definition of genius; for he\nholds that the actual genius is the only genius; or, in other words, that the\nonly individuals of superior native ability are the ones who have demonstrated\nthat superior ability by actual accomplishment, and conversely, that those\nwho have not actually demonstrated the possession of superior native powers\ndo not possess them. He rules out the extremely important factor, \"opportunity.\" According to Lester F. Ward,\nthe only true test of genius (ability) is trial. But unless the conditions for trial are present\nthere can be no trial, and without trial under favorable conditions there is no basis for\njudging whether there be genius or no.\n\nWard's position in this matter, tho somewhat oversanguine, is to my mind\nmore reasonable than Galton's.\nGreat men [he says] have been produced by the co-operation of two causes — genius and\nopportunity; neither alone can accomplish it. But genius is a constant factor, very abundant in every rank of life, while opportunity is a variable factor and chiefly artificial. As\nsuch it is something that can be supplied practically at will. The actual manufacture,\ntherefore, of great men, of the agents of civilization, of the instruments of achievement,\nis not a Utopian conception, but a practical undertaking .... it consists in the extension\nto all the members of society of an equal opportunity for the exercise of whatever powers\neach may possess.\n\nHow slight an opportunity to develop whatever powers they may possess\nhave children who drop out of school and enter the ranks of unskilled labor\nas soon as the law permits ! Often a parent is unaware that his gifted child\nis the possessor of any special talent unless so informed by the teacher. Not\ninfrequently when so informed, a parent will keep his child in school even at\nthe sacrifice of the small but important pecuniary aid which the child's labor\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nGIFTED\n\nCHILDREN\n\n157\n\nwould afiford. By dealing thus with parents whose only capital is their labor,\nteachers are able to aid very materially in bringing genius and opportunity\ntogether. But keeping children in school is not enough. There must at the\nsame time be offered the opportunity for the more able pupils to exercise\ntheir ability. Adherence to fixed and unchangeable courses of study and to\ninflexible schemes of classification fall far short of furnishing equal opportunity to all in our schools. Total lack of systematic procedure would equally\nfail to secure the desired equality of opportunity, for stimulation and guidance\nmust be well organized and constant. We hear of isolated instances of such\nstimulation and guidance, but not often of well-organized schemes which may\nbe applied on a large scale, as in a city system of schools.\nThere is a considerable body of literature on the subject of backward\nchildren, the lower lo per cent, of our enrollment, but very little on the upper\n10 per cent., the gifted. Mr. Kendall's presentation of the case of the ablest\npupils, two years ago, is the only one giving definite plans of procedure that\nI can find in the Proceedings of the National Education Association. The\nMannheim scheme of classification (briefly described on pp. 43-47 and 121-23\nof Bulletin No. 376, Bureau of Education, entitled The Auxiliary Schools of\nGermany) makes special provision for the abler pupils by grouping them in\nseparate divisions. The \"Report of the Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools,\" presented at the Cleveland meeting\nof the National Education Association, devotes the greater part of its space\nto abnormal and subnormal children. Only one page is devoted to provision\nfor exceptionally capable children, and the attitude taken by the committee\nis, that the problem, while immensely important, remains unsolved. {Proceedings, National Education Association, pp. 350-51.)\nIn the same volume Dr. Charles A. A. J. Miller, of Baltimore, devotes\na half-page to this topic (p. 959). The Report of the Committee on Six- Year\nCourse of Study is suggestive, especially in recommendation 4 (Proceedings,\nNational Education Association, 1908, p. 627). A year later the same\ncommittee made a report (Proceedings, National Education Association,\n1909, pp. 498-502) in which there appear twelve brief statements of plans\ndesigned to meet the needs of pupils of varying ability. In the same volume,\npp. 175-82, Mr. Walter Siders presents an excellent discussion of certain\nphases of the subject.\nThe value of any plan must be measured by its results. We cannot\nexpect complete and convincing reports of results in the early stages of the\noperation of any plan; but where, as in Indianapolis, Worcester, Baltimore,\nand elsewhere, special provision made for the abler pupils has been in operation\nfor several years, a tentative statement might at this time be possible. For\ninstance, where high-school credits have been earned by elementary-school\npupils, it would be possible to make a numerical statement of that particular\nkind of result and to say something specific as to the class rank of such pupils\nupon graduation from the high school.\nSuch a statement would be of more\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "158\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nvalue for comparison than an indefinite remark to the effect that by means\nof a given plan \"many pupils save considerable time\" or \"some pupils are\nable to complete the high-school course in three years.\" Instead, therefore,\nof indulging in indefinite statements, I shall attempt to give a brief statistical\nreport of measurable results accomplished by means of a plan, common to\nseveral cities, which, beginning in a small way in the fall of 1902, we have\nbeen using in Baltimore. The plan, in brief, is to allow pupils who have done\nstrong work in the sixth grade to take up extra studies of high-school grade\nwhile doing the regular work of the seventh and eighth grades of the elementary school. These studies are Latin, French, or German, advanced\nEnglish, and, in exceptional cases, some of the mathematics of the first highschool year. Pupils who take this work are transferred to a convenient center in which enough pupils may be gathered together to allow the instruction\nto be organized on the departmental plan. We started in 1902 with one center\nenrolling 173 pupils, and that year we admitted pupils of the eighth grade as\nwell as the seventh. In 1903 and later, admission was limited to pupils just\nentering the seventh grade. We now have four centers with an enrollment\nat present of 571 pupils. For three years one of these centers has been\nallowed, by way of experiment, to keep selected pupils for an extra year.\nSuch pupils spend but two years in the high school. Other preparatory\npupils ordinarily spend three years in the high school; but in either case, for\npreparatory pupils, the time required for high-school graduation after the\nsixth elementary grade has ordinarily been five years, whereas six years\nwould have been required had it not been for the high-school credits earned\nin the elementary school.\nThe preparatory arrangement was in only a formative and transitory\nstage during 1902-3, 1903-4, and 1904-5. High-school adjustments also\nwere quite difficult at first. Hence, of pupils promoted to the high school in\n1903, 1904, and 1905, a majority were unable to graduate in three high-school\nyears. With the preparatory class promoted in June, 1905, the tide turns,\nand thereafter we find that nearly all pupils entering high school from preparatory classes have been able to earn the diploma of graduation in three years.\nThe first preparatory-school pupils were graduated from the high school\nin 1906. By June, 1910, 236 in all will have graduated. Of these, 41 were\nin the high school proper but two years; 120 were in high school three years,\nand 75 four years. Among the latter were 57 who spent but one year — the\neighth — in a preparatory center, the one which was opened in 1902. While\nthese 75 pupils who, in the early days of the plan, spent four years in the\nhigh school did not save any time, they enjoyed marked advantages. They\nearned 13,050 credits, or an average of 174 each; whereas the number required\nfor graduation was only 150. It is quite evident that the high-school course\npursued by these pupils, tho not shortened, was made much fuller and richer\nthan it would have been had they entered from the ordinary eighth grade.\nA study of individual records of high-school graduates who came from the\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nGIFTED\n\nCHILDREN\n\n159\n\npreparatory classes shows in general that a notable gain was experienced in\none of two ways: either the student gained a year or more in time, securing\nthe high-school diploma in three years or less instead of taking the customary\nfour years; or the student, tho spending four years in the high school, was\nable to rank among the honor graduates of his class and to secure a much\nbroader and richer training than the regular four-year student secured. In a\nrelatively larger number of cases where the student took a third preparatory\nyear in the single center offering this extra preparatory year, distinct gain\nwas experienced in both these directions at the same time, because the highschool diploma was secured after only two years in the high school proper,\nand the student also stood among the honor graduates.\nSix preparatory-class boys who spent three years in preparatory class and\nonly two in high school, and who graduated in June, 1909, won a rank of 34\nin a class of 133, or 32 places above the middle of the class, and two were among\nthe first twenty in the class. Eight girls from the same preparatory class,\ngraduating from the high school at the same time, made an average of 21 in a\nclass of 161, or 59 places above the middle of the class (in Baltimore boys and\ngirls go to different high schools). One of these girls stood second in her\nclass and three others were among the first twenty. The average number of\ncredits earned by this company of boys and girls was 165, or 15 in excess of\nrequirements. The graduation of 236 preparatory pupils from the high schools\nin the four years ending in June, 1910, is not a large showing when we consider\nthat in these four years the same high schools (three out of the five in our city)\nhave graduated 1,342 pupils; but the plan is very new compared with the\nusual one, and a number of obstacles must yet be overcome. Some parents\ndo not fully understand the plan. Not all teachers can be quite impartial in\ntheir attitude toward a scheme of work which takes away from the regular\nclasses some of the more desirable pupils. Furthermore, many pupils entering the seventh grade are timid about going to a strange school located at a\npoint somewhat distant from their homes; and so it happens that only about\none-third of those recommended as capable of taking up the extra preparatory\nwork avail themselves of the opportunity offered. If the work were carried\non in every large school so that pupils could enter upon it without being transferred away from the home school, doubtless more would attend; but unless\nthere are enough enrolled at one point to form at least three classes, the teaching cannot be economically provided for. For this reason we are using for the\npreparatory classes only selected centers, and for the further reason that our\nplan enables us to utilize schoolrooms in portions of the city where the population isdecreasing and where consequently some schoolrooms have become\nvacant.\nThere are now enrolled in our preparatory classes in the elementary schools\n571 pupils, and in the high schools, exclusive of students to graduate in June,\nthere are now 223 students who were promoted from preparatory classes.\nMr. Ward's statement that genius is not restricted to any rank of life is borne\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "i6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nout, in the case of our preparatory pupils, by the interesting fact that in these\nclasses are to be found boys arid girls representing every rank of the social\norder and wide variety of home conditions. To take this material and,\nfollowing Ward, make \"leaders and builders of civilization\" out of it is an\nambitious undertaking — so ambitious that we do not aim so high; but, judging by the energy and enthusiasm that these selected pupils put into their\nwork, and the marked success which they have so far attained as measured\nby school standards, we are quite certain that they will display somewhat\nmore of energy and efficiency in whatever field of life-effort they enter, than if,\nduring their schooldays, they had become contented with a lower level of\neffort and attainment.\n\n///.\n\nWHAT\n\nCONSIDERATION SHOULD\nSUBNORMAL PUPILS?\n\nMAXIMILIAN\n\nP.\n\nE.\n\nGROSZMANN,\n\nBE GIVEN\n\nPLAINFIELD,\n\nTO\n\nN.J.\n\nMy task this morning is the discussion of provisions for what in this\nsymposium is called the ''subnormal\" child with reference to mental alertness.\nA distinction is made in the program of this meeting between degrees of mental\nalertness and of moral responsibility; differences are recognized in the mental\nattitudes, the physical condition, and the environment of children. This\nmethod of classification does not appear fully satisfactory; for these various\nforms of exceptional development are interdependent. Bodily defects,\nillness, and deformities will produce mental and moral deviations which can\nbe controlled by controlling the physical cause. Even imperfect brain development, or an impairment of the nervous system, are after all bodily defects.\nAnd that the environment of the child has its counterpart in the child's mental\nand moral attitude needs hardly any specific statement. Seeming moral\ndefects are not infrequently intellectual defects — an inability to appreciate\nthe consequence of actions, weak perception and conception generally, and\nlack of judgment, all of which tend toward manifestations which have an\nethical significance.\nAgain, when we speak of differences in mental alertness we rarely think\nof legitimate differences in aptitudes. Generally speaking, a child is considered backward, and lacking in mental alertness, if he has difficulty in\nacquiring the school arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic which are usually\ntaken as standards or gauges of efficiency. If a child is backward in drawing,\npainting, basketry, or other activities of this kind, including, perhaps, even\nlaboratory work, he will not readily be counted among the backward, if he\ncan read, write, and cipher according to the standard of the school. And\nyet the artistic person, or the constructive mind, from his respective point\nof view, will have a perfect right to consider those children defective who\ncannot develop along the lines of artistic and constructive activity, ijo matter\nhow well they can read, write, or figure. This would seem to show that a\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCONSIDERATION\n\nGIVEN\n\nTO SUBNORMAL\n\nPUPILS\n\ni6i\n\nstatement of difference in mental alertness is more difficult than would appear\nat first glance. It is well that in this symposium the discussion of children\nwho differ in mental attitudes, tastes, and tendencies should have found a\nplace; but from the topics as presented in this program it would seem that\na difference of this kind is recognized only in the pubescent and adolescent\nages, while it would apply with some force to many younger children.\nI will not enter into a discussion of the desirability of a proper classification\nof exceptional children. Suffice it to say that without the establishment of a\ngenerally accepted classification and terminology, we may not be able to\ndiscuss the problem with sufficient lucidity. The writer of this paper has\npresented a tentative classification which has been favorably accepted in\nmany places and been made the basis of discussion in professional courses.\nIts author is painfully conscious of its defects; but it may at least be considered the starting-point for the general acceptance of a suitable nomenclature.\nIn this paper, the term \"subnormal\" is used, not in the sense in which\nmy own classification employs it, but as referring specifically to mental retardation and arrest. The question under discussion is what consideration should\nbe given to mentally retarded pupils in the public schools.\nThe first claim which these children have is certainly that they be considered; inother words, that they be given an opportunity to develop along\nthe lines of their individual abilities. The community owes them as much\nconsideration as it owes the so-called ''normal\" child.\nRecognizing the presence of a relatively large percentage of subnormal\nchildren in our schools, it is very necessary to take cognizance of the incipient\nstages of deviation from normal development, as the latter is generally understood. Ifthis can be effected, much difficulty will be avoided and many children will be saved for useful citizenship who may otherwise be permanently\nderailed.\n\nI\n\nIt is well enough to say that teachers and school principals should be trained\nin ready recognition of evidence of abnormal conditions. But unless there is\na well-organized system of examinations, tests, and research work, conducted\nby medical inspectors, boards of health, psychologists, and neurologists, in\nconjunction with what may be called the ''educational pathologist,\" relatively little will be accomplished. Regular and frequent measurements\nalone will reveal danger-signs, for it has been shown that the relative height\nand weight of children are indices of mental capacity. And if co-operation\nwith the homes and the family physicians, of the pupils can be established,\nmuch helpful information can be gained.\nThose children who are found wanting in some respects by these various\nobservations need not all be immediately removed from the regular class.\nMedical treatment and some special regard for their individual differences\nmay suffice.\nIf the difficulty is more serious and the discrepancy between the class\naim and the child's ability to reach it is too patent, removal from the regular\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nclass is indicated. Such children should be placed in a special observation\ngroup, which may be looked upon as a kind of pedagogical clinic. This\nclinic will serve as a \"clearing-house.\" Children with whom it is merely a\nmatter of readjusted instruction may be placed in \"special\" or \"ungraded\"\nclasses; others may need a manual-training school, or a trade school, in lieu\nof the ordinary three-R's school which they attend. Some will thrive better\nin a farm or garden school. In Germany, they have founded what have been\ncalled \"forest schools\" for children of this class. In other words, it may\nmean a transplantation of the child into a different educational environment\nwith different standards.\nAgain, if specific defects are found, such as will handicap the child in its\nschool career, when there are graver mental imperfections and neuropathic\nconditions, a removal to special institutions is necessary. Feeble-minded\nchildren and those with ingrained perverse tendencies have no place in public\nschools, but should be put under custodial care.\nThis plan in its entirety may seem ideal and even Utopian to some. While\nperhaps in the evolution of proper provisions for \"subnormal\" children we\nmay have to be satisfied temporarily with but a fragmentary realization of\nthis plan, it will be found the only true solution of the problem. It may\nrequire considerable expense and it may be difficult of smooth organization.\nBut it will save cost and difficulty to an undreamed-of extent if we consider\nthe enormous expense which is imposed upon human society by pauperism\nand crime, by charity and correction, by judiciary and penal measures.\nMr. Leonard P. Ayres has recently shown that the handicap caused by such\nphysical defects as the school doctors discover amounts to about 9 per cent.\nIn 1906-7 the total amount expended by schools in the United States was\n$336,898,333. If, to use the argument of Mr. Ayres, nothing were done to\nremove the educational handicap imposed by removable physical defects,\n$30,320,850 of this money would thus be wasted every year. This amount\ncan be saved by proper medical inspection. But the medical factor is only\none in the solution of the problem of the \"subnormal\" child. The total\nnumber of removable and controllable difficulties is vastly in excess of 9 per\ncent, of the total.\nThe pupils in our schools who are now allowed to drift, without proper\nattention to their difference in mental alertness, not to speak of their differences in other respects, may be compared to the waste products in industry.\nIn industrial processes it has become the commercial ideal that there shall be\nno residue left which would go to waste; and the secondary product, or byproduct, now often assumes greater importance even than the primary. Likewise, the apparently subnormal child may be developed into a useful byproduct, and among the subnormal children there may be found such as will\nbecome leaders if developed in the right direction. And if it were only that\nthe injurious residues are rendered harmless, as is done in factories with the\ngreatest care, and as ought to be done in our educational institutions with\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supemtendence]\n\nCONSIDERATION\n\nGIVEN\n\nTO SUBNORMAL\n\nPUPILS\n\n163\n\nequal care, society will be saved an enormous amount of damage. When once\nwe will apply the same painstaking, minute, and completely organized methods\nwhich are followed in commerce and industry to the process of molding the\nhuman material, we shall eliminate from society the greater part of those\ninjurious elements which now threaten its health and even existence.\nFrom what has been said it will be seen that to my mind the function of\nthe special or ungraded class is not what it is commonly understood to be.\nUsually it is a sort of dumping-ground for all those children with whom the\nregular grade teacher does not know what to do. It was perhaps a progressive\nstep when the so-called ''incorrigible\" child was separated from the so-called\n''mentally defective\" child, and put in special classes or schools. Of course,\nif the \"incorrigible\" child were really incorrigible, he would have no place\nin the public school, not even in a reformatory; he would have to be placed\nunder custodial care of the closest kind. Fortunately, there are very few\nreally incorrigible children, and most of these can be redeemed if approached\nin the right manner.\nBut a public-school ungraded class is not even the proper place for the\ntruly mental defective. Most children who are now in \"ungraded\" classes\nshould be transferred to institutions or other suitable places where their life\nconditions can be fully controlled. An \"ungraded\" class in a public school\nis after all a class only for such individualized instruction as can be given in a\nday school. The ungraded or special class is best adapted to what in the\ntentative classification alluded to before has been called the group of \"pseudoatypical\" (or \"paratypical\") children. They comprise those children whose\nprogress in school was hindered by irregularity of attendance and change of\nschools; by a slower rate of development, without pathological retardation;\nby temporary illness; or by slight physical difficulties, such as lameness and\nminor deformities; slightly impaired vision and hearing; adenoids, etc.\nThe ungraded class will also be of great help to children who have suffered\nfrom neglect; further, to the children of some of our immigrants. Children\nwho are difficult of management may find the atmosphere of a special class\nwhere their individual instructional needs are better recognized more congenial\nthan in the regular class. It should be the function of the ungraded class to\nrestore its pupils as soon as possible to ordinary school conditions. And we\nmust not forget that an ungraded class may also prove an especial boon to\nchildren of unusually rapid development who would feel the burden of mediocrity in the regular class too harassing.\nThis suggests the problem of methods for the subnormal child. Generally speaking, methods must be adjusted to the individual. There should be\nno lock-step; the tension of an \"average\" standard must be relieved; there\nmust be freedom of personality, aptitude, and attitude.\nIn all grades of subnormal development, down to and including the feebleminded, perhaps, we may have to recognize that we are dealing with individuals\nrepresenting different stages of racial development.\nThis is not the place to\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\ndiscuss the so-called \"culture-epoch\" theory in detail. It has been vigorously\ncombated. Suffice it to say that no matter what modifications it may have\nhad to undergo, the main facts of racial development have, undoubtedly,\ntheir counterpart in the evolution of the individual. We are dealing with\ninstincts, and methods of mental and moral activity, which manifest different\ndegrees and stages of development, from the primitive form to the modern.\nSometimes the seeming primitive instincts, or modes and manners of living,\nof thinking, feeling, and acting; the crude and coarse tendencies of some\nsubnormal children, do not point back to very ancient levels of civilization\nand culture. The refinement of instincts, the appreciation and practice of not\nonly more polished, but really purified habits and manners, is a relatively recent\nthing. Our great-grandfathers differed in this respect very much indeed from\nthe modern conception and from modern mental and moral habits. Superstitions, for example, are not very long extinct, if at all, and yet they reveal an\nunreasoning mind. Public education, with reading and writing for the\nmasses, marks a very recent stage of civilization. The dame schools of the\nNew England of a century ago were of the most rudimentary character. All\nthis does not mean only differences in opportunity, but indicates deeper\ndifferences in aptitudes and attitudes. And the peasant population of some\nEuropean countries have preserved to this day many of those conceptions and\ncustoms which to the modern American mind seem shocking.\nSubnormal development, then, apart from genuine pathological cases,\nwill mean that a child represents some by-gone evolutionary stage; a more\nprimitive culture-epoch in some degree. He may be on a lower evolutionary\nlevel right thru; which is the rarer case. Or he may possess the original\ninstincts, capacities, tendencies, etc., in various and different stages of development. He may, for example, in the matter of mathematical reasoning and\nfacility still be on what we may call the Egyptian level, while in reading and\nliterary work he is capable of doing work parallel to modern requirements.\nOr in graphic representation, drawing, painting, and construction, he may\nstill have the Indian method of symbolism, while in mathematics he is capable\nof competing with the brightest child of modern times.\nIn dealing with the subnormal child, it will be helpful to remember these\nfacts; and methods and measures should be adjusted to individual needs on\nthe basis of a recognition, and identification, of a child's particular stage of\nracial development. This development is more or less parallel to his physiological and psychological development; and the nascent stages of his faculties\nwill demand consideration.\nInasmuch as the subnormal child (again not considering pathological\ncases as such) will present evidences of a more primitive level of psychic\ngrowth, it is plain that in his training those elements must prevail which have\nbeen essential in developing culture and civilization from primitive times.\nIn other words: objective, manual, industrial, and constructive methods\nwill form the basis of all school work for this class. What in the ordinary\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCONSIDERATION\n\nGIVEN\n\nTO SUBNORMAL\n\nPUPILS\n\n165\n\ngrades of the public school will of course also find recognition in proportion\nto the age of the children, viz., the principle of manual experience, will with\nthe subnormal child require more prominence, longer application, and more\nvariegated adjustment. For it is thru the evolution of manual and constructive skill, of motor control and muscular co-ordination, that the human race\nhas risen gradually above the lower creation. Reason and judgment grew\nin proportion to motor control. What is historically evident has recently\nbeen demonstrated physiologically, thru special investigations among defective children. Using the dynamometer in testing the feeble-minded children\nof the New Jersey Training School at Vineland, Dr. Henry H. Goddard\nfound that\nthe difference between our children and normals in strength of grip increases steadily and\nuniformly as we proceed from our highest, what we call our seventh, grade down to our\nlowest or Grade I. It may, therefore, be asserted that, allowing for some individual exceptions, we can, on the average, determine the grade of a child by finding out how much he\ncan squeeze on the dynamometer. [And he adds] Besides the diagnostic value of this\nfact, it is of the utmost significance for pedagogy, both of abnormals and normals. Intellectuality and brain power are somehow closely connected with muscular control. The\nchild that learns to use his muscles well is laying the best possible foundations for good\nwill-power, self-control, and high intellectual attainment in whatever direction he applies\nhimself later.\n\nAltho this paper is perhaps particularly concerned with school provisions\nfor the subnormal child, I may be permitted, before closing, to refer to a few\nother pertinent matters.\nEspecially under existing conditions, a percentage of subnormal children\nwill leave the public-school care before their restoration to satisfactory balance\nis completed. Such children will be unfit for self-maintenance, and provisions\nfor their after-care should be made. A discussion of this subject in a committee of the Public Education Association of New York City has led to the\nsuggestion that there should be created municipal and state commissions which,\nlike the Commission on Lunacy, or the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty\nto Children, would have power to control the proper management of these\nchildren. The compulsory-education law may need to have its functions\nextended in this direction, for not infrequently parents are unwilling, or too\nignorant, to take the proper care.\nFurther: all these provisions will only relieve, to some extent, the condition ofchildren who have already become subnormal. The further problem\nis to study the operative causes of these deviations from the norinal, and to\nsearch into the possibilities of removing, or preventing the operation of, these\ncauses. This is a far-reaching sociological problem which is more and more\nengrossing the attention of the medical and educational professions, of philanthropists, sociologists, and others working in this field. The public schools,\nby developing provisions for the study and care of subnormal children, will\nconstitute themselves into what may be called a vast educational clinic, and\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nrender valuable aid in the solution of this problem, which in its wider aspect\nis the problem not only of the subnormal but of the exceptional child.\nThe problem of the exceptional child is assuming increasing proportions\nas our study of it grows. We are apt to consider this problem as the result\nof an increasing deterioration of the race, and to think that individual cases\nare examples of degeneration in our age of high tension. I fear that there is\nan overemphasis laid upon objective causes. Especially in the case of the\nexceptional child who is out of tune with his environment and can be set\nright if properly understood, this cause plays a relatively small part. It is\nrather that our understanding of child nature has not kept pace with the increasing complexity which our rapidly changing civilization has created. Our\npresent understanding is adequate for the child of a generation ago, and this\nis not suited to help the child who must adjust himself to the kaleidoscopic\ncombinations of environment of today. Naturally, the child whose nature\nis not the average finds the greater difficulty in making these adjustments.\nI would, therefore, say that the exceptional child of today, with the exception\nof the lower orders and of truly pathological cases, suffers not so much from\ninherent deterioration as from our lack of understanding his nature, and\nfrom our failure to adjust him adequately to the complex problems of an\nenvironment in which he must live without having a ready equipment for adjustment. The process of becoming a unit in a given civilization is a process of\nassimilation and transmutation. It starts from within us, and implies a\nprojection of the outer world upon the inner. It means, as Froebel puts it,\nan internalization of the external, and an externalization of the internal.\nIn this process the exceptional child has particular difficulties inasmuch\nas he is in a way a representative of a different epoch. Yet a child considered\neven subnormal in mental alertness if measured with the average or rather\nantiquated standard of the ordinary curriculum may have a peculiar genius\nof his own which lifts him above the successful average pupil in human value.\nThe plea for satisfactory provisions for the exceptional child includes, therefore,\na plea for a better recognition of child nature in general.\nDISCUSSION\nF. B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. — The problems arising from\nthe difference in alertness of children were probably not so apparent some years ago, for\nthe reason that when children did not get on in school they got out. Conditions were not\nso pressing until the rigid enforcement of child-labor laws and compulsory-education laws\nclogged our educational machinery. In Cincinnati there were 1,648 more children in\nschool over 14 years of age last year than there were the year before, though the total attendance is not greatly increased. Most of these belong to the type of children who formerly\ndropped out. Anyone who ranks cities by their percentage of retardation alone misunderstands the situation. It is the business of our schools by persuasion, coercion, and every\ninducement they can honestly offer, to hold the children as long as the school will be of\nadvantage to them, altho as their efforts are successful there will be a relatively larger number between twelve and sixteen who are behind. It is thus that the number of over-age\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "^^B\n\nSuperintendence]\nSup\n\nCONSIDERATION\n\nGIVEN\n\nTO SUBNORMAL\n\nPUPILS\n\n167\n\nI^^B children has become so conspicuous as to be noticed even by us superintendents. The\nI^K\nproblem of the precocious child is not much more pressing than it has always been, except\nI^B\nby way of contrast. He is more conspicuous because more rare in proportion to the mass.\nI^^B As he will probably be able to take care of himself pretty well, and as his teacher will probI^^B ably show him oflf about all that is good for him, I think we are very naturally\nI^^B\nmore distressed about the children who seem to be misfits.\n^H[\nI have time to mention only two methods of impr(7>ving conditions: Teachers must\n^^B\nbe apprised of the situation, and aroused to a realizing sense of their responsibility — I\nshould rather say opportunity — in the matter; and we must provide relief in a larger\nvariety of auxiliary schools than we are yet doing.\n1. Acquainting teachers with the situation. — Some propose semi-annual promotion\nand a two-class system as a remedy for retardation. These may be worth considering,\nbut hebdomadal promotion and a ten-class system, or any other mechanical device, will\nnot be sufficient. It must be done thru organism and not thru mechanism — thru living,\nfunctioning teachers, who are thoroly aware of the situation and who are not blamed with\nit. Their classes must be small enough for them to look after individual children. They\nmust be disabused of the theory that all children must have everything up to a fixed standard before promotion or that there should be an invariable time for promotion or demotion.\nThey must be instructed how to measure the characteristics of children and how to judge\nwhat is best for them. They must be given time and encouragement to visit homes, to\nadvise with parents and arouse them to their responsibility in training their children.\nThey should do this, however, not so much for the help they will give as for the help they\nwill get in the way of insight on their part and intelligent co-operation on the part of parents.\nI believe the school principal is another factor of fundamental importance in attacking\nthe problem. Irregular attendance and half-hearted effort are accountable for more retardation than is defective mentality. The principal is the intermediary. We must give\nhim vigilant truant officers, home visitors, medical inspectors, nurses, and all the helps he\ncan use. We must place under his guidance the most competent teaching staff that can\nbe found and encourage him to give his utmost energy to real supervision — or, rather, to\nintervision, if we had such a word. I don't like to think of him as a super, looking down\nfrom above; I should rather think of him as among, looking in between, selecting those\nwho need stimulation, working with the teacher, talking with the pupils, grouping them\naccording to their needs. I verily believe that with such a vigilant principal, equipped\nwith such help as I have described, the percentage of failures could legitimately be reduced\nfrom twenty to ten or twelve under normal conditions.\nBut these ten or twelve per cent, of failures we shall always have, and any system\nthat pretends otherwise is a system of deception. With the great influx of older children\nat present, we must for a time labor with a much larger percentage of over-age children.\nWhat shall we do with them ? I shall confine the discussion to this one class of children\nreferred to by Mr. Van Sickle as the intermediate class.\n2. Provisions for relief. — (a) Auxiliary schools should be provided for retarded children as well as for those who are markedly defective. The old device of an ungraded room\nis theoretically a good one, but in practice it has not met expectations. When each pupil\nis a class to himself, about six to ten pupils is the limit of a teacher's ability. The strain\nupon her even then is excessive and in time her teaching becomes perfunctory or she wears\nout. Also the vigilance that is needed to keep children moving to her room and from it\nfinally exhausts the principal, who has too many things to look after to have the ungraded\nroom ever uppermost on his mind. Where the principal wants it enough to give it great\nattention the ungraded room will be a success. It may be resorted to especially in isolated\ndistricts, providing for various special needs, but in centers of school population it seems\nto me that the plan of collecting the retarded children in a central school is better. Those\nwho are deaf, blind, foreign, incorrigible, or of extremely low mentality are sent to central\nspecial schools.\nWhere necessary, transportation is provided by the Board, which runs a\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nconveyance for the blind and for children of low mentality, and supplies street-car tickets\nfor the deaf and the truant school. In addition to these schools, in the city I represent,\n176 of those who were three years behind their grade but who did not fit in any of the special\nschools were placed in a central school two years ago under six teachers. They were examir^ed by medical experts — aurists, oculists, neurologists, etc. — a large staff of practitioners\nvolunteering their services. Teachers were selected who seemed adapted to the work.\nEach class was given manual training and gymnasium every day. The course of study\nwas adapted to their age and interests. In most cases there was no attempt to force or\nstuff, but the work was done leisurely and thoroly but very concretely and with as frequent\nreference to the workshop and practical affairs as possible. The attitude of these children\ntoward school has wholly changed in the last two years. Their effort, attendance, and\nconduct are nearly up to the normal. We are now preparing to enlarge the plant and to\nestablish a central school to be fed by at least a half-dozen schools and numbering three\nhundred to five hundred retarded children from the second to the fifth grades and give them\na four-year industrial course, consisting of household arts, simple toolwork, drawing and\napplied arithmetic, and such cultural work in English, history, and geography as they are\ncapable of. I believe there are at least 10 per cent, of our children, who, while not belonging in classes for children of decidedly defective mentality, are not going to keep up with\nnormal children without overstimulation and unhealthy pressure. The ordinary curriculum is not adapted to their needs, but a course can be devised for them which will give\nthem the rudiments of an education and make them useful and happy citizens. The\nadvantages of massing them in an auxiliary school are that they can be classified, that a\ncorps of teachers can work together with mutual interests and sympathy, and that they\ncan without great expense be provided with a large amount of manual and physical training.\nSuch a school can serve as a clearing-house, from which children may be sent to the special\nschools which may better fit their needs, or back to higher grades of the ordinary school if\nthat seems best for them, but a large number of them will probably do better to remain in\nthe industrial school until they go to work. By providing transportation for distant pupils,\none school can meet the needs of a large section of a city. In planning new buildings one\nschool can be easily reserved for an auxiliary center.\nh) Continuation schools should be provided for those who go to work before they\ncomplete the elementary course. Attendance part time in day schools should be compulsory for all such up to the age of sixteen or eighteen. Children who go to work at fourteen\nhave not as a rule fixed habits, right ideals, or trained reason. If the state kept control\nof these, and provided say eight hours of instruction a week for them they would be worth\nmore to their employers in the end, and would be worth vastly more to themselves. Again\nI speak from experience. We opened a day class for machine-shop apprentices in August\nThe employers allow the boys four hours a week and pay them for it, and yet they agree\nthat the output of the boys is not diminished, while the spirit of the boys, their ambition,\ntheir interest in their work, and their attitude toward their foreman and employer are\nwonderfully changed for the better.\nIf all superintendents appreciated the importance of these part-time schools after\nchildren go to work, it would not be long before our states, at least in our northern section,\nprovided for them. The advantage of such schools seems in part to be that many retarded\nchildren seem to wake up after they go to work, and become interested in their studies,\nespecially in those which are applied to the work they are doing. If control over them\nis maintained for two years after they start to work it will make a vast difference\nin their lives.\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVARIABLE\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN\n\nTOPIC:\n\nCHILDREN\n\nDIFFER\n\nIN MORAL\n\nTHE\n\nVARIABLE\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN MORAL\n\np. W. HORN, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\n/.\n\nMORAL\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\n169\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\nRESPONSIBILITY\nHOUSTON,\n\nTEX.\n\n(Abridged for the volume of Proceedings.)\n\nThe recognition of the fact that there are variable factors in the matter of\nmoral responsibility is the first step toward the giving of real justice. There\ncan be no real justice in any scheme which treats all people as possessing the\nsame degree of moral responsibility. An approximation of justice is the best\nthat can be obtained under such conditions.\nIt is this that diaws the sharp distinction between divine justice and justice\nin our courts. The basal principle of divine justice is that a man *'is judged\naccording to that which he hath and not according to that which he hath not.\"\nThe best that the civil law can do is to announce the principle that \"a man is\npresumed to intend the consequences of his own voluntary act.\" It is the\nboast of the human law that it treats all men alike; it is the glory of the divine\nlaw that it sees in all men differences. This difference is a necessary one. It\nis because \"man looketh upon the outward appearance, but God looketh\nupon the heart.\"\nThe school in this respect stands midway between the human law and the\ndivine law. This is because the school is partly a civil institution, and partly\na divine institution. It cannot ajBford to overlook either of these sides of its\nwork. While it cannot at any time see all of the heart of any child, it can see\nmore of it than the civil law can; and it is its duty to see as much of it as it\ncan.\nWhen once we recognize the fact that no two of our children are exactly\nalike in the matter of moral responsibility, the next question that arises is,\nWhat makes the difference ? What are the variable factors in the case ?\nThe first of the variable factors in the moral responsibility of the child is\nhis age. It is merely a truism to state that children at different ages should\nbe dealt with differently in regard to moral questions, and yet it is a truth which\nhas never been fully grasped in our schools. We constantly see the effort\non the one hand to deal with adolescents as if they were small children, and\non the other hand, the effort to deal with them as if they were grown people.\nThese courses are alike injurious. The teacher who really wishes to do the\nbest for her children morally must gradually change her point of attack and\nher method of work from the time the child first enters school until he leaves it.\nIt should furthermore be emphasized that these changes should be made\ngradually. There is no such thing as a sharp break in the development of\nthe child. Even the transition from childhood to adolescence is not made in\nan hour, or a month. Not even the exact year can be definitely stated. That\ntoo, varies with individuals. Nevertheless, we sometimes see sharp changes\nin the method of discipline and in the method of moral treatment of the\nchildren.\nThe sharpest of these breaks occurs between the elementary school\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "I70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nand the high school. Another perhaps as great occurs between the high school\nand the college. It is no wonder that children drop out at these gaps.\nThe second factor which must be reckoned with in the moral training of\nchildren is that of sex. The recognition of this factor is by no means so\neasy a matter as might be supposed. A hasty generalization to the effect that\n\"boys are bad and girls are good,\" or, vice versa, will always lead one to error.\nCrude as such a belief may be, it is a fact that either in the one form or the\nother it does exist in the minds of a great many people, and that it results\nin either form in injustice to one or both sexes.\nWhile it must be admitted that no clear-cut line of moral responsibility\ncan be drawn between the sexes, it must also be admitted that a different\nkind of moral treatment is needed with the sexes. Teachers frequently make\nthe comment that \"the boys are better than the girls in some particulars, and\nthe girls are better than the boys in others.\" There is more philosophy in\nthis remark than might at first be apparent. It implies that more emphasis\nneeds to be laid on certain moral questions with boys and on certain others\nwith girls. There may be a difference of opinion as to whether these differences\ncan best be brought out in separate schools; but there can be no difference\nof opinion as to the fact that these differences exist, and become more marked\nas the pupil grows older, and that they should be recognized if any system of\nmoral training is to be effective.\nA third of these variable factors is that of nationality. No teacher who\nhas come in contact with any considerable number of pupils of foreign parentage\ncan fail to realize that each nation has its own particular code of morals. It\nis not necessary to go\n.... anywheres east of Suez\nWhere the best is like the worst\nWhere there ain't no ten commandments.\n\nThe thoughtful teacher in our own country observes that the Italians\nhave their own particular code of morals; the Germans another; the Syrians\nanother, and so on through the list. It may be true that the Ten Commandments do not vary the world over, but it is also true that man's interpretation\nof them does vary largely.\nCertain interesting facts in regard to various nationalities are matters of\ncommon knowledge among teachers. For instance, teachers are glad to have\nin their rooms the children of German parentage. A German parent ordinarily impresses upon his child the idea of truthfulness, obedience, and respect\nfor the teacher and for law. It is commonly recognized, also, that Jewish\nchildren ordinarily make desirable pupils, from both an intellectual and a\nmoral standpoint. In regard to certain other nationalities, reports are by\nno means so flattering.\nAn interesting article or perhaps a book might be written on \"The Geographical Distribution of Morality.\" While it is undoubtedly true that no geographical line could be drawn which would have all the good people on one\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVARIABLE\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN\n\nMORAL\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\n171\n\nside of it, and all the bad on the other, it is nevertheless true that moral ideals\nand hence moral responsibility vary greatly, even in different parts of our own\ncountry. If the article should be written it would doubtless be found that\nno one region has all the advantages or all the disadvantages in moral matters.\nFor instance, the region where they burned witches was not the region where\nslavery flourished.\nTo show the practical bearing of this upon the question of schoolroom\nmorals, it may be pointed out that there is a large section of the United States\ntoday in which the average boy is taught in his home, and in society generally,\nthat it is his actual duty to resent the imputation of a lie by a blow. There\nare other sections where he is taught that a blow under such conditions, while\nnot unnatural, would be wrong and highly regrettable. If it should be said\nthat this difference shows a broad general difference in the moral sensibility\nof the two regions, it is at least worthy of notice that in a large part of the region\nwhere boys are taught that the imputation of a lie ought to be resented by a\nblow, they are also taught to class a high protective tariff in the same category\nwith highway robbery, differing from it chiefly in the fact that it is safer. It\nwill be apparent to any unprejudiced observer that the moral sensibility of\nthe people of one section of the country may be comparatively obtuse in regard\nto some one moral question, and yet may be quite acute in regard to others.\nAny teacher who, even with the best of intentions in regard to moral training,\nfails to take into consideration the moral ideas of the racial heritage and\ngeographical environments of her pupils will find her work necessarily\nineffective.\nWe recognize more or less fully the necessity of having our textbooks\ngraded in difficulty to suit the intellectual capacity of the children. It is\nstrange that we fail so largely to grasp the idea of gradation to suit the moral\ncapacity even of whole groups of children. The new style of school readers\nwith its literary flavor may be admirably suited to the moral needs of certain\nchildren, or of certain schools; but the old-style reader — such as the old\nMcGuffey that you and I used to study when we were children — with its\nemphasis on character-building was undoubtedly better suited to the needs\nof certain other great groups of children. A twentieth-century reader may\nbe all right for twentieth -century children; but there are many children who\nstill live morally in the nineteenth century, and for their moral training at\nleast the nineteenth-century reader is better adapted.\nIt need hardly be stated that one of the greatest of all causes of difference\nin moral responsibility in the child is the difference in training he has received\nin his out-of-school environment. His life at home and on the street is perhaps the strongest of all the forces that enter into the making of his moral\nideals. Any scheme of education is fatally short-sighted if it proceeds on the\nsupposition that the school life is the whole educational force. So long as\nhomes are different children will be different. The moral training received\nin the home affects the child's moral capacity just as the intellectual training\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\naffects his mental capacity. To expect the same amount of moral responsiveness from the child reared among vicious surroundings that you would expect\nfrom the child in a Christian home would be as unreasonable as to expect\nthe same degree of appreciation of a great piece of literature from an illiterate\nlaborer as from a university scholar.\nNo scheme of education is complete which does not take into consideration\nthe home life of the child. No educational study is adequate which does\nnot look into the child's out-of-school conditions. This study can of course\nbe made in many different ways. One of the greatest works of the mothers'\nclub is to make it possible for the teacher to understand what the home influence is. Only when this understanding is gained can any rational moral\ntraining be given.\nIncreased moral responsiveness on the part of the child means increased\nresponsibility to the teacher, and this responsibility is not always wisely\ncarried. If it be true that a good home environment adds to the child's moral\ncapacity, it follows that the best moral training ought to be possible when the\nchildren have good environments out of school. It does not appear, however,\nthat this is always the case. In fact, it sometimes appears that the very best\nwork in moral training is being done by our schools in districts where the home\nenvironment is worst. This speaks well for the workers there, but poorly\nfor the rest of us. It is true that \"to whom little has been given, of him\nlittle shall be required\": but it is also true that \"to whom much has been\ngiven, of him much shall be required.\"\nClose akin to the influence of the home and the street as variable factors\nin the moral responsibility of children, may be mentioned the influence of\nthe church, the Sunday school, and other organized agencies for moral and\nspiritual work. The active results of these agencies in forming the child's\ncharacter is a question on which teachers differ widely. This very uncertainty\ntells something. The best friends and most active workers in Sunday-school\nmatters are bending all their energies to make the training more effective.\nThe comparatively loose organization and system of teaching used in the\naverage Sunday school make it wonderful that the Sunday school has accomplished as much as it has. There can be no doubt that with all its shortcomings, the Sunday school is growing to be more and more an effective\nfactor in the moral development of the child.\nStill another of the variable factors in moral responsibility is the child's\nphysical condition. Not only is the body at the basis of intellectual development, but it is at the basis of moral power as well. The child whose nerves\nare wrecked, as a result either of disease or of bad habits, is not likely to develop\nas much moral stamina as the child of sound body. The removal of adenoid\ngrowths frequently gives the child a degree of moral responsiveness which\nthe teacher would formerly have deemed impossible. Every teacher has\nknown cases in which utter lack of moral responsibility was the result merely\nof excessive cigarette smoking.\n\nIn fact, in many instances, the \"bad boy\"\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVARIABLE\n\nFACTORS\n\nIN\n\nMORAL\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\n173\n\ncould be made a good boy morally if he could only be made a good\nboy physically.\nAnd it is one of the triumphs of modern education that in many instances\nthis very thing can be done. No greater scientific work is being done in all\nthe world today than that being done by Dr. Lightner Witmer, Dr. Groszmann,\nand their colaborers in working over physically certain unfortunate children\nso that they may have a chance, both mentally and morally. This great work\nshould be taken up in so far as it may be in every large school system in our\ncountry. While it may be impossible to achieve such triumphs as those of\nthese men, it is at least possible in every school system for us to give more\nmental and moral capacity to certain unfortunate children by giving more\nattention to their physical defects. No possible line of modern school work\ncould be greater, or more in accord with the spirit of the One who said, \"Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye\nhave done it unto me.\"\nThere remains yet at least one more element which should be considered\nin the matter of moral responsibility. This may be called individual temperament. It is the irreducible minimum which remains after all allowance\nhas been made for all extraneous influences. One of the variable elements\nin temperament is that of will. After all is said and done, we cannot escape\nthe conclusion that every human being, whether child or adult, is allowed considerable range of free choice as to right and wrong. He can do right or he\ncan do wrong.\nIt is for him to decide.\nIt is just at this point that one of the dangers of modern child study comes\nin. We have found out certain well-marked tendencies on the part of the\nchild. If, however, we mistake these tendencies for inevitable facts, our\nsystem of education is greatly weakened.\nIt is all right for us to believe that the boy at a certain stage in his existence\nhas a tendency to be a savage. It is all wrong, however, if we assume that at\nthis stage he must necessarily do unkind and cruel things. It is even worse\nif we teach him that he is expected, at this time, to do these things. There can\nbe no moral training without moral responsibility, and moral accountability.\nNot to expect good things from a child — or from a man — is one of the surest\nways not to obtain them. We do well to observe carefully the tendencies\nin children as pointed out by child study, but we do wrong if we teach that\nthese tendencies are too strong to be overcome. We should be careful that\nthe doctrine of fatalism, which has disappeared from our philosophy, and is\ndisappearing from our theology, does not reappear in our system of education.\nChildren are no more thieves by compulsion than men are. They need to\nbe taught that it is not with our stars, but with ourselves, that we are underlings.\nThese, then, are at least a few of the variable factors entering into the moral\nresponsibility of children: age, sex, nationality, geographical environment,\nhome and street environment, moral and religious training, physiological\nconstitution, and original temperament.\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nIt is the duty of the teacher' to study carefully the effect of each one of these\nupon the moral capacity of each child in her room. If she is interested in\nincreasing his moral capacity, it is her duty to find a task suited to the capacity\nof each child under all of the conditions.\nIn conclusion, may I be allowed to suggest that it must be a task that is\nto be done, not merely talked about ? Moral training can no more be accomplished merely by moral lectures than can mental or physical training be\ngiven to children by lectures on mental or physical subjects.\nThe general plan of moral training in our schools today is different from\nthat in the schools of yesterday. The moral training of tomorrow will doubtless be different from that of today.\nThe school of yesterday did things to the children; the school of today does\nthings for the children; the school of tomorrow will do things with the children.\nThe great question in morals asked by the teacher of yesterday was,\n\"What shall I do to the boy who has done something wrong ?\" The question\nbeing asked by the teacher of today is, \"What can I do for the moral welfare\nof the children under my charge ? \" The question that will be asked by the\nteacher of tomorrow will be, \"How can I get the children to do such deeds\nas will contribute to their own moral development, to the welfare of others,\nand to the service of God and humanity ?\"\n//.\n\nDISCIPLINE\nWALTER\n\nF.\n\nLEWIS,\n\nAS AFFECTED BY DIFFERENCES\nRESPONSIBILITY\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nPORT\n\nIN MORAL\n\nHURON,\n\nMICH.\n\nNothing else in school life compares in importance with the discipline of\nthe school. There is nothing that exerts so large an influence upon the school\nor upon the children's character. The subjects of arithmetic, geography, and\ngrammar are important and count in the future life of the child, but essential\nas these subjects are they are not comparable with the discipline of the school\nwhich he attends. We are all agreed that children must learn to read and\nwrite, but these are not the most influential elements in education. Character\nmust be made the groundwork, the foundation in any plan of education.\nOf infinitely more importance than drawing, music, or spelling is the fact that\nchildren should be so trained that they leave school disciplined in the love\nof manliness and truth. They should go forth waving the flag of good citizenship. There must be authority with obedience behind it, authority from both\nwithin and without. I suppose in the best-governed schools there is a combination ofboth methods. Certainly the discipline of a school is growing\nless autocratic year by year. With equal certainty we know it is more attractive to the pupils. The great problem of school government, however, is to\ntrain the boy and girl so that when they leave the school and go out into the\nworld they go forth as honest, upright, decent citizens. The question of\nschool discipline therefore must be considered as a moral one.\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\nAND\n\nMORAL\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\n175\n\nWe are putting things enough into the head of the child or endeavoring to,\nat least, but the pupil's heart must be in the right place. It cannot go wholly\nwrong. Otherwise our scheme of education has a tendency for evil. We\nmust not educate the head while the heart remains untouched. The question is not axiomatic that the development of the intellect carries with it a\nmoral growth or any distinct uplift of one's better nature. In fact a person\nis not educated when his better half is left untrained or simply veneered through\nour educational system. His moral nature must be touched. With the development of the intellect alone by far the poorer half of the child has been\ndeveloped. In the final outcome of any scheme of education there must result\na moral fiber shown in the child's personality and character.\nMany teachers are autocrats in their plan of discipline. This is noticeable in every exercise of the^hool. Discipline to be successful and work for\nthe best interests of the child must be based upon a respect for the teacher\nand come involuntarily, almost spontaneously. There must be a spirit of\nkindly co-operation between both parties in the school — the teacher and the\npupil. When this is fairly accomplished school work should be largely pleasure and the discipline of the school not a difficult task.\nWe hear much about the personal influence of the teacher, her personality.\nThis is trite enough. The graces of person, her manner of speech, her enthusiasm— these are unquestionably strong factors bearing favorably on authority\nand discipline. The discipline of the school is a large part of the success of\nthe teacher. Broad scholarship is no guarantee of this success. The teacher\nmay have many excellent qualities, but thru her power as a disciplinarian she\nis rated either a success or a failure. We expect all normal pupils to respond\nto sensible discipline, a discipline that is steady, firm, based on a thoro understanding between teacher and pupil. Such a scheme of discipline will take\ninto consideration the varied but rational interests of the children. All\nchildren must obey. They need oversight, guidance in the right direction.\nIf these do not prevail lawlessness is the result. There must be a strong\npublic opinion in the school in favor of discipline of the right sort. With a\nclose sympathy between pupil and teacher, and plenty of steady, honest work,\nthe question of discipline is solved for the great majority of pupils.\nWe may have one or more pupils, not in every room but in every building,\nwho make themselves nuisances. They may be persistently disobedient,\nimpudent, or impertinent to their teachers. Usually they are boys over whom\nthe parents have no control. They do not obey. They break the laws of the\nhome, the school, and the city. There is the pupil with the defiant attitude.\nIt is his right to be controlled, and distinctly a crime against him and against\nsociety to allow him to grow up unregulated. Once in a while we find a pupil\nwho seems entirely vicious. Ordinary forms of government in the hands of\nthe ordinary teacher are defied. He annoys and is against everything in the\nform of discipline. Apparently his constant aim is to disturb the school.\nThere is open defiance of authority, contrary to every school interest.\nOf\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nUndianapolis\n\ncourse if one of these boys can be brought into correct habits of living in the\nschool the teacher has certainly won a great victory, but he must come into\ntouch with the spirit of order and discipline. I think we all have to admit\nthat now and then we find a pupil of so defiant an attitude that fear of punishment only will keep him in line long enough to allow the teacher to develop\na better spirit. But if he cannot be won over he should not be allowed to\ndefy the school and its discipline. I do not believe in corporal punishment.\nOur natural feelings of humanity are against violence, against any form of\ndiscipline thru assault and battery. Still, it should not be made impossible\nbut held in reserve for the most serious and stubborn cases of disobedient\nand defiant pupils; for those who would otherwise break down the discipline\nof the school and need the attention of the courts. In choosing between\ncorporal punishment and suspending a boy from school it occurs to me that\nthe former is less injurious to the future life of the boy. No one questions that\nthe highest motives should be employed, and in well-disciplined schools, with\nteachers of broad common-sense and large understanding, it is seldom resorted\nto. Probably in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred even in these extreme\ncases mentioned above there is some better way that will touch these pupils.\nBut a little spanking is preferable to disorder and lawlessness, better for the\nboy and better for the school. In a very, very few cases it acts favorably\ntoward discipline. To some boys it certainly has been a blessing. They\nthemselves acknowledged it later in life. For the most part kindness, firmness, and self-control will produce good discipline. In general terms a teacher\nmay be unfit who must use the rod. But after other means have been tried\nto the utmost, rather than the truant school or expulsion a little corporal\npunishment is less injurious.\nThe truant pupil must be considered in any scheme of discipline. In the\ngreat majority of cases truancy may be traced to lack of parental control.\nThe parents mean well but do nothing to encourage the boy in regular attendance at school. The atmosphere of the home is dead. The father usually is\nabsorbed in his business or tired out from his day's work in the shop. He\nhas neither the time nor the inclination for the care of the children or any close\ncompanionship with them. The pressure and burden of work necessary for\nthe support of the family make him neglect his choicest possessions. Too\noften we may trace truancy to the inefficient teacher. It is not always the dull\npupil who plays the truant game. Of course the backward pupil loses interest\nday by day thru constant failure to keep up with the class, but the bright boy has\nplenty of time left for mischief which in his own judgment he can use to better\nadvantage outside of school. In either case the school becomes a prison and\nboth classes of pupils are absei.'t with more or less regularity. Most cases\nof pupils coming under the truant list are preventable. They become irregular\nin their school work through no fault of their own. Usually common-sense\nand justice exercised thru some of the plans of special help and supervision\nof study will put pupils of this class into habits of respect for authority.\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\nAND\n\nMORAL\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\n177\n\nIt is not so very long ago that we regarded the intellectually, as well as the\nmorally, defective child without consideration in the scheme of school life.\nWe now realize to what a state of efficiency these children may be trained.\nIn our state institutions some of the worst cases of idiocy are cured, while\nmany of the milder cases are much improved even in the publici schools.\nStatistics show that this class of children is rapidly on the increase. Twenty\nyears ago the number was estimated at about one-fifth of i per cent. This\nrate is said to have doubled in two decades, the children embracing every\ngrade of moral responsibility. We are doing more and more for these children, but still more must be done. In every scheme of discipline these unfortunates should be recognized. Not with harshness but with sympathy they\nmust be treated, but must, however, be made efficient and moral. Uniform\ndiscipline cannot touch them all.\nIt is said that the delinquent child of today comes from the city and town.\nAt least 98 per cent, of those noted in some of our reformatories are the product of city life. We notice the increase in juvenile depravity not only in\nirregularities of conduct but also in those more serious crimes not noted fifteen\nyears ago. Our plan of school government must go down to these children.\nThe safety of the state demands it. Great things are being done by the school\nfor intellectual and industrial life. We should accomplish much along moral\nlines.\nAny scheme of discipline that does not train the child morally, as a part\nof its work, must be a failure. Of course we all contend that the ordinary\nschool government is productive of moral training; that the personal influence\nof the teacher is indirect but forcible; that literature and history are sure to\nhave lasting and beneficial effects upon the character of the child. We do\nnot however make moral training the important work of the school. Reading,\nspelling, geography, and arithmetic are given regularly five days in a week.\nThese are important things. The pupils know this. They also know that\nsubjects that are not considered at all or are mentioned but slyly and indirectly\nmust be rather unimportant.\nIf our plan of government and training does not take into account the\nprinciples of morality, will the children value it as a factor of any importance\nin daily life ? We seem to be very proud of this indirect moral training, but\nit is not as thoro as it ought to be. It is not frequent, systematic, or definite.\nCertainly the boys who smoke and gamble, swear and steal, and who do other\nthings that are bad, need thoro training in the principles of decent living.\nWe are practically unanimous that the schools should train for right conduct.\nNaturally as teachers we blame the home, the church, the saloon, and the press.\nThey in turn blame us. But it doesn't improve the matter for us to say \"you're\nanother.\" The boy's training in school makes him either socially fit or socially unfit. He becomes either a good citizen or he does not. The school is\nlargely responsible for this and the teachers should be his trainers and he\nshould be drilled at the proper time.\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nWe find different standards of conduct everywhere amongst different\nclasses of pupils. They have their own problems, but they all should have training in good conduct. Should it have a place as part of the school discipline,\nor be sandwiched in with the various exercises of the day ? Ought it not to\nbe on a par with, and have an equal chance with, spelling, arithmetic, or grammar ? The incidental method is hallowed by custom and has precedent behind\nit, but is it adequate ? The public schools must become the great institution\nin character-building. The tone of the school, its general plan and methods\nof management, must show the highest regard for moral principles. It\nmust establish obedience, regard for others, right habits which build character.\nOrdinarily the child respects the right and the good, and our discipline is\nbased upon such a feeling of the child. We presume an orderly school,\nsubject to the will of the teacher, but the scheme of discipline must have in\nmind the pupil. The aim is in the direction of virtue, the developing of moral\nstrength. Children are not alike morally, but the schools must take them as\nthey are found, make men and women of them. Of equal importance with\npower to read and write is a high conception of right and wrong. In spite\nof the dishonesty in industrial, commercial, and political life these virtues have\nhigh place in public regard. Then why should they not be cultivated by every\nmeans at our command? Talking will not produce good conduct. The\npupil must see and feel it in the school life. It must be brought about thru\ndaily and yearly training. Or does this training avail nothing? Have we\nentirely discarded the doctrine of formal discipline ? Has it no value in the\ngeneral training of the schoolroom? Is it useless to insist upon obedience,\nor fruitless to endeavor to form habits of honesty and integrity ? In the light\nof this doctrine do habits apply only to situations in which they are formed ?\nIf this is true our discipline would become useless. If these habits formed in\nschool do not become part of the individual and make for law and citizenship,\nthen discipline counts for nothing in developing obedience and self-control.\nIf it is true that practical tests of the doctrine of formal discipline have everywhere failed, then our training toward good citizenship amounts to nothing\nexcept under parallel situations. I believe, however, that we are what we\nare thru force of habit, that the virtues upon which good citizenship rests\nare formed largely in school. Honesty, uprightness, self-control are taught\nby example until a habit is formed. Every scheme of discipline stands for\nthese virtues thru a continual respect for authority.\nThe discipline of the school for all classes of pupils should impress upon\nthe children that they share not only in the duties but in the responsibility\nof their fellows. Emphasis should be laid upon their own rights and also\nupon the privileges of others. It occurs to me that thru the discipline of\nschool government there may be a stronger public sentiment in favor of law\nand order. With self-government in the upper grades of the grammar schools\nthe whole control might be made easy. Self-government gives the pupil a\nfeeling of responsibility.\nThis in itself is healthful and strengthening.\nPupils\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\nAND\n\nMORAL\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\n179\n\nfeel that they are citizens of the school and that the reputation of the school\nis as much for them as for the teacher.\nThe ordinary boy or girl in school notices the violation of rules every day\nand the milder forms of misconduct going on around him but he is not concerned with the government of the school and it is not his duty to interfere.\nHe does not dare to report these offenses. If he had disposition to do so he\nwould be branded as a spy. Where he becomes part of the governing plan\nand is responsible for the order of the school the situation is different, as\ndiscipline is maintained by the efforts of all.\nFor all classes of pupils in the lower grades the Brownlee Plan contains\nwithin it the elements of a good scheme of discipline. Many of its features\nare interesting. There are new things and those that are modified. It has a\nsimple plan with an excellent purpose. The scheme is based upon what\nwe might call a word-a-month plan. Each month a word is made prominent,\nsuch as kindness, honesty, or self-control, and every day thru story, composition, or other work reference is made to this word. These words are made\nprominent thru the eye on banner or blackboard for the purpose of awakening thought and to arouse an impulse in lines of proper conduct. By means\nof this plan of school government improvement has been made, not temporary but permanent, in social and moral ways. Better attention to the laws of\ngood health, obedience in the home and school with increased regard for\nthe rights of others have been noted. Opportunities are given for the\nworking-out of the children's best nature and on the whole it develops a\nspirit of co-operation. Among the forms of self-government that have\nreceived some attention is that of the school city. This form of school\ndiscipline has been organized in several of our largest cities. The idea,\nhowever, does not seem to spread, in spite of the fact that distinguished\neducators have expressed their heartiest approval of the system. School\nprincipals who have tried the system speak heartily in its favor. In many\ninstances it has been successful beyond the sanguine expectations of its friends.\nThe school-city idea is in an experimental stage, but it certainly has vital\nelements that are fundamental in character. New and important elements\nare brought into school discipline. By this plan moral responsibility has been\nstimulated. The school city has been the means of developing character.\nPupils instead of blindly obeying the commands of others are led to think for\nthemselves. At the same time the children are trained in the practice of\ncitizenship.\nThe plan of the school city has two aims. First, to develop in the pupil\nself-control and responsibility, and second, to give plenty of practice in the\nforms of government. The phase of this form of government is emphasized\nupon the character side while the practice of government is a secondary aim.\nAs far as we may judge this entire plan is strong in the direction of moral\ntraining. A healthy school spirit is formed by placing a part of the control\nin the hands of the pupils where it belongs and in giving them proper guidance.\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "i8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nThe idea of the school city is to impress every child with his duty as a voter\nand thru habit coming from daily drill make him self-governing. Children\nthus disciplined, we are told, become citizens alive to the questions of the hour,\nresponsible and independent. In the general plan of discipline the government is of course autocratic. The teacher gives the command, the pupils\nobey.\nTheir purpose is to be ruled but to have no part in the ruling power.\nThru this self-government, pupils discriminate between right and wrong\nand by developing the will to do right become subject to the control\nof external government. In theory at least it is better to be led to good behavior thru rules that they themselves have made, than by forced submission\nto authorit}-'. If it develops ideals of this kind, self-government should then\ncommand attention.\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nREDUCING\n\nHORACE\n\nH. CUMMINGS,\n\nMORAL\n\nTRUTHS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF LATTER\nSALT LAKE CITY, UTAH\n\nTO\n\nPRACTICE\n\nDAY SAINTS SCHOOLS,\n\nIn considering methods of moral training it should be borne in mind that\nthere is no royal road to morality, but desirable results in this line of effort\nare won only with that labor and care that excellence always exacts. And\nwhile we appreciate the work of those giant reformers of the youth-gone-wrong\nwho have made Denver, Cleveland, and New York more famous, we are\nsure that here as in many other places \"an ounce of preventative is worth\na pound of cure.\" Children ought not to be allowed to go wrong, and the\nconsideration of methods to train them in the right claims our best thought as\nteachers.\nOf what value to the individual or the state is a well-trained intellect\nwhen yoked with a corrupt heart ? It but adds to the wolf the qualities of\nthe fox. Yet our jails are filled with educated criminals, and too many tramps\nare graduates of our schools. If we may believe the newspapers or even our\nlawmakers when discussing remedial legislation we must conclude that the\nhonesty, integrity, and patriotism of colonial times have all been swallowed\nup in the wickedness of trusts, food adulteration, graft, and political corruption\nof many kinds. Recently a prominent New York judge soberly declared that\n40 per cent, of the cost of all public improvements goes for graft. Estimates\nmust include this item as much as that of labor, lumber, or other materials.\nWhether the world is growing better or worse, however, is not material\nto the purposes of this paper. We all know there is much need for more\neffectual moral training. The limits of this paper preclude any but the\nbriefest reference to the psychology involved in moral training, but it may\naid in placing values upon methods suggested as well as revealing the strong\nand the weak points in forces that have been depended upon to meet this need.\nThe problem is largely how to develop the will to do right and furnish conditions to reduce moral instructions to actions.\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREDUCING\n\nMORAL\n\nTRUTHS\n\nTO PRACTICE\n\ni8i\n\nIn the field of instincts we will consider\n1. Secretiveness. — Practice, and teach the pupils how to practice, keeping secret\nall evil reports of the mote in the brother's eye; not to boast of their own virtues, not even\nletting \"the left hand know what the right hand doeth\" when they render aid to another.\n2. Envy. — Direct envy toward the purest and most excellent character, and show\nthat what one is envious of in such a case can only be attained by substituting a perfect\nlove for selfish envy.\n3. Anger. — Teach self-control, and the use of righteous indignation as in the case\nof cruelty to animals, injustice to weaker pupils, and proper resistance to various forms\nof oppression.\n4. Fear. — Fear to do anything unbecoming a man — one who does is never safe.\nHave courage to face the unpleasant or dangerous at the call of duty. By furnishing\noccasions for responses on students' part, lead them to taste and appreciate the sweets\nof such a course.\n5. Constructiveness. — Manual training, domestic arts, and laboratory work should be\nprovided to direct and develop this instinct.\n6. Leadership. — Supply responsible positions for students as monitors, and ofl&cers\nin student organizations, athletic clubs, etc., the proper discharge of whose duties will\npromote the general welfare.\n7. Imitation is perhaps the most important of the instincts. How many thousand\nthings a child learns by imitation which he never would learn if he had to wait until they\nwere taught him ! This faculty does not wait on judgment. The child does what he sees\nothers do with little or no conception of what it means to him. Hence only persons of the\nhighest moral attributes should be engaged as teachers. We should be in truth what we\nwant our pupils to become. Exclude teachers who smoke, use liquor, profane, or gamble,\nor who are insincere, irreverent, or untruthful, if we would not have our children become\nlike unto them. Surround the children with the purest atmosphere possible. Demonstrate inyovu- lives that you love good and hate evil. Enter enthusiastically into the study\nof ideal characters; impress the ideal and seek opportunity to apply it in the school, on the\ncampus, in the home, and in the social circle. Chiefly thru this instinct does the child\nbecome \"the product of his environment.\"\nRemark. — Of the four hundred teachers in the schools with which I have the honor\nto be connected, three-fourths of whom are males, not one smokes; as a consequence\nnot I per cent, of the boys smoke after attending a short time.\n\nIn the field of habit the psychological law is very definite. Frequent\nrepetitions of an act create a tendency to its automatic recurrence. Advantage\nshould be taken of every opportunity to get the pupil to perform moral acts\nand form moral conclusions and determinations. Here also \"we learn to\ndo by doing.\" The good and true in history, literature, and current events\nshould be discovered by the pupils and applied as far as possible in their\nlives. Their attitude and conduct toward lessons, teachers, and classmates\nshould conform to correct principles. Study their habits outside of school.\nGain their confidence and they will confide in you their secrets. Much sin\nis due to ignorance, and many a boy's life has been changed for the better\nby a heart-to-heart talk with a wise, earnest teacher.\nIn the field of impulse action follows ideation immediately and without\ndeliberation, hence the greater danger that the ideas and thoughts become\nunwholesome and result immediately in bad acts. The law of teaching here\nis: Let bad impulses be followed invariably by pain and unpleasant results.\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "l82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nLet good impulses bring satisfaction. This will eliminate the bad and establish the good as habits. For impulsive students select studies that require\nreflection, careful observation, and deliberation, such as mathematics, experimental physics and chemistry, drawing from life or model, etc. Let them\nbe assigned to subordinate positions in school and social events which require\ndeliberation and well-organized effort. They may take part in athletic\nsports and contests whose rules require impulses to be restrained and conduct\ncontrolled.\nLeaving the racial or hereditary elements let us glance a moment over the\nfield of deliberation and choice. We here enter the domain of the personal\nin life, the negative side of which is self-control and the positive side selfexpression. In deliberation we estimate impulses, motives, incentives, and\ntheir consequences. In choice we identify self with one and thereby exclude\nthe others. The moral problem for the teacher here is, first, to give a knowledge of the right, and second, to secure a disposition to do the right.\nThe gravest mistakes in moral training have occurred in efforts to solve\nthis problem. Formal moral instructions alone can never accomplish more\nthan the first part, leaving the result — like faith without works — dead. To\nteach a child continuously what is right without securing in some way corresponding connections with right conduct, is to make that child oblivious to\nsuch relations, and stifle within him the impulse to put into practice good\nteachings. \"He that knoweth to do good and doeth it not, to him is it sin.\"\nBetween knowing and doing there is a certain action and reaction. Each\nmakes the other more perfect; neither alone is complete.\nHome, in his Psychological Principles of Education, says:\nThe correct order of educating religiously is, first the action and feeling, then the idea\nand thought. The child is primarily a doer, not a thinker. He abides in the region of the\nconcrete, not the abstract. Children can do right and so feel rightly, before they can think\nrightly. It is thru obedience to the commands of God and feeling our dependence upon\nGod that children come to think rightly about God. The same principle also holds true\nwith adults: Whoever is willing to do the will of God, shall know of the doctrine. The\ntrouble at this point is that in religious education as in all types of education we have begun\nwith children on the intellectual, abstract, passive side of life rather than on the practical,\nconcrete, and active side.\n\nJust as we know the true significance of things by the use to which they are\nput, so we learn the significance of moral principles thru our acts which give\nrise to them. To love is to know the full meaning of love, which no oral or\nwritten description could impart. To pray fervently is to know the sweetness\nof intimate communion with our Father. To give is to know the joys of giving. To do unto others as we would that they should do to us is to know the\ndoctrine to be divine. Happily the course necessary to get the knowledge\nalso creates a desire to put it into practice and thus the ''yoke becomes easy\nand the burden light.\"\nThe home, the church, and the school are the three great forces which\nsociety depends upon for moral and religious results. Let us glance at their\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREDUCING\n\nMORAL\n\nTRUTHS\n\nTO PRACTICE\n\n183\n\npresent conditions and apply some of the principles of moral training to their\nwork.\nI. The home. — In a paper by the chairman of the International Committee\non Moral Training, read at this gathering a year ago, it was stated that 96\nper cent, of the teachers in more than a thousand schools of this country\n\"reported as finding difficulty in the development of character by reason of\nimproper home training.\"\nThe modifications in home life have been so great and so rapid during\nrecent years that methods of moral training there have not kept pace with\nthem, and are now inadequate to meet the needs and conditions in most homes.\nWhen each family produced most of what it consumed each member had some\ntask which contributed to the welfare of all. Family ties and home influences\nthen were strong. Morning and evening prayer, Bible-reading, and practical exhortations to right conduct were common exercises around the family\nhearth. Now the factory, shop, department store, and office separate the\nfamily after a hasty breakfast, too early, perhaps, for the younger members\nto join. Conditions are no more favorable for family devotional exercises\nat the irregular hours of reassembling in the evening. Each worker is paid\nin money which he spends in his own way. Even paying board at home,\nwhen work can be had without going abroad, is not like working in and for\nthe home. The demands of business upon the father and of society upon\nthe mother divert their interest in a measure from the home, with the result\nthat the number of children, as well as the quality and value of parental\ntraining, is rapidly diminishing. Modern society is in such a whirl of business\nand work and fashion and pleasure that home training receives too little\nattention.\nReturn to those primitive conditions is impossible, even if it were desirable.\nWe must find adequate substitutes for the best they contained and adapt\nthem to present needs. With this object in view there were established in\nOgden, Utah, about four years ago, several organizations calling themselves\nParents' Classes. Once a week the parents would meet and under the guidance of the best supervisor available would discuss the various practical\nproblems of home life confronting them. The movement quickly became\npopular. Parents of all classes joined. The educated and wealthy deliberated with the poor and unlearned, and each profited by the knowledge and\nexperience of the other. Such topics as \"How to Promote Truthfulness,\"\n\"Beautifying the Home,\" \"Proper Amusements,\" \"Economy in the Home,\"\n\"Proper Food for Children,\" \"Proper Clothing for Children,\" \"Politeness at\nHome,\" \"How to Get Children to Observe Proper Hours,\" and many others\nwere considered, and each member of the class was expected to express a\nthought on each subject. At the close of each meeting, or when the consideration of a topic was concluded, a resolution to put into effect the results of the\ndeliberations was usually passed, thus securing a united effort of the parents\nin the neighborhood.\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "i84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nA thousand such classes are now in operation, with twenty thousand\nmembers enrolled and an average attendance of 67 per cent., and the work is\ngrowing rapidly. Among many good results curfew laws are generally\nobserved; there is less work for juvenile courts; in many places parents have\nset aside one night a week called ''home night\" to spend with their families\nin thoughtfully prepared ways to promote happiness and morality. Committees have prepared courses of study, suggested books of reference, and in\nother ways guided the movement.\n2. The church, whose special work is spiritual, has also failed to keep\nup with the times. The authority and influence of its ministers are not\nwhat they once were: and the Bible itself, chiefly thru disuse, but partly no\ndoubt thru attacks from higher criticism and other sources, has lost much\nof its power. Sunday theaters and other amusements now draw the crowds\nthat should attend church.\nIn the light of modern pedagogy it seems to me that one great mistake\nof most churches is that the minister is the chief worker and therefore the\nprincipal one benefited. Surely there is enough work for all to do, and why\nshould not all be equipped and put to work ?\nThe smallest complete division of the church in which I was reared is\ncalled a ward and contains perhaps five hundred souls on an average. It\nrequires 162 persons to ofl&cer properly all the organizations and departments\nof a ward and to do the church work in it. Each organization has a definite\nand useful work to do (which cannot be described here) and in the natural\nrotation in office every active member carries a share of responsibility and work.\nNeither is it a blessing to a church for one or two of its wealthy and generous members to bear its whole financial burdens. ''Where the treasure is,\nthere will be the heart also.\" The widow's mite did the widow more good\nno doubt than it did anyone else. All the members should be induced to\ncontribute in proportion to their means, and their interest in the church would\nincrease accordingly.\n3. The school is no longer opened with any form of devotional exercises.\nMany teachers as well as pupils I suspect never pray. No religious instructions can be given lest they become sectarian. Even Christmas exercises\nare fast becoming Christless. Sometimes the teacher is told to teach morality;\nbut there being no clear line of demarkation between that and religion, and,\nalready distracted with the multitude of other subjects to be taught, this vital\none he woefully neglects.\nTo supplement the work of the public schools with more thoro moral and\nreligious training — for the two cannot well be separated — a denominational\nmovement was started some years ago in the West. A corps of volunteer\nteachers meet the children after their school work is done and invite them\nto attend a religion class held in some convenient place. Here they are trained\nin the principles of morality and religion. In many places the work is a great\nsuccess; in others, quite indifferent, depending largely upon the ability and\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nIN MEMORIAM— WILLI AM\n\nTORREY\n\nHARRIS\n\n185\n\nfaithfulness of the instructors, most of whom are not trained teachers. The\nresults, however, on the whole have induced parents of various sectarian\naffiliations to have their children attend, until the enrollment now is about\n\n40,000.\n\nThe differentiation that has grown up amongst us as to the religious and\nthe secular in education is most unfortunate. I love to think that all the\nprinciples of education are both religious and secular. Not one of them could\nbe spared from society or from the church. Either would suffer irreparable*\nloss if deprived of training in language, mathematics, or science, as it would\nwithout truthfulness, charity, or virtue. The multiplication table is as essential to salvation as is faith or baptism. As well might we think of an unreformed thief in the kingdom of heaven as an uninstructed ignoramus. The\nso-called religious cannot say to the so-called secular: \"We have no need\nof thee.\" \"Be ye perfect even as your Father in heaven is perfect\" is the\ntask assigned us, and we must not only acquire the divine attributes of his\nheart, but attain unto the knowledge that is in him.\nThe child is a unit and should develop as a unit. All his powers and attributes must be trained in proper season or the product will be unbalanced\nand unsatisfactory if not positively dangerous. Neither the head, the hand,\nnor the heart should be neglected. The school has long done excellent work\nin training the mind. It is now extending its power to train the hand.\nLet us hope that our religious fears and jealousies will in time melt away\nsufficiently to permit the school to exert its mighty power and achieve its\ncrowning success, a more perfect training of the heart.\nIN MEMORIAM— WILLIAM\nI.\n(read\n\nBY\n\nBY JOHN\n\nGEORGE\nW.\n\nP.\n\nCOOK,\n\nBROWN,\nDE KALB,\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nBY\n\nTORREY\n\nHARRIS\n\nBLOOMINGTON,\nILL.,\n\nJOHN\n\nWITH\n\nILL.^\nINTRODUCTION)\n\nW. COOK\n\nThis paper embodies what the author wished to say about Dr. Harris the man, and\nthe influence of his personality and characteristic mode of thought on elementary education. To this the author had planned to add some description of the work of Dr. Harris\nas principal and superintendent of schools^ and as a leader in the discussion of education.\nThe stimulation and molding influence of this work as it became a part of the growing\norganization of elementary education offered an interesting opportunity for description to\none who was taking part in that organization, and was himself most vitally stirred by the\ninfluence of Dr. Harris.\nThis part of the plan for the present paper was only referred to\nin conversation with a few friends, and no notes from which to give it expression\nare available.\n\nDr. William Torrey Harris was born in 1836 and passed on to another\nplane of being November 5, 1909, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. His\npurpose in life was the promotion of the education of mankind.\nHe entered\n^ Mr. George P. Brown, who\ndied February i, iqio.\n\nprepared the following tribute to Dr. Harris,\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "i86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nupon the active pursuit of this purpose in St. Louis in 1857 as principal of\nan elementary school, and served twenty-three successive years as teacher\nand as director of the instruction of the children in the elementary and secondary schools of that city. During this period he was studying and practicing\nin another field of education, when he sought to steady his own and other\nmen's view of life, and help them to a rational view of the world. These\nresults are embodied in the Journal of Speculative Philosophy.\nIt is my present privilege and is made my duty to speak on this occasion\nof the influence of Dr. Harris in promoting the school education of children,\nand in steadying the thinking of the teachers, thru a very unsteady period in\nthe evolution of education in our country.\nPrevious to his advent as leader those at the head of the city school systems\nwere groping their way in fitting the teaching to the dififerent grades of pupils,\nby arranging the material to be taught and getting books published to fit\nthis arrangement. The conviction was dawning that little boys and girls\nwere not little men and women. But it was only dawning, and the commanding purpose of the teaching was to lodge in the memories of the children the\nlessons assigned.\nIt sought to fill the mind with knowledge for future use.\nI have always thought that it was the great good-fortune of the Mississippi\nValley that Dr. Harris came early into contact with Henry C, Brockmeyer.\nThru their intercourse it was revealed to Dr. Harris that there was need of a\nbetter-defined purpose of school education. He began the study of this\nproblem by asking and answering the question why the common-school\nstudies have become the studies in our common schools. They are the elements of the knowledge of nature which man has been impelled by his spiritual\nhunger to know, and of the social experiences of the race that have made our\ncivilization. These he called the windows of the soul thru which one could\ncome to know nature, and thru which he could come to know himself and his\nfellow-men. To know nature and to know man was the commanding purpose of education. To the average schoolmaster of that day who has now\narrived at his threescore years and ten this was a revelation of the dignity\nof his vocation beyond anything he had formerly conceived.\nThe commanding purpose of life is that man know himself. To do this\nhe must know himself as he has come down through the ages in the stream of\nevolution in which in every stage of his progress he was striving to look himself in the face, and after he had reached that stage, his aim has been toward\na deeper and broader knowledge of this objective self which the attainment\nof self-consciousness had revealed to him. Self-consciousness by which he\nknows himself as object and as subject — to know this with what it involves\nis to know God and the world.\nIt was this consciousness that made him repeat so often that it was allimportant that a teacher should have an inspiring and rational view of the\nworld, for it was his view of the world that he taught, along with the branches\nof learning, however unconscious of it he might be, or however much he\nmight try to hide his conviction.\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "[' Superintendence]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM— WILLI AM\n\nTORREY\n\nHARRIS\n\n187\n\nI know that this is denied by, perhaps, a majority of thoughtful teachers,\nbut they have not the point of view of Dr. Harris at which he arrived thru\nthe study of the German philosophy of three-quarters of a century ago.\nHaving clarified his own thought by this discipline he proceeded to make\napplication of it to the work of elementary and secondary education. To\nprepare the children to know their own generation, and so live efficiently\ntherein, they must know the experience of the generations that made it what\nit is: it must be known in its history. This history is epitomized in the\nbranches of knowledge taught in the elementary schools. The experience\nof the race in gaining a knowledge of inorganic nature is recorded in mathematics; its mastery of organic nature is recorded in biological science; the\nexperience of these generations in the evolution of life in the social order is\nincarnated in language; art and the arts reveal to us what the race has achieved\nin the world as beautiful and useful; these indicate the five avenues along\nwhich the race has marched, and the school is established to give the child a\ngeneral survey of the route and something of the experience of his progenitors\nas their own preparation for looking at life from their shoulders. Each of\nthese routes has a literature enormous in quantity and of inestimable value\nin quality, but thru it we survey the entire civilization of the world from\nprimitive man to the present time.\nI have been told that another route has been discovered and a sixth window\nmust be opened for the human soul — that of industrial training; but if a\nsixth, why not ten or twenty if the school is to lead henceforth to the Temple\nof Mammon ? To that goal the way is broad and the roads are many.\nThis survey of the educational route by Dr. Harris will certainly steady\nthe practice of the leaders of educational theory and practice for generations\nto come.\nDr. Harris had the noble ambition of leading thoughtful men and women,\nand especially thoughtful teachers, to that view of the world which Plato\ntaught in Athens as philosophy, and which Jesus of Nazareth taught in Palestine as religion; in the philosophy of the former an intellectual view of the\nworld led on to loving kindness as the rule of life; and in the religion of Jesus\na heart view of the world as boundless love led on to a rational philosophy.\nHe saw in Herbert Spencer a fascinating apostle of another view of the world\nwhich eliminated reason and substituted reasoning; reason — the soul of the\nuniverse revealed thru insight; and reasoning — the processes of logical thinking to a conclusion from data furnished by the world of nature. So important\ndid he think it to be to make known to the American people and especially\nto the schools and universities the abstract and unstable foundations of Spencer's philosophy, that, as I have understood, he started his Journal of Speculative Philosophy primarily to counteract its influence and show the error of\nattempting to build a human institution upon such a foundation of sand.\nI have had no direct statement from him which enables me to vouch for the\ntruth of this, but it is consistent with his determined purpose as made manifest\nin his life. One only needs to read again the leading article in the first number\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "i88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nflndianapolis\n\nof the Journal of Speculative Philosophy to find evidence that this legend,\nlike all legends that live, is founded upon fact. This Journal was published,\nfirst, as a quarterly, and later, at such times as material accumulated, until\nits editor became National Commissioner of Education. That first article\nin the first number foretold the conflict in education between the physical and\nthe psychical aims that are now battling for control in the education of the\nchildren as never before. There is much talk about a new education and\nnew religion, which shall work in harmony with modern science. Dr. Harris\nhas stood like a stone wall for that practice in teaching that will best educate\nthe child. This, he has always held, will ever prove to be the child's best\npreparation for any vocation in life he may eventually pursue. This requires\nthat we know the individual child in order to know how best to educate him.\nBut his contention has always been that the child is a child of his race\nas well as of his time, and that the products of the race must be used as the\nmaterial of the child's study in the schools; for they help him to stand upon the\nshoulders of those who have gone before in directing his own life.\nDr. Harris was a leader thru his personality more than thru his publications.\nIt will be a growing regret of you and of all engaged in directing education that\nhe has left in permanent form so little of that which he worked out with such\nassiduity. He has left no books that express in a connected form and in detail\nwhat he was wont to utter in fragments in his moments of inspiration. He\nhad no irresistible impulse to write, and seldom prepared an address except\non the cars or in his room immediately before its delivery. He had in mind\nmore than a score of books that he intended to write, and when he withdrew\nfrom the office of commissioner he intended to set to work at once and put them\ninto form. It seems to me that his old habit of working on the spur of the\nmoment to meet an immediate engagement had him in its thrall.\nI remember when he was once talking to a cultured group on some topic\nin the field of art and the audience was entranced by his thought and the\nfelicity of his expression, that one in the outer circle asked him to speak louder.\nHe replied, I thought with some annoyance, that if he must think on how he\nspoke he feared that he would have nothing to say. I think that is indicative\nof the habit of mind that has stood in the way of his writing the books he had\nhoped and earnestly desired to write.\nDr. Harris dealt with the foundation ideas of education. It was there that\nhe loved to dwell. He was ever reverting to the presuppositions that went\nbefore the matter in hand. I have often wondered whether he was ever a\ngreat teacher of youth like Dr. Arnold. His administration of the schools of\nSt. Louis had nothing in it of the doctrinal, and in his visitation of schools in\nother cities he was an acute critic of the practice going on, ever tying his\ncriticism to some self-evident (when he mentioned it) principle of teaching.\nHis intimate friends wondered at the practical acumen of the philosopher,\nbut he did not have the influence of a great teacher upon his principals — with\nsome marked exceptions.\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM— WILLI AM\n\nTORREY\n\nHARRIS\n\n189\n\nHis leadership lay in laying bare the foundations of education which had\nbeen buried for ages and forgotten beneath the layers of temporary expedients\nand devices and successive theories. He brought into the light of consciousness what had been in the subconscious since Christianity began.\nThe end toward which he looked was a synthesis; the impulse which he\nobeyed was analysis as it appeared to those who saw less profoundly than he.\nHis aim in this analysis was to show the inevitable synthesis, but the educational public often failed to see the necessity of the synthesis in the analysis.\nIt is for this reason among many others that we mourn the fact that he did\nnot work out these syntheses in a series of books upon the various topics so\nessential to a full-orbed life the content of which lay so clearly in his own\nmind. It would be well if someone would take what he has left of fragmentary\nthought and articulate it into connected wholes. Everything said or done\nby him has its place in his scheme of thought, and that scheme of thought is,\nat bottom, a scheme of education. So loyal was he to the processes and\nproducts of his thought that he would sometimes say, when a new hypothesis\nwas suggested, that if he^admitted that among his categories he would have\nto reconstruct his entire system. It reminds one of the attitude of Hegel\ntoward his own products in the later years of his life. Indeed it is the attitude\nof most philosophic thinkers, and of consistent thinkers in any field, when\ntheir system of thought has become the habit of their self-conscious life.\nSystems are the spontaneous activity of thought evolving itself in products\nin their beginning, but as they advance in their development the spontaneity limits itself to specific channels. Hospitality to new discoveries is the\nattitude of the scientist, and this often works the overthrow of tentative\nsystems.\nBut the welfare of education is dependent equally upon the autocracy of\na system of philosophy and the fluidity of the system of science. The teacher\nwho turns his back upon either is sure to come to grief, whether he is ever\nconscious of his grief or not. The philosopher builds his system upon the\npast: the scientist, if he is a scientist in spirit and in truth, works with his\nface toward the future. The teacher is philosopher and scientist in one.\nThere is too great a tendency today for him to become fluid at the expense\nof solidity. Dr. Harris was solid in education.\nAll that has been said of his power to make application of his theories\nto practice in education or to other institutions is true. He was the most practical of men to the degree that he was the most philosophic. The universally\ntrue is the only truly concrete truth. All finite truth is but an abstraction\nfrom the universal. If one knows the relatively universal he knows every\nphase or aspect of it expressed in an individual. The world of sense is the\nmost abstract of all existence. The statesman is wiser than the politician\nin that he thinks more universally and therefore more concretely than the\npolitician. Philosophy is often condemned for its abstraction, but that is\ndone only by him who lives in the abstract.\nHe must contend that God can\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "I90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nbe known only in the abstract. He must shift his point of view before he\ncan escape from his mirage. Of course Dr. Harris was one of the most practical of schoolmasters because he was more truly philosophic, more universal\nin his knowledge of things.\nII.\n\nBY\n\nC.\n\np.\n\nGARY,\n\nMADISON,\n\nWIS.\n\nDr. William Torrey Harris holds a unique position in the history of American thought and education. For nearly half a century he was mentor and\nintellectual guide for most of the men who within that period molded and\nshaped American education. His St. Louis reports and his early addresses\nand discussions of educational subjects were so eminently sane and so sound\nphilosophically that subsequent developments and investigations have tended\nlargely to verify his early educational theories. As a simple illustration of\nthis general fact we may recall that his doctrine of the recitation as first published in the St. Louis reports was that the mutual aid pupils received from\none another in the recitation periods was an advantage that nothing else could\nadequately take the place of. Many years later numerous experiments were\ntried with a view to individualizing instruction, but these experiments, while\nthey are not yet ended, have invariably found their limitations, not only on\nthe basis of added expense, but also on the basis of ineffectiveness. Dr.\nHarris was an illustration of a man who early in his career got started right\nin his thinking. Fortunately for the educational world, his mind matured\nearly, as compared with most philosophers, and fortunate it was also that his\nspeculative philosophy took a practical turn with respect to education. At\nthe age of forty or forty-five he had, in my judgment, reached the full height\nof his intellectual power, though subsequently he added great stores of knowledge and even new philosophic insights.\nThru the courtesy of Mr. F. A. Fitzpatrick, I am able to quote at length\nfrom a personal letter the words of Henry C. Brockmeyer in which he doubtless gives a just and adequate estimate of Dr. Harris in his early prime:\nMr. Harris is still at school; for he regards the sensible universe as the institution for\nthe education of man: birth the matriculation, life the academic course, and death the\ngraduation. To him life means our opportunity to come into more intimate relations,\nfrom day to day, with whatever is true, and good, and beautiful; to cultivate the most\nintimate acquaintance with whatever is, and is forever. With this interpretation of life,\nwhich presupposes self-conscious intelligence as the final end of the universe, and its realization as the significance of existence, he has applied himself with great industry to the\nacquisition of a connected view of the various achievements of man in art, science, religion,\nand institutions — industrial, social, and political — as selected parts of one self-consistent\ntotal. What has appeared in public from his hand may be regarded as the fragmentary\nresults of his application, and bears evidence of a power of abstract thought, which, together\nwith his unwearied industry — which may be regarded as his peculiar characteristic — promises well for the future. In his immediate practical sphere, as superintendent of public\nschools, he endeavors to transform these views into a living actuality, by realizing for his\ncity a system which, while it opens to the pupils a vista in the eternal significance of life,\nis in strict harmony with the political institutions of the country.\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "JupSHSaScej\n\nIN MEM OKI AM— WILLIAM\n\nTORREY\n\nHARRIS\n\nWe educate,\" he says, \"the future citizens of the United States, not the future citizens\nof Prussia, of France, of England, of China, or of Japan. This must dictate our methods.\nNor shall we forget that, although citizens of the United States, they are to be men and\nwomen. The particular shall not swallow up the general. We will not educate Spartans;\nnor shall the general obliterate the particular. We will not educate blank, abstract humanitarians.\"\nHe may be regarded pre-eminently as a man of thought; his erudition, though varied\nand extensive, is never produced for its own sake, but ever in the service of thought. His\nconcrete results are achieved from the self-mediation of thought, and not by the intuitive\nmethods, which will, while oblivious of the logical relations involved, appear under the\ncharacter of makeshifts for the time being. Morally without a blemish, he is socially\nesteemed, but his absorbing industry withdraws him from society as such. He combines\nthe depth and industry of the German, the grace and poetic taste of the Greek, with the\nenthusiasm and practical tact of the American. In physique, he is strong, muscular, and\nenduring; in mind, clear, profound, and prompt, and in heart, warm, generous, and just.\nHe is emphatically the man who would rather have truth than wealth, and rather be right\nthan president. He is still young, his life work but fairly begun, and his fellow-citizens\nnaturally look for great things from him in the future, and, if his life is spared, will not be\ndisappointed.\n\nBut Dr. Harris was not simply an educator. At the same time that he\nwas aiding so powerfully in giving shape to American education he was the\ndefender of the worth and dignity of human life against the onslaughts of\nfatalism, materialism, pessimism, and a multitude of other 'isms that came\nthick and fast as falling leaves in the vale of Vallombrosa. It was the period\nof exaltation of physical science, the period of Darwin, of Wallace, and of\nHuxley. It was an era of English and Scotch metaphysics, and French\nmaterialism. Conservation of energy was the highest conception of science.\nThe origin of energy was beyond its ken. A civilization will correct its own\nerrors, or have them corrected for it, in the course of time, but there can be\nbut little doubt that Dr. Harris' attacks upon Spencer's ''Unknowable\"\nand other forms of agnosticism saved this country from an inundation of\nfalse and pernicious philosophical doctrines that would have turned back the\ndial hand of civilization in the higher reaches of thought and speculation for\nat least half a hundred years.\nOn the cover of the Journal of Speculative Philosophy stood as a motto\nNovalis' splendid sentence, ''Philosophy can bake no brea^, but she can\nprocure for us God, Freedom, and Immortality.\" Many in that seething\nperiod of materialism scoffed and ridiculed the motto and characterized the\ndoctrines of the editor as Hegelian vagaries. Dr. Harris, however, had an\nunwavering conviction that the universe is the manifestation of a creative\nFirst Cause and that man is created in his image, that human character is\ninfinitely perfectible, and that human life with all its imperfections and trials,\ndefeats and successes, is merely the kindergarten to the infinitude of time thru\nwhich man as an individual, as a personality, shall exist and develop. The\nworld to him constitutes an ascending series, from nothingness up thru inorganic nature, organic nature, and man to the highest spirituality in what he\ncalled the communion of saints or the invisible church.\nAll of this he held\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nwas merely the unfolding of the divine reason, the whole constituting a system\nand a never-ending process. The influence of such a man at such a stage of\nour development cannot be overestimated. His doctrine and his personality were such as appealed to young men whose theories of life were in a\nformative state, and the appeal was particularly strong to those who were\nentering upon educational work. They were not only drawn to him, but he\nwas drawn to them. He thus became spiritual father to thousands, many\nof whom he never met personally, or at most but rarely.\nIt was my own great good fortune to come under the influence of Dr.\nHarris some thirty years ago. The manner of it I have been urged to tell, as\nit is regarded as more or less typical of what has occurred in the life of many\nothers who know and acknowledge their deep debt of gratitude to him for\nstimulus and guidance.\nIn 1880 during an attack of the wander-lust I found myself on a hot August\nsabbath day in a tumble-down village on the banks of the Missouri River.\nIn my restlessness I wandered into an open church and listened to a sermon\nby a prosaic, unemotional Scotchman. I had for some time previous been\ndelving into Berkeleian idealism and also wondering whether it would not be\nwell for me to make philosophy my career. At some point or other in his\nsermon the preacher touched in me a philosophic chord that vibrated. The\nnext day I sought him out and had a long talk with him on logic, metaphysics,\nand kindred subjects, and in the course of his remarks he mentioned Dr.\nHarris and said that it was too bad that a man of his brilliant intellect should\nhave gone da£fy on Hegelianism. That chance remark was perhaps the most\nimportant thing as a factor in my life that was ever said to me, for immediately Iwas filled with irresistible desire to know about Dr. Harris and about\nHegelianism. From the Scotchman's point of view I then began myself to\ngrow daffy. I was a teacher and discovered in some way that Dr. Harris\nhad published some educational reports. I sent and got such as were available. Ilikewise secured all the addresses of his that I could find in print.\nI discovered that he was publishing the Journal of Speculative Philosophy,\nand from that day to this a set of the Journal has occupied the place of honor\nabove my study table. Through the Journal I was quickly introduced to\nHegel, and from him I passed on to the study of that glorious company of\nimmortals of whom Socrates, Mato, Aristotle, and Kant are the chiefest.\nFor years I worked in this new field and the related one of insight-giving\nliterature, with the greatest energy and enthusiasm; but, singular as it may\nseem, in all this time, lasting some ten years, I never met Dr. Harris or wrote\nhim a line. Then came our first meeting in a hotel in Topeka at a late hour at\nnight. I knew he was weary and I tried to excuse myself, but not until two\nor three o'clock the next morning would he allow me to leave him. Indeed,\nI finally tore myself away almost brusquely out of consideration for him.\nFrom an intellectual point of view it was the most significant conversation of\nmy life and all but infinitely the most profound and brilliant. The universe\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM— WILLI AM\n\nTORREY\n\nHARRIS\n\n193\n\nwas transparent as crystal, and eternal verities delivered to us the message\nthat is surrendered only to those who toil thru laborious years to the highest\nmountain peaks of philosophy. At such moments that which is temporal and\naccidental, that which is mere appearance, shrinks into the background as\nan intruder, and actuality and reality stand forth in all their beauty and\nperfection.\nThe five years following this meeting were to me rich in the study of Homer,\nDante, Shakespeare, Goethe, Carlyle, and Emerson — all under the stimulus of\nDr. Harris. I then found myself passing over into the study of sociology\nand assumed for a time that this was wholly on my own initiative, but only\nrecently have I come to realize how along in the nineties Dr. Harris began to\nplace renewed emphasis on the fact that the determination of the course of\nstudy is, after all, a sociological matter, not a psychological. Whether it\nwas due to Dr. Harris or was merely the trend of the times, I do not know,\nbut since the middle of the nineties our education discussions have been far\nless psychological and far more sociological.\nDr. Harris was a rare combination of Yankee shrewdness and philosophic\ninsight and power. To him the learning-process was one of self-estrangement\nor alienation. The human spirit longs to reach out and find that which is\nseemingly foreign to itself, the unrelated, the alien. This it revels and\ndisports itself in, until a feeling of familiarity develops and that which was\nalien ceases to be such, the spirit enlarges to compass the new and strange as a\nmoment in its own development. Led by his philosophy of estrangement,\nand by his all-compassing interests as well. Dr. Harris studied profoundly\noriental philosophy, language, history, science — in fact, every product of the\nhuman mind was grist to his intellectual mill. This combination of knowledge, shrewdness, and the deepest philosophy that the human mind has ever\nevolved made Dr. Harris invincible in debate. Many a man in the pride of\nhis youthful enthusiasm has undertaken to measure swords with him in an\nunpremeditated debate. The result was invariably the same. The youthful\nenthusiast quickly discovered that his armor was but sorry protection against\nthe shafts of Jove. But withal his manner had almost the timidity of a schoolgirl, and he never appeared to exult over his success in debate. He quickly\nrecognized in the ascending ladder of the categories what rung any man had\nreached and by means of the dialectic method, of which he was past-master,\nhe was able to show how the truth that might be contained in his adversary's\nviewpoint could be taken up and illuminated in the intenser light and deeper\ntruth of the next higher category. Examples to illustrate this will doubtless\noccur to all ; but recall, if you please, how a few years ago when the psychological\ndiscussion of interest was at its height, and some were disposed to take the\ninterests of the child as their guide in the education of the young, that he in a\nfew simple, direct sentences called attention to the fact that interests are good,\nbad, and indifferent, and that you must have a higher principle 6n which to\nselect out the interests that should be fostered and encouraged and those that\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nshould be suppressed, and that this higher principle is to be found in what\nthe child is to become instead of what he now is. A child must be trained in\nthe school to appropriate the experience of his fellow-men. He must conquer\nand make his own the social heritage of the race. The interest and selfactivity of the pupil may be excited by and upon the merest /orw of studies\nand yet his culture in co-operation with his fellow-men be utterly neglected.\nTo those who are familiar with Dr. Harris' philosophy and his mode of\nthought the Report of the Committee of Ten, as it came from his hand, was\nin no sense a surprise, but the strictly logical outcome of his educational\nphilosophy. For him there were five provinces of human learning — two\nrelating to nature and three relating to man as a spiritual being. These five\nprovinces must be represented in every course of study until the period of\nspecialization is reached. While there is more or less overlapping of these\nstudies, still in the main they represent separate and independent fields of\nknowledge. Arithmetic is not geography, geography is not grammar, or\nhistory, or literature. Each occupies its independent field and cannot be\nomitted and cannot be permanently subordinated. Literature, however,\naccording to Dr. Harris, is by far the most vital, because it gives an insight\ninto human nature and it reveals the motives and desires that prompt men to\naction. Dr. Harris never wearied in his reiteration of the term ''self-activity\"\nas applied to the human mind. He recognized many grades of self-activity,\nfrom feeling up to the highest type manifested in the supreme efforts of the\nhuman will. He even discovered self-activity in the plant, if not even in\nthe passivity of inorganic forms. The inorganic was for him the startingpoint of self-activity reaching finally, thru many grades of development,\nthe divine self-activity manifested in the self-determination of the Creator\nof the universe. This idea of self-activity, he held, is the source of our thought\nof God.\nIf one lacked this idea of self-activity he could not attain it. All attempt to teach him\ndivine truth would be futile. He could not form in his mind, if he could be said to have a\nmind, the essential characteristic idea of God; he could not think God as Creator of the\nworld, or as self-existent, apart from the world. If the doctrine were revealed and taught\nto him, and he learned to repeat the words in which it is expressed, yet in his consciousness\nhe would receive only a limited effect, a dead result, and no living God.\n\nHence, he urged upon teachers with great persistence the necessity of\ncalling out self-activity in the highest reaches of which the child is capable\nat a given stage of development. He greatly feared that by the use of wrong\nmethods or by too prolonged a drill in the lower forms of thinking the child\nmight suffer arrested development. Especially was this to be feared in overtraining insense-perception or in the quantitative aspects of nature. So too,\nhe believed that the study of natural science, when pursued too exclusively,\ntended to blind the spiritual eyes in the course of time to the highest thought and\nemotion represented by music, sculpture, painting, literature, philosophy,\nand religion. No man ever had a deeper sense of the value of the human\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM—WILLI AM\n\nTORREY\n\nHARRIS\n\n195\n\ninstitutions than did Dr. Harris. Without the family, the school, the church,\ncivil society, and the state, civilization would be impossible, and if these were\ndestroyed man would quickly sink back to the plane of his most primitive\nancestors. The value, use, and preservation of these institutions he would\nhave brought home to the minds of youth in the most effective ways that can\nbe devised.\nThe student who comprehends the spiritual significance of the noble poems\nof Dante, of Shakespeare, and of Goethe, who appreciates, in a spiritual sense,\nthe art of Raphael and of Michael Angelo, who can hold high converse in the\nphilosophy of Plato and Hegel, whose spiritual nature is responsive to the\nHebrew Scriptures, who can perceive that history portrays the development\nof the human race in its long upward journey toward freedom and spirituality\n— he is the fully developed man, he the man who has suffered no arrested\ndevelopment. Such a man was Dr. Harris, a soul free from envy, free from\nhate, free from all that belittles and cramps less perfect human nature. There\nwas that in him which reminded one of Aristotle, and again that which related\nhim to Phidias; nor is it sacrilege to say there was much to remind one of the\nTeacher of Nazareth. To him it was also given to show in no small degree\nthe way, the truth, and the life. If the philosophy of our departed leader\ndid not mock him he has passed on to yet higher visions of the true, the beautiful, and the good. His is the opportunity to test more fully than in the\nmortal flesh the truth of the vision Dante saw in his Paradise.\nAnd now they ascend to the highest heaven — the tenth — and Dante sees the river of\nlight of the Empyrean and the white Rose of Paradise, in which all the souls of all the\nheavens find their place, the paradise being symbolized by the perfect participation of each\nin the whole.\n\nIII.\n\nBY ELMER\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nBROWN,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD.C.\n\nOne day in the winter of 1901-2, 1 was sitting in the old office of the Commissioner of Education, when General John Eaton appeared at the door.\nAlready age and illness had laid a heavy hand upon him. Dr. Harris rose\nquickly to meet him as he came slowly forward. He had stopped by the way\nfor a word only, but it was to me a deeply interesting sight that those two great\ncommissioners presented, as they stood for a few brief moments and talked\ntogether. They were the two men who had made the Bureau of Education.\nJohn Eaton had taken the office when its fortunes were at their lowest ebb,\nwith an annual expenditure of but little over $8,000, had organized its work,\nhad gained for it the confidence of Congress and the Executive, had guided\nit through perilous times, during the long term of sixteen years, and had\nincreased its annual income to more than $80,000. Dr. Harris, after a brief\ninterval, had entered upon the office of commissioner, finding it already organized and in working order, and had infused into its operations a philosophical\nspirit, a personal life and influence, such as has rarely entered the education\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nofl&ce of any state or nation, with an individual bent and quality such as\ncould never reappear in any other time or place.\nI could look on those two men as from without, untroubled by any thought\nof ever succeeding to their responsibilities, and it was with a deep sense of\nthankfulness for the incalculable service they had rendered to American\neducation.\nDr. Harris was at that time in the full fruitage and ripeness of his powers.\nAs I came to him then, not as a stranger, to be sure, but not as an intimate\nacquaintance — a younger man, seeking materials for some writings on education— I was chiefly impressed with his kindliness and his readiness to take\nan interest in another's work. That, I am sure, is one of the chief things to\nbe said regarding his seventeen-year administration of the commissioner's\noffice. The commissioner was there to help all comers who might desire\nsuch help as he had to give. He placed the facilities of the Bureau at their\ndisposal. But the most that he had to give was himself, and he gave himself\nunsparingly.\nThe Bureau in his time was, indeed, \"the lengthened shadow of a man.\"\nAs one of his chiefs of division said, \"There were no real division chiefs in his\ntime. He was the head of every division.\" In a considerable measure this\nwas true. He was large enough to overflow all of the activities of the office\nand pour his spirit into them all. A man who cared for the spirit more than\nthe form, or rather, one who cared that the spirit should make forms to its\npurpose and not be cramped by forms which others might impose, he went\nforward carrying with him his assistants and subordinates in a current of\nhigh thought, pure aspiration, and unqualified devotion.\nUnder the dominion of such a spirit, the office had little of the character\nof a member in a bureaucracy, but was more a friendly fireside or a friendly\nbeacon light. How much that unusual character in this government office\nhas meant for the humanizing, and enlightening of American education, I\nwill not undertake to say. And there are many here, who having felt the\npower of that kindly influence will understand the meaning of all that I leave\nunsaid, tho it has gone too deeply into their lives to be brought forth in words.\nWithin the Bureau, everyone felt that power, down to the humblest laborer\nat four hundred dollars a year. Some, overborne by so dominant a personality, found as it were a refuge in routine. Some found their cup brimming\nover and drank deeply of those things of the spirit which had been given into\ntheir lives. All I think, with hardly an exception, came to an admiring devotion toward their great leader and friend.\nHow unconventional and non-political was his attitude, appeared at the\nvery beginning. He often told the story of his appointment to the office.\nIt was brought about thru the influence of prominent members of this Department of Superintendence, who laid their recommendations directly before\nPresident Harrison. But Dr. Harris did not conceal the fact that in the\npresidential election he had voted for Mr. Cleveland.\nPresident Harrison\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM—WILLIAM\n\nTORREY\n\nHARRIS\n\n197\n\nrefused to consider this an objection, and the appointment was duly made.\nFour years later, the commissioner's estimate of President Harrison having\nchanged, he once more voted for the re-election of the occupant of the White\nHouse. But with the defeat of President Harrison, President Cleveland in\nhis turn refused to consider the commissioner's politics, and Dr. Harris was\nreappointed.\nThe office has never been \"in politics\" from that day to this.\nIt was during this second Cleveland administration that Dr. Harris again\nbade defiance to precedent by resisting an attempt at an increase of his salary.\nGovernor Hoke Smith, who was then Secretary of the Interior, tells the story\nwith humorous appreciation. Dr. Harris, as he recalls the occurrence, came\nto him in real perturbation on learning that the secretary was about to recommend the increase. There was expostulation on the one side and insistence\non the other, but in the end Dr. Harris had his way, and Congress was not\nasked to make the advance. It would be difficult to parallel this instance in\nthe history of the federal government.\nAside from his large correspondence and personal relations with educational\nleaders everywhere, the main work of the great commissioner was largely\nembodied in his annual reports. These reports commanded marked attention\nall over the world. The statistical portions were enlarged and improved.\nChapters on a great variety of educational topics were included, sometimes\neven fairly extensive monographs. Especial interest centered in the commissioner's introductions, which presented a survey and discussion of the\nchief educational movements of the time. The increase in the bulk of these\nreports is indicated by the fact that while that issued in 1890, Dr. Harris' first\nyear in office, cost for printing and binding less than $16,000, that issued\nin the year 1906, his last year as commissioner, cost $34,000. The staff\nof the office in the meantime had grown but slowly, the expenditure for\nsalaries having risen from $45,420 in 1890 to $54,940 for the year 1907.\nThe difficulty of securing an adequate staff of assistants weighed on the commissioner's spirit. But it was his conviction that this was a matter in which\nCongress must decide, and not one in which he could with propriety urge\nCongressional action. In spite of the small appropriations, a number of\ncompetent specialists and clerks were at ail times attached to the office.\nThe Alaskan work had been committed to the Bureau before the time of\nDr. Harris' administration, but it was during his term that the reindeer enterprise was launched. He was deeply interested in this undertaking. In his\nthought it related itself to the whole doctrine and method of civilization.\nAccordingly he not only gave his support to Sheldon Jackson in the beginnings\nof the experiment, but he brooded over it and planned its adjustment to the\nlife of the Alaskan natives as it was at that time. I have said elsewhere that\nthe reindeer enterprise seems to me one of the most significant and suggestive\neducational experiments of recent times. How much of its success is due\nto the restless, indefatigable initiative of Dr. Jackson and how much to the\ndeliberate reflection and planning of Dr. Harris, it would be difficult to say;\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "igS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nbut the two men worked upon it together, and doubtless both contributed\nlargely to the outcome.\nThe difficulties of the Alaskan situation, after pioneering methods had\ndone their first, great work and before a more systematic procedure could be\ncarried into effect, wore upon Dr. Harris in the later months of his administration. He said to me, ''I have been working, at Alaska with both hands and\ntrying to do the rest of the work of the Bureau with my little finger.\" While\nit was hard to put aside an occupation which had brought him honor and happy\nassociations and to which he had given some of the best effort of his life, there\ncame to him undoubtedly a great relief when he accepted the retiring allowance granted, with every expression of appreciation and esteem, by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Another year in the\nBureau of Education, as he confidently declared, would have cost him his life.\nHe was ready with every kind of assistance and support for his successor\nin office, whose appointment he had himself recommended. But he showed\nextreme delicacy, such as I have never seen surpassed, as regards the offering\nof any advice which he feared might prove embarrassing. I may not find\na better opportunity of expressing my deep sense of gratitude for such\nunmeasured consideration shown to the younger man who followed him. I\neven feared that I might at times miss some word of counsel or warning where\nit might be needed, because of his unwillingness to seem, in the slightest\ndegree, to dictate the policy of the office from which he had withdrawn. At\nthe same time, he did communicate freely such ideas as he entertained regarding persons and plans, whenever his advice was asked. And when new undertakings were entered upon which he had held in earlier years to be inadvisable\nor impracticable, he was not slow to give them his outspoken indorsement.\nThere are many aspects of his work as commissioner which cannot be\ntouched in this brief paper, and some of them of great significance. Neither\nhas it been possible to speak of the services, outside of his official duties,\nwhich he performed in the years of his commissionership. I have only mentioned afew things, here and there, in the great work of a greater personality,\na personality indeed of oceanic vastness, which overflowed all common metes\nand bounds. But these few words are a tribute of filial affection. They are\noffered to the memory of one whose influences and tradition will, I believe,\nforever be the brightest and most precious possession of our federal Office of\nEducation.\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTOPIC:\n\nSPECIALIZATION\n\nCHILDREN\n\n/. DANGERS\nW.\n\nE.\n\nPRIOR\n\nTO HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nDIFFER IN MENTAL\nAND TENDENCIES\n\nAGE\n\nATTITUDES,\n\nAND ADVANTAGES OF SPECIALIZATION\nTO THE HIGH-SCHOOL AGE\n\nSTRIPLIN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nGADSDEN,\n\n199\n\nTASTES\nPRIOR\nALA.\n\nA thoughtful student of children is forced to the conclusion that they differ\nin mental attitudes, tastes, and tendencies. This being true, if we meant what\nwas declared in the principles laid down at the last National Education Association, ''that we believe in equal educational opportunity for every child,\" we\nmust arouse ourselves to the very great responsibility of making our teaching,\ncourses of study, and schools meet and solve in a helpful way these differences.\nWhen we consider the fact that the highest percentage of elimination by\ngrades is from sixth to seventh to eighth and totals 14 per cent., we would\nbe criminally negligent were we to fail to look for the causes and strive hard\nto apply sure and swift remedies. Think of only one-third who enter school\nfinishing the elementary school of seven grades or more; the median of the\nlast grammar grade, seventh, eighth, or ninth, being 38.5 per cent. Of\ncourse we all realize the very great importance of giving sufficient cultural\ninformation on which to build well-rounded symmetrical characters before\nspecialization begins. We can but recognize also that while children are\nyoung there is much weight in the argument that they will get more systematic\nand hence stronger training by being taught by a single teacher than by more\nin the departmental plan. But the single teacher to the grade plan is in existence today in a vast majority of the strong school systems and it was in\nexistence when the above-stated statistics were collated.\nDo you not agree that our duty is to select a means whereby the existing\nshortcomings of our schools will be eliminated ? Are the parents of the children intrusted to our care going to be satisfied much longer ? Will business\nmen continue to back us and support our measures heartily unless we rise to\nthe full height of educational leadership and show that we understand our\nbusiness by putting a stop to this waste and elimination and by showing that\nevery cent in every dollar invested in maintaining educational systems is\nbeing used in the very best way possible by educational experts who do only\nthe very best work at all times ?\nI am firmly convinced that we need some specialization, beginning at\nleast by the time children are through the sixth grade, that will rivet the\nattention and interest of many who leave off school work and begin to battle\nwith life's problems about that time. We all know that no one teacher can\nteach all the branches so as to secure the very finest results in each. Many\nstrong teachers in arithmetic fail miserably when they attempt to present\ngeography, history, or grammar. This being true, why not get the strongest\nteachers of the various branches and thus give them an opportunity of special-\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nizing so that they may become expert in the presentation of one or two subjects,\nrather than stay mediocre in presenting all.\nIn this electric age, an age of practical things and measures, there comes\na demand to the public schools for a more practical turn in educational\nendeavor. We cannot clear our skirts by meeting the demand in a general\nway. We must plan so as to equip, if possible, for better citizenship every\npupil intrusted to us for training. With the strongest and most skilled teachers\nin charge of the various subjects in the upper grammar grades, the subjectmatter will be made so attractive and will appear so essential that many will\nbe held for a longer term of years in school, thus increasing their earning\ncapacity and in the end adding to the wealth of the communities where they\nare to live and work.\nIt may cost some more to have the departmental plan in the upper grammar\ngrades, but it also costs more to run high schools; yet we cannot fail to realize\nthe very great benefit of specialization in high-school teaching. If by carrying\nthe plan down to the sixth grade we can hold a fair percentage of those who\nare now dropping out at or about that stage, would it not be money judiciously\nspent in any community ? It seems to me from the investigations made that\nthe advantages, to the pupils of varying mental attitudes, tastes, and tendencies,\nin the expert, artistic, high-class teaching that is secured by the departmental\nplan, far outweigh the disadvantages. If the town or city is too small to\nfurnish a sufficient number in the two upper grammar grades to require a\nteacher for each subject, let one teacher take two or more subjects, and she\ncan then do better work than with all.\nThe second kind of specialization that I want to call your attention to for\nthe benefit of twelve- to fourteen-year-old pupils has to do with the superintendent's, the principal's, the teacher's work outside of the schoolroom. I\nam convinced that far too many feel that they have discharged their school\nduties in a perfectly faithful and conscientious way when the school hours\nare ended each day and the book instruction has been given. Those who\nfeel thus either fail to recognize the differences in children or do not feel that\ntheir responsibility is great enough to drive them to the point of trying to reach\nthose hardest to reach. Sometimes the very finest work for the child can be\ndone with the parent. Some special work in securing the co-operation of\nparents is absolutely necessary in almost every school and many times during\neach school year. Sometimes a child's attitude toward a study or studies is\nnot his own, but merely reflects his parents' opinion and estimate. And will\nthe most indifferent superintendent or principal say for one minute that his\nduty is not to convert that parent to the correct attitude and thus save the\nchild to a longer school life ?\nTime cannot be spent to better advantage than in working after and securing the co-operation of home influences in our school work. Much of this\nspecial work can be done by the superintendent by a wise and tactful use of\nthe newspapers in making appeals to parents for a united effort of every\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nSPECIALIZATION\n\nPRIOR\n\nTO HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nAGE\n\n20I\n\nelement constituting the school community, and convincing them of the\ncorrectness and helpfulness of any innovations. He may have to send a\ncircular letter to all parents on some occasions. He will have to go in person\na few times or in some way get parents to come to him. Whatever effort is\nnecessary should be put forth enthusiastically and gladly, for in so doing some\npupils will be held in school and the sweet realization that comes from duty\nwell done will more than compensate for the sacrifices made.\nStrong expert teaching will not wholly eliminate the dropping-out process;\nthere must be a specialization brought to bear that will reach the home and\nbring it into a helping relation; that will make it the strong right arm of the\nschool, if you please.\nOne main cause of elimination is incapacity for, and lack of interest in,\nthe sort of intellectual work demanded by present courses of study. The\npendulum has swung too far and the courses of study do not meet the presentday demands. Colleges dictate entirely too much in reference to high-school\ncourses; this causes the high schools to dictate in a large measure the curriculum of the grammar grades.\nI fear we are prone to lose sight of the fact that a large majority go into the\nvarious walks of life from the elementary schools and that they, constituting\nsuch a large part of the school population, should have some attention, at\nleast in the matter of electives and specializations. Do not misunderstand\nme; I would not for a moment argue against college attendance nor even\nagainst the lower schools encouraging pupils to aspire to and try to take higher\ntraining. I am perfectly willing for teachers to create a vision that will cause\nmany of their pupils to become ambitious enough to take university training,\nbut at the same time, I would have the courses of study arranged so as to give\njust as much inspiration and just as many practical helps as possible to\nthe boy or girl who cannot even hope to graduate from the high school. Let\nus not force them from our schools at this early age with but little knowledge\nand with no tools to work with in securing more; no desire, if you please, that\nwould keep them climbing toward higher heights and to richer and fuller lives.\nSome will say that it is too expensive to have electives to suit the tastes of\nthose pupils who expect to drop out and not finish a high-school or college\ncourse, but I would have them remember that this is the larger class and they\nhave a right to be considered; and justice demands that we meet their desires\nin a way that will enrich their lives and make them better able to cope with\nthe difficulties of life and be a blessing to the communities in which they are\nto live.\nThe courses of study for this class will necessarily vary and will have to\ndepend on local conditions. The occupations of the locality would be very\nlargely a determining factor. I am of the opinion that but few studies, as our\ncourses now stand, would have to be excluded, but a very large elimination of\nsubjects and subject-matter, as now presented in our textbooks, would of\nnecessity take place.\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nI cannot enumerate all, but in arithmetic, for instance, only the practical\nparts that could be applied to use in the various vocations in the different\nlocalities would be used. By use of local applications, the various principles\nwould be grasped in a shorter time and much less work would have to be\ngiven under each head. Many of the tables in compound numbers, cube\nroot, and other topics of no more directly practical nature could be omitted\nalfogether. The same process of elimination should be applied to other subjects. Iam firmly convinced that much constructive work should form an\nimportant part in every course. The amount and nature would have to\ndepend upon the local conditions.\nThe last form of specialization toward which I would direct your minds\nis made necessary from the fact that the largest elimination is from force of\ncircumstances. A living must be provided for the family. This is a condition that is growing on account of increased competition and cost of necessities.\nWhy not arrange a course of study to extend over three years that can be\ncovered by classes working one-half day at a time ? The teachers in the upper\ngrammar-school grades and the teachers of the high school could take these\nclasses and give the same work in the morning and in the afternoon, but to a\ndifferent set of pupils. This plan would enable a large class of hoys especially\nto work one half the day and attend school the other half.\nHere again the question of expense would arise, but the question of justice\nto a large number would arise at the same time. I am of the opinion that\nthis short course would hold many who really want to finish but cannot work\nup the courage or spare the time to take a full high-school course as now constituted. Many after taking this three years' course would become ambitious\nto take still more training and might be encouraged to finish at college or the\nuniversity.\nArranging for the two shifts of pupils for the half-day classes, and especially\nhelping to secure half-day jobs, will require much extra labor; but by seeing\nthe merchants, the lawyers, the doctors, the manufacturers, and securing their\nco-operation in the name of humanity and better citizenship, the plan can be\nmade a success. I believe this method can be worked even in small cities and\ntowns, for it could be started to advantage with a class of twenty, ten in the\nmorning and ten in the afternoon. It seems to me that this would be easier\nand more practicable and less expensive than the every-other-week plan.\nA special course extending over three years, beginning with the seventh\ngrade, should be arranged for pupils who are going to be compelled to\nbegin as bread-winners at or near the age of fifteen. To hold pupils for\nthis course, specialization will have to be resorted to and a close connection\nbetween it and actual life be made very evident. Even in this short course,\nthere should be some electives. One division would satisfy those inclined to\nbusiness, another branch those of a mechanical bent. One of the important\nthings to study in each course would be the manufactories and various industries and callings in the local community.\nSome will argue that there will be\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nELECT\n\nIVES\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n203\n\nno end to courses until each individual is reached and held in school and\nprepared; but a few electives, determined by the locality and industries,\nwill reach a very large majority, and the fact that many will in this way be\nheld for a longer school term will be felt in the future in an elevated citizenship,\nand we will then feel amply repaid for our extra work in having built up a\nschool for the benefit of all the boys and girls. Let us fail and we will be pointed\nto by future generations as people who played at furnishing equal school\nopportunity for all.\nThe laggard, the exceptionally bright, the careless and indifferent, the\ndissatisfied, the normal child, and the one who must earn a living — all should\nhave educational opportunity provided which is best suited to the direct\nneeds of each class. Let us not forget that the school exists for the child, that\nmeans each child; and the courses should be so arranged as that the very\nbest thing possible will be done for every pupil. If we attract and hold\nall of them in an interested and beneficial way that will equip them well for\nthe intelligent exercise of the complex functions of an exalted citizenship,\nthe people will be perfectly willing to invest even more money in such noble\nendeavor and for such uplifting influences.\nAs educational leaders, we must remember that a conscientious, efficient\ndischarge of our duty to the whole community demands that we plan wisely,\nin a broad way, so as to secure the very highest results to the very largest\nnumber in educational uplift. We should take this for our motto, and it\nwill cause us as superintendents to consider the differences in children and try\nhard to supply their various educational needs.\n\"May every soul that touches mine,\nBe it the slightest contact,\nGet therefrom some good,\nOne little grace, one kindly thought,\nOne aspiration yet unfelt.\nOne gleam of hope to pierce the thickening mist,\nTo make this life worth while and heaven a surer heritage.\"\n\n//.\n\nTHE\n\nJ. STANLEY\n\nI\n\nEFFECTS OF ELECTIVES\nWELFARE OF SECONDARY\nBROWN,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOP\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nUPON\nTHE FUTURE\nEDUCATION\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL, JOLIET, ILL.\n\nHorace Mann's advent in the little town of Yellow Springs, Ohio, back in\nthe fifties, and the labors of those last few years, constitute probably the initial\nstep in the formal recognition of elective studies. The great extension in\nmeaning, however, is confined to the last fifteen years in both secondary and\nhigher education.\nIn the earlier history of secondary education when schools were somewhat\nsmall and poorly equipped and when funds were more difficult to obtain than\nat present, we had the same set of studies provided for all, regardless of sex,\nprevious condition, or future employment, and we considered that we were\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nrendering the best service to all, and it is reported that there are some remote\nregions east of the Alleghenies even now where such an opinion is making a\nstruggle to survive.\nWe are gradually learning, however, that the Lord made the boy and that\nit is only man that makes the course of study and prescribes its limitations.\nWe are learning, too, that no longer can we fashion the boy, God's product,\nto the course of study, man's product, but we must fit the course of study to\nthe boy — yes, to the individual. By so doing we do recognize that boys and\ngirls differ in mental attitudes, tastes, tendencies, etc.\nNow, let me say before I proceed farther that I am not an advocate of\nunrestricted, undirected electives, and what I may say refers to electives under\nwise direction. This means that the work of finding out from earlier teachers\nthe tastes, mental attitudes, etc., must be systematically done and the findings\nthereof made the basis of assignment when the boy begins his secondaryschool work. We have all been shamefully lacking in this and have trusted\nthat somehow the boy's American spirit to go it alone might either help him\nto avoid the rocks or give him grit to endure the bruises.\nEvery large school ought to have a teacher of great wisdom, experience,\nand foresight, whose entire time should be given to directing the boy's choice\nof studies, career, higher institution to attend, etc. It is certainly true that\nthe present meager knowledge of the individual student is insufficient to justify\na selection of studies for him, or to help him determine what he is best suited\nto do in life, or at any rate to establish a goal toward which his future efforts\nare to be directed. If this goal is far away it is probable that he must have\nmore training, and if so, the type, kind, and location of some higher institution must receive attention. Many a life is lost to the nation because the\nindividual could not determine for himself what his natural endowments\nfitted him to do. Many another life is wrecked because the individual chose\nunwisely the type of higher institution best suited for him to attend. The\nwork of such a teacher is of the highest order, and certainly no one would say\nafter thoughtful consideration that such procedure interferes with the development of initiative.\nThe introduction of elective studies has been a great factor in doubling\nthe attendance at secondary schools during a period of about ten years. The\nindividual has been recognized and the greatest good to a greater number\nrealized, and as rapidly as local conditions or the need of the age demands it,\nthe high schools must offer new lines of work, broaden the opportunity for\nelections, and continue to be in reality the college of the common people.\nThe secondary school does not exist for the gratification of any man's\nambition or to exploit a theory of education. Nor does it receive support\nby the public for the sake of the development of one department, as occasionally some teacher thinks; but its prime function is to give to the youth the\ngreatest opportunity to develop. In so far as the elective system extends this\nopportunity its effect on the future welfare of secondary education is good.\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nELECTIVES\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n205\n\nIf the elective system attracts and holds thousands of youth while the older,\nnarrow, all-required-work type of courses attracted hundreds and held a\nsmaller percentage than are held at present, the elective system is making a\ngreat quantitative contribution to both the present and the future welfare of\nsecondary education.\nModernized courses of study with elective studies mean extension of\ninfluence downward and upward and must have much to do with shaping the\ngrammar-school courses of study and also the earlier years of the courses in\ncolleges and other higher institutions of learning.\nThe force of the electives and the benefit to be obtained from them are lost\nunless their number and scope are sufficiently extended and inclusive to meet\nthe needs of the boys and girls of different tastes, purposes, attitudes, etc.\nIf the evident public demand which is being met now by schools not supported\nby public taxation is to be met by high schools, the number of elective studies\nmust grow larger and must also be related to one another. The failure of\nthe public high school to meet these public demands has led to the establishing of private schools. Now any scheme which looks to the future welfare\nof secondary education must reckon with public demand. The best education the schools gave in i860 will not meet the demands of 1910.\nEach age produces its own problems differing from those of preceding\nages because the conditions under which we live are not static. These problems in education we must solve in the light of present knowledge. What\nwas highly satisfactory in the solution of educational problems a quarter of a\ncentury ago cannot with any degree of sanity be applied to present-day problems. Boys and girls enter our high schools intending to be in school for one\nyear or at most two years, and then they must go out into life and do some of\n\nI\n\nthe world's work. For such it is manifestly unfair to think we are doing the\nthe best for them to give them two years of a well-formulated four-year course.\nWe must recognize the elective system, select for them the subjects of greatest\nbenefit to them, and give them the best teaching the school affords. Let\nus call this specialization or any other name; we must give such people something which will enable them to take their part in the world's work at once\nand without the embarrassing necessity of being adjusted to conditions outside of the school or of being completely recast so as to fit the demands of real\nlife.\nIt is pre-eminently the business of the school so to keep in touch with life\nthat no adjustment will be needed, and if the student's life must practically\nbe recast before he can take his place in the world, it is the school that needs\nadjusting. I am convinced that the high school with one course made up of\nwhat we call the traditional studies will for the present do more acceptable\nteaching and produce more accurate scholars, than the new, modern courses\norganized to meet the needs of present-day life. But the appeal of the former\nis to the constantly diminishing few, the latter to the constantly increasing\nman}. If such is the effect of electives on the future general good of\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "206\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nsecondary education, there can te little chance for a controversy touching\nthe desirability of generous electives.\nAgain, judged on the basis of scholarship only, there are few in high school,\ncollege, or university possessing adequate claims. In my judgment, it is\nnot the primary purpose of any of these institutions to produce scholars, and\nif that is the purpose, failure to do so is glaringly evident. Do not understand\nme to underestimate the value of pure scholarship, because no one thinks\nmore highly of the real, true scholar than I. But of the pretenders, what\nshall we say ?\nA few years ago every high-school and college man thought he had utterly\nfailed in the performance of duty if when opportunity offered he did not say\nsomething about the yawning chasm, the great gulf between the elementary\nand high schools. Well, something has been done, and is being done, to\nbridge the chasm or narrow its bounds so that the average child of fourteen\nmay safely make the journey across and land in the high school. But now\nwe are hearing of a more serious chasm between the high-school boy and girl\nand the wide world — the big public. Now this demands consideration, and, like\nsome other great questions, I think it ought to be dealt with by its friends.\nA high-school course of study for a boy is a certain number of years of his\nlife, and ought to be so shaped that he would experience little inconvenience\nor loss of time if at any time his school life should be suddenly transferred to\nsome other life outside of school. It is a very sad comment on our courses\nof study and the instruction therein, if he must be penalized when he offers\nhimself to do some part of the world's work, and yet we know in many cases\nthis is precisely what happens. We must connect the school life more directly\nwith the life outside the school, and in making this connection there must\nbe advice and help sought from the people outside who are immediately\nconcerned with the boy who may come to them after he has spent one, two,\nor perhaps more years in high school.\nThe ironclad course of study had its place, its limitations, and it likewise\nhad its day. It was good for the few, and is yet. But this is not a sufficient\nreason to apply it to the many. We must recognize differences in mental\nattitudes, tastes, and tendencies, and in no other way can this be so well done\nas by skillful planning of such electives as will fit the needs of these people so\nunlike in mental make-up.\nThe call of the state is for a better citizenship, and to this end laws are\nenacted requiring attendance in the public schools until the age of fourteen,\nsixteen, or seventeen is reached. The financial call of the family summons\nthe boy to become a breadwinner, and now the boy is face to face with the loss\nor gain represented by those two years in high school. Does it not make for\nthe future welfare of secondary education to have directed that boy so to elect\nhis work that his earning capacity may be recognized at once, and both the\nboy and his employer be able to see at once that his earning capacity has been\nincreased because of the school training received ?\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDIFFERENT\n\nTASTES\n\nAND\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nOF PUPILS\n\n207\n\nIf this be not true in the great majority of cases, what has the boy gained\nfrom state-enforced education ? If this be not true, the boy is likely to become\na malcontent. Does it pay ? Will it ever be justifiable for the state to produce thru the agency of the public schools bodies of malcontents ?\nThe difficulty of working out a solution for this problem of making a closer,\nmore direct, more evident relation or connection between the life in high school\nand the life out of high school is far greater than bridging the chasm between\ntwo co-ordinate parts of an educational system, and no single element in our\nmodern education contributes so much toward the solution of the problem\nas does the system of elective studies along broad, comprehensive lines. In\nthe application of such a scheme we enlist as interested co-workers the men\nand women who under most circumstances have little or nothing to do with\nthe public schools except to offer some occasional adverse criticism about\nsome policy which they failed to comprehend. If by such means we secure\nan interest in educational leadership among the patrons and supporters of\nthe school, the future welfare of secondary education is assured.\nWe find that electives tend to broaden the appeal of high-school work and\nthereby greatly multiply the number entering secondary schools. This is a\ndefensible factor in the future welfare of secondary education.\nWe find again that election of studies reaches its most satisfactory result\nwhen under the careful direction of a wise counsellor, and that the work of\nsuch a teacher is a great factor in determining the efficiency of young life in\npublic service. The elective system makes such direction full of meaning.\nWe find that school life may be so related to life out of school by means\nof electives that there is little or no break in passing from one to the other,\nand that if the state insists that in the interest of good citizenship the boy should\nattend high school till sixteen or seventeen years old, the boy may insist that\nthe benefit be commensurate with the expenditure of time and effort.\nWe find that specialization may be best arranged by a careful grouping\nof elective studies for the individual whose attendance in secondary school\nmust be limited to two years. We find that old narrow courses of study whose\ncontent was well tried and appealed to a few will probably produce a higher\ngrade of scholarship for the few; but the appeal of the broader courses of\nstudy is to the many, and in time they, too, will produce a larger percentage of\nscholars.\nWe find that electives enable the public school to adopt the best new things\nintroduced and tried out by secondary schools conducted for revenue only.\nBy such means the high school is kept up to date in subject-matter and method\nof presentation.\nIn conclusion, the effect of electives on the future welfare of secondary\neducation will be to magnify the field of high-school education; keep in close\ntouch with public demands; lead the schools away from domination by any\nother institution, and relate the work of the school more immediately to life.\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "208\n\nIII.\n\nALBERT\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nDO\nPRESENT\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\nREQUIREMENTS\nSUFFICIENTLY RECOGNIZE DIFFERENT TASTES\nAND TENDENCIES OF PUPILS?\nROSS\n\nHILL,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nMISSOURI,\n\nCOLUMBIA,\n\nMO.\n\nJust how far we shall go in recognizing individuality of taste and tendency\namong high-school pupils, especially during the earlier years of the course,\nis not very easy to determine with precision and definiteness. The youth\nis more or less unstable and whimsical in his tastes then, \"he is everything\nby turns and nothing long,\" and it is one of the functions of secondary education to reveal to the pupil and to his teacher and guardian what his permanent and dominant interests are and in what direction his greatest\ncapacities for work and usefulness lie. This in itself would seem to impose\nsome restrictions on the elective system in secondary education. This was\nrecognized by the Committee of Ten of the National Education Association,\nwherein the committee advised in favor of postponing the choice between\nliterary and scientific curricula till as late as possible in the four years' course,\nsince the choice between these two roads often determines for life the youth's career.\nMoreover, they believe that it is possible to make this important decision for a boy on good\ngrounds only when he has had opportunity to exhibit his quality and discover his tastes\nby making excursions into all the principal fields of knowledge\nThe wisest teacher,\nor the most observant parent,\n\nand one might add, still less the youth himself, \"can hardly predict with confidence aboy's gift for a subject which he has never touched.\" This led the\ncommittee to suggest that during the first two years of the high-school course,\nliterary, historical, mathematical, and scientific subjects should all be properly\nrepresented. Now, we have made some progress since that committee's\nreport was published, and we would doubtless want representation for industrial and commercial work, but the essential principle involved seems equally\nvalid today.\nTo my mind there is at least one other ground for restricting the application of the elective system in secondary education. Some variety of study is\nhelpful at this stage in giving that insight into our civilization which is an\nessential element in modern culture, and some continuity o^ training is important in developing sound habits of accurate and systematic thinking that are\nessential to efficiency. Every high-school graduate should have the habits\nof thinking that make for efficiency and also be able to share in the great\naesthetical and cultural values of human life and be responsive to the demands\nthat society will make upon him. This probably led another committee of the\nNational Education Association — that on college-entrance requirements —\nto recommend the maintenance of certain constants in those requirements.\nThese constants included a certain number of units in English, foreign languages, mathematics, history, and science, and it was recommended that the\nremaining units be elective, leaving about one-half of the high-school students'\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDIFFERENT\n\nTASTES\n\nAND\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nOF\n\nPUPILS\n\n209\n\ntime to the pursuit of those studies that at the time seem best suited to their\nindividual tastes and tendencies, or seem to bear most directly upon their\nprobable future vocations. These constants were two units in English,\nfour in foreign languages, two in mathematics, one in history, and one in science,\nand the electives were to be chosen from the same general fields. Here again\nwe would probably agree today to widen the field of electives at least, and to\nbe less insistent upon the number of units required in foreign languages, but\n1 see no reason for a radical departure from the principles laid down by that\ncommittee of this Association.\nHow do present college-entrance requirements in this country compare\nwith those recommended by these committees of the National Education\nAssociation ? On the average, they follow them very closely; a small number\nof important colleges being slightly more rigid in their demands than the suggestions ofthe reports and a large number affording opportunities for greate\nflexibility than any recognized body of educators in this country has yet\nseen fit to recommend. To substantiate this statement, it is only necessary to\nexamine the catalogs of typical institutions. I begin with the oldest American\ninstitution of higher education. Harvard College.\nThe entrance requirements at Harvard are as follows: 3 years of English,\n2 years of French or German, i year of history, 2 years of algebra apd plane\ngeometry, i year of science, the remainder to be selected from a list including\nEnglish, German, French, Greek, Latin, history, mathematics, physics,\nchemistry, astronomy, geography, anatomy, botany, zoology, civil government, economics, music, drawing, manual training (including woodwork,\nblacksmithing, clipping and filing, machine-tool work). This shows that our\noldest American college has gone much farther in making entrance requirements flexible than has the National Education Association in its recommendations. Equally flexible are the requirements at Columbia, Cornell, and\nChicago. Perhaps Princeton may well be taken as typical of those colleges\nwhich quite legitimately, I think, do not feel responsible to every class of student\nbut prefer to have a select group of students and to have their degrees stand\neach for a particular type of culture. For entrance to the classical course\nat Princeton, the student must present one year in history, 3 years in English,\n3 years in Greek, 4 years in Latin, 2^ years in mathematics, 2 years in German\nor French. But anyone desiring the B.S. degree can substitute modern languages for Greek, and one desiring the engineering course need not present\nancient languages at all. Vanderbilt, a typical southern institution on a\nprivate foundation, makes requirements resembling those of Princeton, but\ndoes not insist on either Latin or Greek for entrance to the Arts course.\nThese institutions, and others like them, are among the most rigid in their\nentrance requirements, but they are what are generally known as private\ncolleges. No student is bound to attend them, and they are not strictly responsible to the general public in state or nation for service of a varied character\nsuch as can be demanded of the public institutions.\nOn the other hand,\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nwe do find among privately endowed institutions the greatest flexibility,\nthe most striking instance being that of Leland Stanford Junior University,\nwhich specifies only three years of English, leaving the remaining twelve\nunits of secondary-school work to be selected from a very wide range of elective\nstudies.\nBut after all, the state university is the most strictly American institution\nof higher education today, and holds the most intimate relation with secondary\nschools. Probably, therefore, the best field in which to seek an answer to\nour question is to be found in the entrance requirements of our state universities, as these vary chiefly in the quality and quantity of high-school work\ndemanded and not to any large degree in the proportion between constants\nand electives. I am going to treat the University of Missouri, which I know\nbest, as typical and call your attention to the following requirements for entrance\nto the College of Arts and Science: 15 units are required, including three\nyears of English, 2 years of any one foreign language (Greek, Latin, German,\nFrench, or Spanish), one year of elementary algebra and one year of plane\ngeometry, the remainder to be presented from the following list: English,\nGreek, Latin, German, French, Spanish, solid geometry, trigonometry,\nadvanced algebra, physics, chemistry, general biology, botany, zoology,\nphysical geography, commercial geography, economics, civics, history, domestic\nscience, agriculture, manual training, freehand drawing, mechanical drawing,\nand music. What other subjects should be recognized ? When I have put this\nquestion, I have thus far never received an answer, but I dare say commercial\nbranches may be pointed out as given slight recognition, inasmuch as only\ncommercial geography and economics have been suggested. My reply to\nthat is, let the high-school principals determine what is to be considered\nstandard courses for a curriculum in commerce, and there is practically no\ndoubt that the state universities will promptly recognize the work for entrance.\nThe entrance requirements of other state universities closely resemble those\nof Missouri, Wisconsin and its northern neighbors being somewhat less\nflexible, Louisiana, at the opposite end of the Mississippi Valley, being more\nso. Louisiana State University does not require any foreign language for\nentrance, and accepts as electives stenography and bookkeeping, in addition\nto those subjects usually found in the accepted lists.\nIt thus appears that the colleges and universities of the country, especially\nthe state universities, have responded to the recommendations of recognized\ncommittees of this Association, and have adapted their entrance requirements\nto the changed conditions of secondary education, and the later conceptions\nof its functions. In many instances, indeed I believe in the majority of the\nstate institutions, they have gone farther than the committee of secondaryschool studies and other similar committees of this Association could well\nhave expected, inasmuch as they have made their requirements more flexible\nthan was suggested. If they have not gone far enough, is it not time for the\nNational Education Association to appoint another committee composed of\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDIFFERENT\n\nTASTES\n\nAND\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nOF PUPILS\n\n211\n\nhigh-school and college teachers to reconsider the whole question of highschool courses and their relation to college-entrance requirements?\nBut perhaps it will be said that the content of the several units of subjectmatter needs revision. Permit me again to point out that these have all been\ndetermined by special committees of this and other associations of teachers,\nand if revision is demanded, the movement should come from the Association\ninstead of having individual members complain because the colleges describe\nthe units for admission in accordance with the recommendations of this\nand other bodies supposedly fitted to judge.\nIn the administration of college-entrance requirements, we also find- a\npossibility of doubt as to the effect of those requirements upon the individual\ntastes and tendencies of pupils and the individual conditions and needs of\nlocalities. Now I am not sufficiently familiar with the methods followed in all\nthe colleges to speak with full knowledge on this phase of the subject, but we\nare all aware of the two leading methods of administration of college-entrance\nrequirements in America. In several of the eastern institutions, students are\nadmitted on examination only, whereas thruout the entire West and almost\nuniversally in the South, the certificate of an accredited school is accepted\nin lieu of examinations. It seems to me to be evident that the latter method\nfurnishes the better means for recognizing individuality. A wise inspector of\nschools will seek to determine the quality of instruction offered in the high\nschools, and when a teacher whose work is approved testifies that John Jones\nhas satisfactorily completed a unit in American history and government, for\ninstance, the entrance committee of the university will accept that unit for\nentrance without inquiring what special topics were stressed or whether the\ncultural or vocational aim was chiefly in the mind of the teacher or pupil.\nIn the main, then, present college-entrance requirements make reasonable\nprovision for recognition of the individual tastes and tendencies of pupils, in\nform, in content, and in administration. Recent changes in them have been\nmade in line with recommendations of national or sectional associations\nof teachers, and the public institutions especially have shown a readiness to\nadapt their requirements and their work to the changing needs of the people.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. George Becht, principal of State Normal School, Clarion, Pa. — I think we are\nfairly well agreed upon the following propositions. First, that education in its earlier\nstages is very largely indeed a general preparatory function: having in view the training\nfor power, method, and skill. Second, that it is generally concerned with giving the pupil\na command of certain definite arts which he may use later for the acquisition of special\nknowledge. Third, that the course of study should be so adjusted and balanced as to\nform a fitting introduction of the child into the moral, social, and industrial activities of\nhis generation. Fourth, that the course of study as ordinarily administered does not\nsufficiently recognize individual differences in children.\nThe course of study prior to the high-school age, as ordinarily prescribed, comprises\nsuch subjects as are generally believed to give a good foundation for special education.\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[IndianapoUs\n\nThat there is much traditional matter taught cannot be denied. The course needs constantly tobe overhauled and the dead matter cast out. But that work is hardly the work\nfor children. It must be admitted that as adults we have not shown superior wisdom in\nthe construction of our courses of study. \" Compound Partnership \" was a business invention of the seventeenth century and its operation soon after was displaced by the joint-stock\nmethod of conducting business; yet in the face of this our textbooks up to a few years\nago were still giving space to the elaboration of this effete and fossilized subject.\nThe course of study constantly needs readjustment to meet new demands and new\nconditions. If we begin the work of specialization, upon what basis shall we specialize ?\nIn the elementary group of studies we find the historical sciences, natural sciences, and the\nlinguistic studies. Surely none of these can be omitted. If we will sensibly adjust our\nprograms, the work of specialization will take care of itself.\nIt is hardly necessary to argue here that specialization has a tendency toward narrowness, that invariably the specialist interprets life through his specialty. The specialist\nis of infinite value to us. He is the pioneer in most of life's activities. He has made possible the great discoveries and inventions of the age; but the masses of mankind are not\nand will not be specialists. They need a general training so that they may adjust themselves\nto life's varying and various activities. It is true there may be a certain amount of election\nand specialization in the high school, and as we pass into the college and university the\nspecialization may be made more selective; but surely the early years of a child's life are\nfor the purpose of giving him a mastery of the tools of education, the instruments by which\nhe will interpret later life, and for this he needs a broad, general, and generous foundation.\nThe peculiar danger of early specialization lies in childhood's extreme capriciousness.\nImpulses apparent for a day or two are exceedingly powerful and dominant, and then\nevaporate, leaving barely a trace. Today the boy is in a telegraph office. He becomes\ninterested in the click of the instrument, emotional enthusiasm overpowers him, and he\nwould be a telegrapher. Ten days later he has forgotten that he would be a telegrapher.\nHe stands in front of a wholesale house and watches the men loading heavy boxes, while\nthere stands a man directing and checking up the invoice. For the moment that occupation appeals to him and he would now be a bill clerk. Later he picks up a piece of lead\npipe, a brass valve, some nickel fittings, and having heard of the fabulous fortunes of the\nplumber, he would become a plumber or a junk dealer. His choice is determined by fleeting impressions; by whims and caprices of the moment. I do not minimize the value\nof these temporary interests. They may be made to serve useful ends, but in the last analysis the child needs to be put in touch with permanent interests, and these are of a later development. After all it is not the purpose of the school to develop complete little men and\nwomen. We need to make more and more of childhood's happy days instead of forcing\nthese little ones into highly specialized forms of activities. The state recognizes the fact\nthat it is necessary to protect the broader development of the individual by not allowing\nchildren to engage in certain occupations before the age of fourteen. If in this narrower\nway the state recognizes the danger of specializing a child's activities, it would seem that\nthose who control the destinies of children in the school, at a time when life is most plastic,\nshould approach this subject with an appreciation of its influences on the larger aspects of\nlife. Early specialization, that is, specialization before the high-school age, is bound to be\ndone at the expense of a well-rounded development.\nW. A. GODWARD, superintendent of schools. Devil's Lake, N. Dak. — That children\ndiffer in kind and range of capabilities is well known. That education should vary to\naccommodate these differences is well established, both in theory and in fact. But that\nthese variations in education should all aim at retaining or differentiating these initial\nindividual differences is by no means true. Mere variation may mean something or nothing in the individual. Nature is reckless, prodigal, in her variations. She appears to\ncare nothing for waste nor for individual destructive elimination.\nShe aims at a type.\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDIFFERENT\n\nTASTES\n\nAND\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nOF PUPILS\n\n213\n\nEducation, too, must aim at this same type; but the whole theory of education, unless it\nis wrong, aims not only at the desirable types but has as its secondary aim the preservation\nof the individual. In the process of performing this double function, it is quite as often\nthe aim of education to equalize these natural variations as to differentiate them. In fact\nthere are whole fields of human interest and education in which not differentiation but\nuniversality, both of idea and of habit, is the aim. Such are the whole fields of ethical,\nreligious, and civic culture, in which the chief danger is not uniformity but variation. In\nfact the very nature of this kind of culture is universality.\nThe fact of variation in the individual does not in every case call for specialization. It\nmay call for equalization, or for elimination. It is only when society demands a differentiation inultimate function that that kind of differentiating education known as specialization is warranted at all, and then it must not be indulged in indiscriminately. The\nspecialization must be subject to the law of growth of the child and the complete demands\nof society and must take into account the individual variations.\nIn what fields of education do we find the social demand for variation in the final\nproduct ? We have said that this result is not desired in ethical, religious, or civic training.\nWith one exception it is as little desirable in physical. This exception is the demand for\ndifferent physical powers and qualities with reference to sex. This variation is in little\ndanger of abuse and the advantages are obvious. In the field of the aesthetic, we find\nwide variations in the children, and beyond the common standard of good taste and expression, we find a wide range of variation recognized if not demanded by society. In the field\nof art, of course, these variations both in demand and in capability warrant specialization;\nbut this specializing must be subject to the limits just mentioned, the laws of the child's\ngrowth and the complete requirements of society. The fact that the aesthetic powers\ndevelop at an early age will throw this limited amount of specialization into the elementary\nperiod.\nBut it is not in the realm of ethical, or religious, or civic, or physical, or aesthetic culture that there has been made the most insistent or the most boisterous demand for specialization, but naturally enough, this demand has come in the field of vocational education.\nNor are the demands, on the whole, irrational. They are fully warranted by the variations\nin ultimate social demands. But because these demands for vocational education should\nbe satisfied, and will be satisfied before long, not only in a general way but in a special way,\nit by no means follows that this specializing should be done in the elementary period.\nBy the laws of growth of the child and the complete requirements of society special vocational training should be almost wholly excluded from this period. In the elementary\nperiod specialization in vocational education with reference to sex is certainly valid, elementary variation in vocational knowledge, power, and skill is, of course, desirable, but\nthe variation is rather in the direction of degree of these elementary powers than in the\ndirection of kind for it is obvious that variation witli reference to kind of knowledge, power,\nor skill involves a selection of vocation which at this early period cannot be without serious\ndanger of error. The explicit objections to vocational specialization, farther than we have\nindicated, are as follows: 'Neither body nor mind of the child is ready for industrial exactions at this early period. There are other social demands of greater value which must not\nbe neglected. The child has not reached a period of maturity in which it is safe to select\nhis life-work. Narrow specialization in early youth will be more likely to limit than to\nenlarge the individual power, even in his specialization. There is a better period in which\nthis work can be done, and it is simply a matter of better labor laws and better compulsoryschool-attendance laws, and their wise enforcement, to retain children in school until they\nhave attained any desirable degree of social efficiency. If high levels of manhood and\nwomanhood and society are to be reached the movement must be rather away from specialization in the elementary periods except in those cases where the variations develop early,\nwhere the variation is demanded by society, and in which the specialization will not interrupt the acquiring of the complete social culture which will fit the individual for his whole\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nsphere of life. As we have seen, the only kinds of specialization which comply with these\ntests in the elementary period are physical specialization with reference to sex, vocational\nculture with reference to sex, and a limited amount of aesthetic culture with reference to the\nindividual. Farther than this, variations in education are aimed either to equalize the\nindividual differences to the social requirements of universality or are elementary variations\naiming to lay a general foundation for the several lines of narrower specialization later on\nin the course.\nIt must be remembered, finally, that education is not a closed science — not even an\nexact science. Educational aims more than those of any other science or profession must\nacknowledge the fact that they are approximations, but below these approximations after\nall lie the great general principles which point the direction of truth, and in accordance with\nwhich all such questions as specialization must be relatively determined. These principles\nare the ultimate social demands as to variation or unity of function, the initial variations\nof the individual, and the laws of individual growth, none of which can be ignored with\nimpunity.\n\nTOPIC:\n\nCHILDREN\n\nTHOMAS\n\nF.\n\n/.\n\nDIFFER\n\nHEALTH\n\nHARRINGTON,\nPUBLIC\n\nAND\n\nIN PHYSICAL\n\nCONDITION\n\nEDUCATION\n\nM.D.,\nDIRECTOR\nSCHOOLS, BOSTON,\n\nOF\nSCHOOL\nMASS.\n\nHYGIENE,\n\nThe health problems in education are many; nevertheless, when we\nanalyze them, we find that the overheating and the poor ventilation, the\nimproper lighting and the misfit furniture, as well as the poorly nourished and\nthe mentally retarded, the physically unfit and nervously unstable, the neglect\nof exercise and the abuse of athletics, separately and combined, become\nimportant only so far as each affects the working capacity of the individual or\ngroup of individuals. In other words, the efficiency of the work performed is\nthe measure of the importance of each of these factors in the so-called '* school\ndiseases.\"\nWork, therefore, is the criterion of education as it is of health.\nAn important factor in all work, whether mental or physical, is that each\nindividual has his biological limit, dependent upon race or family characteristic. Few probably ever reach their limitations, so wisely has Providence\nplaced the margin of safety by its duplication of organs and by its superabundance offluids and tissues; nevertheless, the unmistakable lesson of\nall nature is that the highest development and the soundest health lie in the\nknowledge of how much the brain and the muscles, or either, may be stimulated\nto activity without injury and within its own limits, rather than in the striving\nto develop either brain or muscles so as to reach a fixed standard within a\nspecified time. Here lies the keystone of a rational educational system.\nIn children there is imminent danger of overpressure, because here the\ndanger signal of overwork — fatigue — is not so likely to be noticed. On the\ncontrary, the toxic effect of overwork is usually irritability, and this excitation\nis often mistaken for brightness and zeal and is encouraged and fostered.\nFor this the schools have been censured greatly.\nThe greatest hope of establishing a national understanding of a healthy\nway of life, as well as the most hopeful point of attack of present-day evils, is\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n21 5\n\nunquestionably in the schools. Here, beginning in the earliest years of life,\nthe inculcation of the simple rules of health and the practicing of the principles ofcleanliness, fresh air, and work for five hours in the day must make for\nhealth, happiness, and righteousness to a degree not possessed by an> other\nmeans.\nWithout debating, therefore, whether or not it is the particular duty of\nthe school authorities to safeguard the health of those whom it compels to\ncome to its buildings, we can agree that it goes without saying that the conditions and the circumstances surrounding the child while under instruction\nshould be wholesome; and secondly, that it is to the interest of the school, as\nwell as to that of the scholars, to supplement the function and the authority\nof the home in so far as the requirements of each child make necessary. In\nno case is there any need or justification for the school to usurp the duty of\nparent or home. This is the principle upon which the health work in the\nBoston schools has been built. A brief reference to some of the problems common to the school communities and to the manner in which relief measures\nwere carried out will illustrate its value.\nHEATING\n\nAND\n\nVENTILATION\n\nThere is no factor more important to the health and efficiency of pupils\nand teachers than the proper temperature of the room and the constant supply\nof proper fresh air. This is particularly true in school life because at no other\ntime in life are children confined in such large numbers together for five\nhours a day. The very activity of their growth precludes the necessity for^\nextra warmth, while the nature of the growth calls for a maximum of oxygen.\nThis is too often overlooked and adults in attendance regulate the room temperature in accordance with adult sensations. The great evil, however,\nlies in the adoption of systems of heating and ventilation which depend either\nupon constant automatic perfection in the control mechanism, or upon a\nsupervision far too expensive for constant efficiency. Much ill health and\neducational waste depend upon this factor of temperature and ventilation.\nThe evil is equally active in homes and workshops. All investigations show\na direct relationship between anaemia, nervousness, headaches, and recurrent\n*' colds\" and overheated or baked devitalized room atmosphere. The association of anaemia with high temperature is shown by the table on following\npage.\nIn 3,009 cases of anaemia, 2,377 were in rooms where the temperature was\n69° and over; 321 cases occurred in rooms with a temperature of 68°, while\nonly 235 cases occurred in rooms between 64 and 67° F. inclusive. From the\ndata at hand, a room of not more than 67° F. is unquestionably the best for\nhealth and efficiency. In our investigations we found fully as many cases of\nill health in buildings equipped with modern plenum systems as we did in\nbuildings heated by direct radiation. The argument against opening the windows for purposes of ventilation has been that the draught thus created gives\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n2I(\n\nEDUCATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nOF ROOMS IN THE DIFFERENT\nOF ANEMIC CHILDREN\n\n\"s\n\nRELATION OF THE TEMPERATURE\nGRADES TO THE NUMBER\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n19\nGrades\nTemperature\n\n15\n\n15\n\nr6\nCQ\n\n...\n\n60\n61\n62\n\n. .\n\n6k\n\n7\n\n66\n67\n68\n\n13\n\n65\n\n6\n45\n55\n\n81 14\n\n74.\n7c\n\n79\n5\n\n78\n70\n\n6\n\n63 4\n\n. 65\n\n16\n\n5\n\n3\n\n2\n\n2\n\n64\n\n23\n\n44\n\n••\n\n4\n8\n\nII\n\n13\n\n100\n\n18\n\nI\n\n78 57\n\n4\n5\n\n2\n\n6\n\n80\n\n95\n47\n2\n\n2\n\n3\n\n9\n7\n\n14\n\n35\n\n82\n\n59\n6\n6\n\n10\n2\n\n21\n\n4\n4\n10\n\nI\n\n4\n\n5\n\n4\n\nI\n\n3\n\n6\n30\n\n56\n\n••\n\n493\n509\n\n434\n58\n\n72\n\n4\n\n39\n\n18\n\n22\n\n34\n54\n\n26\n\n105\n\n39\n\n43\n81\n26\n\n101\n\n66s\n\n3\n\n2\n\n21\n\nI\n\n494\n\n2\n\n37\n\n20\n\n29\n\n33\n\n18\n\n5\n6\n\n127\n\n14\n\n19\n\nII\n\n106\n\nTotal\n\nVIII\n\n4\n\n2\n\n132\n.6\n\n71\n72\n72\n\n.■■\n\nVII 29\n\nI\n\n69\n\n76\n\nVI\n\nV15\n\n17 4\n\n13\n\n18\n\n. .\n\n6^\n64\n\n77\n\nIV\n\n\"s\n\nIII\n\nII\n\nI\n\n221\n\nI\n\n266\n108\n\n476\n75\n6\n\n2342\n5\n\n10\n4018\n\n7\n\n321\n\n90\n172\n3,009\n51\n\n78\n\n30\n\nchildren fresh \"colds\" or that the plenum system is deranged by such opening.\n352 the establishment of periods of physical\nThe remedy found effective was\nexercises at a fixed time in each session during which321 windows thruout the\nbuildings were thrown open, top and bottom. By this arrangement the\njanitor was able to regulate the extra requirements put upon the heating and\nventilating system by means of the open windows. This relief measure in\nthe elementary grades is in addition to the regular recess airing during which\nthe same process is repeated. Organized recess games and plays by grades\nhave been found a most effective means to insure each child an opportunity\nto participate in outdoor recreation. The teachers go into the yards with the\nchildren and lead the games, thus partaking of a preventive measure which\nso many teachers have neglected.\nIn the high schools, a ten-minute setting-up drill in the middle of the session\noffers the opportunity for a similar arrangement. This drill is given by\nroom captains, boys and girls, in whatever room or laboratory the daily program brings the classes at the appointed time each day, usually between the\nsecond and third periods. The reports have been uniformly favorable to\nthis method. It has had the effect of emphasizing the importance of fresh\nair and deep breathing; the thermometers are watched closely by pupils and\nthe temperature record kept for public scrutiny.\nThe number of illnesses\n\n36\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n21 7\n\nand the days of absence have decreased markedly and a mental alertness\nis more manifest. In the high schools the time for this drill has so shortened\nthe periods of interchange of classes that loitering in corridors and studyrooms has disappeared wholly. The whole scheme has been a most effective\npreventive measure in combating disease without overemphasizing to children\nthe fear of any one particular disease. It gives the child an opportunity to\nbuild up a constitution in which the ubiquitous germs can be successfully\ncombated.\nThe following experiments illustrate the possibilities of employing the\nprinciple of fresh-air schools for those physically unfit to bear the enervating\ninfluence of crowded classrooms. Eighteen pupils, whose frequent absence\non account of ill health made school life unprofitable, were assigned to an\noutdoor class in the school-yard where movable seats and desks were arranged\nupon platforms. The regular work of an ungraded class was carried out.\nEach child was given an opportunity to procure a luncheon at a very low\ncost at each session.\nThe total gain in weight for the class was eighty-one pounds, the lowest\ngain being one pound and the greatest ten pounds. The average gain for the\nclass was 4I pounds. The number of sessions of absence for these children\nwas reduced from 583 in the previous three months to 39 during the outdoor\nsessions.\nAnother experiment, but dealing with purely tuberculous children, shows\nmore strikingly the association of fresh air and health. A class of twenty\ntuberculous children was assigned to the roof of one of the buildings of a\npublic park. Regular ungraded school work was carried out. The children\ndid not go home at noon but had luncheon served, at a nominal cost to them,\nat the school. Periods of rest were enjoined and sleep in storm-bags and\nblankets encouraged during the after-luncheon period at noon. During the\nyear 1 908-1 909, fifty-seven pupils were assigned to this class, each new pupil\ntaking the vacancy occasioned by the transfer of a cured case back to the\nregular grade. Thirty of the fifty-seven were discharged as cured and returned\nto the regular class without loss of academic standing; three were promoted\nbeyond their former classmates. Each cured case has been examined every\ntwo weeks since and none has shown a return of the tubercle bacilli nor a\nfailure to progress in weight. This hospital school has today seventy-six\npupils and is under the immediate jurisdiction of the Boston Consumptives'\nHospital Trustees, an arrangement which permits of feeding and stormclothing without the intervention of school or private charity.\nThese two experiments have resulted in a wider health measure. In\nDecember, 1909, the superintendent requested each grade teacher and school\nnurse to select from the pupils in their rooms all those considered to be suffering from anaemia, chorea (St. Vitus' Dance), palpable glandular enlargement,\nand those who are relatively undersized or who had returned to school after\na recent illness. All these pupils were then referred to the medical inspectors\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n2l8\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\n27\n29\n\nfor an opinion as to the advisability of placing them in open-air classes.\nresults of this survey by grades is as follows :\n6\n\n90,000 9\n5,043 (5 .6 per cent.)\n\nTotal number of pupils inspected\n67\nTotal number selected by teachers and nurses\nTotal number approved by medical\ninspectors\nfor\n63\n89\nfresh-air classes\n127\n\nAnaemic\nChoreic\nGlandular. . .\nUndersize . . .\nRecently ill. .\n\ngraded\nUn-\n\nIII\n\nIV\n\nV\nVI\n\n68\n550\n\n43\nVII\n\n470\n82\n\n150\n40\n\n39\n60\n\n264\n170\n\n33\n\n12\n\n59\n\n39\n\n745\n496\n587 381\n\n281\n\n438\n652\n\n517\n\n3,298\n\n33\n\n5,043\n\n389\n34\n\n74\n\n40\n\nTotal\n\n334\n\n61\n55\n\n81\n\nVIII\n\n246\n\n35\n\n817\n\n21\n\n9\n\nII\n\nI\n\n86\n5\n8\n\n5\n\n190\n\n4,489 (4-98 per cent.)\n\n17\n\nKindergarten\n\nThe\n\n0\nReduced to percentages, this means that 4out\nof the 5,043 or 5.6 per cent,\n32 in ill health, more than 65 per cent, were suffering from\n430\nwho were thought to be\n14\n30\nanaemia, 10 per cent, from glandular79362 enlargement, 10 per cent, 42had been ill 516\n51\n518\nrecently, 8 . 5 per cent, were undersized, 14and 5 . 5 per cent, were choreic.\nThe illness by grades was as follows:\n52\n\n50\n\nIV\n\nKgn.\n\nPercentage of total\nillness\n\nI\n\nII\n\nIII\n\nVI\nVII\n\nVIII\n\n7\n\n5\n\n12\n\n16\n2\n\nV\n\nII\n\n10\n\nEach of the 5,043 pupils selected by the teachers and nurses was followed\nto the home by the school nurse with the object of learning any probable home\ncauses for the ill health. The findings are important because they present\nthe actual conditions as observed by the school nurses who, from frequent\nvisits to the homes and from their personal knowledge of all the factors, were\nable to estimate rightly the findings and the conditions in each case. This is\nfar different from drawing conclusions from answers received from direct\nquestioning of parents and children when the respective school neighborhoods\nknow that an investigation is on foot.\nThe thirty-four school nurses of the Department of School Hygiene had\nvisited 22,292 homes of school children during the year prior to this special\ninvestigation; they had taken, by the request of the parent or guardian in\nevery case, over 2,500 children to dentists and over 9,000 children to the hospitals; they had referred 7,500 children to the family physicians, and in many\ncases when the mother was unable to make the visit with the child, the nurse\nfulfilled the duty. In addition to this co-operation with the homes and parents,\nthe school nurses had rendered over 36,000 dressings for affections among pupils\nreferred to them by the school physicians; and had secured the correction of\n3,377 cases of defective vision and 848 cases of defective hearing. All this\nco-operation has resulted without one complaint of interference, usurpation,\n\n23\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nH^\n\nor weakening in any manner the unity and the sanctity of the home. I\nemphasize this fact not so much to strengthen the report of the nurses as to\nbring out clearly the degree to which co-operation of the school with the home\nis possible, and more especially to check, if possible, the growing tendency\ntoday to acknowledge that the home life has disappeared. In Boston, at\nleast, such a condition of society does not exist.\nAmong the 5,043 children selected as probably ill, the nurses' reports show\nthat 3,531 came from homes classified as ''good,\" while 1,512 came from\nhomes classified as ''poor,\" or 70 per cent, and 30 per cent, respectively.\nNinety per cent, of the children ill with chorea came from good homes. The\nhome factors entering into the possible causes of ill health were varied and\nmultiple. In the absence of any fixed standards, it would be unprofitable\nto enumerate those factors, other than to restate the social and economic\ncauses of ill health already given in this paper. Overcrowding, poor ventilation, lack of sufficient sleep, and indifference to ordinary laws of hygiene,\nsanitation, and feeding were very constant factors noted.\nThe result of this investigation has been that the School Committee has\nvoted to establish in certain districts one or more schoolrooms capable of\narrangement so as to offer to the class of children referred to above the advantages of the maximum of fresh air and sunshine during school hours. Ail\nnew buildings are to have rooms similarly arranged. The assignment of\nchildren to these fresh-air rooms is separate and distinct from the hospital\nclass for the tubercular. The reason for this is obvious. Genuine demonstrable tuberculosis among school children is much more rare than many\npublished reports would indicate. The anaemic, the glandular, and the\nunder-sized are included, no doubt, in many estimates of tuberculosis among\nchildren, and in all probability such children are infected, at least they are of\nthe more susceptible class; nevertheless, the association of these special rooms\nfor fresh-air classes with genuine tuberculosis would defeat greatly the object\nof the undertaking.\nOne of the constant forerunners of serious illnesses, especially the systemic\ndisturbances such as tuberculosis, diabetes, heart diseases, etc. among school\nchildren, is a failure to gain in weight or a loss in weight. Parents recognize\nthis and are always ready and eager to co-operate to bring about a gain in\nweight. In order that this co-operation may be secured easily for the welfare\nof the child, the School Committee has placed scales and measuring rods in\nthe various school districts, and teacher, nurses, and pupils are encouraged to\nmake the freest use of the same. The regular record of weight and height\nforms a part of the clinical record card kept by the school nurse. These\nscales are to be used also for a scientific investigation for a series of years,\nin order to learn the normal ratio of growth and weight of the same group of\nindividuals during schooling years. This installation of scales offers a means\nof gaining accurate data upon the perplexing problem of dealing with the\nso-called underfed school children.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nThere can be no question about two facts: first, that in every communitythere are many poorly fed children; and secondly, that the physical and the\nmental growth would be increased greatly by better methods of feeding.\nHere again we lack fixed standards, both in the nature of the food required\nand in the quantity. Fixed habits, dependent upon age, climate, racial and\nnational customs, cannot be overlooked. The demonstration and advice\nby school nurses have helped to carry into the homes the lessons along lines\nof better dietary taught the children in the schools. Demonstration classes\nin cooking and dietary are to be established for parents whose children have\nbeen selected for open-air classes. The underfeeding among children from\npoor homes is not due to neglect so much as to lack of knowledge in the homes\nand to the overburden of parents from many other duties. A great part of\nthe underfeeding among all classes is not due to poverty; neither is anaemia\nan index to nutrition. This is shown by the following data furnished by the\nschool nurses. In our investigation, 3,375, or two-thirds of the children in\nill health, had good breakfasts; 1,668, or one-third, had poor breakfasts.\nA good breakfast consisted of fruit with bread and butter or eggs and milk\nor cocoa, or cereal with milk or cream. A poor breakfast included either some\npicked-up or made-to-order food without milk and in nearly every instance tea.\nAmong the children said to have a poor breakfast, 1,155, or 69 per cent.,\ncame from good homes while 513, or 30 per cent., came from poor homes.\nFew, if any, of this latter class were without money to procure something for\nbreakfast. Too often, the money was spent for pickles or candies. By far,\nthe most common and pernicious factor in this whole problem is tea-drinking\namong children. In the form and in the quantity now indulged in by growing\nchildren, it ranks very high as a cause of much of the ill health present today.\nIts use is now so firmly fixed among all classes of school children that its\neradication will require the combined effort of every agency at our command.\nIt is a great national evil. Until information in the home is more enlightened\non the value of the most common and inexpensive articles of food, as well as\non their best preparation, it is futile and unwise to consider any general relief\nmeasures for bettering, by means of free school luncheons, those in our schools\nwho are undersized and anaemic. These last two conditions are not necessarily\nassociated always with underfeeding and poverty. The greatest good would\nresult if all school children were given an opportunity to procure, at a minimum\ncost during the daily recess, such simple articles of food as fruit, rice, puddings,\ncustards, bread and butter, cookies, prunes, apple sauce, milk, cocoa, ice\ncream, and, if possible, soups. To offer free luncheons to school children\nis evidently not the solution, as it postpones the real effective agent, namely,\nthe education and the stimulation of the home. From the data at hand,\nwe are warranted in the conclusion that there is no need for the school to\nundertake this evident duty of the home and of public relief associations.\nOne of the most effective means in impressing upon pupils and parents the\nimportance of this duty, as well as the allied health problems of cleanliness,\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "HEALTH\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nfresh air and sunshine, exercise and rest, food and drink, was the establishment of ''Health Day.\" The School Committee of Boston established such a\nday and a program was carried out in all the grades from the kindergarten to\nthe Normal School, emphasizing in each the importance of some particular\nline of health work, including demonstrations in physical exercises, games,\nand plays, as well as in home nursing, cooking, food values, and economics.\nBearing directly upon the problem of the poorly nourished and the physically illis the greater national problem of the physical status of the youth of\nour country. Data upon which to base an opinion are very meager in this\ncountry. In 1876 Dr. Bowditch made a series of measurements of Boston\nschool children. I have collected 1,418 (boys 763, girls 653) measurements of\nboys and girls born in Boston, both of whose parents were born in Boston. All\nthese children were attending in 1 900-1 909 the same schools from which Dr.\nBowditch drew his measurements. It is very probable that these two sets of\nmeasurements represent, in many instances, two generations of the same family.\nAVERAGE HEIGHT IN INCHES\nGirls\n\nBoys\nAge\n\n1876\n\n1876\n(Without Shoes)\n\n7\n8\n9\n\n10\nII\n13\n12\n\n14\n\n65\nAVERAGE\n7\n8\n9\n\n49.07\n8\n53 8453 4\n59\n\n10\nII\n1\n12 3\n14\n\n18\n\n1906\n(With Shoes)\n\n(Without Shoes)\n\n46.2\n\n49-37\n45-52\n51-34\n47-58\n\n48. .1\n50\nSI.\n55-38\n57-09\n53-6\n\n86\n\n94\n\n0\n\n64\n\n63\n\n53-42\n59-94\n58.16\n55-88\nWEIGHT IN POUNDS\n48.95\n62.35\n59-8\n47\n52.04\n68.84\n57 6\n47.46\n88.65\n57-07\n94\n5\n\n57\n\n79\nI\n\n98.43\n78.31\n\n8\n\n92\n\n1006\n(With Shoes)\n\n30\n\n2\n\n5\nTwo thousand weights7 of Boston schoolboys,\nages seven, nine, eleven,\n7692\nand thirteen years, taken at random from the data collected, show in the com-48\n70\nparison with the average weight91 of Boston schoolboys\nin 1876 the following:\n78\n97.8\n90.\n\n8\n9Weights\n\nAge Last Birthday\n\n1900-1906\n\nI X years\n\n52\n\n1876\n\n49 .07 lbs.\n59.23 lbs.\n70.18 lbs.\n84.84 lbs.\n\n48 . 2 lbs.\n70 . 0 lbs.\n57.6\n86.4\n\n70\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "222\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nThe further study of these data is being pursued and the results will be\npublished. In the meantime it can be asserted quite positively that the present\ngeneration of our school children does not appear to be deteriorating physically.\nOn the contrary, the girls are probably taller and, so far as our present data\nhave been studied, heavier than girls of corresponding ages in 1876.\nTime does not permit further consideration here of the problems of school\nfurniture, playgrounds, school athletics, or physical training — all bona fide\neducational subjects. Neither can the question of the care of the tuberculous\nnor the control of the \"carriers\" of diphtheria, which exist to the extent of\ni^ per cent, in our schools, be satisfactorily set forth in the limited time left\nat my disposal. A detailed report of each of these subjects will form a part of\nour school documents.\nThe more closely one studies the whole problem of health and education\nas applied to pedagogy, the more evident it becomes that in the near future,\nthe present system of education in this country will have to be rearranged.\nMedical science is now prepared to offer aid and advice for a healthier expansion. Many fixed traditions and cherished legacies may have to be sacrificed.\nAlready continuation schools are demonstrating the great educational, as\nwell as industrial and physical, waste of repeated, prolonged interruptions in\nserious work. With pupils thus under school supervision during the summer\nmonths, greater attention will be given to the importance of the rapid growth\nin children's height during those months. The disregard of th^'s physiologic\ndemand of nature has resulted in many nervous wrecks, and calls for a radical\ntransfer of the enervating influences of the June examinations and of the promotions inSeptember to a time in the child's seasonal growth less unstable.\nThe keynote of this convention — children differ — emphasizes the educational\nerror of fixed grading, especially in the lower grades. Recent medical discoveries suggest that the chronological age is no criterion for the continuation\nof this custom; the daily observations in school and in the physician's 'consul ting-room prove that fewer discouraged backwards, choking the progress\nof lower grades, less time for latent criminality to find its opportunity in idleness, abetter opporunity to direct rightly precocity, and the surest means of\naverting the storms of puberty would result by a freer transfer of pupils from\ngrade to grade with a suitable \"clearing-house\" check at possibly the sixthgrade age. In the attainment of some such pedagogical system lies the highest\nusefulness of the great free offerings of our public schools. The present\nunrest is propitious. In the future lie inestimable gifts awaiting the approach\nof pedagogs and physicians, education and health.\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\n//.\nD.\n\nA.\n\nCOMPETITION\n\nAND\n\nCOMPETITION\n\nSARGENT, M.D., DIRECTOR\nHARVARD\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCULTURE\n\nAND\n\n223\n\nCULTURE\n\nOF PHYSICAL\nEDUCATION,\nCAMBRIDGE,\nMASS.\n\n,\n\nNo one doubts for a moment the stimulating influence of competition\nin all lines of mental and physical activity. It matters little whether the competition isin business, education, or sport; as soon as one man or a group of\nmen is arrayed against another, all act with greater zeal and energy. The\nphilosophers tell us that the reason for this increased effort when opposed by\na rival or competitor dates back to primitive conditions in the remote past\nwhen one's life and belongings often depended upon the result of a personal\ncontest. So thoroly has the necessity for moving and doing as a basis for\nliving been ingrained into our organism that these impulses to activity have\nbecome a part of our natural inheritance. We now know that the apparently\naimless and endless motions of head, trunk, and limbs, and the grasping,\nbiting, striking, and kicking in which every infant child so constantly indulges,\nare only nature's efforts to enable him to perfect and develop his psycho-physical organism so that he may maintain a footing in the world and adapt himself\nto his environment. So soon as he has sufficiently perfected his bodily organism\nto enable him to move about and come in contact with persons and things,\na new impetus is given to his development. Then when the child's acts\nbecome purposeful and he begins to assert himself, he learns for the first time\nwhat it is to come in contact with another purposeful will, and his education for\nlife really begins. His impulse to fight, to struggle, and contend is thoroly\naroused, and thru his childhood's plays and games and his youthful sports\nhe finds numerous opportunities for testing his powers in comparison with\nothers — receives many and forcible suggestions as to the need of further adjustments of his organism to its surroundings. In a word, is not this an epitome\nof life and a simplified representation of the process of human development ?\nAll thru the ages the simple forms of life and labor have afforded ample\nopportunity for fostering the struggling and contending spirit. The oldfashioned contests in spelling and mental arithmetic and in prize speaking\nand debating afforded to the youth of a century ago a great incentive to mental\neffort, and many of the leading men of the country were trained and developed\nby this kind of stimulus. The events in which men have competed in the\npast for physical supremacy are so numerous as almost to defy enumeration,\nand some of them are so trivial as to be hardly worthy of it. Wood-chopping,\nlog-sawing, hoeing, spading, mowing, reaping, corn-husking, wool-gathering,\nand brick-making are some of the primitive industries that have often lent\nthemselves to competition, and excited the greatest interest and rivalry.\nPutting the stone, throwing the hammer, tossing the caber, and the impromptu\nboxing and wrestling matches held on the village green, \"when sleights of\nart and feats of strength went round,\" were some of our present-day athletic\nevents engaged in a hundred years ago. These rough-and-ready contests\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "224\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nin the field, on the common, in the schoolhouse, at the corner store, and at the\ncounty fair ground were about the only means afforded young men in those\ndays for \"sizing themselves up \" as it were in comparison with others, and many\nan aspiring youth has had the conceit taken out of him, and been given a new\nstart in life, by meeting a ''better man\" in these primitive struggles. Now the\nprimary object of these early contests was not to discover who was the best\nreaper, corn-husker, or wood-chopper, or even the best boxer or wrestler —\nfor after a fashion these were all common activities — but the object of the\ngreatest interest was to determine who was the ''best man.\" This term was\nin such common use in connection with all athletic contests in the past that\nit has been incorporated into the very language and literature of sport. We\nsometimes hear the term used today in connection with athletics, altho it is\nmore frequently used in referring to the best man at a wedding ceremony.\nIt is interesting to learn from Darwin that originally the best man was the\nchief abettor or muscular backer of the bridegroom in the act of capturing a\nwife, when wives were procured in that way.\nWith the division of labor and the multiplication of employments and\nindustries has also come a great increase in the number and variety of sports.\nThe eagerness and the intensity of the competition in trade and business\nhas been imparted to our sports and pastimes, and many of the questionable\nmethods pursued in the conduct of competitive games have been borrowed\nfrom the business world. The great public interest aroused in sports, thru\nthe growing need among the people for more physical vigor, has also tended\nto intensify and exaggerate the importance of all competitive sports and contests. Athletic contests imply a struggle for supremacy between two parties,\nwhich only one party can win. One party will consequently experience the\njoy of victory and the other party the chagrin of defeat. The greater the\npublicity given to these contests thru popular interest and the daily press, the\nmore intense these emotions grow and the more difficult it becomes to keep the\ncontests within reasonable bounds. Victory is now accepted as the one and\nthe all-important thing, and everything else is made subservient to it. This\nleads to professionalism, foul tactics, overtraining, the do-or-die or anythingto-win spirit, and even to the claiming of heights never climbed, distances\nnever covered, victories never achieved. A host of evils follows as a natural\nconsequence. Some of these evils may be briefly enumerated as follows:\na tendency to specialize in single sports, and narrow the field of physical\neducation; too much time, money, and attention given to the development of\nthe major sports like football and baseball and too little to the development\nof the minor sports like gymnastics, lacrosse, cricket, association football,\nfencing, boxing, wrestling, etc. In this connection it may be well to observe\nthat the major sports, so called, are those that attract the greatest popular\ninterest and draw the largest gate receipts — not those that are most\nvaluable from a developmental or educational point of view. The present\nmethod of selection picks the best men for the major sports and leaves the\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMPETITION\n\nAND\n\nCULTURE\n\n225\n\nrest to the minor sports, without training or pecuniary resources. The high\nstandard of all the popular sports puts them beyond the qualifying efficiency\nof the average student. All of our sports are pursued too much as ends in\nthemselves rather than as means to ends — and those ends the general improvement and harmonious perfecting of the human organism.\nA great deal has been done in many of our secondary schools and colleges\nfor both sexes during the past twenty-five years toward the attainment of\nthese ideals, and the progress that has already been made leads the author\nof this paper to have great hopes for the futute. We have been so much\noccupied in fostering the spectacular or advertising side of athletics, and contending with the evils growing from over-competition, that we have almost\nentirely neglected the educational or cultural value of these important agents\nof youthful development. We hear a great deal at the present time about\nthe desirability of a pleasing personality in the teacher and professional man,\nthe advantages of a genial nature, a courteous manner, a fine carriage, and a\nmanly bearing. What is the meaning or worth of an athletic trophy or medal,\na college diploma or a school certificate, if they do not stand for noble conduct\nand sterling character as well as for physical and mental efficiency? What\nis it that makes victory so pleasurable and defeat so hard to bear, except\nour tickled vanity and pride, and our wounded feelings and self-esteepi ?\nMany of the highest moral qualities, such as courage, fortitude, forbearance,\ngenerosity, magnanimity, and nobility of character, may be cultivated on the\nathletic field; while presence of mind, health, strength, poise, and endurance,\nand those lighter tho highly serviceable qualities such as skill, grace, alertness,\nand flexibility — all come into the possession of the physically perfected gymnast\nand athlete. Now it seems to me that we should so conduct our school sports\nand exercises as to emphazise their educational and cultural value and put\nless stress upon the competitive element that enters into them. As unregulated\ncompetition is not the life, but the death, of trade, so unregulated competition\nin sports tends not to their preservation but to their destruction. The history\nof rowing, baseball, boxing, wrestling, football, and basket-ball in America\nis the history of an almost continuous fight that has been carried on in behalf\nof these sports to preserve them from extinction. The problem is how to\nget the stimulating effect from the spirit of competition, and yet avoid its\nevils and destructive tendencies. The first remedy which I would suggest\nis to make competition in all sports less intense and more diffusive. That\nis, do not put so much stress upon the time made, the height jumped, the game\nplayed, as upon the number in the school that are engaged in making some\nserious athletic efforts. In order that all of the pupils in the school may get\nsome of the mental, moral, and social advantages as well as the physical\nadvantages of the competitions, the contests should be arranged in groups,\nso that each one according to his ability could do his share toward helping\nto win a victory. Then, in order that no particular line of natural ability\non the part of the pupils may be favored in the contests, they should be made\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "226\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nto include a liberal variety of athletic events. By so doing, those who could\nnot do well in one type of performance could make a more creditable showing\nin something else. This method may be applied to gymnastics as well as to\nathletics, and wherever it has been tried it has brought about a better school\nspirit and developed a higher average moral and physical tone among the pupils.\nAs a means of doing away with the evils and preserving the good there is in\nathletic competitions, the group method has great possibilities and much to\ncommend it. But in all sports as well as in all physical exercises the qualities\nmost required are the qualities that will be most intensified and developed.\nA failure to recognize this fact and to act upon it deprives our present system\nof athletics and gymnastics of a great measure of their educational value to\nthe individual student. A boy comes to school or college from the farm.\nHe is large and strong, but awkward and clumsy in all of his movements.\nHe needs to be made more flexible, more graceful, more refined. In other\nwords, he needs physical culture in its best sense, and not physical torture.\nBy the method of natural selection now prevailing in athletics, he is chosen\nfor the position of guard or center rush on the football team, or to put the shot,\nthrow the hammer, or row on the crew. In either case he will have to get\nrid of some of his awkwardness and clumsiness if he succeeds as an athlete,\nbut^is he getting the training that he most needs to round him out and perfect\nhim as a man ? Another boy is tall and slender and needs to put on weight\nand acquire more strength. He is selected for a middle distance runner or\na high jumper, and bends all of his energies to qualify as a competitor in\nthese events. Here again the boy sacrifices his opportunity to develop himself as a man in ordei: that he may perfect himself as a high jumper, pole\nvaulter, or some athletic specialist. I have cited but two illustrations, but\nI could give a dozen more did the time permit, to show where the best culture\nfor the man is neglected, in order that he may find more time to practice some\nsingle sport in hopes of winning honors for himself and his school or university.\nIn some of the eastern colleges the competition is so keen and the time and\nenergy given to the preparation for athletic contests are so excessive, that the\nfaculty have restricted the number of major sports to two in which the same\nstudent may enter as a contestant. Altho this restriction of competitors\nto two sports may prevent a few students from injuring themselves from overtraining, itintensifies the evil for the majority of students by taking away\nthe stimulus for practicing a wider range of athletic exercises. To encourage\ntoo narrow and too early a specialization is not only a mistake from a cultural\npoint of view, but even from an athletic standpoint. Page, Sweeney, and\nDray, who have held world's records in their athletic specialities as high\njumpers and pole-vaulters — all preceded the practice of these events by a long\nperiod of all-round exercises and general gymnastic training. I could mention\nmany more distinguished athletes, amateurs and professionals, who have\npursued the same course. We now know that this method, which has been\nlargely empirical on the part of many athletes, has a solid scientific foundation.\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMPETITION\n\nAND\n\nCULTURE\n\n227\n\nThe recent laboratory experiments of Keith Lucas, a Fellow in Cambridge\nUniversity, England, have proven conclusively that the muscle fiber and not\nthe muscle as a whole is the unit of action, and in order to bring out the full\nworking capacity of all the muscles and increase their tone and improve their\ninnervation, that body and limbs must be subjected to extreme flexions and\nextensions, and to the greatest possible variety of movements. If these laterday deductions of the physiologists are true they furnish further arguments\nfor broadening our conception of physical education. Not only must the\nordinary round of light and heavy gymnastics be taught to all of our school\nchildren as a matter of daily routine, but they must be taught and encouraged\nto practice the greatest variety of youthful sports and games. Walking,\nrunning, jumping, skating, swimming, diving, rowing, canoeing, bicycling,\ndancing, fencing, and the various forms of ball-playing are essential parts\nof a boy's neiiro-muscular education. If he does not learn these sports in his\nyouth, he is not likely to take them up when an adult for fear that his bungling\nefforts may excite laughter and ridicule. In learning and practicing these\ndifferent sports there is a training and a culture which comes to the boy which\nhe cannot get in any other way. This experience becomes a part of his psychophysical organism. As a preparation for life no amount of book learning\nwill ever compensate for the loss of it. This is the testimony of hundreds of\nmen now living who were deprived of this training in their youth. The\ndevelopmental and hygienic value of all forms of physical exercise has long\nsince been recognized, but the educational value of many of them has not been\nfully appreciated until quite recently. The recognition of gymnastics as a\nfine art, to be classed with music, speech, construction, sculpture, drawing,\nand painting, as modes of expression, has done much to bring this fact to the\nattention of the public. In order that the cultural value of various kinds of\ngymnastics and athletics may be fully brought out, the nicest regard must\nbe given to form in the method of executing the exercises. The Germans and\nthe French have long worked for ideals in their gymnastics as they have in\ntheir music and sculpture, and the Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, and Finns\nhave actually attained a precision, poise, and elegance in their gymnastics\nwhich are truly admirable. The American school and college youth are apt\nto scout at form and finish in their athletics and gymnastics as synonymous\nwith silliness and insincerity, and they often assume a slouchiness of standing\nand walking for fear that they may be thought to be posing or attitudinizing.\nNotwithstanding this national custom, the American athletes who attain\nchampionship form do their work with the highest degree of grace and artistic\nfinish. Our women have already led off in this new movement with their\nartistic dancing, and progress along the same line will soon follow as a matter\nof evolution in our gymnastics and athletics. Order, grade, poise, balance,\nprecision, accuracy, refinement, delicacy, elegance, and beauty may be expressed\nin action as well as in thought and feeling. When our school authorities\nrecognize the possibilities in physical exercises for cultivating these qualities\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n228\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nas well as the many others that I have already mentioned, they will give these\nexercises a larger place in the curriculum than they do at present. When our\nyouth realize that it is not necessary to be a dude in order to be a gentleman,\nor a tough in order to be an athlete, a great victory will have been gained.\nThen they will realize that they can get all of the rough and strenuous work\nthat they want, without making their games brutal or revolting, and that they\nmay display their skill, strength, and daring in sport without resorting to the\ntactics of the mucker or the bully. In fact, they will learn that the true sportsman may be a gentleman on the track and on the field as well as in the drawingroom and parlor. Some of us believe that our youth may even be taught to\nplay football and basket-ball and still be gentlemen, tho it may require some\namending of the present rules to make this possible. Finally, the public\nitself must realize that the sports, games, and physical exercises of our school\nand college youth are not conducted primarily for the amusement of the\nmasses, but for the physical education and the all-round training of the sons\nand daughters of the republic that they may be better able to meet the duties\nof life and the responsibilities of citizenship. In order to keep up to the high\nideals and high standards in physical education of which I have spoken, the\ncrying need of the hour is for special teachers of both sexes of recognized\ncharacter and ability. No class of teachers in the community at the present\ntime are more sorely needed, and none can do more good if well qualified or\nmore harm if poorly qualified than the teachers of physical education. Let\nus lift this great subject out of its crude, spectacular stage and put it on a\nsound educational basis. Let us give less attention to the exploitation of the\nstrong, and more attention to the instruction of the weak. Let us give courage\nto the timid, energy to the feeble, grace to the awkward, and hope to the\ndespondent. Let us teach more of the people that life is really worth living,\nif they will only learn to live normally, fully, wisely, and well. Many of the\ntruths which I have presented to you are now coming home to thousands of\nthe community of both sexes, young and old, thru their everyday experiences.\nUpon the general recognition of the importance and possibilities of the physical\nactivities as adjuncts of education, culture, and development depends much\nof the usefulness and prosperity of our schools and colleges; and in the practical employment of these physical activities under intelligent direction on\nthe playground, in the gymnasium, and thru industrial and vocational training\ndepend the health, vigor, and prosperity of the American people.\n\n///.\n\nTHE PRINCIPLE\n\nHERMAN\n\nH.\n\nHORN,\n\nUNDERLYING\nEDUCATION\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF EDUCATION,\nNEW YORK CITY\n\nMODERN\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nNEW\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nYORK\n\nIt is a pertinent time to inquire into the principle of physical education\nif we can find it. Our day is showing a quickening of the physical as well as\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMODERN\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n229\n\nthe moral conscience. The call to the out-of-doors, the increasing biological\nstudy of the body since Darwin's time, the recognition of the place of play in\nlife, the use of vacations, the growth of the movement for open-air playgrounds\nand gymnasia, the large field of sport, the enthusiasm for athletics in school\nand college, the demand for athletic reform, the movement for pure food and\npure drugs, the increasing amount of travel — all indicate that the physical\nelement of life is emerging into conscious, if chaotic, recognition. An ordering principle is needed hy such an unordered situation. Indeed the exuberance of our physical life in the nation and in the nation's schools raises the\nquestion of proportion, balance, and harmony among the physical and mental\nvalues.\nAnd this again is a question of principle.\nI.\n\nTHE\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nPOINT\n\nOF\n\nVIEW\n\nAs an introduction to the organizing principle, whatever it ma)' be found\nto be, I suggest that we consider the matter from the standpoint of the evolution\nof the physical and psychical organism. Without going into the details of\ncontroversial theories, it is perhaps best to state at once what seems to be the\nsoundest conclusion in this field. It is this: body and mind have evolved\ntogether. Evolution, however it comes to be written in detail, is a psychophysical phenomenon. Body and soul — the term soul being here used as\nsynonymous w^ith mind — have grown with each other. Comparative anatomy,\ncoupled with comparative psychology, indicates a correspondence between the\ndeveloping nervous systems of related organisms and their degrees of intelligence. Human anatomy and child psychology likewise can parallel bodygrowth and soul-growth. We seem not to have at first a finished soulless\nbody, waiting to be animated, nor yet a finished bodiless soul, waiting to be\nincarnated; but first, last, and all the time, a body and soul, mutually dependent, beginning, living, and growing together. Their unity is life, their separation is death. We know no mental beginnings without body; we also have\nno bodily beginning without mind. The prenatal life of the body is without\ndoubt accompanied by such mental experiences as emotions of pressure,\nmotion, touch, and warmth. Like union and liberty, body and soul are one\nand inseparable, until death do them part. The seed of life that transmits\nthe physical characteristics from one generation to the next transmits also\nthe mental characteristics. (Cf. Traducianism.)\nThe main stages in this joint evolutionary process may be roughly sketched\nout, following Aristotle in the main. First, the vegetative soul, capable of\nnutrition, and common to plants, animals, and men; then the appetitive soul\nof desires and wishes, emotions and passions, common to animals and men;\nfinally the rational soul, capable of abstract thought, aesthetic appreciation,\nmoral character, and religious worship, belonging to man alone. The development of a single human being shows a similar growth — first, that which is\nnatural, afterward that which is spiritual.\nIn order to keep body and soul apart in origin, growth, and decay, old\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n230\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'Jndianapolis\n\nphilosophies formulated theories of the creation, once for all; of as many\nsouls at the outset as there were ever to be people in earth, or of the special\ncreation of a new soul for each new body at the moment of conception, or\nquickening, or birth. (Cf. Creationism.)\nBut at the same time the practical necessity of the body for the soul's\nexistence once they became associated was recognized in the doctrine of a\nspiritual body for the soul after death, while the universal and indissoluble\nassociation of body and soul has in ancient and modern times been maintained\nby the panpsjchists.\nThe conclusion of this preliminary discussion therefore is: the problem\nof soul and body is settled by letting them grow together from the beginning,\nnot by first separating them by abstract thought and then asking how the)'\ncame together.\nn.\n\nTHE\n\nPRINCIPLE\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nThe preceding discussion prepares us for stating the fundamental principle\nof physical education, which is: man's nature is a unity. As Montaigne,\nthinking for himself, expressed it: \"It is not a body, it is not a mind, that we\nhave to educate, but a man, and we ought not to divide him.\"\nWhat is the character of this unity? Man's nature is indeed complex;\nhe is physical and mental, and his mental nature is complex, being intellectual,\nemotional, and volitional. But these are all elements in one unitary whole\nthat we call the man. Following Aristotle again, the body is material; the\nmind is the informing principle; the soul shapes the body. ''The soul is\nform and doth the body make,\" as the poet Spenser has it. Without the soul\nthe body is mere material, dead; without the body the soul is pure form;\ntogether they make man. The body is the soul's home; the soul is the\nbody's citizen. The body is the soul's only medium of self-expression; the\nsoul is the body's most useful organ.\nLeaving behind figures of speech and the difficult concepts of form and\nmatter, and simply reporting the language of common experience, the unity\nof human nature means that the condition of the body is due to mental as well\nas physical influences; that the condition of the mind is due to physical as\nwell as mental influences; that the condition of the man is the sum-total of\nhis bodily and mental conditions.\nWe must next see the bearings of this principle of the unity of human nature\nupon physical education.\nin.\n\nCONSEQUENCES\n\nOF\n\nTHIS\n\nFUNDAMENTAL\n\nPRINCIPLE\n\nThere are several consequences that flow from one fundamental principle.\nThe first is: The body does not exist as the incubus of the soul — this is the\nmistake of asceticism — nor again merely as the soul's tool; but also for itself.\nLikewise, the soul does not exist merely for the body's sake — this is the mistake of modern Epicureanism in its various forms. On the contrary each\nexists for both, the body for itself and the soul, the soul for itself and the body.\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMODERN\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n23 1\n\nNeither is called upon to sacrifice its highest life for the other; the best life\nfor each is the best life for both — they being one.\nA further consequence is the unity of education. Physical education is\nalso mental education, and mental education is also physical education.\nTraining the body is changing the soul's means of self-expression; training the\nsoul's purposes involves giving a new set to the nervous system. As human\nnature is one, so human education is one, and physical education needs mental\neducation for its perfection as mental education needs physical education for\nits perfection. Physical and mental education, the gymnasium and the classroom, the athletic field and the debating forum, the recess and the study-period,\nplay and work, are two sides of the single educative process. The unity of\neducation appears especially in manual training and all forms of educative tool,\nshop, and form work.\nIV.\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nTYPES\n\nOF\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIn general, the error consists in disturbing the balance between the physical\nand psychical values; viz., the development of the body at the expense of the\nmind and the development of the mind at the expense of the body. We\nwant body and soul well attuned.\nThe two main elements of old Greek education, initiating and partly\ncausing the Periclean age of physical, intellectual, and aesthetic conquests,\nwere music and gymnastics, music for the soul and body and gymnastics for\nthe body and soul. Either one without the other would have produced a\ndefective type. As Plato puts it in his Republic:\n\"Neither are the two arts of music and gymnastic really designed, as is often supposed,\nthe one for the training of the soul, the other for the training of the body.\"\n\"What then is the real object of them?\"\n\"I believe,\" I said, \"that the teachers of both have in view chiefly the improvement\nof the soul.\"\n\"How can that be?\" he asked.\n\"Did you never observe,\" I said, \" the effect on the mind itself of an exclusive devotion\nto gymnastic, or the opposite effect of an exclusive devotion to music ? \"\n\"In what way shown?\" he asked.\n\"The one producing a temper of hardness and ferocity, the other of softness and\neffeminacy,\" I replied\n\"He who mingles music with gymnastic in the fairest proportions, and best attempers\nthem to the soul, may be rightly called the true musician and harmonist in a far higher sense\nthan the tuner of things.\"\n\"You are quite right, Socrates.\"\n\"And such a presiding genius will be always required in our State if the government\nis to last.\"\n\"Yes, he will be absolutely necessary.\"\n\"Such, then, are our principles of nurture and education.\" — {Rep. iii. 410 B — 412 A.)\n\nIn our day the unity of education has been disturbed, to the detriment of\nboth body and soul. On the one hand we have a development of the body\nat the expense of the mind, leading to such results as athleticism, the making\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nof gymnasts and acrobats and the gathering of huge crowds at football contests and prize-fights, where, in the name of the body, the body is abused,\nthru the lack of mental element. This overemphasis has resulted in moral\ninjuries as well, such as the desire for victory at any cost, the turning of a\ncontest of skill into a gamble, the introduction of a large and disturbing\nfinancial element, the overpraise of young victors, the destruction of the ideal\nof sport for its own sake, the cultivation of the sentiments of animosity instead\nof generous rivalry respecting the opponents, the undemocratic training to a\nfinish, perhaps the overtraining of a selected few who least need it, at the\nexpense of the many who most need it, the sense of justification in neglecting\nweightier school and college matters, and the perversion of the true perspective\nin human values.\nOn the other hand, we have a development of mind at the expense of body.\nThis particularl}' is the defect of the studious type in school and college.\nAthletics being for the few, not the many, but still engrossing the interests of\nthe institution, the studious seek a distinction in scholarship. Unfortunately\nsuch distinction is too little esteemed by their fellows and too little rewarded\nby the faculties. The faculties have not harmonized the conflict between the\nphysical and mental values as they might have done partly because they are\nthemselves afifected with the athletic craze ; partly because their hands are tied\nby the authorities higher up who want victorious teams as advertising agents ;\npartly because the situation is controlled by alumni in the world who want\nseveral annual great and exciting spectacles. This all means that athleticism\nhas usurped the place of physical training; that its worldlj' ideals too often\ncontrol student-body, faculty, trustees, and alumni alike; that institutional\nhonors go to the gridiron hero, not to the honor man; that the honor man\nhimself is insufficientl}^ trained physically; that his scholarship is pale, anaemic,\nand smelling of the midnight oil; and that the studious element, while still\nyoung, is left too much to the bare satisfaction of finding virtue its own reward.\nThus while physical training has pulled away from the unity of education\nin one direction, narrowing itself into athleticism, demanding victory for an\nelect five, nine, or eleven; mental training has likewise pulled away in another\ndirection, narrowing itself into an exclusive and pallid scholarship. The\neducational house is divided.\nV.\n\nTRUE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nAIMS\n\nIt is time for us to hear and to heed in education the lesson of the unity of\nhuman nature, the joint evolution of the physical and mental being. The\naim of physical training is to make the body not an end in itself, but both a\njoy to itself and the usable tool of the soul. Every student should feel physically with Browning ''the wild joys of mere living\" and think with Aristotle\nthat \"good things have been divided into three classes, external goods, goods\nof the soul, and goods of the body. Of these the goods of the soul are good in\nthe strictest and highest sense\" {Ethics, I, 8).\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMODERN\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n233\n\nThe corresponding aim of mental education is to make the mind a worthy\ninhabitant of such a well-built home, using, not abusing, the body, and to itself\na source of high ideas, contentment, and noble achievement in the social\nworld.\nAnd the corresponding unitary aim of all education is the physical and\nmental equipment of persons for social living — both wise leading and intelligent following.\nThe restoration of the ideal of unity in education is one great need, especially inthe interest of a sound physical training for the many. It would also\nassist in solving some other pressing questions, such as the adjustment of the\ncultural and practical courses; but with these we are not concerned here.\nVI.\n\nREMEDIES\n\nAND\n\nRESULTS\n\nOnly a word in conclusion as to remedies and possible results. Perhaps\nthe remedies have been sufficiently intimated in the diagnosis, if correct, of\nthe situation. We must recognize, spread, and practice the principle underlying modern physical education, viz., the unity in complexity of body and\nmind, and the consequent unity that should characterize all education. Some\nhave done this for years already. The details of the prescription you will no\ndoubt be able to supply better than I. To me it would be gratifying to see\nthe current demand for athletic reform squarely and fully supplied by a change\nof spirit as well as of rules, the substitution of the ideal of sport for that of\nvictory; the scorn of unfair means; admiration for the opponents' skill;\nand that love of fair play which is the best umpire. Our games are running\nin Teutonic fashion in the direction of team-play where moral standards are\nhardest to maintain, as the virtues of a committee or group or nation are slighter\nthan those of its individuals taken separately. So I should welcome an\nemphasis on track work as being more individualistic and so as capable of\nillustrating higher standards more easily.\nAlso we should emphasize inter-class and inter-dormitory contests within\na single institution; the lessening of inter-institutional contests, the requirement of higher scholarship for candidates for teams; the requirement of more\nphysical training for the studious, allowing academic credit for the same;\nthe strict maintenance of standards; the exclusion of first-year college men\nfrom inter-college contests; less glorification of athletic victories, more private\nappreciation and public recognition of the scholarship men; the reliance\nupon head work more than brute strength; more grace and less bodily injury;\nand the restoration to the first place of the idea of the educative function of\nall the agencies of physical training.\nOur trust for improvement must finally be placed on individual efforts here\nand there, on the spreading of ideas thru print, on cautiously practicing reforms,\nand on the contagion of example. For American society so largely recruited\nfrom the school population and molded by the educated out of proportion to\ntheir number, the readjustment of values would in time mean less nervous\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nstrain, less suffering from old injuries and over-exertion, more care of the\nphysical on the part of busy men and women, a more vigorous scholarship,\na better poised physique, an increased ability to take a vacation and enjoy\na holiday, more of cultured leisure, less of man-destroying labor, less of idle\namusement to stimulate a worn-out nervous system, and a greater appreciation\nof a proportioned education such as Plato had in mind when he wrote: \"When\na beautiful soul harmonizes with a beautiful form and the two are cast in the\nmold, that will be the fairest of sights to him who has an eye to see it.\"\nTOPIC:\n/.\nSAMUEL\n\nCHILDREN\nSOUTHERN\n\nE. WEBER,\n\nDIFFER\n\nIN ENVIRONMENTS\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nINSPECTOR OF STATE HIGH\nBATON ROUGE, LA.\n\nPROBLEMS\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR LOUISIANA,\n\nIn a democracy the fundamental purposes of public education are everywhere the same. State systems of elementary schools have for their object\nthe giving of a fund of intellectual and moral training which makes for intelligent and conscientious citizenship. Intelligence and conscientiousness\ninsure a wise and just government. To make it possible for those who have\nthe means and the inclination to continue their education and for latent talent\nthat surpasses the intelligence of the average individual to develop still further,\nthe American state also subsidizes public secondary schools and state universities.\nBy providing all of these educational means the state discharges its full\nduty toward its citizens. Besides, all of these educational facilities serve to\nenhance material prosperity, social efficiency, moral and political well-being.\nAll of these agencies are provided for and vigorously encouraged in all of the\nsouthern states. Whatever methods are employed in the South differing from\nthose to be found in other parts of the country are not due to differences of\naims but rather to social and economic conditions.\nBy reason of the presence of a negro population, in many instances the\nmajority element of the total population, the South carries the additional\nburden necessitated by the establishment and maintenance of a separate\nsystem of schools, separately financed, separately taught, and in some instances\nseparately supervised. According to the biennial reports of the state superintendents ofAlabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana,\nMississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia,\nthe length of term for negro schools varies from three and eight-tenths months\nin South Carolina to six and three-tenths months in Virginia, where the length\nof term is practically the same as the length of term for schools for whites.\nMost of the state superintendents of the states mentioned advocate the\ngiving of an industrial education along agricultural lines to the children of\nthe negro race. State Superintendent J. Y. Joyner of North Carolina says\non this point (Biennial Report igo6-igo8):\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] SOUTHERN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n235\n\nMy experience and observation in this work and my larger acquaintance with the\npeople of the state and their feeling have deepened my conviction that the only hope in\neducation beyond the point of mastery of the rudiments of learning for the negro race is\nto be found in agricultural and industrial training — largely in agricultural training. Unless\nwe can give him such training in the schools as will help to make him a more industrious\nand efficient workman, and to save him from vice and idleness, the negro race is doomed.\n\nAlfred Holt Stone, of Mississippi, in his Studies in the American Race\nProblem, predicts the economic future of the negro by his probable ability to\ncompete with other forms of manual labor. A number of concrete problems\nare worked out in which comparisons are made between negro labor and other\nforms of labor, notably Italian labor, indicating the superiority of the latter\non account of the Italian's greater thrift and more permanent tenancy. Mr.\nStone asserts that negro labor is not so dependable. White labor is given the\nplace in some instances. He says:\nAlready, here and there, scattered thruout the South, even in smaller towns, white\ndomestic servants may be seen. There are white barbers and bootblacks, and white men\nin every other trade and calling. States and railroads and private organizations are discussing the question of foreign immigration with increasing earnestness\nAs I have said, the negro possibly has it in his power to arrest this movement, at least\nfor many years. He can do it, in a measure at least, by making of himself a reliable,\ndependable factor in the economic life of the South, but not by any other means within my\nview. I say he can do this. But will he ? It would mean a revolution in the present social\nand industrial life and habits of the masses.\n\nJames H. Dillard, president of the Jeannes Fund, discussing the purposes of\nthe Jeannes Fund in The Independent of December 2, 1909, makes the problem\none to be solved by the rural public schools.\nIn this connection he says:\nNow, it must be remembered that it is upon the rural public schools that the great\nmasses of the negroes in the South must depend for what training they are to receive;\nand the time has come for an efifort to improve these schools. First, the public school\nauthorities must awake to the fact that the school term must be lengthened in order to make\nthe money spent of much avail. Secondly, these schools must have some sort of supervision. They need some one who would come, if only once or twice a month, with words\nof criticism and encouragement.\n\nThe income of the one-million-dollar Jeannes Fund is to be used to induce\nthe regular school authorities to extend the work of rural education for negroes.\nAs a report states:\nFrom superintendents of education all over the South have come expressions of willingness to co-operate\nDuring this first year the fund has paid the salary of seventythree industrial teachers in schools connected, except in the case of four reform schools,\nwith the public-school system, and in many places the assistance has been given at the\ninstance of the county superintendent of education.\n\nAccording to Census Bulletin 26 more than four-fifths of the population in\nthe South is rural. The cityward migration has as yet not set in. In consequence, southern educational problems deal most largely with rural schools,\nas follows: To make larger provision for such schools; to distribute them\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapons\n\nproperly in a scattered country population; to build better schoolhouses and\nequip them adequately with modern school furniture, libraries, and the necessary mechanical means for teaching, such as maps, globes, charts, etc.; to\nplace competent teachers and expert supervisors in charge of them; to consolidate them wherever possible; to get all the educable children into school\nand keep them there regularly without the operation of a compulsory education\nlaw; the necessary construction, in many instances, of passable roads; the\nformulation and carrying into effect of courses of study adapted to ruralschool conditions; bringing within reach of the country boy and girl a highschool education — these are some of the more vital problems pressing for\nsolution.\nIn addition, such rural population has a smaller per capita wealth, which\nmakes inevitable a smaller per capita local appropriation for school purposes.\nThe amount of wealth for each educable in the southern states as compared\nwith amount of wealth for each educable in the United States as a whole is a\nlittle more than one-third. With this relatively small per capita (educables)\nwealth it would be doubly burdensome to carry the additional expenses entailed\nby the enforcement of a uniform compulsory education law. In proportion to\nthe population the number of children is also much greater than in the North.\nOn account of the large plantations, or in those places where it is impossible\nto enroll enough pupils to comply with a state law requiring a minimum\nenrollment of ten, twelve, or fifteen pupils, county-school authorities sometimes pay part of the salary of a private teacher. In some instances teachers\nrefuse to teach in isolated places (salary paid may be higher than in towns and\ncities) where congenial companionship is absent, where the conveniences to\nbe found in more thickly settled sections are wanting.\nHow is the South meeting these problenxS ?\nAll of these problems have received and are receiving the attention of\nthe best educational thinkers in the South. Within the last ten years remarkable progress has been made in public education. All of the problems indicated\nhave been partially solved.\nThe length of term for schools for whites is approximately 6.25 months on\nthe average, including all of the states named.\nExcepting local districts in Alabama, unincorporated local districts in\nTennessee, and the county in Arkansas, all of the southern states support\nexisting public schools and encourage the establishment of additional ones\nby district, county, and state school taxes. To assist in equalizing the burdens\namong the different sections of the state North Carolina sets a special appropriation of$100,000 to aid backward districts in bringing their school terms up\nto the constitutional requirement of four months. The last session of the\nlegislature in South Carolina voted $20,000 to increase the average length\nof school term. Tennessee has a legal provision for apportioning 10 per\ncent, of the general education fund to the poorer counties.\nWith the exception of Mississippi every one of the southern states has the\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n237\n\nadvantages of normal-school facilities in institutions especially provided for\nthe training of teachers. Teachers' institutes and summer schools are held\nin all of these states. Every southern state university has its department of\neducation. Teachers in public schools, as a rule, come from the best families\nof the South. In most of these states the office of county superintendent is\nfilled by trained men. The division superintendent in Virginia and the parish\nsuperintendent in Louisiana are given powers by law equal to those of city\nsuperintendents upon whom has been placed the responsibility of successful\nadministration and supervision of their respective school systems.\nThe Louisiana school law, defining the functions and qualifications of\ncounty superintendents, is unique and considerably in advance of similar\nlaws in other states.\nOn pages 41 and 42 of the Louisiana Public School Laws it is stated that\n\"each board shall elect or appoint for a term of four years a parish (county)\nsuperintendent who shall be ex-officio secretary of the board, and who shall\nnominate all teachers to be employed in the public schools of the parish. He\nshall be a man of high moral character and a practical educator. Before\nany person may be eligible to appointment as parish superintendent he\nshall hold a certificate of eligibility issued by the state board of education,\nwhich certificate shall be revocable by the state board of education if at any\ntime the parish superintendent should be found incompetent, inefficient, or\nunworthy.\"\nState elementary-school inspectors are appointed in Virginia, and thru the\nco-operation of the trustees of the Peabody Education Fund inspectors of\nelementary schools are appointed in the other southern states. By means of\nthe co-operation of the General Education Board, high-school inspectors have\nbeen appointed in all of the states mentioned, excepting Kentucky and Texas.\nThese men, with one exception, work under the joint supervision of the respective state departments of education and state universities. In Louisiana\nthe inspector does his work under the supervision of the state superintendent\nand the state board of education.\nRegardless of opposition incurred from those who look upon the removal\nof the one-room rural school as a tyrannical interference with their personal\nliberties and rights, consolidation of rural schools is making rapid headway\nin the South. By means of such consolidation better schoolhouses are built;\nbetter equipment is provided; more competent teachers are secured; closer\nsupervision is made possible; a larger enrollment, more regular attendance,\nand longer terms result; pupils stay in school for a longer period of years,\nleading to the establishment of high-school departments; expert teaching of\nagriculture, domestic science, music, and drawing may be successfully introduced; community life is built up; the teacher's life is made more congenial.\nThe problem of providing adequate educational facilities, of getting all of\nthe educable children into school and keeping them there regularly without\nthe operation of a separate compulsory education law finds its partial solution\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nin the available resources of states and communities, and in the method by\nwhich school funds are apportioned.\nWickliffe Rose, general agent of the Peabody Education Fund, in his 1909\nreport to the trustees of the Peabody Education Fund, draws the following\nconclusions based upon a comparative study of statistics:\n1. To raise a given amount of revenue for each child of school age the burden of the\nSouth is three times as heavy as for the United States (p. 28) ;\n2. It thus appears that in 1902 the southern states raised for all purposes, state, county,\nand municipal, practically as much revenue according to their financial ability as the rest\nof the country (p. 39) ;\n3. For public schools the southern states seem to be doing less, according to their\nfinancial ability, than is being done by the rest of the country (p. 39);\n4. These figures show that in the support given the schools the southern states are not\nliving up to their own financial ability (p. 40);\n5. The cost of maintaining schools would be less in the southern states than in states\nlike Pennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts. Taking all of the facts into consideration, itwould seem to be a very conservative estimate to say that in order to provide for all\nthe children of the southern states educational advantages equal to those provided for the\nchildren of the more favored sections of the country, the South will have to spend for schools\nat least four times as much revenue as it is now spending for this purpose (p. 70).\n\nProfessor Rose proposes a number of remedies for the raising of additional\nschool funds. The first is a tentative statement, that \"in most of the southern\nstates perhaps the public-school funds should be increased by devoting a\nlarger percentage of the total public revenue (state, county, and municipal\ncombined) to the business of education\" (p. 70).\nHis other recommendations are in virtual agreement with Professor\nCubberley's conclusions in his School Funds and Their Apportionment.\nTo equalize educational burdens and to stimulate local effort, school funds\nought to be derived from state, county, and local municipalities. Instead\nof being distributed on the basis of scholastic population, as is done wholly or\npartly in thirty-eight states, including every southern state except Florida,\nschool funds ought to be distributed on a basis of the number of teachers\nactually employed and aggregate days' attendance (or average daily attendance\nmultiplied by length of time) .\nTo relieve poorer communities of oppressive burdens in their attempts\nto meet the minimum educational demands of the state, a certain ''reserve\nfund\" should be set aside and distributed equitably among them.\nFurther, distribution on the basis of educables bears no direct ratio to the\namount of taxes paid, because the taxes of the farmer are higher relatively\nthan the taxes of the manufacturer. This places undue burdens upon agriculture and thus discourages the very industry upon which the economic\ndevelopment of the South so largely depends. If the basis of apportionment\nwere changed, minimum educational demands could be made in every southern\nstate, or could be somewhat increased without increasing the general school\ntax.\nPartial or optional compulsory education laws are to be found in Kentucky,\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n239\n\nNorth Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. In Kentucky such law is applicable only to cities of the first, second, third, and fourth classes or to all with a\npopulation of more than three thousand. In North Carolina, Tennessee, and\nVirginia, the operation of a compulsory education law is left to county boards\nof education.\nReferences have already been made to the facts that the population of\nthe South is mostly rural, that the per capita wealth to be found in rural communities isless than in manufacturing centers, that courses of study ought\nto be worked out better adapted to country life, that teachers ought to be prepared to teach in rural schools.\nIt is desirable that this large percentage of rural population be maintained.\nTo do this, courses of study must be adjusted to meet the needs of the people;\nrural life must be raised to a point where it can compete successfully with the\ncity in the opportunities and advantages it has to offer to the country boy and\ngirl. The reason why our young people flock to the cities is not so much\ntheir natural desire to leave the farm as the fact that the city has more\nopportunities, comforts, conveniences, and means of culture to offer. Country\nlife must be interpreted in the light of the child's experience instead of by\nillustrations drawn from books and from town or city life. Vocational instruction in agriculture is imperative and the public schools must furnish it. The\npotential resources in agriculture in the south, where thousands of acres of\nvery fertile land lie undeveloped, are difficult to estimate.\nThe organization of corn clubs, the establishment of purely agricultural\nschools in Alabama, Arkansas, and Georgia, and the establishment of departments ofagriculture in existing high schools, as is done in Louisiana, Tennessee,\nand Virginia, ought to do more to make farm-life attractive in those states\nthan any other educational movement ever attempted in the South. On\naccount of the expense connected with the establishment of a purely agricultural school, the tendency it w^ould have to educate one class of people\nalong one line only, lack of opportunity afforded to the pupils in such schools\nto come into contact with those preparing for other pursuits in life, the failure\nto make it possible for country boys and girls to take courses preparing them\nfor other fields of usefulness, I believe that the plan to introduce departments\nof agriculture in existing high schools is by far preferable to the purely agricultural school, unless communities are densely enough settled for the existence of other high schools which pupils may attend who have no inclination\nto stay on the farm.\nAt present, the one-room rural schools of the South, as elsewhere, are\ngiven less attention from practically every educational standpoint — schoolhouses, equipment, teachers, supervision, courses of study, medical attention,\netc. — than town and city schools. Especially is this true in regard to teachers\nin the one-room rural schools.\nState Superintendent Harris of Louisiana has recently made a study of\nthe number of normal-school teachers of Louisiana who are teaching in the\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\none-room rural schools. Among sixteen hundred and forty-seven (1,647)\nnormal-school graduates prepared in the Louisiana State Normal, the New\nOrleans City Normal School, and normal schools outside of the state, 87\nteach in one-room rural schools. This is a deplorable condition — a problem\nby no means limited to Louisiana nor to the South, but largely common\nto the entire country.\nThe high schools of the South have advanced rapidly during the last five\nyears. This may be attributed to two causes: (i) successful classification\nof all schools doing high-school work; (2) state appropriations for their\nencouragement.\nUpon the meeting of certain conditions and requirements, Alabama gives\nto each county high school $2,000; Arkansas, $160,000 for the establishment\nof four secondary agricultural high schools; Florida, $65,000 for all its high\nschools; Georgia, $77,500 to 11 congressional-district agricultural schools;\nLouisiana, $53,000 for two years out of the general school fund; North Carolina, $100,000 for two years; South Carolina, $60,000 annually; Tennessee,\n$1,500 to each county high school meeting certain requirements; Virginia,\n$135,000 a year.\nWith the exception of the county high schools in Alabama and the congressional-district agricultural high schools in Georgia, these schools may be\nlocated to meet local needs. At present all of these schools have a four-year\nhigh-school course based on an elementary course of seven years. Departments\nof manual training, domestic science, drawing, music, and agriculture have been\nintroduced in a few high schools.\nOne of the most difficult problems to be solved in the upbuilding of the high\nschools of the South is due to the ability of high-school pupils to enter\nhigher institutions of learning, private or public, and the pressure there is\nbrought to bear on them to do so before completing the high-school course.\nThere is widespread interest in public education all over the South, The\nproblems proposed are being solved by the separate states. There is a wholesome rivalry among them to outdo one another in this great work.\nDISCUSSION\nThomas P. Bailey, superintendent of schools, Memphis, Tennessee. — There is only\none southern problem, and it is that of environment. For southern children are the truest\nof Americans by birth and tradition, and therefore if they are being bred in the cult of caste,\nnurture due to conditions and not nature due to inheritance must be responsible for their\ndeparture from the splendid type of American democracy.\nBut do not suppose that even by implication I am condemning. my own dear people.\nPublic peace and the safety of the state demand that the less developed race be subordinate\nto the more developed, under conditions as they exist in the South today. The caste of\nthe kin is the practice of the theory that blood is thicker than water; and the Sermon on\nthe Mount cannot invalidate God's own law of the survival of the fittest. If these widely\ndifferent races cannot blend their blood — and instinct and science say nay — the only real\nfoundation for democracy, equality actual or potential, does not exist and cannot be created.\nThe principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity are as abstractly true as Newton's Laws\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n241\n\nof Motion, but the resistance of race-consciousness brings about as real a friction as does\nthe resistance of the air in modifying the actions of bodies in motion.\nThe all-inclusive virtue, love itself, has a biological basis, and character -vafaes are\nconditioned by body-facts. Thus it happens that the southerner's loyalty to his race comes\nof his love of his kind, the kind he knows and values.\nBut should such conditions exist? Must southern children of the dominant race\ngrow up to scorn and despise, or else condescendingly to tolerate, their less fortunate fellowcreatures ? Or shall we legitimate lust and short-circuit the destiny of a chosen people ?\nSoutherners understand the apparent cruelty imputed to the God of Israel who is represented as commanding the extermination of non-assimilable peoples. But the more refined\nkilling of today in the South is not the occasional taking of a negro's life but the impassive\nand relentless murder of a people's hopes. But better this than worse that might be.\nBetter twenty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay. Better preternatural suspicion than\nbreeding dusky broods.\nSometimes we must be cruel would we be kind.\nOnly in the kingdom of heaven is there neither marriage nor giving in marriage.\nNow the kingdom has not yet come in the South. Therefore, let him that would establish\nany kind of human equality on any basis other than that of a biologically based family\nlife, give us the recipe for life in a vacuum.\nAgain I ask, Should these things be ? Must the southern child be compelled to choose\nbetween the ideal and the real in a world where ideals must be realized in accordance with\nthe laws of nature ? Will sickly saintliness bring us salvation ?\n\nOr must we seek safety\n\nin racial selfishness ? God forbid the answer, \" Yes,\" to either of these last two questions !\nWho shall deliver us from the body of this death !\nI dare not hope to put this subject before you sharply in a hasty minute or two. But\nI must make an appeal in the name of the righteous God and of bewildered humanity. I\nask that you leaders of education think on these things in this wise: Let us have this negro\nquestion studied. We are studying tariffs and the price of beef; we become partisans about\na pole intangible and invisible; our scientific expeditions scour land and sea for specimens\nof fauna and flora; we discriminate nicely the uncertain tints of Mexican Indians; we\nexplore the heavens above, the earth beneath, and the waters under the earth — all these\nwe do, and much more without the waving of bloody shirts or the planting of\nparty platforms.\nLet us take the negro question out of politics, out of society, out of popular religious\ndiscussion, out of prize-fighting — out of all wherein heat doth obtain rather than light.\nLet us put the negro question into science, and science into the negro question. We\nhave tried all else, and in vain. Parties and churches and schools, and philanthropies\nof all kinds, have brought us not one whit nearer a solution. The favorite prescription\nfor a solution is education, especially industrial education. And yet there are towns where\nnegro artisans are not allowed to work, and labor unions in plenty that negroes may not\nenter. Education for what ? Are the whites going to neglect the training of their children's\nhands ? When the grandsons of the former slave-owners are dead, will anyone prefer\nnegro labor, skilled or unskilled, to white ?\nCan education abolish race-consciousness and repattern the convolutions of the brain ?\nAye, education may solve the race-problem and all problems, but when and where and how ?\nMen and brethren, let us study the race problem. Let the study be national and international, for ours is not the only problem of race. Let the study be scientific and not sentimental; co-operative and not individualistic; continuous and not scrappy; professional\nand not dilettante; humanitarian and not partisan.\nLet us isolate the surd and square the whole equation — find a square deal. It is science,\nand science alone, star -eyed science, truth-loving science, spiritually intellectual science —\nit is the twentieth century's greatest power, the scientific research of today, that can prepare us for the doing of this Nation's greatest duty, the solution of this problem, so as to free\ntwo unallied peoples and make the states of this union United States indeed and in truth !\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE EFFECT\nCLIFFORD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\nB. CONNELLEY, DEAN OF THE SCHOOL FOR APPRENTICES AND JOURNEYMEN OF THE CARNEGIE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS, PITTSBURG, PA.\n\nEnvironment has been defined to be \"surrounding conditions, influences,\nor forces, by which living forms are influenced and modified in their growth\nand development,\" and in the light of this definition it is not diflicult to appreciate the importance of a subject such as is this in relation to the educational\npolicy of our country toward its children. We need not be students of psychology tobe able to understand what environment means in the daily lives\nof men and women, and to what great extent it bears upon the trend of adult\nlife in all walks. Few men and women are so constructed that they cannot\nbe influenced, even though slightly, by the surroundings in which they live,\nand the most mature character and mind bear the stamp of the world about\nthem. Social history and social progress offer evidence of the influence of\nenvironment in every stage and step, and educational advancement is affected\nlikewise by surrounding influences.\nIf then, as I have suggested, environment means so much in the lives of\nmen and women, how much more does it mean to children! Here we find\nthe mind and character in immaturity and non-development, the raw mass\n\\vaiting to be molded by surroundings, experience, and education. Early\nimpressions mean so much to the child, and every experience leaves its impression on the young mind. The surroundings in which the child moves are\nacknowledged by scientists to be an all-important consideration in the growth\nof the child's mind and character, whether it be the surroundings of the home\nor of the school. And since the educators of the country are entirely responsible\nfor the educational environments of the children and their consequent influence\non the growth of the child, it behooves us to take special note of this feature\nof our training and to regulate it as much as possible in accordance with the\nnecessities and advantages attendant upon the natural environment of the\nchildren.\nThere can be no doubt that the life of the community influences the\ncharacter of the school in that community, and is a moving consideration in\nthe educational policy necessary there. Various sections of our country have\ntheir own peculiar problems to care for and meet, and the educators of each\nsection cannot meet with satisfactory success unless they consider these surroundings as affecting their individual communities. North and South,\nEast and West — all have their peculiar features of environment and its great\ninfluences, and it is therefore almost impossible to lay down any general\ndetailed rule for guidance in educational policy which will fit every section of\nthe country without modification.\nOur educational systems must be modified and regulated according to\nthe demands of the community in which our schools are located; otherwise,\nthe school must be out of harmony with the needs and requirements of the\ncity or country in which it happens to be.\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nEFFECT\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\n243\n\nJust as sections of the country are particularly afifected by surrounding\nconditions, so in every section the country districts and the city districts are\nalso peculiarly affected by environment. The rural communities require\neducational facilities in harmony with rural conditions and needs, and city\ndistricts must take into vital consideration the environment of the cities.\nThis is true whether we consider education in general, or whether we discuss\nonly that particular branch known as \"Industrial Education.\" In fact,\nenvironment means perhaps more to the latter than to the former, for environment first touches industrial needs and necessities, as the means of preparing\nthe child for its future capacity to earn a competence midst such surroundings\nand under such conditions as exist in the community in which it lives.\nIndustrial environment, especially in the large manufacturing cities, such\nas Pittsburg, has a most important bearing on the educational policy of the\ncity. In fact, the practical questions suggested by life in such cities sometimes\nmake it difficult for educators there to save the school from an overwhelming\ndemand for materialistic education. Great industries mean great competition and great needs. Manufacturers are constantly in search of skilled\nlabor and they offer tempting compensation for it. Parents and their children\nare not slow to perceive the opportunities of large remuneration for manual\nservices, and spurred on by the necessities of earning large wages to meet the\ndemands of these days of high-priced living, the view of these parents and their\nchildren who are old enough to understand what money means inclines sharply\ntoward a demand for practical education in the shortest time possible to\nattain it. It is not difficult, then, to understand the problem which confronts\nthe educator in the large manufacturing cities, especially when we consider\nthat nowadays people have come to know full well the advantages of skilled\nability in manual trades over that of ordinary clerkships in mercantile pursuits as a medium of satisfactory incomes.\nThe great problem, then, in the educational policy of every city must be\nto adapt the course of education to the necessities of the city to the extent in\nwhich each branch of education is needed, and no further. Large manufacturing cities require large industrial educational facilities, and the need is\nconstantly growing. The various cities thruout the country are endeavoring\ntoday to meet this problem in the most effective and satisfactory manner, and\nas to their success or failure time alone will be the judge.\nThe effect of industrial environment on educational policy may be better\nrealized when we consider how far it has been recognized and acted upon\nby educators thruout the world. In foreign countries, as well as in our own,\nthe needs created and stimulated by industrial environments have caused\nprogressive educators to endeavor to meet the requirements of their communities and countries in a practical manner. Let us briefly review the policy\nadopted in various foreign countries, and then in different sections of our\nown, toward the industrial needs of the country.\nIn Germany there is at present established a system of industrial education\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nwholly in harmony with the industrial demands of the nation. It has well been\nsaid that \"the industrial schools of Germany are justly celebrated for their\nthoro, systematic, and comprehensive instruction.\" They cover the whole\neducational period; there are the lower industrial schools, which connect\ndirectly with the common schools, and thus become continuation schools and\ngive training to workmen; the higher industrial schools which correspond\nto our technical colleges and produce the leading technologists; and the\nmiddle industrial schools for pupils who have gone thru the lower industrial\nschools, but who desire to shorten the period of higher education, altho they\nwish to prepare themselves to become foremen or assistant superintendents.\nThe cities of Munich and Berlin are especially noted for their progress in the\nlines of education in industrial branches, and the success of the schools in\nthese cities is largely due to the insistent demand for them arising from the\nindustrial environment of the communities. The proverbial ''Made in\nGermany\" expression is an evidence of the world's recognition of that nation's\nwonderful industry, and if present conditions in the educational system of\nthe. country will serve as a criterion for the future, Germany will long continue\nto be referred to in that way.\nIn France, which is not so great an industrial country as is Germany, the\nneed for industrial training to meet her own particular conditions and those of\nthe surrounding nations has been well met. This may be gathered from the\nfact that while in 1880 there were in that country only forty-eight industrial\nschools receiving state aid, yet twenty years later this number had been increased to three hundred. As a rule, the schools are carried on under\ngovernment supervision, and furnish industrial education of the broadest kind.\nIt is a matter of interest here that in France an effort is made to educate the\npupils artistically as well as in skillful manipulation, which is quite in harmony\nwith the artistic temperament of the nation, and the materialistic output.\nIn the great industrial nation of England, existing social conditions peculiar\nto the country somewhat retard the progress of the industrial educational\nsystem. Yet the large cities, particularly London, Liverpool, and Manchester,\nare endeavoring to meet the needs of the people to a great extent. Industrial\neducation in England is fostered by national subsidies, and consequently the\nindustrial schools there are under national control.\nIn our own country, both states and cities have recognized the needs of\nthe people in industrial lines. Three state schools have already been established in New Jersey, and the success with which they have been attended\nproves the wisdom of such institutions. In Massachusetts, under the\ndirection of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, the\npolicy of the industrial-school system of the state is gradually being shaped in\nsuch a manner as to offer the most effective results. But New Jersey and\nMassachusetts are not alone in their recognition of the industrial needs of\nthe people; New York, Wisconsin, and many other states have proceeded\nalong similar lines, tho perhaps by different methods.\nBut the tendency\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\n245\n\neverywhere is to regulate educational policy in accordance with local environment.\nFrom the brief statement of facts here given, it may be gathered that the\neffect of industrial environment of city and country life at present is to create\na demand for sufficient industrial training, along with other branches of\neducation, to meet the needs of the community. If our schools are to be\nwell attended and if our pupils are to be kept interested in their work, it is\nincumbent upon us to offer students proportionate courses of various forms\nof education in keeping with the needs created by the environments of the\ncommunities in which our schools are located. Educational policy must be\nso molded as to fit the environments of the localities in which the education is offered, and that this need is being appreciated more each day is\nfully attested by the ever-increasing tendency of modern educators to offer\nstudents a course of instruction wholly harmonious with the student's needs.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nFOR\n\nJOHN W. ZELLER, STATE COMMISSIONER OF COMMON\nCOLUMBUS,\nOHIO\n\nTHE\nSCHOOLS\n\nCOUNTRY\nFOR OHIO,\n\nIn a recent utterance, Hon. Elmer E. Brown, United States Commissioner\nof Education, said:\nTwo of the most important problems of American education at the present time center\nin our rural schools. These are, the problem of the adjustment of the school to the industrial life of the community, and the problem of more adequate country-school supervision.\n\nThis statement gives expression to a nation-wide feeling. We are coming\nto realize more and more that our agricultural interests are the foundation\nof all other industrial interests — that as these prosper, all others will prosper —\nthat as these decline, all others will decline.\nThe investigations of Secretary Wilson of the Interior Department along\nthe line of our agricultural industries, and the recent formal utterances of\ntwo great captains of industry, have awakened a new interest in our rural\nproblem. We are coming to have a rural, as well as a city, problem.\nQuite recently, in a formal address in Boston in the presence of a notable\ngathering. President William C. Brown of the New York Central Railroad\nsaid:\nWe must increase production per acre by more intelligent methods or we must face\nthe relentless certain day when we shall not produce food enough to supply our necessities.\n\nSix months before this statement, another great captain. President J. J.\nHill, of the great Northwest, gave expression to the same feeling when he\nsaid that the time would come when we would import agricultural products.\nIn the light of the fact that during the last decade we have sold a billion\ndollars' worth annually of our farm products abroad, these may seem strange\nand unwarranted statements. But these prophets see strong tendencies and\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nconditions which, if not checked and improved, will ultimately fulfill these\npredictions. That there are agencies and conditions strongly tending toward\nthe fulfillment of these prophecies, no keen student of our economic and industrial conditions can truthfully deny.\nPresident Brown and Commissioner Brown, tho widely separated in the\nnature of their positions, both said the same thing. The former said: \"We\nmust increase production per acre by more intelligent methods.\" The latter\nsaid: \"Two of the most important problems of American education are the\nadjustment of the school to the industrial life of the community and more\nadequate country-school supervision.\" Railroad Brown said that farming\nmust be more scientific, and Commissioner Brown told us how to make it\nmore scientific. The former stated a stupendous and alarming fact; the\nlatter suggested the remedy by which our fears may be allayed.\nThe adjustment of the school to the industrial life of the community means\nmore than scientific farming. It means a larger number of farmers employing more intelligent methods.\nThe program committee evidently scented this same thought when they\nframed this subject — \"Education in the Country for the Country.\"\nTHE\n\nADJUSTMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEducation for the country will require an adjustment of the schools in\nthe country to the agricultural and domestic life of the country. This means,\nfirst, a change in the course of study. The country-school curriculum must\nbe modernized — so modified as to meet the intellectual, industrial, and social\nneeds of rural-community life. Experience has already demonstrated that\nsuch a curriculum is a most potent factor in promoting not only material\nwealth, but intellectual and moral as well.\nBut, second, the adjustment of the school to the industrial life of the community means more than a change in course of study. It means teachers\ntrained for and adjusted to a course of study adjusted to the agricultural life\nof the country. This training of teachers requires a state system of training\nschools whose scope is broad enough to educate and train, not only in mathematics, but in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and domestic science.\nThird, the adjustment of the school means more than change in curriculum,\ntrained leadership, and training schools. It means township and village\nhigh schools whose buildings are constructed and equipped with a view of\nadapting them to the modernized curriculum. This means more school\nrevenues in many localities; in other localities it means reorganization thru\nconsolidation and centralization of schools. The solution of the problems of\nsecuring more revenue where needed and reorganization thru consolidation\nand centralization where it is practical to do so, requires an enlightened\npublic sentiment. An expert, well-equipped, well-paid educational county\nofficial can do much to develop an intelligent public sentiment so essential\nto all school improvement.\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\n247\n\nThis brings me to the second statement of Hon. Elmer E. Brown, \"The\nproblem of more adequate countiy-school supervision.\"\nI prefer, however, to discuss this problem later in the paper, and retrace\nmy steps to consider the rural high school. In the \"adjustment of the school\nto the industrial life of the community,\" the high school is the essential and\nfundamental factor. I mean the high school in the country, not in the county seat or city.\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe rural high school is just as essential to a complete scheme of education\nfor the country as the city high school is to a complete scheme of education for\nthe city. There are many reasons why vigorous and aggressive measures\nshould be enacted to stimulate and build up the rural high school.\n1. Because country life and country environments afford a better opportunity for study and a better opportunity to secure the raw material for a\ngood education.\n2. The home of the youth of tender years is the best place in the world\nfor his boarding and lodging place.\n3. The rural high school will save several years now wasted in useless\nrepetition of studies.\n4. The rural high school affords the opportunity of securing an industrial\neducation suited to the needs of a rural people.\n5. The rural high school affords the opportunity for the development of\nthe rural spirit, a spirit that would magnify and exalt respect and love for\ncountry life, \"A spirit that would awaken a deeper interest in the children\nin the problems of rural betterment, and hasten the time when the rural community will be regarded as the ideal place in which to live.\"\n6. The rural high school could become the center of great agricultural\npossibilities. Let this school be equipped with a course of study and laboratory\nthe equal of the city school, and adapted to the rural community life, with\nan agricultural expert as one of the teachers, and who can estimate the rural\npossibilities that would result from such high-school centers in each township ?\nA high school so equipped would find numerous ways not only to develop\nthe rural spirit in the pupils, but to aid the farmers. The problem of fertilization, the problem of the different types of soil and crops adapted to each\ntype, the problem of crop rotation, of stock-judging, of protecting crops and\nfruits against the ravages of insects which destroy millions every season, the\nforest problem — these are a few of the many problems that an agricultural\nexpert in the rural high school could materially aid in solving.\n7. In addition to this work for the youth, this high-school agricultural\nteacher could conduct short courses in agriculture for the benefit of the farmers\nof the community. The agricultural department conducted by the United\nStates and the various states does not reach the average farmer. The agricultural reports and bulletins do not reach the most needy farmers.\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nThere has been a failure to connect the agricultural colleges and departments with the farmer. The rural high school could become the depository\nand distributing center for everything of value published by the agricultural\ncolleges and experiment stations.\nThe high-school agricultural teacher could awaken an interest in the value\nof these reports and bulletins, and these, with an agricultural library, would\nbecome effective in making a helpful connection between the farmers of each\ntownship and our agricultural schools. In these, and many other ways, the\nrural high school could awaken an interest and render inestimable service\nto the rural community.\n8. Undue emphasis should not be placed in the rural high school on industrial education. ''Man cannot live by bread alone.\" The course of study\nshould be well ballasted with academic studies. Education for avocation is\nat least equally as important as education for vocation. This rural high school\nshould become a center for many social and literary advantages. The ideal\nrural high school would have a library of wisely selected books, and become a\ncenter of distribution of the best books, magazines and periodicals, and\nscientific works demanded in the community. It would have a lecture course\nand other social and literary entertainments.\n9. Not many of our rural youth at present have the opportunity of securing a critical knowledge and appreciation of good literature. Without this\nknowledge, they cannot appreciate good books — books which during the\nhours when they are not employed in the struggle for bread and butter will\nmake life worth living. The culture studies, literature, history, music, and\nart, should have a large place in a course of study for the country. The rural\nas well as the city youth must be fitted \"to enjoy the things of the mind and\nhigher life, to think the best thoughts of the best men as these are enshrined\nin art and literature.\" I would have the rural high school made a potent\nculture-center and inspire the rural youth with the idea that the best place\nto live is in the country, and that scientific farming is as honorable and may\nbecome as great a profession as law or medicine.\nThe ideal rural high school would afford all these advantages and opportunities, and the general social, intellectual, and moral uplift ''would be too\ngreat to be estimated.\"\nTIME\n\nAND\n\nEFFORT\n\nBut you say that this adjustment and transformation will take time and\neffort. True, but the time is ripe to move toward this ideal by leaps and\nbounds. From many sources comes the cry of the decadence of our rural\nschools. Many rural communities are eager for the improvement of their\nschools. Our most intelligent farmers are coming to realize that a technical\nand scientific knowledge is essential to the most successful farming, and that\nthe rural youth must be taught these subjects to the end that we may perpetuate our agricultural prosperity. Yes, it will take time, and effort, and\norganization and legislation to solve this rural-school problem, but in solving\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\n249\n\nit we shall solve one of the most fundamental problems of this century — the\nproblem of checking the movement of population from the country to' the\ncity. One way to check this movement is to build up a system of rural schools\nwhich will give equality of educational opportunity to our rural youth.\nEducation in the country for the country needs heroic treatment. I do\nnot believe in making haste slowly in attempting to solve this problem. I\nbelieve in evolution — not a purely natural evolution, but evolution stimulated\nby vigorous organization, expert leadership, and wise legislation.\nIt is a trite saying that you cannot legislate people into righteousness; but\none of the chief functions of legislation is to create conditions favorable to\nrighteousness.\nLaw today, no less than in ancient Hebrew economy, is a\nand better ideals.\nschoolmaster to lead men to higher\nI\nMORE\n\nADEQUATE\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nThis discussion brings me to Commissioner Brown's second rural-school\nproblem — the problem of more adequate country-school supervision.\nAll of the states have made some provision for rural-school supervision;\nAll of the\nvery few have an adequate system of county-school supervision.\nstates west of the New England states, except Ohio and Arkansas, have some\nform of county supervision.\n\nIn Ohio, after nearly a half-century of optional township supervision, and\ntwelve years of township centralization, not more than 150 of the 1,369 townships are under supervision that supervises. More than a quarter of a million\nof rural-school youth in our state have no supervision worth the name.\nIn the states which have the best system of county supervision, marked\nimprovements have been made in the rural schools, but even here it is conceded that the county unit is too large for close, adequate supervision. The\ntownship unit, it is quite generally conceded, is too small for a state-wide\nsystem of adequate supervision. There is a growing tendency in Ohio toward\na system of rural-school supervision involving both of these principles — the\none expressed in a mandatory county superintendency, making the county\nthe unit for school administration; and the other principle expressed in\nmandatory group-township districts with a supervisor whose chief function\nis to be supervision. This scheme embodies both principles — the federating,\nsystematizing, and unifying principle, expressed in the county superintendent;\nand the close, adequate supervision principle, expressed in a group-township\ndistrict supervisor. This is the ideal toward which Ohio is striving and tending.\nAmong the numerous duties and powers vested in the county superintendent, the following should be some of the more specific powers:\n1. To study educational needs and conditions with a view of reorganizing the ruralschool system to meet the demands of this new industrial age.\n2. To create wholesome, enlightened public sentiment so essential to all school\nimprovement.\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "250\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\n3. To encourage centralization and consolidation where practicable, and grouptownship districts for effective supervision where the former are not practicable.\n4. To encourage, stimulate, and lead in the establishment of rural high schools.\n5. To become, as he has in some states, the Strong right arm of the state department\nof education.\n6. To federate, unify, and utilize all the educational forces of the country to make our\nrural-school education more vital and effective.\n\nThe county superintendent should be free to give much time to, and to\nplace great emphasis on, the rural-high-school problem. Under wise and\nexpert leadership, he could consolidate the township with the poor, struggling\nvillage high school and thus secure a sufi&cient tax duplicate to support one\nfirst-class high school with a strong department for the teaching of agriculture. The well-equipped rural high school, as I see it in our state, is\nfundamentally essential to an effective system of education in the country for\nthe country.\nI do not believe that it is feasible to introduce agriculture or any other\nphase of industrial education into the entire body of rural schools within a\nstate. I believe in the conclusion reached by the Committee on Industrial\nEducation made to the National Education Association five years ago, which\ndeclared that \"under existing conditions and under conditions likely to exist\nfor a long time to come, comparatively few teachers in the country schools will\nbe prepared for this work.\" The committee further says: \"In each country\nwhere the experiment has failed, the authorities have reported that the chief\nreason was the failure to secure teachers properly prepared to teach the\nsubject.\"\n\"It is evident that before this phase of industrial education can be made a\nsuccess in the one-room district school, there must be a body of teachers with\nspecial training for this work, that pupils must remain longer in school, that\nthere must be greater facilities for the training of teachers, and that salaries\nmust be materially increased,\" to which I wish to add that more men teachers\nmust engage in school work.\nI return, therefore, with even greater assurance to the conclusion reached\nbefore, that education in the country for the country must, under present conditions, be secured very largely thru the rural high school, and that we need\nmore adequate school supervision to foster and build up first-grade rural\nschools all over the country.\nWHAT\n\nHAS\n\nBEEN\n\nACCOMPLISHED\n\nFOR EDUCATION\nCOUNTRY ?\n\nIN THE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nFOR THE\n\nThe Hon. A. C. True, Director of the Office of Experiment Stations,\nWashington, D.C., in a recent address in Portland, Ore., tells us that much has\nbeen accomplished.\nWhen Secretary Wilson came to the Department of Agriculture twelve\nyears ago, there were but ten agricultural high schools in the country. Now\nthere are sixty agricultural high schools.\nThen there were few, if any,\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "(\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\n251\n\npublic high schools teaching agriculture; now there are three hundred and\nforty-six. Then there were but few schools training teachers to give instruction in agriculture; now there are one hundred and nineteen state or countynormal schools, and fifteen agricultural colleges training teachers to give\ninstruction in this subject. Our agricultural colleges can do much, have\ndone much in some of the states, but they cannot do all the work. The separate agricultural high schools supported in part by the states have been established in some of the states. Alabama, Georgia, California, Minnesota, New\nYork, and Oklahoma have congressional-district agricultural high schools.\nWisconsin, Maryland, Michigan, and Mississippi are trying the experiment\nof county agricultural schools with a large measure of success. Add to all\nthese the work in private schools and correspondence schools along the line\nof this phase of industrial education and it will appear that much has been\naccomplished in the last decade.\nThis movement has gained tremendous headway until, according to a\n^recent bulletin statement from the Department of Agriculture at Washington,\nthere are now more than five hundred educational institutions in the United\nStates engaged in training teachers how to teach agriculture in the public\n'\nschools.\nThe present scope of instruction in agriculture would not be complete\nwithout adding the efforts made in some of the states in the township high\nschools. This movement has begun in Ohio, and I believe will spread rapidly\nover our state. More than a score of township high schools are doing effective work in agriculture. In my own native township. Union, in Hancock\nCounty, Ohio, an $18,000 building, the greater part of which will be devoted\nto the high school, with a well-equipped laboratory for the teaching of agriculture, not only to the pupils, but to the farmers as well, is now being planned\nand erected.\nA normal-school bill, making provision for two additional state normal\nschools for Northern Ohio, is now pending in the General Assembly. It is\nwritten in the bill that, in planning said buildings, provision shall be made\nIfor well-equipped departments for instruction and training in agriculture.\nOhio believes in the conclusion reached by the Committee on Industrial\nEducation already referred to, that trained teachers are necessary to make a\nsuccess of any phase of industrial education. These agricultural departments\nare to train teachers for our rural high schools.\nWHAT\n\nMORE\n\nCAN\n\nBE\n\nDONE?\n\nThe State Fair Board, the agricultural colleges, the state grange, the state\ntraining schools in agriculture, the agricultural experiment stations, and all\nother organized agencies along this phase of industrial education should\nfederate their forces and more closely ally their aims and efforts. In too many\nstates now, each seems to be independent of the other. They should be made\nto articulate at some points more closely.\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nIt also occurs to me that there might be organized with profit an interstate\ncommission on agricultural education — an interstate commission composed\nof states whose climatic and industrial conditions are quite similar.\nThe public-school men must become more active and helpful in the solution of this, one of the most vital problems of the age — education in the country\nfor the country, and thus aid without litigation in removing one of the chief\ncauses of the high cost of living, and aid in creating conditions more conducive\nto a higher and nobler type of American citizenship.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn F. Haines, county superintendent of schools, Noblesville, Ind. — The function\nof the school is to educate the child: the function of education is to furnish the child\n(i) the ability to make a living, (2) the ability to make a life.\nI put the ability to make a living first, because the man who cannot make a living\ndoes not and cannot command the respect of his fellows.\nWhat then must be the education of the country boy to enable him to stand in the community as a man of property and at the same time be a useful member of society ?\nWe are pretty well agreed that a change in our present covirse of study is needed, but\nno change has yet been suggested that is acceptable. We are so wedded to traditions that\nwe are not willing to give up our \"partial payments,\" our map questions, and our long\nline of dates in history. Both the school nen and the farmers are to blame for the present\nstate of affairs. The school man sits in his study and evolves a \"course of study for the rural\nschool.\" He sees in his \"mind's eye\" the country child, by pursuing the subjects that he\nsuggests and in the order that he suggests, become an \"agriculturist,\" not a farmer. Such\na course usually does more harm than good. The author of it does not know the conditions\nand cannot know them by merely reading about them or hearing about them.\nThe farmer is opposed to a change in the curriculum. He wants his boy to study\nbooks; the boy can learn to work at home, and the girl can learn to cook and sew under\nthe instruction of her mother. What then must be done to improve the conditions in the\nrural schools ?\n1. Men who deal with this problem must be men who come into direct contact with\nconditions as they exist.\n2. The public opinion of the r\\iral communities must be changed.\nIt is evident that in the grades great slices of arithmetic and geography and history\nmust be cut off and cast out, and in their places must be put manual training, some of the\nsimpler phases of agriculture, and music, drawing, and reading, reading, reading.\nIn the high school much of the Latin and German and the higher mathematics and\nthe so-called science work could well be omitted. The Latin seems to develop in the boys\na propensity for swearing, and mathematics a weakness for tears in the girls. In chemistry,\nand sometimes even in botany, the pupil, after a full term's work, says, \"What is it all\nabout ?\"\nBut what would the colleges do for students prepared to enter ? There would be one\nsatisfaction, that those who entered would know how to work and the education acquired\nwould \"stick\" better than much of the college education under the present plan, which,\nlike paper put on a whitewashed wall, peels off soon after examination day.\nEducation in the country to accomplish its purpose must do at least two things. It\nmust put the child in possession of a knowledge of its environments and give him skill in\nthe use of this knowledge. It must also give him culture and refinement. This, to my\nmind, must be accomplished not by establishing trade schools and agricultural high schools\nin different sections, but by eliminating from the present course of study some of the things\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n253\n\nthat I have already indicated and putting in their places agriculture, manual training,\nand domestic science.\nIt is claimed that we could not find teachers prepared to teach these subjects. True,\nbut neither can we find teachers prepared to teach arithmetic, grammar, and history.\nThe great trouble in my own county is, not that we cannot find teachers who are prepared\nor who are willing to prepare, but that if the course of study prescribed by the state board\nof education is carried out there is but little time left for anything else. The pupil desires\nto complete this course in the common school so that he may enter the high school and the\nhigh school adheres to its course in order that it may remain on the commissioned list. If\nwe could have a course of study requiring a minimum amount of work instead of minimum\ngrades in certain subjects it would help us wonderfully.\nIn some of the high schools in my county we offer courses in agricultural and domestic\n;ience, but the cry year after year is that we have not the time to do this and carry out\nle prescribed course.\nThe farmers themselves have opposed such instruction in the schools, but when it is\n)nce introduced they are soon converted.\nThe children are ready and anxious \"to do\nlings.\"\nSome years ago I organized a Boys' Corn Club in Hamilton County, the first\nv&c organized by a school man.\nI thought it would be better for the boys to raise corn\nlan to raise so much of the proverbial \"Cain.\"\nThe result is that a large number of these\n)ys have become expert corn-growers and have taught their fathers how to select and test\nle seed.\nIn some of our rural schools we have introduced manual training, and here again\n\\he parents are converted.\nAlmost without exception the boys who raise the best corn and\nwho do the best work at the bench are the leaders in their classes\nWhat then should be done for education in the country ? In the Middle West this\nshould be done: whenever it is possible the schools should be consolidated so that in each\nschool there would be at least two teachers, the principal, a man who should receive not\nless than fifty dollars for each month in the year. Just as soon as he has proven himself\nthe man for the place he should be installed so that he could not be removed without just\ncause. He should live in the community and have his interests there. He should be placed\nin charge of from ten to twenty acres of land and this should be the experiment plot for the\nneighborhood. Place in this school also a young woman who can teach the girls. Then\ngive them time and material and see what will be accomplished. Give the high schools\na chance to train teachers for these rural schools and they will do it.\nBut I would not neglect the culture side. I would have the country children taught\nmusic and drawing and literature in abundance. I would have the boy taught to build a\nbetter house and beautify the farm. I would have the girl taught to beautify the home\nand make it attractive.\nWhen education in the country is made for the country, then the highest type of manhood will be developed there in the future just as it has been in the past.\n\nTOPIC:\nINDUSTRIAL\nBEN\n\nW.\n\nCHILDREN\n\nDIFFER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nJOHNSON,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nIN\n\nIN VOCATIONAL\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nOF MANUAL\nTRAINING,\nSEATTLE, WASH.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nAIMS\nSCHOOL\nSCHOOLS,\n\nFor the sake of clearness, I define \"vocational\" to be that which pertains\nto a definite occupation, and \"industrial\" that which pertains to all occupations— ideas of materials and processes, their production, manufacture, and\ndistribution.\nI may also safely assume that children do differ in mental alertness, in\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "254\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nmental attitudes, tastes, and tendencies, in environment, in physical condition,\nand likewise in vocational aim. The previous speakers have so interpreted\nthese topics in their discussion of them, consequently the kind and character\nof the education the child is to receive must be so modified that every child\nwill have his opportunity to grow and develop according to these fundamental\ndifiFerences.\nThe question arises: When do these differences become dominant in the\nlife of the child so that we can, with reasonable accuracy, determine what they\nare, their charg,cter and strength, what of stimulus to give them, what of\nredirection for the good of the child and his future needs ?\nI quote the expression of more than one educational writer in stating that\n*'it is a growing conviction that the elementary period as now organized must\nbe modified to meet this new situation.\" The elementary period as such\nshould end at about twelve years or the sixth grade, and the seventh and eighth\ngrades with the first, and possibly the second, year of the high school should be\norganized into a separate or intermediate department.\nThis plan would have a number of advantages over the so-called six-year\nhigh school. To add two years at the beginning of the high school without\nmodifying the point of view of most of the secondary work would not remedy\nto any extent the present exodus from the school after the first year. Again,\nthis period, the intermediate, is a unified period where we consider the best\ninterests of the child, and the school should be organized solely to that end.\nThe upper grammar grades are now using methods and organization copies\nfrom the lower grades and are attempting to treat the subjects from the standpoint of the high school. In this intermediate school the subjects, fewer in\nnumber for each pupil, would be studied from the standpoint of social need\nand not as separate subjects. The transition from the elementary to the\nhigh school proper would be easier, and the changes would come at the time\nof needed adjustment. The courses offered would permit the child who\nexpected to continue in school an opportunity to elect a language, and to\nthose children who could not continue, the opportunity to select an industrial\ncourse, or pre-apprenticeship course, ending at about the sixteenth or seventeenth year. This course would also permit the pupil to pass easily to the\nhigh school if he, later, desired to do so.\nThere is nothing to be gained, apparently, in having separate schools at\nthe intermediate period for the two lines of work. The \"industrial cultural\"\nand the \"academic cultural \" as Mr. Person^ calls them, could be accommodated\nin the same institution with all the advantages of the same social and administrative organization such as now obtains in most of our high schools with their\ndifferent courses. The place for the separate school is after the sixteenth\nyear when a definite vocation or trade is to be taught.\nBerkeley, Cal., voted to try a similar plan of organization of its public\nschools, beginning the past January. Superintendent F. F. Bunker has\norganized the seventh and eighth grades together with the ninth grade of the\nI Industrial Education (1907).\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n255\n\nhigh school and placed all these pupils in three convenient school centers and\nplaced in charge of them strong teachers of broad culture and wide experience\nin teaching pupils of this age and hopes thereby to make the transition from\nthe elementary school to the departmental work of the high school much\neasier. He also believes \"it will aid in establishing a community feeling or\ngroup responsibility, under favorable conditions, with pupils totally lacking\nin this respect in the elementary schoool.\"\nThis intermediate school would correspond to a similar organization in\nEuropean schools, with the further great advantage of their being democratic\n— \"open at the top\" to further education or training and open at the bottom\nto any bo}'S or girls old enough to enter.\nAs to the evils of early specialization that this scheme seems to favor,\nthe reply is, that specialization is not the purpose of such a school, nor can it\nbe when we consider the nature of the child and the character of the instruction he should receive.\nIs not specialization largely dependent upon the way a subject or course\nof study is presented? If for the subject alone, it is specialization; if for\nthe subject in its relations to individual and social need, it is not specialization.\nThe child is not narrowed in his outlook on life. The trouble with the cry\nof \"early specialization\" is that the assertion is too often made from the narrow\nstandpoint of the so-called academic cultural course which considers all other\nlines of study narrow because they use the life-material of today as cultural\nelements.\nThe segregation of the particularly bright pupils of the seventh and eighth\ngrades that they may do part of the high-school work and thereby gain a year,\nis a recognition of this need and is very good as far as it goes. It is not broad\nenough unless it places equal emphasis upon the industrial and academic\ncourses, and classifies all pupils for mental alertness according to their native\ntastes and interests. Culture and intellectuality are not the exclusive products of any one course. If in such segregated groups only such academic\nstudies are given as will lead directly to the high school and college, too much\nemphasis is given to a line of study too long considered the peculiar possession\nof the socially and intellectually select. Democracy should grant an equal\nopportunity, but not necessarily the same opportunity, not to a few specially\nselected, but to all pupils according to capacity, taste, and interest.\nMr. Ayres states the following:\nFrom available data it appears safe to say that for every pupil making rapid progress\nthere are from eight to ten making slow progress and for every term gained by the rapid\npupils, from ten to twelve are lost by the slow ones. The courses of study of our city\nschool systems are adjusted to the powers of the brightest pupils. They are beyond\nthe powers of the average pupil, and far beyond those -of the slower ones.^\n\nI venture the assertion that a lop-sided school course is largely responsible\nfor this state of affairs. Why do we not \"get busy\" and correct this state\n^ The Laggard in Our Schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "256\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nof affairs? There is $27,000,000 a year in it to be saved, according to Mr.\nAyres' estimate of our losses thru this cause, to say nothing of the children we\ncan save.\nI will not take space to give details of an industrial course in such an intermediate school, but refer you to others who have covered this point quite\nthoroly. Dr. Haney gives such an outline in the Educational Review, November, 1907; Mr. Selvidge, in the Manual Training Magazine of June, 1909,\nand Mr. Dodd, in the same magazine for December, 1909; Mr. Dean, in a\ncircular, The Albany Vocational School, issued by the Division of Trade\nSchools, Department of Education, New York, of which he is chief. The last\ntwo are working schedules now in operation. The Report of the Special\nCommittee on Industrial Education of the American Federation of Labor\nalso gives similar suggestions for courses. All of these writers, with the exception of Mr. Selvidge, call their courses vocational, meaning that they are industrial courses that will help the pupil choose some definite vocation which he\nwill later pursue as an apprentice or in a trade school. They recommend a\nlonger school day and from one-third to one-half of the time to be spent in\nhandwork or household arts and drawing.\nIt is interesting to note, in passing, that the kind of handwork proposed is\nthe same now given in any good manual-training course for the seventh,\neighth, and ninth grades, but giving more time to it. Another point of\nimportance is that these industrial, cultural courses in these intermediate\nschools are presented from the standpoint of social need, as is likewise each\nsubject of the course — science, mathematics, history, geography, and language.\nNow the elementary period proper would include all children from the\nfirst to the end of the sixth grade, the period when practically all the children\nare in the school.\nThe psychology of the child of this period should be the key to the character\nmethods used for his education.\nThe vocational aim, if this play-imitation and play-utility time of life may\nbe so called, is only significant as indicating a means of connecting in his\nmind the relations that exist in the industrial world.\nFrom this standpoint, all the children of this period may be classed together,\nand the course be uniform. The things they need to know are the ones of\nfundamental service to society. These things the masses must have to get on\nat all. These are first the tools of communication, reading and writing, how\nto use one's own language, to perform the simple operations of arithmetic\nand of accounting, and also get somewhat of sympathetic knowledge of his\ncity, county, and national government, politically and industrially, and as to\nbodily welfare, he should know the simple laws of health and sanitation, the\nconditions of welfare everyone needs to know to protect himself and to protect society as well.\nAs society is made up of the activities of man and the expression of his aims\nand ideals in these activities, industry is the warp and woof that knits together\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n257\n\nthe whole fabric, and makes man economically dependent upon every other\nman. What, then, shall be the medium for bringing this rich content cf life\nto the child's experience, so that while he develops as an individual, and\nbecomes more and more practiced in the instruments of communication and\nexpression, he will also get his social bearings, and have the spirit of play at\nthe activities of man preserved, and gradually transmitted into the spirit\nof work and participation in the industries of the world ?\nThe school, as the recognized agent of society for giving the coming generation what the larger whole requires, has always been tardy in modifying its\nfunctions to the rapid changes in developing society. The sciences had a hard\ntime breaking into the sacred precincts of the classics, in response to new\ndiscoveries and social needs. Manual training was no exception to the rule,\nand as the expression of the laboratory idea applied to secondary education,\ngained its recognition from the school almost solely upon disciplinary grounds\nof mental culture; but from the practical world of industry it sought and gained\nrecognition because it taught the fundamentals to all the arts. It has evolved\nfrom this disciplinary conception of the tool and exercise, thru the Sloyd\nperiod to the art-craft stage. And most manual training of today is now in\nthis stage of progress.\nThe emphasis has shifted from the disciplinary value of the process to\nthe worth of the process in carrying out the constructive idea of the child.\nThere has developed a difference of opinion as to what should be the\nsource of these ideas of construction — in other words, the content of this\nactivity. Some believe that the chief value such construction has is in the\nopportunity it gives the child for the expression of the impressions received\nin history, reading, nature study, etc.\nSome have taken almost the opposite view and have considered the different activities represented in construction as different forms of industry and\nhave, therefore, developed the school work about these activities as a basis\nfor the other subjects of the curriculum. The school problem is attacked\nfrom the industrial social side. The school work is correlated with some form\nof industrial work as a \"center of interest.\"\nOthers, again, have given it an industrial content, a study of industries,\nbut adapting the course to the developing stages of the child's growth. Beginning with the home and its activities, the child is led to connect its activities to\nthose of primitive man, and each stage of man's development is recapitulated\nin his industrial activities until they are used to interpret the present life\nto the child.\nThis last conception of the content of the manual arts is indicative of the\nfourth stage in its evolution. They are a means of connecting the present\nindustrial life to that of the school. The manual arts are no longer ends in\nthemselves, but a means to an end, instruments of social service. As I understand this, it does not mean that all that is good in technique with its ideals of\nworkmanship, or the useful and beautiful model or garment, the constructive\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "258\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nideas of the child developing his initiative and efficiency, are to be any the less\nconsidered or neglected because v^^e nov^ see these factors as elements fundamental to industrial life, and change the viewpoint or avenue of approach\nto that of the social significance of the manual arts. We then start from the\nother end, and select those industries of dominant social worth of which these\nelements now making up a manual-training course are or may be typical\nproblems.\nThere have been and are now a number of experiments that are seeking\nto make this ideal of the manual arts a reality in an ordinary school situation.\nOne plan has made an analysis of the great forces that man has controlled\nfor his own service and thru which the race has advanced industrially. Power\nin its various manifestations was considered: wind, water, steam, gas, and\nelectric power, and from these, typical forms were chosen within the capacity\nof the pupil, who then proceeded to construct them, considering materials,\ntools, processes. Technique and workmanship were developed in response\nto a real need and the problem connected up with real life.\nIn the same way, transportation was made the central subject of the handwork, and the class, individually and together, worked out problems illustrating this factor in man's development. Shelter was next considered, and\nmodern methods of building a brick house, even to the making of the bricks,\nformed the problem.\nAnother plan of industrial approach, thru the manual arts, has taken up\nthe modern methods of manufacture. The class has taken paper-box making\n(cardboard work was the handwork for this grade and there was a demand\nfor boxes) to work out first individually, and then as a class, each individual\nmaking only a part — \"doing piecework.\" The conditions affecting the worker\nand the product were considered by the class and the advantage of co-operation in the amount and uniformity of the product, and the disadvantages as\nto the individual pieceworker if limited to the one process.\nThese two plans, one from Newark, N.J., the other from Boston, Mass.,\nshow what can be done under present school organization. They also show\nthat very capable teachers are necessary, and whether we reorganize the system\nor not, more money for the schools is a necessity if they are to perform this\nlarger service in education.\nMr. Oscar L. McMurry and Mr. Frank McMurry^ give a very clear\nstatement of this point of view.\nIn order that a body of thought may take high rank as a study, it must consist of more\nthan a few isolated concrete pieces of work. These must be both numerous and closely\ninterrelated, or, at least, if not so connected as to form a unified whole, must consist of\ntopics capable of forming thought complexes of considerable magnitude. In addition to\nthat, they must find their origin in some broad and deeply significant phase of human life\ncomparable to that of literature or history.\nNow the manual arts are the special representatives in the public-school curricula\nof the productive activities, consisting of selected parts of the trades and industries. The\nnumber of these is legion.\n\nConsider under the broad division, \"shelter,\" the group involved\n\nI An Arts Course for the Grades, Chicago Normal School Press.\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n259\n\nin house-building alone, such as carpentry, masonry, plastering, plumbing, heating, lighting, glazing, trimming, painting, and decorating, and the many upon which these\nare directly dependent, as for instance, lumbering, milling, brickmaking, manufacturing\nof hardware and of plumbing goods, glassmaking, etc. Again, under \"clothing\" consider\nthe making of a simple skirt which, as we see, involves some knowledge of weaving, spinning,\nthe nature of the raw material used, such as cotton, wool, or silk, the dyeing, soap-making,\nand laundering. Under \"food \" it is seen that cooking is directly concerned with gardening,\nmilling of grain, canning of fruit, plumbing, and a score of occupations.\nThus the groups of facts in these fields are extensive and interrelated. These industries, too, have a far-reaching physical and ethical bearing on mankind, directly involving\nthe welfare of all the people.\nThe manual arts, therefore, as representatives of the industries, and including principles of both construction and living, are highly worthy of respect and of a place on the\nschool program\nEnough valuable thought bearing on industry can be offered to\nquicken and sharpen wits, not only for the sake of greater mental quickness and acuteness\nin general — or, indirectly, of making tradesmen and industrialists out of pupils — but of\nmaking them more sympathetic and intelligent in regard to such pursuits and convincing\nthem that opportunity and greatness lie within those fields, as well as without.\nIn determining the parts for such a curriculum, based on the belief that the cultural\nidea of the manual arts is productive activity in the field of materials, they use the term\nsocial industries as best expressing the content and limits of the field, and they determine\nthe choice of the trades and industries by the four factors: (i) their relative importance\nin social life remembering the individual environment; (2) the ability of the pupil; (3)\ninterest to be excited by an industry; and finally (4) practicability from the point of view\nof equipment.\nThe industry having been decided upon, the conditions determining the individual\ntasks selected will be its capacity to throw light upon the character of such an industry\nand the closeness of its relation to other chosen topics.\n\nI have referred to these examples of the changed point of view arising in\nthe manual arts for several reasons. First, in answer to the criticism that\nthe manual arts have failed to help the working-man. It is not the province\nof the elementary school to teach vocations as such, and again, the children\nwho later make the so-called working-class are even now directly unaffected\nby any manual training, for they leave school too early. Second, some believe\nthat manual arts have no value other than as a means for teaching applied\ndesign, or of affording a means of expression for the other subjects of the curriculum. While this may be true of some manual-art courses that have been\nemasculated by the academician, the critic ignores the real elements of the\nmanual arts and that they, too, are being socialized. And lastly, industrial\neducation for the elementary period, believed to be a necessity, can be\nrealized more quickly by using the manual arts we now have, modified to meet\nthe situation.\nWhat to do is clear. First, establish manual training, manual arts, or\nindustrial courses, whatever name suits the need, in all our elementary schools.\nThe latest statistics give only 1 50 secondary schools out of a possible 9,000\nas manual-training or industrial schools. Of the 1,300 city school systems,\nonly one-half of them have any manual training and but 150 of them have\nwork in all the grades and 100 have courses in the high school.*\nI U. S. Bureau 0} Education Reports.\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapoljs\n\nTho manual training is characterized by one writer as a \"fungus growth\non an ill-proportioned and misshapen curriculum that needs not so much to\nbe pruned and trained as to be uprooted and replaced by a more vigorous and\nmore productive plant,\" this desirable attainment, much as we believe in it,\ncannot be gained by a revolution, but by evolution. The manual training of\nthe past can be easily changed to industrial education, the need of the present,\nif its advocates and friends catch the significance of the social industrial movement of the day.\nSuch an organization of the curriculum is suggested by Dean Russell,^\nwho recommends that the \"instruction in the public schools be classified under\nthree heads: (a) The humanities, including language and literature, history\nand civics, and the fine arts; (6) the sciences, including mathematics, geography,\nphysics, chemistry, and biology; and (c) the industries, including the study\nof materials and the dominant processes in the successive stages of production,\nmanufacture, and distribution.\nThis classification is a great step forward for it gives equal recognition to the\nthree groups that make up human thought and achievement, and, if adopted,\nwould give new dignity to the industrial arts and do much to correct the false\nstandard of what is of most worth in the attainment of culture.\nMy contention is that children do differ in vocational aim and that, therefore, industrial education must be a necessary part of the elementary curriculum. To realize this, the present elementary period should be divided\nafter the sixth grade, and the seventh and eighth grade, together with the first,\nand possibly the second, year of the high school, become an intermediate\nschool with elective courses, one of which would be an industrial course leading to a trade or vocational school or back to the high school, or out to an\napprenticeship and industry. The first six grades should be the elementary\nschool proper in which the course would be the same for all pupils and based on\nchild growth and the demands of society, and should have as one of its\nelements industrial education, manual training evolutionized, as a means of\nrelating the schools to industry, and of making the child more sympathetic and\nintelligent in regard to the work of the world. And lastly, the first step forward is to modify existing manual-training courses and continue to establish\nthem until they are a part of every school curriculum.\n\nVOCATIONAL\nW. F. WEBSTER,\n\nEDUCATION\nPRINCIPAL\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nOF EAST SIDE HIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMINNEAPOLIS,\n\nMINN.\n\nThe United States has become a rich and powerful nation. We recall\nthat a narrow strip of land a thousand miles long was this whole nation in\n1775. The three millions of people that dwelt along the Atlantic seaboard\nhave multiplied and pushed westward over the AUeghanies, across the broad\nI \"The School and Industrial Life,\" Educational Review, December, 1909.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] VOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n261\n\nprairies, up the towering Rockies, and down the Pacific; and ever3rwhere as\nthey went, Proserpina-like, they have left scattered along their path the tokens\nof modern civilization — happy farmsteads, wonderful cities, palaces of art,\nand temples of learning. No wonder the great industries spring up in this\nland of limitless resources, or that the products of our factories have reached\nthe enormous total of $14,802.147,087 .00. Neither is it any wonder that the\nworld's money market has moved from London to New York, and the United\nStates is the only great nation whose exports exceed its imports.\nOur wealth has been gained largely by the exchange of raw materials\nfor gold; but when the day arrives that our coal, our iron ore, and our forests\nare gone, Americans, like other nations, will be forced back upon their wits.\nThe battle for supremacy in the commerce of this world is to be a battle of\nbrains. It is the vision of a dubious future that has turned the attention of\nbusiness to the conservation of our resources and the development of our\nindustries; for American industry has its one vulnerable point — its labor\nis unskilled. And it is to the public schools that the directors of large industries\nlook for a supply of skilled workmen. The result is that business is fast\nindustrializing education.\nYet business is not wholly responsible. Educators have long seen the\nneed of training for youth that will save them from the helplessness of inefficiency. The education that served well the nineteenth century is antiquated\nin the first decade of the twentieth century. Now it is the ability to do something that the world wants done that our schools must give to youth.\nAnd last to enter the field and advocate vocational training is labor. It\nhas seemed a mystery to many of us that labor has waited so long; but until\nrecently labor has been ignorant of its power to effect great changes in government; ithas waged a continual struggle with capital; and it has looked upon\nschools for the development of skill as seminaries of scabs and strike-breakers.\nHowever, the dignified statement issued by the Federation of Labor at its\nToronto convention is a prophecy of a large expansion in school usefulness\nand an absolute guarantee of the nation's advance toward industrial supremacy.\nThese three classes of society — the representatives of business, the representatives of labor, and the representatives of education — must counsel\ntogether if we are to have a true solution of this greatest economical problem\nbefore the American people today. In their deliberations base selfishness\nmust be eliminated. Only two master motives should guide them — a wish\nto help youth forward on the journey toward success, and a desire to make\nAmerica leader in the realm of commerce.\nA few principles seem pretty well established. It has been demonstrated\nthat differentiation of pupils into certain large groups may safely begin as\nearly as the seventh grade; yet the definite choice of a vocation must not be\nmade before the high-school period. No person can feel reasonably sure of\nhis advice to a boy on this momentous question until he has entered the period\nof his adolescence.\nThis is the time when the youth reveals himself and\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianap(jlis\n\n1—\n\nannounces by unmistakable traits the work in which he is qualified to gajin\nsuccess; and it the time when leg and arm and hand most readily adapt\nthemselves to the demands of the chosen life.\nMoreover, vocational training in secondary schools should be just what its\nname indicates — real training for the trades. Whatever occupations are\nchosen, these should be the center around which all the other work shall be\nordered and arranged, so that the whole shall be one symmetrical unit. The\natmosphere of the laboratories should be the atmosphere of a well-conducted\nshop. Accuracy and skill should come first; but quickness at work, real\ntrade efficiency should always be kept before the youth; for his value in the\nworld depends quite as truly on how much he can do as upon how well he\ncan do.\nIn order that the vocational idea may dominate all the work, and also that\na real increment of skill may be gained, a large part of the da)' must be given\nover to labor with the hands — at least one-half the time. Even then there\nis a remainder large enough to give all the theory necessarj^ for most crafts —\nmuch more than is now possessed by many workmen — and, in addition, to\nimpart some needed information concerning the duties of citizenship and the\nrights of men. For if we may believe those in this work, the avidity shown\nby bo}'S in gaining knowledge when it contributes definitely to the calling\nby which ihey propose to earn a living will compensate in no small degree for\nthe shortened hours. Have the school day a full eight-hour day, divided\nabout equally between study and recitation on the one hand, and the shops\nand laboratories on the other; and this work time should be spent in a real\nworkshop, where real things are being done, under the guidance of real workmen.\nIn such a school the theory of any occupation can be taught and some degree\nof proficiency can be acquired; but it is not easy to carry the work so far as\nto make of our graduates journeymen in the trades. Efficient skill follows\ncontinued repetition and large practice. It is very difficult for schools to\nobtain stairways to build or steam plants to install. For finishing off a journeyman, itseems much wiser and more economical that a boy should be indentured\nto some employer to serve from one to three years as an apprentice. But right\nhere arises a difficulty. The labor unions, in order to protect themselves\nfrom an overcrowded labor market, have limited narrowly the number of\napprentices a shop or a contractor may employ; nor has the master workman\nalways been at great pains to teach an apprentice the mysteries of his craft.\nSome new adjustments must be made; the leaders of organized labor should\ncome to the aid of the schoolmaster. For the youth of this land have the\nright to demand of their fathers and of the state the opportunity of choosing\nand learning a trade. And if narrow selfishness seals the ear against the\npleading of thousands of sons, then the state will be driven to assume the\nentire responsibility for apprentices and master workmen. What reason\ncan be urged for limiting the number that may enter the trades that cannot,\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] VOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n263\n\nwith even greater force, be urged regarding the professions? Restriction\nof numbers should not be secured by saying to youth \"You will not be permitted to learn this trade\"; but the trades should be guarded as the professions are guarded, by examinations, so that only the worthy are admitted.\nThe lazy, the ignorant, the unskilled are today an incubus upon labor; and\nthey bring the whole body of organized labor into disrepute and ill-favor with\nemployers. Allow only skilled workmen in the unions, make of each organization abody of intelligent men, striving to render all its members of greater\nservice to the community, and labor will attract to its ranks the best blood of\nthe nation and acquire a dignity and standing in the earth which it has not\nyet attained. Then the law of political economy which regulates the market\nfor other products will operate in the labor market; and the numbers seeking\na given trade or profession will rise or fall with the fluctuations of supply and\ndemand.\nAnd again, if we are to retain the fluent qualities of democracy, if we are\nto escape the slow hardening of society into layers, vocational training must\nbe kept in close touch with the other work of the school. It is true that the\nair of a shop can be best secured where no other education is being carried\non. It is also true that what is needed today even more than industrial training in our schools is a high regard by every class for real work, no matter what\nit may be, or w^herever or by whomsoever it may be done. And if the alternative be this, the present association of all classes in the democracy of our\nhigh schools, or the segregation of those that labor with the hands from those\nthat are to make a leisure aristocracy of wealth and snobbishness, then industrial training would better be abandoned: for this nation will survive even\nwith our present methods of education; but a democracy cannot long endure\nwhere the whole plan of instruction encourages the haughty selfishness of\nplutocracy and domineering arrogance of a ruling class. Big-hearted, broad\nhuman sympathy, a recognition of the worth of every man that honestly toils,\na feeling that a man's a man for a' that he may pour a mold or wipe a joint,\ncomes from an intermingling of humanity, and a consequent understanding\nof one by the other; and this association is possible only before the paths of\nlifQ lead men apart into the vocations of manhood. All must learn together —\nsome Latin, some bookkeeping, and some steam-fitting. And while laboring\nside by side, each will gain the prize he seeks; but with the acquisition of\nknowledge and skill, there will flow a yet richer blessing to democracy — a\ncertain largeness of sympathy, free from suspicion and selfishness, a sympathy\nso big, so all-embracing that it presages the dawn of a new day, when labor\nand capital shall know each other, and peace and good will shall dictate the\npolicies of the leaders of industry.\nAnd yet another and possibly a greater advantage will follow from retaining our present method of organization. Life disasters will be even more\nfrequent than now if the early choice of father or child is irrevocable. Life\nfor the average workman is narrow and circumscribed; his vision seldom\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\npenetrates beyond the gray windows of the shop where he toils. After labor\nis done, his associates are his fellow-workmen. In this limited confine he\nlives; and here he gathers about him his family. When the time comes that\nhe must choose the course of his child's life, he naturally turns to the occupations he knows; and the child is in all probability set in the path of his father.\nThe child of the mason will take up his father's trowel; the barber's son will\nfind his place at the barber's chair; Harry Biggerstaff will succeed Tom\nBiggerstafif in the little blacksmith shop. Moreover, until the boy reaches\nhis twelfth year, his father or one of his father's companions is his ideal; and\nin realizing this ideal he believes he will find his greatest happiness. A choice\nat this time might be disastrous; for the conditions surrounding both father\nand son make a wise choice almost impossible; and the determining influences\nof home and environment conspire together to hold the child of the tradesclasses ih the stratum of society to which he was born. To offset the mistakes\nof ignorance and the restriction of environment, and to allow each youth to\nfind the work that he can do best, freedom to shape his growing life must be\nhis. The insurmountable barriers that hedge in the children of the laboring\nclasses must be broken down; and liberty, which makes it easy for a boy\nto pass from one vocation to another, if he finds that some one has blundered,\nmust be substituted for the bondage almost sure to follow the infinite differentiation ofthis industrial era.\nAnd how many a time have we all met a youth in the middle of his highschool course still undecided upon the question of his future calling! He\ndoes everything well; so far there seems to be no special adaptation that calls\nhim to some peculiar field of endeavor. How easy to send him to a trade\nschool or a commercial school and make of him a fair accountant or machinist,\nwhen some years later he makes the sad discovery that he should be an architect. The separate commercial school had disclosed but a small sector of\nlife's pursuits; he was not privileged to look upon the whole circle of vocations.\nSoon the obligations of manhood are upon him, and change is impossible;\nthe shades of the prison-house begin to close about the growing youth. The\nsoul of a builder of cities withers in the breast of a commonplace bookkeeper.\nI realize that the period of childhood will be yet further lengthened by\nsuch a system; but that is the law of advancing intelligence. Children will\nnot so early become productive money-getters; but shall we thrust children\ninto shops and factories, while men go up and down our streets begging for\nwork ? And what matters it to this nation whether the balance of trade is a\nhalf billion or a billion in our favor ? It is enough as it is. Fifty years from\ntoday the United States will look across the great seas and find there but one\nrival — all Europe combined. But if human life is worth more than steel\nbridges; if life-happiness is to be weighed against bank-balances; if success\nis to be reckoned in joyous satisfaction, and a nation is honored more by its\nmen than by the stifling power of mammoth combinations of wealth; then the\nAmerican school with all its present freedom and fluency is the ideal school\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n265\n\nfor a democracy, which still holds to the truth that all men are created equal\nand endowed with certain inalienable rights — among them life, liberty, and\nthe pursuit of happiness.\nAnd it is for an extension of our American education that I plead. It is\nmen that this nation needs — not arms, not fingers, not eyes — working fragments\nof men; but whole, integral men — men whose hands are strong, whose brains\nare thinking, whose hearts beat high with hope. But a courageous spirit\nseldom dwells with an empty stomach or a shivering back. It is not so hard\nfor a man to be true to himself when he knows that his two strong hands guided\nby a trained mind can win for those he loves the comforts of life. Poverty\ncannot demand of such a one the sacrifice of principle; the cries of hungry\nchildren will not drive him to abdicate manhood's throne. With feet planted\nfirmly on the solid earth of self-support, he throws his shoulders back and\nbreathes the free air of manly independence. Every youth that has the\nindwelling consciousness of strength to meet the world with its hardships and\ndiscouragements holds the surest prophecy of a life of usefulness; and a high\ncharacter in the j'Outh of a nation is a firm foundation of true greatness and a\nsure promise of enduring grandeur.\n\nW.\n\nB.\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPRESCOTT,\n\nSECRETARY,\nINTERNATIONAL\nTYPOGRAPHICAL\nMISSION ON SUPPLEMENTARY TRADE\nEDUCATION\n\nUNION\n\nCOM-\n\nIn the busy world of today it is almost impossible for one to acquire an\naccurate knowledge of the purposes and methods of all the social-uplift movements. Consequently there is bound to be a great deal of misconception and\nmisrepresentation. Trade unions, being primarily opposed or inimical to\ngreat interests and being composed of poor men who wield litde influence,\nand who have not yet seen the necessity for maintaining press agents, are\nespecially the victims of misrepresentation. I do not know that they have\nbeen misrepresented more on the question of technical or industrial education\nthan on any other features in their activities, but I am convinced that those\nwho believe unionists to be opposed to education are mistaken.\nTrue, there are some forms of industrial education to which they are opposed\nand to which any man ought to be opposed. To put that as briefly as possible\nT would say trade unionists are opposed to any form of industrial education\nthat has for its main purpose the exploitation of the student or pupil. We\ndo not take such high ground as to say that because a commercial educational\ninstitution has made a great deal of money in a very short time that it is an\nexploiter. In America we have several examples of that sort of school, and\nI have never yet heard of a trade unionist saying they were inimical to the\npublic welfare simply because they made money. I have, however, heard\na prominent and representative educator refer to that as a species of exploitation. The trade unionists reserve their shafts of criticism for those forms of\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\neducation which tend to narrow the student's mental outlook and make him\nmore dependent than otherwise. They are also opposed to educational\ninstitutions that turn out incompetent and inefficient mechanics. Perhaps\nto the outsider they are unnecessarily bitter in the denunciation of this sort\nof school, but the outsider does not know as the worker does what a serious\nsocial blight inefficiency is. The man who is turned out of the so-called trade\nschool a mere specialist, and an indifferent one at that, is never sure of steady\nemployment. Precarious employment not only means decreased earning\ncapacity, but it subjects the victim to temptation and compels him to live\nunder conditions which unman him and retard the development of his character. Only those who have tried it have any conception of what a hell it\nis to spend one-third or more of one's time tramping from door to door seeking employment. The rebuffs and humiliations crush all but the proudest\nspirits, and in time ambition is superseded by the spirit of \"don't care\" and\n\"what's the use?\" Those who are in the midst of this and count among\ntheir acquaintances life wrecks by the score do feel strongly, and have a right\nto feel strongly about any method of education which sends a youth into the\nworld with the baleful handicap of inefficiency. The prominence given the\nsubject of trade education will necessarily involve educators of all degrees,\nand it is my impression that they will find organized labor insistent upon proof\nthat an educational scheme will be thoro before the plan will receive the indorsement of trade unionists. The co-operation of organized labor is of considerable importance. You may possibly regard it with disfavor, but it is the voice\nof the worker. No other element in our community knows so well what\nworkers need or their aspirations as does organized labor. True, the worker\nas such exercises comparatively little influence in the governmental world\ntoday, but what influence he does have comes to him thru organization. You\nhear a great deal about organized labor butting in, but have you ever heard\nof any great interest stopping to heed the protests of unorganized labor?\nThat is a voiceless multitude.\nIrrespective of the sway of labor in political matters, its influence will\nloom large in the subject of industrial education.\nThe United States Commissioner of Labor's report for the year 1902\ntreated of trade and technical education. It was, in fact, a world-wide review\nof what had been done in this line. It is noticeable that in the early days of\nindustrial education in Continental Europe and Great Britain many efforts\nproved failures until they were placed on such a basis as to invite and secure\nthe co-operation of the labor element. Indeed, how could educators and\nboards of education ascertain what mechanics and artisans desire to learn or\nbelieve should be taught in any sort of school without consulting them?\nYou must always remember that in establishing industrial schools the courses\nare not primary courses to be shoved down the throats of children, but that\nyou will have to demonstrate that what you are teaching is of real social and\ncommercial value before you secure scholars worth while.\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n267\n\nAmong the adult workers there is a very large element that should be taken\ninto consideration. It is composed of the men who have chosen a life vpcation\nand by reason of the specialization inherent in present-day industry have not\nhad an opportunity to become well grounded in the principles of their respective trades. They are known as specialists, and tho this is the day of specialization, these specialists differ somewhat from the specialists who are held\nup to the public as examples of what is possible by specialization — lawyers,\nphysicians, engineers, financiers, etc. The professional man has been well\ngrounded in the underlying principles of his profession and out of that knowledge selects his specialty. The mechanic or artisan, on the other hand, is\nall too frequently a specialist because he knows nothing else. The professional\ndevelops a specialty out of his wealth of knowledge; the mechanic or artisan\nremains a specialist on account of his ignorance. In many of the industries\nbeing a mere specialist ties the mechanic to the wheel. He must stay in that\nshop or confine his activities to that one particular process. This makes the\nlaborer dependent, because he has lost what has always been labor's chief\nasset — mobility. He cannot move from shop to shop or from place to place\nand is therefore less capable of bargaining for wages than the all-around\nman who can move from process to process, if not from place to place. Specialization also means intensification of production, which in turn means that\nthe dead line is reached earlier in life, and a man's earning capacity is considerably affected by this. When he begins to feel the effects of age he finds\nhimself competing with younger men, in a field where the desirable quality\nis speed. There is little chance for the use of stored-up knowledge, which is\nthe saving grace in the professions. Speed, and nothing but speed, is the\nfactory god. It is obvious that under these conditions the specialist in mechanical pursuits is at a very serious disadvantage when the hair begins to turn\ngray and the children reach that age when they are most in need of financial\nsupport from the bread-winner — the age of about sixteen when the selection\nof a vocation for life is made. Parents at that time should be sufficiently\nindependent to be able to invest a little capital in seeing that the boy or girl\nis started on the right road. Unfortunately the father just about then begins\nto feel his powers declining and stands in mortal dread of being let out of\nhis trade on account of inability to keep the pace.\nIn my opinion any system of industrial education supported by the state\nor city should have a place for these men. If such an opening is made it is\nalmost a surety that you will find trade unionists not only willing but anxious\nto co-operate. In fact several unions are already doing work in this line, not\nhaving the patience to wait for the state to perform what in the opinion of\nworking-people is a very natural and proper function. In my own trade we\nhave a system of supplemental trade education which has been so successful\nthat the labor organizations of the cognate trades are discussing the feasibility\nof developing systems of education along similar lines. Perhaps the need and\npurpose of supplemental education as applied to the trades can best be ex-\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[IndianapoUs\n\nplained to you by an account of the methods of the International Typographical Union course in printing. In the compositor's trade it is a generationold story. A boy is taken into a printing-office; the foreman soon discovers\nthe process for which he shows the greatest adaptability and keeps him at it.\nIn due time he becomes a journeyman but with little knowledge of the trade\nother than his particular process. This is regarded as an evil. The limitation of apprentices by unions is not all due to selfishness. A very great part\nof the moving force behind it is a desire to insure boys a fair opportunity to\nlearn the trade. This of course would be impossible if an unlimited number\nof apprentices were permitted. But in time the offices became specialized\nand it was impossible for the great number of them to undertake to teach a\nboy anything outside of its special line of work. Then it was that it began to\ndawn upon the trade — employers and employees — that neither one nor the\nother was responsible for the condition, but that the old-time apprenticeship\nsystem has been very largely eliminated by reason of the changed industrial\nconditions. Naturally the union was the first to feel the effects of its ranks\nbeing filled with men who were one-eyed specialists, thru no fault of their\nown but as a result of an environment which they could not alter. All realized\nthat it would be far better for the journeyman if he had a wider knowledge\nof the industry. After a protracted struggle in which the union spent upwards\nof $4,000,000, the eight-hour day was adopted in the trade. This gave to\nthe members leisure for cultural development; and I may say here that those\nin favor of industrial education will be howling dervishes in a wilderness of\nindifference while the workers are compelled to labor long hours. The\nfirst step to a successful system of industrial education is leisure for the prospective student. The echoes of the eight-hour strike had not passed away\nbefore the typographical union had appointed a commission to \"formulate\nsome system for the technical education of our members and apprentices.\"\nThat action was taken in August, 1907. In December of that year the commission was organized, and in March of the following year — just two years\nago — it launched its course. The commission found it had a problem on its\nhands, for it had to devise some method of education which would be within\nthe reach of every one of the nearly 50,000 members of the union. Some of\nthese are employed in the most highly developed metropolitan offices, while\nothers are found working in primitive shops in communities that are able to\nsupport only seven or eight printers. The establishment of schools equipped\nwith printing-plants would be far too expensive, and such schools must perforce be in large printing-centers such as Chicago or New York. This would\ndeprive union members in small towns of an opportunity to participate in\nthe educational benefits. The commission also discovered that the tendency\nin typographical schools here and abroad was to educate along empirical\nlines. The instructors would say this piece of work is good or that bad and\nwhen asked for the reason had none to give other than that it was pleasing\nor displeasing to the personal taste of the teacher. This was very unsatis-\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n269\n\nfactory, as there was no real basis for instruction. The commission discovered,\nhowever, that the Inland Printer Technical School had sent men to art schools\nfor the purpose of studying design and color harmony and other art principles\nwhich were involved in display and decorative typography and that the instructors at this school were teaching a handful of students the *'why\" of good\ntypography. Now it must be remembered that every compositor can set t)'pe,\nbut the mere typesetter's days are over. Machines have rendered that a very\nprecarious method of making a livelihood. On the other hand there is a\nconstantly increasing demand for what is known in the trade as display or\njob men. Thousands and thousands of journeymen printers of today have\nhad little or no opportunity to develop themselves in those branches. So\ngeneral is this condition that there is creeping into the compositor's trade an\nadjunct known as the designer, who is usually a product of the art school.\nHe takes the job, sketches the manner in which it is to be set, and covers it\nwith instructions so minute that the compositor has little or no opportunity\nto exercise his ability. Of course, this mere following of instruction would lead\nto mental lethargy and the ultimate degradation of the trade to a low mechanical level. The commission felt that its mission was to meet this situation\nand to supply the wants which the printing-office did not fill. After investigation itwas discovered that what was being taught in the Inland Printer\nschool could be reduced to a correspondence course. This was agreed to\non the basis that the school would provide the tuition and the union would\nbear all advertising and other promotional expenses, the course to be sold to\nstudents at about cost of tuition. In addition to these expenses the international union gave a rebate of one-fifth of the cost to every student who\npursued the course to the end with ordinary diligence and intelligence. This\nprize or rebate has been supplemented by many local unions in various ways.\nSome give another $5 ; others offer to co-operate with employers in securing\nthe course for apprentices; and still others make a substantial reduction\nin initiation fees to apprentices who are students of the course. The cost\nof the course is $23 for cash or $25 if paid in installments of $1 a week.\nAs there are thirty-seven lessons and the student learns by doing, you can\nreadily see that this is education at cost. As a matter of fact, were it not for\nthe expenditure by the union, the course on a commercial basis could not be\nsold for less than $50 or $60.\nWe teach the student freehand lettering mainly for its cultural value, tho\nit has a great commercial value for the printer of the future. The display\nor decorative compositor is an artist and his work is good or bad in so far\nas it adheres to or departs from the principles of design. And here it is that\nthe course of the International Typographical Union differs from other\nprinters' educational efforts at home or abroad. It teaches the principles\nof design as they can be applied to the compositor's business. He is then in\na position to defend his work. If a customer objects he can say and prove\nthat it is properly balanced, in proportion, and correct as to tone-harmony.\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "270\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nHeretofore color has been regarded in the trade as a matter of personal taste.\nWe raise it from that level and teach it scientifically and in such a manner\nthat when the student is thru with the group of lessons treating of this subject\nhe has made for himself a color-chart which is an absolute authority on the\ncontrasts and harmonies of color. In these groups of lessons we teach principles, and the student is learning why his work is good or bad and why he\nshould do some things and avoid doing other things. The method is far\nsuperior to that of instruction by textbooks for the reason that we took out\nof art courses those things on design and color-harmony which the printer\nwants to know. The lessons and instruction are prepared by printers. The\nresult of this is that a very capable printer — a gentleman sixty years of age —\nwho became a student of our course said that he learned more of value to\nhim as a printer from our lessons than he has ever been able to acquire in\nexhaustive study of textbooks on color and attendance at many lectures.\nThat he was no sluggard as a student is evidenced by the fact that he learned\ntwo foreign languages in order to be able to read up in the original. The\nreason for this experience is that when he read textbooks and attended lectures\nthe writers and lecturers were concerned about upholding or demolishing\nsome theory of color and passed up as belonging to kindergarten classes those\nelemental things which the printer ought to know. Our course, having been\nprepared by printers for printers, does not make that mistake. Quite recently\nProfessor Sargent, of the University of Chicago, dropped in on the Commission\nand looked over its work. He was asked if with his knowledge of art and his\nstanding as a pedagog he could do much more for our students than our\ninstructors were doing. He made this significant reply: \"No indeed! I\ncould not do better for the reason that I am not a printer.\" This is an important feature of trade education and emphasizes the reason why organized\nlabor should be consulted in the development of any system. It is strong\npresumptive evidence — if not conclusive evidence — that unless the worker\nhimself has to do with the instruction the curriculum will not be at all satisfactory.\nIn the groups of lessons treating of lettering, design, and color-harmony,\nthe printer is learning the principles that govern in his work. Having acquired\nthese principles he is on an equal footing with the designer, and in addition\nto the principles he has what we might call typographic sense. The result\nis a better product more cheaply produced. We have had numerous illustrations ofthat. As a rule the designer does not comprehend the limitations\nand difl&culties the compositor has to contend with. Before the job has\nproceeded very far modifications of the original design are found to be necessary. Then there is the lack of harmony between the designer and the man\nwho executes the work. The International Typographical Union course\nequips the compositor for the work of the designer, and as a natural consequence\nthere is complete understanding, sympathy, and harmony from the beginning of the job to the end of it, because the designer and compositor are one\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n271\n\nand the same person. Of course there are many other lessons in the course\nof a technical nature which I have not the time to detail. The method pursued in inculcating this knowledge has been said by adequate authority to\nbe about the best in use. The student is required to send in a copy of his\nwork, be it lettering, balancing measures in design, the selection of colors\nfor jobs, or the designing of various kinds of job work. This is taken by the\ninstructor, gone over very carefully with a differently colored pencil, pointing\nout the defects in the student's work. While the instructor is doing this he\nis talking into a phonograph record, explaining his views and giving such\ninformation as it is thought the student needs. The talk — and we find it\nbetter with all its crudities of expression than a more polished and stilted\nletter — is then transcribed on the typewriter and returned to the student along\nwith his lesson. This gives him the advantage of a blackboard illustration\nand oral instruction. Really the value of the course does not lie so much in\nthe printed lessons as in the instruction given in this way. We also require\nour students to criticize work, compelling them to answer many questions,\nlargely on the theory that one does not know a thing until he has told it to\nsome person else.\nThe attitude of trade unionists toward education may be gauged by the\nsuccess of this effort. Among economists who pay particular attention to\nlabor matters, the Typographical Union is regarded as the typical American\nunion. What it has done in the past other organizations have followed, and\ndoubtless its efforts in the educational arena may be taken as a presage of the\ngeneral trend among trade unionists. The course is not quite two years\nold and fifteen hundred students have been enrolled, notwithstanding the\nintense prejudice in the printing business against correspondence-school\nmethods. Other unions who come in close contact with compositors have\nbeen watching this effort and we find that every one of them has within the\nlast year appointed a committee to develop systems of education for the benefit\nof its members. To say that unions are opposed to trade education in the\nface of such a showing can hardly be called anything else than misrepresentation. True, we may be accused of being somewhat backward in handling\nthis subject, but it must be remembered that American public opinion is\nsomewhat backward also if we compare its status with that of Europe or\nAustralia. The natural resources of this country have relieved the people\nof the necessity of establishing industrial education, but now the matter is\nup there is every reason to believe that the American trade unionists look on\nit in much the same light as their fellows elsewhere. In Germany, France,\nGreat Britain, and Australia they did not combat industrial education. They\ndid, however, oppose meretricious forms and, in many instances, successfully.\nSo it will be here.\nSo far I have spoken generally on the subject and directed attention to\nsome actual work which would seem to be first-class evidence of good faith.\nIf you ask me for a definition of organized labor's position toward industrial\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\neducation at present I cannot do better than refer you to the action of the last\nconvention of the American Federation of Labor which was held at Toronto,\nin November, 1909. It recommended a continuance in the progressive\ndevelopment of supplemental trade education such as is undertaken by the\nInternational Typographical Union and some other organizations, and in\nconnection with that course it stated:\nEducators, as well as others of wide experience, believe that, for the adaptation to an\nend, this school has no equal. It also marks a new era in education, and one of its chief\nassets, other than the education of its students, is that public and private interests are emulating its example. It is worthy of mention, however, that large sums of money are annually\nexpended by trade unions for education, thru the channels of official journals, and in some\ninstances its members are being trained for the teaching profession; and the preparation\nof text-books is another undertaking. And the committee further recommended that all\ntrade unions which have not adopted a system of technical education give the matter the\nconsideration it so richly deserves; and we further believe that the present undertakings\nof the unions call for the most enthusiastic admiration, and are entitled to the most cordial\nand loyal support.\n\nOn the question of supplemental technical education, by which is meant\nthe teaching of the underlying principles of trades to those working as apprentices, the Federation says:\nThe demand for such instruction is measured by the necessity for training in particular\ntrades and industries, and the chief aim of such instruction should be to present those\nprinciples of arts and sciences which bear upon the trades and industries, either directly\nor indirectly.\nThe economic need and value of technical training is not to be disregarded, and cognizance should be taken of the fact that throughout the civilized world evening and parttime day technical schools enroll twenty pupils to every one who attends the other types\nof vocational schools.\nAnd the committee submits for consideration and discussion to the convention the\nproposition that there be established, at public expense, technical schools for the purpose\nof giving supplemental education to those who have entered the trades as apprentices.\n\nYou, as public-school men, will be more largely interested in what the\nFederation terms \"technical industrial education,\" concerning which it makes\nthis pronouncement:\nWe favor the establishment of schools in connection with the public-school system,\nat which pupils between the ages of fourteen and sixteen may be taught the principles of the\ntrades, not necessarily in separate buildings, but in separate schools adapted to this particular education, and by competent and trained teachers. The course of instruction in such\na school should be English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, elementary mechanics, and\ndrawing, the shop instruction for particular trades and for each trade represented, the\ndrawing, mathematics, mechanics, physical, and biological science applicable to the trade,\nthe history of that trade and a sound system of economics including and emphasizing the\nphilosophy of collective bargaining. This will serve to prepare a pupil for more advanced\nsubjects, and, in addition, to disclose his capacity for a specific vocation. In order to keep\nsuch schools in close touch with the trades there should be local advisory boards, including\nrepresentatives of the industries, employer and organized labor. Any technical education\nof the workers in trade and industry being a public necessity, it should not be a private\nbut a public function, conducted by the public and the expense involved at public expense.\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n273\n\nOrganized labor's position in a general way on the educational problem is\nofficially expressed in these terms:\nOrganized labor's position regarding the injustices of narrow and prescribed training\nin selected trades, by both private and public instruction, and the flooding of the labor\nmarket with half-trained mechanics for the purposes of exploitation, is perfectly tenable,\nand the well-founded belief in the viciousness of such practices, and consequent condemnation, is well-nigh unassailable.\nOrganized labor's record for years in regard to better sanitary conditions in factories\nand workshops, and its continued efforts toward safeguarding women and minors, have\nbeen the subject of wide discussion and much helpful legislation.\nIts advocacy of free schools, free textbooks, and the raising of compulsory school age\nhave been religiously adhered to, and closely allied to these subjects is that of industrial\neducation, and any serious discussion of the proper kind of vocational training promotes\ndiscussion of the former.\nThere is a strong reaction coming in general methods of education, and that growing\nfeeling, which is gaining rapidly in strength, that the human element must be recognized,\nand cannot be so disregarded as to make the future workers mere automatic machines.\nExperience has shown that manual-training-school teachers without actual trade\nexperience do not and cannot successfully solve this great problem, and that progress will\nnecessarily be slow, as new teachers must be provided, a new set of textbooks will have to\nbe written, and the subjects taught in a sympathetic and systematic manner.\nIn the last analysis, it is of greater moment to those engaged in industry whether\nthis question should be discussed freely and fairly than it is to mere theorists, who advocate\nindustrial education without having any definite plan or purpose (other than a selfish one),\nin their advocacy of the same, and it is believed that a unification rather than a multiplication of effort is needed in order to help solve this immense problem.\nIt is believed that the future welfare of America largely depends on the industrial\ntraining of our workers and on protecting them.\nIf the American workman is to maintain the high standard of efficiency, the boys and\ngirls of the country must have an opportunity to acquire educated hands and brains, such\nas may enable them to earn a living in a self-selected vocation and acquire an intelligent\nunderstanding of the duties of good citizenship.\nNo better investment can be made by taxpayers than to give every youth an opportunity\nto secm-e such an education. Such an opportunity is not now within the reach of the\ngreat majority of the children of the wage-workers. The present system is inadequate\nand unsatisfactory. Only a small fraction of the children who enter the lower grades\ncontinue thru the grades until they complete the high-school course. The reasons which\nseem to be the prime causes for withdrawal are, first, a lack of interest on the part of the\npupils, and secondly, on the part of the parents, and a dissatisfaction that the schools\ndo not offer instruction of a more practical character. The pupils become tired of the\nwork they have in hand and see nothing more inviting in the grades ahead. They are\nconscious of powers, passions, and tastes which the school does not recognize. They\nlong to grasp things with their own hands and test the strength of materials and the\nmagnitude of forces.\nOwing to past methods and influences, false views and absurd notions possess the\nminds of too many of our youths, which cause them to shun work at the trades and to seek\nthe office or store as much more genteel and fitting. This silly notion has been shaken\nby the healthy influence of unions, and will be entirely eradicated if industrial training\nbecomes a part of our school system, and in consequence of this system of training the\npupil will advance greatly in general intelligence, as well as in technical skill and in mental\nand moral worth, he will be a better citizen and a better man, and will be more valuable\nto society and to the country.\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "274\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nDISCUSSION\nGeorge H. Whitcher, superintendent of schools, Berlin, N.H. — There is a large\ndegree of indefiniteness surrounding the terms \"manual training,\" \"mechanic-arts training,\" \"industrial training,\" and \"vocational training,\" and while I have no license to define\nthese terms for others I have the right to define them for the purposes of this paper in order\nthat certain conclusions may be viewed in relation to the premises upon which they are\nbased.\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFor reasons purely psychological, manual training is a pre-adolescent adjustment —\npart of the series of accessory co-ordinations dealing with the finer muscles of arm and wrist,\nhand and fingers. Tools are used as means whereby this neuromuscular adjustment is\neffected.\nThe method is non-scientific. As well might we attempt to formulate rules for the\nguidance of babies learning to walk as to lay down scientific principles governing arm and\nhand movements in whittling, sawing, planing, etc.\nThe problem of manual and mechanic-arts training, as it presents itself to the public\nschool, is primarily an educational and not a vocational problem, and most emphatically\nits chief end is not making of carpenters, machinists, blacksmiths, or other artisans, but\nrather its function to serve as a part of the many educative agencies employed in making\nefficient men and women. It is a grave mistake to suppose, as some do, that the public\nschool ought to train narrowly in the direction of any vocation, or to assume that industrial\neducation means trade schools, and it is even worse to argue that the \"man side\" of a boy's\ndevelopment is jeopardized by an education that provides opportunity for establishing an\neffective co-ordination of mind and hand, a theory advocated in a recent book, which, if\ncarried to its logical conclusion, must result in an aristocracy of learning as set over and\nagainst a proletariat of labor.\nThe objection to the vocational point of view is chiefly psychological; no one will deny\nthat an adult becomes more efficient by working in a cotton mill, but what is good in the\ncase of the adult is absolutely fatal to the welfare of the child. Again, the requirements\nin that case of vocational training are unpedagogical and necessarily so. The apprentice\nmust by much repetition secure great accuracy of result, but successive repetitions result\nin less and less exercise of the higher brain centers until a time comes when the movements\nare almost without thought, that is, automatic, and the worker guides the machine with\nlittle interest, his mind wandering here and there with a minimum of attention while his\nhand, habituated to a few movements, might almost be said to act independently of the\nhigher centers; all this is fatal to educational effectiveness.\nThe teacher in the public school must never forget that \"skill is developed thru\nrepetition until the process is performed accurately and rapidly with little mental effort,\nbeyond that involved in initiating the motor activity demanded by the process.\"\nFor this reason skill is not an end to be striven for in manual and mechanic-arts training in the public schools. Instead of making, say a dozen penholders, paper-knives,\ncold chisels, etc., aiming to come closer and closer to the one mental image, the pupil should\nconstruct a dozen different models, each requiring a new mental image, thus keeping the\nhigher brain centers active and reflex control subordinate. These things are fundamental\nin the public school because with children we are primarily concerned with superimposing\na higher order of brain centers upon a lower, therefore the higher centers must be used,\nnot suppressed.\nTo the boy of eighteen whose intellectual powers are well established, the learning of\na trade, with the accompanying relegation of motor control to the reflex mechanism, is\nnot seriously detrimental, altho even at this age it would be better, if possible, to work\ntoward the educational rather than the vocational ideal, but to the lad of twelve or fourteen\nany vocational scheme with its necessary accompaniment of supernormal exactness, of\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nNECESSARY\n\nONE-ROOM\n\nSCHOOL\n\n275\n\nendless repetition and the inevitable automatizing of movements is nothing less than criminal since it must result in arrest of the higher human brain qualities.\nAny scheme looking toward the incorporation of trades schools in the public schools\nuntil the attendance age is raised to at least the age of eighteen years is a dangerous scheme.\nIt seems strange that after fighting factories and shops for prematurely vocationalizing boys\nand girls we should now see so many signs of a tendency to turn our children over to these\nsame factories and shops under the mistaken notion that they are better qualified to educate\nchildren than are the men and women who have devoted their lives to the teaching profession. Either we were mistaken in taking the children out of the shops or we are making\na mistake in putting them back again.\nJust at the present time we are approaching the danger-line in educational matters.\nOur friends, the college men of the ultra-cultural type, would divide society into two groups,\n\"aristocracy of learning\" and a common class of workers; for the former they would\nprovide an education that just fits this mythical \"man side\" notion, while for the latter the\ncall for bread is to be answered by providing the \"solid rock\" of vocational training. This,\nhowever, is not the worst of our troubles, for recently a new brand of educator has arisen\nwho would establish three classes in society, a top crust of employers of labor, a bottom\ncrust of ignorant workmen, and a filling of skilled strike-breakers narrowly educated at\npublic expense in the public schools. These new educational leaders consist of general\nmanagers, vice-presidents, or presidents of great labor-employing corporations.\nSometimes they admit that their interest is \"purely a business matter,\" Of one thing\nthey seem sure, namely, that they can educate our boys so that they will at least fit into\ntheir business better than they do now.\nIt is prudent for us at this time to keep our education treasure-boxes locked.\nI remember the men who have opposed our present entirely inadequate fourteen-year\nattendance law and I know just what influence would line up against any movement looking toward increasing the limit to sixteen years where it ought to be. And I know that\ngenerically it is these same men who are most solicitous as to the kind of education that\nshall be given to our boys. I am therefore \"suspicious of the Greeks\" even when they tell\nus specifically just how and what the public schools ought to do to educate boys.\n\nROUND\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nI.\nHOW^ARD\n\nA.\n\nTABLES\n\nOF STATE AND COUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nTOPIC:\n\nCHILD\n\nTHE\n\nGASS,\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nNECESSARY\n\nSTATE\n\nONE-ROOM\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nJEFFERSON,\n\nOF\nMO.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nCITY\n\nOF\n\nI am an advocate of consolidated schools whenever and wherever it is possible to\nestablish and maintain them. So far as my information goes, consolidated schools have\nmet with universal approval. They offer opportunities that cannot be enjoyed by the\nstudents of the one-room school. They are growing in popularity and rapidly increasing\nin numbers. In my own state (Missouri), where we now have not to exceed twenty consolidated districts, I hope to see within the next two years not fewer than two hundred.\nBut when all such schools have been established that conditions will warrant, there will\nstill remain a large number, in fact, the larger number, of schools that must be taught in\nthe one-room schoolhouse.\nUntil recent years the one-room school was the only school known in rural communities.\nThe country people in times past have been taught in such schools. A majority of country\nschools will continue to be taught in one-room buildings.\nCertain physical conditions in\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "276\n\n. NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nmany rural communities make any other kind of school impossible. Impassable streams,\nbad roads, mountainous districts, sparse population make the one-room school necessary,\nin fact, the only school possible for com. unities so situated. Schoolhouses, whether oneroom or more, should be situated so that every child may have an opportunity to secure\nat least the fundamentals of an education. It must be remembered that some of the best\nschools in rural communities are the one-room schools. Every school, wherever located,\nshould give the child a chance to so develop and train his powers as to make the best use of\nhis opportunities in his life-work. The one-room school should give the child a thoro\nunderstanding of the fundamentals of an education. The essentials should be taught,\nand well taught, and this can be done by a good teacher in a one-room school as well as\nin a school of larger proportions. It is more necessary, probably, to have an expert teacher\nin the one-room school than to have such a teacher in a graded school. The teacher in the\nisolated districts must teach, and teach well, all of the subjects that the pupils of the school\nare capable of studying. The best and wisest management is that which secures for the\none-room school the best teaching talent that a liberal community can provide and gives\nthe pupils as many months of school and as careful instruction as can be had in the larger\ncenters. The essentials should be so well taught as to enable the children of such communities to make their way in life should they not have opportunity to secure training in higher\nschools.\n\nROBERT\n\nJ. ALEY,\n\n//.\n\nTHE\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nOF SCHOOLS\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nINDIANAPOLIS,\n\nIND.\n\nNo movement for the betterment of the country schools has attracted more attention\nthan the one looking toward the consolidation and concentration of such schools. The\nfundamental notion back of this movement is the recognition of the need for equal opportunity to all children. That all children should have an equal opportunity to come into\npossession of the common knowledge of the race is a well-recognized principle in our government. That they do not have this equal opportunity is seen by anyone who takes the trouble\nto visit a one-room country school and a grade building in a good city system. Consolidation furnishes to the country \"child the advantage of the best graded school without the\ndistractions incident to city life.\nIn a consolidated school where the teacher has control of one or at the most of but two\ngrades it is a much easier matter to secure a good teacher with professional training than it\nis in a one-room country school. This is true because the teacher feels that with a narrower field of work it is possible to do much better and to grow faster in the profession. The\neconomy of the consolidated school makes it possible to have longer terms than the same\nrevenue would provide without consolidation.\nThe longer term attracts the better teacher.\nIn a consolidated school it is possible to have a competent man in charge who is able\nintelligently to supervise and to direct the work of all the teachers. The result of this is\nbetter and more uniform teaching, as well as the prevention of many failures. The greatest difficulty in the one-room school is its utter independence from other schools and the\nlack of central supervision over its work. In the consolidated school all the best things\npracticed in any city system may be used.\nThe consolidated school, with its better teaching and longer term, interests the pupils\nto such an extent that a much larger number of them go on into the high-school work. Perhaps nothing has done so much to build up the high schools of this state as the consolidation\nof the rural schools. In fact, nearly all consolidated schools now maintain two-, three-,\nor four -year high-school courses. In the consolidated school it is possible to have drawing,\nmusic, manual training, and domestic science. Some of the very best work in these\nsubjects is being done in the rural high schools. The whole curriculum can be enlarged\nand made to fit the needs of the community.\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nWORK:\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nONE-ROOM\n\nSCHOOL\n\n277\n\nThe teachers in these schools, because their work is limited to one or two grades,\nhave the time and the opportunity to give much individual attention to the children. By\n^^^ doing this the number of pupils who grow discouraged and quit, or fail and drop out, is\n^^Bt very greatly reduced. Indeed, it often happens that this individual attention results in\n^^^Bthe discovery of latent powers. Frequently those who were supposed to be very dull,\n^^■[ because of the stimulus of individual care, become the leaders in their classes.\n\n^^^B- One of the greatest factors in favor of the consolidated school is that it enlarges the\n^^H neighborhood. Instead of the old district unit of four square miles, it give the larger unit\n^^^Bof twenty or thirty square miles. By means of this larger unit, the petty jealousies and\nI^^Hnarrow prejudices of the old smaller unit are broken down. All the children of this larger\nl^^^unit become acquainted and thus enlarge their horizon. The school itself becomes a social\n^^B center where meetings for the promotion of all sorts of common interests are held and where\n^^^plendid lecture courses are frequently maintained.\n^^B\nThere are some serious objections offered to consolidation. Some of these are real\n^^Band others are merely sentimental. Where the country is rough, streams numerous and\n^^■•'cliflBcult to cross, and the roads poor, consolidation of larger areas is not possible. In such\n^^■regions it may be practical to combine only two or three districts into a consolidated school\n^^f with two teachers.\nAs one looks back he is likely to enlarge the virtues of things that he knew as a child.\nThere are those who oppose consolidated schools because in their memories the little red\nschoolhouse looms up as a great institution. Because it was good enough to meet the conditions of their childhood they argue that it is sufficient for the children of today. This\nobjection will be overcome in time by the death of the objectors. While waiting for this\nto occur the education of the people to an appreciation of the greater benefits of consolidation will do much to overcome such sentimental objections.\nIn some cases the consolidated unit has been made so large that the children are compelled to remain too long in the transporting wagons. This objection, of course, can be\nmet by reducing the size of the unit of consolidation. It sometimes happens that the drivers\nare not competent. It may be that they are unable to maintain the proper discipline or\nit may be that they are too careful of their horses to make proper speed. These objections\nare easily met by procuring good drivers.\nTo obtain consolidation two things are necessary. The people themselves, or a considerable number of them, must believe in the value of the system. There must be laws\nregulating the matter, either making it permissive or requiring it under certain conditions.\nThese laws need not be long nor complicated. They should provide for the building of\nthe houses and the paying of the drivers.\nThe experience of Indiana in the consolidation of schools has been satisfactory. Of\ncourse, here and there objections have arisen. In most cases the objections center about\nthings easily remedied. In most of the consolidated units the people are highly pleased\nand could not be induced to return to the old one-room idea.\n\n///.\n\nINDUSTRIAL\nC.\n\nE.\n\nBYRD,\n\nWORK:\nIN THE ONE-ROOM\nITS KIND AND SCOPE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSHREVEPORT,\n\nSCHOOL,\nLA,\n\nIn treating this subject, we shall confine ourselves to the rural school the patronage\nof which comes from the farm. The term \"industrial work\" we shall interpret to include\nnot only manual training in the usual sense but all kinds of work bearing on farm life for\nall of the grades, for both sexes, indoors and in the field, and its influence on the life-work\nof the pupil.\nThe problem of the rural school, like the poor, is always with us. No branch of public\neducation has received more persistent, thoughtful, and scientific investigation and con-\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nsideration than has the rural school. It has been prominent on the program of every\neducational convention and conference held in this country for the last twenty years. It\nis a fruitful theme of the current magazines and w^riters on educational matters. It is up\nannually in state legislatures and the national Congress. It was a popular text frequently\nselected by our late strenuous president in his public utterances. The subject is of vital\nimportance to the welfare of the people individually and to the nation as a whole. And\nyet the problem is still unsolved. The status of the rural school is still unsettled; its\nfunctions still undefined, or, if defined, still unfulfilled.\nThere is a prevalent belief that the rural school is not fulfilling its highest function,\nas is evidenced by the condition of the farm and the farmer, by the constant migration from\nthe farm to the city, and by the lack of thrift, happiness, and harmony among the people\nof the country.\nThe old red schoolhouse, which served its purpose in a way, has had its day and is\ngradually disappearing. In a degenerate form, it is still found in the sparsely populated\ndistricts of the country.\nAs population increases and transportation facilities improve, consolidated schools\nare being established. These are demonstrating the advantage of co-operation, render\npossible more concentrated work by teacher and pupil, and tend to break down the barriers\nof prejudice engendered and fostered by isolation, and are proving forceful factors in creating social harmony and centers of community interest.\nCourses of study for rural schools are now planned to meet the needs of country life.\nThe bent of the training is toward, and not from, the farm. The old standards of instruction are being enriched by the study of good literature, nature study, elementary agriculture,\nand industrial work which have a bearing upon country life.\nIndustrial work is the last to receive consideration, due no doubt to prejudice, to the\nlack of revenue, and competent teachers. Before any subject should become a part of the\nwork of the country schools, it should be subjected to the following tests: (i) Is it scientific ?\n(2) Has it disciplinary value, both mental and physical ? (3) Is there a need for it ?\n(4) Will it contribute to the development of the pupil and the ^velfare of the community ?\nIndustrial work in the country schools has already demonstrated that it measures up\nto the above tests and more. It will supply a desideratum long felt by making the work\nof the pupil more real, by furnishing a training more practical, and by rendering the\ninstruction more dynamic and hence more permanent.\nWe are coming slowly to recognize the necessity of scientifically using the motor\nactivities of the pupil and to realize that all instruction and training in which the pupil\ndoes not act out methodically and systematically impressions received, or thoughts\nengendered, are barren.\nThe country child on entering school is a bundle of curiosity and energy. His being\nis fresh and plastic. He is quick to receive impressions and ready to respond to the suggestions ofhis teacher. He craves satisfaction for his curiosity and is eager to expend the\nenergy of which he has an overflowing supply.\nThe following are some of the purposes to be kept in view in providing industrial work\nfor the pupils:\n1. To rob work of its drudgery. To give industrial intelligence — \"The power to see\nbeyond the task which occupies the hand for the moment to the operations which have\npreceded and to those which will follow it, power to take in the whole process, knowledge of\nmaterials, ideas of cost, ideas of organization, business sense, and a conscience which\nrecognizes obligations.\"\n2. To give normal direction to innate activity.\n3. To make clear to the pupils the industrial side of our work-a-day existence.\n4. To afi'ord a change from the daily routine and strenuous application to books, and\nrational means of using pent-up physical energy.\n5. To contribute to physical development and thus promote health.\n6. To establish definite standards and by work on concrete objects prevent deception\non the part of the pupil.\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nWORK:\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nONE-ROOM\n\nSCHOOL\n\n279\n\n7. To produce dexterity and deftness of execution.\n8. To make other subjects of curriculum more real and definite.\n'\n9. To create true ideals and a power to realize them.\n10. To engender a discontent with the disorder, lack of sanitation, discomforts, and\ninconveniences now so often found about the average country home.\n11. To lay the foundation of the life-work.\nThe modern consolidated country school provides an artistic, well-planned building\nand ample grounds for play, shade trees, flowers, and a school garden. It provides comfortable transportation for pupils living too far away to walk to school. It should provide\nindustrial work, suited to all the grades and rooms for teaching both boys and girls those\nsubjects which pertain to either sex.\nThe work for the boys of the grammar grades should consist of the construction of\nsimple objects found on the farm or in the home; the study of materials both vegetable,\nanimal, and mineral with which the country boys have to deal and out of which they are\nto earn their living. They should be taught the use, care, and the essential principles of\n\nI\n\ntools. They should be taught first to plan, second to select the material, and then to construct those things which are of use on the farm and in the home.\nThe interest in the object to be made will of necessity create a desire to be skillful in\nthe use of tools. The boy who can, by the suggestion of his instructor, design and make a\ngate, tho a model, will not be satisfied when he comes to work on a farm with dilapidated\nbars. The boy who can design and construct a tower, windmill, and pump that will draw\nwater from a pail, will not be content to use a rope and bucket when he comes to operate\na farm.\n\nThe study of the design, adaptation, material, and construction of farm tools, implements, and machinery should be included in the course. The making of simple, useful,\nand artistic pieces of furniture for the home both by boys and girls will create good taste\nand tend to make the home comfortable, convenient, and aesthetic.\nThe boys should be taught the food values of the farm products both for man and animals, they should be taught the nature of soil and plant foods, the cultivation of the crop,\nthe parasites and enemies of plants and animals, and in the school garden make practical\ntests. They should be taught all phases of dairying and poultry raising, the rotation of\ncrops, the fertilization of the land and its cultivation. They should be taught in a concrete\nway the influence of sunshine and moisture on plant and animal life and soils. They should\nbe taught the drainage of land; how and when to plow; how to gather their crops; how\nto grade and select the materials for sale; and last, but not least, how to calculate the yield\nand accurately estimate the profits.\nThe girls should be taught how to weave and sew; how to select material so as to get\nthe maximum of value for the money and labor expended; how to design a dress and harmonize its decoration and colors; how to trim their hats to satisfy good taste and to come\nwithin their revenue. They should be taught the scientific values of foods, their preparation and serving. They should, by practical demonstrations, learn how to can and preserve\ntheir fruits, care for their dairy products, and how, from the abundance of the farm, to provide not only plenty but properly cooked and tastefully served food for the table. They\nshould be taught the necessity of sanitation about the home, and led to look beyond the\nthing to the thought that animates its being.\nThe obstacles to the accomplishment of these desired ends is the lack of revenue, a\nproper appreciation on the part of the people, and, too, the meager supply of teachers\ncapable and prepared to put them into successful execution.\nI believe that it is feasible and will be an accomplished fact, first, in the consolidated\nschools and finally in the one-room school. The industrial work to be accomplished in\nthe one-room school will of necessity be limited on account of the inability of the teacher,\nthe want of time and space and the supply of equipment and material. Simple work,\nwell designed for the individual pupils in their seats, will accomplish some good.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nschool garden will be the only laboratory available and should be emphasized. The work\nto be done should be fully outlined by the school authorities charged with the administration and supervision of the school so as to have the work systematically pursued and some\nuniformity maintained.\nIn the brief time allotted me, it is impossible to go into details. What I have said\nis merely suggestive, and will, I hope, furnish the basis of presenting the subject fully\nbefore the conference. I am sure that there are those present who are ready to offer\nsuggestions that will be helpful to the speedy introduction into the schools of this important\nwork in which we, as superintendents, and the people of the nation are profoundly interested.\n\nIV.\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nL. J. ALLEMAN,\n\nTHE COUNTRY\nHOW TO SECURE\nSTATE\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nSCHOOL:\nTHEM\n\nCONDUCTOR,\n\nBATON\n\nKIND\n\nWANTED:\n\nROUGE,\n\nLA.\n\nWe have in the following vigorous language of Theodore Roosevelt, the whole problem\nof country life, and consequently the problem of the country school, in a nutshell:\nI warn my countrymen that the great recent progress in city life is not a full measure\nof our civilization; for our civilization rests at bottom on the wholesomeness, the attractiveness, and the prosperity of life in the country. The men and women on the farms\nstand for what is fundamentally best and most needed in our American life. Upon the\ndevelopment of country life rests ultimately our ability, by methods of farming requiring\nthe highest intelligence, to continue to feed and clothe the hungry nations; to supply the\ncity with fresh blood, clean bodies, and clear brains that can endure the terrific strain of\nmodern life; we need the development of men in the open country, who will be in the future,\nas they have been in the past, the stay and strength of the nation in time of war, and its\nguiding and controlling spirit in time of peace.\nThis is the greatest question before the American people today, and the countryschool teacher must be an important factor in its solution.\nWhile the city school has to a certain extent kept pace with the progress of the city,\nthe country school has been in a stage of \"arrested development\" during the past years\nand is just about to emerge from this condition.\nAccording to the Country Life Commission:\nIn every part of the United States there seems to be one mind, on the part of those\ncapable of judging, on the necessity of redirecting the rural school. Everywhere there is\na demand that education have a relation to living, that schools should express the daily\nlife, and that in rural districts they should educate by means of agriculture and countrylife subjects. The kind of teacher needed for the country school is one who can do the sort of teaching indicated above. The charge that the country school has no point of contact with country life, is in the main true; but we cannot hope to articulate the country school with life,\nto arouse it from its present stage of arrested development, or to redirect the efforts of the\nrural school until we are in a position to place in our country schools a higher type of teacher;\nand we shall never have this higher type of teacher until we provide means of training her.\nBut in order to do this, there are certain other things which must be brought to pass.\nIn any school a successful teacher must have three essential qualifications: (i) a\nwholesome personality; (2) a goodly supply of information and culture; (3) skill in the\nart of teaching; but the successful teacher in the country school in order to teach by means\nof agriculture and country-life subjects, must have all of the above qualifications and, in\naddition, specific training to teach these specific subjects.\nWhile it must be admitted that little can be attempted in a one-room country school\nin industrial subjects and that it is dangerous to attempt such subjects in schools of this\ntype, or any other, with teachers unprepared to teach the subjects, we must have, even in\nthe one-room school all over the land, teachers who can teach effectively the common-\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n281\n\nschool branches and, at the same time and along with this teaching, arouse an interest\nand enthusiasm in the problems of home and farm life. It is this sort of intellectual\nprocess which is needed to relieve the manual labor of the country from its semblance of\ndrudgery; but teaching of this kind is of the highest type and will need the highest type of\ntraining, and the services must be paid for accordingly.\nHow then are we to secure this type of teacher ? There are many obstacles that impede\nthe progress of the country school. Three of the most important are: (i) lack of public\nsentiment in favor of improving the country school; (2) the need of sufficient professional\nsupervision; (3) the small school. Because these affect and modify the other numerous\nhindrances in a vital way, they should be removed first. It would be a waste of money\nwhere public sentiment\nfor example, to provide a training school for counties\nd\neffort,\nin\nlermitted paying the teacher $25 per month for a term of four of five months.\nSo above and beyond the question of how to secure teachers for the country schools\n\\ the larger problem of how to create a demand for the kind of teacher wanted. Not only\n\\ there no demand for the kind of teacher and teaching described, but there is positive\nbjection to the introduction of industrial subjects into the schools.\n\nOn this subject the Country Life Commission believes that \"the most necessary\nbing now to be done for public education in terms of country life is to arouse all the people\n3 the necessity of such education, to co-ordinate the forces that are beginning to operate,\nnd to project the work beyond the school for youth into continuation schools for adults.\"\nFew persons familiar with country life will question the wisdom of the conclusions\nquoted above. The problem, then, of securing the kind of teacher wanted for the country\nschool is the problem of removing the obstacles that have hindered the employment of such\nteachers and that have impeded the development of the country school; any other attempt\nat solution would be superficial and futile.\nWho should inspire and lead the campaign for higher ideals in country communities,\nfor better supervision and n ore of it, and for consolidated schools ? It is manifestly the\nduty of the state superintendent to lead and direct such a campaign. Like Horace Mann,\nhe should go about in the state arousing the people to the necessity for the new education,\nfor more supervision in country schools, and for consolidated rural schools. In states\nwhere provision for sufficient county supervision has not already been made, the first care\nof the state superintendent should be to influence legislation in favor of laws providing for\nthe election of professional superintendents who should give their entire time to supervising\nthe schools of the county. The question of efficient county supervision is very important\nin considering the improvement of the country school, and ought to be one of the first\nconsiderations; it is impossible to conceive of much improvement without such supervision.\nThe efforts of the state superintendent reinforced by those of county superintendent\ndevoting his entire time to his schools would arouse public sentiment and would eventually\nlead to the establishment of one or two consolidated schools. These schools could immediately introduce agriculture, domestic science, or such other industrial subjects as would\nbest meet the needs of the community; it could keep open a full session, employ a sufficient\nI\n1\n\nnumber of teachers for the year at a year's wages ;_ and in one stroke the question of\nsecuring competent teachers, of relating the school to the life of the community and the\nquestion of supervision, would be nearly, if not quite, solved. Each consolidated\nschool would serve as an object-lesson for the surrounding country; and in time the\ncondition of the country school, even where consolidation is not practicable, would be\nmaterially improved.\nHere is how the problem has worked out in Louisiana: in 1903 the first consolidated\nschool was established; in 1907 there were 103. In 1908, a law was enacted requiring\nprofessional qualifications of the parish superintendent; and in 1909 there were 629 consolidated schools involving the elimination of 1,939 one-room schools. In addition eight\nagricultural high schools were established in accordance with the requirements of the state\ncourse of study; and the salary of teachers for the entire state increased, in five years, $15\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nper month.\nThe state is now ready to take up a vigorous campaign for consolidation, and\nwe expect great improvement in the rural schools within the next few years.\nIn my opinion, the best means of securing the teacher wanted for the rural schools\nare: (i) arouse public sentiment; (2) provide professional supervision; and (3) consolidate\ncountry schools. These are fundamental problems and until they are satisfactorily solved\nthere cannot be hope for much progress in securing the kind of teacher wanted for the\ncountry school.\n\nDISCUSSION\nHenry R. Pattengill, editor of Moderator-Topics, Lansing, Mich. — In Michigan\nwe have been trying two plans for the improvement of country one-room schools and teachers. First, a system of traveling institutes. The county supervisor, together with an\ninstitute worker, travels during a week or two among the country districts of the county.\nThey visit the country schools of each township, making short calls with a view to ascertaining the condition of the schoolhouse and grounds, the general spirit and work of the\nschool, to sing with the pupils, question them upon their studies, give them an inspirational\ntalk, usually stopping not longer than one-half hour in a school. The forenoon of each\nday is usually occupied in this way; sometimes the afternoon also. Frequently, however, in\nthe fall of the year and winter when the country people have most leisure, general rallies\nor meetings are held in the afternoon and the evening in town halls, country churches,\ngrange halls, or other convenient and commodious places. Here the teachers, pupils,\nand patrons of the adjacent districts assemble and sing together old folk and war songs,\nand an educational address is made by the institute instructor. In this address he seeks\nto give the proper idea of the value of an education; the necessity of good teachers. He\nurges the decoration of schoolhouses and their proper equipment, regularity and punctuality in attendance, the dignity of labor, and the inestimable value of the comfort and happiness of a country home. People are commended for equipping their schoolhouses with\nlibraries and other necessary conveniences and for the neatness and tidiness with which\nthey maintain their school. They are as freely criticized for any lack or negligence in these\nmatters. The purpose of this is to create a better school sentiment among the people.\nThe institutes are very popular but the work is rather difficult for the instructor. In some\ncounties these institutes are combined with the farmers' institutes. Often the institute\nworker travels one hundred and fifty miles by carriage, visits fifteen or twenty rural schools,\nand makes twenty or twenty-five addresses during a single week.\nThe second means for improving the schools has especial reference to the teachers.\nMichigan has four most excellent state-normal schools, each of which has a large attendance and special courses given for the preparation of rural teachers. Yet few professionally\ntrained teachers have found their way to the one-room rural school. Several years ago\nthe plan was established of creating what is known as county normal-training schools.\nForty-two of Michigan's counties now are blessed with this means for training teachers\nto work in the country schools. The county board of supervisors votes to appropriate one\nthousand dollars toward the maintenance of such school. The city in which the school .\nis located and the state contribute another thousand dollars. Two teachers are selected\nto do the regular work of such school. These teachers are country-bred or else have had\nexperience in country-school teaching and have gone on to normal schools or universities\nto complete their academic and professional training. The pupils for these schools are\nselected by the Board of Education, consisting of the county-school commissioner, the\nsuperintendent of the city schools, and the state superintendent of public instruction.\nUsually these pupils have completed a course in some high school before entering this\ntraining school. Such pupils spend a year under the direct supervision of these competent,\nsympathetic, and skillful teachers. Common branches are reviewed, history of education\nand the study of pedagogy constitute part of the course, while the musical director, drawing\nteacher, or other special teachers of the city school trains the pupils in their respective\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n283\n\nbranches. These normal pupils virtually live with these teachers during the day in the\nschoolroom. The inspiration of their teachers is manifest in the daily life of these pupils.\nThe rooms of the city schools in the various grades are used as training schools for\nthese embryo teachers. There under expert supervision they are taught to teach, and\nafter a certain period of inspection they are given charge of a room and required to\nteach the classes in that grade. They are given expert assistance in the preparation of\neducational busy-work and in many of these schools manual arts and domestic science are\na part of the curriculum. Nearly eight hundred such pupils are now in the training\nschools of the state and will be graduated next June to begin teaching in country schools\nnext fall. Several thousand of these training-school teachers are at work in the country\nschools in Michigan. In fact, the superintendent of public instruction reports that 37\nper cent, of our rural teachers now have professional instruction. One can tell\nimmediately upon visiting the schools of these teachers that they have had professional\ntraining. Time and energy of pupils are conserved, these teachers know what to do first\nand what to do next and just how to do it. The school officers and people appreciate\n\nI\n\nthe work of county-normal teachers, seek them, and pay them better wages than other\nbeginners or those who have not had long and successful experience. We thus seek to\nshow to the people the difference between skilled teachers and unskilled teachers and the\npublic does not seem slow to appreciate the difiference.\nRichard Park, county superintendent of schools, Sullivan, Ind. — We are all convinced of the advantages of consolidated schools, and many such schools are already\nin operation in Indiana, but the problem of the single-room district school is still with us,\nand will be for many years. The question now is how to improve the condition of the\n\nsingle-room rural schoolhouse. Experience leads me to express the opinion that the\nexample of a single model district schoolhouse and school furnishes the best agency for\nimprovement. Other districts quickly catch the spirit of improvement and recognize the\nadvantages of the improved conditions. These improvements should be directed to correct\nthe leading deficiencies of the rural school in the various particulars of lighting, heating,\nventilation, decoration, and the supply of the necessary facilities for health and comfort in\nschool work.\nThe playground should be ample, with good drainage, well supplied with trees and\nshrubs, and in other ways made attractive. The very best teachers should be placed in\nthis model school, whose influence and success would incite the surrounding communities\nto secure better teachers, and be willing to pay better salaries.\nThe system of interschool visitation may be made helpful in order that the excellences\nof each may incite to the improvement of all.\nGeorge H. Black, president, Lewiston State Normal School, Lewiston, Idaho. — In\naddition to the instrumentalities already referred to in the discussion, Idaho has inaugurated\na definite movement for rural high schools which schools provide for vocational education\nadapted to rural communities. This movement promises to increase the high-school\npopulation sevenfold within the next two or three years. Excellent results were attained\nthru the establishment of county institutes for school trustees, and thru the normal extension work which provides for sending out field instructors in domestic arts and rural sciences,\nwhose duty it is to demonstrate and direct such work in rural districts.\nW. S. PiCKEN, principal of the Western State Normal School, Hays, Kans. — I am glad\n;nat the preceding speaker has dwelt upon the helpfulness of the model district school as\nan agency to uplift the rural schools. Our normal school has maintained such a model\nfor the past three years. We have required a half-year's observation of an expert rural\nteacher's work by all of our beginning students — the young men and women who are going\nout to teach their first rural school.\nWe have already noted a gain to the Jural schools in\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nour vicinity. The beginners who have so observed the model school enter upon their terms\nwith clearly defined ideals of a good one-teacher rural school.\nThus far we have carried on our work in a typical rectangular boxlike room. The\nstate architect of Kansas has recently, however, given his best time and thought to the\npreparation of plans and specifications for the best possible reasonable priced one-teacher\nschoolhouse,and contracts for its erection are to be let this month.\nI am convinced that one of the most helpful agencies possible for the uplift of rural\nschools would be a model district school maintained in every community. No\nbetter expenditure of public funds could be made than that needed to carry out such a plan.\n\nROUND\nART\nWALTER\n\nTABLE\n\nOF\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nAS A NECESSARY\nSARGENT\n\nFACTOR\n\nOF LARGER\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\n\nSUPERVISOR OF ART AND MANUAL TRAINING,\nUNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nCITIES\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nIf industrial education is to be of the greatest service socially and commercially it\nmust not be narrowed into lines which tend merely to immediate increase of commercial\noutput of the ordinary quality, nor to a mechanically specialized skill, but must also provide the worker with a wide basis of knowledge and interests regarding industries. The\nstudy of art is an important factor in broadening the influence of industrial education and\nrendering it of more value to the worker and to the quality of his product. This paper\npurposes to discuss the relation of art to industrial education and to present some suggestions\nas to what phases of art instruction should enter into industrial education.\nThe present attitude of industry toward art is somewhat unfortunate. The idea that\nart is not closely related to what is practical is altogether too common. For example, an\nadvertiser will sometimes say, \"Business is of more importance to me than art; my advertisement must accomplish its purpose rather than be artistic.\" He does not realize that\nthe arrangement of his subject-matter, the relation of the margins to the printing, and the\nskillful spacing of prominent words are elements of practical business value as well as of\naesthetics. Another hindrance to attempts to make the study of art more general for industrial workers is the popular fallacy that appreciation of art is possible only for a few, and\nthat showy, commonplace designs will always be desired and preferred by the general\npublic.\nArt and industry were once intimately associated. The artist was also a craftsman,\nand the craftsman was an artist. Michelangelo was not only a great painter and sculptor, but an architect also, and his painting and sculpture were integral parts of a structure.\nBecause of its divorce from industry, art has suffered thru becoming detached and superficial, and industries have suffered thru becoming commonplace and ugly.\nA recognition of the commercial value of the artistic quality of industrial products is\nof fundamental importance in discussing this matter. In the long run people will choose\namong equally useful things those which are most beautiful. The object that fulfills only\nits utilitarian purpose cannot compete ultimately with the object which in addition to being\nuseful is also beautiful. This is a truth which a new civilization is slow to learn, but which\nbecomes increasingly evident as civilization progresses. For this reason a knowledge of\nart is not only desirable from a cultural point of view but is also an industrial necessity.\nIt should not be a diflScult matter to plan a course in art which shall be of directly\npractical value to Industrie^. Unfortunately the principles of art have been formulated\nabstractly, and students often find it difficult to apply them in concrete instances. The\nfollowing suggestions are offered as to subjects which may form a practical basis for a\ncourse in art as related to industries.\nA mastery of plain explanatory drawing. — Ability to sketch rapidly furnishes a means\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nI\n\nART\n\nIN\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n285\n\nof description and experimentation and a stimulus to invention. The workman who can\ntake his pencil and indicate possible forms of arrangement of the material with which he is\nworking is able to experiment with various shapes and decide in advance upon the best\nfinal form of his object. The builder can sketch different angles for the gable of a roof to\nfind out which will look best, or can try different proportions for pieces of furniture or other\nconstructive projects. Experimentation by means of sketching gives reality and\nmomentum to an idea and is one of the greatest stimuli to invention.\nThe power to draw also develops ability to read drawings made by others and is thus\nof value for those who work from plans. This ability is essential to the success of the\nworkman. Freehand drawing should be well taught in elementary schools. Unfortunately much of the public-school drawing is thoughtless and slipshod. Children in the\nupper grades can explain theories of perspective and foreshortening, but when given a\nsimple test, such as having an object placed before them and being asked to show with a\nrapid pencil sketch how it looks, they are often unable to do so. Instructors often refrain\nfrom, teaching careful, correct drawing of objects for fear the results will become mechanical. They prefer to develop the aesthetic sense by allowing children to modify the actual\nappearance before them. This defeats the end in view for the best preparation for shaping\nthings as they might be, is ability to represent them as they are. There is need of more\ncareful training to draw truly and to represent facts. This is the best basis for later aesthetic appreciation, as well as being the most valuable industrial phase of drawing. Children\nin public schools should be taught to express their ideas rapidly and well by means of freehand drawing.\nA course in art as part of industrial education should also give practice along the following lines:\nA thorough study 0} the evolution of design in particular crafts. For example, in\nprinting, furniture-making, pottery, manufacture of utensils, etc., students should know\nwhat has been produced in the past, the stages by which the products have arrived at their\npresent form, and the examples which in the history of each craft have been prized as best.\nThus the student is furnished with a historical background for judging industrial designs.\nHe gains a realization of the great amount of thought and effort which has been expended\nupon even the common industrial products in order to bring them to their present forms.\nHe should be taught to use the art museum as the literary student uses the library.\nMuseums in turn should be provided as fully as possible with collections of articles or photographs which shall furnish to the various industries abundant reference material.\nA practical working knowledge 0} the principles 0} design. A product is artistically\nexcellent when it satisfies the aesthetic sense. This sense is an increasingly important factor\nin determining the choice of the purchasing public. If we ask on what these satisfactions\nare based we find that they depend upon the following elements:\na) Utility, which implies the perfect adaptation of the material to its purpose. This\nis the fundamental element in artistic satisfaction. No amount of decoration or ornamental\ntreatment of expensive n aterial can compensate for lack of utility. Closely allied to this\nis the satisfaction in fine craftsmanship. Delight in a piece of work excellently made is\nan aesthetic satisfaction. In addition to skillful technique, fine craftsmanship implies the\nappropriate treatment of the material— such treatment as is suggested by the nature of\nthe material itself.\n6) Beauty. Any training in good design must consider the possibility of beauty in\nthe essential parts of the object before any decoration is added. One element in delight\nin constructed objects lies in consistently related, well-chosen proportions, and in refinement of outline. The chief beauty in the appearance of a house, for example, consists\nin the proportions and in the spacing of walls, windows, and doors. No amount of ornament can compensate for mistakes in the disposition of these necessary elements. The\nrelative proportions of the parts of a chair and refinement of outline in the necessary structural parts determine whether its design is excellent or not.\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nThe student must learn to discriminate between good and bad proportions. He\nmust also be able to utilize to the full the possibilities of beauty in the material employed\nbefore proceeding to decoration. The first element of beauty in the surface of wood is\nobtained by so treating it as to bring out the beauty of the grain itself. For this reason anything which violates the natural quality of the wood, as does pyrography, for example,\nis in questionable taste. The more important possibilities for beauty in constructed objects\nlie in this careful planning of outlines and proportions of necessary parts without regard\nto ornamentation. Taste degenerates when profuse and showy decoration hides poor\nconstruction and takes the place of the beauty possible from good proportions.\nAfter the possibilities ofi'ered by the structural elements have been exhausted the next\nconsideration in design is that of suitable decoration. Appropriate ornament always\nechoes or emphasizes the structure or relates to or symbolizes the purpose of the object.\nThe ornamentation of a vase should follow and echo the curves of the surface, or divide\nthe general form pleasingly, but should not present a competitive interest. For example,\nif an Indian's head is realistically painted upon a vase there is a clash of artistic interests.\nAn Indian's head is a suitable subject for the painter, and a vase is a suitable subject for\nthe designer, but the two have no relation and are therefore in bad taste, however excellently\nthe head may be painted, unless it is so conventionalized as to fit the form. It does not\nenforce or make more important the idea of the vase, but adds an extraneous interest.\nThe vase should rely chiefly upon the possibilities of its own form. The subject of decoration includes also the use of appropriate and harmonious color.\nIt is hard to overestimate the probable influence of a knowledge of art upon American\nindustries. The coming of good design into our industries tends to retain and to distribute\nin this country the large sum now sent abroad for designs and designers. It is the function\nof an industrial nation to convert its raw material into its most perfect and valuable forms\nat the hands of its own workmen, thereby raising the quality of the industry and increasing\nthe interest of the workman in his work. Art instruction at present is somewhat disorganized and seldom allied in the most eff'ective way with industrial advancement. There\nis need of an industrial art school which shall take one American industry after another\nand explore it for artistic possibilities, which shall take the products and compare them\nwith the best that have been produced in the past and with the finest examples from other\ncountries, and which shall discuss them to see how they may be made more useful and\nmore beautiful.\n\nROUND\n7.\n\nTABLE\n\nTHE PURPOSE\nARTHUR\n\nH.\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENTS\nAND\n\nCONTENT\n\nCHAMBERLAIN,\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nOF THE ELEMENTARY\n\nTREASURER,\nPASADENA,\n\nNATIONAL\nCAL.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCITIES\n\nCURRICULUM\nASSOCIATION,\n\nThe paper was given under three general heads:\n1. An effective curriculum must meet a real demand.\n2. The significance of training for eflaciency.\n3. The discovery of fundamental elements thru the sifting process and the necessity\nfor repeated application of the principles involved.\nA digest of parts i and 2 follows:\nThe present age is one of educational cataloging. Rules rather than reasons are\nemphasized. Chronological order and quantity of material should count for less than\nability to know where to go for information when a demand is created for it or than a knowledge of how to study. The school trains toward dependency and away from self-reliance\nand leadership. There are, however, efficient schools springing up and regardless of the\ngrade or the type of such school they recognize that education to be effective must meet\na demand.\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n287\n\nImprovement in the industrial and commercial world means energy properly directed\nand results closely scanned. In order to develop an education that shall make for efficiency,\nas keen a searchlight must be turned upon the school and its product as upon the machine\nand its product. As a human institution the present-day school is far and away the best\nthe world has ever seen. But in many respects the school of the past was better adapted\nto its own time than is the school of today to the ideals of the times in which we live. To\nbe efficient implies thoroness and thoroness means more adaptable and better-adjusted\nschools. We still cling to old courses and methods and systems; to conceptions and\nideals that are outgrown, antiquated, moth-eaten; that are as foreign to the spirit of presentday civilization as would be the pony express, the scythe and cradle, the hand printingpress, or the tallow candle.\nTurning now to the content of the curriculum of the elementary school we find:\n1 . So far as the present is concerned the school studies now in use, if properly developed and presented, contain all the elements necessary to produce desired results.\n2. As new stores of knowledge open to us or as new developments demand a modified\nform of treatment, a new phase of experience must be brought into the school.\n3. A large portion of the several studies now in use in the elementary school may be\nentirely eliminated from the program; certain portions of subjects may be delivered over\nto the high school for its consideration; and more time must be devoted in the first eight\ngrades to the fundamentals and to drill upon those particular principles, facts, and forces\nneeded by the rank and file, whatever sphere in society the individual may fill and whatever\npost or position he may occupy in the material world.\nSo far as present courses of study are concerned, the program must be readjusted.\nThe schedule may be concentrated under the following general heads:\n1. Physical Training.\n2. Oral and Written Expression — Reading, Language, Literature.\n3. History.\n4. The Industrial Arts.\n5. Geography and Nature Study.\n6. Music.\n7. Mathematics.\nAnd while not included as a special branch of instruction, the laying of a sound moral\nfoundation, the building of character, is to constitute the beginning and the end of every\n'lesson in every subject; and unless such moral foundation result, the curriculum and the\nI teaching alike are ineffective.\n1. Physical training must include health studies and care of the body. It is not enough\n[that 90 per cent, of the students sit on the bleachers and cheer while the 10 per cent, perfform. Free play and exercise for all is necessary, and in so far as possible this exercise\n, should be carried on in the open air, either on the field or in the outdoor gymnasium.\nWe must emphasize the value of proper sitting, standing, walking, breathing; of pure air\niand water; of the necessity for properly lighted and well-ventilated rooms. Instruction\n[should include an understanding of the value of simple, wholesome, well-cooked food;\n[of proper dress; of temperance and regularity in all our daily habits. How to care for\nyourselves and for others in emergency or accident are matters of the utmost importance.\nCleanliness of mind and body, and strength of muscle and character go hand in hand.\nlAnd everywhere and always the most effective teaching is done thru practice and example.\n;The significance of good health and strong bodies must be recognized by the teacher, and\nIfor her teaching to be effective she must live the truths she seeks to inculcate.\n2. Acceptable speech, legible writing, clear-cut written expression, never have been\nand never can be secured by giving attention to language study or English for one period a\nday only, and by ignoring it elsewhere thruout the school. In order that students may appreciate the significance of good English, they must be drilled in it constantly in all school\nstudies, thus making its use automatic and part of the daily life. The best language teaching possible in the grades is that obtained thru the medium of history or arithmetic or other\nstudy.\nIn other words every teacher must be a teacher of English as well as of morals.\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "288\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nTechnical grammar, as such, has no place in the elementary school, first, because\ntechnical grammar cannot be studied understandingly by grade children, and second,\nbecause a knowledge of technical grammar, per se, will not make a master of English, or\nproduce a mind capable of appreciating the literary masterpiece. There is nothing in the\nargument that since the tools of language must first be had, these are obtained thru a study\nof technical grammar. Attention must not be focused upon wrong or improper forms, but\nupon the perfect and the acceptable.\nAn appreciation of good literature must be inculcated. Do this, not thru the \"dissection\" method, or by rewriting or \"writing down\" a classic to fit the immature mind.\nConcentrate upon strong, clear-cut masterpieces; give attention to exact, well-defined\noral speech. Not only is repetition necessary and drill effective, but common errors must\nbe taken up in the various school recitations, whenever they are found to occur. Demand\nfewer written papers, many of which are consigned to the waste-basket without reading,\nand secure results thru more frequent oral drills. A return to the oral reading of times\npast may seem heretical doctrine to preach, but if present methods produce boys and girls\nwho read thoughtfully and with expression, I have been unfortunate in my observations.\nMore attention should be given the study of originals in literature. A study of a simplified Hiawatha, for example, in the first or second grades; a consideration of a more\ncomplete version in the third or fourth, and the pupil, when he attains the age at which he\nshould normally respond to the original and appreciate its real literary worth, is often too\ndisgusted to ever again \"look the poem in the face.\"\nThe pupils in the grades must absolutely master a strong, virile form of expression.\nIf this be not accomplished thru the medium of class instruction, they will surely take up\nthe slang of the street and the playground. Cure the slang habit by giving it no place in the\nschoolroom.\n3. In history, push \"wars and rumors of war\" into the background. Elevate the\nstudy of industrial development, social ideals, commercial significance, peace movements,\nstrong character studies, moral heroism. Man's place and work in a growing democracy\nrather than^his prowess on the field of battle is the heart of real history study. The industrial arts, geography, and history so touch and overlap, that for elementary-school purposes\nthey may be separated only for convenience' sake.\nThe history stories of discovery, exploration, settlement, and invention are good.\nBiographical studies of strong, lofty characters are excellent. Industrial history and\ncommercial geography unite in a study of the perfection of the steam vessel, of the marvels\nof transportation by land and water, of the development of labor-saving machines and\ninventions such as the printing-press, and sewing-machine, the combined harvester, the\nfountain pen, the typewriter, the cookstove, the swinging and traveling crane, the steam\nhammer, the milling machine, the electric flat-iron, and the thousand and one appliances\nso essential to the arts of peace. To arouse a deep interest in the dirigible balloon and\nflying-machine is of greater importance than to lead to an understanding of the construction of a Monitor, a Dreadnaught, or a Maxim gun.\nThe achievements of a Benjamin Franklin, a Robert Fulton, a John Roebling, a\nThomas Edison, a Roentgen, a Pasteur, a Beethoven, a Saint-Gaudens, a Shakespeare,\na Lincoln, are of vastly greater significance in the development of character and of the culture\nof the mind, than the memorizing of the causes of the Revolution, the order and time of\nstate admissions to the Union, the presidential succession, or the dates and results of the\nbattles of the War of the Rebellion.\nIn history we must give large attention to the achievements of men who have accomplished results such as to make for improved social, industrial, and moral conditions, and\nto advance the standards and ideals of a people. History study must bring out clearly\nthe relation of effect to cause, and develop thought rather than tax memory.\n4. As indicated, the industrial arts in the grades find their chief place in making clear\nthe study of history and geography and in furnishing a natural avenue of expression for\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n289\n\nactive minds and bodies. Beginning in the first and continuing thru the eighth school year,\nthe meaning and growth of industries should have a prominent place. The study of primitive peoples, their manners, customs, mode of life, hunting and fishing exploits, travel,\nhome-making — all thru the medium of the arts, may be understood and applied in such a\nway as to show how progress has been made.\nThe occupations and industries of our people today: the fundamental principles of\nhome-building, of bridge construction and engineering, of boat and car manufacture —\nthese are to be included in a study of the industrial arts. Instead of joints, and stitches,\nand abstract exercises, attention must be given to real processes and to actual things. The\nlife of the mechanic, the farmer, the miner, the builder, the engineer, the artist, the writer,\nthe housewife, the bread-winner, are opened up to the student in school. The boy has a\nfeeling for industrial situations, for the meaning and dignity of work, for social adjustments,\nfor the application of scientific principles in the arts, for an appreciation of the beautiful\nthat is of untold value to him. The girl gains contact with the household arts, the preparation and serving of foods, comparative food values, adulterations, substitutes, compositions, the economics of marketing, the art of preserving, of cooking for special purposes\nsuch as for invalids, the care of the home, furnishing the house, planning and arrangements\nof rooms, home-decoration, sanitary conditions; and thru this contact and this elementary study, she will be made more efficient and better adapted to take her place in the\nworld of life and action than could possibly be the case otherwise.\n5. Thru contact with the most fundamental problems that have to do with our daily\nlife, the study of geography and man's relation to the earth on which he lives may be made\nreal and meaningful. Food, clothing, shelter, transportation — all are such important\nfactors in man's welfare that their study is a ready introduction to the world of geography.\nTrace the raw food products thru the stages of soil preparation, planting, tending, harvesting, and the various processes of working over and manufacture, transportation, and the\nlike. Consider from beginning to end the stages thru which our various articles of clothing\npass from the raw material to the most intricate processes of manufacture. Study the\ngrowth of the abodes in which we now live thru the evolution of cliff, cave, hollow treetrunk, cabin, to homes constructed of wood, or brick, of stone, of iron and steel, until the\nstructures of today readily withstand the ravages of fire. View in detail the journey of\nthese materials from the forest, the mine, the mill, the quarry, the kiln, as thru one process\nafter another they find their way from distant lands to our own doors.\nThese things are not studied as ends in themselves so much as means to ends. In\nno way can a knowledge of physical conditions be so well acquired as thru these channels.\nBy taking up the study of wheat from the standpoint of food, or cotton in its relation to\nclothing, there is a constant working back to climate, soil, location, and all that enters into\nmaking of value a knowledge of physical, industrial, and commercial geography.\nAgriculture always has been and always will be the most important of human industries, and upon it depend manufacture, commerce, wealth, life, happiness, and progress.\nThe study of man's relation to his environment is easily made as interesting as a fairy\nstory. The work of rivers and glaciers, of winds and tides and ocean currents, the cause\nof deserts, the significance of lakes and seas, of plains and mountains, of valleys and forests\n— all may be appreciated thru rational interpretation.\nBoth boys and girls should visit, under careful guidance, the manufacturing plants,\nthe art galleries, and the museums, in the cities or in nearby villages. They should understand and witness the building of good roads, appreciate the significance of forest-conservation and the husbandry of all our natural resources; visit the sources of water supply;\nstudy the work of the gas and electric plants and trace the evolution of illumination from\nthe tallow dip to the arc light. They may take up the problem of street-cleaning and the\ndisposing of sewage and garbage. They may interest themselves in the street car, the\nwork of the civil officers, the mail service, the telephone and telegraph, the newspaper, the\npublic institutions — asylums, homes for aged, unfortunate, or infirm — and the many facts\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nand forces that tie together geography, history, and good government, and make\nfor perfected citizenship.\nThru these and similar channels the student is led to see and appreciate his place in\nsociety. He acquires a fund of real geographical knowledge pertaining to his own and\nto other countries, that can, in his short life in the grades, be had in no other way.\nAnd of facts, locations, populations, climate, productions, industries, manners and\ncustoms, he secures a more intensive understanding, than should his entire time be devoted\nto the ordinary method of fact-gathering.\n6. To say more than a word on the side of mathematics instruction is impossible. It\nis essential that in the elementary school the fundamentals be emphasized, and these are,\nfirst and foremost, the fundamental operations, commonly called addition, subtraction,\nmultiplication, and division. The fundamental operations are used constantly in school\nand out, by men and women in all walks of life and of varied conditions and circumstances.\nTo manipulate, easily and rapidly, problems involving these principles is an accomplishment few possess, and even the man schooled in the higher mathematics frequently finds\nhimself sadly lacking in the practical arithmetic of which the fundamental operations are\nthe foundation.\nIn addition to constant practice in the above, ease and accuracy in manipulating\nproblems involving common and mixed fractions, percentage, interest, square and cubic\nmeasure must be given much attention. So-called business arithmetic or business forms\nneed to receive special emphasis. The arithmetic of business rather than the arithmetic\nof school must be taught. Repeated and varied work in the fundamentals, returning\nagain and again to the principles governing practical problems, is the work necessary to\nbe done in the grades.\nThe teacher of arithmetic must use the textbook less and rely upon himself and his\npupils to furnish much of the material to be studied. A most effective method is to request\nthe pupils to bring from home such problems as the father and mother have constantly\nto solve. Then, too, the teacher should keep a note book in which are recorded the problems\npresenting themselves to the various men of his acquaintance. The builder and contractor\nmust know the cost of excavating, of lumber, brick, hardware; must handle the problems\nof cubic measure in digging a basement, square measure in shingling a roof or plastering a\nroom. The painter, the decorator, the plumber, the landscape gardener — each must possess\nan intensive knowledge of a real mathematics.\nThe real-estate dealer, the farmer, the bank clerk, the grocer, the tinsmith, the druggist, the sewer contractor, the mechanic, the street-car conductor — these and all others\nhave a daily need for a knowledge of business arithmetic. In the early years the pupils\nshould be taught to handle, easily and rapidly, concrete problems in the fundamental\noperations and simple fractions; in the upper grades the pupils must understand common\nbusiness forms and papers, the elements of accounts and the general arithmetic of commerce.\nThis means drill in the lines suggested with scant consideration in these grades of the bulk\nof the arithmetic as now taught.\nThe oral or mental arithmetic of an earlier day may be called into play. The catch\nproblem, however, must be displayed by the problem of recognized everyday importance.\nAll of this points to the necessity of teaching, in the elementary school, the things\nthat are usable. It means thoroness, with such a grasp of a few things as to make possible\nfurther intensive study later. It indicates that the elementary is a preparatory school, not\nmerely for the school next above, but for real life. It points the necessity for training individual powers. It indicates the value of jormational over simply informational work.\nDISCUSSION\nF. E. DoWNES, superintendent of schools, Harrisburg, Pa. — Every day's teaching\nin the elementary school should be inspired primarily by the child's needs, the needs of\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n291\n\nsociety, and the needs of the times, and not by the desire to prepare pupils for entrance to\nthe high school; and the course of study, fundamentally, should be subordinated to these\nends in teaching. The public has a right to expect in every pupil who completes the\nelementary curriculum: (i) a reasonable habit of accuracy, (2) the habit of industry, or\nspirit of work, (3) considerable power of concentration, (4) a fair measure of discrimination\nor ability to distinguish the essential from the non-essential, (5) systematization in effort,\nand (6) a healthy, growing sense of honor. These are basal requisites, and the content\nof the ordinary school curriculum is simply the medium thru which they are to be developed.\nThey represent fundamental purposes in our educational effort, and are the true intellectual and ethical ends to be secured. That there are other important ends — more patent,\npossibly, than these — will be admitted; but that there are purposes more fundamental\nwill be conceded by no one.\nInasmuch as only a comparatively small proportion of the pupils of our public schools\never reach the high school, it follows that the elementary curriculum must concern itself\nwith the future of the large majority, as well as with that of high-school embryos. Any\ncourse of study in the elementary school that has no aim other than high-school preparation isin need of a new viewpoint and an immediate readjustment, for it is not constructed\nin the interest of the masses who are paying the cost. The business of the elementary\nschool should be to give to every pupil who completes it a working capital — a tangible,\nusable, educational asset — whether he is going to take it with him into life thru the avenue\nof the high school and, perhaps, the college and university, or more directly and immediately\ninto the actual work-a-day world.\nOur college friends tell us that a high-school course of study that will prepare best for\ncollege is the course of study that is best suited to the needs of everyday life. But we do\nnot believe this, first, because it does not satisfy our reason, and, second, because it does\nnot work out in practice. The high school, under its college tutelage, takes up the cry\nwhere the college drops it, and says to the elementary school, \"Construct your courses of\nstudy to fit one-fifth or one-tenth of your pupils for the high school and you will then have\nbuilded for the life-interests of the remainder.\" And again our reason and experience\ncompel us to question the soundness of the argument. \"You may fool all of the people\nsome of the time, and some of the people all of the time, but you cannot fool all of the people\nall of the time.\" The public has been long-suffering. It has waited patiently for proof.\nIt has supinely submitted to a distorted educational sentiment until patience has ceased\nto be a virtue. It has witnessed the curtailment, by a full year, and in some instances two\nyears, of the elementary curriculum. Whereas, formerly, a boy completed the grammar\nsthool and entered the stern battle of life, none too old, at the age of fifteen or sixteen, now\nhe is forced to begin the work of life at the age of fourteen, in order to accommodate the\nsmall fraction of his schoolmates who must finish the high-school course at eighteen and\nthat of the college at twenty-two. The public has consented in many places to tha introduction of algebra, in the grammar school, for the benefit of this same favored few. And\nif we may judge by the large sales of some of our publishers of English classics specially\nprepared for the elementary schools, the trend, even, of literatiure teaching is toward highschool, and, eventually, college preparation.\nTime prevents my carrying the argument farther. It is this condition more than any\nother, we believe, that accounts for this lack of adaptability, as suggested in the leading\npaper, and, incidentally, for the greatest storm of criticism that the public schools have\never known — this nurturing the few at the expense of the many. The schools have never\ndone as good teaching, in their way, as they are doing today; but they have been aiming\nin the wrong direction. They have been supplying an education which eventually, after\nyears of advanced training, would best equip a small minority for life, but have not been\ngiving the most practical education to the vast majority.\nThe point we have been attempting to bring out is that, in our elementary schools,\nlife-conditions and life-needs should be the prime consideration, rather than high-school\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nconditions and high-school needs. The latter should be regarded as incidental. The\nhigh school should make it its business to take up the work where the elementary school\nlays it down and proceed with it along the same worthy lines. Assuming due provision\nfor a few subjects purely cultural and conventional, the content of the elCi entary curriculum must look more than ever to the immediate interests of the great mass of pupils who are\nto make early use of it. The public demands this as it has never demanded it heretofore,\nand it is now insistent that its demands be met; so that it becomes merely a question as\nto how best to comply with these demands. Most subjects, if not all, of this revised curriculum will have to stand the test as weighed in the balance of practicability, or utility.\nEvery subject, whether it is to function as habit or judgment, must prove its immediate or\nearly worth. Algebra, for example, which functions both as habit and as judgment, will\nbe discarded in the grammar grades, because, without a high-school and college course,\nit possesses no utility. The substitution of an elementary course in bookkeeping or mensuration, or, as has been suggested, purely business arithmetic, would be infinitely more\npractical than algebra, and both the direct and indirect benefits much greater. In Harrisburg we have been teaching bookkeeping in the grades for many years and the public would\nnot have it otherwise. What does this mean ? It means that every pupil who completes\nthe elementary course goes out into the world able to keep a single-entry account, either\npersonal or for the corner grocery, with day-book, cash-book, and ledger. Mental arithmetic in many places, has become a lost art, as a distinct textbook study, and in our readjustment we would do well to restore this. Our boys and girls all need an appreciation\nof good literature; but they need first to know how to read intelligently and intelligibly, how\nto write a correct and legible letter, business or otherwise, and how to spell, more than they\nneed to know Hiawatha, or The Deserted Village, or Dickens' Christinas Carol. Overemphasis ofthe study of literary classics may become dangerous, if by it too little time and\nattention are given to actual practice. The acquiring of correct practice largely thru\nimitation is a slow and unsatisfactory process. Public speaking is another lost art. Within\nthe memory of the youngest of us, I think, a Friday afternoon was not complete without a\nspelling-bee or declamation exercises. Now these are exceptions. Our new course of\nstudy must include these. Our boys must be taught the use of their hands and the dignity\nof labor, and our girls must be given lessons in household economy.\nWe would not be misunderstood. We are not troubled with pessimism. We believe\nthat our schools are better equipped, maintain better facilities, and supply better teaching\nthan ever before. But we also agree with the leading paper in that in the natural process\nof evolution, for the most part for the better, we have made some vital mistakes. Culture\nand conventionality seem to have too far outweighed utility as standards. Now, manual\ntraining is in its ascendency; but while its high place in the education of today is a promising sign, even it may not possess the highest possibilities, unless care is taken to see that\nproper relations and balances are maintained. In the curriculum of the future we must\nretain the best of the old and the best of the new. We have lost too much of the best of\nthe old and accepted too much that is bad of the new.\nE. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich. — Thru the kindness of\nPresident Chamberlain, I had the opportunity of reading this paper some days ago. With\nthe author's main contention I find myself in agreement. Indeed, the educational world\ntoday is in practical agreement with him, judging from the rapidity with which the changes\nadvocated in the paper are being made in our schools.\nThe purpose of the elementary-school curriculum is, according to the reader of the\npaper, adaptability to environment, efficiency to do things. To this statement I heartily\nsubscribe, and I may remark, in passing, that this has always been the aim of the school.\nEducation has always aimed to fit the student for his place in the world. The method of\neducation and its content, however, have varied from epoch to epoch according to the\nideals of the age.\nTo Plato, reflection was the highest ideal and so Greek education led\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nto intellectual training; in Rome the best school was the armed camp which prepared for\nbattle and conquest; Luther set up the ideal of righteousness and his thought has affected\nthe school curriculum ever since; today we seem to be in a great maelstrom of materialism,\nwhose eddies are drawing down into it even our courses of study. I believe thoroly in the\nadaptation of the individual to his place in life, I believe thoroly in the adaptation of the\nschool to the individual pupil. I believe in vocational schools, trade schools, apprentice\nschools, continuation schools, etc., as is evidenced by the fact that we opened a trade school\nin our city the fifth of January of the present year.\nWhile, therefore, I agree with the author's statement of the purpose of elementary\neducation, I suggest the need of care, of caution, of forethought in changing our curriculum\nto make it agree with the content which \\\\e has suggested to us in his paper. There is just\nnow a great danger of our thought and of our practice becoming materialistic. If proof\nof this were needed, the recent book of Mr. R. T. Crane, the wealthy manufacturer\nof Chicago, would furnish it. No more striking indication of the spirit of the times could\nbe had than this book, in which the author dismisses with a word as entirely useless and\nworse than useless all schools and all education above the elementary grades. To Mr.\nCrane the almighty dollar, so called, is the only thing worth striving for, and I suggest that\nthere is a danger of infusing this spirit into our schools, our teachers, and our courses of\nstudy if we insist upon the industrial core in every group of studies. In my judgment, the\ncity of Chicago could find a more appropriate name for its west side technical high school\nthan Crane. I suggest with all respect that there are more important things in this universe\nthan dirigible balloons and flying-machines, not to say, however, that these are monitors,\ndreadnoughts, and Maxim guns. President Chamberlain has said, \"The achievements\nof a Benjamin Franklin, a Robert Fulton, a John Roebling, a Thomas Edison, a Roentgen,\na Pasteur, are of vastly greater significance in the development of character and of the culture of the mind than the memorizing of the causes of the Revolution, the order and time of\nstate admissions«to the Union, the presidential succession, or the dates and results of the\nbattles of the War of the Rebellion.\" Yes, this is true, but this is an unfair comparison. To\nmake good his point, the reader should have compared Franklin, Fulton, Roebling, and\nEdison with Washington, Perry, Grant, and Admiral Sampson. In such a comparison\nthe heroes of the army and navy will not suffer by the side of heroes of peace. It will be\na sad day for the idealism of the world when we try to forget in our teaching what the\nwars of progress have done for the world. I am not defending the arbitrament of the\nsword. I am only saying that, in the past, war has developed the world's greatest heroes\nand that we must not omit this from our courses of study. The spiritual, not the material,\nis the abiding verity of the universe. Our boys and girls should be so nurtured in their\nearly years as to realize that the eternal things of existence are the unseen, not the seen.\nThe industrial world, our natural resources, are the seen, they obtrude themselves upon\nus, especially in this age. In our desire to teach our boys and girls to do things with their\nhands, there is danger of forgetting that the best and truest and most enduring acts are\nwrought with the mind, not with the hand; that the unseen, not the seen, needs our deepest\ndevotion. We shall soon reach, if we have not indeed already reached it, the point of overemphasis on the material in our schools.\nThe heart of our education, its foundation, is still to be found, I believe, in literature,\nin the wisdom of the ages, as it is recorded in books. The boys in the trade school should\nstill be taught the world's great poems, stories, and legends. Success and happiness in\nlife depend on a vocation, and it is the part of the public school to teach vocations, as a\nmeans of self -protection and self-preservation, but \"with all thy getting, get understanding.\"\nA man's happiness in the world, and, therefore, his value as a citizen depend, ultimately,\nmore upon how he spends his leisure hours than upon how he spends his working hours.\nIt is, therefore, of fundamental importance that we teach the meaning of the progress of\ncivilization in manners and morals. The paper we have listened to leaves the impression\nthat the progress of industry and manufacture is the one essential in the study of history.\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNAl^IONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nIt is of fundamental importance that we give our students a love of the pure and true in\nliterature as well as a knowledge of the development of labor-saving machinery. I shall\nnot venture to a discussion of the author's detailed statements in regard to the content of\nthe course of study. My general feeling I have already indicated. I believe sincerely\nin industrial education and the training of the hands, but I believe even more strongly\nin the education of the feelings and the training of the heart. It is because I think a warning is timely in our rush toward industrial education that I have spoken as I have today.\n\nII.\nCHARLES\n\nTHE\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nS. HARTWTLLL,\n\nSECRETARY\n\nOF\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY TEACHERS'\n\nPROMOTION\n\nJOINT\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nASSOCIATIONS,\n\nOF PUPILS\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nN.Y.\n\nFive years ago this February, in one of my English classes were eighteen boys who\nhad passed a grade of work but had been grouped with twelve others to whom that grade\nof work was entirely new. These eighteen were to repeat, simply because they had failed in\ntwo other subjects. Six of these pupils I had myself passed the week before, some of them\nwith a good margin in percentages, and twelve had been passed by other teachers. It was\nthe second semester of the first year and there was no excuse in lack of sections or time in\nthe weekly program for not shunting these eighteen lads across the hall or to the next floor,\nto advance in the subject they had passed, except the idea of mass promotion, which prevailed at that time in the Boys' High School of Brooklyn, and in nearly every other high\nschool in Greater New York.\nConfronted by the problem of entertaining for five months 60 per cent, of the class,\nwho knew they had passed — in one case with 19 per cent, beyond the passing mark — while\nat the same time I must stick to the syllabus for the other 40 per cent., to whom the work\nwas new and essential, and realizing that this condition was due solely to wrong ideas of\nadministration, my sense of injustice was aroused. I wrote a severe criticism of this system\nof promotion, which President Butler printed in the Educational Review for September,\n1905.\n\nAmong\n\nthe two hundred letters which this circulation brought me was one from\n\nPresident Eliot, who commended that portion of the article \"Economy, in Education\"\nwhich treated of promotion by subject.\nIn this letter were these remarkable words:\nWe have reaped now in the public-school system all the benefits of system and uniformity, and it is high time to superinduce in the American schools the opposite benefits\nof flexibility and variety.\nAnother passage in President Eliot's letter was this:\nThe three fundamental things for the improvement of education up to the age of eighteen are (i) the extension downward of departmental teaching; (2) the earlier introduction\nof many subjects now reserved for the high school; and (3) the promotion or advancement\nof the individual pupil by subjects and not by the year or half-year.\nThe greatest problem we have to solve in oxir great system [said Superintendent Maxwell to the principals of Manhattan and the Bronx] is to reach the individual and to help\nthe slow pupil. I may say [he continued] that we are on the verge of solving this problem,\nand by a method which will revolutionize the public-school system of this country.\nIn referring to the above article in the Educational Review President Butler, the editor,\nwrote: \"The agitation should be kept up both in New York and elsewhere until something\nis accomplished. I should think it perfectly possible and very desirable to adopt the point\nsystem in dealing with secondary-school pupils.\" On December 18, 1906, Associate Superintendent Edward L. Stevens, in charge of all high schools in Greater New York, wrote:\n\"The scheme of promoting by points will undoubtedly go thru this month. We have\nagreed upon a minimum of 150 points.\" By a point is meant, in New York City, one recitation a week for a half year. Promotion by points carries with it, of course, promotion\nby subjects.\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\nOF\n\nPUPILS\n\n295\n\nThe most intense opposition to the change proposed came from the principals of the\nlargest high schools, particularly those making a specialty of supplying young womjen to\nthe training schools for teachers, but even in these conservative institutions the making\nof special or individual programs has since that time made some progress.\nThe results of two questionnaires, sent out in 1906, showed that the entire country\nwas ripe for the change proposed by President Eliot and proved that the worst abuses of\nmass promotion are confined to the largest cities. Every state but Nevada contributed.\nTo the question: \" Do you make a student who has failed in some of the work of the grade\ntake all the work of the grade again ?\" 206 superintendents, principals, and teachers said\n\"Yes,\" but 357 said \"No,\" or only 63 per cent.; 103 were willing to approve the New York\nCity system, while 299 indorsed the changes agreed upon by the Board of Superintendents\nin January, 1906. But, in spite of a vigorous press agitation it took fifteen months to secure\nthe adhesion of the high-school principals to this principle, and it was not until March 27,\n1907, that the Board of Education of the city of New York adopted the rules under which\npromotion by subject or promotion by points is now enforced. Moreover, these rules are\neven now evaded in several of the high schools of Greater New York, and if a superintendent unannounced and unaccompanied should walk into some of the first- and second-year\nclassrooms in high schools in New York City and ask the simple question, \"How many\npupils in this room are now taking over again some subject in which he or she has already ,\npassed,\" or if he should inspect the permanent record-cards of some pupils, he would fir\\d\njust such cases now, while the rule of the Board of Education that extra credit shall be given\nfor superior work is practically ignored in certain high schools.\n^\nThe formation of small annexes for first-year pupils or first-term pupils co^ibutes\nmaterially to this unfortunate condition of reaction.\nW\nThe enthusiasm of Van Evrie Kilpatrick of P.S. No. 52, Manhattan, led in 1908 to\nthe forming of a Joint Committee on School Organization with special reference to the\ngrading and promotion of pupils in the elementary schools. Seven principals and three\nheads of departments, five from the City Teachers' Association and five from the Brooklyn\nTeachers' Association, have for a year and a half been struggling with this problem. A\npreliminary statement may be found at pp. 14-17 of the Brooklyn Teachers' Association\nReport for 1908-9, and a complete report is to be issued within a few months.\nAt present writing 1,001 direct replies have been received to the twenty questions sent\nout by the joint committee. Hundreds of these have, besides the \"Yes\" or \"No\" answers,\ncomments of various kinds. Scores of letters have been received from all parts of the\ncountry and material for a large volume would be easily available.\nOf the 1,001 replies received, 7 came from Porto Rico, Hawaii, Manila, Canada; the\nother 994 came from forty-eight states and territories.\nThese replies are distributed as follows: 509 from the nine North Atlantic States, 45\nfrom the nine South Atlantic States, 21 from the South Central Division with eight states,\n296 from the North Central Division with twelve states, and 87 from the Western Division\nwith ten states; the rest were indeterminate or blanks. Among the writers are 325 superintendents ofschools, 513 principals, 20 teachers, 25 college presidents and professors,\n66 normal-school presidents and teachers and supervisors of training schools, and 21 more,\nincluding members of boards of education. In general terms, then, the .vote or tabulation\nis that of the experience and opinions of over 300 superintendents, 500 principals, and\n100 teachers of teachers. Results based on so solid a foundation should be valuable as\nindicating the trend of the entire country.\nOmitting for present purposes all doubtful replies, the direct \"Yes\" and \"No\" answers\nto he questions, \"Have you tried ?\" and \"Do you favor ?\" the various plans of promotion\noutlined in this questionnaire, as taken from 965 cards received from fifty-two states,\ndependencies, and Canada, are as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "65\n\n296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n235\n\n[Indianapolis\n\n149\n\n203\n\n135\n\nReports\n\nNot\nTried\n\nFavored\n\nNot\nFavored\n\n235\n\nCambridge Plan\nElizabeth Plan\nPueblo Plan\nBatavia Plan\nDepartmental Teaching\nGroup Teaching\nPre-academic School\nExtension Classes\nSpecial Classes for over-age\nforeign-born children\nUngraded Classes\nPromotion by Points\nChicago Plan\n13- North Denver Plan\n\nTried\n\n965\n965\n965\n965\n965\n965\n965\n965\nor\n965\n965\n965\n96s\n965\n\n270\n\n222\n270\n\n45\n\n97\n\n274275\n529 155\n57\n\n170\n\n471\n\n248\n260\n363\n\n3467\n24798\n151\n\n256 179\n14476 155\n\n116\n\n260\n\n267\n\n380\n\n37\n\n66\n514\n537\n\n553\n78 192\n240\n305 371 220\n\n93\n61\n\n406\n162\n\nPercentFavored •\nWho\n119 age 66\n\n161\n\nTo the question, \"Are you trying any other plan than those named above?\" only\n55 responded in the affirmative, or about one in twenty. In other words, the plans proposed\nin the questionnaire cover substantially the principal methods of promotion adopted in\nthis country.\n42\n\"Do you believe it is feasible to place each child in that grade or subject in which\nhe may work up to his fullest capacity ?\" — 362 answer \"Yes\" and78 165 say \"No.\" This\nquestion is affirmed by 70 per cent. \"Should pupils repeat work in which they have\nsatisfactorily passed?\" — 31 say \"Yes, \" but 642 say \"No,\" many of them \"Never.\" The\nvote against grade promotion, then, is fully 20 to i.\nIt is simply impossible here and now to give names and opinions, however influential\nthey may be. To select is to make invidious distinctions. I simply deal with the matter\nin the large. I note, however, that the country is progressing in opinion, in experience,\nand in determination toward more flexible methods. In 1906, to the question, \"Do you\nfavor the advancement by subject plan?\" while 428 said \"Yes,\" 113 said \"No.\" Promotion by subject was directly opposed by 22 per cent, of the educators responding.\nThree years later, to practically the same question, and that aimed at the elementary instead\nof the secondary school, only 31 seem directly to oppose.\nOne excuse for the maintenance of grade promotion is the tremendous power it gives\nthe teachers over the pupils. When they know that failure beyond the minimum of periods\nof work means repetition of the entire term, pupils will struggle harder to avoid this calamity. But what glory is there in passing nearly all members of a class at graduation when\nbecause of an inflexible system a large percentage of the pupils have spent from five to six\nyears in completing a four-year course ?\nIn the congested Brooklyn system, with its part-time classes, every term's work that\nis unnecessarily repeated in any high school is keeping another pupil in an annex of only\none or two grades where he must pass all or repeat all. I have known a pupil sent back\nto an annex to take a grade the fourth time, because two subjects were not quite passed\nand there was no room in the main building.\nThose who would like a more detailed statement of the various systems of grading\nand promotion, on which the experience and opinions of educators have been invited by\nthe Joint Committee on School Organization which I represent, I would like to refer to\nEducation (Boston) for February, 19 10, pp. 381-83, where the subject is carefully treated\nby our chairman. Van Evrie Kilpatrick. Those who wish to learn the comments made\nby many distinguished men, either for or against any one of the plans discussed, I must\nrefer to the forthcoming complete report of the committee. A monograph on each plan\nby an assigned member is in April to be placed in the hands of the chairman, who will\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\nOF\n\nPUPILS\n\n297\n\nsum up the findings and issue the complete report within a few months. By autumn this\nmay be in the hands of those who have contributed to its value by sharing their experiences\nand convictions.\nTime permits me only a brief reference to Nos. 5, 7, and 11, on the recent questionnaire of our committee, covering respectively departmental teaching, the pre-academic\nschool, and promotion by points.\nThree years ago 324 favored departmental teaching in the seventh and eighth years,\nwhile 127 opposed it. Now, 467 favor it to 146 in opposition. The percentage of those\nwho favor departmental teaching in these elementary grades has increased to over 76 per\ncent. The number who have tried it is 471, while 467 favor it, practically the same number,\nif not the same contributors. Of the 471 who have tried only 55 oppose departmental\nteaching. I am justified in saying, then, that departmental teaching in the seventh and\neighth elementary years will not be dislodged and has come to stay.\nThe vote on the organization of the seventh and eighth years as a separate school\ndeserves consideration. While only 45 state that they have tried it, 116 or two and a half\ntimes as many favor it. There is, however, formidable opposition in the 260 negative votes.\nIn this connection may I call attention to the Proceedings of the National Education\nAssociation for 1909, p. 502, where a smaller postal-card canvass reveals a majority in favor\nof \"organizing the ninth year with the seventh and eighth years under departmental teaching and promotion by subjects as a junior or lower high school, especially in large cities.\"\nThe six-and-six plan has made great strides since Dr. E. W. Lyttle, of Albany, read his\npaper at Asbury Park in 1905, as an examination of the Morrison and Lyttle reports in\nthe National Education Association Proceedings for 1907 and 1908 will reveal. In my\nown judgment the seventh and eighth years are now the real battle-ground for improvement\nin courses of study and in school organization, and vital connection with the secondary\nsystem will help the masses of children in the closing years of compulsory education.\n\"Promotion by points,\" says Mr. Kilpatrick, \"is really the greatest thought in modern\neducational progress and is by its very nature the direct antithesis of any plan of organizing\nthe educational course on a more or less fixed basis of years for each step.\" In Superintendent Seaver's report for 1901 we have an interesting statement of the Boston view.\nHe says, \"In the requirements for graduation, emphasis will be transferred from the element of time to the element of acquisition.^' \"The goal set up for pupils now,\" he adds,\n\"is the maintenance of a general average jor a given length 0} time: then the goal will be\nthe mastery of particular studies. There can be no question which goal is the better worth\nstriving for, nor any doubt as to the superiority, moral and intellectual, of the education\nresulting from a striving for the worthier goal.\" Not only in the day high schools, but also\nin the evening high schools in Boston, promotions are made by points.\nDid time permit I could quote reports and letters from Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati,\nPhiladelphia, and so on, which would show that other systems besides New York's have\nsuffered from the lock-step or penitentiary method of doing time in school. One Philadelphia principal wrote me: \"I hope that we shall be able to secure the adoption of a\nrule which will not require repetition of 76 per cent, of a year's work because 24 has been\nbelow the standard.\" Does not such a letter show that it is a real evil which we\nare combating ?\nThe result of the inquiry by this special committee cannot yet be foretold. Letters\nshowing an interest that insures action continue to come from distant states. Principal\nCharles Perrine, chairman of the School Problems Committee of the Brooklyn Teachers'\nAssociation, who has read all the cards and letters, has, at my request, made the following\nobservations:\nI. Every principal should have a rule or a system under which it will be impossible\nfor him not to know promptly of any pupil who is so far above the class that he needs to\nbe put into the next higher grade or so far below the class that it is positively harmful to\nthe class and to the pupil himself to remain in that grade.\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\n2. Most cities need an improved system of record-cards by the use of which teachers\nand principals will take greater care in grading pupils according to their individual capacity\nand needs.\n3. As one principal well puts it, \"We are firing in the air as long as our classes contain\nfifty, sixty, or even more pupils.\" No class should exceed forty, and thirty would be\ndesirable.\n4. Every teacher should set aside at least a half-hour daily for helping individuals,\na plan followed widely in Toronto and Milwaukee. One superintendent requires that\ntwo-fifths of the day be devoted to assisting individuals, particularly in directing them how\nto study.\nWhere classes must contain fifty or more, this Brooklyn principal suggests that\nthree-fovirths of the class, in lower grades, might profitably be dismissed a half-hour earlier\nat each session to permit the teacher to give attention to those who by reason of sickness\nor late entrance or less brilliancy cannot be promoted without individual help. The\nmajority would still have all the time in school that Kansas City allows and all that\nmany physicians approve.\n5. No one administrative device is so widely recommended as the employment of an\nadditional teacher whose chief business it is to afford special help in the essentials and in\n\"methods 0} study '^ to pupils who have fallen behind because of sickness or slower mentality\nand to assist in rapid advance to a new grade without loss of essential topics especially\nbright or over -age children and those children from other schools who are hard to grade.\nAmong the cities that recommend the individual teacher are Colorado Springs, Denver,\nBoulder, Wheeling, Brookline, Salem (Mass.), Minneapolis, Kalamazoo, Plainfield, and\nEast Orange. The number of pupils whose promotion would be saved added to those who\nwould complete the course in shorter time is an argument that would appeal to the taxpayer,\nespecially if his boy was being saved.\n6. Some courses of study while published as a minimum are in reality an impossible\nmaximum for certain sections of the same city.\nSome superintendents recommend that the course be reduced to bare essentials which\nshould then be rigidly demanded, while an enriched curriculum is provided for the brighter\npupils, as in Carthage, Mo., which has slow and fast sections in both high and grammar\nschools. Others would provide for a fuller course for all, but permit its completion in a\nterm or less by brighter sections, by a proper modification of the Cambridge plan so widely\nused.\n7. Several Philadelphia principals and superintendents regret the loss to the pupils\nin the present plan of semi-annual over the former plan of promotions three terms a year.\nFrom many other widely scattered sections comes a plea for 24 or even 32 grades in an\neight-year course without change of teachers each time.\n8. But most important of all we must extend into the elementary schools the practice\nhappily becoming more prevalent in the high schools, of promoting by subjects. It is said\nthat small high schools in New York State have been able to make a program that accomplishes this by having upper grammar grades taught departmentally with high-school\npupils, and that many more pupils remain to get some high-school work or to graduate,\nbecause they nearly all earn promotion in some subject. Chief Inspector Wood says the\nprogram is possible because the school day is longer. If possible in smaller schools, it\nsurely ought to be possible in larger schools. If special subjects interfere, those special\nsubjects should be eliminated in special cases or deferred until after school.\nWhen teachers and principals once realize that there is a way to master the difficulties\nthat have led to retardation, it will be found, as always, that the teachers are ready to make\nany personal sacrifice to advance those to whom they have dedicated their lives.\nIn his response to our questionnaire. Secretary Irwin Shepard made a statement which\ndeserves special thought. \"The solution of many of these problems,\" writes Mr. Shepard,\n'will be found in continuous sessions of schools, not meaning continuous attendance of\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] GRADING.A'ND\n\nPROMOTION\n\nOF PUPILS\n\n299\n\nall, but continuous opportunities for attendance for those who can profitably attend continuously, with corresponding opportunities for vacations at any time when needed and\nonly when needed. It is all wrong to shut up school buildings for three months every year\nand enforce a vacation for that time on all. Under continuous sessions, promotions should\nbe quarterly rather that yearly or each half-year. A child can take a vacation, then, any\nthree months when he needs it, or can attend continuously if best. This will break up the\nseven or eight grades into 28 to 32 units.\"\nIn his Eleventh Annual Report just issued, at pp. 106-9, Superintendent Maxwell\ngives interesting statistics regarding promotions in New York City and closes thus: \"The\nmost successful method, however, of accelerating promotions and the progress of pupils\nthru high schools would be the establishment of summer sessions.\"\nFour terms of twelve or eleven weeks each, six periods to the day, separated by\nnot more than a fortnight's interval, and three terms of the same length of a two-period\nevening school amounting to a fifth term in the year, would not only be conducive to\neconomy in any large city, but afford the very flexibility in promotions for which I plead,\nprovided:\n1. That each period, day or evening, shall have at least one class for each term's work\nin each subject offered, wherever prepared pupils enroll in sufficient numbers. On\nprogram-making see \"Liberating the Lower Education\" in School Review for June, 1907,\npp. 449-52.\n2. That when the pupils of any section are too few to warrant the formation of a class,\neach shall be permitted to take any other subject available within his powers successfully\nto pursue.\n3. That pupils who fail by a narrow margin in any subject shall be permitted to take\nboth the term to be repeated and the next term's work in that subject, in case they drop for\nthat ])urpose their most advanced subject and then clearly and steadily maintain the\nstandard in both grades of work.\n4. That pupils who secure a specified high standing in a subject shall be permitted\nto take an additional term of advanced work when feasible and suitable.\n5. That, whenever they form an excuse for an inflexible school program, minor subjects, or those occupying but one or two periods a week, shall be grouped in the same unit\nas regards time-allowance and credit-assignment or deferred to another term or altogether\neliminated.\n6. That inexperienced teachers or those who, knowing only the graded system, have a\nnarrow outlook shall not be assigned to the important task of classifying children, unless\nteachers of wider vision and sympathy are unavailable.\n7. That the accommodation of certain teachers and even the equalization of sections\nshall be subordinated to the fundamental principle of placing successive terms' work of\nany subject at the same periods in the program, so that each pupil above the sixth year,\nand especially while obliged to attend school, may advance according to his or her own\nproficiency in each subject.\n8. That administration shall scientifically assign to each school the proportionate\nnumber of teachers in each subject for all pupils above the sixth year which the size and\nnumber of rooms renders necessary to carry on the work of the course in that school.\n9. That whenever inflexible conditions have placed the child at a disadvantage, his\nright to a chance to progress shall have the right of way over difficulties.\n10. That in all cases where it is really immaterial which term of a subject or which\nsubject is taken first the distressed child shall have the benefit of the additional opportunity for flexibility in order that he may either shorten the time or increase the power of\nhis course.\nThe principle involved in above recommendations is that system must yield to the\nchild as we find him or her. We are to use every contrivance to facilitate individual progress and not to block progress.\nNot only the geniuses are one-sided; many far from being\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "300\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nbrilliant are one-sided.\nFlexibility gives each and all a chance to bring out the best in\nself and prepares for social service.\n\"The Keynote of the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at Indianapolis,\"\naccording to the Educational Review, \"is the difference in children. There are differences\nin mental alertness, in moral responsibility, mental attitudes, tastes, and tendencies, in\nphysical condition, in environment, and in vocational aim.\" Promotion by points or\npromotion by subjects recognizes these differences and gives the child, the home, and\nsociety the benefit of all the possibilities involved.\n\nDISCUSSION\nF. E. Converse, superintendent of schools, Beloit, Wis. — Mr. Hartwell and other\nNew York teachers are rendering us valuable service by their systematic study of this problem. It seems to me that we are practically all agreed on the importance of modifying\nour graded system so as to reach and help the individual. The problem is the how, or the\nplan for doing it in our smaller cities.\nIn the typical accredited small city high schools of the Middle West, the promotion\nof pupils by subjects has been a settled practice for years, if not from the first, and, as an\naccompaniment, departmental teaching has been at least approximated in those high\nschools. But we have been as slow as the slowest in trying any modifications of the common graded plan in our elementary schools.\nI suppose the explanation is, that it is a comparatively simple matter to organize and\nrun a high school on the departmental and promotion-by-subject plan. It is not so simple\nand easy to apply the plan in the elementary school, chiefly because economy has required\nthat elementary teachers handle classes of forty-five and fifty pupils, instead of half that\nnumber as assigned to high-school teachers. If for each room and teacher in our elementary schools we could assign not more than twenty-five or thirty pupils, departmental\nteaching could be quite easily extended downward from the high school. But with constantly increasing population this seems out of the question except in the wealthiest communities.\nThe vote on Mr. Hartwell's questionnaire seems to indicate a growing sentiment in\nfavor of organizing the seventh- and eighth-grade pupils with the present high-school\ngrades, thus affording opportunity for departmental teaching and promotion by subject.\nBut the cost of room in our costly high-school buildings will always interfere in most cities\nwith carrying out this six-year plan.\nIt seems to me there is greater promise in the plan by which Grades 7, 8, and 9 are\norganized together as lower high schools, leaving only Grades 10, 11, and 12 in the high\nschool proper with its more expensive laboratories and equipment. To adopt this threeand-three plan would provide school buildings nearer the homes of the pupils, and enable\nmost small cities to build one or more moderate-priced buildings for the lower high school,\nwith assembly room, gymnasium, shop, and kitchen, that would be in closer touch with\nthe people than the larger six-year high school or even the present high school.\nAgain let us remember that the greatest problem is the evils of mass teaching. Departmental teaching and promotion by subjects will not alone remove nor much lessen these\nevils. We all know that most of the evils of mass teaching still remain in our high schools\nin spite of departmental work and promotion by subjects. There the individual is not yet\nreached nor the slow pupil helped as he needs reaching and helping. It is only because\nof the survival of the fittest that the evils of mass teaching are any less in the high schools\nthan in the lower grades.\nWith reference to such special plans as the Cambridge, the Pueblo, the Batavia, the\nElizabeth, the Chicago, the New York group plans, etc., the vote seems to me indecisive\nor uncertain. The strength of the common graded plan is its simplicity and economy.\nWe have to remember that the machinery of the graded school must be retained and pre-\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\nOF PUPILS\n\n301\n\nserved. Moreover, the evils of mass teaching cannot be eliminated by merely substituting\none machine for another hovi^ever that machine may be modified from the old plan. It\nseems to me that they all would require closer supervision than the old plan to secure the\nresults claimed. This is a point against them only because adequate, efficient supervision\nis now almost impossible in our smaller cities where the superintendent is either \"the\nwhole thing\" or nothing, having little time for real supervision, and where principals of\nbuildings teach most of the time. In other words, any approximately constant group plan,\nno matter how short the interval between groups, may be followed so as to be quite as\ninflexible as the old plan. Remember, it is mass teaching we are trying to supplement\nby some method of reaching and helping individual pupils. This aim will require the\ngreatest possible flexibility of the grading and promotion plan.\nHerein lies the need of close supervision of the best kind: because the teacher needs\nthe perspective of the principal to help determine the needs of individual pupils. The\nregular teacher is too close to her grade to have a good perspective. Further, she is apt\nto be over-conscientious about having her pupils thoroly prepared to pass into the next\ngrade room. She is apt to fear the criticism of the next grade teacher about the unpreparedness of her pupils. The best supervision for this purpose — of applying and carrying\nout any flexible plan of grading and promotion — could best be given by the principal of\nthe building, whose whole time could profitably be given to the work of helping teachers\nto apply the course of study and to classify the pupils according to their needs. Of course\nthis implies a school principal who is thoroly acquainted with the teaching-process, the\ncourse of study, and the pupils, yet far enough removed from each grade to have a good\nperspective of the whole school.\nThere are undeniably strong points in favor of every one of the plans that have been\nnamed, and it now seems to me that, given strong teachers and a capable principal devoting\nmost of his time to supervision, every school of ten, twelve, or more rooms could improve\nresults and better reach the individual pupils by employing a combination of those plans\n— departmental teaching for the seventh and eighth years, with promotion by subjects;\nspecial and ungraded classes, if rooms and teachers are available; the constant and shifting\ngroup plans in lower grades; and then supplement the whole by setting aside on every\nteacher's daily program a certain time each day for individual teaching.\nEdwin J. Brown, superintendent of instruction, public schools, Dayton, Ohio. — I\nopen my discussion with an acknowledgment of the valuable work done by Mr. Hartwell\nand his associates of the Brooklyn Teachers' Association. Their exhaustive investigation\nof the subject of \"Grading and Promotion\" has placed at the disposal of those interested,\nmaterial so thoroly covering the entire matter that no superintendent can afford to be\nwithout it.\nMr. Hartwell has brought to our attention, briefly but clearly, all the different plans\nof promotion in present use. He has given us data, showing the number of supporters\nand users of each system. Here lies a real danger, the attaching of undue importance to\nthe numbers given, in the data submitted.\nSeveral years ago, the Batavia plan, now least favored of all suggested plans, would\nhave had the largest number of supporters. It was but a milestone on the path of progress.\nSo with other plans, which, in spite of the number of their supporters, must be considered\nmere guideposts on the road leading to the ideal system.\nIt is not any one plan, but a wise combination of the best features of all plans, that will\ndo our children the most good. \"Differences in children\" has been the keynote in every\ndiscussion of this meeting. The theme alone, if nothing had been said, would have shown\nthe progress of our profession from too great a uniformity to a rational consideration of the\nclaims of the individual.\nChildren differ in many ways, in every way, perhaps, and someone must recognize\nand reconcile (for the good of each and for the good of all) these differences.\nThat person\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\nmust be the teacher. In the attempt, therefore, to secure this best plan of grading and\npromotion, one element, the essential element, is the grade or class teacher. To reverently\nparaphrase, superintendents may plan, principals may work, but the teacher alone getteth\nthe results of permanent benefit.\nMany a well-planned system of work has failed in the schoolroom because the teachers,\nwhile loyally supporting the school authorities, have been led to see so little of the underlying principles, purposes, and details of the plans of the supervising force that they could\nnot carry them out efficiently and successfully.\nSuperintendents may blaze the trail, but it is the teachers who must make the path,\nbuild the pike, lay the rails, string the trolley-wires and (since flying-machines have been\nmentioned here and Dayton is the home of that invention) chart the atmosphere in this\nforward movement, in the grading and promotion of pupils. At every turn it is the teacher\nwho appears as the important factor in this work.\nNo superintendent who is not thoroughly in touch with his teachers, either personally\nor thru his supervising force, can hope to have any system of promotion other than a misfit,\nworking excellently here with a sympathetic, capable teacher; failing miserably there, with\na teacher out of touch with or mistaken in her understanding of his plans.\nThe only point I wish to make, then, in this brief discussion, is that the teacher will\nplay the important part in any plan. She holds the \"marking pencil\" in grading. Her\nopinion must, after all, be an essential part of every promotion. No plan, flexible in every\nother part, can be a success if the teacher is expected to follow it mechanically without\nthoroly understanding and appreciating all of its details. The superintendent must have\nthe support of his teachers, not in a merely mechanical manner, but with an intelligent\ninterest, that will make real success possible and permanent.\nThe automatic telephone system is operated by the user turning a dial face to the\nproper number. Machinery makes the call. This device is advertised in such statements\nas \" Our operators never lose their heads; they never lose their tempers. They have nerves\nof steel.\" It is the boast of our own Cash Register Company that its machines never make\nmistakes.\nTwo perfect systems are here shown, but they are mechanical.\nWe must remember, however, that our teachers do not have nerves of steel, that they,\nlike us, may make mistakes, not so much in teaching the subject or in recording or adding\nthe grades as in doing the work the automatic telephone and the cash register do not need\nto do — in making comparisons with the child's past progress, in drawing conclusions as\nto what is best for him in the coming months and years.\nHere is the superintendent's real work in promotions — to eliminate the mechanical\nand to put his teachers in clear-visioned, sympathetic touch with all the best plans and\nthen to work out with these teachers plans which, taking into account the differences in\nchildren, will arouse in the teachers the determination to do the very best possible for each\nchild, not only for the present, but for the future. This would mean not a city-wide plan,\nbut often a different plan for each class.\nWould it not be wise to acquaint each teacher with all phases of the promotion\nproblem, then give her the class and say, \"Here are your boys and girls. They are\nbeginning the fifth grade. You are to do, not for all of them, but for each of them, that\nwhich he most needs. If you discover some one whom you cannot touch vitally and\neternally for good, let us know; some other personality may. If you find a pupil capable\n(before the end of the year) of doing more than the fifth-grade work, give him the chance.\nHere is a minimum course. Enrich it along lines most helpful to each child. These\nare your children for a year. Do not worry, do not hurry, but work, and remember\nthat your work is eternal. You are a teacher charged with a great responsibility,\nbut blessed, as are few with great opportunities in the life of each of these, your\nchildren.\"\nChildren do dift'er, and in no other part of the school work do their differences play\na more important part than in grading and promotion.\nHere are problems whose solutions\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\nOF\n\nPUPILS\n\n303\n\nare worthy of the best thought and highest endeavor of teachers, of principals, and of\nsuperintendents.\nH. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111. — Evidently the adoption of\na grading and promotion system which makes adequate provision for properly safeguarding the welfare of each child in the matter of his assignment for work is an administrative problem. Most of the evils in our public schools may be shifted in part to the shoulders\nof the community, the teachers, or the board of education; but any shortage in the grading\nand promotion plan in a system must surely be mainly chargeable to the superintendent of\nschools. It is probable also that no other one thing which he does, after selecting his corps\nof teachers, is more far-reaching in its consequences than is the matter of instituting a\nwise system of grading and promoting pupils.\nThe major portion of the paper opening this discussion is devoted to showing the\nadvisability of promoting by points or subjects rather than by classes. With this position\nI am in hearty accord. I believe also that the credit system of promotion should be administered more discriminatingly, if it is to stimulate the individual child as it should. To\nthis end less credit than the hours of work actually carried should be granted for mere, bare\npassing grades in all cases in which the student is capable of doing a higher grade of work,\nand more credit than the hours of work actually carried should be granted, if it is of a\nsuperior, high character. Indeed, I was surprised to see that Mr. Hartwell found conditions existing in the public schools of the nation which seemed to require the discussion\nand support of this plan. It is easily possible in any grade or high school organized departmentally, and it is the only rational system to be used under such an organization. I\nregret that his data do not show the attitude and practice in reference to this system by\nstates. It has been generally in use so long thruout the states here in the Middle West,\nthat most of us had forgotten it is possible to do it otherwise. We are glad to aid New York\nto secure the adoption and use of the system, however, by giving it our public endorsement\nhere.\nThe fundamental theme of the paper, as of all the addresses of this session of the\nDepartment, is that the system of grading and promotion instituted must yield to the interests of each child which it concerns. We cannot give this principle too strong sanction in\nthe meeting of this round table. In the few minutes at my disposal, I desire to state\nbriefly some provisions every system should make for the progressive and satisfactory\nadvancement of its children thru the grades and high school.\n1. In the first place provision should be made for this advancement to take place upon\nthe basis of a flexible, adaptable course of study. This topic is not directly a part of our\ndiscussion but it is related to it in a very basic way, so I touch it merely to say that every\ncourse of study should provide: (i) a required minimum of work to be done by each child\nin each grade before he passes from the grade; (2) a more extensive amount of work which\nall pupils of average ability should be expected to complete satisfactorily; and (3)\nadditional work which the \"more gifted\" pupils, borrowing superintendent Van Sickle's\nphrase, should be inspired to do, that their opportunities may be rich and profitable in\nproportion to their abilities.\n2. The more flexible the machinery of the plan of advancement the more desirable\nit is so long asit is practicable and workable. Various plans have been devised whereby\nthose gifted children may complete the required work in a minimum of time, the average\nchildren in a little longer period of time, and the slower children, who are not so defective\nor arrested as to constitute custodial institutional cases, in a little longer period of time.\nAll of these plans, regardless of their details, seek to make it easy for a child to transfer\nfrom any class moving at a given rate of progress to a class moving at any other rate,\nwhenever the evidence may indicate that such a transfer would probably be to the interest\nof the child concerned. Every school system may and should embody in its grading and\npromotion scheme some flexible plan.\n\nIt may be the Cambridge plan or some modifica-\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "304\n\nNA\n\nTIONA L ED UCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\ntion of it. The exact details matter little, provided the periods when transfers may be\nmade smoothly and without loss are not too far apart.\nThis flexibility should also be supplemented by arranging plans whereby small shortages in the work of a grade may be made up by a child after he has gone into a\nmore advanced grade. These shortages are unavoidable often, and yet the child's age\nand general ability clearly indicate he should go to a higher grade. He will be greatly\nstimulated by being in a grade with pupils of his age and social interests and attitudes. In\nall these cases the child should be advanced, if at all possible. The programs should then\nbe planned so he may return to the lower grade to remove his shortages. We now have a\nnumber of cases in our schools which are being so handled. A child in the fourth grade,\nfor example, is returning to the second grade for his number work, while another in the\nthird grade is taking the phonic exercises and drills in both the lA and 2B grades.\nOf course, many of these cases are handled by the individual help which the regular\nteacher can give. Others are adequately met in crowded rooms by the assistant teachers.\nStill others are met by the private instruction and help of the unassigned teacher. In my\nown schools the last half -hour of the day is regularly used in aiding children needing special\nhelp. All children whose attendance, conduct, and work for the day have been exemplary are excused at 3 : 30. All others, and standing special cases, remain for such help and\nconferences as their individual cases require. The method of treating these cases is a\nsecondary matter, so long as it is simple, hygienic, economical, and effective. It is little\nshort of criminal, however, not to find a remedy for all cases where advancement is reasonably possible.\nIn this connection we must not forget the importance of seeking to institute plans\nwhereby success in his term's work is insured to every single child. Nothing succeeds\nlike success. Nothing so certainly insures future success as a series of successes in one's\nhistory. Let us make failure impossible to all types of children to the degree that it lies\nwithin our power to do so.\nSome months ago, a large, overgrown sixth-grade boy, who was just entering early\nadolescence, was discovered in the room of a teacher who believed in the large results which\nfollow from doing difiicult and distasteful things — a doctrine born of the old-time view\nof formal discipline. This manly fellow was a leader except in history. His uncommon\nability seemed to fly out of the window when the preparation or recitation of the history\nlesson was undertaken. Accordingly, his teacher ceased to call upon him to recite in his\nother classes. She felt there was little need for him to recite in his other studies. He\nalways had his lessons in these subjects. So, she proceeded to call upon him without fail\nin history and he was seldom known not to fail. The boy's confident, courageous manner\nchanged to one of doubt and hesitancy, and he began to do poorly in whatever he did.\nThe teacher was urged to accept the doctrine that nothing stimulates to other successes\nquite so effectively as a series of successes. She reluctantly tried the theory and began\ncalling upon him to recite in his other subjects and in the things he could do in history.\nSoon the light returned to his eyes. His face changed from gloom to cheerfulness. He\nbegan to stand erect and hold up his head again. His old-time pleasant, familiar way\nwith his associates returned, and John became his former courageous, successful self.\nThe opportunity for victories had established him again in the good favor of his classmates.\nHe felt his teacher believed in him, and he began to \"bet upon himself\" again. No other\nfactor contributed to the saving of John from a term of failure and discouragement quite\nso much as his successes.\n3. More sanity than often prevails should be displayed in invoicing the child's claims\nto promotion. It is inexcusable narrow-mindedness and grievous shortsightedness to\ndetermine a child's promotion or failure solely upon the basis of his ability in the three\nR's. Carelessness with reference to his ability in these studies would be fatal, of course.\nNobody wants the child strong and expert in these subjects more than I do; but expert,\nautomatic ability in these subjects does not need to be secured all at once.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGRADING\n\nAND\n\nPROMOTION\n\nOF PUPILS\n\n305\n\nA large, overgrown child should be advanced as rapidly from grade to grade, until he\nreaches the grade where children of his age and social interests are, as the development of\nhis general ability will permit. He should not be held to a strict, careful mastery of all\nthe detailed drill phases of a subject,, as should a younger child who is in a grade where\nchildren of his age and attitudes normally are. Nor is there any absolute standard of\nproficiency by which to measure advancement in these subjects. Before the children leave\nthese subjects entirely, a certain minimum efficiency must be required; but what should\nbe considered an ideal mastery by a slow, incapable child is only three-fourths mastery by\nan average child and only half-mastery by a gifted child. Let us more and more learn to\ncut our cloth to suit the wearer and to adjust our detailed requirements to the genuine\ninterests of our children in the long run.\nLet us note and measure ability in subject-matter, but let us also learn the conditions\nwhich rendered each child who is threatened with failure in his term's work irregular\nin attendance, slothful in his work, and unambitious in his attainments. Was he in ill\nhealth ? Was he hampered by physical defects ? Did home conditions tax his energies,\ncause him to fail to get needed rest at night, deprive him of sufficient food and detain him\nfrom school ? Was he growing rapidly, so that his energy and vitality were all consumed\nhere ? Did his growth render him awkward and clumsy in both body and mind ? Was he\nwith pupils so much younger and so much different socially that his embarrassment and\nhis failure to adjust to their atmosphere and spirit handicapped him ? Was the room so\novercrowded that he didn't receive needed individual aid ? Was he in a part-time school ?\nWas he with a teacher who was not compatible ? Was he put at a disadvantage by changing schools or teachers two or three times, owing to readjustments made in the schools or\nto his parents moving about in the city ? Are you absolutely certain the requirements of\nthe course of study and the standard for promotion are ideally correct ? Is his threatened\nfailure due to your general, deliberate estimate of his ability, or does it result from his standing in percentages from a series of examinations imposed from above ? All of these questions and more should be honestly asked and answered by every teacher before she labels\nthe term's work of any child failure. After all the conditions have been considered, every\nchild's teacher should be honest enough with him and with herself and should be sufficiently\ndevoted to his future welfare to fail him, if this unquestionably seems to promise most for\nhim. Courage is quite as important here as is sympathetic appreciation in promoting a\nchild.\nIf we shall succeed in adopting for our guiding phrase ''Not the system but the child,\"\nhappier children and teachers and better equipped future citizens will be the certain result.\nLet us, in pursuit of this end, be willing to cut our red tape into blue ribbons at any time,\nin our efforts to educate America's children.\nIf a general illustration may be pardoned in this serious gathering where we are seeking\nto consider technical matters upon the basis of dennite data rather than upon that of mere\nopinion, I wish in closing to cite a result secured to a child and to us, by the wisdom of a\nteacher who taught years ago in Hancock County in this good state of Indiana. A system\nof rules and standards had been adopted by the directors of this school for the guidance\nof the teacher. While he was faithful to his trust and loyal to his employing board, as all\ntrue teachers are, he found ways to modify his system when special cases demanded it.\nIn the case which I have in mind, three regulations were broken in the interest of the\nchild. The first decreed that any child failing in more than five sums in arithmetic in any\nweek should be flogged. By the close of a certain recitation, this child had failed in the\nfatal five sums. Knowing what awaited him he went to his seat in a dazed condition.\nWhile dreaming over his lot he fell to drawing, another thing prohibited by the directors\nof the school. His drawing portrayed a large, strong man wielding a huge club over a\nstripling of a boy. Just as he finished the drawing he glanced up and was surprised to\nfind the master standing over him. He hastened to erase the drawing but the master caught\nhis arm, saying, \"Don't erase it Jim, it's good.\"\n\nHe now realized he had broken two\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indianapolis\n\n3o6\nregulations of the school. After school he awaited the orders of the master with anxiety.\nAfter making certain all had gone and that no one was in sight, the master called him to\nhis desk, and, instead of proceeding to thrash him, he took him upon his lap. He then\ndrew from his desk a copy of Ivanhoe and read to his pupil until he saw he was intensely\ninterested, when he asked him if he should like to take the book home with him and read\nit thru. The child thought he should, and so he took the book to his home and hid it in the\nhayloft, where he secretly read it thru, altho the directors had ordered that no novels should\nbe read in school. This seemed to reach the child and awaken his genius, and thus was\nJames Whitcomb Riley saved to the world, and thus began the growth of the talent which\nproduced his inimitable poetry.\n\nf\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\n\nCONSTITUTION\nPREAMBLE\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions\nformulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational\nquestions; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its\ndiscussions, to define and state with accuracy the dififerent views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds and\nreasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis\nof opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object,\nto encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion,\ntogether with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require\nthe careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever\ngrounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite the\nfreest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions. Any\nmember making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the grounds\ntherefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council. It shall\nprepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Education Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during, the previous year, and placing\nbefore the Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall embody in this\nreport a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part\nof the Association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number, committees representing the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the exchange of\nopinion among its members on such special topics as demanded the attention of the profession or of the public.\nARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from\nthe membership of the National Education Association. Any member of the Association\nidentified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and, after\nthe first election, such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\n2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members — four members\nfor six years, two for four years, and two for two years, and the Council shall elect eight\nmembers — five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years; and\nannually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five\nmembers, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (sec. 5), to serve six\nyears, or until his successor is elected.\n3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with\nthe annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any reason,\nfill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by the Council.\n4. The term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first\nelection shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council.\n307\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nshall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill\nvacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nARTICLE II— QUALIFICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP\nAll members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National\nEducation Association.\nARTICLE\nIII— MEETINGS\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as\nthe meeting of the National Education Association, and at least two days previous to\nthis meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the\nExecutive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary.\nA majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at\nany meeting, whether regular or called; but any less number, exceeding eight members,\nmay constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as\ndefined in this article.\nARTICLE IV— THE WORK OF THE COUNCIL\nThe Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council; also\nto conduct like investigations originating in the National Education Association, or any\nof its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nAPPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL\nAND EXPERTS\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nIn the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers,\nit shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the\nCouncil or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.\nARTICLE VI— OFFICERS\nAt the annual election of officers in 1904 the president of the Council shall be elected\nfor a term of three years, the vice-president for a term of two years, and the secretary for a\nterm of one year; and thereafter annually the vacancy caused by the outgoing officer\nshall be filled by the election of one person for a term of three years.\nIt shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the assistance and\napproval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting as shall\nrealize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized and exists.\nARTICLE VII— STANDING\nCOMMITTEES\n1. There shall be four standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, a Committee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\n2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and\nof three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\nmay be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899.\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by\nselecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to\nconduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nOFFICERS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n309\n\nthe report of any investigation which may be ordered by the National Education Association or its departments.\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council\nand six other members, whose terms of oflQce shall be so arranged that two vacancies\nmay be filled every year, beginning with 1899.\n5. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit at the next meeting a report on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year,\" in which a survey of the\nimportant movements and events in education during the preceding year is given. This\ncommittee need not be selected from the members of the Council.\n6. The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine\nmembers, whose terms of ofl&ce shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled each\nyear, beginning with 1903. No proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educational investigation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the\nAssociation for an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted upon until such proposal\nhas been referred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations for report.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— THE\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Education Association, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\n2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \"roimd table\"\ncharacter.\nARTICLE IX— AMENDMENTS\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Coimcil, by\na two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provisions may be waived at any regular meeting by unanimous consent.\nBy-laws not in violation of the constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of\nthe Council.\n\nOFFICERS,\n\nSTANDING\nOFFICERS\n\nCHARLES\nWILLIAM\nJOHN\nW.\n\nH. KEYES\nM. DAVIDSON\nCARR\n\nCOMMITTEES,\nFOR\n\nNew York, N.Y\nOmaha, Nebr\nBayonne, N.J\n\nJames M. Greenwood\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nJoseph Swain\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nON\n\nTerm expires in 1911\nTerm expires in 1912\nTerm expires in 1913\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nThe President, ex officio\nRaleigh, N.C\nKansas City, Mo\nAlbany, N.Y\nMilwaukee, Wis\nWashington, D.C\nOrono, Me\n\nJames Y. Joyner\nJames M. Greenwood, chairman\nAugustus S. Downing\nCarroll G. Pearse\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nRobert J. Aley\n\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 191 2\nTerm expires in 1911\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe President, ex officio, chairman\nKansas City, Mo\nWashington, D.C\nSwarthmore, Pa\nCOMMITTEE\n\nNicholas Murray Butler\nWilliam H. Maxwell\nEdward T. Fairchild\nJames M. Greenwood, chairman\n\n1910-11\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nEXECUTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\nNew York, N.Y\nNew York, N.Y\nTopeka, Kans\nKansas City, Mo\n\nAND\n\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nexpires in 1911\nexpires in 1911\nexpires in 1912\nexpires in 1912\nexpires in 1913\nexpires in 1913\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nexpires in 1911\nexpires in 1911\nexpires in 191 1\nexpires in 191 2\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n3IO\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick ....\nElmer Ellsworth Brown.\nAugustus S. Downing\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nJohn H. Phillips\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBoston, Mass\nWashington, D.C\nAlbany, N.Y\n\n[National\n'. Term expires in igi 2\nTerm expires in 191 2\nTerm expires in 1913\n\nMenomonie, Wis\nBirmingham, Ala\n\n,\n\n'. . . . Term expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 1913\n\nMEMBERS\nElected by the Council\n\nElected by the Association\nTERMS\n\nWilliam H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky.\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.\n•I. C. McNeill, Memphis, Tenn.\nE. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nEstelle Reel, Washington, D.C.\nA. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz.\nJulius I. Foust, Greensboro, N.C.\nW. T. Carrington. Springfield, Mo.\nWilliam P. Burris, Cincinnati, Ohio\n\nEXPIRE\n\nIN\n\nI9II\n\nW. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore.\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.\nBen Blewett, St. Louis, Mo.\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.\nJohn W. Abercrombie, University, Ala.\n*B. W. Torreyson, Little Rock, Ark.\nG. W. A. LucKEY, Lincoln, Nebr.\nJohn A. Wood, South Bend, Ind.\nD. B. Parkinson, Carbondale, 111.\n\nterms expire in 1912\nThomas A. Mott, Richmond, Ind.\nJohn H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\nFrancis G. Blair, Springfield, 111.\nJames H. Baker, Boulder, Colo.\n*Charles C. Van Liew, Chico, Cal.\nJ. A. Smith, Deland, Fla.\n*James a. MacLean, Moscow, Idaho\n*Edward T. Fairchild, Topeka, Kans.\n*Alfred Bayliss, Macomb, 111.\nWalter E. Ranger, Providence, R.I.\n\nElla Flagg Young, Chicago, 111.\nEdwin S. Monroe, Muskogee, Okla.\nW. H. Elson, Cleveland, Ohio\nJohn W. Carr, Bayonne, N.J,\n•Albert Salisbury, Whitewater, Wis.\nGrace C. STRAnsAN, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nAdelaide S. Baylor, Wabash, Ind.\nCarleton B. Gibson, Columbus, Ga.\nC. G. SCHULZ, St. Paul, Minn.\nOscar T. Corson, Columbus, Ohio\nterms expire in 1913\nWilliam E. Hatch, New Bedford, Mass.\nBettie a. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio\nCharles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn.\nAndrew S. Draper, Albany, N.Y.\n•Clifford W. Barnes, Lake Forest, 111.\nFrank E. Parlin, Cambridge, Mass.\nCheesman a. Herrick, Philadelphia, Pa.\nW. M. HOLLOWAY, Tallahassee, Fla.\nThomas C. Miller, Shepherdstown, W.Va.\nFrank B. Dyer, Cincinnati, Ohio\n\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N.J.\nAugustus S. Downing, Albany, N.Y.\nGeorge B. Cook, Little Rock, Ark.\nStratton D. Brooks, Boston, Mass.\nEdgar H. Mark, Louisville, Ky.\nThomas M. Balliet, New York, N.Y.\nHenry B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind.\nWilliam O. Riddell, Des Moines, Iowa\nA. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Utah\nReed B. Teitrick, Harrisburg, Pa.\n\nterms EXPIRE IN 1914\nW. E. Harmon, Helena, Mont.\n*David Felmley, Normal, 111.\nJohn R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C.\nWales C. Martindale, Detroit, Mich.\nMrs. Elleh H. Richards, Boston, Mass.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal.\nM. Bates Stephens, Annapolis, Md.\nJacob A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio\nJ^MES W. Crabtree, Peru, Nebr.\n* Not present at annual meeting, 1910.\nElected by the Association\nJohn MacDonald, Topeka, Kans.\n*Alma L. Binzel, Winona, Minn.\n*C. O. Merica, Laramie, Wyo.\nS. L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minn.\n*Charles McKenny,\n\nWiLtiAM M. Davidson, Omaha, Nebr.\nM. G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa.\n*L. E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex.\nHarlan Updegraff, Washington, D.C.\n*0. S. Westcott, Chicago, 111.\nJuLLA Richman, New York, N.Y.\nMrs. James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nFrank Strong, Lawrence, Kans.\nC. P. Gary, Madison, Wis.\nHomer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa\n\nexpire in 191 s\nTI\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\n* Not present at annual meeting, 1910.\n\nElected by the Council\n\nMiss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\nLewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, Washington, D.C.\nWilliam H. Black, Marshall, Mo.\n•Nicholas Murray\n\nButler, New York, N.Y'\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nI\n\nHONORARY\n\nDavid Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Cal.\n\n•Luther L. Wright, Lansing, Mich.\nGeorge M. Philips, Westchester, Pa.\nEdmund A. Jones, Columbus, Ohio\nErnest E. Balcomb, Providence, R.I.\ntj. E. Burke, Boston, Mass.\n\n•W. R. SiDERS, Pocatello, Idaho\n•William H. Maxwell, New York, N.Y.\nE. G. COOLEY, LaGrange, 111.\n•H. J. Rogers, Albany, N.Y.\n\nI\n\nMEMBERS\n\nexpire in 19 1 6\n\nJohn W. Cook, DeKalb, 111.\n*David R. Boyd, Norman, Okla.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menonomie, Wis.\n\n*Edwin B. Craighead, New Orleans, La.\nCarroll G. Pe.'Vrse, Milwaukee, Wis.\n'Henry Snyder, Jersey City, N.J.\nElla C. Sullivan, Chicago, 111.\nRandall Spaulding, Montclair, N.J.\nGeorge B. Strayer, New York, N.Y.\nFrank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash.\n\nHONORARY\n\nJane Addams, Chicago, 111.\nEdwin A. Alderman, Charlottesville, Va.\nSarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass.\nJames B. Aswell, Natchitoches, La.\nBrown Ayres, Knoxville, Tenn.\nEarl Barnes, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAlexander Graham Bell, Washington, D.C.\nD. Bemis, Spokane, Wash.\nIda C. Bender, Bufifalo, N.Y.\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R.l.\nFrederick E. Bolton, Iowa City, Iowa\nRichard G. Boone, Los -Angeles, Cal.\nAlbert G. Boyden, Bndgewater, Mass.\nAnna C. Brackett, New York, N.Y.\nJohn E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nDavid N. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nP. P. Claxton, Knoxville, Tenn.\nOscar H. Cooper, Abilene, Tex.\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gorham, Maine\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio\nO. J. Craig, Missoula, Mont.\nCharles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N.Y.\nRobert E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn.\nJohn Dewey, New York, N.Y.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S.C.\nKLatharine E. Dopp, Chicago, 111.\nJohn J. Doyne, Little Rock, Ark.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nE. C. Elliott, Madison, Wis.\nWiLLL\\M W. FOLWELL, Minneapolis, Minn.\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal.\nWilliam K. Fowler, Lincoln, Nebr.\nH. B. Frissell, Hampton, Va.\nR. B. Fulton, Miller School P. 0., Va.\nCharles B. Gilbert, Englewood, N.J.\nAaron Gove, Denver, Colo.\nLewis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo.\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass.\nMrs. Edwin C. Grice, Philadelphia, Pa.\nW. N. Hailmann, Cleveland, Ohia\nG. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass.\nPaul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass.\n* Not present at annual meeting, 1910.\n\nAnna Tolman Smith, Washington, D.C.\n•William S. Sutton, Austin, Tex.\nJames H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md.\nThomas Bailey, Memphis, .Tenn.\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C.\nRobert J. Aley, Orono, Maine.\nCharles E. Chadsey, Denver, Colo\nDavid Snedden, Boston, Mass.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, III.\n♦R. L. Jones, Nashville, Tenn.\n\nMEMBERS\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N.Y.\nAlbert Ross Hill, Columbia, Mo.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Can.\nJames H. Hoose, Los Angeles, Cal.\nGeorge H. Howison, Berkeley, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Can.\nThomas Hunter, New York, N.Y.\nEllen Hyde, Farmington, Mass.\nEdmund J. James, Champaign, 111.\nCharles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn.\nE. S. Joynes, Columbia, S.C.\nCalvin N. Kendall, Indianapolis, Ind.\nDavid L. Kiehle, Portland, Ore.\nWilliam F. King, Mt. Vernon, Iowa\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N.Y.\nLivingston C. Lord, Charleston, 111.\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa.\nFrancis A. March, Easton, Pa.\nGeorge H. Martin, West Lynn, Mass.\n' Charles A. McMurray, DeKalb, 111.\nJesse F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal.\nErnest C. Moore, New Haven, Conn.\nHenry C. Morrison, Concord, N.H.\nWilliam A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn W. Olsen, St. Paul, Minn.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\nWarren D. Parker, Pasadena^ Cal.\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, Ohio\nJosiAH L. PiCKARD, Cupertino, Cal.\nEdward T.- Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJames R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nJohn T. Prince, West Newton, Mass.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, Danville, Ky.\nMrs. Ellor C. Ripley, Boston, Mass.\nWilliam D. Ruffner, Lexington, Va.\nJames E. Russell, New York, N.Y.\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis.\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa\nJ. G. ScHURMAN, Ithaca, N.Y.\nH. E. Shepard, Baltimore, Md.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nCharles R. Skinner, New York, N.Y.\nEuler B. Smith, LaGrange, Ga.\nJ. Lancaster Spalding, Peoria, 111.\nt Deceased.\n\n311\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n312\nEdwin E. Sparks, State College, Pa.\nHoifER D. Sprague, Newton, Mass.\nLucia Stickney, Cleveland, Ohio\nGrace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Nebr.\nHenry Suzzalo, New York, N.Y.\nJohn Swett, Martinez, Cal.\nA. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111.\nW. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga.\nJohn G. Thompson, Fitchburg, Mass.\nL. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N.J.\n\nDECEASED\nRobert Allen\ni8g4\nIsrael W. Andrews\n1888\nJoseph Baldwin\n1899\nHenry Barnard\n1900\nWilliam N. Barringer — 1907\nNewton Bateman\n1897\nWilliam C. Bates\n1909\nReuben S. Bingham\n1902\nGeorge P. Brgwn\n1910\nJohn T. Buchanan\n1908\nJ. E. Burke\n1910\nNorman A. Calkins\n1895\nJames H. Canfield\n1909\nAaron L. Chapin\n1892\nClara Conway\n1904\nJ. L. M. Curry\n1902\nN. R. H. Dawson\n1895\nJohn W. Dickinson\n1901\nLarkin Dunton\n1890\nJohn Eaton\n1906\nW. R. Garrett\n1903\nDaniel C. Oilman\n1909\nSamuel S. Greene\n1883\nJohn M. Gregory\n1898\nGeorge T. Fairchild\n1901\nDaniel B. Hagar\n1896\nR. H. Halsey\n1907\n\n[National\n\nWilliam 0. Thompson, Columbus, Ohio\nCharles F. Thwing, Cleveland, Ohio\nJulia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala.\nJasper N. Wilkinson, Muskogee, Okla.\"\nDelia L. Williams, Delaware, Ohio\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D.C.\nJohn W. Withers, St. Louis, Mo.\nLightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nHarry K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Nebr.\nCalvin M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nJohn Hancock\nWilliam R. Harper\nWilliam T. Harris\nWilliam D. Henkle\nEdwin C. Hewitt\nElnathan E. Higbee\nFrank A. Hill\nBurke A. Hinsdale\nIra C. Hoitt\nGeorge Howland\nJohn S. Irwin\nHenry N. James\nH. S. Jones\nThomas Kirkland\nAlbert Lane\nMerrick Lyon\nAlbert P. Marble\nJames McCosh\nCharles D. McIver\nThomas J. Morgan\nLemuel Moss\nM. A. Newell\nBirdsey G. Northrop\nTheodore B. Noss\nEdward Olney\nGUSTAVUS J. Orr\nFrancis W. Parker\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1891\n1906\n1909\n1882\n1905\n1889\n1903\n1900\n1905\n1892\n1901\n1901\n1900\n1898\n1906\n1888\n1906\n1894\n1906\n1902\n1905\n1893\n1898\nigog\n1886\n1888\n1902\n\nS. S. Parr\n1900\nW. H. Payne\n1907\nSelim H. Peabody\n1902\nWilliam F. Phelps\n1907\nJohn D. Philbrick\n1885\nM. S. Cooper Poucher. . .1900\nWilliam B. Powell\n1904\nZalmon Richards\n1890\nAndrew J. Rickoff\n1899\nCharles C. Rounds\n1901\nEdward R. Shaw\n1903\nWilliam E. Sheldon\n1900\nEdgar A. Singer\n1909\nJames A. Smart\n1900\nF. Louis Soldan\n1908\nJ. W. Stearns\n1909\nR. W. Stevenson\n1893\nThomas B. Stockwell. . . .1906\nEli T. Tappan\n1908\nHorace S. Tarbell\n1904\nCharles O. Thompson. . . .1885\nH. S. Thompson\n1904\nArnold Tompkins\n1906\nJames P. Wickersham. . . .1891\nS. G. Williams\n1900\nEmerson E. White\n1902\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Saturday Forenoon,\nOFFICERS\n\nPresident — ^Joseph Swain, president of Swarthmore College\nVice-President — W. M. Davidson, superintendent of instruction\nSecretary — ^John W. Carr, superintendent of schools\n\nJuly\n\n2, 1910\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nOmaha, Nebr.\nBayonne, N.J.\n\nThe Council met at New Old South Church in Boston, Mass., and was called to order\nat 9 :30 A.M. by President Joseph Swain.\nThe introductory address was presented by Joseph Swain, the president of the\nCouncil.\nJames H. Van Sickle presented the \"Report of the Committee on Exceptional\nChildren.\"\nDiscussion by Ben Blewett, St. Louis, Mo.; Charles E. Chadsey, Denver, Colo.;\nMiss Bettie Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio; Wales C. Martindale, Detroit, Mich.; Miss Julia\nRichman, New York, N.Y.; J. H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md.; Miss Olive Jones, New\nYork, N.Y.; M. P. E. Groszman, Plainfield, N.J.\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n313\n\nWm. H. Maxwell being absent, the paper prepared by him was read by Augustus S.\nDowning, of Albany, N.Y. The subject of the paper was: \"The Economic Use of Education Plants.\"\nGeneral discussion by Lewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.; Robert J. Aley, Orono,\nMaine; J. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.; W. T. Carritigton, Springfield, Mo.; Augustus S. Downing, Albany, N.Y.; Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn.; John W. Cook, De\nKalb, 111.; M. P. E. Groszman, Plainfield, N.J.; Miss Julia Richman, New York, N.Y.\nOn motion, the following committee was appointed on the President's address:\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N.J.\nChas. H. Keyes, New York, N.Y.\nWilliam M. Davidson, Omaha, Nebr.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Saturday Afternoon, July 2, 1910\n\n\"Report of Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Education\" was the\nfirst topic considered. An introductory statement was made by Charles R. Richards,\ndirector of Cooper Union, New York City.\n\"Industries in the Elementary Schools\" was presented by Jesse D. Burks, director\nof Bureau of Municipal Research, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\"Intermediate Industrial Schools\" was presented by David S. Snedden, commissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.\n\"Industrial and Technical Education in the Secondary Schools\" was presented by\nCharles H. Keyes, of Hartford, Conn.\nDiscussion by John G. Thompson, Fitchburg, Mass.; Henry B. Brown, Valparaiso,\nInd.; James M. Green, Trenton, N.J.; L. D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis.; Carroll G.\nPearse, Milwaukee, Wis.; Frank B. Dyer, Cincinnati, Ohio; James M. Greenwood,\nKansas City, Mo. ; Arthur D. Dean, Albany, N.Y. The discussion was closed by Charles\nR. Richards.\nTHIRD SESSION.— Saturday Evening, July 2, 1910\nThe Council met at 8 p.m. President Swain appointed as members of the Committee on Membership Elmer E. Brown, of Washington, D.C., and Robert J. Aley, of\nIndianapolis, Ind. to take the places of two absent members, Livingston C. Lord, of\nCharleston, III., and I. C. McNeill, of Memphis, Tenn.\nThe President announced that the Committee on Membership would also act as the\nCommittee on Nominations.\nA brief report on \"Co-operation with Education Organizations in Other Countries\"\nwas made by Elmer E. Brown, United States Commissioner of Education.\nThe report was discussed by Ernest E. Balcomb, Providence, R.I.; and Miss Anna\nTolman Smith, Washington, D.C.\nThe chairman of the Committee on the Culture Element and Economy of Time in\nEducation, James H. Baker, president of the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.,\nreported progress and stated that a final report would be made next year.\n\"Report on Educational Progress during the Year\" was made by Frank Strong,\nchancellor of the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday Forenoon, July 5, 1910\n\nThe Council met at 9:30 a.m. The first subject presented was the \"Report of the\nCommittee on Moral Education in the Public Schools.\" James M. Greenwood, chairman of the committee, made a preliminary statement of the work of the committee.\nJohn W. Carr, secretary of the committee, read the Introduction and Recommendations\nof the Committee.\nDiscussion by John W. Abercrombie, University, Ala.; William H. Black, Marshall,\nMo.; John W. Cook, DeKalb, 111.; D. B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C; Miss Nebraska\nCropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.; John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.; Mrs. Ella Flagg Young\nChicago, 111.; and Martin G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe next topic, \" Physical Education in Its Various Phases, Elementary, Secondary\nand Higher,\" was presented by Dudley A. Sargent, director of Hemenway Gymnasium,\nHarvard University.\nA paper on the same subject was prepared by Luther H, Gulick, Russell Sage Foundation, New York City, N. Y. Mr. Gulick was unable to be present, and the paper was read\nby another.\nClark W. Hetherington, professor of physical education, University of Missouri,\nColumbia, Mo., presented the last paper on this subject.\nDiscussion by David Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Cal.; Wm. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky.; Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Boston, Mass.; Homer H. Seerley, Cedar\nFalls, Iowa.\nFIFTH SESSION.— Wednesday Forenoon, July 6, 1910\nThe Council met at 9:30 a.m. with Vice-President William M. Davidson presiding.\nThe first subject on the program, \"The Vocational and Industrial School,\" was\npresented by Frederick P. Fish, president of the State Board of Education in Massachusetts.\nThe next paper on the same subject was presented by Theodore W. Robinson, vicepresident of the Illinois Steel Company, and president of the Chicago Commercial Club.\nThe next speaker on this topic was Charles H. Winslow, Chairman of the Committee\non Industrial Education for the American Federation of Labor, Washington, D.C. The\nlast speaker was Henry Abraham, secretary of the Central Labor Union of Boston, Mass.\nQuestions were asked by Thomas W. Bicknell, Ben Blewett, J. W. Carr, F. G. Blair,\nChas. H. Keyes, and James M. Greenwood, and were answered by Mr. Robinson, Mr.\nAbraham, Mr. Winslow, and Mr. Greenwood.\nDiscussion by Augustus S. Downing, Albany, N.Y.; Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, Chicago, 111.; Chas. E. Chadsey, Denver, Colo.; Thomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R.I.;\nCharles H. Winslow, Washington, D.C.\nBy resolution the thanks of the Council were tendered to Messrs. Fish, Robinson,\nWinslow, and Abraham for their excellent addresses.\nOn motion of James M. Greenwood, the Council went into executive session.\nEXECUTIVE\n\nSESSION\n\nOn motion, the Committee on Exceptional Children was continued another year.\nThe Committee on the President's Address made the following report, which on\nmotion was adopted.\nBoston, Mass., July 5, 1910\nThe committee appointed to report on the President's address recommends as follows:\nFirst: The continuation of the practice of having a report on the educational progress of the year, as required by thfe Constitution.\nSecond : Three of the six committees appointed three years ago have rendered completed reports or probably will have done so with this meeting. Three others, on the\nfollowing topics:\nProvision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools;\nThe Culture Element and Economy of Time in Education; and\nCo-operation with Educational Organizations in Other Countries, will report in the\nfuture.\nIt seems proper at this time to propose new questions for investigation, and the\ncommittee offer the following :\nThe Attitude of Labor toward Industrial Education.\nThe Relation between Public Schools and Private Colleges.\nThe Administration of Public Educational Systems.\nThe committee wishes to commend the degree of interest in the work of the Council\nsecured by our President in his plan of program, including the three-minute speeches,\nbut feels that it should be kept constantly in mind that we are a Council, and that there\nshould be as much opportunity as possible for spontaneous discussions, and possibly one\nor more closed sessions.\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUJ\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n315\n\nThe United States Commissioner of Education is working in the closest harmony\nwith the educational policies of this Council. We recognize the increasing eflaciency of\nthe Bureau under his administration, and we ask for him the most cordial support on the\npart of Congress in the development of his plans.\nWe recommend to the Board of Directors the appointment of an advisory committee\nto act in conjunction with the Commission in securing needed legislation.\nThe further questions of the President should remain with the Executive Committee.\nFinally, the committee wish to note the very successful administration of the retiring\nPresident.\nJames M. Green\n)\nChas. H. Keyes\n[ Committee\nWilliam M. Davidson )\nThe question of the publication of the Report on Moral Education was referred to\nthe Executive Committee with power to act.\nThe Committee on Membership made the following report, which on motion was\nadopted :\nTo the National Council:\nYour Committee on Membership, which was also appointed to act as the Committee on Nominations, recommend the election of the following:\nofficers of the council\nCharles H. Keyes, New York, N.Y., to succeed Joseph Swain as president of the\nCouncil, for a term of three years, term ending in 1913.\nmembers of the executive committee\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa., to succeed William T. Harris, deceased, as a member of the Executive Committee of the Council, for a term of three years, term ending\nin 1913.\nMEMBERS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nElmer E. Brown, Washington, D.C., to succeed Livingston C. Lord for a term of\nthree years, term expiring in 19 13.\nRobert J. Aley, Indianapolis, Ind., to succeed I. C. McNeill for a term of three years,\nterm ending in 1913.\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C., to succeed Charles H. Keyes, resigning to accept\nthe presidency of the Council, term ending in 1911.\nMEMBERS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nINVESTIGATION\n\nAND\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nAugustus. S. Downing, Albany, N.Y., to succeed himself for a term of three years,\nterm ending in 191 3.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis., to succeed himself for a term of three years,\nterm ending in 1913.\nJohn H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala., to succeed himself for a term of three years,\nterm ending in 191 3.\nE. T. Fairchild, Topeka, Kans., to succeed William O. Thompson, absent from two\nsuccessive meetings, term ending in 191 1.\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nTerms ending in igii:\nW. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore., to succeed Frank B. Cooper, absent from two successive\nmeetings.\nG. W. A. Luckey, Lincoln, Nebr., to succeed Frederick E. Bolton, absent from two\nsuccessive meetings.\nJohn A. Wood, South Bend, Ind., to succeed Jane Addams, absent from two successive meetings.\nTerms ending in 191 2:\nEdwin S. Monroe, Muskogee, Okla., to succeed J. N. Wilkinson, absent from two\nsuccessive meetings.\nW. H. Elson, Cleveland, Ohio, to succeed W. O. Thompson, absent from two successive meetings.\nC. G. Schulz, St. Paul, Minn., to succeed John W. Olsen, absent from two successive\nmeetings.\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nTerms ending in 191 3:\nAndrew S. Draper, Albany, N.Y., to succeed himself.\nFrank E. Parlin, Cambridge, Mass., to succeed Mrs. Ellor C. Ripley, absent from\ntwo successive meetings.\nCheesman A. Herrick, Philadelphia, Pa., to succeed Mrs. Edwin C. Grice, absent\nfrom two successive meetings.\nW. M. Holloway, Tallahassee, Fla., to succeed J. W. Withers, absent from two successive meetings.\nTerms ending in 1914:\nHarlan Updegraflf, Washington, D.C., to succeed J. E. Russell, absent from two\nsuccessive meetings.\nC. P. Gary, Madison, Wis., to succeed E. G. Elliott, absent from two successive\nmeetings.\nTerms ending in 1916:\nAnna Tolman Smith, Washington, D.G., to succeed herself.\nWilliam S. Sutton, Austin, Tex., to succeed himself.\nJames H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md., to succeed himself.\nThomas Bailey, Memphis, Tenn., to succeed James B. Aswell, absent from two\nsuccessive meetings.\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.G., to succeed Brown Ayres, absent from two successive meetings.\nRobert J. Aley, Orono, Maine, to succeed himself.\nGharles E. Chadsey, Denver, Golo., to succeed himself.\nDavid Snedden, Boston, Mass., to succeed Paul H. Hanus, absent from two successive meetings.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111., to succeed himself.\nR. L. Jones, Nashville, Tenn., to succeed himself.\nOn motion the following was adopted:\nResolved, That the President be empowered to designate certain sessions of the Gouncil as open to members only, and that in the selection of a meeting-place, due consideration should be given to securing a room reasonably remote from the annoyance of\ndistracting noises of the street.\nOn motion, the secretary was instructed to notify each member who has been transferred from active to honorary membership.\nOn motion the following resolution was adopted:\nResolved, That it be required of the Gommittee on Nominations, that it shall hereafter when submitting its report at the time of the Annual Business Meeting of the Council, include in its report the names of all members whose names under the rule are to be\nplaced on the list of Honorary Members of the Council.\nThe minutes of the Denver meeting were approved as printed in the volume of Proceedings.\nOn motion the following resolution read by L. D. Harvey was referred to the Committee on Go-operation with Educational Organizations in Other Countries.\nResolved, That the President of the Association be authorized to appoint a committee\nof five members, of which Honorable Elmer E. Brown, U.S. Commissioner of Education,\nshall be chairman, to correspond with proper persons in all the civilized countries of the\nworld, with a view to organizing an International Educational Association and holding\nthe first meeting of the same at some convenient place in Europe in August, igii.\nResolved further. That the Board of Directors be asked to authorize an appropriation not to exceed $500, out of the Treasury of the Association, to defray the necessary\nexpenses of this committee.\nAfter thanking the council for the courtesy shown him during his term of office,\nPresident Joseph Swain introduced his successor, Charles H. Keyes.\nOn assuming the chair. President Keyes thanked the Council for the honor conferred\nupon him.\nAdjourned.\nJohn W. Carr, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nI\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nJOSEPH\n\nSTATEMENT\n\n317\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nSTATEMENT\n\nSWAIN, SWARTHMORE\nPRESIDENT OF THE\n\nCOLLEGE,\nCOUNCIL\n\nSWARTHMORE,\n\nPA.\n\nIn pursuing the object of this Council as set forth in the preamble to\nits constitution and in the several separate resolutions of the Council in the\npast few years in harmony therewith, it is the present practice of this body\nto have the program in three parts: First, the report of the Educational\nProgress of the Year, which is required by the constitution. Second, the\nreports of committees for special investigation and a general discussion of\nthe same. Third, a general discussion of other important topics which may,\nif the Council so directs, be taken up in the future by committees deemed\nespecially fitted by training and experience to make special study and embody their conclusions in a report to the Council.\nThree years ago the President of the Council was directed to appoint\nsix committees to investigate certain questions and report their conclusions\nto the Council. These questions were:\nIndustrial Education in Rural Schools.\nA System of Teaching Morals in the Public Schools.\nThe Scarcity of Teachers.\nProvision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools.\nThe Culture Element and Economy of Time in Education.\nCo-operation with Educational Organizations in Other Countries.\n\nThe Committee on Industrial Education, L. D. Harvey, of Menomonie,\nWis., chairman, and the Committee on the Scarcity of Teachers, I. C.\nMcNeill, of Memphis, Tenn., chairman, presented completed reports in\n1908, which were printed in the Proceedings of that year. The Committee\non Provision for Exceptional Children, James H. Van Sickle, of Baltimore,\nMd., chairman, presented a preliminary report in 1908 and a supplementary\nreport in 1909 and has a statement to present at this meeting. The Committee on Moral Education in the Public Schools, James M. Greenwood,\nof Kansas City, Mo., chairman, presented a preliminary report in 1908,\nwhich was printed only in outline in the Proceedings. In 1909 a brief report\nof the progress of this committee was given to the Council. This year this\ncommittee will present to you a tentative report signed by all its members,\nfor your consideration and discussion. The Committee on the Culture Element and Economy of Time in Education, James H. Baker, of Boulder, Colo.,\nchairman, gave a preliminary report in 1908, and a report of the progress\nof the committee in 1909. This committee is still continuing its labors\nbut will make no report this year. The Committee on Co-operation with\nEducational Organizations of Other Countries, our late honored leader,\nWilliam T. Harris, chairman, made a report in 1908. Commissioner Brown\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "31 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nreported for this committee in 1909 and he will also present a statement\nthis year. It thus appears that at the close of this meeting of the Council,\nthree of the committees will have presented completed reports, leaving\nthree committees with unfinished reports.\nThe great amount of labor and time expended by our committees without compensation or even money for travehng expenses or clerical services\nis an indication of the fact that our educational leaders are willing to do\neverything in their power, even tho it means much personal sacrifice, to\nadvance the great work of American education. These reports are all made\nwith care and with great labor and they are serving a distinct purpose.\nThey are not only of service in themselves, but they have been instrumental\nin starting further investigation in the United States Bureau of Education,\nand in private societies and foundations. For example, growing out of the\nwork of the Committee on Exceptional Children, a new committee has\nbeen appointed to prepare a report to be published by the United States\nBureau of Education.\nAt the request of the Council Committee on Provision for Exceptional\nChildren, the Commissioner of Education called a conference at the Indianapolis meeting of the Department of Superintendence. At this conference\nthere were present, besides the committee, a number of men who have\nmade a special study of this work. As a result of the conference the Commissioner has appointed a committee to prepare a brief bulletin, which will\ngive as fully as possible the present practice in cities of the United States\nin dealing with exceptional children in their public schools.\nThe United States Commissioner of Education has appointed the chairman of our committee chairman of the new committee. This committee\nin turn has secured the aid of one of the professors of the University of\nPennsylvania and one of the members of the Sage Foundation. Thus the\nwork of the Council has been successful in promoting not only its own work,\nbut the work of other bodies.\nIn a different direction, a member of the Committee on Moral Education has been made president of the Character Development League, which,\nit is said, has been endowed with a million dollars for the purpose of character-building inour public schools. While, therefore, lack of funds has\ngreatly hampered our committees in their investigations and we should\nearnestly put ourselves to the task of correcting this defect, we nevertheless\ncan take courage to continue the general policy pursued of appointing such\ncommittees, not only for the sake of the work they do, but for the work\nthey inspire in other organizations. Possibly one of our leading functions\nshould be the testing of the theories and experiences of other workers and\nthe pointing-out of needed reform in the public-school system and investigations to be made by educational bureaus of state and national government as well as in private foundations for education and research.\nPerhaps the time has arrived when one or more additional committees\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nSTATEMENT\n\n319\n\nshould be appointed to take up some of the many questions which our\nrapidly developing public-school system is creating in order to adjust- itself\nto the changed conditions of our civilization.\nAll of the new questions discussed in the last three years in this Council\nhave been chosen from carefully compiled lists prepared thru the suggestions\nof members of the Council. No question has been selected that has not\nbeen proposed by more than one member and from members from different\nparts of the country. Thus they have represented wide interests. The\nparticular questions chosen have been largely determined by the President's\nability to secure the right person to lead the discussion, for the matter of\nproper persons to discuss topics is at least of equal importance with the\ntopic itself. The new topics in 1908 were these:\nThe Distinctive Functions of University, College, and Normal Schools in the Preparation ofTeachers.\nHousehold Science in Elementary and Secondary Schools.\n\nIn 1909 the new topics were:\nWhat Industrial Education Means to the Elementary Schools.\nRural School Supervision.\nThe Adjustment of our School System to the Changed Conditions of the Twentieth\nCentury.\nThe Administration of Public Educational Systems.\n\nThe new topics for this year, 19 10, are:\nThe Vocational and Industrial School.\nThe Economic Use of Educational Plants.\nPhysical Education in Its Various Phases:\n\nElementary, Secondary, and Higher.\n\nFrom these questions or special aspects of them, one or more questions\ncould profitably be selected for minute study by a committee or committees\nappointed for this purpose.\nI desire to call special attention to the topic, \"The Vocational and Industrial School,\" assigned for the last session of the Council this year. This\ntopic may be considered as included in the discussion of the report on \"The\nPlace of Industries in Public Education,\" but the point of view may be\ndistinctly different. The men who will discuss the Vocational and Industrial School question are all of them representative business men, who,\nthru their interest and practical experience, have come to certain conclusions\nconcerning these schools. It is proposed to give them a full hearing, unhampered bythe theories of pedagogs. It is believed that such a hearing\nwill be greatly to the benefit of a better understanding of the vocational\nschool and its problems. It is by the perfect harmony of theory and practice, founded on experience, that we must get the best results in all forms\nof education.\nThe lack of funds for the work of this Council emphasizes the importance\nof increased appropriation to the United States Bureau of Education, between which and this body there is such unity of purpose.\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe past year has been little short of a revolutionary epoch in the history\nof the Bureau of Education. For the first time in the history of that office,\nit has been housed in one of the great buildings belonging to the federal\ngovernment. The change has involved a removal from the cramped and\ndilapidated building which had for many years been rented for the purpose,\nto comfortable and dignified quarters in the building formerly occupied by\nthe Post Office Department. With this change has come an important\ninternal reorganization. One of the most vigorous and experienced members of the staff has been advanced to the position of chief clerk, a position\nwhich carries with it the responsibility of serving as Acting Commissioner\nin the absence of the Commissioner from Washington. The work of the\nLibrary upon the lines laid out two years ago has been continued, and the\ncollection has been so rearranged in the new quarters as to make it much\nmore available for regular use. A new Division of School Administration\nhas been erected, in charge of a highly trained and experienced specialist,\nwho is devoting a large part of his time to work in the field.\nThe Annual Report for the year 1909 was brought out with unprecedented celerity, the first volume appearing in December, 1909, and the\nsecond volume in April, 1910. The contents of these volumes has commanded unusual attention. Arrangements have been made under which\nthe reports of succeedings years may be expected to appear with equal\npromptness.\nThe biennial digest of educational legislation in all the states has been\nchanged to an annual publication. Congress has provided an editor, to\nhave immediate charge of the publication service. Within the past month\nanother new position has been created by Congress, that of Specialist in\nHigher Education, at an annual salary of three thousand dollars, which\nhas set a new standard for salaries in the Bureau. In taking this step\nCongress seems to have entered definitely on the carrying-out of the plan\nwhich has been urged of providing the Bureau with an adequate staff of\nwell-equipped specialists. Many educational officials and institutions thruout the country are now participating in a regular campaign for securing to\nthe Bureau an adequate staff of such specialists, with funds to enable them\nto devote a large part of their time to work in the field.\nThe reorganization of the Alaska work, which has been going on for\nthe past three years, has now been completed and turned over to a superintendent called in from the field. With the increase of the Alaska appropriation from one hundred thousand dollars to two hundred thousand dollars\nthree years ago, the work has been greatly expanded. The expansion in\nnumber of schools, of teachers, of reindeer stations, and of other special\nprovision for industrial education, has ranged from 50 per cent, to 500 per\ncent, within this three-year period. An entirely new sanitary campaign\nhas been organized, embracing the employment of physicians and nurses,\ncontracts with local hospitals, and other provision for the improvement of\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n321\n\nhealth conditions. The Alaska of the Eskimo and Indian is recognized as\nthe great experiment station of the Bureau, and this work is now more\nclosely than ever before co-ordinated with the Bureau's other activities.\nI would call attention to a recommendation of the United States Commis ioner ofEducation made last year, which was doubtless overlooked by\nthe Council. After calling attention to the desirability of entering into\ncommunication with societies and organizations in foreign countries, with\nthe view to inviting them to consider with us questions of international\ncharacter, he said:\nIt is accordingly recommended that the National Council at this meeting appoint\na Committee on International Correspondence; that this committee be instructed to\nenter into communication with representative educational bodies of other lands, with a\nview to learning whether they would regard the program here referred to as practicable\nand desirable; and that the committee be further directed to report the results of such\ncorrespondence at the next meeting of this Council.\n\nI would ask that the usual committee be appointed for the consideration\nof this and any other questions arising from this statement by the President\nof the Council.\n\nI\n\nIn conclusion, I am sure I express what is in the mind and heart of every\nmember of this Council today when I say we all feel a great sense of loss\nand deep sorrow in the death of Dr. William T. Harris, the universally\nrecognized leader in the counsels of this body for more than a generation.\nHis profound learning, his keen insight into the things of the spirit, his\nunselfish devotion to the service of humanity, his unwavering faith in the\ndemocracy of the public schools, his simple manner, his mastery of debate,\nhis kind heart, his passion for the truth, his ability to go right to the\nheart of his theme, and his alertness to detect mere show and sham — all\nthese attainments and more made him to each one of us guide, philosopher,\nand friend. May we all cherish his memory by doing what he would have\nus do thru the example and inspiration he has given us, by dedicating\nourselves anew to the service of the school, the hope of our country, which\nhe did so much to promote.\nREPORT\nJAMES\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONAL\nCHILDREN IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nH.\n\nVAN\n\nSICKLE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBALTIMORE,\n\nMD.\n\nThe Report of the Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children in\nthe Public Schools presented to this body in 1908 was styled \"preliminary\"\nwith the idea that after a more detailed study of the problem had been made\nby your committee a full report would be prepared. As funds of the Association have not been available for carrying on your committee's work, at\nthe meeting of the Department of Superintendence at Indianapolis in\nMarch, 1910, the Commissioner of Education, at our request, called a\njoint meeting of the committee and a number of specialists in this field\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwhose experience would enable them to give valuable advice, and who were\nwilling to aid in any way that might be thought best. It was the consensus of opinion at this meeting that there is a special need at this time\nof information as to exactly what is now being done for exceptional children\nin public schools with special reference to the better things that are done,\nwhat means are employed and what results attained, together with a statement of what additional things public schools should do and practical suggestions for beginning and carrying on work in special classes. Commissioner Brown stated that the Bureau of Education stands ready to compile\nand publish a bulletin showing what is now being done in the different\ncities of this country and to act as a co-ordinating agency to unify the efforts\nof the different workers in the field. When the meeting adjourned it was\nunderstood that Dr. Brown would appoint a special committee of three to\nprepare such a bulletin for publication — one a superintendent of schools\nto represent the school management side; the second to deal with the statistics ofretardation; and the third to deal with the problem of the special\ntreatment of mentally and physically defective children. Subsequently the\nfollowing named members of the conference were appointed by the Commissioner and they have signified their willingness to co-operate in the\nwork: Dr. Lightner Witmer, Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, and Superintendent\nJ. H. Van Sickle.\nTo aid the committee in gathering material for the bulletin, Dr. Brown\nsent out a circular letter of inquiry to which replies have already been\nreceived from fifty-six cities. It is hoped that, in view of the importance\nof the inquiry and the need for early publication of the bulletin, all superintendents who have not yet replied will do so with as little delay as possible.\nThe committee expects to treat in the bulletin as many of the following\ntopics as the data received in response to the circular letter permits:\nI. A provisional nomenclature for use in this j&eld.\nII. Agencies for the treatment of retardation in the public schools.\nA . Educational\n1. Day schools for truants.\n2. Schools for backward children.\n3. Parental or residential schools.\n4. Special classes for:\na) Deaf and semi-deaf.\nb) Blind and semi-blind.\nc) Backward children.\nd) Epileptics.\ne) Non-English-speaking.\n/) Late entering.\ng) Working paper classes.\nh) Classes for gifted children.\ni) Vocational classes.\n5. General adaptation of the curriculum to meet the differentiated needs of\nthe pupils of the public schools:\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nI\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\na) In elementary schools.\nb) In secondary schools.\n6. General classification according to ability:\na) Mental.\nb) Physical.\n(i) Medical inspection for contagious and infectious diseases.\n(2) Medical inspection for defects.\n(3) Physical examination.\n(4) Dental clinics.\nB. Social\n1. The school nurse as a social visitor.\n\n323\n\n«\n\n2. Home and school clubs; mothers' clubs.\n3. Public baths and school baths.\n4. School luncheons.\n5. School kitchens and cooking classes.\n6. Playgrounds.\n7. Recreation centers.\n8. Clothing, and home environment.\n9. Gymnasia.\n10. Training for \"little mothers.\"\nIII. Bibliography. In considering the question of a bibliography, the committee\nhas had in mind a bibliography that would be directly serviceable to the superintendents\nof this country who are looking into the problem of the treatment of backward children,\nwith a view to introducing work along this line. We have thought that a list of references which superintendents might be expected to have and to use would be much more\nserviceable than a complete bibliography culled from periodical literature in many\nbranches of science, which the student in this field would find it desirable to consult.\nIV. The committee will include in the bulletin, if they find it possible to do so, a\nreport on some of the best recent work of related character in foreign lands.\nDISCUSSION\n\nI\n\nMaximilian P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J. — The words of the last speaker\ncontain a deceptive argument. If we were dealing only with the problem of the individual we might assent to the proposition to allow our weak-minded \"hewers of wood and\ndrawers of water\" to work out their own salvation. But as a matter of fact we are dealing with a grave social problem. How will you prevent these \"humble workers\" from\npropagating their kind and thus becoming a public menace? The family histories of these\nindividuals as exemplified by Mr. Johnstone's chart should open the eyes of all thinking\npeople. And it is a mistake to think that institutional care of these individuals would\nmean prison life. They are made happy and contented if the right organization is\ndeveloped.\nThis brings up once more the question of the function of the special or ungraded\nclasses in pubhc schools. They ought to be of two kinds: one a sort of observational\nchnic in which a mental and moral status of the child is ascertained and from which he\nis transferred to his proper educational environment; and the other giving those children\nwho can be more or less readily restored to average response their proper opportunity.\nThe public school is not a place for those children who cannot be thus readily restored\nto fairly normal equilibrium.\nMiss Julia Richman, district superintendent of city schools. New York, N.Y. —\nThere seems nothing to be added to what has already been said, unless perhaps the result\nof certain observations I have made. For six and a half years I have been watching the\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOQIATION\n\n[National\n\neffect of special gradihg for \"overage\" children in the schools of my own district. With\ntwenty-three thousand school children crowded into a space covering less than three hundred acres, practically all of them foreign-born or of foreign parentage, under housing\nconditions at times intolerable, in an environment un-American at all times, unhygienic\noften, generally unfavorable to the best moral, physical, and mental development of the\nchild, this district presents a field for the observation of the exceptional child greater in\nneed and richer in material than the average school communit3^ Thirteen terms ago\nwe began to segregate all the \"overage\" children, placing them in special classes under\nthe best available teachers, and eUminating from the course of studies many \"nonessentials.\" After six and a half years of careful effort, we still have about four thousand\nchildren in special classes. (This does not include the ungraded classes for children pronounced mentally deficient after a thoro pathological and psychological examination.)\nA study of these special classes discloses much of interest and value. In three minutes Ican emphasize but one point. These children can be roughly classified into two\ngreat divisions: the child with average mental powers, \"overage\" thru late entrance, illness,\nfrequent transfers, etc., and the child of such hmited mentality that altho not technically called \"mentally deficient\" he must be classified as the border-line child or the\n\"near defective.\" For the former class, careful individual instruction and help will soon\nbring him up to grade. Rarely should it require more than two years to bring him\nback to the regular class for children of his own age. The problem is far more delicate\nand serious for the other child, the exceptionally dull, the \"near defective.\" It is for\nus to protest against the further waste of time and money and of the life-blood of both\nteacher and children in futile efforts to teach such what they cannot learn. All these\ndetails of our traditional courses of study that we in our arrogance deem \"essentials,\"\nbut which require for their mastery intellectual powers beyond the capacity of children\nof this type, must be swept aside and in their stead there must come help and instruction\nalong Hnes fitted to the child's future needs and mental limitations. Just what these\nlines are to be depends upon the genius of \"divinely touched\" teachers to discover and\ndevelop. Their effect will be to give the poor handicapped child a greater interest in\nclassroom tests, a greater hope for satisfactory achievement, and a greater confidence\nin his ability to turn chronic failure into something akin to success.\nOne thing more. What shall be our attitude toward the real mental defective?\nGiven a boy, able-bodied, generally intelligent in every direction but book-learning,\nover fourteen years of age, anxious and able to get work — should the law compel him to\nremain in school until he is sixteen, because he cannot work an example in long division\nor write a composition? At sixteen or at sixty these tasks will still be beyond his feeble\nmental powers, even tho we keep him in school for that full period. What, then, is the\nproper course to pursue? To keep him at his desk working, working, working at the\nunattainable, giving him two years of discouraging, futile effort in school, with idleness\nand possible harmful company outside of school, or to let him get into some useful occupation, where he becomes self-dependent and self-respecting? This is a phase of the\nproblem which this committee must consider in its final report.\nCharles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. — The investigation made by Mr. Ayer, under the auspices of the Russell Sage Foundation, of retarded\nchildren has resulted in much activity in many places, in the effort to overcome existing\nconditions. Nearly every city in which investigations have been made proves to have\na surprisingly large percentage of children two, three, and four years behind the grades\nto which normal children of their ages are supposed to belong. Given the existence of\nsuch conditions, each city is face to face with the problem of overcoming the admitted\nunfortunate condition.\nIt is necessary for principals and teachers of a given system to reaUze fully the nature\nand extent of the evil and to become inspired with a desire to relieve the conditions.\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nPROVISION\n\nFOR EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n325\n\nMany teachers and not a few principals have felt conscientiously that a large percentage\nof failures in the grades was not to be considered a reflection upon the effectiven3ss of\nthe work. In fact, sometimes it has been felt that such conditions merely indicated that\nhigh standards were sustained. A superintendent's first duty is to overcome these false\nideas and to have both teachers and principals impressed with the thought that an unnecessary failure is an evil of the first magnitude. When principals and teachers do fully\nrealize that part of their duty is to spare no pains to secure the successful accomplishment of the year's work in as many cases as possible, the percentage of retardation will\nbe found to diminish.\nThe next problem in the overcoming of this evil is to have the community convinced\nof the desirability of special schools being established in which pupils who are retarded\nmay receive proper attention. While all are willing to concede the desirability of such\nspecial schools, many feel a personal pride as to their own children and have the feeling\nthat there is a reflection upon the family if any member is compelled to be in attendance\nat such a school. To convince such parents of their error is a problem which we have\nbeen attempting to solve in Denver by special meetings in various parts of the city. It\nis our hope, thru the establishment of these special schools for retarded children in various\ncenters of the city, to be able to show in a few years a decided diminution of the number\nof such children.\nBen Blewett, superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo. — The report of the committee gives a practical classification of the types of children who should be educated\napart from the ordinary scheme of the school for normal children. Much has been accompUshed when the facts set forth in the report are recognized and used as principles in the\norganization of the work with exceptional children.\nTo select the children that come under these several types is a practical detail more\ndifficult than the theoretical classification of tj^es; more diflScult, if for no other reason,\nbecause each case presents differentiations from the type. Unless expert skill is exercised\nin the selection and assignment to peculiar training, serious harm may be done. For\nthis expert diagnosis the skill of both the physician and the psychologist is needed. This\nskill should be at the service of boards of education providing schools for exceptional\nchildren.\nTo place a child in the class of mental defectives when his trouble is a remediable\nphysical condition works greater harm than to leave a mentally deficient child in the\nassociation of normal children. To burden the schools with the task of educating a child\nwhom the expert psychologist could readily determine as hopelessly handicapped by\nheredity or by the chances of birth is conduct that is without reasonable excuse.\nOlive M. Jones, principal. Public School 120 (Special School for Delinquent Boys),\nNew York, N.Y. — A question has been raised in regard to the future of the exceptional\nchild. May I venture to express an opinion based upon an actual experience of nearly\nfive years in caring for at least one type of exceptional child? Many of these children\nare physically strong and able, and altho mentally unfit to gain much from the ordinary\nschool education, they are neither idiots nor imbeciles, and they are capable of becoming\nself-respecting and self-supporting in some one of the lower walks of life. Shall we force\nthem to remain in school and attempt to force upon them an education nature has not\nfitted them to receive?\nOne such boy is in my school now. He is very poor and the only means of support to a feeble, widowed mother. The most persistent, painstaking efforts have failed\nto bring that boy to the place where he can pass the examination upon which an employment certificate is conditional in New York, if the applicant is under sixteen. He will\nnot be sixteen until next December. Yet he is a great, strong boy, can lift and pull and\ntug, is our most trusted errand boy, handy and skillful in a thousand ways. He can never\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbe taught to work a problem in arithmetic as long as he lives, but he can bargain and\nmake change with more shrewdness, speed, and accuracy than most of us.\nSuch boys are not institution cases, even if the institutions which would receive them\nwere all of the right kind or sufficient in number to accommodate them all. Would it not\nbe wiser as a civic question, as well as kinder and safer for the boy, to let him go to work\nas porter or stoker or packer, any one of which jobs he could do well ? There must always\nbe hewers of wood and drawers of water, you know, and some of us must always do the\nthinking for some of the others. Then why institutionalize and confine such a child and\ndeprive him of his right to an independent, self-respecting existence? Why not rather\ntrain him to do efficiently the things he can do and then let him go out to earn the livelihood he can earn ?\n\nTHE\nWILLIAM\n\nECONOMICAL\nH.\n\nMAXWELL,\n\nUSE\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nBUILDINGS\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nThat a public-school building may be used economically it ought to be\nused all of the time — summer and winter, morning, afternoon, and evening —\nand it ought to be used for the greatest benefit to the greatest number of\npeople. Otherwise a large part of the people's investment in the building\nis wasted. To use a school building only from nine to three, five days in\nthe week, nine months in the year — in other words, to allow it to remain\nunused more than one-half the working year — ^is not only to waste the\npeople's money, but to deprive of the benefits of its use many thousands of\npersons of all ages who might otherwise take adyantage of them.\nIt is evident, however, that a building which consists of a cellar, corridors, and rooms furnished with children's seats and desks fastened to the\nfloor may be conveniently used for but one purpose — the conduct of school\nrecitations. If a school building is to be used for social and recreative purposes, even if it is to be used economically for the purposes of a modern\nschool, it should be constructed and furnished very differently from the\nprevailing t3^e of schoolhouse.\nIn all of this discussion two considerations are, I think, self-evident:\n1. The schoolhouse is intended primarily for children. If, therefore, there comes\na conflict between the interests of children and the interests of adults in planning the\nbuilding, the interests of the children must prevail.\n2. Children are entitled to time and opportunity for play — the natural means of\ndevelopment for the young of the human species, as it is for the young of all animals.\n\nMy first proposition, then, is that every schoolhouse should have abundant play-space. I need not dwell on the importance of providing large\nout-of-doors playgrounds. These are of the greatest service when they are\nfully equipped and rightly used. When, however, they are laid out in grass\nand flowers, as is the case in many of our smaller cities and villages, they\nare more ornamental than useful. Happily, school gardening is coming\ninto vogue and is rapidly converting sham playgrounds into real playgrounds. But the outdoor playground, no matter how it may be used, is\nnot sufficient. It is not used on excessively hot days. It is not used on very\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nUSE\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nBUILDINGS\n\n327\n\ncold days. It is not used at night. It is not used when it rains or when it\nsnows. Under the best of conditions, it is used less than one-half the days\nof the school year. By the erection of suitable shelters it might be used\nmuch more than it is. In any case, however, it should be supplemented\nby a large indoor or covered playground. In New York, where the cost of\nsites is so high as to prohibit the purchase of much more land than that on\nwhich the building stands, we utilize practically the whole of the ground\nfloor as an indoor playground. This large room is kept heated in winter to\nabout fifty degrees. It has large folding doors and abundant window space,\nso that there may always be a free circulation of air. Its walls, floor, and\nceiling are given a light and cheerful finish, so that it may not offend the\naesthetic feelings. Permanent benches are constructed round the walls, so\nthat tired children may have somewhere to rest. It is equipped with the\nusual gymnasium outfit — wands, clubs, dumb-bells, jumping-mats, bars,\nand horses. A small movable platform for the use of teachers or speakers\nadds greatly to the number of uses to which the room may be put. By all\nmeans let us have outdoor playgrounds if we can, but whether we can or\nnot, every school should be provided with an indoor playground. Its\nadvantages are:\na) It can be used in all weathers, at all seasons of the year, at all hours of the day\nor evening,\nh) Where a school is so crowded that, as is often the case in New York, two classes\nmust occupy the same room at different hours, one class may be having, in the covered\nplayground, games, or folk dancing, or caUsthenics, while the other class is reciting.\nc) The covered playground solves the problem of a place in which to provide recreative space for young working-people on winter evenings. It may be made so attractive\nas to draw girls from dance halls and young men from saloons.\n\nIn New York in the densely populated parts, where an outdoor playground isimpossible on account of the cost, we have solved the problem by\nconstructing playgrounds on the roof. Such roof playgrounds are now\nrendered feasible thru modern methods of fireproof construction. The\nfloor of the playground, which is also the roof of the building, is constructed\nof vitrified tile or brick. Abundant entrances and exits, toilet facilities,\nand drinking-water are provided. A parapet wall three or four feet high\nsurrounds the roof, while the top and sides are inclosed by a wire netting\nstretched over steel trusses, to prevent the throwing of injurious missiles\ninto the surrounding streets. Such a playground on the roof may be used\nnot only for ordinary play purposes but for band concerts and dancing on\nsummer nights.\nA schoolhouse should be equipped not only with playgrounds but with\nan assembly room that will accommodate at least one-third of the school at\none time, and with shops and cooking-rooms for manual training in the\ncase of the older children.\nIn order that an assembly room may be used, as it should be, for lectures,\nconcerts, and other entertainments, as well as for ordinary school purposes,\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "328\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nit should be placed not higher than the first classroom floor and may be\nplaced, if the configuration of the ground permits, below the level of the\nstreet, its roof constructed largely of glass forming the floor of an interior\ncourt. Its seats should be such that it may be used not only by the smaller\nchildren but by adults. Benches should be discarded because they are\nuncomfortable and do not conform to the now universally accepted plan of\nradial aisles. Proper provision should also be made for the use of a stereopticon and screen. Electrical conduits and wiring should be brought to a\ncentral point at the rear of the room, never to the center, so as to avoid\nannoyance to the audience by the operation of the lantern. The screen,\nwhich when hung from the ceiling generally presents an untidy appearance,\nshould be placed in a pocket in the floor of the platform, from which it may\nbe raised by means of a pulley, and to which it may be restored when not\nin use. The stage itself should be furnished with side entrances, curtains\nat the front, and footlights, to permit of dramatic performances. Every\nschoolhouse should be a children's theater.\nEven the classroom should be planned with a view to its use for other\nthan strictly school purposes. Much difi\"erence of opinion continues to\nexist regarding the size of classrooms. Doubtless a very large classroom —\none, say, twenty-six by thirty-two feet — serves social purposes better than a\nsmaller room. In spite of this fact, however, I must give my allegiance to\nthe smaller room, say the German standard of twenty-two by thirty feet.\nMy reasons are:\na) The smaller room conserves both teachers' and pupils' energy, because less\neffort is required in the use of the voice in a room of nine thousand cubic feet capacity\nthan in one of twelve thousand cubic feet.\nh) The smaller room admits of perfect lighting while using only one side of the room\nfor windows, because the innermost row of desks is brought well within the limit of proper\nlighting, which is conceded to be one and one-half the height of the top of the windows\nfrom the floor. In the larger room windows are generally formed in the side and rear —\nan arrangement which compels the teacher to face the light.\n\nThe important consideration, however, to render a classroom appropriate for social as well as school purposes, is not the size of the room so\nmuch as its furniture. As classrooms are now furnished with seats and\ndesks fastened to the floor, they serve only the school purposes of reading,\nwriting, and listening. The seats are too small for adults. The desks are\nnot suitable for drawing or manual training. There is no reform in school\nconstruction more needed today than the destruction of the fixed seat and\ndesk and the substitution of movable tables and chairs. The advantages\nof the latter are these:\na) Movable furniture is more wholesome, because it permits the removal of all dirt\nand dust from the floor.\nh) It can be better arranged by the teacher either for class exercises or for group\nexercises.\nc) The tables serve better for manual training and drawing exercises.\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nUSE OF SCHOOL\n\nBUILDINGS\n\n329\n\nd) By proper disposition of the furniture every classroom may become at will a\nrecitation room, a game-room, a dancing-floor, a gymnasium.\ne) Each room may be freely used in the afternoon or evening for club or other\nsocial purposes.\n\nI\n\nThere is only one other reform in school construction comparable in\nutility with the substitution of movable for fixed furniture, and that is the\ninvention of a system of artificial ventilation that will supply thirty cubic\nfeet of fresh air per pupil per minute, and that will work in all weathers, in\nall rooms, and whether the windows are open or closed.\nRecent medical research and experimentation show that breathing pure\nair, night and day, is the most potent means of curing and preventing\ntuberculosis — the plague of modern civilization. The schools have properly\nbeen called upon to do their part in this all-important work. Started in\nGermany, the open-air class has also been tried with beneficial results in\nseveral European countries. The first class of the kind in America was\nestablished by the New York Board of Education some years ago on the\nseashore at Coney Island in connection with a charitable institution. For\nthis purpose the roofs of buildings, schoolyards, meadows, parks, and, as\nin New York, old ferryboats, have been utilized. It begins to be evident,\nhowever, that, sooner or later, the demand for open-air classes will become\nso great, that it will be necessary to construct our school buildings in such\na manner that each room shall have at least one of the inclosing sides\narranged to admit a practically unimpeded circulation of air. The most\nsatisfactory arrangement thus far devised is the use of glass set in comparatively small frames, supported on pivots and operated by levers and gears,\nso that it may be placed at will in nearly a horizontal position, so that 95\nper cent, of the lighting will also be air-admitting surface. A room with\nwindows of this kind has been found in New York to be practically an openair room. There can be no more economical use of a school building than\nto use it for restoring strength to the weak and health to the sick.\nSuppose, then, we have a building constructed for the largest possible\nnumber of uses — a building with an assembly room, large indoor playgrounds, gymnasium, workshops, cooking-rooms, and with each classroom\nfurnished with movable furniture — what are the activities, other than regular day school, that may profitably be undertaken ?\nFirst, there are evening schools. Evening schools, however, have not\nbeen economically managed. The attendance is almost invariably small —\nfrom 20 to 40 per cent, of the enrollment. The suggestion has been made —\nand I understand the experiment has been successfully tried — that a small\ndeposit of money should be required from each student. I am incUned to\nthink, however, that at least in the case of one large class of evening-school\nstudents — those who leave school at fourteen without having completed\nthe elementary-school course — the evening school from eight to ten o'clock\nis not an efficient institution. No boy of these tender years should be\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "33°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nexpected, after working all day, to give up his evenings to study. In my\njudgment, the state should retain its hold on each child until he completes\nat least the eight years' elementary course. If an employer takes into his\nservice the child who leaves school with no proper equipment for fighting\nthe battle of life in these days of dire competition, the state should see to it\nthat the time required for giving him a moiety of that equipment should be\ntaken, not out of the child's hours for rest and recreation, but out of the\nemployer's hours for labor. I recomniend, therefore, that classes be established from 7:00 to 9:00 A.M. and from 4:00 to 8:00 p.m. for working-boys\nand girls who did not complete the eight years' elementary-school course\nbefore going to work, and that our compulsory education laws be so amended\nas to make such a rule effective.\nAnother large class of evening-school students consists of adult foreigners who come to learn the English language. In New York City the\nforeign classes — running from the middle of October until the middle\nof April — have always been successful. This year, however, we are trying\nan experiment which bids fair to surpass all of our previous efforts along\nthis line. During the summer months we have opened an evening school\nfor foreigners. The attendance and enthusiasm of the students surpass\nall our anticipations. Should the attendance keep up during July and\nAugust, it is safe to say that this summer evening school is only the precursor of a great system of such schools — another means of economically\nusing school buildings for the benefit of the largest possible number of persons.\nIn evening lectures to the people the school assembly room, or, in default\nof an assembly room, the large indoor playground, may be utilized from\nOctober until May. From May until cool weather comes again, no one\nwho is not a teacher will endure a lecture. The experience of our New York\nlecture bureau is that the best lectures and lecturers are none too good for\nthe plain working-people who frequent our assembly rooms; and that,\nwhile the lecture illustrated by the stereopticon or relieved by music is\nstill the most popular, the scientific, the Hterary, and the historical lectures\ngiven in courses, in which the hearer may question the lecturer and which\nare accompanied by lists of books for reading, are attracting increasingly\nlarge audiences of intelligent students. Last season public lectures in the\nNew York schools were delivered by six hundred and forty-one lecturers in\none hundred and sixty-nine centers, to audiences aggregating 1,213,116\npeople.\nAkin to the use of the assembly room or covered playground for lectures\nis their use for special celebrations. On February 12, 1909, the one hundredth anniversary of the birth of Abraham Lincoln was celebrated in\nNew York, among other ways, by the delivery of forty-six lectures on Lincoln\nby prominent citizens in forty-six school buildings to audiences aggregating\n65,249 people. On September 29, 1909, the three hundredth anniversary\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nUSE\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nBUILDINGS\n\n331\n\nof the discovery of the Hudson River by Henry Hudson, and the one\nhundredth anniversary of the successful application of steam to navigation by Robert Fulton, were celebrated by the delivery of seventy-six\naddresses by members of the teaching and supervising staff in seventy-six\nschool buildings to audiences aggregating 71,055 people.\nThere is a large class of young working-people who do not attend evening\nschool, and who, if some other provision is not made for them, drift into the\nsaloons, dance halls, and moving-picture shows. For these we have opened\nin New York evening recreation centers. For these activities we utilize\nchiefly the indoor playgrounds but also many classrooms. The playground\nis divided into two parts by folding doors. One part is used for quiet games\nand reading. The other is used for gymnastics in the case of boys and folk\ndancing in the case of girls. Classrooms are assigned to debating, literary,\nand athletic clubs, whose members not only acquire information but learn\nhow to speak in public and learn the necessity for order, decorum, and\ndignity in their deliberations. A recent addition to this activity is the establishment of study-rooms for children who have no proper place to study\ntheir lessons at home. A single story will suffice to show their usefulness.\nAbout a year ago a little girl was found to be extremely slow and backward\nand apparently quite unable to keep up with her grade in which she had\nalready spent more than twice the allotted time. Investigation showed that\nshe was a member of a large family in which English was not the family\nlanguage and which occupied two rooms in a tenement house. For the\npoor child reading and speaking English at home were out of the question.\nA kindly friend led her to the study-room in the neighboring recreation\ncenter. There a skillful teacher showed her how to study and helped her\nover her difficulties. On the next promotion day she was promoted, and\nby last February she had progressed so rapidly that she was advanced\ntwo grades.\nAnother innovation in our evening recreation centers is the permission\ngiven to the young women in the girls' centers to invite their young men\nfriends to a dance one evening each week. This experiment, conducted\nunder the watchful eye of skilled supervisors, has been completely successful.\nOnly by setting up legitimate attractions in our school buildings for the\nleisure hours of our young working-people, can we hope to keep them away\nfrom those city pleasures, run for profit, that lure our boys and girls to the\nvery mouth of hell.\nHow shall we utilize our school buildings during the long summer vacation ? In New York we have established vacation schools in the forenoon,\nand vacation playgrounds in the afternoon and evening. The vacation\nschools give instruction in drawing and carpentry, Venetian ironwork,\nchair-caning, and other arts for boys, and cooking, sewing, dressmaking,\nfancy work, and nursing for girls. Kindergartens are conducted for the\nlittle ones. Perhaps the most enthusiastic classes, however, are the con-\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "332\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ntinuation classes, intended for children who failed of promotion in the day\nschools in June.\nVacation playgrounds are established this year in two hundred and\nforty centers. About fifty of them are reserved for the tenement mothers\nand their babies. They are frequented by many of the real mothers and\nby thousands of the \"little mothers.\" The roof playgrounds are thronged\nevery night by children who eagerly climb five or six long flights of stairs\nto escape from the heat and the fetid odors of the street to listen to the\nmusic of a band or to dance and sing to their hearts' content in the cooler,\npurer air of the roof. Last summer the average attendance in these playgrounds was over 1 10,000 per day.\nSuch are the out-of-school activities conducted by the board of education\nat public expense in public-school premises in Greater New York. What\nother activities might be conducted to utilize these premises to the fullest\nextent and for the benefit of the largest possible number of people? I\nbelieve the following would be successful:\n1. Each high school should be kept open practically all summer for the benefit of\nthose students who failed of promotion in June, and of those who desire to complete the\ncourse in less than the prescribed four years. Cleveland has set us an excellent example\nby keeping her technical high school open the year round.\n2. Every school playground and gymnasium, indoors and out-of-doors, should be\nkept open every afternoon thruout the year under the direction of skilled attendants.\n3. Every workshop and cooking- room should be open for instruction each schoolday afternoon and on Saturday morning. Only in this way can sufficient eye and hand\ntraining be given to all the boys and girls who need it. The attempt now advocated in\nsome quarters to separate manual training from industrial training will prove a dismal\nfailure. Manual training is the legitimate introduction to learning a trade. It is only\nthru manual training that we are able to discover those who have aptitudes for mechanical pursuits.\n\nIn conclusion, there are two conditions which, I believe, experience has\ndemonstrated are essential to the success of any activities undertaken in\nschool premises outside of school hours:\n1. The activities should be under the direction of the school authorities\nand should be supported at public expense. No other agency has the means\nto conduct them on a sufficiently large scale. No other agency has the\nstaying power to conduct necessary experiments over a series of years in\norder to determine a policy. No other agency has the power to secure the\nessential co-operation of the day-school staff with those responsible for the\noutside work. No other agency is so likely to keep the playgrounds clear\nof their most insidious foe — ^political influence in the appointment of the\ndirectors.\n2. It is not buildings or equipment that make a playground successful,\nbut the persons in charge. If the director and his assistants do not sympathize with children, if they are not resourceful and inventive, if they\ncannot play all children's games and guide children in gymnastics and\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nUSE OF SCHOOL\n\nBUILDINGS\n\n333\n\nathletics, if they have not the executive ability to vary the activities, so that\nphysical exertion, repose, and recreative work have their proper tihie and\nrotation, the playground, no matter what fts appointments or resources,\nwill be a comparative failure. City children must be taught how to play.\nAs a corollary to the second condition it follows that all normal schools\nand training schools for teachers should instruct our future teachers in the\nteaching of gymnastics, athletics, and games.\nDISCUSSION\nLewis H. Jones, president, State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich. — The very able\nand exhaustive paper which has just been read on \"The Economic Use of Education\nPlants\" seems to have covered the ground so well that one can do little more than agree\nto its suggestions and conclusions. Where such ample appropriations are made for incidental work as seems to be the case in New York City, the incidental uses of a school\nbuilding become almost equal in value to the regular day-school work. This does not,\nhowever, apply to smaller places or to rural schools, and the American teacher has before\nhim the problem of convincing the average taxpayer that it would be infinitely more\neconomical for him to pay into the treasury more money to secure larger benefits from\nthe school plants now in existence. Personally, I am very sorry that teachers and others\nhave the habit of exploiting the large total sums expended in education in this country\nwithout any adequate perspective, making it seem to the average taxpayer as if his whole\nburden of taxes were for pubUc education. As a matter of fact, the amount now paid\nfor all phases of public education in this country is a mere trifle as compared with the\nmost incidental personal expenses of the inhabitants. We need to teach people to pay\ntaxes for school purposes willingly, and to increase the amount until it shall have some\nshowing of adequacy for the work that needs to be done. Instead of talking about the\nlarge amount expended for education, let us show how meager it is compared with what\nshould be given. Let us show the extravagance of the common personal habits of the\nmen who complain of their tax-rate. Especially is a course like this necessary for people\nin villages and rural districts. The aggregate amounts paid look large, but persons need\nto be shown that the individual expense of the particular taxpayer is the merest trifle.\nLet us encourage a more generous expenditure instead of a more parsimonious one so\ncommonly agitated in the school district. Economy and parsimony are very different\naffairs. Even tho a plant be used economically, more money must be expended instead\nof less, and if a parsimonious habit be allowed to form itself and be allowed to control\nexpenditures in education, school plants will lie unused, when a larger expenditure would\nsecure from them greater results in the general education of the people.\nRobert J. Aley, state superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. — Indiana is\nattempting to have her schoolhouses used for the good of all the people. Her consohdatedrural-school buildings are made community centers. Lecture courses, farmers' institutes,\nmothers' meetings, spelling contests, literary societies, debates, and athletic contests are\nsome of the activities that center in and about these buildings. In the buildings of many\nof our towns and cities similar occurrences are frequent. In some of the city buildings\nnight schools for adults are held. The people generally are growing to feel that the school\nplants are theirs and that they are entitled to use them for instruction, recreation, and\nsocial purposes.\nJ, Stanley Brown, Joliet Township High School, Joliet, 111. — In many communities the school building is looked upon as an institution so divorced from every use except\nthe teaching of the boys and the girls that it has failed almost utterlv to perform its\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ngreater function in community service by forming a common place of assembly for the\ndiscussion of public questions or for public entertainment, or for other legitimate and\nhelpful service which a school building built by the taxes of all the people ought to be\nexpected to perform.\nIt seems that there is no good reason for our failure to look upon the public-school\nbuilding as in some sense a business institution in which there have been invested certain\nsums of money and from which the community has a right to expect a fair business return.\nIt is safe to assume that this return could not be made from an ordinary commercial\ninstitution if that institution were allowed to remain idle for about 60 per cent, of the\ntime, and it is in the interest of use for concerts, for lectures, for dramatic performances,\nfor the discussion of public questions, etc., that we think that it may be made to perform\na much larger public service than it has yet done.\nA commercial institution of any kind used for the small amount of time which the\npublic-school building is used would unquestionably go out of business in a very short\ntime. And now that education has assumed a somewhat broader view than it once had,\nand is willingly or unwilUngly assuming some of the duties of the home and some of the\nfunctions heretofore performed by the church, it seems only reasonable that the school\nbuilding be available after the close of the legal school day for late afternoon and evening\nuse.\nThere seems to be defense for such a proposition in the fact that we have emphasized\nsocial efficiency in the training of the child and yet there is only a small opportunity to\ndevelop this quality of social efiSciency, unless our meetings with the child are extended\nbeyond the ordinary school day.\nIn the interest of a real democratic institution, it is good fo r the people of a community to feel that they may come together in this institution built for all, and have an\nopportunity to express their opinions without feeling that they are trespassing upon the\nrights of private ownership, because they are meeting in a building or an assembly hall\nnot owned by an individual or a corporation.\nW. T. Carrington, president of State Normal School, Springfield, Mo. — I find\nmyself in accord with Dr. Maxwell's paper, and the discussions. Little has been left to\ndiscuss. I wish especially to indorse Dr. Jones's definition of \"economics.\" Larger equipment, as a rule, means a more economic equipment. In the construction and the furnishing of every type of school buildings, the consideration should be first of all given to the\nmain uses to which they are put, but we must at no time lose sight of the fact that the\nwhole child is at school, and that the school is to administer to the highest and best welfare of the community. I also indorse the position that normal schools have grave responsibilities and fine opportunities in setting examples and in exerting wide influence in\nbringing about an extensive use of all school buildings and school furnishings; in promoting social, civic, and religious culture. These state institutions in Missouri are\ndoing very much to solve the problem. The newest and latest school buildings have\nbeen constructed and furnished very much as described in Dr. Maxwell's paper. These\nvocational schools are teaching that the pubhc school, thru its pupils, must be the social,\ncivic, and religious center of the community, and that the teacher should be an important\nfactor in all these activities.\nPlease note that I have included in my statement, that it must be a religious center.\nI am not in sympathy with that sentiment sometimes expressed from the pulpit, that the\npublic school cannot and should not teach religion. It seems to me that worship and\ndevotion are essential elements in character-formation, and that the character is largely\ndetermined by what we worship, and the ideals to which we are devoted. If this be true,\nthe public school must teach religion and provide for religious activities. The normal\nschool with which I am associated puts this first, and emphasizes ways and means of\npromoting large Y.M.C.A. and Y.W.C.A. organizations.\nThru these organizations,\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nUSE\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nBUILDINGS\n\n335\n\nthe social, civic, literary, and athletic activities of the school are controlled. This institution believes that in this way leaders in all such activities are teaching in a most emphatic way the economic use of educational plants.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal. — In the business and commercial world\ncertain maxims or principles are universally in force. Investments should yield the\ngreatest possible return. To do this implies: (i) The minimum of equipment for the\nmaximum of return; (2) the use of the equipment or investment to its maximum of\ncapacity with constant regard to wear and tear; (3) the use of the investment, equipment, or plant all the working-hours of the day, and all the days of the year.\nIf, then, good business in the world of commerce and industry demands this, it\nwould seem that good business in the educational world implies the same. Any educational plant that meets these requirements must be so selected as to provide for the\nlargest number of students with the least possible financial outlay; must in simplicity\nand quality meet the demands of the world; must be in use not only the five school days,\nbut on Saturdays and during the usual three vacation months.\nAny manufacturing or industrial plant that is idle one day out of six, or three months\nout of twelve, yields but an inadequate and partial return upon investment. In a word,\nour educational plants, to give the greatest good to the greatest number, should be in\nuse on Saturday for those who are able or desire to complete a given portion of work in\nthe shortest possible time. They should be in use in the evenings for continuation classes\nfor those students now in one or another wage-earning capacity, but who desire to perfect themselves more fully, looking toward advancement. They should be in session\nduring the summer months, thus providing constant schooling for those who choose to\navail themselves of such privilege; and to make it possible for those outside to come in,\nthus keeping children oflf the street.\nThis does not imply that the same set of teachers should be at work constantly. It\nwould help to do away with the idea so prevalent among the American people — that\nnine months should be devoted to constant rush and three to absolute rest. It would\nmean better business administration of educational plants, and under proper conditions\nthe equipment would last as long as under the present arrangement.\nA community would more readily bond itself for adequate school facilities could\nit know that the return upon its investment would, as in the business world, be constant;\nthat grounds, buildings, machines, libraries, equipment, were not lying idle one hundred\nand thirty-six days of the three -hundred and thirteen working days in the year, that as\nthe school is the place in which to live, not simply a place in which to learn to live, so the\nschool plant is a constant rather than an intermittent factor in the life of the individual.\nMaximilian P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J. — The splendid and comprehensive paper of Superintendent Maxwell points the way in the right direction. But this\nway is not free from obstacles, and in order to accomplish our end, we must face these\nobstacles squarely. The question has been asked, \"What objections can be raised to\nthus making the schoolhouse a social center?\" I will mention two. One is a health\nobjection. We are trying to introduce medical inspection of school children so as to protect them from infection and contagion. If we open the doors of the schoolhouses wide\nto large congregations of people, how can ^e prevent infection and contagion from entering into the buildings and rooms where our children are to spend the best part of their\ndays, and which we are trying to safeguard hygienically with so much anxiety ? Can we\ndevise and carry out methods of control which would reach out to these gatherings?\nThe second objection is this: We are endeavoring to make the schoolhouse a home\nfor the children. Even the assembly hall of each school, its corridors and passageways,\nare often characteristic, in their appointments, of the spirit of the school as a whole. And\ncertainly every classroom over which a good teacher presides will express, in its decora-\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "336\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ntions, pictures, flowers, exhibition of work, etc., the genius of that individual class whose\nhome the room is. If such a building, or such a room, is used by others, is there not fear\nthat the integrity of the school home will be invaded and desecrated ?\nI feel that these objections are serious ones and that I do not know how to answer\nthem even tho I am thoroly in favor of the idea of developing the public schoolhouse\ninto a social and educational center.\nMiss Julia Richman, district superintendent of city schools. New York, N.Y. —\nThere is nothing that I can contribute to this discussion, but there is one question in\nconnection with this subject which I desire to bring before the Council — a question which\nsome day, if not today, the Council will be called upon to answer. I place the question\nbefore you, not in a controversial spirit, not for the purpose of throwing an obstacle in\nthe way of developing to the full the social opportunities of the school plant, not to inject\na sectarian or denominational issue, and certainly not to throw a theological firebrand\ninto the discussion, but this is the question that the Council of Education of the National\nEducation Association must one day be prepared to answer: What must be the attitude\nof school boards and school authorities generally on the question of the social use of the\nschool plant on Sundays? We must remember that the greatest need for the \"open\nschool\" is in congested districts; that the populace of the congested districts, in the\nmain, has come from continental Europe, bringing with them the standards of those\ncountries; that many of these people, altho Christians, have never known, nor can they\nunderstand, the restrictions of a Puritan Sabbath.\nIt seems to me that here in New England this Council must meet and face this issue,\nand must be prepared to answer the question: Shall we advocate the \"open school\"\non Sundays?\n\nNOTE\nThree papers and following discussions read before the Council, as\nnoted in the Secretary's minutes, on the Report of the Committee on Place\nof Industries in Public Education, were transferred from the papers and\ndiscussions of the Council to follow the full report of this committee, which\nwill appear in the proceedings of Department of Manual Training and Art.\nREPORT\n\nON EDUCATIONAL\nFRANK\n\nSTRONG,\n\nPROGRESS\n\nCHANCELLOR,\nLAWRENCE,\n\nDURING\n\nUNIVERSITY\nKANS.\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\nOF KANSAS\n\nA sketch of the educational progress of the year would include, among\nother things, the following:\nFirst. — There have been distinct criticism and somewhat acrimonious\ndiscussion of the American college, its methods, and its results. The outcome of this criticism and discussion has been to eliminate to some degree\nthe lack of definiteness in the American college, and to strengthen its mental\nand moral tone. One of the most significant happenings of the year was\nthe culmination of the movement against the free-elective system in the\nsubstitution by the great exponent of the elective system itself of more\ndefinite requirements, on the basis that the student ought to know something of every great branch of knowledge and be well trained in some single\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nDURING\n\nYEAR\n\n337\n\nfield of knowledge. There has been in general in colleges and universities\na trend toward sounder scholarship, toward a sounder and cleaner athletic\nUfe, and toward a lessening of the outside interests that interfere with\nscholarly pursuits. In connection with this, the past year especially seems\nto have shown that the tj^e of university of ten years ago has passed away\nnever to return. The present university is much more composite in its\nmake-up and addresses itself to a multitude of interests to which little\nattention was given by university men a decade ago. This is especially\ntrue of the state university, which is rapidly becoming the scientific arm of\nthe state to do whatever the commonwealth in its organized capacity may\nundertake for the health of its citizens, in the scientific development of its\nresources, in the care and development of its penal institutions, in the\ngeological and biological surveys of the state, and in many other ways.\nThe effect of this movement is felt even by the oldest foundations in our\ncountry, and they too are finding it necessary to adjust themselves to the\nindustrial and social needs of the times. The permanent effect of this\nmovement upon the purely scholarship side of our universities cannot\nbe accurately set out at this time. The experience of institutions engaged\nin this work seems to show that in the end the scholarship side will be stimulated by the enlargement of the scope of the institution.\nBut while one must recognize fully that a university is to some extent\nan industrial institution, and that it must have a definite money- value to\nthe community that it serves, yet one must respectfully protest against the\nassumption that an institution of higher learning must be judged wholly or\nlargely by the definite money- value that issues directly from its work.\nThis is to assume the commercial standard, the materialistic attitude\nwhich is so prevalent in our day and which is the direct foe of what is best\nin our civic Hfe and in our education. The best, most valuable product of a\nuniversity can never be measured in money-value, and if an institution\nshould degrade itself to the point where it should do nothing except that\nwhich is measurable in dollars and cents, it would contribute largely to the\ndownfall of the civilization that it is meant to uphold. The truly practical\neducation is that which issues in high character, sound intellectual and\nspiritual life, high civic conduct, and an intelligent and honorable citizenship. According to this true standard of measurement the college of liberal\narts and sciences — the American college — which has done more for true\ndemocracy than any other educational force that ever existed in the world,\nis the most valuable institution which our civilization possesses and makes\nthe greatest return for the money that is spent upon it.\nSecond. — Public high schools have also come in for their share of criticism\nand discussion. This discussion has concerned the courses of study and the\nquality of the work done. The result has been an attempt to relate the\ncourses of study more definitely to the needs of the times without sacrificing\nthe true scholarship so necessary to the best training. High schools have\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "S3^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbeen rightly forced to consider their relation to the whole community, to\nadjust themselves to the great class of students whose life must be one of\nphysical or manual labor, to consider themselves first of all as a general\ninstitution with a scope far wider than the preparation of boys and girls\nfor college. All this has involved the relation of the high school to the\ncollege or university, and the criticism has been made that the college or\nuniversity has sought arbitrarily to confine the high school to the limited\nfield represented by college-entrance requirements. In some quarters this\ncriticism is just; in general it is unjust, and the relation of the high school\nto the college we may very safely assume will be taken care of by the interplay between the two institutions. For the province of the college or\nuniversity in its relation to the high school has come to be more and more to\ninsist that the high-school course shall be made up on its merits as a secondary-school course; that no university credit shall be given for any work of the\nhigh school of whatever kind, until it conforms to the best teaching standards, and that when a course of study is so made on its merits and its work\nconforms to the best teaching standards, such work should be received for\nentrance to the college or university. It is also becoming more and more\nthe province of the college or university to provide the educational stimulus\nand inspiration for the whole educational system; to maintain the highest\nscholarship standards and to assist the high school in the maintaining of\nsuch standards; to combat, both in the college and the high school, the\nimmensely strong tendency of the times toward materialism and the worship of the so-called practical; to help the high school to convince the\ncommunity it serves that to direct all its best energies toward the work\nwhich bears the dollar mark is to fly in the face of the experience of many\ncenturies and weaken the foundation of the true culture and scholarship\nwhich have so much to do with the real soundness of a high civilization.\nThird. — In the great body of elementary schools advancement during\nthe year has taken the form of attempted elimination of waste. Numerous\nscientific investigations of school problems undertaken by the teachers\nthemselves have indicated a tendency toward self-criticism on the part of\nthe schools, toward examination of educational methods in view of results\nobtained. The cause of industrial education has received distinct impetus,\nand it is becoming more and more evident that industrial education must\nbe a part of the regular public-school system; that the state should, thru\ntrade schools, provide facihties for education in industries, handicraft, and\nthe like. The relation of the elementary schools, therefore, to a considerable\nbody of students who must look to trades for a living has received more\nadequate attention. Vocational training in the public schools and in continuation schools has developed in many places, and there is growing up a\nconsensus of educational conviction that while vocational work and industrial training are necessary for a large number of children less favored in\nfortune than their fellows, no individual teacher or administrator should\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nDURING\n\nYEAR\n\n339\n\nhave the power to dictate the destiny of individual children, but that\nvocational work must be so adjusted to the whole system of public education\nthat no student, however humble his origin, shall in any way be deterred\nfrom passing into the very highest grades of the educational system.\nThe problem of individual differences is being recognized by the school\nauthorities in the organization and administration of our education. This,\ncoupled with the tendency in normal schools and university schools of\neducation to add to the usual professional preparation for teachers equipment in matters of juvenile ethics, personal and social hygiene, sanitation,\nand preventive medicine, seems to open a new era in the development\nof the grammar schools of the country.\nFourth. — There has further developed a strong feeling that moral and\nreHgious training is after all the most important thing in education; that\nmen highly trained, but without sound moral life, are a menace to the\ncommunity. Notable advances in the study of the problem of religious\neducation in schools have been made. Notable legislation has been enacted\nin many states pertaining to hygienic and sanitary conditions in our schools.\nWe as a people are coming to the conclusion that our educational system\nshould be reorganized so far as is necessary, on a sound, conservative basis\nthat shall exclude the frenzies of extremists and correct, not emphasize, the\nweaknesses of the age. The feeling that our democracy must find its support more and more in the character and quality of its public education;\nthat a new type of school and university must slowly emerge which shall\nbe so adjusted to sound scholarship and the economic needs of the times\nas greatly to increase the efficiency of our population and add to the happiness of our people. And perhaps the most significant of all is the growing\ntendency toward the completion in all our states of the state system of public education. Signs of this are not wanting in the oldest states of the\nUnion, and it will not be surprising if some of the older foundations are\nmade state universities, or if, in some other way, the public system of education iscompleted by the establishment of state higher education.\nFifth. — The year has developed in a slight measure a danger to state\nuniversities. There are some indications that politics may, unless guarded\nagainst, play a part in the spirit and policies of state institutions. And\nhere I do not refer to the ordinary partisan politics which in the early days\nof almost all state universities was a menace to the growth of these institutions. The new danger comes from the political changes that seem to be\ntaking place among us; from the new questions, largely social and economic,\nthat are obtruding themselves upon our American politics. It arises from\nthe fact that upheavals and reformations always bring with them strife and\nbitterness; that they often give rise to persons to whom it appears that\neverything else, even our universities, should be sacrificed to forward the\ninterests of one side or another of the controversy. The state universities\nthemselves have had no small part in arousing the new moral ideals, the\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nnew democratic spirit upon which the struggle for a sounder and finer\nnational Hfe is based. The state university is therefore in the minds of\nsome to be held in a measure responsible. It was truly said in the opening\naddress before the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the National Association\nof State Universities that \"the supreme test [of the state university] is\nwhether the people of the state will on the one hand tax themselves to\nsupport it, and on the other impose upon themselves a self-denying ordinance to leave it severely alone, so that it may select its own members by\nthe application of its own intellectual standards and the members thus\nchosen may be absolutely free to investigate, to teach, and to publish\nwhatever they believe to be the truth.\" This new danger is affecting but\nfew state institutions, and in them it is at present no serious menace, and\nthere is every reason to believe that with care in administration, with\nserious attention to the interests of the great body of the people as a whole,\nthe state university, by avoiding entangling alliances, will remain as it is at\nthe present time — one of the freest educational agents in America for the\nattempted solution of the many perplexing social and economic questions.\nFor, after all, a serious-minded people, whatever extremists may say and\ndo, will not long allow the institution which they support by voluntary\ntaxation, and to which they send their sons and daughters, to be anything\nother than a free institution for the development of truth without fear or\nfavor.\nA second danger, which affects state universities and those upon a private\nfoundation alike, arises from the powerful standardizing agencies that have\nmade themselves felt more than ever during the past year. It is easy to\ngo too far in attempts at standardizing education, for there is nothing so\ndeadening as complete uniformity in the development of our schools. In\naddition, as has been elsewhere pointed out, some of the great standardizing\nagencies, in themselves extremely powerful, are essentially beyond public\ncontrol, and outside of the administration of the institutions which they\nundertake to standardize; nor are they co-operative agencies which arise\nnaturally from the interplay among educational institutions themselves.\nTheir foundation is great wealth. Necessarily they look at education to\nsome degree from that point of view. They desire immediate results and\nare somewhat impatient at the slow evolutionary process by which permanent educational results are achieved. Arbitrary action is therefore easy\nand, unless great self-restraint is exercised, almost inevitable. But no one\nshould for a moment fail to recognize the great value of these agencies in\nour education. They are a sign of the tremendous importance of education\nin our country and the value that is placed upon it. The danger, which is\na real one, may easily be obviated, for there is every reason to believe that\nboth donors and administrators have the most sincere and disinterested\npurpose in what they are undertaking to do. We may therefore confidently\nexpect that the outcome of experience will be the adjustment of the admin-\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPHASES\n\n341\n\nistration of all standardizing agencies in such fashion that all educational\npowers shall work together for the highest good of American education.\n\nTOPIC:\n/.\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPHYSICAL\nEDUCATION\nIN ITS\nELEMENTARY, SECONDARY,\n\nD. A.\n\nSARGENT,\n\nM.D., DIRECTOR\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nVARIOUS\nPHASESAND HIGHER\n\nOF HEMENWAY GYMNASIUM,\nCAMBRIDGE, MASS.\n\nHARVARD\n\nThis is a large subject to cover in a twenty-minute paper, but I hope to\nbe able to consider some of the various phases of physical education in the\nelementary and secondary schools, and to suggest some ways in which the\ncollege may further its own aims by improving the physical condition of\nthose who come to it. My paper will be confined to the physical education\nof boys, since that of girls is considered in another department.\nSince the average man as we see him today is the resultant of all the\nvaried physical activities of the past, the problem before us is how to preserve the development already attained, and to add still further to man's\npossible perfectibility. It is a recognized fact that the physical activities\nwhich, in the past, made for this attainment have been superseded by the\ninventions of machinery — the use of steam, electricity, etc., taking the\nplace of muscular effort. Moreover, the concentration of population in\nlarge cities, and the great multiplication of human interests, add to the\ncomplexity of the problem. These social and economic changes have\nbrought about a minute division of labor and greatly modified the developmental value of man's occupations, and the healthfulness of the environment in which he Kves and works.\nThe complications growing out of our present condition of affairs are\nforcing the problems of the farm, the shop, the factory, and the home upon\nthe schools and colleges, which must be prepared to meet them. What\npart should physical education play in this Important movement ? Assuming that there is a mental and a physical side to education, altho they are\nmutually dependent, the larger part of the elementary-school life should be\ngiven over to physical education. Healthy children of six or seven years\nof age when left to themselves will expend an amount of energy in their\ndaily physical activities equivalent to that required in a continuous walk of\nnine or ten miles. This amount of muscular movement is necessary for\nthe development of the normal child of the elementary-school age. The\nbest kind of exercises for children of this age are those free and spontaneous\nmovements of trunk and limbs which they naturally enjoy and indulge in —\nsuch as bending, twisting, rolling, jumping, running, balancing, tumbling,\nand cHmbing. These simple exercises should be frequently supplemented\nby more formal movements in imitation of primitive occupations, such as\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nreaping, mowing, rowing, sawing, etc. Then the dramatic plays, such as\nIndians, cowboys, and soldiers, furnish a large amount of physical activity,\nas do the games of hunting, shooting, etc. The so-called \"constructive\"\nplays, the making of such things as huts and forts, and the digging of caves\nand wells, all require considerable physical as well as mental effort and are\nin a way highly educative. In order to produce the best physiological\nresults, the periods of physical activity should be frequently interspersed\nwith periods of rest. And frequently the best kind of rest for a normal\nchild is a change of organic activity. Prolonged attention or prolonged\nmaintenance of bodily positions, either sitting or standing, should never be\nexpected or required. In view of the narrowing and deforming effect of\nmany modern occupations — due to the limited employment of the mental\nand physical faculties — I believe that it is of the utmost importance that\nchildren of both sexes, as early as eight to ten years of age, should be given\na series of more or less formal gymnastics as means of physical improvement\nto fit them for future labor. This is necessary not only to correct the evil\neffects of posture, etc., in the schoolroom, but also to develop those great\nfundamental groups of muscles on the back, shoulders, and chest which are\nso little used in school life and in modern occupations. There is no better\nway of developing these important parts of the body than by. the so-called\nheavy gymnastics, and the time to begin the practice of these exercises is\nwhen children delight to climb and hang and swing, and do so with exceptional agility. To postpone these exercises to a later period, on the ground\nthat children from eight to ten are not strong enough to take them, is a great\nmistake, and one for which similar work attempted later in Hfe seldom\ncompensates. In speaking of the elementary phases of physical education,\nI have intentionally confined myself to a consideration of the large, simple\nmovements of the trunk and limbs, because it has been found that the\ndevelopment of these parts at this time of life is of fundamental importance.\nThis is an age, however, extremely susceptible to sensory and mental\nimpressions; thus there will come to them naturally all the knowledge that\nchildren absorb thru observation, imitation, and experimentation with their\ntoys, plays, and physical activities. Greater efforts should be made to\nteach, in the same way, the elements of language, music, drawing, arithmetic, geography, and some of the sciences.\nThe secondary-school period, from ten to eighteen years of age, is the\nmost important of all for physical education. These eight years are accompanied by many mental and physical changes and no simple series of exercises will meet the demands of both the youngest and oldest of this group.\nWe have seen that normal children of the elementary-school age, like young\nanimals, delight in activity for its own sake. But at the beginning of the\nsecondary-school age \" there is a transition in interest from the control of\nthe body and activity for its own sake, to interest in the control of environment and activity for the end's sake.\" This transition of interest may be a\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "p\n\nCouncil]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPHASES\n\n343\n\nsource of mental, moral, and physical improvement, or it may usher in a\ntrain of evils. The changes that are taking place in the nervous system at\nthis time make it necessary to modify the methods of physical education to\nmeet them. Exercises requiring fine muscular co-ordinations, the development of keen muscular sense, and nice powers of bodily adjustment may\nwell be introduced now. It is the period most favorable for laying the foundations for future skill and expertness in gymnastics and athletic sports.\nIt is also the period when the neuro-muscular habits are formed and fixed,\nand when the discipline of the daily drill counts for so much; when conduct\nis molded and character fixed. There is no better way of accomplishing\nthese high aims than thru organized play, educative gymnastics, athletic\nsports, and competitive games. The value of graded plays and games has\nbeen so thoroly considered elsewhere^ that I will not linger here, but will\ngo on to certain phases of physical education which, it seems to me, are\nnot so well understood, altho very important.\nIn order that physical movements may be made educative it is of vital\nimportance that they be executed correctly and according to some ideal\nstandards. The mere careless effort of bodily activity may be of some\nhygienic value, but such efforts are not strictly educative.\nThis is the school age when boys should learn to run, jump, swim, row,\nbox, fence, etc., as individual accomplishments. They must not only practice them assiduously, but they must know how to expend, for the best\nresults, the required strength, speed, skill, and precision. It is not expected\nthat any one youth shall excel in all these sports, but I wish to emphasize\nthe fact that an important end to be striven for in the practice of these\nphysical accomplishments should be grace, poise, accuracy, order, and\nbeauty of form and execution. This applies equally well to various kinds\nof light and heavy gymnastics. The movements with Indian clubs and\nwooden wands, the exercises on the rings and bars, lend themselves to the\nexecution of graceful, pleasing motions requiring perfection of structure\nand harmony of function. The same laws as to beauty, order, harmony,\nand rhythm apply to these modes of expression thru activity as well as to\nother arts, and their practice depends upon the same mental processes and\nethical principles. If a boy should become an expert in any athletic or\ngymnastic performance he would not only conform to the laws of animal\nmechanics, but to the standards of applied ethics and aesthetics as well.\nApply this principle to all of the boy's physical activities, and it will be seen\nthat there is a fertile field here for mental and moral improvement. Boxing,\nwrestling, football, etc., have served a useful purpose by fostering the love\nfor such sports as test heroism, manliness, and courage; while many of the\nfeats performed on the gymnasium apparatus call for skill, daring, and\npresence of mind. An arduous feat should act as a spur to a boy of the\n^ Johnson, Education by Plays and Games; Bancroft, Games for the Playground,\nHome, School and Gymnasium; Angell, Play.\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "344\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nright spirit; and the voluntary self-discipline of conquering a difficulty\nthru long and persistent efforts, affords a preparation for the struggles of\nlife. Such efforts give all athletic records their true value. The physical\neducation of the last four years of the secondary-school course should consist of gymnastic drills, field games, group contests, and athletic sports. By\nthe age of fourteen or fifteen the boy, if properly trained, will have acquired\nfull use of his muscles, taken on some individual accomplishments, and be\nprepared to enter athletic contests with some restrictions and modifications.\nI say advisedly \"with some restrictions,\" for when preparatory-school boys\nenter the field of competitive athletics they incur some physical risks and\nmoral dangers. Practice for exhibitions, contests in gymnastics, or trials\nfor the best all-round performance in several kinds of sports, have within\nthem great possibilities of physical, mental, and moral improvement. But\na contest that puts a premium on jumping the greatest height, or Hfting\nthe heaviest weight, puts a premium on a high degree of specialization and\non the acquirement of bodily conditions which are more or less abnormal.\nGames like baseball, basket-ball, or football, where players may advance\ntheir side by injuring opposing players, are not games to be encouraged\nunless the rules are modified to prevent such foul tactics. For this reason\nthese sports have constantly to be regulated to eliminate the evils that\narise and to preserve the good that is in them.\nThe question is always arising among school principals and physical\ndirectors as to whether something may not be done so that the weaker\nportion of the students, as well as the physically strong, may enjoy the\nbenefits of these athletic contests. A method has been worked out, under\nthe name of group contests, which furnishes the best solution yet suggested\nfor the problem. This method consists of dividing the pupils into divisions,\nclubs, or groups, each of which shall include boys of various athletic\nability — the short and the tall, the strong and the weak, the slow and the\nalert. Each boy competes in the several events, and whatever he does\nwill be added to the total score of his group. Then if his group wins, he\nwill have contributed something to the victory and will consequently have\na right to share in the honor of it. The tendency of this method is to bring\nabout a spirit of mutual helpfulness and joyous co-operation. The advisability of schoolboys under eighteen engaging in boat races, long runs,\ntug-of-war contests, and violent athletic games should be determined by a\nphysico-medical examination of each individual, and a full knowledge on\nthe part of the authorities of the nature and length of the contests under\nconsideration. These prolonged athletic contests bring the respiratory and\ncirculatory organs into great activity and are especially valuable for this\nreason. But as heart, lungs, brain, stomach, etc., do not usually complete\ntheir growth until after the twenty-second year it is -very important that\nthese organs are not overtaxed in early youth. During these years, the\ngood that may be done to aboy is so] great, and the injury] often so irre-\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPHASES\n\n345\n\nparable, that it is a matter of anxious solicitude that the best supervision\nand instruction in physical education be secured for the secondary schools.\nWith such a preparation as outlined, physical education in colleges\nwould be much simplified. Young men would enter college trained in body\nas well as mind. They would be familiar with the various individual sports,\nhave learned to play the different athletic games and become conversant\nwith the regulations governing contests. Under these circumstances many\nof the puzzling questions which now vex the college faculties would not arise.\nMen would choose their favorite sports as they now do their favorite studies.\nThe embarrassment felt by many college men in taking up a new exercise or\nplaying a new game arises from the fact that they have had no previous\ntraining. They have postponed learning new exercises until too late and\nnow find themselves with inadequate muscular control and no staying power,\nhis physical deficiency makes them defer beginning training and many of\nthem never attend the gymnasium or frequent the athletic field. Altho\nleading educators thruout the land, upheld by the researches of the psychophysiological laboratories, attest to the unity that exists between the education of the mind and that of the body, it is difficult to realize a practical\nco-operation between the academic and physical departments in our colleges.\nIf a young man attends a course of lectures on physiology and hygiene, he\nreceives credit for his efforts even if he spends much of his time in pursuits\nthat are injurious to his health. But if he attends the gymnasium or joins\nsome athletic team, and applies the principles of hygiene, he receives no\nacademic credit. The present need is for some academic method by which\nhealth and self-control may be measured and given credit in judging the\nmental efficiency of the college man. The college would render a service by\n\nI\n\nrequiring entrance examinations that would determine a boy's potential\nability apart from mere book learning. These requirements should consist\nof examinations to determine general condition of health and muscular control, strength tests, and trials of physical efficiency. Such requirements\nwould give new meaning to the physical work in the preparatory schools,\nputting their curricula in accord with the impulses of the child and combining the constructive forces of brain and body building. Then the work\nof physical training and development would be largely done in the preparatory schools during the formative period of a boy's life, and when he arrived\nat college his physical work would be recreative rather than developmental.\nHe would have learned the value of keeping fit for his mental work, and\nwith the vigor and energy that come with prime physical condition he\nwould enter his intellectual pursuits with greater zeal. Simply to advise\ncollege men to obey the laws of health, without adjusting the system of\ncredits to recognize such obedience, puts a premium on neglecting this\nadvice. Some colleges require those students who compete in athletics to\nattain a certain grade in their studies; so students who compete for scholarship should attain a certain standard of physical efficiency. An athletic\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nrequirement is one of the distinguishing characteristics of the Cecil Rhodes\nScholarships, and marks the beginning of a movement which is to bring the\ncollege and the world into more sympathetic relationships, thru the practical efficiency acquired by a sound physical education.\n//.\nLUTHER\n\nPHYSICAL\nHALSEY\n\nEDUCATION FROM\nHEALTH\n\nGULICK, RUSSELL\n\nTHE\n\nSAGE FOUNDATION,\n\nSTANDPOINT\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nOF\n\nCITY, N.Y.\n\nThe Need of General Exercise\nThe limitations of the topic are definite. I am to consider physical\neducation, or speaking more concretely, muscular exercise, from the standpoint of physical health. Exercise of the body is not here considered\nas a curative agent in disease — for example, in the strengthening of a\nweak heart — but simply as one of the measures which is essential to\nwholesome living.\nHealth consists in general in the wholesome and balanced performance\nof the functions of circulation, respiration, digestion, excretion, and the\nregulation of body temperature. That is not to say that there are no other\naspects of health, but in the main these are the physiological processes that\nare most directly affected by muscular exercise. The kinds of muscular\nexercise which induce an individual to breathe most deeply, which increase\nthe circulation of blood, which stimulate digestion and the processes of\nexcretion, consist in the use of the large muscles of the body. To get the\nmaximum effect of exercise, these large muscles must be contracted moderately many times. We all know the healthful effects of rapid walking, of\ngentle running, of mountain climbing, canoeing, rowing, the more vigorous\ndances, tennis playing, and similar exercises.\nExercises that involve merely the activity of the smaller muscle groups\ndo not appear to have any particular effect upon the body. Thus exercises\ninvolving the use of the arms alone, or of the hands and forearms, as in\ntypewriting, playing the violin, sewing, are relatively useless from the\nstandpoint of health, altho they may have high educational value.\nThe principle back of these different body movements is that exercise\naffects the fundamental physiological processes of the body directly in proportion to the number of foot-pounds of energy expended during the work.\nThe small muscles of the body, just because they are small, are not able to\nexpend such quantities of energy as to make increased demands upon the\nbody for food, for air, for more rapid circulation. For this reason the more\ngeneral exercises, those working the larger muscles, have a more vigorous\neffect upon body health.\nGymnastics\nThis general exercise of the body may be attained by means of gymnastics. The individual may accomplish all these results alone in his room, by\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nHEALTH\n\n347\n\nbending the body in various directions, by stooping and rising, and by many\nother physical movements. The fundamental difficulty of getting healthful\nexercise by these means is that exercise done alonvj is uninteresting, and the\nprobability of any of us systematically keeping up such exercise thruout the\nweeks and months and years of life is exceedingly remote. It is, accordingly,\na matter of first importance to consider how the individual may have his\nexercise in a form that he will find enjoyable, so that he will carry it on\n>ecause of the pleasure that he finds in doing it.\nPlay and Athletics\nSmall children, if they can have the use of sand-piles, swings, see-saws,\nlerry-go-rounds, slides, and ladders, are sufficiently provided for. They will,\nrith. such facilities, take all the muscular exercise of both the large and small\nluscles of the body necessary to their wholesome growth and development,\ni'he school age, however, when for five hours daily the child is confined\nindoors and much of this time is spent seated before the school desk, presents a set of conditions which must be met by specially devised exercises —\ngymnastics — which shall correct the direct effects of the school desk. Formal gymnastics may be so used that they will give a sufficient amount of\nexercise to meet all the needs of the growing body; but in this connection\nwe must not forget that one of the great functions of the school is to prepare the individual for subsequent independent life, and that during the\nschool period we are to establish, if possible, habits of wholesome living\nwhich are interesting and which will be feasible under the future conditions\nin which the individual is obliged to live. We observe as a matter of general experience that relatively few individuals keep up thruout life the formal\ngymnastics which they learned so faithfully during their school days.\nHence it is incumbent upon us to discover how we may during the school\nperiod develop in the young habits which touch them so profoundly that\nthey will continue them during later years. Here we are led to examine the\npossibilities of athletic sports and folk dances.\nIn relatively few educational institutions in America have athletics been\ngiven any adequate consideration from the standpoint of health. In practically all of our educational institutions — and this includes most of our\ncolleges and universities, as well as high schools and many grammar schools\n— we have installed systems of athletics which aim at providing entertainment for the spectators, rather than benefit to the performers. The athletic\nsports which select those students best endowed by nature and education,\nand then train them to their highest point of efficiency, are not meeting the\nphysical-education needs of the great body of pupils in any respect. The\npupils engaged in these athletics need physical education least of any students in the institution, and those who have most need of the exercise\nderived from athletics remain unprovided for. In many institutions the nonathletes are excluded from the athletic fields: the latter are needed for the\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "348\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[National\n\ntraining of the athletic teams which are to represent the school. There is\nno greater blunder being made in the educational world than that of imagining that competitive athletics fulfill the need of physical education of the\naverage student. The only way in which athletics can legitimately be\nfitted into the educational program of an institution of learning is (i) by\nproviding athletic facilities that will accommodate all the students of the\ninstitution; and (2) by providing such instruction and supervision of athletics as are given to other academic subjects.\nFortunately we have a few private schools and one or two universities\nthat are already successfully carrying out such a program. In these institutions adefinite portion of practically every day is given up to outdoor\nexercises. Every student in these institutions under sympathetic instruction\nforms habits of interesting, wholesome outdoor exercise of a type which he\ncan to a greater or less extent carry on thruout life. The time is rapidly\ncoming when the establishment of vigorous health will be regarded as the\nfirst obligation that rests upon all institutions having to do with the care of\nthe young, for nothing can take its place in practical living. What can be\naccomplished along these lines is illustrated by the work done at such high\nschools as that at Springfield, Mass., at such private schools as those of St.\nPaul's and Lawrenceville, and at such universities as the State University\nof Missouri.\nExercise and Modern Life\nBut the great mass of us are not found in school. There is also an increasing tendency among human kind to live in cities. Yet the need of the\nman or woman — whether he works in the factory or at the desk; whether\nshe works in the home or the store — is for some more or less regular, gentle\nexercise taken out of doors under enjoyable conditions. The time has\npassed when this can be done by the individual alone. It is true, there are\nsome individuals whose wills are sufficiently strong, so that even under the\nadverse conditions of city life they will persist in taking solitary walks and\nwho will in other ways seek outdoor exercise. But these are the rare exceptions. The need of exercise, however, is a constant if not an increasing one.\nHence there rests upon the community the obligation to provide spaces for\nrecreation, to provide facilities for games and sports, and to provide persons\nwho shall organize, promote, and advertise these facilities as efficiently as\nany commercial body is organized, promoted, and advertised by those who\nare especially trained in these directions.\nIn former days the librarian was a person who took care of books- in a\nlibrary, who protected them from abuse. In general he was more pleased to\nhave them remain on the shelves than to have them in circulation; for when\nthey were on the shelves they were safe, but when they were in use they\nwould inevitably be injured. The modern librarian sees his success in\nempty shelves, and in keeping the books in extensive and rapid circulation.\nThe wear and tear on the books he considers inevitable and necessary.\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nHEALTH\n\n349\n\nThat is, the modern librarian is an organizer, a promoter, an advertiser.\nIf wholesome bodily exercise is to be generally carried on by city people, we\nneed to have done for our parks, our playgrounds, our golf courses, our available camping spaces and other facilities of this kind just what we are doing\nfor our libraries: we need to organize, promote, advertise them.\nIt is necessary that the facilities be adequate. Upon making inquiries in\nAmerican cities, both in the East and in the West, as to what the people of\nthe communities and particularly the young people do with their leisure\ntime, I have repeatedly been shown a boy's club, a Young Men's Christian\nAssociation, or some other organization having a splendid equipment but\n[so inadequate with reference to accommodating numbers as to make it\npractically useless from the standpoint of benefiting the entire' community.\nIt is as necessary to provide all the adults with opportunities to keep well,\n[as it is to provide all the children with seats in school; as necessary as it is\nto provide streets adequate for transporting the entire traffic of the city, a\nsewage system that shall carry away all the sewage, and a water supply\nlarge enough for the needs of the city. Mere samples are relatively useless.\nThe Socialization of Exercise\nBut having provided such facilities, such systems, such organization,\npromotion, and advertising as have been indicated, how shall people be\ninduced to use them year after year, decade after decade ? The chief joys\nof life, its highest rewards, are social in their nature. \"The main thing to be\nsaid against living in the country is the relative isolation from human beings,\nand the strongest thing to be said for living in the city is that it affords\nopportunity for human contact and the selection of friends and associates.\nThe answer to the question which I have asked is that exercise and recreation must be sociaHzed. It is not enough that people shall know the importance ofkeeping well. It is not enough that the city shall furnish places\nfor exercise. Young people must be given opportunity to dance, not merely\nfor the sake of dancing, but for the sake of wholesome, social relations\nwhich they may enjoy and because of which they will take the needed muscular exercise. This also is true of camping out, of playing golf and tennis,\nand even of the old-fashioned croquet and curling, of tramping trips.\nGroups of people who like each other must together express their social\ndelight and their social life in ways involving wholesome muscular exercise.\nI am not expressing an ideal, a Utopian scheme. I have mentioned\nnothing but what is already in successful operation to a greater or less extent\nin many communities in this country, is in practically universal use in\nGermany, and to a large extent also in England. What I have outlined\nexpresses one of the greatest needs of American life, both rural and urban.\nIt is not merely or mainly quantity of exercise that the adult needs. It is\nonly during the growing period that considerable quantities of exercise are\nneeded. After the body has reached its complete stature we do not need\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "35°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nlarge quantities of exercise, but we do need open air, we do need relaxation\nfrom our work, we do need the pleasures of social relations, and these —\nexercise and social relations — are to be, are being, combined.\nDuring the past five years we have seen a shift in public opinion, in\ncommunity custom, in tradition, and even in fashion, toward wholesomeness\nand simplicity of living, toward recognizing the need of fresh air. Articles\non exercise are being read, implements for exercise are being purchased by\nthe people as never before. The development of the playground movement\nin America during the past four years — from 90 cities having playgrounds\nin 1906 to 336 cities in 1909 — indicates the rapidity of growth of one phase\nof this movement. What we need now is merely the extension of these\nideas, until they shall be known to all the people in all the communities.\nThe splendid bathing-beaches of Boston need to be duplicated in New York\nand every other seaport town. The municipal gymnasiums, the public\nrecreation buildings of Chicago and Los Angeles, are merely the forerunners\nof a change in national life which is rapidly and surely coming to increase\nnot merely the length, but also the breadth and vividness of human living.\n\n///.\nCLARK\n\nW.\n\nFUNDAMENTAL\n\nHETHERINGTON,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nEDUCATION\nOF\n\nMISSOURI,\n\nCOLUMBIA,\n\nMO.\n\nEducation is a process in which the infant is conducted from birth thru\nthe period of growth and development to maturity, and in which his powers\nare developed and adjusted to a social order for complete living.\nThis paper aims to describe the function and place of general neuromuscular activities, primarily general play activities, in the educational\nprocess. We use the term general play to include plays, games, athletics,\ndancing, the play side of gymnastics, and all play activities in which the\nlarge muscles are used more or less vigorously.\nThe interpretation given might be called the new physical education,\nwith the emphasis on education, and the understanding that it is \"physical \"\nonly in the sense that the activity of the whole organism is the educational\nagent and not the mind alone. The key to our interpretation lies largely\nin that suggestive formula concerning the order of growth and development:\nfrom fundamental to accessory. With this warning there will scarcely be\nany confusion between the use of the formula and the title of the paper\n— \" Fundamental Education.\"\nBack of the thesis maintained is the general idea that education is\nneither for body nor for mind alone, but for all human powers that depend\non educational activities for development.\nTo present the thesis, four phases of the educational process will be considered: organic education, psycho-motor education, character education,\nand intellectual education.\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\n• FUNDAMENTAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n351\n\nOrganic education is the process that develops vital vigor, i.e., high\nnutrition, perfect elimination, a large capacity for activity with relative\nimmunity from fatigue and the common ills of life. This means a development ofpower in the organs of vegetative life.\n! All are familiar with the influence of vigorous exercise on the development of the skeletal muscles. Few are so familiar with the indirect influence of this exercise — the influence with which organic education is\nchiefly concerned.\nWhen a group of muscles is exercised vigorously, the influence spreads\nthru the whole body, due to the call of the working muscles for oxygen\nand the elimination of waste products. All the organs involved in nutrition and ehmination are heightened in activity as indicated by the throbbing heart, increased respiration, heat, perspiration, etc. Coincidently,\nthru the increased circulation, all the organs and tissues of the body are\nsaturated and bathed in a fresh supply of blood, while subjected to a natural\nmassage of joltings, pressures, tensions, and strains resulting from the\nmovements, positions, bendings, and torsions of the body. This profoundly increases the influence on the active organs and extends it to the\npassive tissues.\nThus, while we have practically no direct volitional control over the\norgans of vegetative life, we can control and exercise these organs indirectly\nthru making them function in service on the voluntary skeletal muscles.\nThis is the method of organic education. We can control the amount of\nwork done by the character, amount, and duration of the work of the\nskeletal muscles. The familiar and extreme example of this process is the\n\nI\n\ndevelopment of the heart of a distance runner — as truly an educational\nprocess as the development of language power.\nOrganic power must be gained by organic education during the period\nof growth and development. It cannot be gained in full after maturity\nbecause the nascent periods of the various organs have passed. It cannot\nbe gained in full until after established adolescence because the development of the latent inherited resources of the various organs must wait on\ngrowth. This principle makes organic exercise an essential element in the\neducational process during the entire period of growth and development.\nAdult organic efiiciency rests on organic development gained during\nthe period of growth and development. If this organic development has\nnot been gained in full the problem of maintaining organic efiiciency for\nstrenuous living is proportionately difiicult. Given organic development\nand the maintenance of efiiciency becomes for the adult simply sane living\nand proper recreation.\nOrganic education has no other concern than the development of power.\nIt is concerned with the power of which health is a by-product. Of the\nfactors controUing growth and development, i.e., activity, proper food and\nfresh air, sleep and rest, sunshine, cleanliness, temperature, wholesome\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmental moods, and freedom from the inhibiting influences of disease,\nactivity is the only factor that is educational. The other factors give the\nconditions for growth and development ; activity alone constructs power.\nThe first function of education, then, is to develop the inherited resources\nof the vegetative organism. The place of general or vigorous neuromuscular activities, naturally play activities, in this phase of the educational process, is that of the stimulant to activities that develop functional\npower. Like all educational activities, they are effective in proportion as\nthey have an effective hygienic background.\nPsycho-motor education is the process that develops power and skill\nin neuro-muscular activities.\nIt is a simple matter to trace the order of development of psycho-motor\nactivities from infancy onward — first, on the side of locomotion, from crude\nkickings ar^d squirmings thru creeping and standing, to walking, running, jumping, dancing, etc. ; second, on the side of handUng objects, from\ncrude fumblings to the skill of the gymnast, juggler, artisan, craftsman,\nand pianist; and third, on the side of speech, from crude gurglings to\noratory and singing.\nIn this progress in neuro-muscular powers there are two sides: the\ndevelopment of muscular tissues and the development of nervous centers\ncontrolling the muscular tissues. It is in the development of the nervous\ncenters more than in the development of the muscular tissues that we must\nlook for the differences in power and skill between the infant and the adult.\nThe development of power and skill in a neuro-muscular center depends\non the exercise of that center by muscular activity. It is purely an educational process. Psycho-motor education is the education of the whole\ncomplex mass of the reflex arcs of the nervous system with the crude neuromuscular reflexes at one end of the system and volitional Ufe at the other.\nBy exercise each level is developed and looped up with higher and lower\nlevels until the mind becomes master of all the complicated activities and\nspecial skills of life. The intellectual and character elements in this process\nare given separate treatment; here attention is confined to neuro-muscular\npower in action.\nIt is the function of education by general neuro-muscular activities,\nnaturally general play activities, to develop the fundamental neuromuscular centers. To manual, industrial, and art education is left the\ndevelopment of the accessory centers and powers.\nIn the natural order of development of psycho-motor powers the activities ofthe fundamental centers predominate until approximately ten\nyears of age, then the activities of the accessory centers naturally begin to\npredominate until approaching maturity, when they may be exclusively\naccessory. The most important piinciple in this shifting of predominance\nof activity, from fundamental in childhood to accessory in youth, is that the\nfundamental neuro-muscular centers are not completed in their develop-\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nFUNDAMENTAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n353\n\nment when the striking development of the accessory begins. The development ofthe fundamental cannot be stopped with childhood. The\nlatent inherited resources of the fundamental centers cannot be developed\nuntil after growth nears completion. These powers must be developed\nbefore maturity or the nascent periods of the various centers pass. This\nprinciple fixes the place of vigorous exercise in youth as well as in childhood.\nFourteen to twenty is the age for the development of functional power as\ndistinct from growth.\nViolation of this principle of education has had serious consequences.\nThe rise of modern nervousness has paralleled the emphasis of civilization\non accessory activities without a corresponding development of the fundamental. Power in the fundamental centers is necessary to give nervous\nstability in sustained effort and capacity to resist the wear and tear of\nexcessive activity in the accessory. There will be no writer's cramp where\npowerfully developed shoulder neuro-muscular centers carry the burden of\nexcessive writing.\nThe second function of education, then, is to develop a nervous system.\nThe function of general or vigorous neuro-muscular activities, naturally\ngeneral play activities, in this phase of the educational process, is to develop primarily the fundamental nervous centers by exercising the fundamental muscles until the nervous system can carry the burden of civilization.\nTo manual, industrial, and art education is left the development of the\naccessory nervous centers.\nCharacter education is the process that develops the moral, social, and\nspiritual powers.\nCharacter education during childhood and youth takes place in the\nhome, in the schoolroom (including the Sunday school), and at play.\nThese cover practically the life of the young. Industrial work may take\nthe place of the school, but this is a special problem not considered here.\nIdeally, the home, the school, and the playground should co-operate in\nmoral education, but as educators have no control over the home, educational effort must be confined to the schoolroom and play life. If the home\ninfluence is of the best, all else will follow, but most homes do not present\nthis ideal condition, and even the best need supplementing by outside effort.\nThe Sunday school does not include all youth, and there is mighty Httle of\nit. The public school has as yet developed no generally effective or practical method of moral training, and the possibilities of instruction in the\nclassroom are limited because the activities are limited. The outside play\nlife is the only agent that touches all children and youth which lasts thru\nthe entire period of growth and development, which is naturally characterforming, good or bad, and which is peculiarly sensitive to leadership, good\nor bad.\nThe most conspicuous thing about play is its character-forming power.\nVices are learned in play, not in the classroom.\nIn the anxiety of earnest\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nparents concerning companionship is seen the moral power of leadership.\nCriticisms of intercollegiate athletics are eloquent testimonials of the moral\npower of athletics and the quality of the leadership. In 1898, after having\nstudied for two years the careers of 480 inmates of a juvenile reformatory,\npersonal data indicated that 75 to 80 per cent, might have been saved an\ninstitutional career had they had a normal play experience. Social workers\nagree that the \"bad boy\" is largely the product of restricted or misdirected\nplay energies. Juvenile delinquency diminishes in districts where playgrounds are established. A moral toning-up is the universal testimony of\nexperts on the results of directed play.\nThe character-forming power of play lies in its nature. It is the\nchild's soul-life. Play may be defined as human nature growing up. The\nimmature organism expresses every mental and nervous tendency and every\ndeveloping instinct and reacts upon every experience according to its growing capacities. Several natural stages of character-development are clear.\nThe first years are spent in gaining elemental adjustments to nature and\nsociety. This is followed by the age of aggressive self-preservation, Lee's\n\"Big Injun\" age. Then follows the \"gang\" age, with its co-operation,\nloyalties, self-subordination, and leadership, and finally comes the age of\nmoral and religious interest. Character-power is gained naturally in this\norder. Failure to gain development during the nascent period leaves\nlimitations for life.\nIn the supervision of these play tendencies we have the foundation for\nall moral training. Character education by doing precedes moral education\nby precept. All higher moral education must be built on these habitforming activities. They are basic. This is fundamental character education.\nThis fundamental character education thru the guidance of conduct in\nplay is not completed in childhood. It continues thru youth and long\nafter moral education by intellectual inspiration may be well begun. The\nathletic field of the later adolescent years is as truly a laboratory of conduct as is the playground of the child. This is the last-chance age for\nintensive moral training by direct personal guidance and discipline. Fourteen to twenty is the critical period in which all the larger fundamental\nsocial character- traits and moral habits are formed, and they are formed in\nlarge measure on the play side of life. These facts indicate the necessity\nof supervised play in youth as well as in childhood.\nDuring infancy nature cares for this fundamental moral education.\nEvery child's mother is his first play director. By instinct she is a playmate and a play-leader, guiding her infant's developing activities to material\nand social adaptation. Later this leadership is withdrawn or neglected as\nthe child gains the elemental powers of self-preservation, but the characterforming activities go on and accumulate in intensity and influence as age\nadvances.\nAll the bad habits known to youth are the result.\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nFUNDAMENTAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n355\n\nThe third function of education, then, is the development of a character\nmorally and socially sound. This must be done primarily in the natural\nlaboratory of experience of the young — play. All higher methods of moral\neducation must be based on the habits of conduct gained largely in play.\nThese habits are the vital, the fundamental things in moral education.\nIntellectual education is the process that develops intellectual skill\nand gives information and culture.\nOn the side of training for intellectual skill, the discipline of perception,\nattention, memory, judgment, etc., in general neuro-muscular activities,\nis well recognized. This is, however, only mental discipline in psychomotor activities. While this discipline is not completed until the mind is\nmaster of the accessory activities in industrial or professional occupations,\nthe power gained is only slightly, if at all, transferred to power in the study\nof science, art, or literature, and vice versa. The athlete may be a fool in\nthe classroom, and conversely the theoretical scholar may be for all practical purposes a motor idiot. Each gains power by thinking in terms of\nhis own activity. Thus while intellectual discipline by general neuromuscular activities is only a part of psycho-motor discipline, and this in\nturn only a part of all intellectual discipline, it is discipline on the level of\nthe fundamental.\nOn the side of information, the child learns by doing — primarily thru\nplay. The early years are spent in learning, testing out the material environment inaction. This hunger for experience continues thru, and is\nstrikingly characteristic of, youth. Social workers have learned its meaning and ere using it in organized excursions, outings, collecting and\nhunting trips, experience with animals, gardening, and what not. This\nis reading nature from the sources. In the same direct manner social life\nis learned. In imitative and dramatic plays of adult activities, for example, the child plays himself into an understanding of human ways of\nliving and doing. The process is continued among companions in plays,\ngames, and sports, and in later social experience. A great store of insights,\nsympathies, understandings, habitual reactions are built up, which become\nthe foundation for all social thinking. The ideas thus gained soon sink to\nthe level of the automatic. This is knowledge in the backbone. It controls doing, feeling, thinking, and is only another way of saying that all\nsocial sympathy, good or bad, has its roots in play.\nIn the hunger for experience and the hunger for expression, we have\nthe natural incentives to intellectual education. If not organized in wisdom\nfor educational ends they will be organized in ignorance for less wholesome\nends. By feeding these hungers in an organized play experience education\nshould give a virile contribution to intellectual education along with character education, psycho-motor education, and organic education.\nThe fourth function of education is to develop a skillful intellect, well\nstocked with insights and information.\nEducation by general neuro-\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmuscular activities or general play gives the fundamental intellectual\ndiscipline in action and the fundamental knowledge on which higher\nmodes of discipline and the higher information may be built.\nTo summarize: The function and place of general neuro-muscular\nactivities, or primarily general play activities, in the educational process, is\nto develop power in the vegetative organism, to develop power in the fundamental centers of the nervous system, to develop character by guiding\nthe expressions of character in play, and to develop the fundamental intellectual resources thru organizing and guiding the mental hungers for\nexperience as expressed in play.\nThis function we have called \"Fundamental Education,\" partly because it deals with the involuntary system, the fundamental nervous\ncenters, the basic character-expressions in play, and the crude bulky intellectual activities of early-Hfe experience, and partly because it crosssections the beginnings of all phases of the educational process and gives\nin general that on which all later education is built. The four phases of the\neducational process described are but phases of one process and cannot be\nseparated wisely. Neither can this fundamental education wisely be separated from the latter and more advanced forms of education.\nWe identify the new, growing function of physical education with fundamental education, and both with the natural function of general play in\nthe life of childhood and youth, while still recognizing the fact that play\nmust be supplemented and often replaced by formal activities because\nof interferences with efficient play by social conditions. Physical education\ntakes over nature's means of education, organizes it to balance social conditions and directs it for the highest educational values.\nEducation by play is the whole of early education. In infancy there\nis practically no intellectual activity with inhibited action. The organism\nacts as a unit: what the infant acts he thinks and feels; what he thinks and\nfeels he acts. Only gradually is the capacity for intellectual work differentiated from psycho-motor activities. It grows slowly in childhood, may\ngrow rapidly in adolescence until the capacity for long-sustained intellectual\neffort may be developed in the adult. Education by play predominates as\nan educational force thru childhood. In adolescence, the prominence of\nplay as an educational force diminishes as the manual, industrial, and\npurely intellectual forms naturally rise to predominance. General play\nconsumes less time in adolescence, but it becomes more intensive and\nrequires more regulation.\nIn infancy play is not recreation, it is life — ^both work and recreation.\nIn later childhood the recreative element begins to appear and rises rapidly\nin adolescence (parallehng the rise of work and the intellectual forms of\neducation) until toward the end of the period of growth and development\nwhen the fundamental powers are established, play becomes entirely recreative. During the period of growth and development the play of the infant\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nFOOTBALL\n\nAND\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n357\n\nbecomes differentiated into the play and work of the adult. Sane and\nefficient recreation in the adult is based on the fundamental education of the\nyoung. Fundamental education is one of the ultimate appeals in constructive social- welfare work.\nPhysical education or fundamental education, as interpreted here, is a\npart of the whole process of education. It is fundamental to all that follows\nand it establishes efficient recreative habits for adult fife which naturally\ngrow out of it. If the thesis here maintained is correct, it seems inevitable\nthat the school system should absorb the national play life of children and\nyouth and organize it, promote it, and manage it.\n\nI\n\nIV.\n\nTHE AMERICAN\nDAVID\n\nSTARR\n\nGAME\n\nJORDAN,\n\nOF FOOTBALL\nEDUCATION\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nLELAND\n\nSTANFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nAS RELATED\n\nSTANFORD\n\nJUNIOR\n\nTO PHYSICAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nCAL.\n\nIn 1905 the American game of football came under a severe storm of criticism. The\nacademic authorities in many institutions had lost all control of intercollegiate athletics; normal athletic eflfort within the colleges had largely disappeared, and expressions\nof disgust with the game and with the way it was managed were heard everywhere. It\nwas clear that the game must be purified, moderated, reformed, or else abolished; and\nthe abandonment of the game involved tremendous difficulties, so thoroly intrenched\nhad it become by alliance with financial interests outside the colleges.\nThe evils of football at that time were ably set forth by President Eliot of Harvard\nUniversity in an article in the Woman^s Home Companion.\nHe says:\nThe game is played under established rules; but the uniform enforcement of these\nrules is impossible, and violations of the rules are in many respects highly profitable toward\nvictory. Thus, coaching from the side-lines, off-side play, holding and disabling opponents by kneeing and kicking, and by heavy blows on the head, and particularly about\nthe ej'^es, nose, and jaw, are unquestionably profitable toward victory; and no means have\nbeen found of preventing these violations of rules by both coaches and players\nThe common justification offered for these hateful conditions is that football is a fight,\nand that its strategy and ethics are those of war. One may, therefore, resort in football\nto every ruse, strategem, and deceit which would be justifiable in actual fighting. They\nalways try to discover the weakest man in the opponents' line, as for example the man\nmost recently injured, and attack him again and again\nIf in the last encounter a player has been obviously lamed in leg, arm, or shoulder, the brunt of an early\nattack should fall upon him. As a corollary to this principle, it is justifiable for a player,\nwho is in good order, to pretend that he is seriously hurt, in order that he may draw the\nopponent's attack to the wrong place. These rules of action are all justifiable, and even\nnecessary, in the consummate savagery of war, in which the immediate object is to kill\nand disable as many of the enemy as possible. To surprise, ambuscade, and deceive the\nenemy, and invariably to overwhelm a smaller force by a greater one are the expected\nmethods of war. But there is no justification for such methods in a manly game or sport\nbetween friends.\nAside from the direct effect on the players the game was open to certain minor\nobjections. Among these were its publicity, the obsession of the student body in the one\nidea of victory at any cost, with the disproportionate exaltation of the football hero, his\nartificial training and the necessity of an applauding grand stand audience to bring out\nhis best work; the state of mental distrust and hostility engendered between institutions, destroying that broader acquaintance with men which is one of the normal\nvirtues of intercollegiate sport, and finally the essential stupidity of the game to the\nspectators in its most prominent feature of line-bucking.\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "358\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe game is a struggle between contending groups of excited students who for the\nmost part have no share in it except as onlookers. If one is interested in neither side of\nthe contestants, no game is more tedious to witness than the American game of football.\nAlmost every time the ball touches the ground the game stops, the masses of armored\nlegs are disentangled, and time is given for those who have lost their breath to rise to their\nfeet again. Once in a while a brilliant run stands out as a marked exception, but the\ninterference which makes the run possible is often invisible to spectators. Of course, if\nfootball were a true sport, this would be no objection, for a sport has its value in the\ndelight of the players themselves and in their improved physical development. That\nwhich is played for the benefit of spectators is a spectacle, not a sport. And no man lives\nwho would play the American game of football for pure sport, knowing that nobody\nwould ever be on the bleachers and that neither his name nor that of his adversaries\nwould resound among his fellows or appear in headlines in the newspapers. On the other\nhand, were it not for the intense partisan desire to see their opponents defeated the game\nwould appeal but little as an exhibition to the average spectator.\nNor was it alone in the colleges that the game was condemned; in the secondary\nschools conditions were worse. The American game is totally unfit for secondary-school\nstudents. High-school boys are too young for such fierce exercise; they have no adequate training, no power to enforce standards, no competent umpires. It is rarely possible\nfor them to play an honest game against honest competitors, and the death-rate among\nsecondary students in these games is appalling. It is criminal, and the crime Hes with\nthe public which permits and encourages these dangerous and harmful exercises. The\ndeath-rate and the hst of injuries on college teams is relatively far smaller. This means\nthat the greater age and costly training and rubbing have made them relatively immune\nto injuries. Quite as likely it means that all athletic youths with fragile bones or weak\nhearts have been disabled and put out of the running before they reach the college. It\nis again in the high school or secondary school that the evil of \"proselyting\" reaches its\nclimax.\nOther objections to the game lay in the presence of the professional coach, the promoter of public athletics, who makes his living thru winning victories and who goes as\nfar in securing them as a relaxed public opinion in city and university will let him. The\nself-respect of the colleges demands that this feature of intercollegiate athletics should\nbe changed. If there must be a paid coach, he should at least be student or alumnus of\nthe institution in which he serves, and the academic life of the paid coach like that of\nthe athlete should be limited to four years.\nClosely related to the evil of the paid coach was that connected with the gate receipts,\nimmense in amount, resulting from popular games. With this went the attendant training-season expenditures, involving the handling of large sums of money by untrained\ncollegians under the pressure of association and sympathy and the cold machinations\nof graft.\nThe net result of these and many other similar criticisms during the season of 1905\nproduced what was known as the New Football of 1906. The most important feature\nof this revised football was the attempt to clean up the game, to free it from the gross\nabuses, and to conduct it on the basis of gentlemanly relations. As the worst offenders\nin the past were such mainly because the students and alumni demanded a winning team,\nand the faculty acquiesced thru the suspension of ordinary tests of scholarship in favor\nof athletic heroes, the change of popular feeling met with a ready response on the part of\nsuccessful coaches. But the cleaning-up did not nearly reach the end of the line, and the\nold moral evils were left and still exist in many colleges and secondary schools.\nBesides the moral uplift which in the nature of things cannot be universal or permanent, certain changes in the game itself were enforced by public opinion. These are, in\nbrief, making the game more interesting by making it more open for observation and by\ngiving greater scope to individual skill, especially that shown in a scattered field. Again,\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nFOOTBALL\n\nAND\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n359\n\nthe attacking line has been weakened thru requiring ten yards' gain instead of five in\nthree downs. This change has made mass play less successful and hence more likely to\nbe set aside in favor of more open plays. At the same time mass play remains the ordinary way of putting the ball in action, however useless it may be with evenly matched\nteams, while its value for the purpose of breaking down an individual opponent is perhaps\nrelatively enhanced. With this, two additional hazards not germane to the game were\nintroduced. One is the forward pass, perhaps suggested by the passing by the backs in\nthe Rugby football, but under different rules. The other is the on-side kick. Both of these\nare open to the criticism that they do not naturally rise from the nature of the game.\nOn the other hand they serve as a relief from the line-bucking, a perversion of the Rugby\nscrum, which by a curious inversion of ideas has come to be known to the pubUc as\n\"straight football.\"\nThe new rules made the game more open, more of a sport, considerably safer, and\non the whole notably cleaner and more interesting. Shall we be satisfied with this ? Is\nthe balance from the academic standpoint in favor of the game or do the evils so forcibly\npointed out by President Eliot and recognized by every college man still exist and outweigh the advantages ? If so, are there other modifications still to be made which shall\noutbalance these evils, and leave a residue in favor of the game as a means of promoting\nmanliness, physical development, courage, quickness of action, and the spirit of cooperation?\nIf we test the revised American game by its relation to the criticisms which were\nmade against it in 1905, we find that the evils of publicity remain as before. In the matter of injuries to players, these have been somewhat reduced, perhaps by 10 per cent.\nIt may be noted in passing, however, that many injuries which seem trivial may be of a\nserious nature. The predominating injuries in football are to the nervous system, arising\nmainly from mass plays and from fierce tackling after long runs. Next in importance\ncome internal injuries, especially to stomach and intestines, arising from illegal kicking\nand from \"kneeing.\" Injuries to the eyes and head come often from intentional blows\nand all these are far more dangerous than the occasional fracture of an arm or a leg,\nwhich is Hkely to occur in any strenuous sport. In proportion to the openness of the game,\nthe evils of intentional manslaughter are reduced; but many of the great games and\nmost of the minor ones show that this evil is by no means abolished. The noise and\nobsession remain the same. A writer has claimed that football victories cannot be won\nby institutions in which the student body does not go wild over the game. Harvard is\ntold that she cannot win over her traditional rival so long as her student body can endure\nvictory or defeat with equanimity. The evils of artificial training, of dependence on noise,\nhave not been reduced by the change in the rules as to the space be to gained in three\ndowns, or by the adoption of the forward pass. The coaches do not wish this changed,\nand curiously enough, while the American game of football has no existence except as an\ninteracademic function, its control has been largely in the hands of unacademic men,\nwho depend on the game for prominence as well as livelihood. To this we may ascribe\nthe mechanizing of the game — the making of the game a matter of \"certainty,\" depending\nchiefly, not on the skill of the men who play, but on the skill of the coaches in arranging\ntheir quasi-puppets, and utilizing their muscular strength and their occasional fleetness\nof foot and accuracy of kicking. The great evils mentioned by Dr. Eliot have been in\nlarge degree minimized by closer rules as to eligibility and greater insistence by college\nfaculties on tests of scholarship. The forward pass ^ives play for individual skill, for\nwhich reason the professional coach, who wants everything made certain beforehand,\nlooks on it with disfavor. The players in a losing game sometimes try it to increase\nchances. Being an uncertain element, good luck or quick action may bring its chances\nin their direction. The essence of true sport is to offer many chances, with victory to the\nteam which has most men ready to seize these chances or to back up their colleagues who\nhave done so.\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "36o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIt is plain, admitting as we may the improvement that has been made since 1906 in\nthe American game, that it offers greater interest as a sport; it has been safeguarded by\ngreater limitations as to eligibility, and there has been diminution of danger to life. It\nis, however, true that the greater part of the old arraignment of the game still holds true.\nThis is because the evils are inherent in the game. Relaxed vigilance on the part of college faculties will see the old conditions restored. The balance is everywhere against the\ngame. On academic grounds, the only grounds colleges have a right to consider, the\ncolleges generally would be justified in following the example of Columbia University in\nabolishing the game outright. This is a conclusion I have reached reluctantly, for my\nnatural sympathies are with the struggling athletes. There has been much agitation,\nmuch discussion, and much revision with no adequate result.\nIf the game is abolished, is there any substitute that can be offered to take its place?\nThe writer believes that most of the present evils of the football game would disappear\nby going back to the British Rugby game of football. If this is true, a change to a better\ngame is an experiment to be preferred to the out-and-out abandonment of intercollegiate\nfootball. This is probably the only real alternative, and outright abolition may be necessary in any event if the colleges are to meet their obligations to the public.\nIt should be remembered that the present American game is a modification of the\nBritish game of Rugby introduced in this country in 1876. The chief differences in the\ntwo games arise from the legalizing in America of \"oil-side play,\" called by us \"interference,\" which is forbidden by the rules of Rugby. In the latter game no player may\nrun ahead of the player on his side who carries the ball. In legalizing interference any\nnumber of men on the attacking side may run ahead of the ball, consequently as many\nof the defense as can be spared must stand in opposition. Hence arises mass play, the\nungraceful and unsportsman-like element, now called \"straight football.\" Secret signals\nand the fact that the whole attacking side may buck the line together give the attack a\nmarked advantage over the defense. Hence the necessity of holding the ball by the\nattacking side. In Rugby, when a man is down with the ball the ball is still in play.\nOnly the man who falls is out of the play. The rest go on. In the American game the\nplay is stopped for him and all the others who may be piled upon him to rise. The held\nball renders impossible the particular play which is the glory of Rugby and the prettiest\nas well as tjie most sportsman-hke feature of any football game, the passing of the ball\nfrom one to another of the \"backs,\" in a scattered field. In the American game, any such\npassing of the ball involves the too great risk of losing it. In Rugby, a lost ball may be\nregained by alertness and speed. In Rugby every man plays his own game; each of the\nbacks is his \"own quarterback.\" For these reasons the game is thruout open. The ball\ncan be followed by the spectators; rough play, if present, can be seen by everyone.\nBetter still, it is a true sport, not an array of battle. As matters are, how does the Rugby\ngame stand related to the evils we have named above? The matters of publicity, of\n\"crude and vociferous public praise and blame,\" will not be much altered. The huge\ngate receipts will remain the same. But these invite attack from another quarter. We\nmay make the game free — accessible only on invitation — and an army of evils vanishes\nat once. But this requires courage and effort and a psychological moment.\nThere is danger in every manly sport, and there are worse things than physical danger to be faced in college. But the players generally enjoy the Rugby game for its own\nsake. The student body enjoys it also for its spectacular qualities and beautiful plays.\nBoys are, however, the most con^rvative people on earth, and those of the West are not\nquite happy unless they play the same games as are played in colleges in the East. This\nis the only real objection to the restoration of Rugby which the California universities\nhave encountered.\nThe use of Rugby as an intercollegiate game will doubtless yield evils of its own, as\nwell as repeat some of the evils of its American derivative. The worst possibility is that\nit will fall into the hands of coaches who will stifle its freedom of play and develop the\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nFOOTBALL\n\nAND\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n361\n\nmechanical battle-like game in which, as now, players would abandon their individuality\nunder the direction of coaches. Foul play in Rugby is plainly visible to spectators, moreover itis ineffective and would lose the game oftener than win it. There is no mass play\nin Rugby, and a savage tackle is bad play, for to throw the runner and to fall oneself with\nhim does not stop the ball, which has been thrown to some other player. The punting\nis about the same in the two games, but every man in Rugby must be able to kick quickly\nand accurately. Punting is not a personal specialty of two or three of the backs as in the\nAmerican game.\nIn the two great universities of California, the Rugby game, played under varying\nbut fundamentally identical rules thruout Great Britain, Canada, New Zealand, and the\nnorthern half of Australia, has been substituted for the American game. The initiative\nin this matter was due to President Wheeler of the University of California and to Professor Frank Angell, chairman of the committee on athletics of Stanford. The present\nwriter was an early convert to the wisdom of this action. The game has been played for\nfour seasons and with very gratifying success.\nExperience shows that the accidents in Rugby football are much less frequent, less\nsevere, and mainly confined to the limbs. Injuries to the legs are almost as frequent as\nin the American game. The fact that the game is played in cotton drawers instead of\npadded coats of mail indicates at once a great difference. The Rugby football is a far\nswifter game, involving adroitness and co-operation rather than great strength. The\ngiant has the advantage even in Rugby, but he must be a giant whose head and whose\nfeet move quickly. As there are thirty players in a game of Rugby instead of twentytwo, and as it is a sport which men will play even tho there is no possible hope of making\nany team, its introduction tends to revive the life of athletics within the colleges, which\nthe American battle game has done so much to destroy. Men can play Rugby football\nand carry full work in the classroom as well. It is a rare man who can do this and play\nthe American game even as a scrub.\nThe game of Rugby cannot be planned by a coach. The most he can do is to give\nform to individual players. In New Zealand, the especial home of clean, swift, strenuous sport, every player is his own coach, and professionaHsm of coaches as well as of\nplayers, tho not unknown, is condemned by universal popular opinion.\nTo be sure, the Rugby game never gives the thrill that follows the shock when masses\nof men throw themselves against each other. But this sort of thrill is not a thing to\nencourage. It is psychologically and doubtless ethically bad. At any rate our laws look\ncritically on the value of prize-fighting, which shares this feature in common with American football. The obsession and hysteria of the student bodies are much less in the Rugby\ngame. It is a sport, not a battle, and the fine play of both sides appeals to the higher\ninstincts of the youth.\nFor these reasons, the various attendant evils, the building-up of a team by proselyting, the immoderate desire to win, and the machinery of intercollegiate war, are less\nlikely to be developed with Rugby. These evils are wanting in England, in Canada, in\nNew Zealand, in Sydney and Brisbane, and our people in America are of the same nature,\nand have the same blood, the same ethics, the same love of sport as these. Doubtless the\ngeneral adoption of the Rugby game would lead to material modifications. The abolition\nof interference in the American game, carrying with it the abolition of the held ball and\nthe mafes play, would approximate it to Rugby, and a further revision in this direction\nwould perhaps make the game acceptable to college authorities. The outside professional\ncoach should be eliminated in either game. To make him a member of the faculty does\nnot affect the situation. On the other hand the schoolboyish scrum of the Rugby game\nis sure to be modified in the hands of American students, tho not, I trust, by the substitution for it of the line-bucking plays.\nThe difference between the two games — the American and the Rugby — is essentially\nthe difference between a fight and a sport. The latter is sufficiently strenuous to satisfy\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "362\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthe most exacting; but the player has a chance in the open. The spectator enjoys it, be\nhe collegian or not. Dr. Eliot has said, speaking of football: \" Civilization has long been\nin possession of much higher ethics than those of war, and experience has abundantly\nproved that the highest efficiency for service and the finest sort of courage in individual\nmen may be accompanied by, and indeed spring from, unvarying generosity, gentleness,\nand good will.\" The Rugby game lends itself to the cultivation of the gentler and finer\nqualities of sportsmanship.\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Ellen H. Richards, president, American Home Economics Association,\nBoston, Mass. — Dr. Gulick has most adequately expressed one phase of the subject, but\nthere is yet another. What of the unsocial individual, one who prefers his own walks,\nwho finds his recreation in his work ? Shall not some attention be paid to the exercise\ngained in the daily task ? If the houseworker carried her body correctly and used her arms\nand bent her back with skill, she would find the exercise she needed; and if the house were\nas open to the air as it should be, it would not be necessary for her to seek her healthgiving atmosphere outside.\nIf the shopworker had pleasure in his work and a really well-ventilated space to work\nin, there would be less weariness to overcome.\nIt is all right to increase the number of playgrounds, but at present, the tendency is\nto widen the breach between play and work and thus increase the cost of living, whereas\nwork should be so well ordered and so interesting as to lessen the need of play. I know\nof at least one school, a combination of academic and industrial methods, where the\n\"inspirational\" teaching causes an interest in the work that is a positive joy in itself.\nI should like to supplement Dr. Gulick's socializing of play and of exercise by socializing ofwork. In our new vocational schools there will be one difference from trade schools.\nTo be skilled in a trade one must use the same set of muscles until the movement is made\nautomatically. This does not preclude a child, as it does an older person after years of\natrophy of all else, from learning another set of motions. The development of the child\nand youth is gained only by a use of several sets of muscles one after the other. Much\nwork may be done in groups, and when work is socialized the cooks of this week will be\nthe waitresses of next. This is not impossible, only unheard of, and that should not be a\nbarrier to an American.\nTo an elderly Puritan with a scientific training all this talk about play and the\nvalue of play and socializing play (play has been socialized from the very beginning)\nstrikes somewhat hollow for all but the slum child.\nWas any play devised better than helping in the planting and harvesting, in going for\nthe cows, in feeding calves and chickens, in berrying and nutting? Filling the wood box,\nshoveling paths, even tramping to school in the snow, were developing exercises.\nThe cost of living is such a vital topic today, why not consider what part of even\ncity living may be shared in by the children ? Most families could make a distinct reduction in the drain on their resources, much to the physical as well as moral welfare of the\nchildren. The child should not be exploited, deprived of schooling, or tied to a bench or\na machine; but have we not gone a little too far in considering that the child should be\nreleased from all household activity? The social welfare of the race demands habits of\nthrift and efficiency, and all habits must be learned young.\nHomer H. Seerley, president. State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. — There\nhas been a notable change in the attitude of society toward the necessity of making\nphysical education a part of the pubhc-school curriculum during the past decade. This\nhas happened not because physical education has been assumed to be a panacea for the\nphysical ills of humanity, but because it has become recognized that harmonious and complete development of an individual must include the capabilities of the body as well as\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE VOCATION\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n363\n\nthe capabilities of the mind and the spirit. Physical education has, therefore, become\nfundamental to a proper training for life, and its omission from any grade of school is\nregarded as a neglect of the pupil's rights and privileges. Proper growth, full development and expansion of capability demand the proper attention to everything that contributes to the efficiency and the power of the individual pupil. It is, therefore, true that\nphysical education has more to do with the functions than with the faculties, more to\naccomplish in securing normal conditions and proper action than in producing skill or\nestablishing occupation. It is preparatory to everything that must later be done to emphasize the importance and the value of life, and its accomplishment renders possibilities\ncertain that would otherwise be dormant.\nThe importance of this fundamental education during childhood and youth should\nnot be overlooked. It is far too common to think it desirable during secondary and college\ndays and make elaborate provision therefor, and equally common to think it immaterial\nduring the earlier years when it is instinctive and naturally constant and make no suitable provision therefor. This situation prevents the essential training at the right time\nand in the right place, and hence produces a lack of interest and of capability that the\nbest civilization needs. The physical director, the playground, and the gymnasium are\nabsolutely essential at this period of education and training, and yet none of these things\nis provided or even considered as important in the majority of public schools. Some of\nthis condition grows out of ignorance of the people, some of it comes from a faulty and\nmistaken leadership, and some of it is caused by a lack of appreciation of the actual value\nof such education in the early years of childhood and youth. Most of the other kind of\nactivities deemed essential to the individual in his relation to civilization, such as the\nmental, the moral, and the religious, are given elaborate personal attention, direction,\nand supervision, while fundamental education which regards the functions and the development of the body is left to chance and to indirection, as the pleasure of the child may\nincline.\nIt has been ascertained by investigation and experiment that when the children of\nthe helpless and the inordinately poor are to be made interested in work, in becoming\nidentified with occupation, in study in school, or in activities of any kind that make them\nindustrious, self-supporting, and capable of self-defense, physical education is absolutely\nfundamental to the kind of a beginning that means success in the philanthropic education.\nIt has also been ascertained that these populations are satisfied with dissipation and\ndegradation, with wretchedness and misery, because they have no taste for activity, no\ninterest in any form of outdoor sports, and no ambition to occupy their spare time in any\nform of physical recreation. The entire absence of fundamental education from their\ntraining, caused partly by lack of opportunity to acquire the same and caused partly by\nthe adoption of habits contrary to such kind of everyday activity, is largely responsible\nfor their indolence, shiftlessness, and incapability. To correct such dif&culties as these,\nto prevent such losses to civilization, to make public education more effective and more\ncomplete, it is highly important that the point of view here emphasized receive prompt\nand continuous attention in all programs of elementary and secondary education.\n\nTHE\nFREDERICK\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nAND\n\nP. FISH, CHAIRMAN,\n\nSTATE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\nBOARD\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\n{Abridged)\nGreat is the responsibility of the teacher and of those who have the\nburden of shaping and administering educational policies. < They deal with\nall our children and youth. Not only is their work of vital interest to every\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\none of us now living, but the progress of the race, the character and capacity\nof future generations, depend to a substantial extent upon the educational\nefforts of our time.\nThe future of each individual child is in large part determined by the\neffect upon him of the education which he receives. No amount of training\ncan do more than modify, enlarge, or diminish his mental, moral, and\nspiritual characteristics. Education cannot make a dull child brilliant\nor transform commonplaceness into genius.\nThe place in society in which one is born, his status, does not in our\ntimes constitute an insuperable barrier to development in any direction.\nUnusual talent or marked tastes, coupled with persistency and intelligent\neffort, not infrequently carry one who is handicapped at the start by disadvantages, such as poverty or unfavorable social surroundings, to the\nposition in the social world to which he aspires. The handicap exists, however, and it is only the unusual individual that may expect altogether to\nescape from its repressive control.\nWhat each child born into the world may reasonably hope is that he\nmay do as well as possible for himself and for the community, in view of\nhis own inherent mental and physical powers and characteristics, due regard being given, as a practical consideration, to the advantages or disadvantages ofhis social environment. If he finds the work for which, all\nthings considered, he is best fitted and does it as well as he can do it, there\nis no doubt of his success in life.\nThe two things, therefore, that are of the greatest importance for each\nchild are these : First, he should be understood. His physical and mental\ncapacity, his character, tastes, and inclinations, his points of strength and\nweakness, the direction in which he can best be developed, the work that\nhe can undertake with the greatest chance of profit to himself and to society,\nshould be known. Second, he should be trained and developed, not on\nconventional lines, but in that way which is most effective for him in view\nof his special character and aptitude.\nTo determine his characteristics and as a basis for adequate training,\neach child should be studied individually. Parents and immediate associates can do this; but, alas, it is very seldom that they have the capacity\nto observe and analyze the quality of a child's mind and to determine his\ntraits and inclinations. The subject-matter is too complex. It would be\na great gain to our race if parents themselves could be trained for this important duty. As it is, they are, not infrequently, unable to apprehend\neven the bodily needs, a matter far more simple.\nThe child's own instinct, if it can be developed so as to become conscious,\nmay well be a better guide as to the direction in which he can be trained to\nthe best advantage, than the unintelligent conclusions of his parents or\nimmediate friends; but it is only in rare instances that he shapes into form\nhis vague aspirations and his shadowy conceptions of his tastes and capaci-\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nTHE\n\nVOCATION\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n365\n\nties. Moreover, he distrusts himself. He seeks the guidance which those\nnearest to him are unfitted to give.\nThe education of the child begins with his first conscious activity of\nmind or body and ceases only with his death. The greater part of it comes\nmerely from association with others, from imitation, and from observation\nattended by reflection, conscious or unconscious, on the matters observed.\nFor most of the men and women who have lived in the world up to the\npresent time, there has been no other education than this. It has been\nsufficient for the requirements of many periods. It has made not only good\nhunters, shepherds, tillers of the soil, and artisans, but statesmen, soldiers,\nauthors, and even engineers and lawyers. Many such of high repute received no real school education.\nUp to a comparatively recent time the experience and judgment of\neducators led them to the conclusion that school education should not be\nvery definitely correlated with the practical affairs of life ; that it should be\ngeneral in its character, aiming primarily at mental discipline and the development ofintellectual and spiritual quality; that the things taught and\nthe methods of teaching should promote culture, should give the child\nknowledge and right views of life that he might become better and stronger\nand a more worthy citizen. It was believed that a sound training of this\nsort would develop character and capacity so that the child, when of mature\nyears, would readily acquire the special knowledge and training in practical\nwork which he must have in order to succeed in whatever vocation he might\nhappen to adopt. It is not so many years ago that even those who were\nto enter the professions had no special school training for their work.\nAll this has now been changed. We have everywhere professional\nschools illustrating the universal conviction that for the vocations that are\nprimarily intellectual in character, special school instruction is essential.\nWe must not think that our ancestors were altogether in error in proceeding upon the theory that the matter of prime importance in education\nwas general training as distinguished from special training for practical\nwork. In the old days in which this principle was established, the conditions were such that there was not the same need as today for systematic\npreparation for the ordinary vocations. The apprenticeship system afforded\nan admirable training for many of the common vocations. Not only in\nthe country, where a far larger proportion of the population lived, but in\nthe cities and towns, all of which were relatively small, every boy and girl\nhad large opportunities outside of school for practical work and the observation ofpractical work, which definitely fitted them for the life of industry\nor trade which they were to lead. Their education . outside of school in\nthe practical affairs of the community fitted them so well for their own\nfuture vocational work that it would have been largely a waste of time\nto have given, in school, any attention to the matter. The obvious function\nof the school was to give them what they did not get elsewhere, but which\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[National\n\nthey needed in order that their Uves might be as satisfactory and as well\nrounded as possible.\nThe times have changed. No longer does the mere fact that he is alive\nand among men give to the child the education in practical affairs and the\nvocational training that were his inevitably a few generations ago. The\nold-fashioned apprenticeship system has disappeared. People have\ncrowded into the large communities where the opportunities for this outside practical education are reduced to a minimima. The advent of a new\nclass of immigrants, swarming in multitudes into the cities where the conditions are most unfavorable, has accentuated the situation. Their children above all others must be trained to efficient ejGfort as well as to become\ngood citizens.\nTheir surroundings do not help in either direction.\nFortunate today is the child who is brought up in the country or on a\nfarm. He has some of the old-fashioned influences about him. He learns\nto use his hands. But our other children can look only to the school for a\nlarge part of that which, in the old days, they got outside of it. This is\nthe thought that is at the basis of the modern movement toward industrial and vocational education. Exactly as we now insist that our professional men need special school training for their work, altho at one\ntime such training was not regarded as necessary, so now we believe that all\nthe work in the world will be better done if men and women are trained\nfor it in school, in the right way and to the right extent.\nIt is easy to state generally and vaguely the underlying idea of vocational education, but far more difficult to organize the curriculum so that\nthe idea may be applied in practice. This is the work of the expert educator.\nMuch admirable thought has already been given to the subject and much\nwork has been done. Results have already been achieved which justify\nthe belief that the problem will be satisfactorily solved.\nIt is clear that as part of the education of the future there will be vocational schools in parallel with those of the ordinary type. To these schools\nwill go boys and girls whose future is in the direction of the vocational\nactivities — ^industrial, commercial, or agricultural — ^which are there taught.\nTheir training will be largely that of actual work under the normal conditions ofactual work. They will, however, also receive book instruction,\npartly relating to and correlated with their vocational training, but partly\n\"cultural.\"\nPupils will leave these schools with a much better training for many\nof the vocations than they can get today by going to work to learn the business in the old-fashioned way. Work in the shop is now necessarily so\nspecialized that, altho wages may be good, the ordinary boy or girl starting\nin at the beginning, with no special training in the industry, has but little\nother prospect than to stay at one job, where, by constant repetition of one\nor a few acts or processes, an automatic skill is acquired which promotes production. There is the same specialization in the commercial estabHshment.\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nTHE\n\nVOCATION\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n367\n\nIn such an environment men and women are not likely to grow. They\n\nI\n\ncannot become expert, generally, in the work, as did many of them'in like\nemployment fifty years ago. A preliminary school training covering a\nlarge part of the field of the vocation will surely enlarge the horizon of the\nworkers, add to their vocational intelligence, and give opportunity for more\nvaried employment and for advancement. Those so trained will be the\nones to whom the employer will look when he has to fill positions of greater\nresponsibility.\nSuch schools will undoubtedly attract many who are at the end of the\ncompulsory school period and who would refuse to proceed farther in the\nordinary curriculum. The practical character of such a school will appeal to\nthem. They will feel that the work there will be a direct and distinct preparation for that of real life. Many children do not have this view of the\nwork of an ordinary school, which seems to them conventional and of no\nreal value.\nSad is the lot of the ordinary boy or girl who leaves school and goes to\nwork at fourteen. The skilled employments have no place for such. They\nare likely to drift into the very lowest grades of work and then to stay there\nfor the rest of their lives. If the vocational school were of no value except\nas a device to keep at school for an additional two years those who would\notherwise go to work prematurely, its existence would be justified.\nThe work of the ordinary schools and particularly of the public schools\nis already receiving new and careful study with the view of its revision to\nmeet the conditions requisite for suitable vocational training. Such schools\nhave not until recently undertaken, and do not now as a rule undertake, to\nfit for the practical work of life except very indirectly. Their aim is to\ndevelop character and capacity, to enlarge the intelligence, and to stimulate\nmental power. This is a most worthy aim. Never under any scheme of\neducation must the cultural value of education be neglected or overlooked.\nOur children must be trained to be good citizens. They must learn as much\nas possible of the wonders of the universe and the achievements of man.\nThey must acquire sympathy with all that is noble and beautiful. They\nmust learn to observe and to think accurately. Their mental powers and\nmoral sense must be stimulated.\nIt is clear, however, that today they need from their school career a\ntraining in the practical things of life. They cannot now get that training\nto an adequate degree in any other way. This does not mean a revolution.\nIt does not mean the sacrifice of what is good in our present training. It\nsimply means a revision of values, a readjustment of conditions. If some\nof the school work is obviously related to that of grown men and women\nand the children secure results in that work which are parallel with those\nattained in the serious affairs in life, they will begin to realize that all their\nactivities, including the book side which often seems so unreal to them, may,\nin Hke manner, have a close relation to concrete reality.\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThere are many instances of boys who wer€ thought dunces at school,\nuntil some form of practical achievement stimulated them for the first time\nto mental effort, whereupon they at once became scholars. I believe that\nthis would not infrequently happen in our public schools if the boys and\ngirls who are so constituted that their prime need is practical effort had\nthe opportunity for it.\nNo one can contend that practical work and studies based on and relating to practical work, or so shaped as to elucidate and dignify it, would not,\nif properly carried on, develop character and capacity to as great a degree\nas any now in the curriculum. There is not a side of human nature that\nwould not be benefited by such studies and by such work. The powers of\nobservation, reason, and judgment would be stimulated; industry and\naccuracy in thought and effort would be promoted; discipHne would be\ninculcated. A sense of beauty and of the fitness of things would be developed.\nIt is for the expert educators to determine just what must be done to\nintroduce the vocational idea into our public-school system without any\nsacrifice of the admirable qualities of the system as it exists today.\nThe selection of the particular course of each child should be guided as\nfar as possible. It should not depend solely on the pupil himself as is the\ncase in some of our colleges, where there is almost too free an opportunity\nto choose courses at will, for vocational or other reasons.\nIt would be an ideal condition if it could be determined for each child\nexactly the walk of life, large or small, in which he could do the best for\nhimself and the community, and the child could then receive that training\nwhich would do the most to develop his capacity for the special work he was\nto pursue.\nUnder the most favorable circumstances this condition could never be\naltogether attained. The enormous number of children to be educated\nmakes it impossible to deal with them adequately as individuals. They\nhave to be treated for the most part in groups. This is unfair to each individual child. Let us hope that a way can be found by which the characteristics and needs of each may be the subject of some study. If the\nteacher were not overburdened with work, he is probably in a better position than anyone else to form a sound estimate of a particular child and to\naid generally in his development as well as in the choice of his career. Many\nteachers are now most helpful in this matter. May they all recognize it\nas part of their duty, to be performed as well as can be under the difficult\nconditions of their work.\nI have endeavored to speak of the general phases of vocational education. Iam not competent to go farther. All depends on the educators\nand the teachers of the country. They are studying the subject earnestly.\nA very large number of them have not only grasped the idea with the\nutmost sympathy but have thought and worked upon it with admirable\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n369\n\nresults. If all will study the problem and each contribute what he can to\nits solution, our times will surely develop a forward and upward movement\nin education for which future generations will bless us.\nTHE\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nTHEODORE\n\nW.\n\nINDUSTRIAL\nEDUCATION\nSCHOOLS\nROBINSON,\n\nILLINOIS\n\nSTEEL\n\nIN OUR\n\nCOMPANY,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nPUBLIC\nILL.\n\nAmerican standards of living have been made possible by our unparalleled resources and have been accomplished by our unparalleled energy\nand ingenuity. Our wages are much higher than those of European workmen in similar positions. Our cost of living is also higher but the average\nnet difference in favor of American labor has been suflScient to command\nthose things of life which make for happiness and contentment.\nBut new and rapidly expanding economic forces are at work. It is\ncoming to be recognized that our national resources are not limitless; that\nreckless and extravagant exploitation must give way to careful and scientific operation; that a rapidly increasing population necessitates exports\nmore and more of an industrial character, and that successful competition\nin the markets of the world is bound to be an increasing factor in our prosperity.\nIn studying competitive conditions one is impressed by the low-priced\nmanual labor of Europe, hut until one has seen, as I have seen, half-clothed,\nhalf -fed women, grimy and exhausted, shoveling coal and hauling ore, one\nhas but a slight conception of the physical and intellectual degradation\nwhich extreme industrial competition brings about.\nTaking two nations with equal national resources and equal labor efficiency, the competitive advantage is to that country with the lower wages\nand the lower standards of living. As I have said, American standards\nhave been made possible by our wealth of resource'. But our large contribution of food-stuffs to other nations is rapidly diminishing. We must, therefore, give more attention to that industrial efficiency on farm and in factory\nwithout which we cannot hope to maintain both successful competition and\nour present standards of living.\nIn a letter written by Lord Macaulay in 1857 questioning the permanency of American institutions, the following striking statement appears:\nAs long as you have boundless extent of fertile and unoccupied land your laboring\npopulation will be far more at ease than the laboring population of the Old World, and\nwhile that is the case the Jeffersonian politics may continue to exist without causing any\nfatal calamity. But the time will come when New England will be as thickly populated\nas old England. Wages will be as low and will fluctuate as much as with us.\n\nWe are approaching the time, in respect to population, which Lord\nMacaulay foresaw, but we can avert his conclusion as to wages, if we properly train our people.\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "370\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nOur educational question is made more difficult by a million foreigners\nannually coming to our shores. While the history of the American immigrant is the history of American civilization, to the average citizen the\nimmigration of the past is a matter of unread history, the immigration of\nthe present is a subject of indifference, and the immigration of the future a\nproblem for coming generations.\nThe problem of the immigrant of the \"Mayflower\" was the conquest\nof natural forces. The problem of the immigrant today is the conquest of\nhuman forces. Whether he shall prove a unit of strength, or whether he\nshall prove a center of infectious degeneration, will largely depend upon\nthe education we give him and his children. It is sound public policy to\nsee that the immigrant is not only taught our language as a preliminary\nto loyalty and patriotism, but that he receives an industrial training that\nwill conduce to self-support, the basis of good citizenship.\nThe intelligent study of any social problem demands the full recognition\nof two basic principles of life: First, that the primary duty of every man is\nto gain a livelihood for himself and for his family. Second, that the character of every man depends upon his moral and physical fiber and upon\nhis intelligence.\nThe price of life and advance is work, a fact true of all ages and of all\nconditions of men. The world owes no able-bodied man a living except\nas he earns it or his forefathers have earned it for him, and there are some\nwho would even question the right to idleness oq account of a competence\ninherited from others. But a man's earning power must be above the bare\nnecessities of life if proper opportunity is to be given to his moral and\nintellectual growth. Further, it is clear that the greater the economic\nefficiency, in reason, the greater will be the chance for individual development.\nI conceive, therefore, that the fundamental object of education is not\nonly to promote moral and intellectual strength, largely thru increasing\nthe economic efficiency, but it is also to bring each of these attributes of\ncivilization into its proper relationship. There may be moral strength\nwith inferior intelligence and high intelligence with low efficiency.\nThe educational requirements of one community will differ from those\nof another, and the educational needs of one period will differ from those\nof another period. But every educational system, if it properly fulfills its\nfunction, must be adapted to time and place, and its value will be largely\nmeasured by its practical application.\nA few generations ago American life was essentially country life. Beyond the barest training in the three R's the educational efforts of our\nforefathers were bent toward fitting men for a professional career. Industrial activity was comparatively undeveloped and its needs were largely\nmet by the apprenticeship system. The farmer with his diversified manual\noccupations found fairly satisfactory conditions in the educational methods\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councni\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n371\n\nthat existed. The professional and business men were adequately cared\nfor by the old-fashioned American college.\nWithin a comparatively few years, however, changes have taken place\nunprecedented either in this country or in the world. America is today\nessentially an industrial nation with an industrial tendency becoming more\nintensified and accelerated. Country life is giving place to urban life,\nand an educational system which fairly met the needs of our forefathers\nis insufficient for our modern conditions.\nThis is not a criticism of American higher education, for I believe our\nopportunities are ample for professional training, be it academic or technical. It does mean, however, that the science of pedagogy has not kept\npace with the needs of the vast majority of our people and mainly so because the elementary grades are not meeting the new requirements of our\nindustrial condition. A short generation ago the industrial necessities of\nthis country forced the establishment of the technical school for the training of industrial leaders. Today our industrial necessities are demanding\nan elementary training for industrial workers. The technical school has\na splendid record of achievement but it is an achievement of higher education.\nThere are in the United States about eighty-eight million people.\nAssuming the average family to be composed of five members, and including the wife and mother as a bread-winner, there would be in a broad sense\nabout thirty-five million wage-earners. Of these about one million are in\nthe professions, and about one million occupy executive positions.\nIt is clear that our educational system should properly care for the\nneeds of this large majority. Our elementary schools are inadequate and\neven our manual-training and high schools have largely been perverted\nfrom giving a practical foundation for the working-classes to one leading\nto the professions. Manual training has done good cultural work but as a\nmeans to a vocational end it has proved a disappointment.\nThe seriousness of the present condition is indicated by the fact that\nnearly 90 per cent, of our school children leave school before they are fifteen\nyears of age. This is largely because our schools do not offer an education\nwhich will encourage, cultivate, and give a training that can be practically\napplied to their life's work.\nThere will ever be class distinction, but social differences are transitory, and in this country are marked by the right of achievement — not by\nright of tradition, much less by right of law. The leveling influences of\neducation knock down all social barriers here.\nThe establishment of industrial institutions unconnected with our\npublic schools first emphasized the possibility of industrial education.\nMore recently the Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education,\nwhich stands as the organized recognition of a vital defect in our educational methods, has done able missionary work by its vigorous propaganda.\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[National\n\nThe legislation on this subject already enacted by various states shows\nthe enlightenment of the pubHc. The attitude of the federal government\nhas been manifested by the lively personal interest of President Taft and\nMr. Roosevelt and by the educational bills before Congress.\nThis country has been sleeping a self-complaisant sleep of confidence,\nborn of stupendous resources. Meanwhile, old nations, like Germany, are\nrapidly becoming new by industrial education, while our New World will\nbecome old unless we wake. The ultimate aim of our public schools is the\nsupreme purpose of producing the highest type of manhood and womanhood. Let us clearly understand that to accomplish this purpose reasonable individual efficiency as determined by reasonable individual earning\npower must be attained.\nAs long as 90 per cent, of the youth of our country progress no farther\nthan the grammar school, just so long will an undue number become derelicts for want of educational encouragement and opportunity. No sane\nman will disparage any plan of education which seeks its culmination in\nthe university. Nevertheless, the necessities of the many cannot be replaced bythe opportunities of the few. Thousands of industries are sorely\nin need of skilled labor, tens of thousands of workmen are more in need of\neducational opportunity.\nThe efficiency of labor would not have to be extraordinarily increased\nto raise the earning powxr of the individual ten cents a day. Yet such an\nincrease would amount to nearly a billion dollars a year and would pay\nour national debt in about one year's time.\nWhile there will be honest differences of opinion as to the best means\nof giving our boys and girls their educational rights, mutual confidence\nand harmony must prevail in our endeavors. We have seen on one hand\ninstances of short-sighted activity by the employer to fill the demand for\nskilled labor. We have seen on the other hand distrust and opposition\nfrom a part of organized labor. Proper vocational training appeals to\nconsiderations broader than selfishness or avarice and will not brook opposition born of mistaken self-interest or desire for restrictive monopoly.\nWith fuller enlightenment has come a clearer conception of the fundamental issues involved and it is encouraging to find a broader and more intelligent spirit on the part of educators, organized labor, and employers.\nEvidence of this is shown in the space devoted to this subject in the\nprogram of the present meeting of the National Education Association;\nby the action taken by the National Federation of Labor at its meeting\nin Toronto last summer; and by the action recently taken by the Commercial Club of Chicago. The Commercial Club of Chicago is a small but\nactive organization of business men representing widely diversified interests and is a strictly non-partisan, non-sectarian body. For over thirty\nyears it has been active in civic, state, and national affairs. Its last comprehensive work with the special aid of one of its members, Mr. D. H.\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUI\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n373\n\nBurnham, was the conception, elaboration, and publication of the .socalled city plan of Chicago, of which the original paintings were recently\nexhibited in Boston.\nThe club has for years maintained an interest in educational affairs\nand among its other activities established the Chicago Manual Training\nSchool, one of the first in the country. The experience so gained convinced\nthe club that no system of industrial training could be permanently successful unless made part of the American common-school system. Acting\nupon this conviction, at a late meeting, it was voted unanimously to raise\nfund to investigate European industrial schools. Mr. Edwin G. Cooley,\nfor many years general superintendent of the public schools of Chicago,\n^as engaged to spend a year or more in Europe for the purpose of formuLting some concrete plan for introducing industrial education into the\n;ommon schools of America.\nThe club hopes thus to assist in the work\n)eing done by others in this important field.\nI once heard Grover Cleveland say, \"The country that we live in lives\nus.\" What our country will be tomorrow coming generations must\nletermine, but their decision will largely depend upon the education that\n^e make possible for them.\nDISCUSSION\nHenry Abrahams, secretary, Boston Central Labor Union, Boston, Mass. — If a\ngraduate from the Institute of Technology hesitates to address this audience, what must\nbe the feelings of one whose Alma Mater was the trades union ?\nSlaves, serfs, citizens; absolute despotism, constitutional monarchy, a republic —\nsuch has been the evolution of man and government. A free press, free schools, and\npublic libraries have developed the worker so that most of our people do not know him\nor his capabilities.\nThe trade union believes in a shorter working-day and a living wage. A living wage\nis sufficient to support a man and his family, and lay by enough for old age. Anything\nless is not a living wage. A combination of trade school and workshop is necessary to\nproduce a mechanic. Organized labor indorses education of the worker industrially as\nwell as along the lines of art and science.\nToday a boy goes out for a job; it may be in a carpenter or a machine shop or to\nbecome a barber; the question of the aptitude of the boy does not enter into it at all —\nhe has a job. We surely can do better than this.\nThe American Federation of Labor has declared for industrial education. Carpenters have done all in their power to assist the Boston School Committee in their efforts\nto establish a trade school. There is not an apprentice in carpentry in Boston, due to\nthe refusal of employers to take apprentices. The plumbers succeeded in getting a clause\nin an agreement with employers providing for apprentices.\nThis shows the attitude of organized labor.\nCharles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. — The discussion\nthis morning seems to assume that trade schools have been accepted as a definite part of\nthe public-school system of our cities, and that the only problem is to adjust amicably\nthe relations between them and organized labor. While in our largest cities and in smaller\ncities where certain industries are of overshadowing importance it is doubtless easy to\ndetermine upon certain forms of trade schools for which there will be an assured demand,\nI question whether this is true of all our cities.\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThere are many cities which have no one industry or group of industries which can\nput forward a claim for trade schools which is in any respect stronger than that which\nmight be made for scores of other industries.\nWhen we realize that each trade school demands an equipment expensive in itself\nand expensive to maintain, it is not hard to see that there exist very practical obstacles\nto the immediate realization of trade schools supported by pubhc taxation. Is it not, in\nfact, still debatable whether genuine trade schools designed to furnish highly trained\nartisans should in all cities be supported from the pubhc-school budget ?\nThat some type of industrial school designed to open the way for more judicious\nselection of his life-work by the boy is necessary and practicable, I feel assured. That\nwe are approaching the time when every city will support trade schools of all the different types for which there might be possible demand, seems to me to be inconceivable.\nThomas W. Bicknell, 207 Doyle Avenue, Providence, R.I, — ^The discussion of\nthe morning with reference to education and labor both interests and surprises me. Our\npublic educational system has been made a pack-horse for a multitude of social and economic burdens, and now the demand arises from labor officials that courses of education\nshall be so thoroly specialized that pupils shall be taught carpentry and plumbing\nand masonry and dressmaking and store-keeping and blacksmithing to such an extent\nthat they may be qualified to enter upon these trades or fines of business on leaving school.\nStill further, we are told that the young people are to be classified by the labor leaders\nand that the exact number of such boys and girls to be so educated shall be determined\nby some supposed law of local supply and demand. Boston must turn out annually so\nmany \"butchers, bakers, and candlestick-makers.\"\nNow, in the course of a long life of experience in educational affairs I have never\nlistened to the expression of theories of education so perfectly absurd and un-American,\nfor if there is any doctrine for American democracy that holds good over all others, it is that\nAmerica is the land of splendid opportunity, and that the doors of our public schools\nswing on easy hinges, wide and free, for the youth of our land to prepare by school studies\nand discipHne for any business or occupation they may choose \"with none to molest or\nmake them afraid.\"\nTo add to these strange doctrines we also hear another that each youth must be\ntaught in one school the whole round of the trade or business; a watchmaker must learn\nhow to make the whole of a watch, a machinist all the parts of a steam-engine, a house\ncarpenter and a mason all the details for a dwelling or a cathedral. Doctrines and theories of such monstrous proportions must astonish all sane and sensible educators.\nAt the meeting of the National Education Association at Madison in 1884, in the\nPresidential Address I gave a review of \"industrial education,\" as seen from my standpoint at that time. I befieve the conclusions I then reached are as sound and as apphcable today, as twenty-six years ago.\nTHE\n\nCREATIVE\n\nMETHOD\n\n\"The creative method\" which makes an elementary training-school subserve intellectual\nuses, the elevation of the tastes, and the formation of character, is undoubtedly the true\none, and this principle determines in a large measure the methods of introducing manual\ntraining into the educational work. The common school has no specializing functions,\nand can only aid in the industrial processes in an indirect and general way. School life\nis too brief and its opportunities too limited to expect that a youth shall come forth from\nthe school full-armed for the battle of life, as Minerva from the head of Jupiter. Whatever can be introduced into the school curriculum that aids in gaining mental, physical,\nor moral power is right, proper, and excefient.\nAll else should be dispensed with.\nPRACTICAL\n\nCONCLUSIONS\n\n^\n\nI. That the mercenary or mercantile motives for industrial or manual training as a\npart of the common-school curriculum are giving way to a true educational theory.\n» Annual Presidential Address, 1884.\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n375\n\n2. That the introduction of the workshop into the schoolhouse is a poor makeshift\nfor industrial education of any sort,\n3. That the short school life of the average American child demands that up to the\nage of fourteen, he should be held closely to the cultivation of the powers of observation,\nand \"a scientific habit of thought and investigation,\" with a broad foundation of elementary and special instruction.\n4. That it is of the utmost importance to technology that reforms in methods of\nteaching the common branches of knowledge in the common schools should be urged most\nstrenuously. This is the thing to do, rather than lunge ofif into manual training. What\nthe polytechnic can do for young men depends as much upon what they bring to her door\nas upon what they draw from her stores.\n5. That by some discreet pruning a place can be made for instruction of all boys in\nthe grammar schools, in the six mechanical powers; this is a kind of knowledge that they\nneed take hold of greedily and find very useful. The necessary apparatus can be bought\nfor $20,000 for each school.\n6. That the establishment of free manual-training schools, as at Baltimore and Chicago, seems to point to the true solution of the difficulties which beset the problem of\nsecuring an increase of skilled labor.\n7. That the establishment of apprentice schools, like those in Paris and other parts\nof France, is the real need of the time. Dr. Philbrick, of Massachusetts, in writing of\none of these schools, says: \"The school located on the Boulevard de La Villette in Paris,\nwhich was opened in December, 1872, is the best school of its kind in the world. It has\npassed the period of experiment, and the city authorities have decided to establish schools\nof a similar type in the different industrial sections of the city. This is a real industrial\nschool of the handicraft type. It is for boys who have completed their elementary\neducation, but do not aspire to a high-school education. It is for the benefit of the great\nworking-class. It is designed to form the skilled artisan — not, indeed^ to complete the\ntraining required for the finished workman, but to carry the apprentice far on his way\nto this goal, on which his eye is fixed.\n8. That colleges and special schools should adopt their instruction in techniques and\nscientific methods to the local wants of the communities where they are established.\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Miss Luella A. Palmer, kindergartner, Public School No. 63 . . New York City, N.Y.\nVice-President — Miss Willette Allen, principal, Kindergarten Normal School .... Atlanta, Ga.\nSecretary — Miss Lucy T. Ellis, principal of Phoenix Kindergarten\nPhoenix, Ariz.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Morning, July 5, 1910\nThe Department met in joint session with the Department of Child Study and the\nDepartment of Elementary Education. For program see Department of Child Study.\nTopic: \"The Special Child.\"\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Forenoon, July 7, 1910\nThe Department met in Normal Art School.\nThe second session was called to order at 9:30 A.M. by the president, Miss Luella A.\nPalmer, who acknowledged the gavel presented to the department by the second-year\nclass of the Mechanic Arts High School. She then introduced Miss Caroline Aborn, who\ngave a short address of welcome.\nIt was moved by Mrs. Page, of Chicago, and duly seconded, that a hearty vote of\nthanks be given to the donors of the gavel to the Kindergarten Department, and the vote\nwas unanimously adopted.\nNotes of greeting were read from Mme. Kraus-Boelte, Dr. Jenny B. Merrill, and\nothers; also various notices and invitations to kindergartners.\nThe president appointed as a Nominating Committee Mrs. Mary B. Page, of Chicago,\nthairman, Mrs. Harriman, of Boston, and Miss Norton, of Milwaukee; the committee\nto report at the close of the session Friday morning.\nPapers were read by the president. Miss Palmer, Dr. Amy E. Tanner, Department of\nExperimental Pedagogy, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.; and Miss Caroline Crawford, Physical Culture Department, Teachers College, New York City.\nThe president then invited a general discussion, and introduced Miss Ruth Norton,\nof the Milwaukee Normal Art School, who was followed by Miss Ruth Tappan, of Brooklyn, N.Y., and Mrs. J. H. Phillips, of Birmingham, Ala.\nMoved, seconded, and adopted that Miss Palmer's paper be printed in monograph\nfor circulation.\nTHIRD SESSION.— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 19 10\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m., at Normal Art School.\nNotices, greetings, invitations, etc., were read by the president.\nMiss Ada Van Stone Harris, assistant superintendent of schools and superior of\nkindergartens, Rochester, N. Y., read a paper on \"The Test of a Child's Kindergarten\nTraining.\"\nThe second topic was \"The Kindergarten Out-of-Doors,\" and papers pertaining to\nthis subject were read, as follows:\n\"Gardens,\" by Miss Anna C. Harvey, Adelphi College, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n377\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\n\"Walks and Excursions,\" by Mrs. Alma O. Ware, principal, South Bend Kindergarten Training School, South Bend, Ind.\n\"Open- Air Sessions\" by Miss Margaret M. Colton, principal. Grove Street School,\nProvidence, R.I.\nThe Nominating Committee reported as follows:\nFor President — Miss Jane Hoxie, Berkeley, Cal.\nFor Vice-President— Mxss Anna Stovall, Supervisor Golden Gate Kindergarten Association, San Francisco, Cal.\nFor Secretary — (Vacant).\nThe report was adopted.\nA paper was then read by Miss Lucretia Jones, El Paso, Texas, on \"Gardens out of\n\"\nDoors.\nDiscussions\nfollowed.\nLucy T. Ellis, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND\nTHE\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPMENT AS THE\nFOR KINDERGARTEN METHOD\n\nLUELLA\n\nA. PALMER,\n\nKINDERGARTNER,\nNEW YORK CITY,\n\nPUBLIC\nN.Y.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBASIS\nNO.\n\n63\n\nIt is not possible, within the limits of a few hundred words, to treat with\nany degree of exhaustiveness either the theory or application implied in the\ntitle of this paper. The principle of development is the core of the world's\nhistory. Our particular problem is concerned with two years in the development ofa human being. The wider view of the principle must be\ntreated very briefly in order to place the emphasis upon our special work.\nThree main points will be considered: first, a few of the laws of the principle of development that seem to have a very direct bearing upon the kindergarten; second, these same laws as seen in the growth of the human\nbeing; lastly, the conscious relation of these facts to the promotion of human\ndevelopment between the ages of four and six.\nWe accept as an axiom that the world is developing; it has in the past,\nis apparently doing so now, and we have faith to believe that it will be in the\nfuture.\nSome of the signs by which the world has progressed are as follows:\n1. Every developing body starts each moment from the point which is the result of\nall past accumulations. It is not the sum of past accumulations; the later additions\nmay have modified the earUer composition so that what has seemed a quantitative increase has produced a qualitative change.\n2. Any present result becomes enlarged by coming in contact with material that can\nbe assimilated. This material may vary in its developing possibilities. If it is exactly\nsimilar to the body with which it comes in contact, the new merely enlarges the old,\nleaving the whole but slightly altered; but if the new material be unlike the old, and, at\nthe same time, one which will bring about some possible change in the first body, the\ncombined whole may take on new characteristics, and a new capacity for further change\nmay result. Thus the second kind of material generally aids in more rapid progression.\n3. The new material must be assimilated and become an organic part of the whole\nor it will not add to the developing power of the old. Anything that is not immediately\nusable in some need of the new whole, becomes a drag rather than an assistance.\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nPRINCIPLE\n\nOF DEVELOPMENT\n\n379\n\n4. Nature develops an organism in all directions possible. She emphasizes the\ngrowth of the highest capacity; sometimes this becomes overspecialized and the type\nceases to grow. Some form which has kept more equable development of all its parts,\nand is therefore more unstable, is found more adaptable to conditions that call for change;\nthis latter form will push farther along in the line of evolution. Nature insists that each\norganism shall gain developing power only in so far as it feels the necessity and unity of\nall its parts. The higher must aid those which have helped to raise them to their present\nplace.\n5. Nature has a goal, one at which she is arriving every moment, from which she\ndeparts every moment, toward which she is constantly aiming. She is the complete unity\nwhere process and aim are one. The goal is development; the process is development.\nThis is the only dynamic method.\n\nLet US consider these five laws as specially applied to human development.\n1. Each human being must start at any moment from the point to which his peculiar heredity and experience have brought him. The ordinarily normal person has\ninherited a certain common physical form as well as certain interests and capacities.\nYet each one has something unique in his heredity which marks him off from every other\nindividual. These inherited characteristics are gradually combined with experiences,\nthe sum-total of which differs for each individual. Each human being can develop only\nfrom the point which is the result of his particular inheritance modified by his particular\nexperiences.\n2. Since heredity cannot, of course, be changed after birth, experiences are the only\ndeveloping agents, and are therefore the only material that man can assimilate. The\nnew experiences which can be assimilated must have something in common with past\nexperiences or with some latent interest or capacity of the individual. If the new is on\nthe plane of previous experiences, very little extra energy will result; but, if it is enough\nunlike to modify interests or develop capacities, to change the attitude toward life, the\nnew experience has in all probability helped toward progress.\n3. Experiences that do not satisfy some immediate need of the individual are unused\nand therefore of no value in his life. Those which are available for present necessity\nacquire power for developing more power. The needs of an individual which must be\nsatisfied vary greatly, but, unless the case is abnormal, they would differentiate into needs\nfor more facts, more beauty, more social participation, more faith. These desires of the\nexpanding human nature, if rightly met, may lead to the acknowledgment of the values\nrecognized by society as of supreme worth: truth, beauty, goodness, faith.\n4. In the progress of the world, nations have come and gone. In each case, the\ncause for the decay seems to have been the overdevelopment of some one side of man's\nnature. Concentration makes man progress rapidly in one direction, but a slower rate\nwith well-rounded development produces a creature variable enough to continue in the\nline of development. If nature's laws are read aright, man's higher powers, mentality\nand spirituality, must not be developed at the expense of what sustains them. The\nphysical and social phases of man's being will be raised to a higher level when viewed as\nmeans by which the higher develop.\nMan will continue developing only as a unified whole.\n5. When man becomes conscious of nature's goal and works in accord with her\nmethod, he makes the most rapid advance. Man, like lower organisms, can develop; but,\nunlike them, he can consciously develop his developing power. He can project a goal\nand pull himself ahead by selecting means to arrive at it. He can select a moving goal\nthat will grow with his growth. He can gain the attitude of believing that any result\naccomplished is but a step toward something higher and better.\n\nOur problem in the kindergarten is: (i) to know where to start with our\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "380\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nchildren, what inheritance and experience each child has had ; (2) to select\nnew experiences, like and yet different from the old, which will respond to\nhis needs and develop his interests and capacities; (3) to plan how these\nexperiences can be put to immediate use in order to gain developing power;\n(4) to study how a unified and therefore fully rounded product can be\nobtained; (5) to learn how we can help a child toward a consciousness of\nhis developing nature and toward selecting means to realize it.\nI. Each child begins in the kindergarten with the result of his peculiar\nheredity and past experiences. Is there any common starting-point for\nthese vastly differing individualities ? They have inherited growing bodies,\nminds, and souls, but in different kindergartens and even in individuals in\nthe same kindergarten there may be great difference in the stages of\ndevelopment. But we should not plan our programs upon the divisions\nof the old faculty psychology — physical, mental, spiritual. Bodily expression\nshould be organized by the mind and spirit if the child is to feel himself\ndeveloping as a unity.\nWhat is the common ground upon which to start ? Certain capacities\nand interests have been inherited by all children. They have a capacity,\na possibility, of developing in all phases of human nature — scientific,\naesthetic, moral, and religious. They have certain interests that generally\nappear at kindergarten age; Froebel calls these \"talking, drawing, playing.\"\nThese are the common interests and capacities, but both are variable because they have been retarded or developed by the differing experiences of\nthe children. The little foreigners may be just learning the language and\nonly desire to name things and activities; other kindergarten children may\nhave such good control over words that they wish to play with them, to\nrhyme. The children of busy parents may have had few opportunities to\nexpress ideas thru the hand and few chances to gain ideas; others may have\nhad rich experiences and much help in telling about them manually. Some\nchildren may have had opportunities to relate their ideas thru social play;\nothers may be still in the individual stage where only the toy is necessary\nwithout other children.\nFortunately for the peace of mind of the kindergartner, almost all\nchildren have had a few experiences in common, and those that are gathered\ntogether in one locality are nearly all alike as regards opportunity for\nexperiences and their expression thru language, handwork, and play. She\ncan make her starting-point one which will touch most of her children,\naltho, as her program develops, it may be different from that of any other\nkindergartner that she knows, because she must adapt it to the needs and\ninterests of her own group.\nSome of the common experiences that may be used as topics of the\nprogram are: the new experience of coming to kindergarten and associating\nwith a group of children of equal age, the home and its members, forces of\nnature, sun, wind, rain, etc., changing seasons, festivals, members of the\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPRINCIPLE\n\nOF DEVELOPMENT\n\n381\n\nx:ommumty who serve and guard the home directly and indirectly. These\nlast three topics would differ greatly in treatment in different localities.\nIt is well to bring to the children, or take them to, some new vivid\nexperience that there may be some common knowledge and interest for\nall as a group.\n2. The second law of human development, as seen in its more progressive form, gives one-half of a workable rule for the selection of what is\nto be considered in the kindergarten. If more experiences are given of the\nsame kind as the previous ones, there is Httle developing power as a result.\nYet the new experiences must not be so different from the former that they\nwill not appeal to the child. Much that we have hoped would educate\nkindergarten children has been too far afield from their real interests. We\nmust use what the children have already experienced, or, when anything\nis taken up with which they have not come in actual contact, we must be\ncareful that the experience can be built up mentally by the rearrangement\nand new relating of what they have actually experienced. But children of\nkindergarten age are not adepts at abstracting and re-relating, and allowance must be made for their immaturity.\n3. The second half of our rule for the selection of program topics is,\nthat the subject taken up, or experience given, must be capable of developing the child in all phases of his nature. What is he trying to do in his\nsearch for truth, beauty, goodness, faith?\nWith regard to gaining knowledge of facts, he is trying to relate things\nin his environment. At a later period, he delights in storing up facts as\nfacts, the mere activity of the memory meets his need at that time. At\nother periods, facts must be called for by some necessity of living in order\nto become vital. Knowledge, as such, is unused experience that has no\ndeveloping power; wisdom is knowledge that is seen in its relation to the\naffairs of life and results are seen in character. The child already defines\nthings in terms of active relation, of use; and we discourage it, we try to make\nhim classify on the basis of squares and circles or ones and twos. He thinks\nthat God sends the sunshine so that he can enjoy the picnic, that the baker\nbakes bread for him to eat, that the paper is something out of which he can\nmake a wagon. The relation, the use, is self-centered. We must help him to\nsee the usefulness in a broader aspect, in its relation to his playfellows, and to\ntheir families. Later education should show the relation to an increasingly\nlarger community. To aid the child in his search for truth, there must be a\nselection of his experiences and a choice of those that show in the best way\nthe relations between God, man, and things. We must help him to relate\nupon the basis of meaning, for the true meanings of things are those relations that they bear to each other and to man. In the realm of the spiritual\nworld, the relation or meaning to be brought out in the selected topic would\nbe God's love and care; in the social world, it would be interdependence\nand co-operation; in the material world, quaHty and usefulness.\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThe experience selected should be capable of being shown as having\na beautiful side. In language, its meaning should be given by song and\nstory; in concrete material, by picture or other form; in play, by game or\ndance.\nThe experiences should be selected because they suggest some form of\nsocial activity for the little kindergarten group which in their reliving can\nelevate the ethical standard. There is a great difference between talking\nabout social activity and actually living it; the latter is the means of vital\neducation\nExperiences should be selected because they give a deeper understanding of the wisdom that governs the universe.\nLet me sum up briefly the relation of the first three- characteristics\nof the principle of development to the method of the kindergarten: It\nwill mean that the program will be based upon some actual experience of\nthe children, either present or past; selected because it can be organized\nthru the children's interests in the activities of \"talking, drawing, playing,\"\nupon the basis of the individuals' need to expand upon all sides of his nature,\nwhich leads to the recognized social values of truth, beauty, goodness,\nfaith.\n4. Our children will have well-rounded development and be capable\nof adaptation, which means continuing development only in so far as they\nfeel the necessity for, and unity of, all of the different sides of their nature.\nThe core of the unity should be the child's own experience. Every experience, that is, every idea, should find expression thru all different\nchannels. Every activity, while emphasizing one phase of the child's\nnature, should partake somewhat of the others. This means that, given an\nexperience, language in some of its forms should show the scientific, aesthetic, moral, and spiritual values. Handwork should record its scientific\naesthetic, and moral values and play should give expression to these same\nvalues. A rhythmic movement, for instance, should seldom be made just\nfor its own sake, but should find its meaning by being brought into relation\nto some idea. Language should recall to the minds of the children what they\nknow of the subject that is to be expressed rhythmically; then they should\nstrive to control their bodies to give expression in as true and beautiful a\nway as possible. Handwork should be done not only to show increasing\ncontrol of materials, but this control should serve the higher purpose of expressing more true or beautiful ideas. The growth or organization of ideas\nshould be the core, if unity is to be preserved, and the growth in control\nshould be sought in order to give adequate expression to the ideas. Many\nlogical steps in technique can be omitted if material is used as often as possible, in its right relation, as a channel for the expression of ideas. The\nhighest type of stimulus is not concrete material but thought material.\n5. During the kindergarten period the children grow in their consciousness of being able to pull themselves ahead. There are three attitudes that\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nPRINCIPLE\n\nOF DEVELOPMENT\n\n383\n\ncan be cultivated which will help the children to develop this power and become more conscious of it: {a) the attitude of learning from the outside\nworld; {h) the attitude of having a purpose and selecting means to carry it\nout; {c) the attitude of following where a wise guide leads.\nThe first attitude is on the plane of the animal world, the second is\nreasoning and develops human characteristics, the third develops faith and\nis spiritual in its essence. In language the child should be encouraged to\nincrease his vocabulary; to tell his ideas and choose the right words to convey his meaning; to listen to good stories and rhymes and sometimes repeat\nthem. In handwork, the children should be allowed to experiment with\nmaterial and learn its possibilities; to hold an idea so vividly that they\nstruggle to express it in the right way by choosing material and the way of\nmanipulating it; to imitate what they have seen that is true or beautiful.\nThe children can develop these three attitudes in play {a) by trying to test\ntheir ability to relate in imagination; {h) by starting with an idea and\norganizing a game; (c) by learning a game from one who leads.\nWhen children — or adults — struggle for expression, they generally purpose to do one of three things with regard to their idea: {a) to learn something more about it; {h) to record what is already known; (c) to show its\nbeautiful aspect. In handwork, we would call an occupation which allowed\nfor the further investigation of the subject a constructive occupation; the\nsecond would be graphic; the third, aesthetic. The children should take the\nconstructive occupation home in order to fulfill its purpose. In the graphic\noccupations, the children should be allowed to tell their story as fully and\nrelatedly as possible. The aesthetic occupations should produce lasting\nresults. Books which the children take home at the end of the year should\nrecord the beauty side of every topic, not only in a concrete way, but should\nsuggest the other beautiful aspects in language and rhythm. The children's\nchoice of coloring and arrangement should make the picture an artistic one\nfrom the child's standpoint, and should remind him of beautiful stories and\nsongs. In this way, the cultural side of the children's work can be emphasized. Books which show progress solely in manual skill lay stress upon\nlabor; those which show progression in number and form emphasize the\nscientific; neither of these rises to the level of the artistic which must be\nbased upon beautiful thought.\nThe kindergartner, in all her relations with the children, should assume\nthe attitude of accepting for the present the result of faithful effort but looking for something better at the next attempt. In discipline, in handwork,\nin play, at every point of contact, she can develop this attitude in the little\nones. The test of her work should be whether it has enriched the life of\nthe children. Has she given new and valuable experiences ; has she deepened\nthe meaning of the child's own environment; has she shown as much of the\ntruth in it as he is capable of discovering; has he felt its beauty; has he\nacted toward it in the best way that he knows and can find out; has he had\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "384\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nintimations of a controlling love; has he been left with an attitude of striving to gain more experiences along these lines ? Browning says:\nThis world's no blot for us\nNor blank; it means intensely, and means good:\nTo find its meaning is my meat and drink.\n\nDo the children leave the kindergarten with this feeling pervading every\nfiber of their beings? If so, the principle of development has been the\nbasis of the kindergarten method.\nTEE\n\nCHILD\nAMY\n\nE.\n\nAS THE\n\nCENTER OF CORRELATION\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nTANNER,\nDEPARTMENT\nCLARK UNIVERSITY,\n\nIN THE\n\nOF EXPERIMENTAL PEDAGOGY\nWORCESTER,\nMASS.\n\nNot geography nor nature-study, nor history, but the child; not the\nadult, nor adult theories, nor Froebel himself, but the child, is the\ncenter of the kindergarten, as well as its source. To see children as they\nreally are and not according to our preconceptions; to live with them instead of making them live with us; to become as little children ourselves\ninstead of forcing them to be wizened adults — this is our present ideal. In\nthe past we have overemphasized the oak that lay hid in the acorn. True,\nthe acorn may become a tree, but not without a long process of growth, with\nmuch kindly nurture from sun and water and soil; and he who merely emphasizes the unity of seed and plant is falling into a mysticism in which\ndistinctions become meaningless and the incentive to action and effort is lost.\nThe transformation of the one into the other — the growth process, the development from relative simpUcity to complexity — ^is the fascinating and\nmeaningful thing.\nToday I wish to call your attention to three quite disconnected characteristics ofkindergarten children which are being much emphasized in\ncurrent discussion.\nI. First, hygiene in the kindergarten. As you all know, one-fifth of\nour total death-rate is with children under five years, and the rate diminishes rapidly after the beginning of the second dentition. Various writers,\namong them Dr. Burnham in the Kindergarten Review for October, 1904,\nhave pointed out that this is in part because the young child's skin has a\ndifferent structure from the adult's, and he has fewer phagocytes in his\nblood to destroy dangerous bacteria. He is especially liable, therefore, to\ncontract skin and germ diseases, and such diseases are more fatal, in proportion as he is younger. All the common children's diseases — measles,\nwhooping-cough, diphtheria, mumps, etc. — rage with especial virulence\namong little children, and every year that an attack can be postponed\ngives the child more chances of recovering, and of recovering without any\npermanent bad effects. The old idea that children must have these diseases\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nrtmentl\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nIN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n385\n\nand should get over them as soon as possible, is now exploded, and progressive hygienists are devoting their efforts to saving the children from\nhaving them at all.\nWhile, therefore, sanitary schoolrooms and closets, individual drinkingcups and towels, etc., are desirable all thru our schools and colleges, they\nare far more so in the kindergarten, and the kindergartner, more than any\nother teacher, should be well informed as to the symptoms of these common\ncontagious and skin diseases, and on the alert to discover them. If her\nchildren get measles and diphtheria, they will have worse attacks and\nmore of them will die than in any other school grade. She takes far more\nresponsibility upon herself than do teachers of older children, if she is\nneglectful of sanitation.\nEvery kindergarten training-school ought to have a course on the common children's diseases, their symptoms, the best ways of preventing\nepidemics, the treatment of a child displaying suspicious symptoms, etc.,\nand whenever possible these lectures should be illustrated by visiting hospitals or cases, to give the kindergartners first-hand knowledge. It would\nalso be highly desirable for the kindergarten magazines every now and then\nto publish accounts of the common diseases, with the best methods of dealing with them.\n2. To the child between three and six years, family relationships and\nthe new baby seem to be very puzzling things. At first he thinks, like\nprimitive peoples, that all the people under one roof — or at least in one flat\n— make up the family. All the men are fathers ; the one who does the housework is the mother, and if the real mother dies or visits and is replaced\nby someone else, the child sometimes calls the substitute his mother. Contiguity, that is, is the basis for reckoning relationship. Or it may be\ncreated by the exchange of gifts, as when two children believed that giving\na dog from one family to the other somehow made them cousins. Again,\nhow can the mother be also an aunt ? Or the child himself be cousin to one\nperson and nephew to another ? So the child gets the idea that relationship isa variable, and may think that when his mother's hair turns gray she\nwill be his grandmother; or that when he grows up he will be her husband.\nClosely connected with this is the idea that growth is a cycle, so that\ngrown people will sometime become small, and children were once grown,\nthat sex changes with age, etc. These are not uncommon ideas, but, on the\nother hand, we also find some children much surprised to learn that their\nmother has a mother; their teacher, parents and home. In all these cases,\nthat is, the child's ideas depend upon what he sees about him, and so are\nlargely based on superficial resemblances and chance co-existences.\nOf the great facts of heredity and blood relationship he has no glimpse,\naltho at four and five there seems to be a period of much questioning and\nclose observation about the new baby. By this time most children have\nlearned that plants and animals come from their like, but they know Httle\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nabout the details, and so any part of the plant may be considered the possible parent. Children plant leaves, flowers, etc., expecting to get new\nplants; and, reasoning from analogy, they plant hen-feathers, sardine-cans,\nand even, as in one case, a rubber boot full of kittens, in the longing to have\nmore. But they are not allowed to carry out their analogies and thinking\nwith respect to man, for they are taught both that man is made of dust and\nthat the doctor or stork brings the baby. So of course the baby is often\nregarded as an interloper, the idea of relationship is repudiated, and sometimes, when first seen, little brother is classed as an animal or a doll.\nIt has been a great surprise to me to see, in these returns, the number\nof questions asked by Httle children about such things, but it fits in well with\nwhat the Freud school of physicians is now telling us. Their studies both\nof children and neurotics have led them to the conclusion that this\nquestion of the origin of life is a serious problem for the child between three\nand six years, and that if his questions are not satisfactorily answered, he\nis altogether Hkely to suffer from considerable nervous tension, and to go\nthru a period of distrust of his parents and dislike of his Httle brother, besides possibly laying the foundation for various abnormalities which will\nappear openly at adolescence. On the other side, we find those concerned\nwith the problem of adolescent sex-instruction saying that if the adolescent\nknows nothing at all about the origin of life, knowledge first given at the\nlate age of thirteen or fourteen comes with so much of a shock and is so\nvitally and personally related to the feelings and organs then rapidly developing, that in the heat of feeling and passion the complete truth and its\nsacredness may be lost. That is, students both of the adolescent and of the\nlittle child are coming together in the belief that the Httle child is not yet\nself-conscious about such matters, and that knowledge given him about the\nmother's part in the origin of Hfe is absorbed and assimilated without any\nstrong personal feeHng entering, and becomes, as it should, a part of everyday fact. Usually the Httle child is satisfied with this much information and\nquestions no further. Then later on, at adolescence or, some would say, at\nnine years, the completer knowledge may be wisely and delicately given.\nThis point of view is now being advocated by various careful students\nof this problem, such as Dr. Prince Morrow and G. Stanley HaU. It puts\nupon the kindergartner and public-school teacher a grave responsibility.\nNo one can question that the parents, if properly qualified, should be the\nones to give such instruction to their children, but what shall we do when\nthey are not quaHfied ? More especiaHy, what shall the kindergartner do\nwhen such questions come up in the circle or in talk and play with individual\nchildren ? It is dangerous for us to He to children about the origin of life,\nand still more so to leave them to the knowledge gained on the street or\nfrom other children. We cannot even stop by giving them the flower\nanalogy, since on that basis they plant their pets and may think that planting themselves wiU produce a new crop of Johnnies.\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n387\n\nThis much at least kindergartens should do, should they not ? Whenever there is opportunity, they should impress upon mothers the importance\nof telling their children about this matter when the child questions, and they\nshould be themselves so informed that they can advise mothers as to what\nto tell. When individual children question the teacher, the teacher must\ndecide in each case, from her knowledge of the mother and the child, whether\nto send the child to his mother or tell him herself. But never should she\nput the question aside as of little importance.\n3. Thirdly, I have a somewhat complex point to make with regard to\nimagination on one side, and memory, perception, and toys on the other.\nI am coming to the conviction that little children are not nearly as\nimaginative as we give them credit for being. They do indeed have bizarre,\namusing, and picturesque combinations of ideas, and they believe readily\nin fairies — ^but why ? Is it not because, with their limited experience, they\nhave no standards by which to distinguish the probable from the impossible ?\nPartly, too, it is difficult for them to separate their vivid ideas from memories; and, again, their narrow experience and their predominant motor and\nvisual interests lead them to emphasize resemblances which our adult view\nof the wider relations of the object has obscured. But how difficult it is\nfor little children really to imagine vividly and with interest for even a short\ntime, the listless occupational games in many a kindergarten bear eloquent\nwitness. What we call the imaginative plays of children are largely imitative in origin, and can become imaginative only because the activities\ninvolved are very familiar. If the little child led us, we should go directly\nto his everyday life for our kindergarten material, for when he plays freely,\nhe plays what goes on about him.\nHere, then, is the point which I wish especially to make: in the occupations, the plays involving animal activities, etc., is not the kindergarten\n\nI\n\nI\n\nrelying far too much upon the children's memory and imagination, and\ngiving them far too little sense-material ? It is a truism to say that children\ncannot imitate what they do not know, and yet everywhere kindergarten\nchildren are made to play blacksmith, shoemaker, etc. Of course the\nkindergartner tries to take them to see the blacksmith, but usually she can\nonly do this once, and then everything is on so large a scale and the experience isso exciting that the children are likely only to be confused. Is there\nnot needed in the kindergarten a more complete equipment of the tools and\nimplements used in the fundamental life occupations ? Suppose that there\nwere a forge, anvil, and hammer, so that the children could play with them\nand get the really correct movements, what a different thing the blacksmith song would become! It would be comparatively easy to have the\nsimpler agricultural tools like the rake, hoe, and spade, and thus all these plays\nwould be greatly vivified and enriched. Many kindergartens already have\nthe playhouse, fitted up with furniture and dolls, but this is only the beginning. The same thing should be done in all activities imitative of real Hfe.\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThis, I am well aware, would involve new toy factories, but is it not time\nthat manufacturers took account of the educational possibilities in toys ?\nSuch toys should be large enough to be a fairly accurate reproduction of the\nreal thing, but not too large for the children to handle easily, and it is\nespecially important that the parts should be correctly proportioned. They\nshould be so made that they can be taken apart and put together without\ndamage, and strong enough so that they can be used. Such toys in the\nkindergarten would lead directly on to industrial training in the grades, and,\nvice versa, where there is industrial work in the grades much of such kindergarten equipment could be made by the grade children with the keenest\nenjoyment.\nWill such toys stifle imagination? Far from it. All adult reasoning\nand activity, the whole volitional and moral life, are based upon perceptions\nand memories of them, and early childhood is the great period of perception.\nThen the child's senses are hungrier than ever again, and the impressions\nthen received underlie and bias all the later ones. At this early age, also,\nimitation is stronger than ever again. It is therefore the golden age for\nfeeding the child's hungry mind with the sense-material which the race has\nbeen using ever since it became human, and with those common tools of the\nhand which have made the hand the tool of thought. Winteler's, Meumann's, and Ziehen's studies seem to show that the children who are most\nimitative and who have the most sense-material to play with are the ones\nmost likely to develop talent later. The reason is plain. They have\nmore memories on the basis of which to infer, imagine, and reason. The\nchild with little sense-material can at most only combine his few and povertystricken images into simple and commonplace forms. That is, imagination\nand sense, imitation and invention, far from being opposed, are interrelated\nat every point. The most imaginative and inventive man is always also\nthe one who is most docile to the leadings of sense and experience, without\nbeing servile — and that is what we mean essentially by \"free play\" and\nartistic activity, the mind working spontaneously upon rich and varied\nsense-materials. Then alone have we the conditions for making a masterworkman, a great artist, or a complete man.\n^ESTHETIC\nCAROLINE\n\nDEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN\nKINDERGARTEN PERIOD\n\nCRAWFORD,\n\nPHYSICAL CULTURE\nCOLLEGE,\nNEW YORK,\n\nDEPARTMENT,\nN.Y.\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThe change that has come about in the educational viewpoint has\naffected not only the practical and scientific aspects of education, but\npromises to modify and reconstruct the aesthetic and cultural phases as well.\nWe demand every branch of activity to prove itself with an emphasis\nnever before realized in the educational world.\n\nThe very term \"fads and\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\njESTHETIC\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n389\n\nfrills\" seen so often in the daily papers is significant in a vague way of the\nlogical process at work in the socialized consciousness. And to no other\nsubjects so much as to those which come under the general title of art do\nwe find given this particular term of derision and reproach. This usage is\nin itself proof that we are no longer satisfied with the once-accepted reasons\nfor the teaching of the arts, nor have we, on the other hand, fully arrived in\nconsciousness as to the practical everyday value of the arts in this work-aday world.\nSuch a statement as this often brings out a challenge from those who\nhave given their lives to the support of the cultural factors in education, and\nwho feel that to recognize the questioning attitude which is abroad begs the\nexistence of any acknowledged value in the aesthetic side of life. It is not\nthat the values of the arts have disappeared — values like these do not disappear— but they have changed their base; and this shifting of the ground\nis due to the forces which are pushing us to justify the arts from the evolutionary aspect of Ufe.\nFrom this standpoint two conditions are demanded in the treatment of\nany subject — first, its function must be stated in terms of the process of\ngrowth. It must be shown to be a necessary as well as a merely desirable\nfeature in the life-history of the individual. As an isolated and insulated\nactivity is a useless thing, its position and value can be determined only by\nfinding its very definite and practical relations to all the other phases of\nexperience. Second, every subject must be treated as dynamic. Somewhere, ithas a starting-point as a psychological process. That beginning\nand the consequent phases of development become increasingly important\nas the shifted base is realized.\nSocially, we have become conscious of the first condition, and while we\nhave gone far beyond Spencer's statement of the value of the aesthetic\neducation when he said that play and art were alike in that both were useless so far as the great ends of life were concerned, there remains a constant\nquestioning of the use and value of the arts. The position finally accorded\nthem will depend upon a definite study of the second condition. We are\nstill working upon the beginnings of the aesthetic instincts and their\ndevelopment in a most fragmentary way. We recognize vaguely some relation between play and art and we insist upon the child's right to play\nbecause such activity is instinctive; but we are yet attempting to define\nthe process of development of these activities in such a manner as will unify\nthe practical and aesthetic elements.\nBelieving that the further defining and clarifying of the second problem\nwill cause the first to disappear, this paper is an attempt to show the\nbeginnings of the aesthetic instincts, and the phases of their development\nduring the earliest years of life. The first period of growth represents a\ntime when the child is mastering, in the sense that he is experimenting with,\ncertain co-ordinations which give him a partial acquaintance with many\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "390\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthings. His reaction is directly to the thing presented, and is usually of\nthe duration of the presented object. When that disappears the response\nfades away, and not until the thing itself is again presented to the senses is\nthere a renewed activity. With the repetition of these experiences there\ngradually develops a control of the activity which is combined with the\nestablishing thru the continued functioning, a value, which we call an image,\nand which is due to the qualities acquired thru function. These values,\nor images, change from day to day, from year to year, according to the what\nand how of experience.\nBut gradually another manifestation appears. The response to the\nimage is not so direct, a part of an old experience will suggest all of it; then\none image will suggest an activity related to it. A stick becomes a horse to\nmount. One broken dish will furnish the imagery necessary for an elaborate\ndinner. To a little child, one swallow almost makes a summer. Such a\nprocess as this goes on until all the activities which are prominent in the\nprevious time of growth are tried in relation to each other. The images are\nplayed together in many forms. The constructive instinct is seen at work\nin this tendency to try out and find relationships and values. All of the\nchild's doings and all of the actions of the people about him are molded into\nplots. This second period of growth becomes, then, a time when images\nare known as they are measured in proportion to each other. They become\nparts in related wholes. This constructive tendency which shows itself in\nplot-making, or the building of a whole out of parts, has been misunderstood\nin the past because we were not sufficiently familiar with the earliest form\nof expression. The child's first language is the use of the action itself with\nwhich to represent his image, then the most emphatic part of the movement\nis made the symbol of the activity. And this gesture-language (if we use\nthe term in its large sense) is deserving of far greater study than has yet been\ngiven to it. The child constructs with movement language while he is\ngradually building up a translated language of sounds associated with these\nactivities. All sorts of objects are used to help out the plots, and to keep\nhis images before him. One recalls Stevenson's famous description in\nhis essay Child's Play:\nWe grown people can tell ourselves a story, give and take strokes until the bucklers\nring, ride far and fast, marry, fall, and die; all the while sitting quietly by the fire or lying\nprone in bed. This is exactly what a child cannot do, or does not do, at least, when he\ncan find anything else. He works all with lay figures and stage properties. When his\nstory comes to the fighting, he must rise, get something by way of a sword, and have a\nset-to with a piece of furniture until he is out of breath.\n\nAs he becomes more expert in his expression the child drops the objects\nand carries his related images along with movements and sounds (words\nand tones). Rhythm then begins to play an important part. And this\nplot-making, which in its first forms we call the dramatic game, is the beginning ofthe expression of relationships, or values.\nAs such an expression,\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMSTHETIC\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF CHILDREN\n\n391\n\nit is also the earliest art in the child's life. It is important to note that these\nrelated images are first chosen from the child's own experiences. It is here\nin the playtime of life that aesthetic education begins.\nThis very important dramatic game has been looked upon with a varying\ndegree of indifference by three different sets of teachers. In literature it\nwas scorned as played by children, then teachers suddenly tried to make the\njingle of Mother Goose rhymes, which represent the dregs of folk games\nand dramas, stand for the beginnings of literature. Teachers of music discounted the old melodies partly because they were considered too simple\nfor musical form, and partly because they were written in old modes and\ntherefore not understood. And teachers of physical education, looking for\nmuscular exercise in all forms of activity, have not even recognized any\ndifferent end to be attained in the dramatic game than there is in the game\nof skill.\nIt remained, therefore, for the kindergartners to preserve the older\ngames for us, but even they have been forced by the social pressure to study\nthe game, not as an art form, but as recreation and exercise. We find dramatic games classified, therefore, according to the form of playing, or the\nsubject, or even as exercises for the different parts of the body.\nWe wish to suggest the principles in the arts of representation as they\nare illustrated in the evolution of the dramatic game, and show how the\ncomposition of the plot develops in complexity of dramatic structure and\nmode of expression. When the images expressed reveal only the moods of\na plot, we find the earliest forms of the dance. This representation is thru\nwhat we often call rhythm. The child walks and runs, leaps and hops and\nwhirls. If we see these movements without relation to the mood involved,\nit seems far-fetched to speak of a plot. But watch a child and you will\nalways see cumulative effect in the repeated movement. The climax may\ncome very soon, and the movement fade away, or there may be a whirling\nclimax to the drama. The representation of joyful or sorrowful moods is\nalways found to have the same relations of beginning, middle, and end, that\nwe find in the highly evolved dramas of grown-ups.\nFroebel's Mother Play is a fascinating study of the simplest plots in\ndramatic contrasts presented thru pantomime and gesture. Think of the\nplays in which the child relates such fundamental things as up and down,\ntoward and away from, here and away, coming and going, fast and slow,\nsweet and sour, etc. Then we have representation in which the image is\nmore closely defined by contrasting different parts of the body, as hands\nand feet, hands and head, etc. Many old folk games of these forms are to\nbe found.\nThe element of surprise enters into the plot in many ways. One of the\nmost familiar is when one child suggests something to do. This is a new\ncharacter in the story that comes and goes in most unexpected ways until\nthe child's experiences are quite exhausted.\n\n\"Follow my Leader\" is a\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nstory told thru movement.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nIt begins with gusto, works up its climax, and\n\nmay have either a tragic or a comic ending according to the leader's abihty.\nAs the child's imagery develops, we find a more and more definite presentation ofideas added to the moods. Sometimes this description is in\ngesture as in the \"shoemaker's dance,\" sometimes in words as in many\ngames beginning, \"This is the way,\" etc. As the child plays on he begins\nto add words of quality as well as the descriptive terms. Types of welldeveloped plots are found in such games as \"Would you know how doth\nthe farmer?\" Here the important parts of a year's life are related in the\nstory and expressed in incremental repetition. We find, on the other hand,\nas marked illustrations of highly developed games built with contrasting\nelements. Between such complex games as these, and the folk-ballad,\nwhich was sung and danced by the group, there is no dividing line that can\nbe drawn. We have touched the accepted beginnings of both Hterature and\nmusic in the history of the race.\nAnd this embryonic art is the nucleus from which all the arts develop,\nfor the other two arts of movement — music and literature — are but\nmore highly evolved representations of complex relationship of life.\nFrom the evolutionary standpoint, this first art represents the free\nrelating of the values of experience in order to further define their value.\nAnd this greatest end of art, to represent the values of life, calls for the\nplastic manipulation of the forces of daily struggle and enjoyment. Such\nmanipulation can come about only when there is a better understanding of\nthe beginnings of the artistic impulses in the life of the little child, and when\nthere is more definite knowledge of the evolution of art-forms. The kindergarten must free itself from a few fixed types of games in order to study\nintelligently the child's normal growth in artistic representation, and the\nelementary school must begin the study of the evolution of the arts from\nthe earHest manifestations in the play period of the child's Ufe.\nArt, from this point of view, is a necessary factor for the process of\ngrowth. Such a reading of the meaning of aesthetic education would teach\nchildren how to build the daily forces of life into forms of beauty and would\nteach the values that are worth while, for the ability to choose and\npromote those activities which produce the most beautiful relationships\ncomes from much experimenting with the relating of life's values thru\nforms which are beautiful because true.\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Ruth Norton. — Miss Palmer has asked me for my conclusions as to her paper,\nand I find that many of the things which I have to say apply equally as well to the others.\nMiss Palmer's paper on \"The Principle of Development as the Basis of the Kindergarten\nMethod,\" out of her own thoughtful, loving experience with little children, is entitled to\nthe consideration of us all. I am reminded of the feeling of a certain young kindergartner\nwho was heard to remark, plaintively, that she wished she had chosen a more restful\noccupation.\nAll too often our experience has been that after we have worked over a cer-\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMSTHETIC\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF CHILDREN\n\n393\n\ntain phase, and brought to it our most careful consideration, someone comes along and\nsays \"Oh, you are all wrong; that won't do at all.\" I can sympathize with that poor girl,\nbut is it not the price we all have to pay for having taken the principle of development\nas an ideal factor in our teaching; and, after all, is it not this very circumstance that gives\nus the satisfying quahty in our chosen line of endeavor ? In the process of development\ngoing on in the kindergarten, or in any school work, there are two principal factors, each\ninfluencing the other — the teacher, with her comparatively wide outlook on life, acquired\nby education in and thru life, and the little child, with all his impulses, and instincts, and\noutreaching for knowledge; and both are being educated. I say both, for surely the\nteacher, if she be a true teacher, is constantly learning, and it is thru her experience in\nendeavoring to apply the principles that she has learned that the teacher acquires that\nwisdom which Miss Palmer so happily distinguished from knowledge. Miss Palmer's\npaper, and all the papers, it seemed to me, contained many references to the qualifications\nessential to the teacher, and it has been this aspect, the responsibility of the teacher in the\nprocess of development, that has had an especial interest for me.\nTime was when there was a feeling that we teachers should not attempt to interfere\nwith the natural development of the child — a sort of \"hands-oflF,\" \"stand aside\" attitude —\nbut now the teacher is being again restored to her rightful place, as the loving, sympathetic guide of the children, to which she is entitled thru her knowledge of all the child's\nimpulses, interests, and possibilities. This implies that the teacher should be wise in two\ndifferent directions: First, that she shall know the child's nature, his tendencies and\npossibilities; second, that she shall have a good, broad, general education along the line of\nart, the sciences, literature, and sociology. One great essential in kindergartners is that\nthey should have this background of knowledge which is so necessary to keep the teacher\nfrom being one-sided.\nNow, in the earlier days of kindergartening, the teacher worked as best she could,\nwholly ignored by the art specialists, the scientists — the very people who could have helped\nher most. But at last these friends, these specialists, are giving us the result of their experience and \"advice, with the result that we are transforming many things in the kindergarten, and with the efifect, also,. of leading to the enriching of the training school for the\npurpose of giving broader educations. I cannot help wishing that we might have had the\nbenefit of their guidance from the very beginning. And this lack of real knowledge along\nthese lines has allowed us to make some of the mistakes that have been pointed out to us\nthis morning. We have used the squares, the triangles, and like shapes for the making of\nbeauty forms, and I grant that many of them are very poor, and that very few of the forms\nwhich can be made from a combination of these figures would pass muster among our\nteachers of art. We have gone astray, also, in our forms of literature, in our scientific\nfacts, and in many other lines; but the beautiful and helpful thing about it all is that we\nare waking up to our mistakes and doing our best to rectify them, and thus making ourselves more worth guiding by informing ourselves; and this we must do if we are to have\nthe responsibility of guiding others.\nMiss Palmer speaks about striving toward a goal. Possibly I don't understand what\nshe means by \"a step toward something higher and better.\" A child at the kindergarten\nage, I believe, lives, as a rule, very much in the present. He is too busy absorbing all the\nnew experiences he is passing thru to look ahead very much to a goal not already attained.\nThat would be more, I think, among the children who are just ready to go into the primary school. As the child grows in wisdom each day, and is more and more patient, and\nbegins to plan and watch for results, then I think he may see each victory over selfishness,\neach acquisition of knowledge, each mastery of technique, as a step toward something higher\nand better. To a certain extent, we may keep his curiosity as to what lies before, and\nalways we should help him to realize how he has progressed from the lower level. Then\nI think we should wait until he is older to plan for things not immediately attained. This\nparticular phase of development I, for one, should expect to belong to the elementary\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nstate of education. To quote from Dr. Dewey, \"She shall see what step the child needs\nto take just here and now, to what use she needs to put his blind impulses, in order that\nthey may gain force.\" If a teacher works with that end in view, the children under her\ncare will eventually awaken to a realization of higher and better attainments.\nMiss Ruth Tappan, Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn, N.Y. —\nWhen Miss Crawford says that the world has come to some realization of the serious\nimportance of the play of children, we must all heartily agree, but when we approach the\nmanner in which the play of children is connected with the real things of life, there is\nmuch room for discussion.\nNo definition of life is complete which does not include the highest activities of the\nsoul. These activities have been stated to be, the aesthetic, the religious, and the philosophic. In aesthetics two factors are involved — a material factor and a spiritual factor.\nOf course the material factor varies with each art, but let his medium be marble and clay,\npigment and canvas, or wood and metal for instruments, it is important to remember that\nin each case the spiritual factor which has power to transform these things into art is the\nhimian spirit, and that alone.\nExperiment enters largely into the creation of the beautiful. Certain definite facts\nare revealed by a study of early attempts at art. Ancient peoples liked borders on robes,\non jars, on buildings. They liked a crude repetition of simple sound. In their borders\nrepetition of line or leaf or figure is found earlier, in point of time, than symmetrical or\nharmonious designs. It is felt that exercises in arrangement, giving time for experiment\nin repeated and symmetrical designs, are suitable in laying the foundation of aesthetic\ndevelopment.\nSet the child to work with materials, what happens ? Either, left to his own crude\nexperimenting, he mars and destroys the paper or other material we give him, or we show\nhim how to use it. According to the way in which we guide him we place emphasis on\neither one of two things — constructive utilities or aesthetics.\nNo games, however charming their form or however pleasing their content, are\nsuitable for little children unless they strengthen the tie between the child and the highest\nactivities of life. Music may add to their charm, but the philosophy behind them, determining their selection, must be sound, and the feeling they arouse must be wholesome.\nMrs. J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala. — I have but a brief word to say, on accoimt\nof the limitation of time, and perhaps of material, because we all want to get to the other\nmeeting. It would be unmoral, if not immoral, when there was a duty ahead of us to go to\nanother meeting on time.\nMiss Palmer has asked me to speak of the attitude of the South toward kindergartens\nboth among the educators and the public at large, and I have about concluded that their\nattitude has taken the form of what Poe said about man's relation to crime — \"first\npity, then endure\" — and that it is now about to \"embrace\" it. I am very happy to tell\nyou that the sentiment for the work is going on almost by strides, and yet all the time we\nhave tried to grow very slowly — in fact, we have tried to grow as the grass grows, and not\nto make any noise for fear we should be interrupted in our growing. And I think that our\npolicy has been a good one.\nJust a little illustration as to our development. In 1898 the Bureau of Education\nwas sending out, as it does annually, its blanks for statistics in regard to kindergarten\nwork — by the way, perhaps many of us lay them aside unfilled, and I want to speak right\nhere of the good work done by the Bureau and to suggest that the blanks be filled out and\nreturned. Well, when these letters from the Bureau were sent out, not having in many cases\nthe names of the individuals conducting schools, they were simply addressed \"Free Kindergarten\" or\"Private Kindergarten,\" as the case might be. And this one that I speak\nof was returned to the Bureau marked \"Give company and regiment.\" \"Private Kindergarten\" was unknown.\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n^ESTHETIC\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF CHILDREN\n\n395\n\nAbout four years ago, a letter was sent to the Superintendent of Free Kindergartens\nwithout any street, and went to that very important department of those who put the\nproper address on letters that do not contain the necessary information. In that department, Ihad a friend, and to this friend I am indebted for the following story: There was\na man working opposite to her, addicted to what is considered to be a habit common to the\nSouth, chewing tobacco, but this man happened to do it in a way not common to the\nSouth, chewing with his two front teeth, and he looked at the letter in question, and mumbled out, between chews, \"Wall, send it to Mrs. Phillips, I hear she is a crank on such\nsubjects,\"\nI am glad to tell you that, altho our state law does not provide for the kindergarten\nwork yet, our women's clubs, in the interests of education, have so popularized the idea\nthat we are quietly working in some of our cities thru the co-operation of the school boards.\nWho was it that said of schools where there were no school grounds for the children —\nMark Twain, I think it was — \"God tried his hand on idiots, and then He made school\nboards?\" But our school boards have somehow come to believe that we have always\nhad kindergartens, and are constantly asking why we have no kindergarten in that school,\nand remarking that \"We must have one there right away.\"\nI disagree with the speaker who spoke as to the instruction to the individual child.\nWe have got into the lock step, which is a dangerous thing, and now we are trying to get\nout of it. i think the child who asks is the child to whom the answer should be given,\nand at the time he asks it. And in this way I feel that we sometimes have the unfortunate\neffect of checking his development, which is unmoral, if not immoral. It would be just\nas wrong there, it seems to me, as it would have been on an occasion when I was teaching\na class in the primary school that five and five made ten. In that class there was a child\njust full of a burning desire to know — we did deal with figures then, now we don't — and he\nsaid to me, \" I's done made five and five is ten, and I know that fifty and fifty is one hundred,\nand won't you show me how tT) write it ?\" And now I will tell you what I did. I said,\n\"Yes, honey,'' and I wrote it for him, and I didn't stop to develop that ninety-nine plus\none made one hundred, and I have never had any qualms of conscience on that score; but\nI did have when I have limited a child in his desire to have just a little more.\nBut I do find an unmoral tendency in the turning-out of beautiful, clean, lovely,\nfaultless work from the little child. They don't when they go into the higher work — they\ncan't do the same kind of work to save their lives, and it looks as if they were coming from\na high standard of perfection, and falling flat to imperfection. I am not speaking of\ntheory in this regard. I am speaking of what I have seen. My plea is to leave the\nchild more to himself. To be a good leader is all right, but the good doer of the thing\nthe child ought to be. And I think we ought to cultivate, with all the capacity and\neffort we are capable of, without any nervous strain at all, to make ourselves just as\nclean doers of good things as is possible, and I have had no greater example given me\nin my life than that which I received from a nature-study lecturer. He was speaking\nwith great earnestness of a certain bird, and of his notes, and he said, \" I think, indee\nI am pretty sure, from the position of the bird and his throat, that he made a still\nhigher note which we did not hear.\" You see that there is a limit to the vibrations\nthat conduct sounds within the physical ear, but, O teachers! there is no limit to the\nvibrations of the spiritual ear, and if we keep always listening we can hear higher and\nhigher; and I think often as the little child stands he makes a note that we cannot hear\nand we must strive more and more to attune our spiritual ear to hear the highest note\nthat comes from the warmth within of the little soul that, study as we will, we will\nnever be able fully to understand.\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nTHE\n\nTEST\n\nNATIONAL\n\nOF THE\n\nADA VAN STONE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCHILD'S\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nHARRIS, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT,\nAND PRIMARY,\nROCHESTER,\nN.Y.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nTRAINING\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nThat the kindergarten has been a powerful influence in the educational\nworld by forcing new life into our schools there is no doubt. The happy\nresults which have followed its introduction into the public-school system\nhave induced many in control of school affairs to aim to extend its influence\ninto the grades beyond the kindergarten, or sub-primary stage of education.\nWhile, in some instances, results have been charged with contumely and\nfutility because materials were expected to bring results by mere placing\nwithout appreciation of their spirit or use, still the kindergarten ideal as\nembodied in the philosophy of Froebel has helped American education to\nevolve from the darkness of struggle to the light of triumph.\nIt has helped many communities and individuals, parents and teachers\n*'to shed the chrysalis of the Dark Ages.\" Schools that have been little\nmore than cramming factories where children underwent a sort of uniform\nstuffing process, have been quickened to a new life thru the kindergarten\nspirit and philosophy.\nMiss Vanderwalker, in her book The Kindergarten in American Education, has shown us in a masterly way to what, extent the kindergarten\nhas served to modify and recast educational thought and procedure by\nopening up an avenue to progress as yet but Uttle developed. It is safe to\nsay that in no other country of the world has the kindergarten taken so\nstrong a hold and made so great progress as in America.\nThat great reforms move slowly, and the inertia of the masses of the\npeople cannot be overcome except by the accumulation of force, even in so\nnoble a cause as the kindergarten, many of us who are in the active field\ntoo well know.\nWhen the president of this section invited me to appear before this body,\nI consented from my desire to co-operate, without fully realizing there was\nnot sufficient time before the meeting adequately to gather scientific or\naccurate data regarding the real test of the child's kindergarten training.\nDefinite data regarding the really tangible results which come from this\ntraining can only be given after the most careful research and study of many\nthousands of children, in different localities and under varying conditions.\nIt is necessary to follow the development of these thru the elementaryschool course, and it is a needed study which some society of scientific research might well attack in the near future.\nThose of us who have a working knowledge of the kindergarten philosophy and methods and who have watched the progress of kindergarten\ngroups of children thru the elementary school, would be inclined to answer\nimmediately in the affirmative if confronted with the question, \"Does the\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEST\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nTRAINING\n\n397\n\nchild who has had kindergarten training pass thru the grades more rapidly\nthan one who has not ?\"\nOf one thing we are confident — ^if the child does not pass more rapidly,\nexperience and observation lead us to believe he progresses more freely and\nintelligently. He demonstrates at every turn that he is a possessor of\nself — sees more, gets more, gives more, is more. He compasses a wider\nrange because of his experience.\nFroebel's central idea of education being the cultivation of the child\nas a Hying, growing organism, and the purpose of Hfe being to unfold all\nthe latent powers and possibilities of the individual, the need of the school,\nthen, is to bring about such physical, social, and spiritual adjustment as\nthe child's unfolding powers require.\nHence the great purpose of education should be to provide such an environment as will best help that Ufe to express itself most perfectly — be the\nbest revelation of the Christ, reflected thru his humanity.\nChildhood is the same the world over. It, with the laws of development,\nremains the same. It is, however, greatly modified by variable factors,\nthe many conditions of family and social life, climatic environment, and influences. While the reaction of these influences differs with individuals,\ntwo elements — \"the child,\" and \"the laws of development\" — remain the\nsame. These factors, variable and constant, the true kindergartner keeps\never in view;\nIn the kindergarten the aim is not to give definite knowledge but to\ngive freedom to child nature, to stimulate and fix wholesome interest, to\narouse and quicken the senses, to direct his development in channels which,\nif followed, will lead him to well-balanced, law-abiding citizenship, and\nmake of him a good neighbor and a helpful member of a household.\nFor good citizenship, either in the kindergarten or the larger adult civic\ncommunity, certain essentials are recognized. There must be civic pride,\nrefinement of tastes, regard for law and order, respect for the rights and\nprivileges of others, love of family, simple virtues necessary in an equipment for the better things of life.\nIf an education embodied in the public school is to perform its highest\nmission, it must do more than teach children the rudiments of know^ledge,\ngive them skill in handcraft, instil patriotism and love of home, tho all these\nare essential and necessary. There must be an inspiration to higher ideals,\nthere must be created a holy ambition to make the most and best of life\nand of every opportunity which comes. This the kindergarten holds as its\nideal and best motive, and this the kindergarten takes the first step of a\nschool system toward accomplishing.\nThe underlying principles of its scheme of work are the cifltivation of a\nrecognition 'of our dependence and interdependence in life-relationships,\nin family and society. It seeks to bring about co-operation, that medium\nof the best results in all human endeavor.\nIt seeks to cultivate the spirit\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nof loving service; to train in ability to express in simple, clear language the\nchild's observation and experiences; to quicken the intellect, develop observation and attention; to invigorate the body; to give the trained hand and\nthe watchful eye; thru \"doing\" and \"being\" to train in right habits of\nobedience, punctuality, order, industry, self-control, courtesy, reverence.\nHow does it attempt to fulfill this mission ?\nThru the repetition of nursery rhymes, stories, finger plays, interchange\nof home, school, and playground experiences, and thru the memorizing of\nsimple songs and verses comes the gain in language power and a constantly\nincreasing vocabulary as the result of larger associations and experiences.\nThru the stories told and retold the child's literary taste is cultivated and\nhe is lifted out of his personal experience into a larger world. His imagination isdirected into worthy channels, peopled with high ideals. Thru\nthe care of animal and plant Hfe, the making of gardens, the collecting of\nleaves, seeds, cocoons, shells, etc., thru walks and excursions, his powers\nof observation are directed and nurtured.\nThru varied activities furnished by rhythmic movements, by games and\nplays, he gains strength and control in physical development. Thru music\nhe gains an idea of tone, and an appreciation of rhythm. Thru handwork,\nbuilding with blocks, outlining and designing with tablets, sticks, and seeds,\nmodeling in sand and clay, drawing, cutting, folding, painting, weaving, and\nsewing, his powers of attention, discrimination, and association are trained.\nThru the constant contact with objects he gains a stock of mental images\nhelpful in grade work.\nDoes the kindergarten really accomplish what it claims ?\nThe following questionnaire was sent to school principals in a limited\nnumber of localities: \"What proof have we, in your judgment, of 'the\nTest of the Child's Kindergarten Training' as shown in his work in the\nelementary grades, under the following heads?\"\n1. Does he progress thru the grades more rapidly, and if so, by what means is it\napparent ?\n2. Does the child show any marked abihty in (a) keener observational powers ? (&)\nlanguage development ? (c) ability to work with his hands ? (d) abihty to adapt himself to the community ?\n3. Is he a better citizen?\n\nThe replies were most varied in character, and both favorable and unfavorable tokindergarten work.\nFollowing are a few of them :\n1. They are inaccurate and weak thruout on facts and details which are hard to\nmaster, due to lack of application and persistence.\n2. Of sixty-eight children who have attended kindergarten in grades three to nine\ninclusive I find forty-two have had to repeat one or more grades.\n3. Children are easily interested so long as teachers can work with them.\n4. Their interest soon flags and comparatively little is accomplished if required to\nstudy by themselves.\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEST\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nTRAINING\n\n399\n\n5. They have a scattering versatility, a wide but too superficial interest.\n6. The kindergarten children are the leaders in the school athletics and games,\ndoing errands, etc.\n7. The general testimony is that the language work is superior.\nIf this is so, it\nmust raise the standard of all subjects to some extent,\n8. They revolt against hard work.\n9. They have too little ability to work by themselves.\n10. They have no interest in the successful accomplishment of a given task.\n11. When the child enters the first grade we find that the kindergarten child has\na decided advantage over the child who has not attended the kindergarten — in keener\nobservational powers, in language development, and in ability to work with his hands;\nbut by the time he reaches grade two, there seems to be little to distinguish the two\nclasses of children.\nIn other words, the influence is not far-reaching.\n\nThese replies evidence the lack of any standard of judgment, since there\nis no definite means of following kindergarten children thruout the grades.\nFurthermore, in any test of children it is difiicult to ascertain how much is\ndue to specific training, how much is due to general development, and how\nmuch is due to contact with outside.\nThose showing satisfactory results from kindergarten training were from\nplaces where a close unity existed between the kindergarten and the rest of\nthe system, a sympathetic appreciation and cordial relationship dominating\nkindergartners and grade teachers, together with a realization that all are\nengaged in the same great work and that to work to the best advantage all\nmust work together.\nToo often the kindergarten is looked upon as a needless appendix to\nthe rest of the system, receiving Httle sympathy and much criticism growing\nfrom lack of knowledge.\nIn a certain school system when the question was recently raised regarding the promotion to first grade of a group of immature children the\nprincipal of the school said, \"The kindergarten is all right for poor children,\nchildren of the slums; but those who have comfortable homes and thoughtful parents do not need it. Children •are better off in first grade. The\nkindergarten is only a play school.\"\nGrant the kindergarten is a play school, at the same time it is a means of\ntransition from the home and free play to the school and its requirements.\nMadame Kraus-Boelte says:\nPlay rightly understood proves itself a means of assisting the inner growth of the\nchild, independent of formal instruction. No better discipline for the world's work can\nbe found than in the obedience to the laws of a game, the sinking of self or personality,\nso that the many may participate equally. Play is the natural expression of child life.\nPlato says, 'Man is only man when he plays'.\n\nThe philosophy of the kindergarten explains how it is possible to carry the\njoy of play into a form of constructive effort that moves in the direction\nof work. All children whether of the roadside or the hilltops • must be\ntrained to be persistent, self-dependent, unselfish, able and ready to over-\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nKindergarten\n\ncome obstacles, and we should study to avoid making too smooth the\nchild's road lest he become desultory and dependent, with an indulged\ninclination to go around rather than to surmount obstacles. This the best\nkindergartens keep ever in mind.\nThe lack of opportunities for really authoritative data on a measurable\nvalue of the kindergarten makes an absolutely provable conclusion impossible\nIt makes the question a debatable one — at least by those weak in sympathetic endorsement of kindergarten work and results.\nBut the results of the kindergarten are qualitative anyway, not quantitative, and that many kindergartens fail both in spirit and in accomplishment\nis undeniable.\nAs each grade is a preparation for the succeeding one it devolves upon\nthe kindergarten as the foundation of the higher school life so, to equip the\nchild that he may enter the primary school armed for its requirements and\nconditions. These conditions the kindergartner should studiously endeavor\nto comprehend, not simply theoretically but practically. Inexperience,\nlack of clear and appreciative understanding, sentimentality, constant\nsupervision by a teacher, keeping the child on diluted infant's food when he\nis old enough for substantial mental pabulum, were never contemplated by\nFroebel and are directly contrary to his ideas.\nOn the other hand, there is oftentimes even greater need that the primary teacher should understand the spirit and workings of the kindergarten,\nthe demands on the conscientious kindergarten teacher, and the undoubted\nneed of just the instruction and opportunities which the kindergarten affords\nthe child under school age.\nWhile the grades succeeding the kindergarten have undoubtedly been\ntempered by FroebeUan influence, there is still much to be accomplished to\nbring about a perfect blend. The elements entering into the composition\nof the two are so nearly allied that the atmosphere and environment should\nhave much in common. This I know can be realized, for I have seen looks\naskance changed into a bee-hive of sociability, actuated by a common\ncause. I have seen inflexible first-grade teachers become joyous, song-loving, game-playing beings, in an unbroken and harmonious connection with\nthe kindergarten.\nThere should be a more careful grouping of children in the kindergarten\naccording to age and ability, and a more careful grading and adaptation of\nprograms and materials to these varying groups.\nWhile the kindergarten is not the place for dry facts, set formulas, or\nformulism, neither is the presence of Froebel's gifts and occupations an\nabsolute necessity for the full rendering of his spirit and principles. Some\nof the most valuable work accomplished under my observation has been\nthru the utilization of material immediately connected with and from the\nchild's home life, or the child life. This one feature, that of recognizing\nthat virtue of itself does not exist in the materials of Froebel, will do much\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTEST\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nTRAINING\n\n401\n\nto constitute a closer unity and sympathy between the kindergarten and\nsucceeding grades.\nThere should be something more than the too common age qualification as a basis for promotion from kindergarten to first grade. Failure to\nrealize the real benefits of this training for children, and placing them in\nan environment for which they are not ready, either physically or mentally,\nis undoubtedly the cause of most of the retardation.\nIn order to understand and appreciate what the kindergarten accomplishes as a preparation for the larger school life, there should be some\nstandard by which an estimate may be placed upon the development of\neach individual as he is promoted. Such a standard may be formed thru\nthe co-operation of supervisor and kindergartens.\nThe following may be suggestive:\n1. Observation; as shown in development in ability to see and discriminate quickly.\n2. Attention; as shown in building, dictation exercises, and in ability to tell stories.\n3. Accuracy; as shown thru manual work, drawing, pasting parquetry or pictures,\nfolding.\n4. Memory; as shown in the reproduction of games, songs, and stories.\n5. Imagination; as shown in originality or inventiveness. Power in the interpretation of thought thru the various gift and occupation mediums, also in plays and games.\n6. Discrimination; thru the handling of papers, sticks, and tablets of different form,\ncolor, and size.\n7. Language.\n8. Motor control.\n9. Power of self-control.\n10. Ability to co-operate.\n\nWhere kindergartners thus diagnose individual conditions, causes, and\neffects there will be a perspective of kindergarten work as a whole, its influence, and its adaption to succeeding years.\nAny first-grade teacher has a right to expect the child entering from the\nkindergarten to see correctly, to listen intelligently, to have motor control,\nthe right notion of his relations to the group, the ability to respond to directions, to be self -helpful, orderly, able to express himself, to have had the\ninventive and constructive faculties awakened.\nAgain, it should be the duty and pleasure of every first-grade teacher to\nmake clear and definite all previous sense-impressions, by giving all possible opportunities for continued response thru motor activities.\nAn impression which simply flows in at the pupils' eyes or ears, and in no way modifies\nhis active life, is an impression gone to waste. It is physically incomplete. It's motor\nconsequences are what clinch it (James).\n\nIt is the responsibility of the teacher in the lower grades to give most\ncareful attention and preparation to that part of the child's life in school\nwhich is not actively engaged with the teacher; to keep alive and to direct\nrather than to suppress and nullify the powers aroused in the kindergarten.\nThis cannot be effected by placing the kindergarten materials in the\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nprimary grades. While they furnish a medium for the development of\nchildren in the kindergarten stage, the same apparatus should not be used\nas an expression of this philosophy at another stage. Other means must be\nsought for children in each succeeding stage of development.\nNeither can this same development be carried on thru mass teaching.\nThe large number of children assigned to a single teacher in the primary\nschool makes it practically impossible for her to give each child the individual attention that his age demands. The child's energy can be directed\nonly by careful classification and grouping. The primary-school ideal then,\nis to recognize at the beginning of the year the differing powers and capacities of the individuals and to carry these individuals forward thruout\neach month each at his own gait, so that the end may find even more unlikeness than at the beginning.\nThe kindergarten aim must be distinguished between entertaining a\nchild and sharing in his education. Unfortunately, the kindergarten cause\nis wrongly conceived by a large public and an equally large body of teachers\nbecause of this failure to discriminate.\nThis work requires highest culture and intelligence, \"A thoro knowledge\nof the universal or typical child, and a constant psychological study of each\nindividual child.\"\nMay all teachers be led to see,\nHow baser metals in their store\nMay be transformed to precious ore\nBy love's strange alchemy;\nAnd let them daily seek to find\nThe childish heart beneath the mind.\n\nI.\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN\n\nOUT OF DOORS: GARDENS\n\nANNA E. HARVEY, ADELPHI COLLEGE, BROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nLord Bacon says:\nGod Almighty first planted a garden, and, indeed, it is the purest of human pleasures.\nIt is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man, without which buildings and palaces\nare but gross handiworks. And a man shall ever see that when ages grow to civility and\nelegance, men come to build stately, sooner than to garden finely. As if gardening were\nthe greater perfection. I do hold it in the royal ordering of gardens there ought to be\ngardens for all the months in the year, in which severally things of beauty may be there in\nseason.\n\n\"God Almighty first planted a garden\"; and it was in the garden that\nman first began. Yet tho man was obliged to leave this garden, the garden\ninstinct did not leave man; and, as our first parents turned with longing eyes\nand looked back, so, thruout the ages, that longing is ever present. It is\ndoubtless true that conditions and experiences may dim the longing in the\nadult; but the little child, or growing boy or girl, has this undeveloped instinct to get nearer to the heart of nature.\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nGARDENS\n\n403\n\nIt was an appreciation of the prime importance of this instinct that led\nFroebel to plan a garden, where each child should have his own plot of\nground, and a share in another reserved for united work by all, as a part of\nhis wonderful system of education; and happily and significantly he called\nit his \"kindergarten\"; thus doing, he made the garden one of the essential\nparts of his great system.\nIt is surprising that educators thruout our country have been so slow to\nrecognize this valuable adjunct to-the regular curriculum. We read that the\npioneer work in this movement was started by the German States as early\nas 1 8 14. Yet only since 1895 has England included \"cottage gardening\"\nas an optional study for boys; and the United States has been equally\ntardy. I believe Massachusetts, the state of good schools and good roads,\nhad the first school garden, in Roxbury, in 1891. New York did not become vitally interested until 1902, when Mrs. Henry Parsons converted an\nempty lot, which had been used as a tenement dumping-ground, into \"The\nChildren's School Farm.\"\nBut the work has prospered. We may rejoice that in eight years interest init has grown so that, at present, school gardens brighten the lives\nof hundreds of our children in the public and vacation schools, and in the\nsettlements. So popular is the work that Mrs. Parsons' son, Henry Griscom Parsons, has a class at the New York University for training teachers\nin the \"art of gardening.\" We read of the work in Chicago, Cleveland,\nPhiladelphia, in many of the western states, and in New England, where\nschool gardens have not only attained a high degree of excellence, but are\nrecognized as a most important part of the educational system. The seed\nis sown and the garden is growing. When the little children of today are\nthe men and women of tomorrow we shall see the fruit.\nWhat the fruit will be, we may easily surmise. The longer we keep the\nchild in the garden, and the stronger we make him, the longer we can keep\nhim from the cramping influences of the worldly pursuits of his later Ufe.\nHappy are the little men and women of the tenements, who may be brought\ninto this little Eden and smell the flowers of Paradise. And happy too the\nchildren of the country, who have eyes but see not, to whom familiarity\nhas made nature stale — happy will they be when their eyes are opened to\nsee, and their minds stimulated to appreciate, not only what is in the garden, but what is in our beautiful world.\nSo there is work to do.\nIt should not be by the hand of man that the gates should be closed to\nthese little ones who have not tasted of the tree of knowledge. On the contrary, itis the duty of all to whom little ones are given, to see that ignorance,\nprejudice, and indifference are thrust aside, and that the little child is given\nthe opportunity to get close to the mother of us all. And why ? Let me tell\nyou one of many significant stories.\nIn the city of Brooklyn a few years ago, a young woman was assigned to\na kindergarten in one of the most depraved parts of the city, crowded with\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ndirty tenements, built of wood, filled with numberless families. The outlook from the kindergarten rooms was over back yards where ashes, tin cans,\nbottles, filth, and rubbish of every kind were lodged. The young kindergartner began with a window box; then she interested the janitor and then\na few parents; and at length she had a tiny garden in the back yard of the\nschool. And that is not all. By patient, painstaking work, visiting in the\nhomes and doing a little at a time, this young woman has been able not only\nto have a beautiful garden connected with her kindergarten, but she has\nmanaged to convert those filthy back yards into gardens that delight the\neye and uplift the soul. She tells me that, tho the people of the neighborhood are exceedingly poor, their interest in the school garden and in their\nown is so great that she scarcely expresses a wish for some necessity or even\nwhat might be termed a luxury for the garden, but the parents, with combined effort, see that she gets it.\nNow this is more than the story of the planting of a garden. It is a\nstory of Froebel's kindergarten for grown children. It is the story of the\nsweeping-away of the ashes, the rubbish, the filth of the entire community,\nthe tearing-down of the veil of conditions and circumstances, and the bringing into light of that old garden spirit that our first ancestors knew when\nthey loved the simple and the good. It is this love of the simple and the\ngood that the garden develops in the child. He tills the ground. He\nplants the seed. He fosters it with loving care. He watches it spring into\nlife and come into sturdy growth. And for his reward he sees it bear fruit\nand flower. No child can do this thing without knowing full well what he\nmeans when he sings, \"My heart is God's little garden.\"\nAnd furthermore, no child can do this thing without realizing that his\ngarden is not only for himself, but that there are other gardens besides his\nown, and that in the places where there are no gardens it is for him to plant\nthem.\nFor\nIt is everybody's business\nIn this great world of ours\nTo pull out all the weeds they find,\nAnd make room for the flowers;\nSo that every little garden\nNo matter where it lies,\nShall be like one that God made,\nAnd called it Paradise.\n\n//.\nMRS.\n\nTHE\nALMA\n\nKINDERGARTEN OUT OF DOORS:\nEXCURSIONS\nOLIVER\n\nWARE,\n\nPRINCIPAL, KINDERGARTEN\nSOUTH\nBEND, IND.\n\nWALKS\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWe kindergartners have learned that in the big circle of life every segment has its value, and who can say but what that of early childhood is\nthe rainbow of prophecy as to what all the future life may be ? In fact, all\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWALKS\n\nAND\n\nEXCURSIONS\n\n405\n\nfuture educational life is but the unfolding or rounding out from the fundamental notions and experiences received in some germinal form at this\nperiod.\nThe most impressionable time in the child's whole existence is when he\nis from four to six years of age, just the period when the kindergarten\nclaims him. These early impressions are the germs from which spring all\nlater thought-activities, and however much they may be modified by\nfuture experience, they ever remain \"the fountain light of all his day.\"\nThe observations in early life, particular kinds of observations and many of\nthem, will largely determine the quality and strength of the child's mental\ncapacity later on. The quality of thought is influenced by that which remains in the mind; and strength by the vividness of that which has been\nobserved or its direct appeal to his interest.\nThere are double doors to the child's consciousness. While impressions\nare surging in, if that were all, our task would seem an easy one indeed; but\nin the wonderful working of that much-discussed self-activity, outward\nswings the door and forth springs an impulse propelled by an instinct which\nhas gained the accumulated strength of many successive generations. On\nthe threshold impulse meets impression and ever they work hand in hand:\nheredity and environment. These are the two great forces that make or\nmar the young life. It is our task, O kindergartner, so to adjust the weight\nof each as to secure the happy equilibrium. We attempt it by giving such\nenvironment as will stimulate the best reaction to the impulse, knowing for\nthe unfolding life that each time we do this we increase the possibility of its\nbecoming habitual.\nWhat are some of the strong old instincts which ripen at this kindergarten age ? Ever since the early birth of a self, when our ancestors in an\nunconscious effort to express individuality reached out to grasp for themselves the apple of knowledge, has each succeeding generation exhibited a\nsimilar investigative tendency.\nThru the inherited knowledge which has come to us as the result of successive stages of experience, we begin to see that the instinct of investigation\nis legitimate and wholesome if guided in the right direction. In the kindergarten the consideration of investigation must be a preponderance on the\nside of environment or the value of \"sense-perception.\" This seems carrying coals to Newcastle, as we have carefully studied that dominant word\nwhich stands as the keynote to Pestalozzi's method of instruction, but if\nwe hold to this fundamental and add to it the leaven of Froebel's \"selfactivity,\" we will have the full loaf of \"apperceptive mass\" which is the\nchild's most valuable asset when he enters the grade work, and the teacher\nin the grades finds it uphill work without it. This, I believe, is our contribution to the educational life of the child: not what we teach him, but what\nwe help him to find and store away as a basis for future thought. His own\nself-activity makes him an explorer, but we influence its direction and at\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "406\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Kindergarten\n\nthis stage the wisest teaching that we can do is that of opening the right gate\njust at the auspicious moment. Last summer after our Denver meeting I\njourneyed over the great Rocky Mountain Ridge and rested on the other\nside at a beautiful ranch in a valley near Glenwood Springs. Here I saw a\nstrong illustration of this idea in the method of irrigating the cherry\norchards and alfalfa fields. A bold natural stream came dashing down the\nwell-worn hollow in the mountain-side, making its rapid way to Grand\nRiver, but gates were closed or opened which turned that mountain stream\ninto such directions as would gain the most desirable results for the future\nproductivity of the mother earth of which it was a part. That mountain\nstream symbolized the instinct of the child and its eager, onward rushing,\nthe child's impulsive acts — shall we allow the bold stream of investigation\nto rush unguided on its way or direct its course to where the result will be a\nrich harvest of food for future thoughts ?\nThis I take to be the educational value of the walks and excursions of\nthe kindergarten. Do not for one moment think that I am overlooking the\npurely physical benefits accruing from the exercise in the open air, but that\nis a foregone conclusion and must be so accepted at every step in this discussion.\nWe must help the young explorer to go in the right direction. Every\nmother and teacher knows what I mean and could give us many examples\nof a wrong expression of this instinct because at the critical period of its\nmaturity there was lacking the wholesome stimuli.\nWhat does the grade teacher wish as mental content when she substitutes textbooks for things ? She immediately begins to find what sorts of\nimages the child has already formed — for abstract thinking is the work of\nthe imagination, and tho the imagination is a wonderful magician, it works\nin a perfectly scientific way and can no more build up finished conclusions\nout of nothing, than dreaming of millions could give you your daily bread.\nNo one can fully estimate the working value in education of good, clear\nimages. And this again is our opportunity: to go with the child to where\nhis investigative instinct can gain such images as will be clear and strong\nand of the right sort, thus forming a storehouse from which the succeeding\nyears may draw and upon which the whole structure of education may be\nstarted and evolved from gaining in clarity of concept with each succeeding\nstage, for images change in quahty. We walk to the park or to the open\nsquare, perhaps to the lake-front or to the seashore; it may be there's a\nhay-ride to some distant country house, some day a street-car ride with a\npicnic at the end. If you had asked me fifteen years ago what was the purpose of all this, I should no doubt have answered promptly that the outing\nbrought relief from the tedium of the schoolroom and helped us in our work\nof illustration next day.\nThis is still true, but there is more.\nThe kindergarten works no more in an isolated way, but while seeking to\ndo its part as seems best for the immediate stage of the child, yet works with\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWALKS\n\nAND\n\nEXCURSIONS\n\n407\n\na knowledge of what is its obligation to the stage that is to follow. \"The\nintelligent, co-operative kindergartner,\" says Dr. Dewey, \"works not in the\ngrades hnt for the grades.\" And yet we sometimes find the kindergartner\nfloundering in her unintelligent effort to put the cart before the horse.\nThe child sees that which touches his own personal experience, or which\nmay be intei*preted thru the light of his own experimental life. It is very\ndifferent when he has an image and we attempt to clarify the concept about\nit. We had better be careful lest our own be a little hazy or vague, like\nthat of the young lady who was endeavoring to have her group of children\nunderstand the colors of the rainbow. She had learned them very correctly\nin textbook order and stepping to the blackboard drew a small downswinging crescent. An assistant gasped, which so strongly suggested alarm\nthat the question was asked, \" What is wrong ?\" The arch was then drawn\nwith the white chalk and then the colored crayon applied in short sections\ntransversely, first red, working to two or three inches, then orange and soon.\nShe had not walked with open eyes but was teaching altogether from textbooks, when one good, clear image may be the basis for many textbooks.\nShe, like Mr. Bradley Headstone in Dickens' Mutual Friend, \"had acquired\nmechanically a great deal of teacher's knowledge.\"\nDon't you think that we oftentimes forget the stage of the child and\nexpect him to see as we see ? In a kindergarten which I knew, the kindergartner and children went out for a walk to the lake-front, and much care\nwas taken to help the children to see \"far away on the water to where the\nsky seemed to meet the lake,\" hoping that they would be able next day to\npaint sky and water showing horizon-line. Next day when the time came\nfor the representation of the scene one little lisping fellow of less than five\nyears stolidly refused to take the brush and \"paint from left to right above\nand below the pencil line\" placed there by the kindergartner. The young\nlady asked him if he remembered the walk to the lake. \" Yeth,\" he answered.\n\"Then didn't you stand with us and look out far over the water?\" No\nanswer came and in despair she said, \"Well, Robert, how have you seen the\nlake?\" Quick came the answer, \"Wite and nathty, where my papa let\nme paddle my toes in it. \" He was given the brush, the paint box and water,\nand allowed to paint the thing as he saw it and it is needless to add that he\npainted no horizon line, but he made it \"wite\" and frothy as the waves\nripple upon the shore. This reminds me of the great Turner. When an\nold man, and critics had attacked his \" Storm,\" Ruskin heard him muttering,\n\"Soapsuds and whitewash, say they. What would they have? I wonder\nwhat they think the sea is like. They should have been in it.^^\nAs has been suggested, the kindergarten age is one of image-making and\ngetting acquainted with the world outside, bounded by no horizon-Une as\nyet. How well I can recall my early school days: no walks to see the new\nbuds on the trees, no hunting for first birds in the spring, no guided tramps\nto the lake and stream, but day after day books, a desk, and a bench, until\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nas Richard Hovey says, ''one grew sick of four walls and a ceiling.\" That\nwas at five years of age, and when at seven the teacher wished me to understand alake she poured a glass of water on the schoolroom floor, but even\ntoday my image is of the spreading water with the floating dust-particles\nwhich had to be wiped up. The country child who had to walk a mile, or\nmaybe two, to the country schoolhouse had every advantage. He overcame distance, felt space-freedom, saw complete processes in the woods and\nhomes about him, his images were strong and clear of field, forest, and\nanimal life — the tendency to explore, to investigate, found and worked upon\nnature's own material where every suggestion was to construction rather\nthan destruction, as is the case where our city children are given everything\n\"ready made.\" Our kindergarten in America is a modern city institution\nand a part of that complex civilization where child life is very often most\nunchildlike.\nThe kindergarten walk begins the habit of going with a purpose, seeking\nfor something that the teacher feels quite sure will be found and that will\nsatisfy some need of the child. The teacher should prepare as carefully for\nthe walk or excursion of the kindergarten children as she prepares her story\nor other work of the morning. Once when we were talking about the farmer\nand his animals, the children were asked to tell what they knew about the\ncow. One boy said, \" I know how to get the milk, for I saw a cow at Coney\nIsland, and the man just pressed the button, so, and filled my cup,\" a patent arrangement like the soda fount. Very soon we had an excursion to\nwhere the children could see \"real\" cows and the discussions which followed\nwere delightfully alive. When those children are ten years of age they will\nnot ask, as a boy did of a farmer, \"Don't you have to buy a great deal of\ngum for all those cows to be chewing ?\"\nOne of the strong influences of the outdoor walk on the eager, impressionable mind of the child is the development of a sense of space-freedom. It\nis impossible to expect free expression of mind or hand from children who\nlive in cramped homes, in dwarfed domestic atmosphere, with no outlook\nbut on chimneys or nearby walls. It has been said that the only way to\nsecure free activity with blind children is to have them play in a large field\nwhere there is not a single obstruction, and that after a time they cease that\npathetic appeal of the outstretched arm which we usually expect to see in\nthem. If the sense of the space-freedom removes fear and gives free expression to these little ones, its value should be proportionately more to the\nnormal child whose vision goes far afield. It is well known that our largest\nimages are of the sea and the mountains ; the one guides the vision out and far\naway over the broad and limitless deep, while the other has Hnes which\nif followed lead up, up — who knows where the imagination may take one ?\nWe have not taken enough thought of this sense of space-freedom ; we have\ntoo often been satisfied to go out on the school playground with its fine but\nadult appliances.\nThis is good, having a most valuable function to per-\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nWALKS\n\nAND\n\nEXCURSIONS\n\n409\n\nform, but cannot do for the little ones by way of enlargement of primal\nimpressions what the stretch of grass, the tall trees, or the flight of birds will\ndo. Freedom of hand comes from freedom of thought and this is a result\nof larger vision out of an awakened and enlarged sense of space-freedom.\nOur writing supervisors, our drawing teachers all urge freedom of hand\nwith the use of the larger muscles; we help them when we give our kindergarten children such images out of a free environment as will stimulate to\nfreedom of expression. In a certain- kindergarten I found the director\nstruggling to carry out my recent suggestion to secure more blackboard expression from the children. She was justifiably disappointed with the\ncramped, almost invisible, result. Upon inquiry I learned that in that\nschool there never had been a walk or excursion.\nThere is a fine opportunity after an excursion for blackboard work so\nlittle used by most kindergartners. Too frequently there is a finely executed picture put upon the blackboard, perhaps by the art teacher, and left\nfor weeks. There is no objection to that picture, but it serves its purpose\nin two or three days and should not be considered permanent. I have\nfound that the drawing by the children during the morning circle is also a\nfine opportunity to secure true criticism from each other, and they learn to\nmeet public opinion.\nBut impression alone is not educative, there must be interaction; the\nmanner in which investigation is directed toward securing right results and\nthe training toward free but sincere accurate expression, however simple it\nmay be, will be our task.\nIn view of the child's future social development and knowing that as\nsoon as he comes to kindergarten he is learning of an institution other than\nhome, his interests are broadening and he feels relationships with the outside world of society as well as that of nature; do our walks and excursions\nmeet this ? Not by going around the corner that he may see horseshoes at\nthe blacksmith shop only to draw better horseshoes the next day, but that\nhe may feel his kinship with the worker, may see the cold, stiff, unyielding\niron serve man's purpose thru action of the wonderful forge fire. He feels\nthe might and skill of the worker, respect follows, and a vague awakening\nof desire to do strong, skillful work. Anything that stimulates respect\nfor good workmanship increases the possibiUty of better work, even in\nkindergarten, and it is just here that habits begin of effort to accomplish,\nand accuracy in the doing. The results are clear and forceful from thus\ncoming into direct relationships, interest is aroused which can be turned\ninto an immediate wholesome channel. Fear of others makes one a coward,\nbut respect and admiration for the deeds of another breed self-respect and\nstimulation.\nStories and pictures are valuable aids in teaching children of their relationships but they can never wholly take the place of first-hand impression\nor experience. Never would a pictured sand-pile give to the children more\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "41 0\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthan a suggestion of its possibilities, while no one can tell the suggestiveness of the real experience with one. In the same way there comes to the\nchild's social nature thru the walks and excursions that which nothing else\ncan supply.\nThe walk or excursion brings the child into immediate relationship\nwith the larger world of nature, the broader view of society, meeting his\nout-reaching interests and stimulating his innate desire to do.\nIn summing up, let me say that the walks and excursions stimulate investigation which is the dynamic factor in education; give opportunity for\nclear images which are the concrete foundation of thought-activities; and\nput the child into closer relationship with society, thereby broadening his\ninterests and meeting the development of his institutional nature.\n///.\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN OUT\nSESSIONS\n\nMARGARET\n\nOF DOORS:\n\nM. COLTON, PRINCIPAL, GROVE\nPROVIDENCE,\nR.I.\n\nSTREET\n\nOpEN-AIR\nSCHOOL\n\nIn the current number of a popular magazine the editor calls attention to\na new word in the English language. The word is \" paidology,\" derived from\ntwo Greek words meaning ''child\" and \"science\" — the science of caring for\nchildren.\nWhile the term itself may be new to us, the scientific principles of which\nit treats meet a need long felt by every thoughtful educator. A science\nwhich seeks out all kinds of information regarding the body and mind of the\nchild, and which aims to understand all departures from normal standards,\nphysical, mental, and moral, cannot fail to be of inestimable value to the\neducator and to the child.\nInto the web and woof of the educational winding-sheet encircling the\nlife of every child, into the web and woof of his every conscious act is woven\nthe strong and controlUng influence for good or evil of a healthful or an\nunhealthful home environment.\nThe poor we have always with us, and every educator of today is\nfacing the problem of the poorly-housed, ill-nourished child of the congested\ncity tenement with hygienic conditions that have dwarfed his physique and\nrobbed him of a fair physical chance, and with moral conditions ill-fitted to\nkeep him in the paths of rectitude.\nWho shall be answerable if, suddenly realizing his inability to maintain\nhis place in the competition of the schoolroom, he drifts Httle by little, day\nby day, year by year, first into truancy and later into outspoken crime, if\nas the years pass there becomes infused into him a little more of the spirit\nof the prevented, a little more of the spirit of the denied, until finally he\ndrifts, first into mental, and then into moral, incapacity ?\nDoes the community lose its relation to this child ? No.\nThe ills of\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nSESSIONS\n\n41I\n\nsociety are but the aggregate of the ills of the individual, and it is a universally accepted truth that \" those who are competent are carrying every\nounce of the burden of those who are incompetent, no matter what the\nnature of that incompetence may be.\"\nIt is a common weakness of mankind to be caught by an idea, to be\ncaptivated by a phrase, but the neglect to carry the idea into practice is a\nstill more common weakness.\nAt first thought the matter of holding open air-sessions for kindergarten\nchildren and the Uttle people of the lower primary grades seems a glorious\nideal and we wonder that we have not tried the scheme long ago. To those\nwho are fortunate enough to enjoy an environment where conditions are\nfavorable, where schoolgrounds are spacious and well shaded, or near\nenough to some park or shaded field, here among the wild flowers, close to\nNature and to Nature's God, the scope of such sessions is unlimited. With\ndirected games and free play, with an improvised sand-garden, the joint\npartnership of building the landscape-play, with the fairy story-teller\ndirecting the childish imagination to discover landscape friends, and interpret landscape sounds: these are but the beginnings of this wonderful\nout-of-door work with children which will prove an interesting inspiration\nto the ambitious kindergartner, for there is no limit to the material with\nwhich nature furnishes us if we will but open our eyes and make a beginning.\nFroebel's ideal kindergarten was a playhouse in a garden. Would that\ninspired educator be able to recognize his ideal in its adaptation to that wellordered playroom, the average modern school kindergarten of today, with\nperhaps the nearest square foot of greensward many blocks away ? Are\nwe not battling against odds that were never dreamt of in his philosophy ?\nSituated as we are in the heart \"of the madding crowd's ignoble\nstrife\" for progress and wealth, we are daily and hourly struggling with the\nproblem of restoring to the child his rightful inheritance of the gifts of\nNature, of which he has been robbed by a thoughtless form of organized\ncivilization which has systematically eliminated the poor.\nWe are told that a child's best inheritance is a mother who knows how\nto keep him well, being assured that the healthy child grows to manhood and\nwomanhood capable of resisting contagion and defying disease. Does not\nthe neglect of the health of these little children amount to race suicide as\ntruly as does the direct reduction of the birth-rate ?\nLuther Burbank, in an article on \"The Training of the Human Plant,\"\nsays :\nThe curse of modern childlife in America is over-education, over-confinement, over-restraint. The injury wrought to the race by keeping too young children in school is beyond the power of anyone to estimate. The work of breaking down the nervous systems\nof the children of the United States is well under way. Every child should have mudpies,\ngrasshoppers, and tadpoles, acorns and pinecones, trees to climb, and brooks to wade in,\nand every child who has been deprived of these has been deprived of the best part of his\neducation.\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nBut not every child can have these blessings of the country, and so to\nthe educator falls the double task of supplying the want from the limitless\nrealms of the land of Make-Believe.\nUpon the sun-parched sands of the familiar city school grounds with no\nmore shade than is afforded by the school building itself, much out-of-door\nwork may be done, and here again the kindergartner will soon surprise herself with her own inventive powers. The matter of removing the kindergarten furniture is a simple one; each little tot delights to carry his own\nchair; tables, too, may be removed to the yards if desirable, by reversing\nthem, feet up, to avoid the danger of throwing these tiny helpers, and the\nincidental lesson in helpfulness and the improvement of existing conditions\nis not to be discounted. The man is but the boy grown tall, and these little\noccasions for assisting and being made to feel an individual responsibility\nin perfecting the scheme of the whole, are steps in promoting a future American citizenship, which, while free and independent, would scorn the spirit of\narrogance.\nMillions of dollars are being spent annually in the erection of palatialpublic-school buildings, and in the establishment and maintenance of expensive educational systems, and yet it is a sad fact that, save as housed\nwithin these majestic walls, the children of today are forgotten, crowded\nout in the steady march of the business man, from all that once constituted\ntheir rightful share of God's universe, without playground or park, without\neven the safety of their own home streets which once formed their private\nrealm of mystery, of safety, and of delight.\nIn seeking to condone the administrative oversight in the matter of\nproviding shade trees for many barren school yards and the residential\nstreets of the poorer localities of the city of Providence, a local newspaper,\nduring the past spring, opened a campaign by presenting to the city twentyfive trees, mostly Norway and sugar maples, to be distributed at the discretion ofa duly appointed committee. At the same time opportunity was\nafforded the community to join in the movement. The payment of three\ndollars covered all expense of providing and setting out one tree with the\nproper wire protection, and with the guarantee that if such tree failed to\nflourish it would be replaced.\nAlmost instantly the movement was taken up, until, riding the crest of the\nwave of popular enthusiasm, the present number of trees to be set out in the\nfall is close to four thousand.\nSurely the campaign is worthy of emulation.\nThe American playground movement is an inspired gift to the forlorn\nchildren of the street, but if parks and playgrounds are not close at hand,\nwhy not accept the suggestion of a New York City principal of setting aside\ncertain shady streets during a specified time each day, and diverting the\ntraffic during such hours to other streets less suited to child's play ?\nOr has the progress of modern civilization lost all sense of the value of\nplay? In his Education of Man Froebel says:\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nSESSIONS\n\n413\n\nThe play of the child contains the whole germ of the life that is to follow, for the man\ndevelops and manifests himself in play and reveals the noblest aptitudes and the deepest\nelements of his being.\n\nWho can approach a group of boys at play without noting the moral\nand intellectual power steadily gained and brought under control: justice,\nloyalty, self-control, truthfulness, together with courage, perseverance,\nresolution, and prudence ?\n\"But,\" you ask, \"with our present overcrowded curriculum have we\ntime to give so much consideration to play ?\" To the spirit of play, \" Yes.\"\nIn speaking of this subject. Dr. Luther H. Gulick, New York's director\nof physical training, says:\nPlay is the spontaneous enlistment of the entire personality in the pursuit of some\ncoveted end. We do not have to pursue the goal we wish to — it is our main desire. It\nis the way in which we take the re^onsibilities and problems of life that makes it either\na deadly bore — a mere dull round of routine and drudgery — or the most interesting and\nabsorbing game capable of enlisting all the energy and enthusiasm we have put into it.\nThe people who accomplish things in the world are the people who play the game. They\nlet themselves go, they are not afraid. Under the stimulus of enthusiastic play the\nmuscles contract more powerfully than under other conditions. Blood pressure is higher\nin play. It is far more interesting to play the game than to work at it. When you work\nyou are being driven. When you play you are doing the driving yourself. We play not\nby jumping the traces of life's responsibilities, but by going so far beyond life's compulsions as to lose sight of the compulsory element.\n\nPlay up, and \"play the game\"!\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Ella C. Elder, Buffalo Kindergarten Association, Buffalo, N. Y. — Our president\nhas said that the open-air session has arrived. I think we may also say that the school\ngarden has arrived. At least, that was very decidedly my impression after attending a\nmeeting of the School Garden Association yesterday afternoon, where I saw the most\nbeautiful illustrations of the work that is going on in all parts of the country; the most\nbeautiful pictures of school gardens and waste places that have been transformed by\nchildren from public schools.\nOn Tuesday I attended a meeting of the Home Economics Association, and there I\nheard a very interesting account of the development, from very small beginnings, of what\nhas become such a widespread movement for training in industrial education, or industrial\ntraining along the lines of domestic work and agriculture. It was a practical illustration\nof that word that was given us by Dr. Goddard the other morning — \" If you know what you\nwant, and you want it hard enough, and you do not forget that you want it, you may have\nit.\"So it seemed to me that that is the situation so far as the kindergarten garden is concerned. The problem is with us. It is simply a problem of ways and means, and I must\nconfess that I have felt somewhat that we kindergartners, many of us, have not been quite\ntrue to our Froebel ideal, in that we have not gone farther with the garden movement. It\nshould be a part of every kindergarten that has not the limitations of which Miss Harvey\nhas spoken. It is really a question of the personal equation — I might say three personal\nequations, because we have to take into account the principal and the janitor. And when\nthe attitude of the principal is that of a principal whom I know, who has beautiful school\ngrounds, but who has such pride in his grounds that he won't allow a kindergarten child\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nto set foot inside the fence, it makes the problem all the more difficult. And then there\nis the janitor, who is a very serious problem. He may unplant all that has been planted\nand replant for his own satisfaction; but as has been said, it does not matter much to the\nkindergarten children whether they have planted the seeds or whether the janitor planted\nthem.\nOne of the most successful kindergarten gardens I have seen is conducted in a neighbor's back yard, has thrived for several years, and is a continual joy from the appearance\nof the first snowdrop to the disappearance of the last aster. It has taught many, many\nlessons, not only in gardening, the real gardening, but in the gardening of the spirit. Miss\nHarvey spoke of the little gardens in glasses. I wonder if any of you have tried planting\nseeds in egg shells. It is a simple way, and a very easy way for transplanting, because you\nsimply break away the shell and transplant the seedling.\nAnd so, as I have said before, I think the problem really rests with the individual\nkindergartner. We can have some sort of a garden if we try. In this garden movement,\nthe kindergartner should have been in the advance guard. Let us see that we do not\nbring up the rear.\nMiss Curtis. — I am at somewhat of a disadvantage. I don't know what has been\nsaid on the general subject in your first paper, but I can tell you a little about the outdoor\nschool movement in the different countries. You probably all know that it was begun\nin Germany about six years ago, with great success, was copied in England, where they\nhave a number of outdoor schools, has more recently been taken up in Switzerland, and\nis under way now in other countries. And from the physician's point of view it has been\nvery interesting. Of course, educators are interested from a different side, because it\ngives signs of what might be done with the normal child. Most of the pupils in these\nschools are defectives, most of them are tuberculous, many of them are anemic, and suff.er\nfrom many other troubles, and the educators are interested because it shows what might\nbe done with the normal healthy child. And on the side of the defectives, if this work\ncould be taken up you can see what a tremendous preventive work it might do.\nMiss Emilie Poulsson. — I thought I would just like to give you a little verse or two,\nor to have you make a little verse, which the children who are interested in the garden\nmight like to sing. Now, what is the first thing that a child would do to make his garden ?\n(Ans.) He would dig it. Now this little boy did that — he dug his little garden, and of\ncourse he enjoyed digging it. And then what did he do next? (Ans.) He sowed the\nseeds. Now we call it planting if we make a hole in the ground and put the roots in or a\nbulb, but we sow the seeds. So he dug his little garden first, and then he sowed the seeds.\nThen what did he do after he did that, and those seeds were down in the dry ground ?\n(Ans.) He gave it water. Yes, he dug his little garden and he sowed the seeds, and he\ngave it water — but something else grew up besides the flower. (Ans.) Weeds.\nhe pulled the weeds out.\nNow, then\n\nAnd\n\nHe dug his garden.\nHe sowed the seeds,\nHe gave it water.\nAnd pulled the weeds.\nThen what happened when this plant grew up — it was a nasturtium ? (Ans.) It has a\nblossom. Yes, and when flowers blossom, where do they go ? He didn't have that garden just for the fun of it, just for the fun of digging it, and just for the fun of sowing the\nseeds and seeing them grow. He had something that he himself, could give away, and\nto whom did he give the first flower ? (Ans.)\nTo his mother.\nSo, then\nWhen it bloomed\nWith flowers gay,\nHe'gave his mother\nThe first bouquet.\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nSESSIONS\n\n415\n\nAnd that is one of the little songs that Elinor Smith is putting music to and is coming out\nin a little book. Then I'd like to give you another about the cow, because Mrs. Ware has\ntold us about going to see the cow, and this is also a short one. It gives the child a little\ncountry picture. We very often have pictures in the kindergarten of cows coming home\nin the country, with udders full, with the bells about their necks.\nTingle, ting, tingle, ting\nTingle, ting, again:\nHere comes bossy cow,\nStrolling down the lane;\nGood old bossy cow\nWhat does she bring ?\nFresh milk for us all,\nTingle, tingle, ting.\n\n'\n\nYou see how easy it is to have the children make songs for themselves. It is much easier,\nreally, with children than with grown people.\nMrs. Page. — Madam President, I think one of the most important things for us to\nthink about, to my mind, one of the things we can remember best at the close of so full\na session, is the idea that Miss Harvey voiced this morning — that we are working for\nqualitative results, not quantitative results. It seemed to me that it would help us to\nstudy our individual children with reference to their own growth, from the whole point of\nview — not simply the intellectual and moral point of view, in which, of course, we should be\ninterested, but from the physical point of view, as well, because we cannot have qualitative results of anj' kind unless we know more about the capacity of the children to react\nto the conditions in which they are placed or with which we are trying to surround them.\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^Thomas A. Mott, superintendent of schools\nVice-President— Josa S. Welch, supervisor of grammar grades\nSecretary — Miss Margaret\n\nCanty, supervisor of primary work\n\nRichmond, Ind.\nSalt Lake City, Utah\nMilwauk'ee, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday Forenoon, July, 6, 1910\nThe Department of Elementary Education met in South Congregational Church at\n9:30 A. M., the president of the department, Thomas A. Mott, presiding. The president\naccepted with thanks a gavel presented by the second-year class in the Mechanic Arts\nHigh School, Boston.\nThe first paper was presented by H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur,\n111., on \"Motivizing the Work of the Elementary Schools.\" The discussion was led by\nL. C. Brogden, state supervisor of elementary schools of North Carolina, Raleigh, N.C,\nand was continued by S. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn.\nThe second address, \"English as She Is Taught,\" was given by Miss Adelaide Steele\nBaylor, superintendent of schools, Wabash, Ind. The paper was discussed by Charles S.\nMeek, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho.\nSuperintendent H. B. Wilson offered the following resolution:\nWhereas, The greatest problem in the technique of teaching in the elementary\nschools is that of providing adequate motives for the work of the children; and\nWhereas, The great need is for combining our forces and accumulating experiences\nand studying the problem; be it\nResolved, That the president of this department appoint a committee of three to study\nthis problem and to collect a body of material showing the best results attained in motivation in the schools of the United States with the idea of reporting progress at the meeting\nnext year, and that funds to cover the necessary expenses of this committee be asked of\nthe proper authorities of the National Education Association.\nThe resolution was seconded and adopted.\nThe president appointed the following Committee on Nomination of OflScers for the\nensuing year:\nMiss Margaret Canty, Milwaukee, Wis.\nH. B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind.\nS. L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minn.\nThe meeting adjourned to Friday forenoon, July 8.\nSECOND SESSION.— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 1910.\n. The department met in the South Congregational Church, and was called to order by\nPresident Thomas A. Mott.\nPresident Mott appointed the following committee to report upon the \"Motivation\nof Work in the Elementary Schools\" at the next annual meeting:\nH. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111.\nThomas Agnew, Jr., principal, School No. 6, Bayonne, N.J.\nMiss Gail Calmerton, supervisor of kindergartens and primary schools, Fort\nWayne, Ind.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was as follows:\nFor President — Miss Adelaide Steele Baylor, superintendent of schools, Wabash, Ind.\nFor Vice-President — H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111.\nFor Secretary— Miss Nellie O'Keefe, Principal of McClellan School, St. Paul, Minn.\n417\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "41 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nThe report of the committee was on motion adopted, and the nominees were declared\nelected for the ensuing year.\nJames M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo., presented a paper\non \"Strengthening the Work of the Seventh and Eighth Grades to Fit for High School.\"\nThe discussion was opened by E. H. Drake, superintendent of schools, Elkhart, Ind. The\ntopic was further discussed by several members of the Association.\nThe second paper, \"Character-Building in the Elementary Schools,\" was read by\nJohn W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Bayonne, N.J. The discussion was led by Miss\nGeorgia Alexander, supervising principal, Indianapolis, Ind.\nAnother phase of the topic was discussed by Charles A. Prosser, deputy state commis ioner ofeducation, Boston, Mass.\nThe department then adjourned.\nMargaret Canty, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nH.\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nMOTIVATION OF THE CHILDREN'S\nELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\nWORK\n\nIN THE\n\nB.\n\nDECATUR,\n\nILL.\n\nWILSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe greatest problem in the technique of teaching in the elementary\nschools is undoubtedly that of supplying adequate motives for the work of\nthe pupils. Such motives, when present, insure progress and \"go\" in the\nwork of the school as steam insures motion in the locomotive. Charters\nstates the efficacy of motives forcefully and concretely when he says they\nare \" a motor which drives, forces, pushes, impels, and incites the individual.\"\nThat adequately motived work is not more in evidence in our schools\nis surprising, at least from some standpoints, when it is considered that\nsuch modern views on the place of interest and motivation in education\nas the following (see Monroe's History of Education, pp. 566 £f.) were\nenunciated so long ago as the eighteenth century, by Rousseau:\nEducation is a natural, not an artificial, process; it comes through the workings of\nnatural instincts and interests and not through response to external force; it is an expansion ofnatural powers, not an acquisition of information; it is life itself, not a preparation for a future state remote in interests and characteristics from the life of childhood.\n\nWe find Godwin, an English follower of Rousseau, urging that\nall the acquisitions of the pupil shall be preceded and accompanied by desire. The\nbest motive to learn is a perception of the value of the thing learned.\nThe worst motive\n.... may well be affirmed to be constraint and fear.\n\nModern school practice evidences two very different attitudes toward\nschool work and two approaches in organizing the same. One approach,\nand it is the older historically, is from the side of the curriculum, emphasizing the logical arrangement of the subject-matter of instruction, and stressing disciplinary effects. The other approaches the organization and work\nof the school from the standpoint of the child, proceeding psychologically\nand upon the basis of the child's interests.\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n419\n\nIt is necessary briefly to examine these two approaches, their grounds\nfor existence, and their relative merits.\nThose who believe in the first approach accept some general end of\neducation as fundamental. This end need not differ from that accepted\nby those making their approach in the second way. They then proceed\nto select the knowledge and experience the race has accumulated which\nseems from their adult standpoint to be related to this goal of education.\nThe matter selected is then graded and' arranged as to difficulty, and the\nchildren are required to acquire what has been planned for them. As Professor\nDewey says,\nSubject-matter furnishes the end and it determines the method. The child is simply\nthe immature being who is to be matured; he is the superficial being who is to be deepened;\nhis is narrow experience which is to be widened. It is his to receive, to accept. His\npart is fulfilled when he is ductile and docile.\n\nConsequently, the children do not come to their work so much with the\nidea of solving a problem which has appeared in their play, social, or work\nlives as with the thought of doing what is next in a series of problems,\nplanned and graded by the higher powers. This method secures work on the\npart of the pupil largely because he feels an outside impelling force, rather\nthan because of the urgency of an inner, actual need which he wishes to\nsatisfy.\nResulting from this \"external presentation is lack of motivation.\"\nThere is not only no apperceptive mass to \"appropriate and assimilate\nthe new, but there is no craving, no need, no demand.\" When this need\nis present it\nsupplies motive for the learning. A demand which is the child's own carries him on to\npossess the means of accomplishment. But when material is directly supplied in the\nform of a lesson to be learned as a lesson, the connecting links of need and aim are conspicuous for their absence\nThe mechanical and dead in instruction is a result of\nthis lack of motivation.\n\nThe second approach accepts the child as the starting-point, the center,\nand end of all school work. His legitimate normal needs and interests\nafford the basis of approach. The general goal which society sets up for\nthe school's attainment is just as acceptable to those who choose this\napproach as to those who prefer the first method. Our problem is not one\nof a goal to \"steer by\" primarily; it is one of means to an end, altho, of\ncourse, what one has when the end is attained may be abundantly affected\nby the means employed.\nTwo large questions seem to arise in considering the merits of this\napproach. First, what effect does a definite need for and a deep personal\ninterest in a thing exercise upon one's effort to possess it ? Second, are the\nneeds and interests of children such that they may be made the basis of\nattack upon such work as is legitimate in the school ?\nIn true interest, one is entirely engrossed, or, as Professor Dewey puts\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nit, \"taken up with some activity because of its recognized worth.\" Again\nhe says, \"Interest works the annihilation of the distance between the person\nand materials and results of instruction; it is the instrument which effects\ntheir organic unity.\" Charters shows that Stout and Titchner define\ninterest as the feeling side of attention, and that when one is interested in an\nobject, he attends to it. McMurry quotes Zeller and Osterman to justify\ndefining interest as a feeling of value. Interest, then, from the foregoing,\nis a motive, since the \"energy of experience is upon the focal point of\nattention,\" and since the \"energy of consciousness is continually focused\nupon the control of values.\" \" Energy is focalized,\" as Charters maintains,\n\"when there is some value to control, some need to be satisfied, some interest to be fulfilled, or some problem to be solved.\" Bagley says that \" apperception functions most readily along lines of interest. Interest attaches\nmost strongly to that which has a vital relation to one's well-being.\"\nWhen one turns from these theoretical views and scientific statements\nto test them by his own experience, he is overwhelmingly persuaded to\naccept them. In the life of the school, I observe that the children enter\nwith zest into their games and into their social experiences, and also into\nthose phases of their work which are producing values for which they have\nfelt a need in their simple experiences. Those phases of their school experiences, however, which do not arise out of a need which they appreciate are\ndrudgery to them which is both painful and unremunerative.\nIt may safely be posited, I think, that the doing of anything which is\nmeaningless to the worker, which brings him no response to a definite, worthwhile desire, is drudgery. Space does not permit me to catalog the large\namount of it in the schools, done under the protecting label, education. But\nlet us note a few instances, at least, such as memorizing the text in history\nand geography; memorizing the language of the text to answer questions\nprinted in the text; most of the defining of terms in language, grammar,\ngeography, and arithmetic in the lower grades; looking up the meaning of\nwords in the dictionary and using these words in sentences; memorizing\nsuch writings of the great masters as portray experiences the children\ncannot understand; writing compositions when the children have nothing\nthey care to communicate; solving long and difficult problems in which\nthe conditions are unlike anything that ever did occur or ever will occur\nin the'world of practical affairs; and so on.\nNo experienced teacher, I am certain, will attempt to deny that she\nfinds it difficult to get the children to do these things. They are drudgery:\nthe children feel no interest in them because they supply no perceptible\nneed in their lives.\nIf interest and need are so potent and the lack of them so disastrous\nin life and in the work of the school, the duty is imposed upon the schools\nof organizing their work and activities from the standpoint of the interests\nand needs normal to children.\nAs Professor Dewey says.\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n« 421\n\nThe teacher must be able to see what immediate and proximate use the child's interests\nare to be put in order that he may be moving along the desired lines, in the desired\ndirection\nJust how to use interest to secure growth in knowledge and in efficiency\nis what defines the master teacher.\n\nHowever, it is not sufficient that the teacher see clearly the fitness of the\ndetails of the daily work of the school in relation to the child's proper\nunfoldment. In so far as possible, the child must see the relation of each\ntask he undertakes to some personal natural, or acquired, need. One's\njoy in his work is dependent upon the relation the worker believes to exist\nbetween what he is doing and the largest goal he is seeking to attain. It is\nalso almost an axiom that the happier one is in his work, the greater are\nhis returns, both inner and external, both spiritual and material. Society's\naim in establishing the school provides a standard for the teacher's action,\nbut not a motive for the child's daily tasks, except in so far as the school's\naim is concretely functional in the child's life. The child's dominating\naim at any stage of his development is an outgrowth of his own experience\nand so is full of vitality and force. Judged by society's ideals, the child's\npresent goal may be temporary or insignificant. For him, however, its\nrealization is meaningful and all-important. Social efficiency and good\ncitizenship are most apt to be developed in any individual, therefore, by\nplanning that the work which the school considers essential in the realization of its aim shall be done under such conditions that it will seem to the\nchild to contribute directly toward the realization of his chosen goal, be\nit native or acquired.\nThe school must seize upon the child's legitimate needs and desires,\nat the various stages in his unfoldment, and, in the light of them, plan\ntasks and activities which shall be intensely significant to the child, and,\nat the same time, economically further the realization of the school's aim.\nBy this process, the child's aims become modified in the direction of and\nin harmony with society's ideals. Thus the child becomes sociaHzed.\nIn this socialization process, it is important that we keep clearly in mind,\nas Charters shows, that\nadult standards of value differ from children's standards, but this does not exclude juvenile\nvalues as motives. It simply means that they shall be reinforced, where valuable as\njudged by adult standards, and depreciated where the sympathetic adult sees they will\nbe harmful.\n\nWhile this problem of the adequate motivation of the work of the\nschool is not a recent one, the new education has instituted an attack\nwhich promises results totally eclipsing the work previously done upon the\nmatter. Starting, perhaps, with Professor Dewey's work in the elementary\nschools of the University of Chicago, in which the child's \"sweet will\"\nwas allowed to dictate to an impractical extent, it speedily arrested attention and was soon taken up, as a problem of fundamental importance, in\nother experimental and private schools, and the last few years have wit-\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "422\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nnessed much sane and effective work on the matter in the more progressive\npublic-school systems.\nIt is with no thought of solving the problem that I discuss it here.\nLike the course of study, motivation must be a living, growing, developing\nmeans of aiding school work, or, like the daily newspaper, it must be a\nliving thing, adjusting itself to the conditions and ideals as they vary with\ncommunities and with the changes wrought by time.\nThere is a widespread need for an honest effort on the part of capable\nschool officers to secure that organization and execution of school work which\nis vitalized by the presence of adequate motives for its performance, in the\nlives of the children. Clearly there are, at least, two standpoints from\nwhich to attack the problem. Beginning from the side of the child, the\nwork should be organized, as rapidly as we are capable of doing it, about\na series of motives, varying from year to year, and with different teachers,\nwhich seem to be normal to the children of a given community in each of\nthe grades or years of the school course. This requires careful study of the\nchild to discover situations in which he lacks control, and then the organisation of subject-matter to supply the needed control. Or, working from\nthe standpoint of the present course of study — and some feel this to be the\nmore rational and conservative attack — situations should be developed by\nthe teacher which will cause the child to feel the need for the subject-matter\nwhich is to be developed next. It is altogether probable, I think, that the\nmost satisfactory results will be accompHshed by attacking the matter\nfrom both standpoints.\nEach approach has strong points to commend it.\nThe time remaining to me will permit but a few brief suggestions in\nreference to the sources of inotives in some of the elementary-school branches\nand a few illustrations of results attained. Motives in drawing grow out of\nthe fact that it is a means of decoration and expression. Ideas not only\ntend to express themselves in action, but they seek manifold expression,\nhence a child is moved to greater effort in his drawing work by seeing that\nit provides an additional and useful means of expression. Children like\nto decorate or illustrate their compositions; they enjoy planning and\nexecuting scenery suitable for their dramatizations; they ^ee the need of\nbeing able to execute and interpret a drawing in manual training; they\nwork untiringly in an effort to produce the best cover design for the annual\nreport of the Board of Education, or for the school paper, or the best\ndesign for the decoration of the blackboards, the window curtains, the\ntable cover, the office couch cover, the community rug which is woven\nto spread in front of the teacher's desk, or to secure the prize in the Review's\n(a local newspaper) drawing contest, and so on. Seeing these needs of\nability to draw well supplies motives for the work, stimulates to greater\nendeavors, and insures greater results.\nChildren evidence much more interest in their manual-training work\nwhen they are concerned with a problem of some social significance.\nNot\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n423\n\nonly does the making of something which is to render some actual service\nsupply a motive; but this motive is intensified if the work under way is\ndeveloped co-operatively, as in furnishing a playhouse, in dressing a doll\nfor a sick child, in making a dress for a poor child, in making some laundry\nbags for a charitable institution, in building a bookcase, a couch, a chair,\nor a table for the office, in weaving waste-baskets for the schoolrooms,\nand in constructing needed shop equipment. Finding real use for such\nability spurs children to seek to develop skill in manual processes. The\ndesire to acquire this skill vitalizes all of the practice exercises and so lifts\nthem out of the field of drudgery, where they were when, in the earlier\nhistory of manual training, these practice exercises were presented for\ntheir own sake so far as the child was able to see.\nProbably the strongest spur to acquire the ability to read is an appreciation on the part of the child of the social value of this ability. He can be\nled to see that this ability will enable him to gain ideas which he needs in\nsolving some problems confronting him, and that it will render him capable\nof aiding and entertaining his friends and classmates. Every teacher\nknows that a child's reading is most efficient when the reader presents something, itm^y be from his out-of-school reading, which to him is valuable,\nto an audience which is sympathetic, but which is lacking in a full knowledge of what he presents. What motive has a child in his reading when he\nis one of forty all of whom are engaged in reading exactly the same book,\nand in preparing and reciting the same lessons day after day? What\nmotive for reading aloud has he when all in the class are reading the same\nmatter from their open books and carefully watching to discover any error\nhe may make ? His whole natural tendency to read, to communicate, is\nignored by such methods.\nThe motive stimulating the child to effort in his language work is the\ndesire to communicate for the purpose of learning, instructing, or entertaining. Teachers are beginning to afford children opportunities to write,\nin the language period, actual expressions of their interest and experience.\nFormerly \"what the school asked children to express they had no desire\nto express; and what they might choose to say the school regarded as\ntrivial.\" Children wrote compositions because they had to say something\nrather than because they had anything to say. Now, children may select\nsuperlative experiences and write them for reading to a definite audience.\nThey may write upon themes of value to them and of probable interest to\nothers. Teachers are discovering in training children in mere matters of\ncourtesy and politeness effective motives for the most valuable language\nwork. Teachers are allowing children to use the language period to organize in written form their wishes and desires. Miss Jenkins, supervisor\nof elementary grades in the schools under my supervision, in reporting\nto me upon the progress we have made in the motivation of the language\nwork during the past year, calls attention to the fact that\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "424\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nletter-writing has been a necessity. There have been many people to thank for courtesies\nextended to a class or a school. Mrs. Evans of the Public Library for opening a branch\nlibrary in each of the three schools; Mrs. Powers for loaning Indian baskets; Mrs. McKibbon for loaning an Indian blanket; Mr. Torrence, the superintendent of parks, for\nfurnishing a privet hedge; Mr. Davis for carriages to transport the children who went to\nsing in the hospitals at Easter-time. The children are learning when and how to say\nthank you. Again the letter has been used as a means of informing the superintendent,\nsupervisors, and special teachers, of interesting events in the schoolrooms, or as a medium\nby which requests for needed materials might be made\nTwice during the year\nchildren have seen that their interests might be furthered by addressing dignified bodies,\nhaving these interests in charge, so the City Council received a letter telling of Mr. Torrence's care for the children in the parks, and the superintendent was asked to bring the\nmatter of improving the playground to the attention of the Board of Education.\n\nOne of the most effective motives employed in the language work has\nbeen the dramatization of some story, a reading-lesson, or some period in\nhistory, in the production of a simple entertainment to be executed at a\nmeeting of the mother's club of some school, or before the school during the\nweekly assembly period, perhaps.\nWhen the children are struggling with such live personal problems, need\nfor the mastery of the conventional language-forms naturally arises. Progress is impeded until the need is overcome. Consequently the mastery\nof form is intensely motivated. The pupil undertakes the mastery of\nform and of technical matters when he meets the difficulty the form was\ndeveloped to remove. Pupils are anxious to master a form when they see\nthat language devoid of form is deficient in accomplishing the purpose for\nwhich they wish to employ it. The child sees that punctuation is needed\nto show the relation between his thought for the sake of definiteness in\ncommunication. If the child sees an error he regretted to make, he will\nstudy punctuation, under the guidance of the teacher as need arises. The\ntime to teach the law of unity in the paragraph is when the pupil sees\nthat his failure to observe the law results in not making clear what he\nwishes to say, and so on, until motives for teaching correct spelling, proper\ncapitalization, approved sentence-structure, and accepted grammatical\nEnglish have been supplied.\nI have purposely limited my topic to the question of supplying motives\nfor the work of the children. I do not wish this to imply, however, that the\nwork of the teacher does not need motivation, also. It does need it, and\nthat badly. It needs it not only that she may be happier, but that the\nwork of the entire system may be improved. She now does an untold\nnumber of irksome, unrelated things, the doing of which has developed a\nhigh order of drudgery thruout.\nThis condition will not change except as the superintendents of this\ncountry come to recognize the importance of the teacher's daily schoolroom\nexperiences in shaping the policies and methods of the school. She alone\nknows how poorly some of them \"work,\" or rather how they do not \"work,\"\nand what is needed to bring improvement.\nHow much longer shall we\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n425\n\ncontinue to nurse our \"bumps of egotism,\" neglect the teacher's counsel\nwhich the schools so much need for their improvement, and keep the teachers\nand children leading narrow, dwarfed lives, because they are occupied with\ndrudgery ? Let us take them into our counsel, and in the light of their\nexperiences, readjust the course of study, eliminating the dead, obsolete\nmatter, and improving and vitalizing our methods of attack upon that\nretained.\nMy discussion must not be understood to imply that subject-matter\nitself may not be intrinsically interesting, when there is no conscious effort\non the part of the teacher to render it so. That children find it so, especially inthe higher grades, no experienced teacher doubts.\nIf I have succeeded in saying what I believe, I have not been standing\nfor easy work nor for less work in the schools. I have been maintaining\nrather that school work is serious, genuine work, shot thru and thru with a\nkeen appreciation by the worker of its value to him. As Bagley says,\n\"Work and effort are fundamental in education, but the task of education\nmay be materially simplified by leading the child as rapidly as possible\nto see the need in his own life for the work he does in school.\" This\ncondition insures that the child will accomplish more work and expend more\nremunerative effort, for he will go to his work under that high pressure\nwhich results from the inspiration and urgency of a genuine need. I believe\nin the authority of the school and in its responsibility for determining the\nwork of the school; but I also believe that, while \"authority is the buttress\nof the school,\" as Charters shows, \"other motives than that of mere obedience may and should be used.\"\nI do wish, however, to say emphatically that I do not feel that it is a\npart of the conscious business of the school to provide a certain amount of\ndrudgery that the power of doggedly attacking difficult and distasteful\nsubjects may not atrophy in our children, as our German critic, Professor\nFoerster, and a large body of sentimental American pedagogs seem to fear\nit may. I know of no reputable physician nor of any expert in dietetics\nwho maintains that value will result to my body if I aggravate the digestive\nprocess and render its performance more difficult. Drudgery is not necessary here, altho one's digestive apparatus must do hard work even when the\nfood is entirely wholesome and ideally adapted to satisfy the user's bodily\nneeds. It is not distasteful duties, obstreperous difficulties, and hindering\ncauses, as such, which produce giants. It is capacity, and evidence is yet\nwanting to show that this capacity does not attain a fuller fruition when\noccupied in serious, pleasurable work than when occupied with drudgery.\nThere is, however, much evidence on the other side of the question, from\nphysical trainers, physicians, and pedagogs if need required its presentation\nand time permitted.\nIn concluding, let me remind you that we do not yet see how to supply\nmotives for all of the work it seems wise to ask the children to do. Until\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "426\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nwe do, we must go right on imposing work, and rendering it interesting thru\nthe methods of presentation employed. Let us work faithfully, however,\nfeeling that we are weak until this shortage is almost, if not entirely, eradicated. Let us have the courage to omit gradually such work as seems to\nlack significance for the children. All careful students of the matter know\nthere is more whose significance is evident than it is possible to find time\nto use, and, fortunately, it is all productive of the values the schools claim\nto be striving to secure.\nLet us remember, also, that time will be required to develop a technique\nof working from this standpoint of interest which will seem as satisfactory\nas the technique it must supplant has seemed. The establishment of a\nnew technique requires battling against the authority of the old, and against\nthe persistence of the habits of thought and action which the old technique\nhas 'established. Progress is certain in both matter and method if we\nmove conservatively and wisely. Radical departures and unusual experiments on this problem must be left to special and experimental schools;\nbut the public school, proceeding upon the basis of a definite course of\nstudy, can do much to aid the improvement. Freedom to depart from the\nprescribed course to test another well-matured plan in some subject, or\nsubjects, may safely and wisely be extended to certain of the strongest\nteachers in the system. Teachers should be encouraged to take the initiative in this way. When the success of such a test warrants, the methods\nand results can be presented to all of the teachers for their guidance.\nWith all the educational forces unified on this problem, there is reason to\nhope for rather rapid strides. It will soon come to be true, I believe, that\nthe child'' s motive in study will be far greater than merely getting ready\nto prove his knowledge in recitation, and that his motive in recitation will\nbe much larger than proving that he knows what his classmates and teacher\nare all supposed to know. The sitting, looking, listening, and answering,\nnow so much in evidence, are to be superseded by thinking, planning,\ncreating, initiating, and executing. We are going to organize our work\nand our methods so that the child may come to school, not only with his\nwhole body, but with his whole mind, and all of his rich experiences, and\nfind that they are all related to his school tasks in such ways that he leaves\nthe school with a healthier body and a fuller mind. We are going to adopt,\nin spirit, if not in form, Baldwin's motto for his elementary school, namely,\n''A live child in a live school learning to live by living each day in the\nschool.\" As Professor Dewey indicates.\nIf we seek the kingdom of heaven educationally, all other things shall be added unto\nus, which being interpreted is that as we identify ourselves with the real instincts and\nneeds of childhood and seek only after its fullest assertion and growth, the practical\nability, discipline, information, and culture of adult life shall all come in their due season.\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n427\n\nDISCUSSION\nL. C. Brogden, state supervisor of elementary schools, Raleigh, N.C. — My own\nthought so thoroly coincides with the point of view so well defined in Superintendent\nWilson's paper that I find nothing to dissent from. On account of the short time\nallotted to the discussion, I can only hope to refer to some of the underlying pririciples\nof the subject without going into the details of their application. Motive is interest\nat work in the realization of the end, or in the solution of the problem which it has\nset for itself to reach or set for itself to solve, the realization of which it feels will enhance\nthe value of self and therefore has meaning and worth for it.\nThe educational doctrine of motive becomes identical with the educational doctrine\nof interest. While motive may originate directly from interest, yet both interest and motive\nhave their \" primary root \" \"in inherited impulse\" to self-expression, to self-realization.\nThe vital point is that the source of this activity is internal, and not external, that it proceeds from the self-activity of consciousness and is not imposed from without.\nIn the life of the world about us, whether in the industrial or professional activities,\nwe find genuine motive at work. There is a clearly defined end to be realized, a vital\nproblem to be solved, a particular situation to be met, which end, problem, or situation,\nself thru its own activity has set for itself and which it is struggling to make real. The\nlaboring man is striving to make real his idea of physical comfort and material happiness\nfor himself and family, the teacher is trying to make real her goal of a larger teaching\nefficiency, the statesman is struggling to make real his idea of a larger social service. In\nproportion as these ends to be attained, these goals to be reached, and these problems to be\nsolved are the projections of the inner life in its struggle to self-realization, in that proportion will they have meaning and worth for the self, in that proportion will interest\nbecome intense and motive effective, and in that proportion will voluntary effort become\nsustained and the sense of drudgery become minimized. If the inner life of the teacher\nsets up for its clearly defined goal a larger teaching efficiency, then will her voluntary\nattention be sustained, then will her application be persistent, and then will her daily\ntedious routine of work take on a different hue and the feeling of drudgery associated with\nit will become minimized.\nBut it is equally true that in proportion as the ends of action, the goals, and the problems, are not the projection of the inner life in its struggle for self-expression but are imposed from without and therefore can have no vital meaning for this inner life, in that\nproportion will genuine interest and motive be impossible, voluntary effort spasmodic and\nunsustained, and the sense of drudgery intensified.\nTo motivize the work of the school means that in the life of the school, the self-activity\nof the pupil must count for its full value, that his most dominant impulses must neither\nbe ignored nor repressed, neither indulged nor left to chance, but must be organized and\ndirected.\nThe problem of motivizing the work of the school involves both the organization of\nthe subject-matter of instruction and its method of presentation. The vital principle\nunderlying the organization of this subject-matter is that it shall be organized with reference to the nature of the child, with reference to the nature and needs of the well-recognized and characteristic stages of his mental growth; that it shall not only be organized\nwith reference to the present needs of any given stage in his mental growth, but that the\nsubject-matter in each stage shall be organized with reference to an adequate preparation\nof the higher need of each succeeding stage ; that the subject-matter for the first years of\nthe child's school life shall be organized with reference to the \"concrete in pupil activities\nand the concrete in adult pursuits\" rather than measured in terms of quantities of subjectmatter to be learned; and that finally, starting from the child's unified and undifferentiated experience, each subject shall be organized with reference to its own internal structure, and with reference to its continuity of unfolding in the life of the child.\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Elementary\n\nAccording to Dr. Dewey, the mental stages in the growth of the child to which the\nplan of organizing the subject-matter of instruction shall conform are three, viz., (i) the\nstage of spontaneous attention with its corresponding period of play; (2) the stage of active\nattention with its corresponding period of technique; (3) the stage of reflective attention\nwith its period of intellectual questioning.\nThe fundamental principle underlying the scientific presentation of the subjectmatter after it has been organized in accordance with the essential principles heretofore\nsuggested, is that it shall be presented according to the apperceptive stages of the child, in\naccordance with the particular apperceptive stage in which he may be, that the material\nshall not be ready-made and placed before him, that his problems shall not be solved for\nhim, but that he shall be brought face to face with the real situation and real problems\narising out of the needs of his own life and led to meet these situations and to solve these\nproblems thru his own self-activity. To fulfill the demands for genuine interest and\nefiFective motive from the standpoint of method in the presentation of this subject-matter,\nin the language of Professor James,\nBegin with the line of his native interests, and offer him objects that have some immediate connection with these; next, step by step, connect with these first objects and\nexperiences, the later objects and ideas which you wish to instill. Associate the new with\nthe old in some natural and telling way, so that the interest, being shed alway from point\nto point, finally suffuses the entire system of objects of thought.\nS. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn. — This is no new subject.\nWe are working pretty hard a new word, for \"motivation\" not only expresses the chief\nproblem in present-day technical teaching but it also expresses the chief characteristic of a\nmovement in education which has been continuous for a hundred years. There has been\nno advance in education either in Europe or America, whether in theory or practice, in the\norganization of the schools, in the construction of the curriculum, the selection of subjectmatter, the method of presentation, the art of teaching — no advance in the aim of education which has been set up except an advance toward the child. The dominating tendency in educational practice today is to supply the child more and more with motives\nfor action all thru the long process of his development. The appeal to the child, his\ninterest, his conscious needs, and his immediate life, has been and is the chief desideratum.\nIn these closing minutes of this discussion I set before you in large perspective a\ntendency that we see on every hand, in every modern school, and with every modem\nteacher — a tendency toward motivation. First, in our attitude toward the curriculum.\nWe have multiplied our subjects, extended the range of our subject-matter, enriched and\nenriched, introduced arts and crafts, games and plays, occupations and industries, comprehensive schemes for the training of body, head, hand, and heart; we have democratized,\nsocialized, kindergarten ized, industrialized, vitalized, and psychologized our curriculum,\nand it has all been in this movement toward motivation.\nSecond, it is not only in our subject-matter but in our methods of presentation. We\nmotivize the work in our schools as we vitalize methods. We have developed the art of\nteaching. There is such a thing as the fine art of presentation. We now put a premium\non development, on objective, concrete, illustrated teaching, on the inductive method of\napproach. The laboratory system prevails from the kindergarten to the high school. We\nhave not abolished drill, but we have assigned it its proper place in the teaching-process.\nIt now follows rather than precedes development, generalization, rule, and definition.\nW^e have led our teachers to see that the compelling powers of the child must come from\nwithin rather than from without, and that the nature of subject-matter together with\nskill in its presentation must possess the child with an irresistible impulse to act, to do things.\nA large part of the teacher's fine art lies in the preparation of her own lesson, in her own\nlesson plan, in the clear, intelligent, enthusiastic assignment, in the skill of questioning,\nin the art of conducting recitations, in methods of teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThird, we motivize the work in our schools as we vitalize the teacher, as we raise our\nstandards and render compensation commensurate with the spirit and quality of the service\nrendered. There is no other labor, vocation, or profession, that calls for so much of\nvitality, red blood, physical, mental, and moral health. When a teacher fails to find in\neach new day some new situation, some new stimulus and new enthusiasm; when she\nceases to teach with emotional vigor and her interests grow feeble and her actions mechanical; when she finds herself giving way to depression and allowing her mind to wander in\nthe dark places of the future; when her temperature goes down under criticism, and she\nfinds herself afflicted with the little worries that belong to her profession; when authorities do not act to please her, and she tells her little troubles to everyone she meets; when\nher conversation begins to run to the minor, and she sees nothing in the world but black —\nthat's the time, if the work of the child is to be motivized, when she must begin some selftreatment of mental hygiene, the time for her to join once more in the songs of her children,\nto feed her soul upon their youthful eyes, to entertain with one more new story, to read for\nherself one more romance, to take an excursion in the open air, or to challenge some friend\nto an outdoor game.\nWould you motivize the work in your schools ? Vitalize your teacher. Enlarge her\nsphere to include the aims and interests of her children; let her see her own life and her\nown life's work writ in large letters; let her make the lives of her pupils her own supreme\nobject, and devote herself unreservedly to the lasting good of childhood. Then your\nchildren will no more fail to respond to her appeal than earth's fertile soil will lie dormant\nunder sunshine and rain.\nFourth, motivize the work of your children by vitalizing your own aim. I suppose\nsome general end in education must be fundamental. It matters not in what terms you\nexpress it. Whether in terms of culture, knowledge, adjustment, experience, character,\ncitizenship, social efficiency; it matters not whether you industrialize, commercialize,\nvocationalize your courses, or whether your training becomes more and more practical and\nmore and more closely related to the prospective needs of the child, motivizing the work\nin our schools is opposed to any distant goal. The end must not be remote. The adult's\ncarefully worked out, final aim in education cannot furnish the pupil, day after day, in\nthe schoolroom with sufficient motive to do. Consequently, health, head, hand, and heart\nmay continue to constitute the fourfold aim of education : the first calling for the training\nof the body, ending in proper habits of health; the second for the training of the head,\nleading to a usable intelligence; the third for the training of the hand, contributing to a\nworking efficiency; and the fourth for the education of the heart, terminating in an abiding\ncharacter. Health must come first, for without health one is only an invalid. Intelligence second with health, but without intelligence, one is only an idiot. The hand, third,\nwith health, with intelligence; but without the training of the untrained hand, without\nskill in labor, and habits of industry, one is only a tramp, possibly a parasite, sucking the\nlife-blood out of society. The heart fourth, with health, with intelHgence, with efficiency\nin daily life, but without education of the heart, without character, one is at least a sinner\nif not a criminal. The world is still too full of invalids, idiots, tramps, and sinners, and\nyet if we motivize the work in our schools five days in the week, ten months in every year,\nin training for health, intelligence, efficiency, and conduct, we must supply the child from\nhour to hour and day to day with incentives to act on the immediate thing in hand. We\nmust meet the ever-present, conscious needs of the child — needs of the body for his health's\nsake, needs of the brain for his mind's sake, needs of the hands for very life's sake, needs of\nthe heart for his present and future's sake. Vitalize your subject-matter, vitalize your\nmethods of teaching, and vitalize your teacher, then finally localize and focalize your aims\non the ever-present needs of the child, and you will motivize the work of your school.\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nENGLISH\nADELAIDE\n\nSTEELE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN THE\n\nBAYLOR,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nlElementaiy\n\nSCHOOLS\nSCHOOLS,\n\nWABASH,\n\nIND.\n\nWhen we consider that from 40 to 50 per cent, of all the time in the\nelementary-school curriculum is given over to English and the subjects\nwe recognize as most closely alhed to it, while against no portion of the\nschool work — when results are investigated — ^is there greater and perhaps\nmore justifiable criticism, we are confronted with a proposition that is\nreally appalHng.\nNo subject, in recent years, has received more attention at the hands\nof the teaching force than English. Over a decade ago, more than a dozen\nnational and sectional conferences had been held to repair the gross evils\nin the teaching of English, while general and local organizations, clubs,\nand committees have continued to put forth untiring efforts to investigate\nand improve the work. The courses of study in English in the elementary\nand secondary schools have become the most elaborate of the curriculum,\nand the standing of schools has grown to be reckoned largely by the conformity ofthe English work to accepted standards.\nThe quaUfications of elementary-school teachers have been based upon\ntheir extensive preparation in the subject of English, a criterion that has\nled to the special pride taken by normal schools and higher institutions of\nlearning in their extensive English courses.\nBut, with all this, behold the results! Children still fail to express\nthemselves correctly, clearly, forcibly, and attractively in the mothertongue, either orally or with the pen.\nWe have dropped technical grammar and substituted language-lessons\nin the grades, believing that the concrete things of life and literature are\nmore fundamental, and that formal grammar with its logical and psychological bearings belongs to the mature mind as a study for judgment\nrather than a guide in speaking and writing.\nOral reading is being emphasized — to the sacrifice of silent reading, in\nmany instances — when the main purpose must be to improve speech rather\nthan to reinforce thought, while dramatization has been introduced into\nevery grade of the elementary schools not only to clarify the content of\nthe reading-matter, but to aid language as well. The time-honored essay\nwith its abstract subject of duty, temperance, honor, or liberty, has been\nput far out of sight and mind, and has been replaced by the daily theme of\na single paragraph or a limited number of lines dealing with, \"What I Saw\nin the Park,\" \"How I Spent My Vacation,\" \"Hiawatha and His Friends,\"\nor the \"Wanderings of Ulysses.\"\nThe old methods have been abandoned as too formal and abstract.\nWhat of the new ones ? Despite our great and honest efforts are we not\nstill emphasizing subject instead of subject-matter, form instead of content,\nand courses of study instead of pupils? When boys and girls refuse to\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGLISH\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n431\n\nvisit the museums and parks, as a pastime, lest they may be called upon\nto use this experience as a basis for language- work, have we improved\nsufficiently over the days when Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm compiled her\nbrief but pointed essay on \"Joy and Duty\"? When, with minds firmly\nfixed upon the form of speech, we have children repeat over and over again\nthe stories we have told them, as a sort of basis for a species of verbal gymnastics, are we sufficiently removed from the methods of technical grammar ?\nWhen they repeat glibly and in a stilted way, until all the fire of the living\ncharacters has been drilled out of them, the speeches put into their mouth\nby a dramatized text, are we giving the real substance ? Are we not still\nbowing down to the fetich of form while the content escapes ?\nThe child with his activities, interests, and needs, should be the basis for\nlanguage-work in the schools rather than elaborate courses of literature and\nformal exercises. From infancy, all spontaneous expression comes from a\nneed of the organism in relation to the environment, and whatever causes\na response to that need becomes the effective instrument for future use. '\nThe story of Helen Keller's wonderful progress in the use of language\nshows the superiority of the teacher who recognized neither laws nor\nformalities in the work, but found the method in the child, herself, with her\ninterests and needs. Remarkable method that gave a vocabulary of four\nhundred words in about three months! One of the happiest things Miss\nSullivan did was when she sat down to think and to ask herself this question,\n\"How does a normal child learn language?\" '\n\"Quite different,\" we say, \"the teaching of one child in the freedom of\nthe home and that of many in the schoolroom.\" True, but nevertheless we\nmust still admit that Miss Sullivan has developed some splendid pedagogical\ntruths, none of more importance than that which urges us to place the\npupil, frequently, in linguistic situations that correspond to his environment outside the schoolroom. With what profit might the language-teacher\ninquire into the content of children's minds and know something of the\nvocabulary used in their group activities. It is said that most high-school\nand college young people have two distinct forms of speech — one the style\nof speech used in the classroom, that is as unnatural as the etiquette of the\ndrawing-room, and the other, their own breezy, free, natural life.\nSplendid results for language work must surely come from such investigations as are being carried on at Clark University in child linguistics,\nof which Dr. John A. Magni, in a recent number of the Pedagogical Seminar,\nstates.\nTo promote a new linguistic pedagogy, based on established facts in child psychology, to arouse a deep sense of the imperative need of a better, a scientific method of\nlanguage instruction in early infancy, and all thru the different grades of school, to implant, from the first, a genuine love for the very best form of the mother-tongue and\ncreate an abiding interest in the hidden phyletic contents of words, phrases, idioms, and\nstructures of speech— these should be some of the practical results aimed at by the\nchild linguistics.\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nLet the teacher familiarize herself with the outside interests of the\npupils and relate these to the language-Work of the school. From the normal school in Oshkosh a circular letter has been sent out among the parents,\ninviting them to furnish articles constructed or projects undertaken by\ntheir children or those of their acquaintance, representing nothing but\nspontaneous effort. Emphasis is placed upon the fact that this is not an\nart collection, but one of crude pieces of work that to the child fulfilled the\npurpose of the moment. What a wealth of materials will come to the\nlanguage-teacher from such a collection and from such information. In\ndiscussing these things the children will need to convey to their listeners\ninformation concerning them — and language will come just in proportion\nto the zeal of their desire to convey to others the same keen enjoyment they\nfelt, in all these special enterprises. Each will know that his special interest\ncan become that of other children and the teacher only in so far as his\nlanguage will bring them into a like situation and this very appreciation of\nthe requirements will make the reflex mechanism of expression assert itself\neffectively.\nA spirited little third-grade teacher in our schools tells me of much\nvaluable information she has received from her pupils thru their outside\ninterests. Some boys spent a summer near an encampment of some\npeculiar religious sect, of whom the teacher knew nothing. She entered\ninto the spirit of their experiences and descriptions of these people, and\nfinally when she tested their information by authoritative data, she found\nthat the boys had depicted very faithfully these curious people.\nIt has been a pleasure to observe the rapid advance of her pupils\nin the use of their mother-tongue, and yet at no time have I ever heard what\nwas called a language-lesson. And, too, this young woman who loves to\ntalk and used beautiful language is wiser yet, for she knows how to keep\nsilent and invite speech without feeling that it is her duty to continually\nsuggest something about the form of expression. Her pupils are good\nlinguists because they are good thinkers, and this means they are given time\nto think before they speak, for the results sought are power and thought\nrather than definite amount of work. A man of the olden time once said\nof God, \"If you ask me I do not know, but if you do not ask me, I know\nvery well.\" A girl said to her teacher, \"I can do and understand perfectly,\nif you only won't explain it.\"\nSome years ago a young woman undertook to teach geography, in\na vital way. To prove the reality of the foreign life, she opened up a correspondence between the children far away and those of her own school.\nNational resources, activities, and games were described in these letters\nand illustrative material accompanied them. But what was the great\nsurprise of the teacher to find that not only was geography improved but\nthe language results were even more wonderful. The children had to\nexpress themselves clearly and accurately if they expected the small boy\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nENGLISH\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n433\n\nin Constantinople to make use of the ball and bat that accompanied the\nletters describing the game of baseball.\nIt has been said that every lesson should be a lesson in English\nand every teacher — no matter of what subject — should be an English\nteacher. Might we not say, with even greater propriety, that every lesson\nin English should be a lesson in something that has substance and thought\nand power-producing qualities, and that every teacher of English should\nknow much about other subjects ?\nBut what of the directive and corrective work of the teacher ? The\nlanguage of the teacher herself will always be a great force in correcting the forms used by the child. Literary models, when they serve a\npresent need, will be of value, in connection with a situation that has\nalready arisen. Let the teacher seek for such literary models as will describe the same things the children are discussing, and allow them to express\ntheir own views upon the forms they have used and those of the author.\nLet all correction be positive rather than negative, constructive rather than\ndestructive, coming after freedom and spontaneity of expression have been\nwell established and always supplying a need of the child. \"You have not\nmade your thought clear,\" \"I do not get your meaning — can't you say it\nsome other way?\" are better from the teacher than \"Say it this way, it\nsounds better,\" or repeating after the child the correct form. Good clearcut expressions from the children may be copied on the board and allowed\nto take root both with and without comment. There is an opportune time\nand method for correcting the child's speech and the wide-awake teacher\nwill scent such occasions and use them so that the spontaneity and freedom\nof expression will not be hampered thereby, and the force of the language\nmarred. Thomas Jefferson said, with truth, \"When strictness of grammar\ndoes not weaken the expression it must be attended to, but when by a small\ngrammatical negligence, the energy of an idea is condensed, or a word\nstands for an idea, I hold grammatical rigor in contempt.\" A good thought\nfor the teachers to dwell upon who continually impress the pupil with the\nidea that a complete statement is always an essential.\nGood written composition work will result when a need for it is felt.\nLetter-writing made real by communication with real persons for a real\npurpose, accompanied — when occasion arises — by the examination of\nsuch interesting models of letters to children as are furnished by those of\nPhillips Brooks, Walter Scott, and Richard Mansfield, will make written\ncomposition a necessity and a delight. Fascinating incidents and experiences tobe used in the future can best be preserved in writing, as the\nchildren will readily see, and must be couched in such language as will\nre-create scenes and events. Let children discuss freely their own and\nother written work, from the standpoint of the thought they wish to\nconvey. One child's story may be written out by him and taken home by\nanother child to be read to members of the latter's family.\nThe need for\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\npunctuation will thus be recognized and the principles and rules underlying itmay be wrought out in class as occasion demands, and confirmed\nby the marks in literary models.\nIs there a place for formal grammar in the elementary schools ? The\nyoung mind is constructive, its work should be synthetic rather than\nanalytic, but occasions might arise where some of the principles now recognized as belonging to the field of technical grammar, would supply a need\nof some child in his constructive work. Teachers should be ready to accept\nall material and reject nothing, no matter under what name it appears, if\nthey find it a helpful resource in securing language results. But I am of the\nopinion that formal grammar as outlined at present will need a thoro recasting before it will serve much purpose in the elementary schools. C. R.\nRounds in the June number of the Educational Review shows the absurdity\nof the varying nomenclatures in grammars, and the necessity for a thoro\nclearing-up of these metaphysical speculations on the names for wordrelations in a sentence. When in the examination of twenty-two grammars\nit is found that nine different names are given to the relation expressed by\nthe word \"good\" in the sentence \"John is good,\" and sixteen different ones\nare given for \"red,\" in the sentence \"We painted the barn red,\" it is no\nwonder that even teachers lose sight of the essentials of a sentence in their\ncontroversies over what to call certain words relating to these essentials.\nBut the great era for language-work will come when the entire school\ncurriculum has been modified by the omission of all that is obsolete\nand the addition of those things that pertain to group activities. Already\nhave manual-training and domestic science when taught in a vital way\nproved their helpfulness in these problems. When the school becomes more\nclosely allied with the home and social interests of the children, when massteaching has been superseded by that of groups and individuals, when\nteachers do not know less of literature, formal rhetoric, and grammar, but\ndo know more of the order of development of the parts of speech and the\nevolution of the sentence, more of the problems of linguistic development,\nwhen they think how the child learns language rather than how he shall\nbe taught language, and when language is no longer regarded as a thing in\nitself but as an instrument of thought, then may we look for a generation\nloving the great mother-tongue, taking pride in the use of her choicest and\nbest forms, appreciating from infancy the need of proper language for\nutterance — a generation whose speech will tend to shape itself effectively\nand correctly because of the thought and power-impelling impulse from\nwithin.\nDISCUSSION\nCharles S. Meek, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho. — An inventory of the\nprevailing errors in the speech of the children is a necessary prehminary to a rational\nattempt to improve language in the schools.\nBoise, Idaho, has thirty-five hundred pupils enrolled in the eight grades and seventy-\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nENGLISH\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n435\n\nfive grade teachers. This discussion presents a study of the characteristic languageerrors of our schools. No claim is made for the statistical merit of this report. The results presented are by no means statistically accurate. They only indicate in a general\nway the situation. No attempt has been made to tabulate the technical distinctions in\nlanguage, but the plan has been to deal merely with the glaring evidences of crude speech.\nAt the beginning of the second semester of the school year just closed, teachers in\nthe eight grades were requested to note the language-errors of their pupils and to classify\nthem as verb-errors, double negatives, mispronunciations that can be consistently called\nbad language-forms such as \"git\" and \"jist,\" misuse of pronouns, adverbial errors, and\ncolloquialisms.\nA preliminary report was made in February which was suggestive only in revealing the\nfact that teachers were careless or unobservant both as to the character and extent\nof the mistakes in the vernacular of their children, and almost helpless in devising means\nfor accumulating relevant data as to the situation. Yet Boise teachers are earnest and\nefficient, practically all of them are normal or college graduates and have had successful\nexperience prior to their employment with us. Teachers become immune to the crudeness\nin the language of their children, just as they become accustomed to poor ventilation.\nThe facts brought out by our preliminary report are not, I believe, such as to make our\nschool distinctive but are typical of what any superintendent will probably learn if he\ninvestigates.\nIn grade meetings we discussed the weaknesses of the first report, adopted a classified\noutline as a basis for the study, and agreed upon a uniform plan of scoring the errors observed. The teachers were urged to encourage their children to talk freely and naturally.\nI venture the assertion that our teachers now, for the first time, know the languageerrors of their children with enough precision to begin work effectively for their elimination.\nIn considering the data to be presented you should note that of the thirty-five hundred pupils whose speech furnishes the data all but eighty-six were born of English-speaking parents.\nThe total numbers of mistakes observed, classified and expressed in percentages are as\nfollows:\nI St grade\n\n8th grade\n\n1. Verb-errors: percentage of total of all\nclasses\n49.5\n2. Double-negative: percentage of total\nerrors of all classes\n3.6\n3. Mispronunciation: percentage of total\nof all classes\n16.8\n4. Misuse of pronouns: percentage of\ntotal errors\n18.8\n5. Adverbial errors: percentage of total\nerrors\n5.3\n6. Colloquialisms: percentage of total\nerrors\n8.2\n\nAll grades\n\n36.6\n\n40.1\n\n2.9\n\n3.4\n\n17.3\n\n20.4\n\n18.3\n\n17.2\n\n6.9\n\n5.8\n\n13.3\n\n12.9\n\nThe large percentage under mispronunciation results from the fact that some teachers\nscored words mispronounced because they were unfamiliar rather than because of a\ntendency to poor English. Double negatives do not represent as large a percentage of the\ntotal because they were not scored as frequently as they occurred.\nThe important fact is, however, that the percentage under each class of errors is\nrelatively constant for all grades. There is no evidence of a change in the distribution\nas the grades advance, and very little evidence of diminishing errors.\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nVERB-ERRORS\n\nAn analysis of the verb-errors brings out the following facts:\na) Confusing the past and perfect participles occasioned 48.8 per cent, of the total\nverb-errors.\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "436\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nh) The misuse of \"have,\" \"ain't,\" and \"got,\" 20.4 per cent.\nc) The failure of verb and subject to agree, 8.2 per cent.\nd) The misuse of \"shall\" and \"will,\" 5.4 per cent.\ne) The use of \"and\" with infinitive for \"to,\" 5.7 per cent.\nThese errors are also constant and uniform thruout the grades. The confusing of the\npast and perfect participles scores 52.8 per cent, in the first grade, 47.2 per cent, in the\neighth grade and 48.8 per cent, for all the grades. Misuse of \"had,\" \"ain't,\" and \"got,\"\n22.2 per cent, in the first grade, 18.9 per cent, in the eighth grade, and 20.4 per cent, for\nall grades. Failure of verb and subject to agree in number, 7.4 per cent, in first grade, 8.4\nper cent, in the eighth grade, and 8.2 per cent, in all grades. Sequence of tenses, 1.4 per\ncent, in the first grade, 4.2 in the eighth grade, and 2.6 per cent, in all grades. The use of\n\"and\" with infinitive for \"to,\" 5.5 per cent, for the first grade, 8.1 per cent, in the eighth\ngrade, and 5.7 per cent, in all grades. Colloquialisms, 7.4 per cent, in the first grade, 9.6\nper cent, in the eighth grade, and 8.6 per cent, in all grades.\nConfusion in the use of past and perfect participles represents practically 50 per cent,\nof verb-errors. The verb-errors are 40 per cent, of errors of all kinds scored. Confusing\nthe past and perfect participles therefore occasions 20 per cent., or one-fifth of all mistakes\nconsidered in this paper. Mistakes in past and perfect participles of \" see,\" \" come,\" \" do,\"\nand \"go\" represent 50.8 per cent, of all like mistakes, or one-tenth of all mistakes scored.\nNine other verbs, 33 per cent, of verbs or 65 per cent, of total errors. If the children\nmight be taught to use correctly the past and perfect participles of thirteen verbs, i6\\ per\ncent, or one-sixth of all the errors in speech would be eliminated.\nThe important facts disclosed by the data subsequently collected are :\n1. The field is limited. The poor English heard is due to frequent repetition of a\nfew errors.\n2. The percentage under each class of errors is relatively constant for all grades.\nThere is evidence of slight change in the distribution as the grades advance.\n3. This is evidence that no consistent or continuous eflEort at elimination of the\nerrors has been made. Confused by the fancied complexity of the task, the teachers'\nefforts have been sporadic and futile.\n4. The verb-errors form a very large percentage of the total errors in each grade.\n5. Of the verb-errors, almost one-half are due to confusing the past and perfect participle forms. A dozen verbs include most of these errors.\n6. The exact character and distribution of errors being known and a rational allotment oferrors for correction in each grade being made, a great improvement in spoken\nEnglish should result.\n\nSTRENGTHENING\nJAMES\n\nM.\n\nGREENWOOD,\n\nTHE WORK\n\nIN THE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nGRADES\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCITY,\n\nKANSAS\n\nMO.\n\n{An Abstract)\nSTATEMENT\n\nThe contention is that the children, instead of being put to work in\nthe elementary schools, fritter their time away in useless diversions,\nvirtually playing at school and deahng with inane platitudes which lead\nto educational bankruptcy. An easy education is now the fashion and\nthe practice. Every Httle bit of knowledge has to be thoroly chewed\nby the teacher and then spooned out in small pellets before the learner can\nassimilate it. There is great need of teachers who have backbone and\nsense, the competent, to save the children from the crowd of incompetents\nwho do not draw a heavy line between work and play, between playing\nat school and working in school.\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nI\n\nSTRENGTHENING\n\nWORK\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nGRADES\n\n437\n\nThe remedy is to put the child when he is old enough and big enough to\nstart to school to doing some things, and keep him at the important things\ntill these can be done fairly well. Not little things, but good-sized things.\nHow shall children be taught so as to reduce waste and wreckage to a\nminimum? Constructive ability should now be invoked. It is in great\ndemand.\nI will give some illustrations of what I mean in teaching geography,\ngrammar, and arithmetic. It is held as a cardinal principle in teaching\nthat a teacher who knows one subject thoroly and can pick out the essential truths in it, and can present them in such a manner that all the essential\nfacts of the science will cluster about them, is in the proper mental attitude to teach other subjects efl&ciently. To pick out the basic facts in\nthe elementary branches and to teach them well is a necessary prerequisite.\nChildren get their information in shreds and patches with many skips between, and the object of chief concern is to consolidate and solidify the\npupil's knowledge of each subject.\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nIn geography the pupil should be taught to interpret the history of a\ncountry and the chief occupations of its people from studying a good map\nof that part of the earth's surface. He should, by using the foot ruler\nand the scale of miles given on the map, noting carefully the latitude and\nlongitude of the country and making due allowance for the distance between\nthe meridians, determine by measurement the approximate area, and then\nthe density of population. By studying the watercourses, the elevation\nof the surface, the drainage of the country, proximity to the ocean, the\nprevaiUng winds, the killing frosts, the length of the cropping season, the\npupil ought to determine what occupations the people could engage in.\nHow to go from where the pupil lives to that country, the cost of transportation and meals, the nearest seaport, how to get to its capital, and what one\nwould see the people doing when once there, are important steps. The\nteacher or some of the pupils could give a historical sketch of the country\nand its people. This is only the merest outline, but it will serve to indicate how to study the sixty-odd different nations of the earth.\nENGLISH\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nIn the use of the English language, children should begin the classification of sentences, according to the essential elements composing them,\nnot later than the fourth year. There are only three kinds of sentences,\naccording to structure, in English: (a) subject and verb; (b) subject,\nverb, and object; and (c) subject, verb, and complement, or attribute.\nThe first is the simplest form of sentence in any language. Little children,\nif a type sentence is placed on the blackboard, will pick out of their reading-lessons sentences of this tj^e till they become very famiUar with this\nkind of sentence.\nNext they can attack the second type, and later the\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "43^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthird. Now they are prepared to use modifiers of these elements, and still\nlater to begin essential elements that contain phrases and clauses, and likewise of the modifying elements, at first simple and on to the complex.\nThis work should be gradually introduced. From the elements it is an\neasy matter to teach the parts of speech and their properties. In the last\nanalysis all compound sentences must be reduced to simple sentences, and\nno sentence can have more than three essential elements in it. The clauses\nconform to the types of independent sentences, so that the subject may be\na word, phrase, clause, or sentence; the verb may be one, two, three, or\nfour words, but not more; the object may be a word, phrase, clause, or\nsentence, and the attribute element a word, phrase, or clause; the same is\ntrue of the modifying elements which are adjective or adverbial. After\nthis the connecting elements may be introduced and will be disposed of\neasily enough.\nAll good teaching should lead up to general principles, and each principle always includes a multitude of particulars under it. In learning the\nstructure and use of our language, the pupil needs to get hold of and firmly\ngrasp a few fundamental truths as a working basis.\nOnly a few directions on sentence-making and sentence-testing are\nneeded, or are helpful.\nThey may be stated as follows:\na) No needless word or words should be used.\nh) No necessary word should be omitted.\nc) Great care should be taken to select the best word.\nd) Each word, phrase, or clause should be placed in the sentence where it stands\nfor the most in making the sentence correct, clear, and elegant.\nPRIMARY\n\nARITHMETIC\n\nExperience has demonstrated that pupils should begin number work\noutside of mere counting by using concrete material, interspersed with\nenough abstract mechanical work to give vigor and energy to the work,\nand that there is real danger in concreting number work too long. Whenever a pupil or a class has learned any table by doing it and has had a few\npractical, illustrative exercises to fix this knowledge in making it reasonably stable, a new topic should be attacked without delay. This applies\nto all phases of lumber, water, dirt, animal, vegetable, measuring, weighing,\ndoing arithmetic in the lower grades; also to getting the multiplication\ntable by sheer will-power rather than by long over-scientific methods\nthinly drawn out. Briefly, during the first and second years in school, the\npupil will have learned nearly all the essential and useful tables in arithmetic, ifhe is turned loose on them, and he will, if intelligently taught, get\nvery clear notions of whole numbers and fractions by comparing them with\none another. This is the way to lay a concrete-abstract foundation upon\nwhich to build a mathematical foundation, the object of which is to teach\nthe learner to think in symbols rather than in things as he advances in this\nstudy.\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTRENGTHENING\n\nWORK\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nCOMMON-SCHOOL\n\nGRADES\n\n439\n\nARITHMETIC\n\nThere is no other subject, unless it be English grammar, in which the\nsubject-matter is scattered in such reckless confusion as it is in arithmetic.\nThere is only one addition in arithmetic, yet there are usually five kinds\nof addition under separate heads, and so on of subtraction, multiplication,\nand division. Whole numbers and fractions are not different things. The\ndecimal point comes in with United States money; all length, surface, and\nvolume problems should be grouped and taught together under their\nrespective heads. The only new element is the ratio of the circumference\nto the radius of the circle, which value is also used in the sphere, cylinder,\nand cone. Instead of having some of the linear, surface, and volume problems in the early chapters in the common-school arithmetics, and the\nother kindred chapters in the back part of the book, all should be put\ntogether under denominate numbers.\nPercentage and nterest shou d occupy only about one-fifth of the\nspace and time that they now do in our arithmetic. Every principle in\npercentage can be taught in the first, second, and third grades before the\npupils ever begin a text in arithmetic. To say what part 6 is of 12; the\nrelation of 6 to 12; the ratio of 6 to 12; or what percentage 6 is of 12, all\nmean the same thing. A pupil should be trained early in his school life\nto identify the same thing under different names.\nSQUARES\n\nAND\n\nCUBES\n\nChildren thus early can be taught to square and to cube the digits, and\nto unsquare and to uncube them, and so of other numbers and of fractions,\nso that when they encounter these subjects in the back of the book they\nwill not be unfamiliar with their nature. Even the multiplication table\ncontains a dozen square numbers.\nMENTAL\n\nARITHMETIC\n\nAll pupils should have a tremendous drill in a good mental arithmetic.\nThey need it and they ought to have it, cranks to the contrary notwithstanding.\nCONCLUSION\n\nThe illustrations drawn from geography, grammar, and arithmetic,\nas solid studies, are sufficient to indicate how the subject-matter ought to\nbe selected, arranged, and presented by the teacher to the pupil, and the\nmethod of attack by teacher and pupil. Underlying all this should be a\nfixed and intelligent determination in the teacher's mind to make certain\ndata in each subject automatic in the mind of the pupil so that it is always\nready for instant use whenever necessary. This knowledge the pupil\nshould carry in his mind and not depend on his book for it. More time,\ntoo, in the upper grades should be spent in teaching the pupils how to study\nand how to pick out and get hold of the essential facts in each subject, and\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "440\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthen how to build these into a whole or unity. If this were done, the elementary pupils would come out of school 50 per cent stronger in their\nstudies and save from one-fourth to one-fifth of the time now given to\nthem, and be better prepared for high-school work or for taking up the\nburdens of life.\nDISCUSSION\nEllis H. Drake, superintendent of schools, Elkhart, Ind. — Among the numerous\nthings that might be mentioned which will strengthen the seventh and eighth grades as\npreparation for high-school work the following particulars may be enumerated : elimination\nfrom the various lines of work of the non-essential or less important work, and at the same\ntime the selection and emphasis of the fundamentally important; greater flexibility in the\ncourse; greater flexibility in the plan of promotion; the plan of having smaller classes; the\nprovision of special teachers for the backward and ungraded pupils; the provision of\nelectives as extra work for the bright children.\nIn addition to these, certain powers of the minds of children should be awakened to\na greater degree; especially the power to think and study to best advantage and the power\nof adequate written and oral expression of thought. The habit of diligent application\nshould also be fostered.\nBut I wish especially to emphasize in this discussion the plan of teaching, the departmental system as applied to these grades, more especially what I will choose to call the\ncentralized department.\nThere are good pedagogical and psychological grounds for this plan. The average\nchildren who have reached the seventh year of the course are in the adolescent stage.\nIt is a natural division point in their lives. New ideals and aspirations are taking hold.\nNew views of life are forming; life is becoming more complex and youth is becoming more\nversatile; it is groping after greater freedom and greater responsibility. Self-discovery,\nself-realization, self-mastery, and self-direction are growing and ever-increasing traits\nof character. If the high school proper is adapted to the needs of the adolescent age,\nthere is reason to believe that the departmental plan of the high school is the one best\nadapted to the beginning of this age, the seventh- and eighth-year grades.\nMany advantages accrue from the system, the chief of which are the following:\nFirst. — Better qualified teachers and better teaching. The average teacher is not\nqualified in all subjects. Special aptitude and love for a subject make a strong teacher.\nTo study a certain subject enables her to specialize along the line of her native interests,\nto become thoro, to concentrate her energies, and enrich and vitalize her teaching. A\nbetter quality of teachers is secured, as teachers of high scholarship are willing to take\nthis work.\nSecond. — It gives versatility to pupils. They come into close daily contact with\ndifferent personalities, each with elements of strength not possessed by the others.\nThird. — The scheme furnishes a fine preparation for the still more divided influence\nand more extended changing of classrooms and teachers in the high school. Children at\nbest upon entering high school are more or less bewildered and discouraged by the change.\nThe grade plan of work will prepare them for the high-school plan. Again, the more thoro\nscholarship of the departmental grade teacher will enable her to give her pupils some\ninsight into the higher work by showing the connection between her subject and the related\nsubject in the high school. This helps bridge the gap between the grades and the high\nschool.\nFourth. — The plan as a whole tends to bring about freer, more self-responsible children, ahigher degree of punctuality, attention, and application to study. Self-control\nand self-direction are fostered in pupils.\nFifth. — It tends to dignify the work of teachers and to put it on a professional basis.\nIt augments good qualities in an ambitious teacher.\nSixth. — The efficiency of a weak teacher is increased by the standard set by her colleagues.\nSeventh. — Greater thoroness of work results.\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nSTRENGTHENING\n\nWORK\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nGRADES\n\nEighth. — It develops a community of interests and purposes — a school (building)\nspirit, rather than a room spirit.\nAnd it is in connection with this point I wish to speak of the centralized department\nand its advantages. If these grades in the smaller cities are centralized in one large\n44]\nbuilding, greater interest and inspiration result. Pupils look forward to entering such\nschools, and the school spirit engendered holds them the longer and more closely to the\nwork. This plan furnishes a splendid opportunity to classify children in groups according\nto their ability, and thus the needs of bright arxd slow children will be the better conserved. Extra studies can be supplied for the bright and individual instruction for the dull.\nGroups should not be larger than can be cared for by three or four teachers. Each group\nshould contain both seventh- and eighth-year classes; thus the same teacher would have\neach class for two full years, carrying the same work thru both years. The outcome of\nthis would be more intelligent direction of the work and greater thoroness in the results\nachieved.\nLarge cities secure the same results by centering these grades of sections of the city\ninto single buildings in the several sections.\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S' MINUTES\nOFFICERS\nPresident — David Mackenzie, principal of Central High School\nVice-President — ^W. H Bartholomew, principal of Girls' High School\nSecretary — Elus U. Graff, principal of High School\n\nDetroit, Mich.\nLouisville, Ky.\nOmaha, Neb.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday, July 6, 1910\nThe meeting was called to order by Vice-President Bartholomew at 9: 30 a.m. in the\nCentral Congregational Church of Boston. The absence of President Mackenzie, due to\nillness, was mentioned by the chairman with regret.\nWilliam R. Lasher, Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N.Y., read a paper on\n\"Student Activities as Educational Factors in Secondary Schools.\"\nA paper was read by William McAndrew, principal of Washington Irving High School,\nNew York City, on the subject, \"The High School Itself.\"\nThe third paper of the program, \"The Opportunities of the Modern High School,\"\nwas given by Charles P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis.\nThese papers were discussed in three-minute speeches by J. Archer Smith, dean of\nJ. B. Stetson University, DeLand, Fla.; Principal J. Remsen Bishop, Eastern High School,\nDetroit, Mich.; Principal Thomas, High School, Newton, Mass.; Principal H. P. Swett,\nFranklin, N.H.; Principal William H. Smiley, East Side High School, Denver, Colo.\nA preliminary report of the Committee on the Cosmopolitan High School was presented by Spencer R. Smith, principal of Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago, 111.,\nchairman. This report was adopted.\n.The following resolution was adopted in regard to the articulation of high school\nand college:\nWhereas, A wide range of high-school subjects is now demanded in view of the\nvaried needs of society and the diversified interests of different students; and\nWhereas, Manual training, commercial branches, music, household science and art,\nagriculture, etc., when well taught and thoroly learned are worthy of, and justly entitled to, recognition in college-entrance credits; and\nWhereas, Colleges in certain parts of the United States continue to require two foreign\nlanguages from every applicant regardless of his dominant interest; and\nWhereas, This requirement, in addition to such work in English, mathematics, history, and science as is essential to the high-school course of every student, precludes the\npossiBility of giving adequate attention to these other subjects; therefore be it\nResolved, That it is the sense of the Secondary Department of the National Education\nAssociation that the interests of high-school students would be advanced by the reduction\nof the requirements in foreign languages to one such language and the recognition as\nelectives of all subjects well taught in the high school; and be it further\nResolved, That it is the sense of this department that until such modification is made\nby the colleges, the high schools will be greatly hampered in their attempts to serve the\nbest interests of boys and girls in the oublic high school.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the chairman:\nJ. Stanley Brown, principal, Township High School, Joliet, 111.\nE. E. Scribner, Superintendent of Schools, Ishpeming, Mich.\nJ. M. Guise, principal. High School, St. Paul, Minn.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n443\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nNATIONAL\nSECOND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSESSION— Thursday\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\nForenoon, July 7, 1910\n\nThe department met in joint session with the Departments of Science and of Rural\nand Agricultural Education in the main room of the Central Congregational Church, with\nVice-President Bartholomew presiding.\nThe general topic of the session was \"The Practical Aspects of Science in Secondary\nEducation, with Special Reference to the Introduction of Materials from Agriculture,\nHousehold Arts, Technical Industries, etc.\"\nA paper was read by William R. Hart, professor in Agricultural College, Amherst,\nMass., on \"The Pedagogical Viewpo.nt.\"\nW. J. V. Osterhaut, professor in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., presented a\npaper on \"The Scientific Viewpoint.\"\nThese papers were discussed with reference to the various subjects of science as\nfollows:\nPhysics — William Orr, deputy state commissioner of education, Boston, Mass.\nChemistry — Joseph S. Mills, High School of Commerce, New York City, N.Y.\nZoology — Chester Mathewson, Brooklyn Normal School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nPhysiology — Louis Murbach, head of high-school biological instruction, Detroit, Mich.\nA report of the Committee on College-Entrance Credit for Graduates of High Schools\nTeaching Agriculture, A. B. Graham, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, chairman,\nwas read by C. H. Robison, Montclair State Normal School, Montclair, N.J.\nThe papers above presented were discussed by Professor Hall, Harvard University,\nCambridge, Mass.\nThe Committee on Nominations made the following report:\nFor President — H. M. Barrett, principal, Pueblo High School, Pueblo, Colo.\nFor Vice-President — W. F. Lewis, principal, High School, Port Huron, Mich.\nFor Secretary — W. J. McCormack, principal. Township High School, LaSalle, III.\nThese officers were elected.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 1910\n\nThe department met in round-table conferences at 9:30 a.m. as follows:\nA. English — Chairman, Edwin L. Miller, head of the English Department of the Central\nHigh School, Detroit, Mich\n1. \"Two Ideals of Teaching Composition,\" Fred Newton Scott, head of the Department of Rhetoric, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.\n2. \"Rebuilding an English Course,\" Edwin L. Miller, head of English Department,\nCentral High School, Detroit, Mich.\n3. \"Essential Principles in Teaching English,\" Charles Swain Thomas, head of\nEnglish Department, High School, Newton, Mass.\nB. History — Chairman, George Edward Marshall, principal, High School, Davenport,\nIowa.\nIntroductory remarks by the chairman.\nTopic: \"What Facts in American History Should Be Emphasized Today in Secondary Schools?\" Discussed by F. R. Goodwin, Ohio; Harry P. Swett, Franklin, N.H.;\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.\nTopic: \"What Is the Proper Aim of History-Teaching in Secondary Schools?\"\nDiscussed by Miss Bucknam, J. P. Womack, Magnolia, Ark.; Mr. Moore; Mr. Christophelsmeier.\nTopic: \"Has the Historical Novel Any Value as an Aid to History-Teaching?\"\nDiscussed by C. R. Gates, Mary H. Leonard, C. C. Kohl.\nC. Latin — Chairman, Ernst Riess, Boys' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSCHOOL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n445\n\n1. \"The Oral Method in the Teaching of Latin,\" Gonzales Lodge, Professor in Teachers College, New York City, N.Y.\nDiscussion opened by John C. Kirtland, Phillips Exeter Academy, Exeter, N.H.\n2. \"Natural and Artificial Stimuli in Teaching Latin,\" Ernst Riess, Boys' High\nSchool, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nDiscussion opened by J. E. Barss, Hotchkiss School, Lakeville, Conn., and W. F.\nAbbot, Classical High School, Worcester, Mass.\nD. Mathematics — Chairman, Thomas J. McCermack, principal, Township High School,\nLaSalle, 111.\n\"Why Do We Study Mathematics; A Historical and Philosophical Retrospect,\"\nThomas J. McCormack, principal, Township High School, LaSalle, 111.\nDiscussion\na) \"The Practical Limitations of an Ideal Course in American Secondary Mathe-- ;•'''\nmatics, and the Educational Waste or Economy in the Proposed Sequences of ,§tt^ifis,\"'- nv^\nJohn Shaw French, principal, Morris Heights School, Providence, R. I.\n, ,=o>:-?r';--.:t;|^\nb) \"Preliminary Report of the 'National Geometry Syllabus Committee ' and its\nPractical Pedagogical Implications,\" William Betz, East High School, Rochester, N.Y.\nc) \"Applied Problems and the R61e of Formal Drawing in Secondary Mathematics,\"\nWilliam E. Breckenridge, Stuyvesant High School, New York City, N.Y.\nE. Modern Foreign Languages — Chairman, Frederick Monteser, De Witt Clinton\nHigh School, New York City, N.Y.\nTopic: \"The Direct Method of Teaching Modern Languages.\"\na) \"Modern Language Teaching in New England,\" Julius Tuckerman, Central\nHigh School, Springfield, Mass.\nb) \"The Direct Method of Teaching Modern Languages, and Present Conditions in\nOur Schools,\" Frederick Monteser, De Witt Clinton High School, New York City, N.Y.\nDiscussion opened by Carl A. Krause, Jamaica High School, Jamaica, N.Y.\nc) \"Writing in German,\" John A. Bole, Eastern District High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nEllis U. Graff, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nSCHOOL ACTIVITIES AS AN EDUCATIONAL\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\nWILLIAM\n\nR. LASHER,\n\nERASMUS\n\nHALL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nFACTOR\n\nIN\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nN. Y.\n\nIn bringing together the large numbers of pupils who constitute the\nattendance of the ordinary urban high school, the condit ons for a great\ndeal of student activity are of necessity created. The desire to associate\nwith others for the accomplishment of a common purpose is inborn. At\nthe secondary-school period of life lasting friendships are formed. Boys\nand girls of this age delight in forming clubs, and, as a consequence, organizations, some social, some athletic, and some scholastic, spring up in large\nnumbers.\nThe control and direction of athletics is now quite generally recognized\nas a school funct'on; but toward the many other forms of student activity,\nschool authorities assume various attitudes. Some authorities are in.\ngeneral hostile, the larger number are indifferent and allow these activities\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto develop and proceed in their own way with little or no direction or interference, afew actively support and encourage them in all their legitimate\nphases.\nIt is safe to say that in no school in this country is there a greater number and greater variety of student organizations than in Erasmus Hall High\nSchool of Brooklyn, N.Y. Since its foundation in 1896, it has been\nthe policy of this school to welcome every organization that arises among\nits pupils provided the purpose for which the organization exists is a\ngood one. One group of pupils formed an excursion club for the purpose\nof visiting manufacturing and power plants of scientific interest; another\ngroup of pupils formed the \"Monday Club\" for the encouragement of\noriginal work in literature; a group of girls who were doing especially good\nwork in mathematics formed the \"X Y Z Club\"; other groups formed\nfraternities and sororities for purposes largely social; and so on thru\na long and exceedingly varied list.\nToward all of these the principal has assumed a uniform attitude of\napproval and encouragement, the main restriction imposed being that\neach organization must secure some member of the faculty to be responsible in a general way for seeing that the affairs of the organization are\nconducted in a proper manner.\nThe result of this liberal policy has been that the school has become the\ncenter of a great deal of student activity, some of it purely social, some of\nit scholast c and connected more or less intimately with the work of the\nclassrooms. The field covered by the many organizations engaged in\nthis work is so wide that few of the three thousand pupils are likely to\nremain in school for the full course without having some part in it.\nA new and unique organization is the Arista League inaugurated during\nthe past year. It is an honor society. Its purpose is the recognition of\na high grade of scholarship combined with exceptional character. It has\naroused a great deal of interest, and has been extended to a number of the\nNew York City high schools. It is expected that this organization will\noccupy in these high schools a position somewhat analogous to that occupied by Phi Beta Kappa in the colleges.\nThe presidents of the sections have lately been organized into a congress of presidents. These class presidents are regarded as school ofiScers.\nThey take charge of their rooms if the teacher happens to be absent. They\nare elected by the pupils, but a recent regulation places certain qualifications of scholarship and faculty approval upon the candidates. This\nmovement is an attempt to secure student co-operation in the general\nmanagement and discipline of the school. As these pupils combine scholarship and school standing with the quahfications of leadership necessary\nto secure their election by their fellows, they undoubtedly form an organization which is a powerful factor in developing the right sort of school\nsentiment.\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nSCHOOL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n447\n\nThe class sections and the eight grades of the school are encouraged in\nany form of social activity in which they may choose to engage. They\nhave spreads and dances, and give entertainments. A rather elaborate\nlawn production of the Midsummer Nighfs Dream was given a year ago\nby one of the grades.\nThe work of the different organizations is unified by certain central\nbodies. The athletic and scholastic organizations are financed by the\nGeneral Organization which is composed of practically the whole student\nbody. The fraternities have a fraternity congress, and the class presidents\nhave the before-mentioned congress of presidents which unifies the activities which center round the classes as units.\nIn this way the school is able not only to keep in close touch with all\nof its many activities but also to exercise a salutary direction and control\nover them. Admission to many of the organizations is conditioned upon\nscholarship. This is true of organizations like the fraternities, which exist\nlargely for social purposes. Reports of the scholarship of fraternity members are made to the principal each term, and pupils who have lapsed\nbadly in their school work are suspended from these societies.\nThe interest in some of these activities is exceedingly keen, the rivalry\noften intense but practically always good-natured and healthful. One\nof the events of each term is the election of the officers of the General Organization. This election is conducted as nearly as possible like a general\nstate or national election. Each candidate must be nominated by a\nspeech in chapel before the whole student body; no other restriction is\nplaced upon nominees. The pupils are provided with printed ballots.\nEach class section constitutes an election district. The votes are canvassed by a committee composed of teachers and pupils and the scenes in\nthe big chapel when the results from the different ''precincts\" are being\nannounced is as animated and as interesting as are the scenes around the\nbulletins on the night of a general election.\nThe method involving public nomination of candidates and a full\nvote of the school by secret ballot works admirably. The pupils vote with\ncareful discrimination. A candidate must have character and standing\nin the school in order to win. Fine athletic ability alone is not sufficient.\nIt is found that publicity and a full expression of the popular will work in\na great high school much as they do in the larger world of poHtics. The\ngreat mass of voters are, in general, on the right side of things.\nAnother feature of this election consists of the elaborate picture posters\nused to set forth the qualifications of the respective cand dates. So much\ntime is spent by pupils in the preparation of these that it has been thought\nwise to encourage the making of posters of real merit. Accordingly, at\nthe last election, medals were offered for the finest posters, and awards\nwere made by a committee from the Art Department.\nSummed up in brief, the general policy of the school is so to control\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthese student activities as to eliminate any harmful tendencies that mayexist in them, and to make them an influence for good, not only to those\nwho have part in them, but to the school as a whole. The principal (Dr.\nWalter B. Gunnison), believes thoroly in these various forms of student\norganization. He believes that he has a much more intimate and personal\ncontrol over the hundreds of pupils under his charge, thru and by means\nof these organizations, than he could possibly have without them.\nThe general attitude of the school toward these organ 'zations and the\nparticipation of teachers in their work has had an appreciable effect upon\nthe general morale of the student body. Certain characteristics of the\nschool are traceable in a considerable measure to its policy upon this\nquestion. An unusually fine personal and friendly relation exists between the\nmembers of the faculty and the students. There is an intense and lasting\nloyalty to the school among its pupils and its graduates. The pupils are\ninterested in the school, happy in its work, and consequently remain,\nthus reducing the school mortaHty. Erasmus Hall has, comparatively\nspeaking, a small percentage of pupils who are discharged before graduation.\nSpeaking of the general problem, we must of course recognize the\ndanger that organizations composed of young and inexperienced pupils\nmay develop along harmful lines. Everyone knows of the difficulties\nthat have arisen in many parts of the country in connection with the highschool fraternities, upon which societies this National Education Association placed the ban of its disapproval in a series of vigorous y worded\nresolutions at Asbury Park. Everyone who has had to do with school\nathletics knows the many difficulties that arise in connection with that\nphase of school activity. How to eliminate bad games and the bad features of good games; how to organize games in which a large percentage\nof the pupils may particpate instead of catering only to those of unusual\nathletic abihty; how to create a proper spirit in athletics, i.e., how to\ndevelop good winners and good losers; all these are questions which tax\nthe patience and the ingenuity of those who have to deal with this work.\nMembers of scholastic and social organizations may be intolerant and\nsnobbish in their treatment of members of organizations other than their\nown. Pupils with a genius for organization and leadership, a genius by\nno means to be despised, may give too much time to school organizations\nand too little to their books. All of these are harmful tendencies, some of\nthem of considerable magnitude. All of them emphasize the need of careful\nregulation of student activities and in flagrant cases, of vigorous suppression.\nIt can be safely laid down as a general rule that the school that does\nonly repressive work in connection with these organizations will have little\nsuccess n dealing with them. It is better to spend a little time in building\nup good organizations than to spend a great deal of time in the demoralzing, animosity-engendering process of tearing down bad ones that have\ngrown up without direction.\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n449\n\nThe school which has this work well organized has the most efficient\nmeans for remedying its difficulties. It has been found possible at Erasmus Hall so to regulate social affairs that they shall not occur on evenings\nthat are followed by a school day and also that they shall not be continued\nto an unseemly hour of the night. The most efficient remedy for intolerance and hostility among these bodies is the central organization in which\nthe members of the various branch societies can meet and discuss matters\nof common interest. Nothing removes misunderstanding so readily as\nto be able to meet on some common ground those against whom we have\nan unreasoning prejudice. A spirit of toleration for organizations other\nthan one's own is worth going far to inculcate.\nThe field of this work is so broad that school men of the strongest likes\nand dislikes can find much of which they may approve. Few teachers\nhave ever entered heartily into this sort of work without feeling amply\nrepaid for their endeavors. A teacher who confines his life-work to the\nmere giving of instruction in the classroom is losing most of the things\nthat are really worth while in a teacher's life. It is far more delightful\nto work with pupils than to work at them. The days when the teacher\ndrives are unhappy days. Unfortunately these days are many. Corporal\npunishment has been aboHshed, but the air of many recitation rooms is full\nof the sound of metaphoric lashings as the teacher drives unwiUing pupils\non to their tasks. The changed attitude which pupils assume toward\ntep-chers who work with them in their organizations is alone worth the\neffort the teacher gives to the work.\nIt will be objected that it is not practical to encourage student organizations without destroying scholarship. None of us likes to be called\nvisionary or impractical. Yet there is thruout all society a large amount\nof narrow-minded egotism parading itself under the title of practicality.\nIf you don't want to be criticized, keep in the narrow rut of rigidly prescribed procedure. If your pupils dance and give entertainments there\nwill be plenty of thoughtless persons to cry out that your school is doing\nnothing but having a good time. On the contrary, even the social organizations, rightly used, can be made to promote scholarship. Dr. Luther\nH. Gulick has commented on the beneficial effect that athletics, properly\norganized, have upon scholarship. Boys will work hard at their books\nto be allowed to play on a school team. They will also work hard to be\nallowed to join a fraternity or to take part in a play if a scholarship requirement isa necessary qualification.\nThere can be no question but that French clubs, German clubs, history\nclubs, etc., are conducive to a very fine and effective degree of scholarship.\nIndeed, they form a very good measure of teaching efficiency. If there\nis an active, well-organized history club in a school, depend upon it some\none is teaching history in that school and doing it well.\nThe high schools of our country have had a wonderful growth. If\n\n1.\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "450\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe indications of the times point truly, they are to have a far greater\ndevelopment in the future. There is no reason why much of the lasting\ncharm that clings about the college should not exist in connection with\nthese great secondary schools. Much of it does exist at Erasmus. On\nAlumni Day, which occurs each year just before the Christmas hoHdays,\nhundreds of graduates and former pupils come back to greet each other\nand their teachers in a sort of school jubilee. The scenes about the chapel\nand on the gymnasium floor are exactly what one would expect to see at\na great college commencement.\nIf we are to educate these young people, using the word educate in its\nbroadest, fullest meaning, the more entirely we can fill their field of vision\nwith the school and its allied activities, the greater hold we shall have upon\nthem for the accomplishment of our purpose.\nLet pupils organize for special work. Let them organize for play.\nOrganized play is more interesting and effective than unorganized play,\njust as organized work is more interesting and effective than unorganized\nwork. There are but few things that a large body of individuals can do\nas a unit. We recognize this in society and so break into groups for play,\nfor work, and for worship; nor are we less democratic because we do so.\nWe shall not lose the democratic spirit in our schools so long as we insist\nupon equal opportunities for everyone to develop his own particular bent\nand so long as we cultivate a spirit of mutual respect and regard among\nour various activities.\nThe work of student organizations properly conducted gives vitaHty\nto a school. It has in it the spirit of progressive activity. It gives pupils\nopportunities for self-expression. It helps to connect the school days with\nlater hfe, for the enlightenment of any community depends largely upon\nthe virility and enterprise of its organizations, social, civic, educational,\nand rehgious. The school that fails to take advantage of the varied possibilities ofstudent associations is neglecting one of the most forceful instrumentaUties for effective education.\nTHE\nWILLIAM\n\nMC ANDREW,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nITSELF\n\nPRINCIPAL, WASHINGTON\nNEW\nYORK CITY, N.Y.\n\nIRVING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nI recall the sensation made by an analytical youngster in our high\nschool who announced that his question naturally divided itself into three\nparts:\n\nFirstly, what are we for;\nSecondly, why are we for it; and\nThirdly, whether we are for it or not.\n\nFirstly, what are we for ? Six weeks ago, in order to get an up-to-date\nreview, I addressed to the principals of high schools in the fifty largest\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n45 1\n\ncities in the country inquiries to which I received forty-five replies, representing, itmay be said, important public high schools of all parts of the\ncountry.\nIn answer to the question, \"What is your idea of the proper purpose of\na pubic high school?\" there is a diversity of opinion. Six principals\nanswer \" To fit for college \" ; one adds, \" This must be a secondary purpose.\"\nOf other purposes the following are nxentioned: Eighteen times is found\n\"to fit for life or living.\" Under this head seven men mention \"earning\na living\"; two, \"the development of mind and hand\"; three, \"moral and\nethical development\"; three, \"a training of as many powers as possible\";\nthree call it \"efiiciency\"; three specify \"the power to think\"; one includes health; one, culture; one, \"power to work.\"\nSix times occurs the purpose \"to meet the demands of the community.\"\nTwo of these demands are listed as \"citizenship,\" three as \"social efficiency,\" three times are given the purpose \"to do for older children what\nthe elementary schools do for the younger.\" One says, \"The high school\nshould give the best possible education.\" Two say the purpose should\nbe \"to offer the conventional studies.\" Five principals give no answer\nto the question, one saying that he has not time to tell what a high school\nis for, and another that he \"leaves the reply to younger and wiser heads.\"\nIf, just as an assayer of ores tests a mine from samples, I may be permitted to draw conclusions from the replies of the forty-five gentlemen\nwhose courtesy assisted me to prepare this paper, I would call attention\nto the large number of high-school principals who declare that the purpose\nof the public high school should be to prepare for life, or service, or efl5ciency.\nDo you recall that the last time our Association met in this city, Dr.\nEHot's presidential address was upon the thesis that the product of education should be an efficient person ? He analyzed the educated man as\nto his abilities: to use his hands, to enjoy nature, to possess knowledge,\nto express himself, to imagine, to grow in character.\nThe year before, President Cook had analyzed \"a clearly conceived\nindividuaHsm\" as the purpose of schooling. The year previous. President Beardshear chose the personal product as his theme; he showed what\nthe educated man should be as to head, heart, and hand. At the meeting at Asbury Park, President Maxwell chose \"Education for Efficiency\"\nas his subject. He showed the need of health, of deft hands, of accurate\nobservation, of correct reason'ng powers, clear comprehension, clean living,\nhappy disposition, helpful desires, co-operation with others, knowledge\nof the world today. He expounded the new demand upon education to\n\"fit for environment.\"\nObserve, please, that our forty-five sample high-school principals include those who declare that the purpose of their schools should be to\nsecure the efficient life. They include also those who think their busi-\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nness should be merely to offer the conventional h'gh-school studies. They\nembrace also those who think college preparation is purpose enough, and\nthose who have not time nor inc ination to formulate the object of a high\nschool This is a diversity of purpose, is it not? But if you examine\nthe means employed you will be struck by the remarkable uniformity of\nthe courses of study. All of these forty-five schools offer the conventional\nstudies — Latin, ancient history, a uniform list of Enghsh classics, algebra,\nphysics, French, and German. In these forty-five scattered schools the\nonly work listed by their principals as considered by them distinctive is:\ncurrent events (in one school), psychology (in one), public speaking (in\ntwo schools), astronomy and geology (in three). The uniformity of things\ntaught is impressive.\nSo is the diversity of results aimed at.\nIt is worth observing that all the presidential addresses to which I\nreferred declare the purpose of education to be a personal product, the\neflGicient man. It is notable that each address analyzes the efficient man\ninto his virtues and says these should be the product of education, but it is\nmost remarkable that we do not start with these virtues as our chief business and devise the best exercises we can invent or discover to produce the\npersonal result we say we want. If you should say to me, \"You are not\nso desirous of manhood as you are of algebra-manhood or Latin-manhood,\"\nI should have hard work to prove you wrong. If you should cla'm that\nthe purpose of our high school is chiefly algebra and Latin and physics or\nportions thereof, I could not successfully contradict you.\nWould it be fair to formulate the situations Hke this: A clearly conceived individuahsm, the perfect head, heart, and hand, clean living,\npatriotic citizenship, personal efficiency, etc., are the purposes of highschool education which we have in view when we write a paper on education, while the conventional course of study is our main consideration when\nwe are in the schoolhouse ?\nWhen I hear myself and other high-school men telhng the high-school\nteachers the different human efficiencies we are aiming at, all with the\nsame course-of-study formula, it reminds me of Calkins' Compound, a\nmixture of rhubarb, turpentine, and some other things that a Michigan\nman dispensed over the counter of his drug store. If you wished relief\nfrom a cold, you got Calkins' Compound; if you felt feverish, he gave you\nCalkins' Compound. There could be nothing the matter with you that\ndid not indicate Calkins' Compound. The druggist told his clerks, \"I\nhope you understand that your main business is to sell 'em Calkins' Compound.\"\nHere, too, are these forty-five high-school principals, and probably a\ngreat many hundreds more administering to many different sorts of children;\nsome of these schoolmasters think the greatest service is to fit their youngsters for another school; some that the power to think is^the chief desideratum, others that the strengthening of the moral nature is the main end\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n453\n\nin view, but their methods and material are all the same. And it is not\ngreatly different from what it was when our only purpose was to inform\nthe young mind with facts. James Sullivan has been studying the curricula of the schools for young men in the fourteenth century. He is sure\nthat any of those lads would feel quite at home in the course of study of\nthe Brooklyn High School today.\nSome years ago a certain Michigan man having amassed a large fortune\nset out to build himself a house. On the banks of the Hudson River he\nhad visited an imposing castle that appealed to him. His architects\nreproduced it for him. The Hudson River pile stood on the side of a*\nmountainous elevation surrounded by sharp crags, and by pointed cedars.\nIts towers, spires, and windows all responded to the suggestions of its\nsurroundings. But the site our Michigan man chose for his mansion\nmade with hands was a gently sloping meadow by the riverside amongst\nbroad flat-topped trees. The new building was a disappointment. Its\nrooms and arrangement were not suited to the Michigan man's family.\nThe whole thing was an expensive misfit. All the improvements attempted\nupon it seemed mere makeshifts. His project had not been based on any\nstudy of the location or of his own needs. Neither he nor his wide-awake\nwestern children could get satisfaction out of their antique imitation.\nThe majority of the opinions I quoted to you as to the purpose of highschool instruction seem modern and progressive. How about the ancient\narchitecture of our house? What was it built for? Not far from this\nspot nearly three hundred years ago the first American secondary school\narose, in close imitation of the English institutions for the preparation of\nthe sons of English gentlemen to enter the college which would make of\nthem members of the learned professions. In the course of time on the\nsame model with the same purpose similar secondary schools sprang up\nin America.\nMeantime on the broadest foundation with the most remarkable democracy ofpurpose common schools arose and flourished. At length the\ncommunities were rich enough to carry upward for children of fourteen\nyears of age and over, provision for education at public expense. There\nwere hundreds of private schools for the youth of that age. The nation\nadopted them and imitated them. That's all. The old purpose was to\nfit for college, to give a conventional brand of schooling to a select few.\nBut the only equitable purpose of tax-supported education is to educate\neverybody in any way that the people who are papng the bills want.\nNow if the old curriculum which was built for its narrow specific purpose\nis the best medium thru which to secure this broad democratic service,\nthen we have a miracle.\nThere does not exist in educational literature any analysis of the purposes of education which applies the test of fitness to subjects of the highschool course and compares them to other known departments of knowledge\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nnot in the high-school course. There is no treatise establishing the fact\nthat the high school has the best scheme for accomplishing its purpose.\nWhy then do we find this remarkable agreement of subjects in the high\nschools ?\nLet our sample forty-five high-school men replying independently give\nthe answer.\n\"Do the requirements of colleges determine the procedure in your\nschool?\"\nhighThese\nare the answers:\nYes\nYes; and it is desirable, or proper, or a good thing\n\n15\n5\n\nYes, too much, or we're going to break away; yes, to an unwarrantable extent; yes, sorry to say\n12\nThis makes: Who say \"yes\"\nWho say \" no \"\n\n42\n3\n\nOn examining the courses of study of those who say \"no\" only one has\na curriculum which differs at all from the curricula of some of the schools\nwhose principals say that the colleges dominate their procedure.\nKnowing, therefore, that the public high schools were originally copied\nfrom a college annex, we find that 93 per cent, of them are confessedly\ndominated by the colleges now.\nBut under their direction the colleges say we have not advanced; their\nproblems are different from ours, they themselves \"have no clear-cut\nnotions of what education is,\" \"vagueness of aim and lack of intellectual\nstamina\" mark them.^ The college has given us the fixed curriculum.\nThe subject, not the student, is their center. This gives us the departmental system of teaching with instructors who have speciaHzed upon a\ndivision of knowledge and know nothing of boyhood or manhood, which\nought to be their chief concern. They teach the same limited portions of\nLatin they taught twenty-five years ago; their English classics are limited\nto an arbitrary list. This makes them dull and narrow companions.\n•They travel in a rut. They are able to interest and hold only a few children\nas compared with the total number in the community.\nThe high school itself has now reached a place where indifference to\nits own problems, where reference of them to so unsuitable an authority\nas a college board, is inexcusable and base. It is dishonest for a highschool man to let the entire body of taxpayers support his school while\nhe expends that money upon a course of study that engages only a small\nfraction of the children. It is dishonest for a high-school man to take the\npubHc funds and fail to study the public wants and needs. It is inhuman\nfor a high-school man to see the majority of the children in his district\nunattracted to the high school while he makes no effort to try new methods\nand new subjects to get them in. We have assumed that our duty ended\n^ Harvard Report, 1905-6, p. 45; Cornell Report, 1906-7, p. 20; Carnegie Foundation, Second Annual\nReport, p. 28.\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n455\n\nwith the management of such a high-school system as we are pleased to\nmaintain. If hundreds of young persons in our district never desire to\ntake the course, no blame of ours. This is as if a minister would care\nnothing for the sinners in his parish. We have been calling our high-school\neducation a privilege for such as were willing to take it. We have repeatedly driven out those whom we have rated as unfit, lazy, inattentive, poorly\nequipped, of low mentality, etc., etc.,' thru all the long Hst of our own\nmiserable excuses for our failure to improve the people's children. Our\nhigh school itself as a secondary institution, its conventional rules and\ntraditions have been of more importance than the intellectual and moral\nlife of our community which hires us. We have driven away those who\nmost need us. God knows a child of fourteen is not as well equipped for\nthe service and enjoyment of Hfe as we can equip him if we turn our minds\nand hearts toward him and not toward scholastic bigots whose conception\nof a high-school teacher is that of a door- tender to a college hall.\nI am tired of the restrictions of an unproved curriculum. I am tired\nof being obhged to read the same books they read in South Hadley. My\npeople want to talk about the big things of life, the latest books, the newest\npictures, the extension of the suffrage, the conquest of the air, the aboHtion\nof war, the future of the repubUc.\nMy girls want to study the social amenities that make life more pleasant\nand friendship more enjoyable, they want to know more about music than\nthey do about algebra, more of present-day Italy than of ancient Rome.\nThey want to get in 1910 something they can use in 191 1.\nAnd I ? I want to serve them. I don't care a picayune for the horrible nightmare they call the scansion of Latin verse, nor for the kind of\nuseless pedant that sort of thing lets loose on hopeful expectant children.\nI want a company of wide-awake men and women concerned with sharpening the wits, perfecting the tastes, poHshing the graces, improving the\nhealth, and strengthening the morals of the children of my district. I want\nour school to be free to pick from the whole field of learning and practice\nwhatever kind of exercise these teachers can use to bring the children\nfarther along from what they are to what they ought to be. Can't we\nhave this absurd dogma that education runs in courses broken up ? Instead of the conception of a high school as a place where courses of study\nare doled out, can't we run one on the theory that a high school is a resort\nof young persons of fourteen and upward who are to be assisted one year,\ntwo years, three, four, five, or six years to grow into the best kind of man\nor woman we can conceive ?\nWhat is the reason a high-school principal cannot require his teachers\nto let expertness in physics or chemistry give way to expertness in manhood and womanhood? Instead of dividing high-school procedure into\nLatin, Greek, science, and history, why could I not divide it for actual\nclassroom work as presidents of this Association divide it for pubHc ad-\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "456\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ndresses into health, muscular control, manual skill, morals, mental powers,\nobservation, judgment, etc., oral expression, written expression, artistic\nexpression, taste, courage, patriotism ?\nIn other words, why niay we not make personal characteristics the\ndirect purpose of high-school instruction instead of having them made\nprominent only in conventions ?\nWhy must we confine education for efiiciency to the narrow means contained in even the broadest curriculum known in any American high school\ntoday ?\nIs it because the subjects in the curriculum are as effective for developing the boy and girl to health, morals, courage, taste, and patriotism as a\nteacher would be who was required to devise and give exercises directed\ntoward health, morals, courage, taste, and patriotism?\nNo one has ever proved that the subjects in the high-school curriculum\nare the best selections for the education of children.\nWhy may we not try any decent kind of exercise we can find anywhere:\nbiography, current history, Latin literature that moves the heart, Greek\nprose and poetry that isn't befuddled with a lot of microscopic grammar,\norchestra playing, physics that opens the wonder and dehght of science,\ngeometry that lays hold on life and makes the mind a useful instrument\nin other problems than those of points and lines, conversation, management of schoolhouse and grounds, musical appreciation, acting, abstracting and cataloging books, caring for babies, serving school luncheons,\nmagazine and novel reading, newspaper reporting, dairy-keeping, gardening, spending money, use of wood- and iron-working tools, elements of success in life, wage-earning processes and their financial rewards, making and\ncare of clothes, human conduct, politics, receptions and festivals, beautification of cities, anything that any inventive teacher can convince a principal is educative? Why, I ask, may we not try any avenue until perchance we have some point of sympathy with the unschooled boy or girl\nwhom now we abandon untrained by any regular application because our\nconventional assortment of keys does not unlock the door to his powers ?\nAre we afraid of experiment ? The path of medicine, surgery, engineering, and business is strewn with discarded practices. Must we be the only\nones to hang on to our \"eternal verities\"? Our present uniformity is\nscandalous. It means that either we are too lazy or too unintelligent to\ndevise any solution of the problems of the day, but must get everything\nby imitation. Must the thousands employed in high-school faculties go\nthru life without even attempting to turn their minds toward the discovery\nof new paths of progress? To every engineer the world cries \"invent,\"\nto every physician \"discover\"; to every high-school teacher custom and\nconvention whisper, \"Conform or get out\"; and so we see our most virile\nand alert deserting us by hundreds.\nAroimd us hover problems clamoring for answer; we see crime increas-\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPPORTUNITIES\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n457\n\ning, wedded loyalty renounced without a tear, literature and drama festering with immorahty, city governments weltering in corruption, business\nin the vise-like grip of monopoly and special privilege, while we, in whose\nhands are the citizens to be, consider the character of these coming men\nand women as a possible by-product or neglect it altogether.\nWhat would I propose? Exactly what any intelligent father would\ndo for his children. Set out to find the best that can be done for them, for\nthem, not for the course of study.\n\"Ho, schoolmaster, here's a boy. Help him grow to be a man.\"\nIf you can do it with algebra, hurrah for you, but don't feel tied to Calkins' Compound. If you can't improve him by conventional studies, find\ncut what you can reach him with and add them to your list of specifics.\nThat's what you are for, not for uniformity or system or the conservation\nof tradition, but for the children of fourteen years of age and upward, all\nof them, good and bad, who respect you or who laugh at you, who mind\nyou or who disobey. For you are a citizen of no mean city bounded by\na row of college elms, but the guardian of the future of a band of living\nsouls.\nTHE\n\nOPPORTUNITIES\n\nC. p. GARY, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF THE\n\nMODERN\n\nOF\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMADISON,\n\nWIS.\n\nThe opportunity to address the high-school section of the National\nEducation Association is a privilege and an honor that I keenly appreciate.\nFrom the standpoint of one whose interests and work are coextensive with\nthe entire field of public education, permit me to say, without flattery or\nexaggeration, that I believe the American high school is destined to be our\ngreatest democratic educational institution. It is even now scarcely\nbeyond its infancy. The outlook for the future puts to the test the imagination of the most gifted. The college and university are splendid democratic institutions; nevertheless, an attendance of four years at college\nis expensive both as to time and money and is steadily growing more\ncostly. Opportunities for the student to earn his way thru college are\ndecreasing, at least relatively. Unless there are great and unforeseen\neconomic changes college education will soon be largely a luxury for the\nwell-to-do and the rich. Elementary education brings all classes together,\nit is true, but only for the rudiments of an education and at a period when\nthe pupils are children, or but Uttle beyond. The high school, however,\nis a local institution where rich and poor, high and low, mingle in a homogeneous group. All are measured by the same standard of excellence,\nand that standard is one of merit and not of circumstances or external\nconditions. The education received in the high school will soon be a fair\nsubstitute for college training.\nIt is the people's college.\nBut recently I spent a half-day in a high school that cost, equipment,\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "458\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nbuilding, and grounds together, a million dollars. It was sanitary enough\nfor a sanitarium of the highest grade. The air that was furnished the\npupils was measured as to quantity, was washed by forcing it thru water,\nand was graduated as to moisture. The equipment for science work was\nsuch as would have been a source of pride to any college. So far as buildings and equipment go, it is marvelous, but tomorrow it will be surpassed.\nThe modern high school at its best is a splendid institution of learning and\nit is adapted to the needs of the masses. It deals with pupils at the age\nwhen they are forming the ideals, acquiring the intellectual habits and the\nphysical co-ordinations that will be theirs thru Hfe. Nowhere else, perhaps,\ndo we need teachers with such infinite tact, such genuine enthusiasm, such\nbig-heartedness, such a grip upon real Hfe, and such optimism for the\nfuture. This for the reason that in such a school the students' lives and\ncharacters are taking shape as never before and never after. Its course of\nstudy is almost indefinitely extensible. It may readily be extended downward two years, or upward two years. Truly, the high school has a great\nopportunity and a great future — unless the high-school men and women\nsell their birthright.\nThere are, however, hindrances of a grave and serious kind to the\nproper development of the high school. The one that impresses itself\nupon me most constantly and most forcefully is the unnecessary and inexcusable one of college domination. The colleges with their narrow and\nfalse ideals of culture, their unwillingness to recognize the educational\nvalue of subjects that possess direct utihty, their insistence upon college\nand university methods in secondary education, their insistence that\ngraduates of their own, particularly those who have specialized in a high\ndegree and whose interests are in the subjects rather than in the students\nthey teach, shall fill the teaching positions, have molded high-school education, so far as they were able, into a thing of narrowness instead of\nbreadth, into a thing of relative uselessness instead of large usefulness,\nand have thus dominated to a degree that has become in many states of\nthe Union an intolerable impertinence.\nThe first requisite for the proper development of the high schools of\nthe country is adequate freedom. High-school men of far-sightedness\nand determination must fight this battle to a finish. To do less than this\nis, in my opinion, inexcusable. The colleges of the country have no more\nright to dominate the high schools than the high schools have to dominate\nthe colleges. It is the business of the high school to study the deepest and\nmost genuine needs of its pupils and to furnish the kind of instruction and\ntraining necessary to meet these needs in the most direct and efficient\nmanner possible. The high-school men and women are on the ground,\nthey know what is, needed. They may get excellent help and suggestions\nfrom the colleges and universities, but those who are directly responsible\nfor the management of the high schools should accept or reject such sug-\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPPORTUNITIES\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n459\n\ngestions in a perfectly free and independent manner. Anything less than\nthis is, to speak frankly, beneath their dignity. Many high schools in\ntheir desperation are drawing a line of cleavage between those who are\nfitting for college and those who are not. They are establishing preparatory academies within the high school itself. This is foreign to the spirit\nof the high school. It is undemocratic. It is wasteful of time and energy,\nand, furthermore, it is entirely unnecesj>ary. That the course of study so\npursued is ordinarily not the best adapted to the pupils who are forced to\ntake the course under penalty of not getting into college would, I believe,\nbe the consensus of judgment of the great majority of those who have\nmade a comprehensive and thoro study of adolescent Hfe, its interests,\ncapacities, and needs.\nA second difficulty the high school experiences is the selection of suitable teachers. The difficulty is to find in sufficient abundance men and\nwomen possessed of the splendid natural quahfications necessary for a\nhigh-school teacher, together with broad and generous equipment in education and training, for the salaries that even the best high schools are\nable to pay. Many of our best high-school teachers teach for the love of\nthe work while recognizing the inadequacy of the compensation. The\nhigh school is in danger, on the one hand, of securing teachers with insufficient preparation, or, on the other, of securing men and women who have\nspecialized to such a degree that they have lost interest in everything but\nthe subject, and their minds are out of focus with reference to the subject\nitself. They look at their subject thru a microscope and endeavor to get\ntheir pupils to see it thru a microscope, when by looking with the naked\neye they might perceive the thing in all the beauty and wealth of relationships to other things and at the same time in sufficient detail to satisfy\nthe needs of the young student. We can well afford to dispense with a\nhigh degree of specialization if by so doing we can secure teachers thru\nwhom the great currents of humanity flow unimpeded and who are splendid\nexponents of the finest things in modern civilization. The most sagacious\nhigh-school principals today are seeking for teachers in whom personality\nis strong and sane and balanced and who have warm, five, human interests\nand can bring to the school some element of strength in addition to that\nwhich is their daily stint of instruction. It may be that the teacher has\nathletic interests and ability, or musical interests and ability, or the capacity to organize the students into societies that will aid in training for citizenship. Many high-school principals are today seeking teachers who\nhave had experience in elementary schools for the reason that they often\nseem to adapt themselves to the needs of high-school pupils better than\nthose who come down from the mountain heights of the seminary and\nuniversity research.\nA third difficulty is in the pupils, or perhaps one should say in the\nspirit of the times. It is manifest in Hstlessness, inattention, low ideals\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "46 D\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nas to thoroness and accuracy, lack of intellectual snap and verve. I\nrecently sat thru a class exercise in a high school that is famous thruout\nthe United States, and listened to the give-and-take of a recitation conducted by a man of mature years and fine teaching ability. He was dealing with a subject that was of intense interest to me and of such a nature\nthat I can scarcely understand how young people could have failed to be\ninterested. Yet probably at no time was half the class attending with\nmore than one ear, and several members were chewing gum and occasionally communicating with those near them about matters that did not pertain to the lesson. When pupils were called upon they made a stab at the\nanswer. Their replies were usually incorrect and yet I think it caused\nthem little, if any, embarrassment. Humiliation at failure rarely seems to\nbe the attitude of the high-school student. He seems to take failure as\na matter of course. Indeed, I am not sure but that the college student's\nattitude of distinct disapproval of anything approaching earnestness or\nenthusiasm in study on the part of any members of the class has reached\nand permeated the majority of our high schools. Such unpleasant epithets\nas grind, shark, and the like are hurled at the earnest high-school student\nas they are at the earnest college student; but all this is deeper seated than\nthe school itself. As a nation we are a slap-dash, hit-or-miss people as\ncompared, for instance, with the Germans. As a people we lack capacity\nfor taking pains and we have an amazing self-complacency. The typical\nAmerican child is quick, keen, alert, but shallow, lacking in self-control\nand thoroness. He accomplishes much after a fashion, but what he does\nis slipshod and lacks precision. He almost knows a lot of valuable things,\nbut falls short at the critical point. There is a supplementary cause for\nthis state of affairs in connection with the high school, and that is that the\ncolleges have demanded so much of the high school that the best it can do\nis to give a smattering — the shadow of knowledge, but not its substance.\nThe high school has also, because of its relation to the colleges, come to\nape, to its detriment, many college ways. Perhaps the worst example is\nthat of secret societies within the high school. The high school should by\nall means be made thoroly democratic. Those in authority should effectively insist on simplicity of dress, should root out all clannishness, and the\nclique spirit, and should train all to love justice, equality, and fair play.\nThe ends of the school are social ends. The school is intended to fit the\nindividual to perform his part in the social whole.\nThe moral aspect of the high school presents difficulties of a profound\nand serious nature. The high school should distinctly be an instrument\nof social progress, but this it cannot be unless it learns the art of developing\nideals that have a controlling force in the lives of its students. At present the\nschool, to a large degree, lacks motivation. The school life is not connected\nin the life of the pupil, in any vital sense, with what has been or what is to\nbe in his experience. The work thus suffers from isolation, whereas it should\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPPORTUNITIES\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n461\n\nuse every atom of valuable experience that the child has undergone and it\nshould be related intimately to the life the pupil is to live in society. In\nthis way only can the high school be made thoroly moral and truly valuable.\nThe needs of the high school are many if it is to reach the full measure\nof its greatness. As before remarked, it must have freedom as the essential condition of growth. It will then, J believe, expand in the same general way that the university has expanded, guided and limited only by the\nneeds and the financial ability of the community supporting it. There\nis no reason to suppose that ultimately every vitally important industry\nof the community will not bft represented, in its fundamentals, at least,\nin the high school, and I trust the time will come when every student will\nby compulsion, if not by choice, carry two lines of work, one academic, the\nother industrial. The industrial phase need not occupy more than a\nquarter of the time, but it should be a part of the curriculum of every\nstudent for the sake of its physical effect, for the sake of its mental effect,\nand for the sake of its moral or social effect. The school must do its share,\nand that a large share, in teaching the rising generation to work and to take\npride in work that is well done. No better opportunities can be found than\nin this connection, to teach lessons of economy as against extravagance,\nthe dignity of labor as against the parasitism of idleness. A heavy responsibility rests upon the high school, and the burden will grow heavier, as\ntime goes on, for the physical welfare of its pupils. Industrial training,\ngymnastics, athletics, play, are already banking large in the minds of those\nwho view, their duties toward the school most intelligently. Sanitation\nand hygiene in all their aspects are rapidly becoming matters of the greatest solicitation and for the most expert advice. That the needs are now\ngreat, we have a practical illustration in the fact that a third or more of\nthe girls in one of our great coeducational universities have serious spinal\ncurvature for which, doubtless, the lower schools are largely responsible.\nIn the same university it has been shown that boys that come from the\nfarm are larger and stronger than the boys who have grown up even in\nsmall cities and villages. There is probably good authority for saying that\nat least 25 per cent, of the students who drop out of high school do so because of ill health or physical defects. Biology tells us that the vital organs\nhave in the course of evolution developed in response to the needs of the\nmuscular system thru which the animal acted upon its environment, both\noffensively and defensively. If this is the natural history of the vital organs\nof the human body, as it doubtless is, we can readily understand that the\ndisuse of the muscular system which is coming about in modern civilization\nwill, if permitted to do so, result in a reverse process of degeneration and\natrophy of the vital organs. We must promptly set about it to preserve\nfor the human race good physique, good digestion, and sound health. The\nvital organs and nervous system must be so co-ordinated that the outcome\nis grace, the poetry of motion.\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "462\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONf ASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIn the JFuture, as never before, the high school must aid pupils in finding\nout what they are good for. To fail to do this thru ignorance or negligence\nwill be to fall short of a vital duty to the individual and to society. Thus\nfar the school has largely tried to answer the question whether the child is\nadapted to the academic and professional life. This will always be an\nimportant question, but henceforth it will be only one of many. My time\nis too limited to do more than touch upon a few of the more important\nphases of the high-school question. I wish to make a final suggestion.\nAn unparalleled opportunity lies immediately before you. If you are to\nmeet this situation in a large and compreherfsive way you must, I believe,\ntake counsel, not of the colleges and universities, but of those who broadly\ncomprehend the general welfare of society. I advocate no narrow, cramping, utilitarian scheme, but one that appeals to all that is found best and\nmost worthy in each and every child that passes within the portals of the\nhigh school. The teachers who meet him there must be free to give him\nthat which will best develop him; and when this is done and he wants to go\nto college he must be granted the privilege. The best and wisest course of\nstudy for him in the high school is the best preparation for college. What\nthis course is the high-school faculty and the pupil should know if anybody\nknows. The college knows the child only as an abstraction and cannot\npossibly prescribe for him except on an absent-treatment basis.\nDISCUSSION\nHarry P. Swett, principal of high school, Franklin, N.H.— Our educational system\nmust be regarded as a unit. In endeavoring to strengthen the position of the high school,\nwe should not allow it to be alienated from any part of the system whether above or below.\nThe high school is asserting itself thruout the country, but, at the same time, the colleges\nare looking to the high schools and are asking the teachers in them what changes they\ndesire as to college-entrance requirements. The answer is too often indefinite and uncertain. Ifwe teachers will have a definite reply, the colleges will certainly heed it.\nDr. Harris has said that much cannot be expected from a study until its subjectmatter has been reduced to pedagogic form. We cannot hope to gain acceptance for any\nsubject before it has attained such form.\nI have this one suggestion only: if the high-school teachers will introduce studies and\nsystematize them so that they can be defended in the face of any opposition, and if the\nclaims of these studies are then clearly presented to the colleges, the latter will gladly\naccept them in their entrance requirements.\nOf this there is no doubt.\n\nPRELIMINARY\nSPENCER\n\nR.\n\nREPORT\nSMITH,\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE\nTAN HIGH SCHOOL\n\nPRINCIPAL, WENDELL PHILLIPS\nCHICAGO, ILL., CHAIRMAN\n\nON COSMOPOLIHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe commission appointed in concurrence with the resolution adopted\nby the Secondary Education Department at the Cleveland meeting of the\nNational Education Association begs to submit herewith a preliminary\nreport.\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n463\n\nThe functions of the commission are defined by the resolution, as\nfollows:\nResolved, That a commission of seven be named by the Department of Secondary\nEducation to make a study of the conditions surrounding our city high schools with a view\nto the development of a rational system of constants, the reorganization of the electives\non the basis of study value, and the preparation of a curriculum that may be considered\nbasal in the organization of a system of study foj: the cosmopolitan high school.\nFurther, That this commission co-operate with a similar committee from the Department of Technical Education and with such other bodies as may be interested in the work\nof secondary schools.\nAnd, further. That this commission be herewith empowered to invite the co-operation\nof other organizations thru invitation to appoint committees of conference.\n\nIt is the aim of the commission to make a thoro study of the present\nstatus of conditions environing our cosmopolitan high schools, and, when\nthese have been properly collated, to base recommendations thereon with\nthe view to developing a curriculum in which the proper emphasis will be\nplaced upon the value of the respective subjects taught and their proper\nplace in a given course of study, several such courses being organized, so\nthat the whole curriculum may be so varied and flexible as to meet the social\nand economic needs of the constituents of the schools.\nThe chairman of the commission sent to the several members a proposed\nprogram of study for a cosmopolitan high-school curriculum, asking for\nemendations. Many valuable suggestions have been received. These\nsuggestions have been incorporated in the program of study herewith submitted. Later the work will be divided among the membership, a questionnaire prepared to be sent to the several principals for answers, conferences\narranged with bodies interested in similar economic and social questions,\nand, in short, all the machinery set in action necessary to complete in a\nsatisfactory manner the work undertaken.\nYou are asked to consider briefly an outline of the plan of the commission\nwith such suggestions as it may seem wise to offer at this time in furtherance\nof such plan.\nThe high school is a social institution. As such the high school influences\nand is influenced by other social institutions. It is a vital factor in society.\nIt has been handicapped by tradition and is in danger of foreign invasion.\nThe problem is ours. How shall we solve it ? This study is an attempt at\na solution and its success will depend much upon the enthusiastic support\nof high-school principals and teachers thruout the country.\nDr. Dewey of Columbia University, Dean Davenport of the University\nof Illinois, Professor Bolton of the University of Iowa, and others have\npronounced for the wider high school, against the divorcement of the technical or commercial high school from the old academic high school, for\nequal rights for all the youth of our land to all the facilities secondary\neducation is willing to offer.\nTo this end it is intended to study:\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "464\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nI. The plant and its maintenance.\na) Comparative cost of building high schools: academic, technical and manualtraining, commercial, combined.\nh) Comparative cost of equipment of high schools: academic, technical and\nmanual-training, commercial, combined.\nc) Comparative cost of repair of high schools: academic, technical and manualtraining, commercial, combined.\nd) Comparative cost of teachers in high schools: academic, technical and manualtraining, commercial, combined.\nII. Organization.\na) Teachers: how appointed, sex, salary, and social standing, treatment of the\ninelBficient.\nh) Pupils (thruout this report the number by sex is desired) :\n1. Number in the city between fourteen and twenty-one years of age; number\nof these in school, public or private, by grades and age; number in private\nand public institutions, in hospitals, or out of school on account of ill health;\nnumber at work in factory, store, office, at home. Reason for working,\ntraining therefor, remuneration; attendance upon school out of working\nhours.\n2. Comparison of enrollment in high school by years with theoretical number\nthat ought to attend, from 1900 to 19 10. The same study may be made of\nthe seventh and the eighth grades as a preparation for later comparison.\n3. Comparison of number graduated from the eighth grade and those that\nentered the ninth grade, 1900 to 1910. Same for graduation from the\nseventh to the eighth grade. Comparison of graduates with non-graduates\nas above (for a given number of years).\na) How many pupils entered your school in September, 1900, 1901, 1902,\n1903, 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909?\nb) How many pupils graduated in 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909, 19 10?\nHow many pupils in the second and third year respectively in June, 19 10 ?\nc) Causes of habitual absence:\ni) Physical condition.\n2) Economic condition.\n3) Distance from school.\n4) Scholarship.\n5) Age.\n6) Grade.\nd) Members leaving school or discharged without graduation during the\nten years above indicated.\ne) Relation of elimination of pupils to :\ni) Regular attendance.\n2) Need to go to work.\n3) Change of schools.\n4) Overage.\nc) The pupil and the curriculum.\n1. Number pursuing different high-school subjects offered in first, second, third,\nand fourth years, for the year ending June, 19 10.\n2. Number gaining certain standings in such subjects. 100-90; 89-75; 7470; 69-50; 49-0.\nIndicate by semesters — first and second for same year.\n3. Passing-mark of school reporting.\n4. Percentage of failure in subjects pursued.\n5. Msthod of promotion. Number of promotions February, 1910. Relation of promotion to membership (not enrollment) June, 19 10.\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n465\n\n6. Intensity of study — number pursuing complete courses in Latin, mathematics, history, commerce, manual training, household arts, June, 19 10.\nIn report indicate number of years offered.\n7. Habit of failure. What proportion of those failing in subjects as indicated\nabove has taken the subject a second time or has failed in other subjects? (Considering failures it is noted that \"those who are making\nreasonable progress in a study but discontinue it for good and sufficient\nreasons — and those who drop out 6f school for reasons other than scholarship\nshould not be reckoned as failures.\" The latter are provided for under\nelimination.)\n8. What means do you employ to keep your pupils in school ?\nIII. Relation of parent to pupil: effect on pupil and curriculum.\na) Nationality of the parents of the pupils in the high schools compared with the\nnationality of those of the same age not in the high schools. To be gotten\nfrom reports of Immigration Bureau, school census, etc.\nh) Occupations of the parents of the pupils in high school.\nIV. What means do you employ by way of medical inspection to prevent elimination\nof pupils or to promote survival ?\nV. High school and college.\na) Number prepared for college, higher, technical, and normal schools, 1900-19 10.\nh) Related negatively is the suggestion that a study be made of the activities\npursued by high-school graduates who do not continue their studies formally\nbeyond the high-school. May it not be possible for several principals to\ngather information on this subject ?\nc) College influence.\n1. To what degree is the course of study based on what colleges want?\n2. To what degree is it based on consideration of capacities and needs of\nchildren ?\n3. To what degree is college domination evil? To what degree good?\n4. To this end a comparative study of the changes in college requirement and\nthe high-school curriculum is suggested.\nd) Examination system.\ne) Certificate system.\nVI. High-school control: state, county, city — standardization.\nVII. Self-directed work, social and cultural. A mode of development of responsibility.\nVIII. Study values.\na) Constants, basis of selection.\nh) Elective subjects, or\nc) Elective groups so arranged as to meet the demands of environment and choice.\n\nThis study naturally brings one to a consideration of the curriculum.\nWhen the above data have been collected, there follows the task of developing a curriculum for these schools that shall meet the demands of the varied\nconstituency of the city high school. It is the purpose of the commission\nto send a questionnaire based on this report to all cities of a size to warrant\ntwo high schools, the inference being that in all other cities the cosmopolitan\nhigh-school curriculum will be found, or at least that the conditions found\nin our large cities will not be found therein and that therefore the local\ndemand will be more apt to be met.\nIn addition to the work outlined above it is the hope of the commission\nto fulfill the further instructions of the resolution by co-operation with a\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsimilar committee from the Department of Technical Education and with\nall other bodies interested either socially or economically in the work of the\nsecondary schools. From the Immigration Bureau, the National Child\nLabor Committee, the Bureau of Labor, the Bureau of Education, and the\nBureau of Municipal Research of New York we shall seek advice and\ninformation.\nIn all we shall bear in mind what Mr. McAndrew of the commission\nwrote to the chairman in February:\nI. The public high school is the natural resort of children thirteen and fourteen years\nof age and upward.\n^. Its duty is to give the best kind of service to those children.\n3. What the nature of this service is may be safely left to their parents as reported\nby public-education committees, clubs, etc., presenting suggestions to boards of education.\n4. The persons employed as teachers and principals of high schools erred in preferring allegiance to a conventional line of procedure established by college examination\nboards and others but only secondarily planned for service to the children of the community.\n\nIn behalf of the commission,\nRespectfully submitted,\nSpencer R. Smith, Chairman\nTHE\n\nPRACTICAL\n\n/.\n\nTHE\n\nASPECTS OF SCIENCE\nEDUCATION\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nVIEWPOINT\n\nWILLIAM R. HART, PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASS.\n\nInstruction in scientific knowledge has two motives. These motives\nare quite distinct and can be rather clearly defined. One of these motives\nis commonly spoken of as practical or applied. This motive for the study\nof science is clearly indicated in the statement of the topic of this program.\nThe statement of the topic carries a pretty clear implication also that the\nstudy of science has a non-practical aspect. That is to say, we study science\nwith reference to the applications we intend to make of the knowledge, or\nwe study it for the sake of the knowledge as a possession and for its own sake\nwith no intention of applying the knowledge in our specific vocation. Each\nof these aspects of science study has its pedagogical viewpoint.\nMost teachers of science during the past thirty or forty years have been\nso absorbed in the fascinating hunt for facts, and the proofs for other facts,\nthat they were hardly aware that lying alongside of the science of facts is'\nthe science of teaching those facts. When one of these devotees has occasionally risen from his microscope or put aside his test tubes long enough to\nmake an utterance on the subject of method, his creed is very brief and to\nhimself perfectly clear.\n\nReduced to untechnical terms it says, \"Apply the\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nVIEWPOINT\n\n467\n\nsense organs to the facts and let the mind do the rest.\" This is a comfortable doctrine. It puts the responsibility upon the learner, where the\nteacher of \"science for science's sake\" thinks it belongs. This makes it\neasy of acceptance. The more or less unconscious acceptance of this simple\ncreed accounts in large measure for the collapse of \"object of teaching\" a\ngeneration ago, for the drooping of nature study today, and for the waning\ninterest in secondary science in recent years. The easy-going doctrine that\nif the facts are once lodged in the mind, the mind will take care of them is\na fruitful source of trouble; more so in science teaching than in almost any\nother field. The doctrine assumes that the mind is always in a receptive\nmood for this or that class of facts which the teacher finds it convenient to\npresent, or that come next in the textbook arrangement of material. The\nmere incident that one fact is related to another is no guaranty that the mind\nwill make the proper use of the one merely because it may be in possession\nof the other. Nearly all that has been said on the subject of apperception\nhas been a sort of striving to show that the incidental connection of facts is\nnot the true warrant for their being presented in sequence, or even in conjunction. The real warrant for presenting to the mind of the learner a\ngroup of facts lies in the mind itself. The systematized text in a specialized\nscience must, for purely practical reasons, disregard the laws of acquisition\nand arrange the matter logically. The highly trained specialist unconsciously thinks of his field of facts as being logically arranged. He sees the\nfield from the standpoint of achievement and possession rather than from\nthe standpoint of acquisition. In many cases, perhaps in most, this mental\nattitude renders him an indifferent, if not a poor, teacher of those who are\nstill in the earlier stages of acquisition. His sense of the use or application\nof the knowledge has been in large measure submerged in his vision of laws,\nprinciples, and relationships. Not a few of us have felt a surge of impatience\nat the oft-recurring question, \"What is the use of it ?\" No doubt many of\nus have tried to justify our procedure on other than merely useful grounds,\nor have resorted to the argument that the principles and laws are the only\nreally useful things about a subject. This is a valid statement as among\nourselves, but it is unfair to the immature mind, because it silences rather\nthan satisfies the inquiry.\nThis brings us to the threshold of the problem of the order of presentation, whether it shall be logical or psychological ; whether it shall be systematic or, as some would say, haphazard; whether it shall be thru principles\nto their application or thru applications and concrete cases to principles.\nThe general arrangement of the program for this session raises the whole\nquestion of correlation. Correlation has been discussed hitherto largely by\nthe administrators of educational machinery and professional educationists.\nIt seems a good omen that the problem of correlation is coming to be dealt\nwith by those interested in the teaching of science as well as by those more\nespecially interested in the science and art of teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\nThe grand divisions of the field of science as well as the increasing importance ofthe chief subdivisions tend more and more to make correlation\na persistent problem for pedagogy. The more especially is this true because of the growth in magnitude of some of the aspects of a number of the\nsubdivisions under such names as economic entomology, soil physics,\ndomestic science, and the like.\nSuch a title as economical entomology, by the way, prompts the inquiry\nas to whether or not the solution of the vexed problem of correlation may not\nlie in the domain of applied science rather than in the field of pure pedagogy\nor of pure science. If it should turn out so, then correlation is more a\nproblem for sociology than for either pedagogy or science. The mere proposal raises a strong presumption that no complete solution of correlation\nis attainable without considering the testimony and claims of sociology;\nwithout pressing the inquiry too far, some considerations seem pertinent in\nthis connection.\nThese may be presented in the form of questions.\nIs it unfair to say that most of the attempts looking toward the correlation of subjects have sought their basis in relations which exist in the\nsubjects themselves ? Have we not tried to tie up history with geography\nbecause of the mere incident that an event in time had to happen somewhere\nin space ? Have we not tried to correlate nature work and reading simply\nbecause someone had written something interesting about natural phenomena? All schemes for the correlation of studies will be more or less\nfutile which find their only justification in the fact that the subjects correlated occasionally occupy the same or contiguous territory. This is true\nwhether the correlation is attempted by the educationist or by the scientist.\nSuch a process instead of being a vital correlation is merely putting together\nin an artificial way parts of subjects which had been artificially pulled asunder in the process of building up groups of knowledge. To merge the study\nof history with civics in the name of correlation is a barren subterfuge. All\nimportant civic ideas are merely institutionalized facts of history. They\nhave little or no meaning outside of their historical setting and atmosphere.\nLet us look a little farther into the pedagogical significance of economic\nor applied entomology. The name is highly suggestive. Here we have an\naspect of insect life, differentiated from the field of zoology. As a science,\nentomology concerned only with problems peculiar to itself is capable of\nindefinite development. But as soon as you designate it \"economic,\" a\nnumber of new suggestions are forced upon us.\nEconomic entomology is a term which relates the science to man in his\norganized fellowships. It can do this only on account of man's dependence\nupon the plant world for sustenance, shelter, and clothing, and of his efforts\nto protect himself from disease.\nThe whole cyclopedia of facts about the life-histories of all the insects\nin the world, with all their habits and modes of existence, is of little moment\neither for mental discipline or humanizing culture, if it were not for the fact\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nVIEWPOINT\n\n469\n\nthat at certain points the circle of knowledge about insects becomes involved\nin man's welfare, if not in his very existence. Botany, like entomology,\nwhen concerned with problems peculiar to itself is capable of an indefinite\ndevelopment. Thus may these two important divisions of biology proceed in the accumulation of facts and the demonstration of principles in\nconstantly divergent lines, till human organization becomes involved.\nWhen entomology becomes involved in human welfare it is economic. From\nthe standpoint of parasites it is plant pathology and human medicine.\nFrom the standpoint of cross fertilization it is plant physiology. How intimate is the entanglement is due to the human interest injected into the\nmatter.\nIs it not possible that economic entomology is a common meeting-ground\nwhere the entomologist, the botanist, and the horticulturist may join hands ?\nIs not soil physics a common ground for the geologist, the physicist, and\nthe chemist ? Is not what has come to be known as agricultural chemistry\na good meeting-place for the chemist and the biologist ? Is it not in these\nthree fields and others of like nature where the men of many sciences must\nstrike hands with each other and with the common man who needs the\nknowledge as a means of lightening the burden of his daily tasks ? Is it\nnot possible that herein is both the justification and solution for correlation\n— the application of knowledge to the supplying of human needs ?\nA not too dogmatic pedagogy will recognize in this a basis for interest\nwhich is social rather than individual in its scope — an interest that has more\nof the elements of permanent vitality and less of transitory curiosity. It is\na sort of interest that grows out of man's relation to his fellow-men as well as\nhis relation to the world of things. Interest from this viewpoint is sociological because of the use the individual may make of the knowledge as a\nserviceable unit in society.\nInterest is a powerful stimulus to learning. It should be created when it\nseems to be wanting. It should be stimulated wherever found. It implies\na much more serious attitude than curiosity. Curiosity may strike the\nattention momentarily, but interest absorbs the entire mind. Nature is\nfull of interesting things. Some of them excite our curiosity and fill us with\nastonishment. Others both stimulate interest within us and possess an\nabiding interest for us.\nIt is a more or less curious fact that insects have six legs ; that some have\ntwo pairs of wings ; that the wings of some are shaped and colored for what\nwe have called protection; that some pass thru the winged period of their\nexistence without nourishment; that some are dependent upon a watery\nenvironment for part of the life-cycle and upon atmospheric environment for\nthe remainder; that some lead a hermit life, while others live in organized\ncolonies, and still others appear to have no fixed habitation; that in some\ncases quite elaborate preparations are made for the deposit of eggs, in other\ncases eggs are deposited only in places best adapted for the nourishment of\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "470\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\nthe young, and that still others deposit their eggs with no apparent reference\nto the continuation of the species; that the more elaborate the preparation\nfor the deposit of eggs the lower is the probable death-rate among the\nprogeny; that the young of some are nurtured and protected with a sort of\nfamily solicitude, while the young of others are left to shift for themselves\nand fulfill the function of their part of the life-cycle more by a lucky chance\nthan by a prearranged design.\nNow, however curious and however interesting to the advanced student\nin his search for the laws of life, and however vast the body of knowledge\nthat has been accumulated about insects under the foregoing heads, if it\nwere all swept away in the night it might be missed from the sum-total of\nhuman knowledge, but human and social interests would scarcely feel the\nloss. If, however, the loss of such knowledge as is indicated in the foregoing paragraph should carry with it the knowledge of such facts as that\nsome insects feed by sucking the juice from the body of a plant, that others\nfeed by eating the tissue, that some feed only from the under side of leaves,\nthat others deposit their eggs about the stem in such a way as to become\nincased in the growing fruit, that some do their feeding in the larval stage\nwhile others feed during both the larval and the winged stage, that the feeding activities of some are the sole means of preserving certain species of\nplant life, and of giving greater vitality to other plants by cross fertilization\n— ^if a knowledge of these facts that relate to the food and feeding-habits of\ninsect life were lost, civilized man would soon be driven from the cultivated\nfield as a source of his own sustenance. Thus does a group of facts, in a\nunique way, relate the study of a subdivision of zoology with sociology.\nThe method of feeding on the part of insects has controlled in large\nmeasure the science of man's warfare with his insect enemies. Insecticides\nare chemical in their make-up. In the mode of applying them the process\nis physical. In their action they are physiological. In their aim and result\nthey are economic and therefore sociological. Man's fight with insect life\nmakes entomology a factor in economics. Wanting in this, it will puzzle\nthe best of entomologists to tell what the vast store of insect lore is worth.\nWanting in this sociological or economic element, it will try him sorely to\njustify its study, except by those interested in the study of life in the abstract rather than in human life. Having this economic factor the study\njustifies itself without the aid of the nature-study enthusiast, or the scientific specialist.\nThe application of such knowledge is so varied that it appeals to interests\nwhich are almost universal. To the tiller of the soil economic entomology\nrenders agriculture scientific and more profitable. To the town improvement league it becomes a willing handmaid in the art of beautifying streets\nand parks. To the grower of fruits, a knowledge of this branch of entomology isas essential as a knowledge of the plants or trees he cultivates.\nWithout further elaboration, I wish to raise the question right here, as to\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nVIEWPOINT\n\n471\n\nthe place and method of beginning the study of such a subject as entomology.\nShould it proceed from the economic to the scientific aspect or from the\nscientific to the economic ? Should it start from the interest society has in\nthe application of the knowledge, or from the vantage ground of the scientist\nenthusiastic for systematized knowledge ? I wish to raise this question in\nthe name both of good pedagogy and of good science. I wish also to raise\nit, not merely with reference to entomology, but with reference to all\nbranches of science that have such a direct bearing on the vocational aspect\nof a people's life.\nWe frequently hear the work of a chemist like Liebig extolled on account\nof the light his work has thrown upon the processes of scientific agriculture.\nIn the next breath we hear expressions of regret or astonishment at the fact\nthat a boy in the high school or college doesn't burn with enthusiasm over\nhis set problems in chemistry. We read of some achievement of Edison or\nMarconi and stupidly wonder why students in physics lack interest in the\nsubject. We learn of the victory of Pasteur or Koch and wonder why\nbiology isn't more popular than Latin. We have been so intent upon the\nteaching of science that we have about lost the art of teaching the mind.\nChemistry as a pure science doesn't need to bother with fertilizers.\nPhysics as a science doesn't need to concern itself with sandy or clay soils.\nBiology as a science can get along without giving much attention to sterilized milk. But fertilizers, soils, and milk are socialized forms of matter.\nThey are intimately related to human welfare. It is therefore legitimate to\nlook to the science of chemistry for whatever light it may throw upon the\nsource, composition, and character of fertilizers, to the science of physics\nfor aid in the solution of problems for the use of soils, and to the science of\nbiology for whatever aid it may give in securing pure milk. This viewpoint\nmakes fertilizers, soils, and milk the motive for going to chemistry, physics,\nand biology for solutions to the problems raised in connection with these\nseveral substances. Stated in another way, this makes servants of the\nsciences whose most important duty is the answering of questions.\nScience can never answer questions which are not clearly formulated in\nthe mind of the learner. There can be no question framed which does not\ngrow out of an experience of a difficulty, or of a clearly conceived situation.\nWhen a student has to deal with a difficulty which can be resolved by the\napplication of some scientific principle, he is then in the only true state of\nmind for a study of this or that science which will throw light upon the\ndifficulty. In this way the search for principles has a motive which is\nimmediate and practical. In this way the truths of a science are vitalized\nas soon as learned because they fit a situation rather than a scheme of\nclassification.\nThe formal standardized performances required in the name of experiments inchemistry and physics are supposed to introduce the young student\nto the elementary principles of these sciences.\nIs he or is he not better\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "472\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\neducated after these have been done than he would be if he had been confronted with even half as many real situations involving scientific truths for\ntheir solution even tho he may have only a one-sided view of the few principles, and only a partial solution of his difficulty ?\nWhen the foregoing is reduced to its lowest terms it may be stated in the\nold formula — the concrete before the abstract. But the concrete here contended for is not merely the objective or sensible. It is the economic, the\nsociological; in other words, the vocational. It is my belief that modifications of secondary science along these lines will result in a wider dissemination of scientific knowledge, and consequently an increasing number who\nwill enter with zeal the higher realms of scientific learning.\nII.\nW.\n\nJ. v.\n\nTHE\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nOSTERHAUT,\n\nHARVARD\n\nVIEWPOINT\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nMASS.\n\n{Synopsis)\nScience in the secondary schools may be greatly improved in the following respects by the introduction of the right kind of material dealing directly\nwith the pupil's daily experience:\nFirst. — The teacher with a mere book knowledge of the subject will be unable to\nhandle such material and must in consequence secure better preparation or cease to teach\nthe subject.\nSecond. — Nothing can operate more effectively to do away with mere memory work\nand undue reverence for book authority than the appeal to the pupil's daily experience.\nThird. — The pupil who has become interested in the principles of science as illustrated in everyday affairs will continue to think of them after he leaves the schoolroom\nfor the day. And he may be shown how to put questions to nature with very simple\nmeans outside the laboratory, provided his conclusions are afterward reviewed in a sympathetic spirit by the teacher.\nFourth. — Correlation of the different sciences is in general best effected by applying\nthem to some interesting problem growing out of the pupil's experience. For example,\nin the growing of plants and the study of the soil all the natural sciences are involved\nin an elementary way.\nFifth. — A very elementary study of the principles underlying certain subjects (such\nas sanitation) will do much to insure enlightened pubUc sentiment in these matters.\n\nA.\nWILLIAM\n\nORR, DEPUTY\n\nSTATE\n\nPHYSICS\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOE EDUCATION,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nDuring the last two decades the principal methods employed in the teaching of secondary-school physics have become established and standardized.\nNo course in this subject today is considered effective unless it includes both\nquantitative and qualitative laboratory exercises, demonstrations with regular apparatus by the instructor, with collateral reading in both textbooks\nand general books of reference. There has also been established a balance\nof proportion in the time-allotment given to each particular mode of instruction. Corrections are also being made where excessive quantitative\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICS\n\n473\n\nrequirements, and the formal demands of college-admission definitions have\ninterfered with the proper presentation of the subject of physics in the work\nof the secondary school. With this ground gained, and these modes of approach fully settled, there still remain two results to be secured, and these\ntwo objectives are now clearly in sight.\nFirst, it is desirable to arouse and maintain interest by bringing into the\nstudy many illustrations drawn from outside the schoolroom, whereby\napplication can be made of the principles of science in the daily life and experience of the pupil. It has been found helpful, from the pedagogical\nstandpoint, to approach the discussion of generalizations thru concrete illustrations. Members of a class, for instance, may secure data in regard to\nwater-pressure in different points of a city system, study the situation of the\naqueduct and reservoir, and from this material acquire the general principles ofhydrostatics.\nOne result of such a method will be a certain differentiation of physics as\ntaught in different schools.\nWhen a proper value is once placed upon the illustration found in the\nvicinity, the classroom methods will necessarily undergo modifications.\nTopics well illustrated will receive larger emphasis. The pupil's interest\nwill also be a guide in outlining the course, and that will be the criterion to\ndecide the material and its order of presentation rather than any formal\nlogical outline.\nIn the second place, teachers of physics are sure to profit by this mode of\napproach from the practical and concrete. The instruction, under such\ncircumstances, in order to be effective, must be direct and vital, and can\nbe given only by a teacher who is thoroly acquainted with the real facts of\nphysics, as expressed in nature and in industry. Moreover, as pupils learn\nto connect their school work with their daily experience, with the devices\nused in their homes and in factories, there comes not only interest but ability\nto apply the knowledge gained in the classroom. An intelligent understanding ofmany of the public utilities of the community is a result of no\nsmall importance, as thereby civic interest and spirit are promoted. The\npupil is also guided in some measure by such instruction into a wise choice\nof a vocation.\nIt is clear that this new conception of the teaching of physics is in opposition to a theory of instruction based on the presentation of physics as a\nbody of organized information. While the teacher must be well informed in\nall phases of the science, there must also be a clear understanding of that\nwhich appeals to the pupil, that which arouses his interest, and an intelligent\napplication of means whereby the activities of the recitation are connected\nwith the world of men and affairs.\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nB.\nJOSEPH\n\nS. MILLS, HIGH\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF COMMERCE,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY, N.Y.\n\nNearly all of the high schools in New York City give their pupils the uniform examinations prescribed by the State Board of Regents — examinations, in general, of the college-entrance type. The school work must of\ncourse be planned to meet these tests.\nThe growing conviction that such work, while possibly suitable for the\nfuture university men, is neither necessary nor particularly desirable for the\naverage city boy, has found forceful expression in a recent action of the\nNew York City High School Principals' Association. While adhering to\nthe orthodox scheme for fourth-year pupils, these men recommend a preliminary or alternative course in practical chemistry to be given preferably\nin the second school year. From a number of suggested topics, selection\nis to be made to fit the needs of the pupils or the special character and surroundings ofthe school. Only enough pure and theoretical chemistry is\nto be taught to give comprehension of the subjects chosen, the predominant\nidea being to use chemistry to gain an understanding of commonly met\nsubstances and processes — reversing the usual procedure of teaching pure\nchemistry with practical illustrations as side issues. The list of topics\nproposed, twenty-seven in number, is as follows:\nWater.\nBurning.\nAir and Ventilation.\nCorrosion of Metals.\nAcids, Bases, and Salts.\nOils and Fats.\nPaints and Pigments.\nTextile Fibers.\nCleansing.\nDyeing.\nLeather.\nGlass.\nClay Products.\nPetroleum Products.\n\nCoal and Coal Products.\nWood Distillation Products.\nFoods.\nAdhesives.\nPutrefaction and Its Prevention.\nGarbage Disposal.\nBeverages.\nPoisons and Antidotes.\nPhotography.\nExplosives,\nM ^tallurgy .\nMetal Plating.\nAlloys.\n\nIn the High School of Commerce, Manhattan, we have for the past two\nor more years had chemistry courses similar to those just outlined. In the\nfourth school year, boys can elect college-preparatory chemistry, and a fair\nproportion do so. In the second year of the school, however, commercial\nchemistry, as we term it, is required of all pupils. In this course, we have,\nduring the past two years, taken up such topics as water, fuels, metallurgy,\nfibers, bleaching, dyeing, inks, drying oils and paints, fats and soaps, dairy\nproducts, starches, sugars, other food-stuffs, and alcoholic beverages.\nIn this work, practically no attention is given to theory and very little\nto chemical arithmetic, the latter being confined to simple problems in percentage composition and in weight relations.\nWith the exception of oxygen,\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\n475\n\nhydrogen, and carbon, the elements are studied only incidentally in connection with the topic under consideration at the time.\nAs in such a course the laboratory work must be the main feature, only\nthat will be further touched upon. With us the working period is about\nforty-five minutes long and the class is sent to the laboratory or classroom\nas is found desirable. Simple apparatus and short experiments must be the\nrule. To illustrate the work, two sets of experiments have been selected, the\nchoice having been made to show possible drawbacks as well as excellences.\nUnder \"Fuels and Metallurgy,\" the experiments now given are:\nEflfect of heating hard coal, soft coal, and wood.\nCoal gas.\nReduction by means of carbon.\nPreparation and reducing action of carbon monoxide.\nWater gas.\nAcetylene.\nDistillation of petroleum.\nFire test of kerosene.\n\nEvery experiment, it will be noted, has a direct commercial bearing.\nIn criticism it may be suggested: (i) The resemblance of the laboratory\napparatus to that used commercially is slight, and (2) The sample of metal\nobtained in the third experiment is so small as to produce upon the pupil\ninadequate impression of the real magnitude of the metallurgical industries.\nFor our work on \"Fibers,\" my colleague, Mr. O. R. Flynn, has during\nthe past term given the following experiments :\nDistinction between cotton, wool, and silk.\nSeparation of cotton from wool.\nPreparation of chloride of lime.\nBleaching of cotton cloth.\nDirect dyes — salting out and dyeing.\nBasic dyes — properties; tannic acid as a mordant.\nBasic dyes — antimony salts as mordant; dyeing.\nFerrous and ferric salts — preparation and properties.\nLogwood dyeing with iron and chromium compounds.\nInks — iron tannate.\nInks — logwood.\nPreparation and properties of indigo white.\nIndigo and vat dyeing.\n\nIf no attempt be made to teach the formulas of the dyes, and if time can\nbe given to complete it, this course can be given with decided success. It\nis certainly practical in a city whose clothing industry is so important; the\nlaboratory samples can be sufiiciently large to seem \"real\" to the boy; the\nmethods are practically those of the factory; and the pupil has something\ntangible and striking to show for his labor.\nIf one may judge by the observations made in our school, the laboratory\nwork would better consist of one or both of two things — either the preparation of some definite substance, or the working-out of some specific problem,\nnot too hard.\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "476\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nC.\nCHESTER\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nZOOLOGY\n\nA. MATHEWSON, TRAINING SCHOOL\nBROOKLYN,\nN.Y.\n\nFOR TEACHERS\n\nThe history of the teaching of zoology in this country shows a considerable variation in both the aim and the content of the courses in secondary\nschools. The earliest teaching sought an extensive knowledge of the natural\nhistory of animals, for the sake of general information. As with all science\nof that period the method was that of learning out of a book. Laboratory\nwork and training in scientific method had no place whatever in this work.\nIn the latter part of the nineteenth century the influence of Huxley began\nto be felt. Huxley wanted to train up men to become advocates of the\ntheory of evolution and with the able assistance of Martin of our own\ncountry devised laboratory courses which could not but convince the minds\nof the students of the correctness of that doctrine. So successful were they\nthat all who fell under their influence either directly or indirectly felt that\nthe sine qua non of zoology was the proper presentation of a series of animals\nin the laboratory, which would give the learner even in the secondary school\nthe evidences of evolution. The use of the textbook was deprecated and as\na consequence \"training\" and \"discipline\" became the supreme aims of the\nwork. This happens to be the period that has impressed us most strongly,\nas our training was secured at the time when this sort of work had become\nmost prominent. It is therefore difficult for us to change our point of view\nin the teaching of the subject.\nIn the early part of the present century there was somewhat of a reaction\nagainst this sort of work, the emphasis being placed upon habits, classifications, and life-histories as against details of structure, especially internal\nstructure. This last can scarcely be said to have resulted in a widespread\nreform. The outlines of courses in the best high schools show the persistence of the principle of \"training\" advocated by Huxley and Martin.\nWithin the past five years, in accordance with a widespread popular\ndemand, serious efforts have been made, first, to simplify and unify the\nsecondary biology, and second, to make the work more practical from the\nstandpoint of the everyday life of the pupil. The feeling as to the futility\nof the secondary biology is shown in one instance by the attitude of the\nBoard of Education of New York City. Their special committee recommended some time since that biology be summarily dropped from the highschool curriculum, and a course in civics adopted in its place. This action\nset many able teachers to thinking very seriously. Why emphasize civics\nabove biology ? Could biology do anything for the boy as a future citizen\nthat the study of civics could not do ? Retaining our idea of the \" training \"\nand \" discipline\" afforded by our scientific method, is it possible by applying\nthe searchlight of a new aim to the whole field of biology to discover materials which would be of more practical value to boys and girls ?\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nZOOWGY\n\n477\n\nThe content of courses in secondary biology is determined by these four\nfactors:\n1. The preparation of the teacher.\n2. Tradition.\n3. The pedagogical aim.\n4. The ultimate aim, in relation to the general scheme of education.\n\nOur efforts to improve our courses practically are necessarily somewhat\nslow and faulty because of the first two factors. It is the last aim that acts\nas our most effective stimulus to reform. Our students must be taught not\nonly to know but to do. They ought to do those things that will give them\nhealthier bodies, that will make their homes and surroundings healthier and\nbetter, that will make them better citizens in their community, and they\nought, in one way or another, to make their community a better place in\nwhich to live and work.\nWhat topics receive emphasis then under this new interpretation of\nthe function of zoology ? The more important are the following;\nI.\nII.\n\nMicro-organisms and their relation to health and disease.\nConservation of natural resources.\n1. Mammals.\na) Mammals most important to man.\nb) Game laws.\nc) Mammalian products.\nd) Study of some typical industries based on a mammalian product, e.g.,\ntanning, sheep ranching, cattle industry.\n2. Birds.\na) Protection.\nb) Game laws — origin and object.\nc) Most useful birds.\nd) Bird products.\ne) Birds in relation to agriculture.\n3. Fish.\na) Useful species.\nb) Spawning and its significance.\nc) Fish hatcheries.\nd) United States Fish Commission.\n4. Shell fish.\na) Life history and habits studied with respect to their protection.\nb) Processes involved in gathering and shipping them.\n5. Crustacea.\nSame as 4.\nIII. Insects.\n1. Useful insects.\na) Life-history and habits of one or more types.\nb) Study of a typical industry founded upon an insect product.\n2. Harmful insects.\na) Disease-carriers.\nb) Destroyers of orchards.\nc) Destroyers of shade.\nd) Destroyers of farm products.\ne) Work of the Department of Agriculture in checking them.\n/) Economic significance.\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\nIV.\n\nV.\nVI.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nAnimal breeding.\n1. Object.\n2. Methods.\n3. Results.\nEconomic forms of Amphibia and Reptiles.\nSex education.\n1. Correlation of the study of propagation of fish with the details of human\nreproduction.\n2. Care of animals for their young and its bearing on the process of reproduction in man.\n\nD.\nLOUIS\n\nMURBACH,\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\nHEAD\n\nOF BIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nHYGIENE\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nDETROIT,\n\nMICH.\n\nFrom the nature of the subjects today and the papers presented, discussion will hinge on the so-called practical aspects of the study of human\nphysiology and hygiene. In both nature study and elementary science\nthe problems have been manufactured for the lessons. The present almost\nuniversal agitation in science teaching will bring about, if I mistake not,\nnatural problems and more useful applications. It has been something like\na child who hunts a board into which he may drive nails given him; it will\nbe like a boy who looks for nails to hold together the boards he has cut for\na box. Both learn to drive nails and this is practical, but only the boy who\nmakes the box learns the real use of the nails. Now if he has wanted that\nbox the practical value of manual arts is more fully illustrated.\nI remember a discussion some years ago in a medical journal of good\nstanding, on the value of the teaching of human physiology in high schools.\nOne of the ablest surgeons in the city of publication of that journal stated\nthat he thought the chief use of such teaching would be that patients might\nunderstand their physician better; could tell him better about their ailments,\nwhen afflicted. What shall we expect of laymen when such an opinion is\ndeliberately given by a practitioner who must always be on the alert for\nthe subjective way in which the sufferer puts his maladies ? A layman or\neven a teacher cannot be blamed for having some doubt as to the practicability ofthe teaching of human physiology when the stigma of \"poor teaching in the high schools\" is put upon it by its own professors in colleges and\nuniversities. Let them rather profit by the examples of their colleagues\nin other high-school branches, prepare better teachers, and encourage those\nthat are teaching it fairly well.\nNot long since a teacher of experience visited an exhibition of the work\nof physiology students in the second year of a high school. He was struck\nby the accurate scientific explanation a girl gave of the experiment she was\nassigned, but also by her utter ignorance of the commercial application of\nthe same principle. The dentist would have scholars know not only the\nstructure and care of the teeth but also their origin and the ailments resulting from defective teeth.\nEven a teacher of the subject in a recent article\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nHYGIENE\n\n479\n\nsays, \" . . . . books have overemphasized certain evils, and other evils,\ni.e., those attendant upon overfeeding and the neglect of the teeth, ....\nhave been sadly overlooked.\"\nThe state's expert on poison cases would no doubt have his children\nlearn something more of poisons and their antidotes than of other subjects.\nThe dairyman would see the best part of .the book in the pages on the sanitary housing of his cows and the production of cleanly milk. One recent\nschool textbook devotes thirteen pages out of three hundred and six of the\nwhole book to this subject; and this does not include what the cheese-maker\nwould have in it, if he had the making of the book. And if you challenge the\nmiller's interest, you may learn that he would have the growing citizen\ninformed as to the proper way of making flour of different kinds from grain.\nWhy should not those interested in the commerce of hides and furs be represented in the chapter on the skin ? Why would not the huckster take new\ninterest in his vendage when he learns from his children how valuable are\nvegetables and fruit, in our diet ? And these are only a few of the interested\nclaimants for recognition even in the study of physiology and hygiene.\nIt is natural, then, that we have been called on to consider the practical\naspects of science in secondary education with especial reference to the\nintroduction of materials from agriculture, household arts, technical industries, etc. These newest arrivals in the high school are seeking organic\nconnection with their allies already in the curriculum.\nBefore going farther it may be well to consider the pedagogical and the\nscientific viewpoints. They are not two divergent views that are presented\nby the papers, the pedagogical and the scientific aspects. It is not the problem of science versus practice which was in the mind of the teacher before\nmentioned. It is rather the question to what extent materials may be\ntaken from agriculture, household arts, technical industries, etc., and pedagogically presented in a course in human physiology and hygiene.\nPoint of contact with daily life and correlation would satisfy the pedagogical side. Both interest and attention would be gained and the view of\nthe pupil would be broadened. These things are the apparent progress in\nthe present tendency of school science teaching, i.e., the correlating of any\npart of a study with daily experience or needs. It is not difficult to see, e.g.,\nthat a boy studying agriculture would take greater interest in the germination of seeds when he learns that the digestion of starchy food in his own\nbody is accomplished by means of similar ferments; or after learning about\nthe bacterial diseases in man he will understand that the same principles\nwill apply to domestic animals. Again, the animal origin of the fibers of\nwoolen cloth, the heat-reflecting and absorbing qualities of cloth of different\ncolors and different weave could be made correlative in either domestic art\nor in hygiene. And in cooking, there is a direct bearing on the physiology\nof the digestive organs, e.g., cooking for digestibility, for flavor, etc.\nThe use of wood and metal in the construction of utensils and homes may\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nbe made of great importance in the study of hygiene. And in so far as our\nhealth may be affected by our comfort, the use of color and form may come\nunder the same head from the aesthetic point of view.\nThis is only a glimpse of some of the practical applications that might\nbe justified from the educational point of view of contact and correlation.\nThere is, on the other hand, the danger that our ends in such education may\nbecome narrow, even utilitarian, when we allow branches or groups to\nbecome segregated. What I mean is that all attempts to establish special\nindustrial schools, e.g., agricultural, manual-training, or art schools, in\nsecondary education, are dangerous to the welfare of general education.\nThe superstructure will scarcely be broader than the narrow foundation.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON ENCOURAGING COLLEGE\nTRANCE CREDIT IN HIGH-SCHOOL AGRICULTURE\n\nA. B. GRAHAM,\n\nOHIO\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nEN-\n\nOHIO, CHAIRMAN\n\nNo college oflScial replying to inquiries concerning college-entrance\ncredit in agriculture has questioned its informational or disciplinary value.\nOn the other hand, many of them have been inclined to encourage the\nteaching of agriculture in the high school as a phase of applied science and\nfurther to quicken the power of observation.\nThe chief diflSculties to be encountered in giving college-entrance credit\nfor high-school agriculture are the determination of what should constitute a unit or a half-unit and the quality of the teaching of this subject.\nSince most colleges and universities are unwilling to give more than onehalf or one full unit of credit, it must so far be considered that the subject\nof agriculture taught as a high-school branch is a science branch worthy\nof no greater consideration at present than any other branch for which\none-half or one unit of credit is given, even tho the subject be taught\nduring a longer period of time than one year. Few, if any, colleges or\nuniversities have been found that are willing to give any credit on the\nscience of agriculture if such agriculture as is taught is only some application ofgeneral science.\nIn a condensed form, the following definition of a unit and a half-unit\nseems to be acceptable to most institutions:\nOne-half Unit — One half-year given to the study of soils and plants and their relation\nto each other. There shall be sufficient experimental work to accompany the subjects\ndiscussed.\nOne Unit — One full year given to the study of soils, plants, insects, and farm animals.\nThere shall be sufficient experimental and demonstration work to be equivalent to one\nfull year of laboratory work.\n\nIn some institutions there is a high-school visitor whose duty it is to\ndetermine the quality and quantity of work in the high-school branches;\ntherefore it becomes his duty to determine whether a unit or one-half unit\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nCREDIT\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n481\n\nof work is being done in agriculture. In other institutions the head of\none of the science departments or of a department most closely related to\nagriculture determines whether or not the standard of an entrance-credit\nunit has been offered.\nA great many institutions signify a willingness to give credit for highschool agriculture provided a student offers it. The general disposition\nof most colleges and universities in the north-central, western, and southern\nstates is to give credit for this branch of applied science which the high\nschools themselves are not offering up to any reasonable standard of entrance requirement. Some high schools are offering work in elementary\nagriculture that is little, if any, above the standard of requirement for the\neighth grade of an elementary school. Colleges will be much more willing to accept agriculture as an entrance branch as soon as high-school\nteachers will prepare themselves for the teaching of this important subject\nwith a little more than just the practical experiences which they have\nsome recollection of experiencing on a farm. Below will be found a list\nof colleges from whom replies have been received concerning the giving\nof entrance credit.\nCOLLEGES\n\nGIVING\n\nCREDIT.\n\n36\n\nNew Mexico Agricultural College, Agricultural College, N.M.\nUniversity of North Dakota, University, N.Dak.\nUniversity of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz,\nState Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colo.\nUniversity of Alabama, University, Ala.\nMontana Agricultural College, Bozeman, Mont.\nUniversity of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho.\nUniversity of Montana, Missoula, Mont.\nPurdue University, Lafayette, Ind.\nUniversity of Middle Tennessee, Tullahoma, Tenn.\nUniversity of Florida, Gainesville, Fla.\nSouth Dakota State School of Mines, Rapid City, S.Dak.\nIowa State College, Ames, Iowa.\nUniversity of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\nCornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.\nJohns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.\nWashington State University, Seattle, Wash.\nOregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore.\nUniversity of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nState University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nMississippi Industrial Institute and College, Columbus, Miss.\nKansas City Veterinary College, Kansas City, Mo.\nWesley College, North Dakota.\nLenox College, Hopkinton, Iowa.\nCotner University, Bethany, Nebr.\nGrand Island College, Grand Island, Nebr.\nGreer College, Hoopeston, 111,\nKnoxville College, Knoxville, Tenn.\nCentral Wesleyan College, Warrenton, Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nMacalester College, St. Paul, Minn.\nMilton College, Milton, Wis.\nMiami University, Oxford, Ohio.\nOhio Wesleyan College, Delaware, Ohio.\nAshland College, Ashland, Ohio.\nDefiance College, Defiance, Ohio.\nUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.\nCOLLEGES\n\nGIVING\n\nNO\n\nCREDIT.\n\n23\n\nUniversity of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C.\nThe University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nSouth Dakota State College, Brooking, S.Dak.\nColumbia University, New York City, N.Y.\nNew Mexico School of Mines.\nIllinois College, Jacksonville, 111.\nMontana School of Mines, Missoula, Mont.\nWooster University, Wooster, Ohio.\nOccidental College, Los Angeles, Cal.\nHamilton College, Clinton, N.Y.\nCentral College, Fayette, Mo.\nErskine College, Due West, S.C.\n(a) Colleges Giving No Credit hit Willing to Consider the Matter\nVanderbilt College, Nashville, Tenn.\nWabash College, Crawfordsville, Ind.\nEarlham College, Richmond, Ind.\nMissouri Valley College, Marshall, Mo.\nCornell College, Mt. Vernon, la.\nArmour Institute of Technology, Chicago, 111.\nDenison University, Granville, Ohio.\nKenyon College, Gambier, Ohio.\n\nI\nI\n\n(6) Colleges Not Giving Credit at Present hut Matter Put before a Committee\nSyracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.\nUniversity of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.\nButler College, Indianapolis, Ind.\nCOLLEGES\n\nPREPARING\n\nTO\n\nGIVE\n\nCREDIT.\n\n8\n\nNorth Carolina College of Agriculture amd Mechanic Arts, West Raleigh, N.C.\nSt. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo.\nWheaton College, Wheaton, 111.\nBellevue College, Bellevue, Nebr.\nWittenberg College, Springfield, Ohio,\nRio Grande College, Rio Grande, Ohio.\nAntioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio.\nWilmington College, Wilmington, Ohio.\nCOLLEGES\n\nWHO\n\nWOULD\n\nGIVE CREDIT IF ASKED TO OR ARE WILLING\nWORK PROPERLY DONE.\n27\n\nIowa Wesleyan, Mt. Pleasant, la.\nMissouri Wesleyan, Cameron, Mo.\nIndiana University, Bloomington, Ind.\nState University of Iowa, Iowa City, la.\nMississippi Agricultural College, Agricultural College, Miss.\nUniversity of Nevada, Reno, Nev.\n\nTO GIVE CREDIT\n\nFOR\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "REBUILDING\n\nAN ENGLISH\n\nCOURSE\n\n483\n\nStanlord University, Stanford University, Cal.\nUniversity of Oregon, Eugene, Ore.\nUniversity of Southern California, Los Angeles, Cal.\nSt. Lawrence University, Canton, N.Y.\nNebraska Central College, Central City, Nebr.\nAmity College, College Springs, la.\nPenn College, Oskaloosa, la.\nDrake University, Des Moines, la.\nOuachita College, Arkadelphia, Ark.\nWestfield College, Westfield, 111.\nSimpson College, Indianola, la.\nSt. Olaf College, Northfield, Minn.\nRedfield College, Redfield, S.Dak.\nDes Moines College, Des Moines, la.\nMcKendree College, Lebanon, 111.\nMoore's Hill College, Moore's Hill, Ind.\nOhio Northern University, Ada, Ohio.\nMt. Union College, Alliance, Ohio.\nMarietta College, Marietta, Ohio.\nBuchtel College, Akron, Ohio.\nUniversity of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n\n( A. B. Graham\nCommittee j C. H. Robison\n( E. E. Balcomb\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\nA.\n\nENGLISH\n\nREBUILDING\nEDWIN\n\nL. MILLER,\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nCENTRAL\n\nAN ENGLISH\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCOURSE\nDETROIT,\n\nMICH.\n\nEver since I became a teacher of English, I have heard teachers of English abused.\nBefore that, I abused them myself. Tho all sorts of people join in this chorus of detraction, the voices which are most frequently and vociferously lifted up to condemn us\nare those of young college professors and old business men. Anybody, they say, can\nteach English; but nobody succeeds in doing it.\nIf one is to judge solely by the results secured, these charges are in large measure\njust. If the problem is considered steadily, however, and considered whole, the wonder\ngrows, not that we do so badly, but that we succeed at all.\n\"To be a well-favoured man,\" says Shakespeare, \"is the gift of fortune; but to\nread and write comes by nature.\" Nothing is truer. It is easier to convert a Caliban\ninto an Apollo than it is to make out of a child whose associations are vulgar a writer or\na reader. Among autoists there is a belief which amounts to a certainty that it is much\neasier to build a new car than to repair an old one. Now, there is a rough analogy between the English teacher and the repair man. Each has to make what he can out of\na machine wrenched and bumped by careless driving on rough roads. It is not so with\nteachers of Latin and physics; they work in a factory, not in a garage.\nThese are unalterable conditions. But there are some circumstances that hamper\nhigh-school work in English which can be changed or removed. In Detroit we have\nbeen trying to do this; and it is the object of this paper to report progress, so to speak.\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nI say to report progress, for as yet, to say nothing of solving, we have attacked only a\npart of our problem.\nIn teaching English, our object is to train the pupil in such a way that he will be\nmaster of the art of communicating ideas by means of the mother-tongue. This sounds\na bit grandiloquent, and it would probably be better to say (as it would surely be clearer)\nthat we are trying to teach him: (a) to read and listen; {h) to speak and write. In other\nwords, we wish him to be able to make other people understand in the largest and best\nsense what he thinks, feels, and wills, and to be able, with equal sympathy and understanding, to enter into their thoughts, feelings, and desires. Of course this is an unattainable ideal. We shall be abundantly satisfied if, when he is graduated, he can write\na good letter and likes to read a good book.\nWith us the greatest stumbling-block in our efforts to secure these results have been :\n(a) lack of equipment; (&) lack of teachers; (c) lack of time; {d) lack of organization.\na) Every EngHsh teacher's classroom should be so furnished, decorated, adorned\nwith pictures, and filled with books as to suggest, not a schoolroom, but a scholar's den.\nIt should be pervaded, in other words, by an atmosphere of literary elegance. This we\nhave not attained.\nh) When I say that we lack teachers, I refer to quantity, not to quality. Our teachers\nare overworked. There are not enough of them. The 2,518 pupils in our department\nlast semester were taught by 16.3 teachers. Each teacher, in other words, had 154.5\npupils. Six of them had six sections apiece. The rest had each five. No teacher of\nEnglish should have more than one hundred pupils or more than four sections. Under\nthese conditions only is it possible to give to each pupil that individual attention which\nis essential to successful work in composition and hardly less essential if one is to awaken\nin the pupil a loving regard for books.\nc) and d) We have been able, however, to readjust our courses, so as to get more\ntime and to secure a better organization of our work. We have recently added eight\none-hour courses in reading and speaking, two four-hour courses in English, and two\nfour-hour courses in literature. We have also separated our courses in interpretation\nfrom our courses in constructive English.\nDetroit Central High School\noutline of courses in english, february-june, i9io\nCourse i. — Grammar: Buehler's Modern English Grammar — Introduction and\nPart I. Composition: Sykes's Elementary English Composition — Part I, chaps. 1-7;\nPart VI, chap. 3.\nCourse 2. — Reading: Coleridge's Ancient Mariner; Dickens' David Copper field;\nHomer's Iliad and Odyssey; Irving's Sketch Book; Lowell's Vision of Sir Launfal; Macaulay's\nIsland. Lays of Ancient Rome; Shakespeare's Julius Ccesar; Stevenson's Treasure\nCourse 3. — Grammar: Buehler — Part II, chaps. 1-6. Composition: Sykes — Part\nI, chaps. 8-10; Part II; Part VI, chap. i.\nCourse 4. — Reading: Blackmore's Lorna Doone; Goldsmith's Deserted Village;\nScott's\nLike It. Ivanhoe and Lady of the Lake; Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice and As You\nCourse 5. — Grammar: Buehler — Part II, chaps. 7-1 1 ; and Review. Composition:\nSykes— Parts III, IV, and V.\nCourse 6. — Reading: George Eliot's Silas Marner; Lincoln's Speeches; Lowell's\nPresent Crisis; Macaulay's Johnson, Clive, and Hastings; Shakespeare's Henry V.\nCourse 7. — Theme Writing.\nCourse 8. — College-Entrance Study Books: Macbeth; Milton's Minor Poems;\nBurke's Conciliation; Carlyle's Essay on Burns.\nLiterature i. — American Literature. History of American literature and reading:\nEmerson's Essays; Franklin's Autobiography; Hawthorne's House of the Seven Gables;\nLongfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish; Lowell's Commemoration Ode; Parkman's\nOregon Trail; Poe's Poems; Thoreau's Walden; Whittier's Snow-Bound.\nLiterature 2. — Nineteenth Century English Literature. Textbook: Halleck.\nReading: Browning's Poems; Byron's Childe Harold and Prisoner of Chilian; Dickens'\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nREBUILDING\n\nAN\n\nENGLISH\n\nCOURSE\n\n485\n\nTale of Two Cities; Mrs. Gaskell's Cranford; Huxley's Lay Sermons; Palgrave's Golden\nTreasury, Book IV; Scott's Quentin Durward; Stevenson's Inland Voyage and Travels\nwith a Donkey; Tennyson's Princess.\nLiterature 3. — English Literature down to Milton.\nTextbook: Halleck.\nReading: Tennyson's Idylls of the King; Chaucer's Prologue; Spenser's Faerie Queene;\nShakespeare's\nHamlet and Lear; Bacon's Essays; Palgrave's Golden Treasury, Books\nI and II.\nLiterature 4. — English Literature from Milton down to the Year 1800. Textbook :\nHalleck. Reading: Palgrave's Golden Treasury, Books III and IV; Milton's Paradise\nLost; Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley Papers; Macaulay's\nEssay on Addison; Pope's Rape of the Lock and Essay on Criticism; Thackeray's English\nHumorists; Defoe's Robinson Crusoe; Johnson's Rasselas; Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield and She Stoops to Conquer; Sheridan's Rivals and School for Scandal; Burns's Poems.\n1. All students must take English 1-6 inclusive. All students preparing for colleges\nor normal schools should take in addition 7 and 8.\n2. All of these courses are four-period courses. An additional period each week is\ndevoted to reading and speaking.\n3. Home-reading is required in all courses.\n4. In Courses 1,3, and 5, six weeks are set aside for grammar, fourteen for composition.\n5. The Literature courses are for eleventh and twelfth-grade students.\nThe books set for reading are mostly those in the last college-entrance list. Nearly\nall of them are well adapted for our purposes, but, a wider list, or a supplementary list\nfor home reading, is, I think, in the highest degree desirable. Irving's Sketch Book is\nthe least and David Copperfield the best calculated to stimulate first-year high-school\nstudents to feel a genuine interest in literature. We intend to replace Macaulay's Clive\nand Hastings as soon as possible with Gladstone's edition of Macaulay's speeches. These\nspeeches not only exhibit Macaulay at his best, but are, on the whole, except Lincoln's\naddresses, if not the best specimens of argumentation in the language, the best adapted\nto the comprehension of high-school students. Dealing as they do with questions which\nhave long confronted Englishmen and are beginning to darken our own horizon, they\nare vital in subject-matter. Trevelyan truly describes the speeches on \"Copyright\"\nas being as convincing as a proposition of Euclid and as entertaining as an Essay of Elia;\nand I am inclined to think that the same may be said with propriety of those on \"The\nReform Bill,\" \"Chartism,\" \"The Ten Hours' Bill,\" \"The Gates of Somnauth,\" \"Maynooth,\" and \"Education.\"\nThe course in American literature appears to me to be not only desirable in itself,\nbut necessary, if we are to avoid the reproach of graduating pupils who are ignorant of\neverything respectable that has been written on this side of the Atlantic. We look upon\nit as an essential tribute to patriotism. It is put first on the theory that our American\nclassics, for the most part, are more on a level with the intelligence of eleventh-grade\nstudents than are those of foreign lands or remote periods. On the same theory we\nstudy nineteenth-century English literature before we attack Chaucer, Bacon, Spenser,\nand Milton.\nI sometimes think that we might even reverse to advantage the order of Literature\n3 and Literature 4.\nOf the books included in Literature 2, 3, and 4 we get the best results from the Tale\nof Two Cities, The Princess, the Idylls of the King, Chaucer's Prologue, Hamlet, Lear,\nand the Golden Treasury. The Idylls of the King are put in Course 3 ahead of Chaucer,\nbecause in subject-matter they go back to the days when the Romans had just left Britain\nand the Saxons had just come, and because they will excite an interest, if anything will,\nin Layamon and Sir Thomas Malory. Puck of Pook 's Hill might be added to Course 3\nto brighten up several other dark spots between the days of Julius Caesar and the days\nof King John.\nSo much for our reading as it stands today. We have added, I think, in two other\nways to the eflficiency of ovir course.\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nOf these the first is the efficiency due to increased size and weight. Formerly a pupil\ncould take, in the four years of his high-school course, only thirty-two hours of English.\nHe can now take fifty-six. This fact is bound to increase the amount of English studied\nand the amount learned.\nThe separation of the work in constructive English from the work in interpretation\nis of even greater importance. Our old method was to have grammar on Monday, composition on Tuesday, reading on Wednesday and Thursday, and speaking on Friday.\nThis had about the same relation to a real course that a dish of chop suey has to a thick\nsirloin steak. If it was a proper arrangement, it would be equally proper for the Science\nDepartment to have geography on Monday, botany on Tuesday, zoology on Wednesday,\nchemistry on Thursday, and physics on Friday.\nIn his Essay on Burns, Carlyle says that Burns failed because he lacked unity of purpose; his life was like a wedge with two edges. He could read nothing but himself.\nThis is a good description of our old course. In trying constantly to do two things at\none time we did neither. While reading, we were always worrying about \"that dreadful\ncomposition work\"; and, as reading is so much easier than writing, we often did nothing\nwith composition but worry about it. There was never any impetus to our work. Each\nside, instead of helping, hindered the other.\nThere were also some homely practical difficulties. Students were continually pretending that they thought grammar days were reading days and writing days speaking\ndays. A student who was a glib talker and good reader often got a passing mark, even\ntho he thought that the subject should always be separated by a semicolon from the\nverb. Even when such a case was properly diagnosed, the bookkeej ing incidental to its\ncorrection was cumbersome, and it was not fair to the student who had failed in composition to require him to do over a term of reading which he had already done in a perfectly\nsatisfactory manner.\nSeparation has removed these difficulties. If a student can read he now gets credit\nfor it. If he cannot write, his deficiencies are discovered and corrected with no waste\nof his time or his teacher's. There is no longer any chance for Tom to bring the wrong\nbook to class. The teachers no longer worry about what they ought to be doing. The\nwork used to go like a pay-enter car; it proceeds now with the speed of an express train.\nThe value of this added impetus is indescribable. The students are beginning to take\nthe work more seriously. It is no longer, as they put it in their quaint and vulgar patois,\na \"snap\". 'Pass slips have acquired a new meaning. \"So decided is the improvement,\"\nsaid one of our teachers to me the other day, \"that I would not go back to the old arrangement for anything.\" \"My pupils,\" I was recently told by another, \"have learned more\nthe last three weeks than in the previous three years.\"\nAltho most of the teachers with whom I have discussed this subject agree that\nseparation is desirable, three or four objections have been offered. Of these I wish\nbriefly to speak:\na) A whole semester of composition will crush a teacher. We have provided for this\nby giving teachers, as far as possible, half of their work in composition and half in reading\ncourses. Thus nobody works any harder than before, unless there be some teachers who,\nunder the old regime, slighted the work in composition.\nh) The adolescent mind is so constituted that it cannot concentrate itself for fortyfive minutes on one thing, i.e., on reading, composition, or grammar. Therefore we\nshould have fifteen minutes of each in each recitation. If so, why not, in each mathematics period, have ten minutes of arithmetic, ten of bookkeeping, ten of algebra, ten of\ngeometry, and five of trigonometry? Or, better still, why not have in each period a\nmixture of French, chemistry, cooking, basket-ball, and biology ?\nAbsurd as this objection sounds, it indicates a real danger. Not all of our teachers\nhave been trained in the art of teaching composition. Some of them think that there\nare in it only two steps: (i) assigning of a subject; (2) correcting the papers.\nSuch\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nENGLISH\n\n487\n\nteachers naturally take refuge in the mixture theory.\nThey think that they must have\nsomething to fill in the intervals between compositions.\nThese teachers must be educated.\nc) The study of composition should be based on literature. It should and we do it.\nOnly we do it more efifectively than we could prior to separation. Instead of asking our\npupils to imitate Spenser's Faerie Queene and Browning's Saul, we select for their models\nbits of writing that they can and do imitate with ease and pleasure. On the other hand,\nwe still have written work in our reading courses. To state the point in another way,\nwe write in our reading courses in order to help* our reading; in our writing courses we\nstudy Hterature in order to learn how to write.\nd) One objection remains. It will be said that a whole semester of composition is\ntoo much like real work. It will bore the pupils. To this I answer that such an objection is an injustice to our pupils. If there is any one thing that really interests them, it\nis work. They do not want a diet that is all frosting and whipped cream. It is just the\nfact that English has been made such a \"nice, lovely, inspiring\" study that, more than\nanything else, has brought the study of English into disrepute. But of real interest there\nneed be no lack in a composition class. If it be organized and conducted as a serious\nstudy, it is more interesting than a class in literature, just as it is more interesting to play\nfootball than to stand on the sidelines. There is abundant testimony on this point from\npupils, teachers, and parents.\nWhat we have thus far accomplished leads me to believe that, when our new arrangements begin to have their full effect, we shall come a good deal closer than hitherto to\ngetting satisfactory results in grammar and composition. The problem of teaching\nliterature is more difl&cult. It cannot be said to be solved until every graduate has the\nreading habit. How far we are from this goal I was rudely reminded the other day when\na dealer in second-hand books showed me a copy of Palgrave's Golden Treasury which\none of our graduates had just sold to him for twelve cents in order to get the price of a\nticket to a moving-picture show. Nor is this situation peculiar to Michigan. A few\ndays later I met in Chicago a man who teaches literature as if he were inspired and gets\n$4,000 a year for doing it. He said to me: \"I am in despair. I have just read a set of\npapers written by a class that has been studying Milton for twelve weeks. One of them\nascribes the authorship of Paradise Lost to Alexander Pope and another to John Woolman. Now what can one do about it ? \" What, indeed, except perhaps, as one of my\nstudents in his guileless ignorance of orthography recently suggested, to go up to the top\nof Vesuvius to see the \"creator smoke,\" and to take such comfort as may be derived\nfrom one of Burns's sagest reflections:\nIf honest nature made you fools,\nWhat sairs your grammars ?\nESSENTIAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nCHARLES\n\nTHOMAS,\n\nSWAIN\n\nIN\n\nHIGH\n\nTEACHING\nSCHOOL,\n\nNEWTON,\n\nENGLISH\nMASS.\n\nThe problem of teaching English literature to pupils in the secondary schools is not\nto be considered an easy task. To approach the work with the misconception that it\nneed be fraught with little effort or anxiety is a sure method of steering directly toward\ndisaster. But to say that it is difficult and to urge that it demands painstaking labor,\nis not to stigmatize it. Rather because of these inherent hindrances we can assert that\nit is supremely interesting, and that the task can he made to yield genuine pleasure and\nconstant enlightenment. To discuss in a general way how joyful and intelligent interest\nmay be made to pervade the difficult task of teaching English literature to pupils of\nhigh-school age is the object of this address. This discussion will be adequate only when,\ntogether, we have answered the general query, \"What are the essential principles which\nshould guide instruction in English literature?\" To this query there are two general\nreplies, and each reply will allow detailed comment.\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\n1. The pupil must be made to apprehend the objective meaning of the message.\n2. He must be made to comprehend the subjective meaning of the message.\nIn saying that the pupil must be made to apprehend the objective significance of\nthe message, I mean simply and solely that he must understand the message of the text;\nhe must see what facts the writer is trying to impart; he must translate into mental concepts these arbitrary signs which we call words.\n\"But this,\" the inexperienced teacher may say, \"why, this is easy; the pupil can\npronounce these words, and if he can pronounce them, surely the words instinctively\ncarry with their pronunciation the intended meaning!\" But could that inexperienced\nteacher have a photograph of the mental pictures which a selected bit of literature has\nimprinted upon the several minds in the pupils before him, he would be appalled. And\nthe most appalling feature of the situation would not be the array of false concepts, but\nit would be the array of hazy concepts; or, in many cases, the absolute lack of any concept whatever.\nLet us play a little longer with this photographic trope. This inexperienced teacher\nof literature is much like the very amateur photographer. Our neophyte artist has read\nhis book of instructions carefully; he now thinks he knows the mechanism of his instrument, and he takes it out into the landscape, sets up his tripod, and fires his several shots.\nEverything apparently works well, and he goes to his dark-room in high expectancy.\nHe thinks he knows what each plate will reveal. He eagerly anticipates the beautiful\ncloud efifects in plate number one; the lights and shadows that the willows cast in beautiful intermingling over the brooklet in plate number two; and the splendid contour of the\ntree-bestrewn and rock-laden mountain in plate number three. But alas! under the\nthe weird light of his ruby lamp the new chemicals in their dish of shining japan reveal\nno such aesthetic delights. The outlines refuse to stand out in bold relief; rude blotches\nmar the cumulus clouds; the willows are covered with spiteful air-globules of varied\ndiameters; the mountain is a dismal, dead blank. And the ambitious artist, when he\nleaves the dark-room, goes sadly to the library, picks up his Coleridge, and wearily sits\ndown to read that splendid definition of dejection:\nA grief without a pang, void, dark, and drear,\nA stifled, drowsy, unimpassioned grief.\nWhich finds no natural outlet, no relief.\nIn word, or sigh, or tear.\nOur photographic figure, however, does not walk on all fours. The tyro in English\nteaching is not so efifectively saddened; for he, working with sensitive minds rather than\nwith sensitive plates, has no such positive and enlightening way of knowing of his failure.\nAccordingly he is too often content to go ahead, until finally by some hook or crook he\nis rudely shaken into the conviction that by his inane teaching the pupils are having all\ntheir literary nerves devitalized. Instead of these neurones being set a-tingle by the\nsuggested color-concepts falling on fair Madeline's fair breast in the crypt of the moonlit church; instead of a brilliant re-creating of the notes of the pealing organ and the fullvoiced choir which dissolved the devotee of melancholy into ecstasies and brought all\nheaven before his eyes; instead of these highly desirable and complacently assumed conceptions, we have, alas! a dim and misty grayness shadowing all. Not in every case,\nlet me hasten to say. We who have taught have had the exquisite pleasure of hearing\nthe voice tremble and of seeing the eye glisten its appreciation of sensitive effects, and in\nthose moments we have thanked the gods — and not amiss — that they had allowed us to\nplay a part in leading a young companion to a plane where his horizon of beauty was\nsuddenly and richly expanded — and then at a glance toward the stolid and the unaroused,\nour thanks retreat to seek the ebon shades of some dark Cimmerian desert.\nBut merely to point out defects in teaching is not to eradicate them. The physician after he has made his diagnosis must try to effect a cure. What, we may ask, is the\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nENGLISH\n\n489\n\ncure for frowsy habits of reading ? How can the amateur teacher of English become a\nprofessional expert ?\nThe teacher must first convince his slipshod readers that their reading is slipshod.\nHe must make them realize that true reading involves the re-creation in the reader's\nmind and heart of the essential concepts and the essential emotions which dictated the\nmaster's writing. The mere mechanical pronunciation of words as an end in itself this\ntrue reader will gradually learn to spurn; the revisualizing of concepts and the revitalizing of emotions he will learn instinctively to demand. Along with this will come the\nconviction that literature cannot be effectively studied while the pupil reclines on a\nsoporific couch, or lolls luxuriously in a Morris chair. For most of us the study of literature demands the posture of a straight-backed stool. But what specific pedagogical\neffort will establish the conviction that words must be vitalized, that sentences and\nparagraphs must be transfused with the glory and the strength of imagination ?\nAs a mere device try this: Read to your pupils — or have the pupils read to themselves— a stanza of poetry, or a paragraph of prose; then immediately demand that\nbooks be closed. Open a series of questions. What pictures, class, have you in your\nmind? What senses are appealed to? sight? sound? feeling? odor? taste? Is there\nany sensation of movement ? Is this upward ? downward ? straightforward ? crooked ?\nzigzag? winding? Are there any words which refuse to yield a definite meaning? If\nso, why ? What is the strongest appeal made to your imagination ?\nLet's take a concrete case from Tennyson's Passing of Arthur and see what sort of\nquestions and comments will create concepts, vivify language, and arouse emotions:\nThen saw they how there hove a dusky barge.\nDark as a funeral scarf from stem to stern,\nBeneath them; and ascending they were ware\nThat all the decks were dense with stately forms,\nBlack-stoled, black-hooded, like a dream — by these\nThree queens with crowns of gold — and from them rose\nA cry that shiver'd to the tingling stars.\nAnd, as it were one voice, an agony\nOf lamentation, like a wind that shrills\nAll night in a waste land, where no one comes.\nOr hath come, since the making of the world.\nThen murmur'd Arthur, \"Place me in the barge,\"\nSo to the barge they came. There those three queens\nPut forth their hands, and took the King, and wept.\nBut she that rose the tallest of them all\nAnd fairest laid his head upon her lap.\nAnd loosed the shatter'd casque, and chafed his hands.\nAnd call'd him by his name, complaining loud,\nAnd dropping bitter tears against a brow\nStriped with dark blood; for all his face was white\nAnd colorless, and like the wither'd moon\nSmote by the fresh beam of the springing east;\nAnd all his greaves and cuisses dash'd with drops\nOf onset; and the light and lustrous curls —\nThat made his forehead like a rising sun\nHigh from the dais-throne — were parch'd with dust.\nOr, clotted into points and hanging loose,\n. Mixt with the knightly growth that fringed his lips.\nSo like a shatter'd coltunn lay the King;\nNot like that Arthur who, with lance in rest.\nFrom spur to plume a star of tournament.\nShot thro' the lists at Camelot, and charged\nBefore the eyes of ladies and of kings.\nImmediately after the passage is read let all books be closed. Some pupil may\nfirst be called upon to describe the picture which was in Tennyson's mind. Omitted\ndetails may then be supplied by the class. Or perhaps the teacher will prefer to test\nthe pupils by asking questions that will at once bring out certain details.\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "49°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nNow we must remember that the concrete image is the basis of all sensory imagery,\nfor sensory imagery means simply and solely the concrete impressions that strike the\nsenses — sight, hearing, feeling, smell, and taste. When we remember that originally\nall language was pictorial and that the modern civilized child cares little for the unillustrated book, and that even we who are more mature smile approvingly when we learn\nthat the lecture we are to attend is to be illuminated with the stereopticon — when we\nremember all this, we begin to have an idea of what an important part these concrete,\nvisual images play in our daily life.\nWhen we apply our study of sensory imagery to the interpretation of literature, it\nmeans that we are not getting the exact picture that was in the author's mind unless we\nknow the exact details — real or imaginary — that were in the author's mind. Now for\nthe purposes of sympathetic reading it is of course not necessary that the exact image\noriginally in the poet's mind be re-created — the essential thing is that the reader study\nthe particular passage he is reading with the idea of securing as nearly as possible the\nwriter's point of view. Then by the proper arrangement and massing of details, the\nalert, sensitive reader — provided his experience be sufi&cient — can create the adequate\nimage and come into proper sympathy with the author.\nBut in all our teaching we are too prone to forget that the experience of our pupils\nis severely limited. The trouble with them and with ourselves is just this — we have not\nseen enough.\nOr if we have seen enough, we have not observed closely enough.\nThe solution here, I believe, is the same as in the realm of practical ethics — the instillment in the individual mind of the necessity of a wise unselfishness, the partial effacement of the individual egoism — a liberal Catholicism. Applying the dictum to ourselves\nas readers, we must learn to feel how extremely narrow has been the experience which has\ncome to each one of us and do all we can to widen it.\nOne passage of Shakespeare's — the speech of Lady Macbeth in the sleep-walking\nscene — is one of the best illustrations in all literature of the effective use of the sense of\nsmell. Verplanck, after mentioning the fact that the more agreeable associations of\nthis sense are often used for poetic effect, adds:\nBut the smell has never been successfully used as a means of impressing the imagination with terror, pity, or any deeper emotions, except in this dreadful sleep-walking\nscene of the guilty Queen, and in one parallel scene of the Greek drama, as wildly terrible\nas this. It is that passage of the Agamemnon of Aeschylus, where the captive prophetess, Cassandra, wrapt in visionary inspiration, scents first the smell of blood, and then\nthe vapors of the tomb breathing from the palace of Atrides, as ominous of his approaching murder.\nAs an example of other sensations of odor, I may quote from the King James Version\nof Solomon's Songs, chap. 3, vs. 6:\nWho is this that cometh out of the wilderness like pillars of smoke, perfumed with\nmyrrh and frankincense, with all powders of the merchant ?\nAll of you will recall the famous scene when Jacob, pretending to be Esau, goes to\nhis father:\nAnd his father Isaac said unto him. Come near now, and kiss me, my son. And he\ncame near, and kissed him: and he smelled the smell of his raiment, and blessed him,\nand said. See, the smell of my son is as the smell of a field which the Lord hath blessed.\nWhen we come to the consideration of touch imagery we find it to include sensations\nof movement, muscular pressure, and temperature. The exhilarating movem.ent of a\nfast-plying ship, the grasp of the hand, the sense of warmth and cold — all these are freely\nemployed in literature. Perhaps in some cases they have been too freely employed.\nI have a friend who has cared nothing for Keats since he noted the poet's allusion to\nkisses as slippery blisses.\nNow among all the touch images in literature I know of none that makes a more\ndelicately sensuous appeal than the one used by Rosetti in The Blessed Damozel. All\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nENGLISH\n\n491\n\nof you will recall the picture of the maiden leaning over the bar of heaven.\nvisual image the poet adds details beautifully illustrative of the tactile sense,\nAnd still she bowed herself and stooped\nOut of the circling charm;\nUntil her bosom must have made\nThe bar she leaned on warm,\nAnd the lilies lay as if asleep\nUpon her bended ar/n.\n\nTo this\n\nWe must not assume, however, that the pupil's apperception of such sensory images\nas these, their analysis and their labeling, is the sine qua non of English teaching. There\nshould be merely enough of this to arouse the inert and to stimulate the curious. To\nmany these concepts will of course come without the teacher's aid, and we must be careful that students of quick insight be not satiated with the mere routine of analysis.\nThere are two or three other practices corollary to this visualizing process, which\nare vital to the apprehension of the objective meaning in literature. The pedagogical\nsignificance of these we may now briefly examine.\nAmong the most valuable practices which an English teacher may employ is the\nillumination of the abstract by concrete illustrations. Take, for example, that wellknown couplet from Locksley Hall —\nLove took up the harp of Life, and smote on all the chords with might;\nSmote the chord of Self, that, trembling, past in music out of sight.\nIn elaborating the meaning of these lines which show the power of love in effacing\nself, the teacher should draw upon the great realm of life and story, and tell — or have his\nstudents tell — of some great sacrifice which a mother has made for a son, a wife for a\nhusband, or a sweetheart for a lover. Let the narrator bring forward in its detailed concreteness that splendid immolating spirit of Sydney Carton — that greatest of all characters in the greatest of Dickens' novels. Carton's love for Lucie Mannette was so supremely great that he would not even offer himself in marriage, for he knew too well that\nhis dissolute, impractical nature was ill-suited to the office of husband. But he bided\nhis time in pitiable isolation of spirit, faithful always to that early promise that he would\nwillingly make any sacrifice to keep her, or any dear to her, safe from any evil or any\nperil. And when, in that strange and intense situation in the prison of the Conciergerie,\nwhen he found that it was possible for him, by a vicarious sacrifice, to liberate the husband\nof her whom he loved so unselfishly, then willingly he laid down his life in order that\nCharles Darnay might be saved to Lucie and to Lucie's children. With the example\nof this sacrifice fresh before us, shall we not revert with renewed interest to the abstraction of the poet, and read with keener delight the words which a concrete example has\nclarified ? Try it now in your own instance as we repeat the couplet:\nLove took up the harp of Life, and smote on all the chords with might;\nSmote the chord of Self, that, trembling, past in music out of sight.\nFinally, the message of the text, its objective significance, cannot be understood\nwithout understanding the meaning of words and the references. This conquest will\nalways be a portion of the work fraught with great difficulty. If as students we are to\nprogress in our education, these words and references will not come without physical\nand mental effort. They often demand a trip downstairs to the dictionary or to the\nencyclopedia. Oftentimes they will invoke the reading of other literary selections.\nWhat they most insistently urge is intelligent effort toward the comprehension of their\napplication in a particular case. In this it often happens that the reference books\ngive\nlittle aid; we must rely upon a concentration that will yield its natural mental product.\nAnd now together I think we are agreed on one answer to this query concerning\nthe\nessential principles which should guide our instruction in English literature\n. In our\nfirst reply— //fg pupil must he made to apprehend the objective meaning of the message~v\nemphasize the importance of an imaginative translation of words into concepts. ft\nBy\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ninsisting upon the definite re-creation of those images which appeal to sight, hearing,\nfeeling, odor, and taste, we insure a sympathetic interpretation which mere pronunciation of words does not necessarily convey. Aside from questions designed to re-create\nthese sensory images, we insist upon concrete examples to illustrate the abstract, upon\nexpressive oral reading, and upon such a conscientious use of the dictionary and the\nencyclopedia as will aid in vitalizing the obscure. But necessary to the full enjoyment\nand the full comprehension of literature there must be a concurrent reaction which the\nsecond reply suggests.\nYou will recall the phrasing of this second reply. The reader must comprehend the\nsubjective meaning of the message. And just what do I mean by this ? I mean that there\nshall be some appreciable reaction; there must be a turning-in of these literary sensations\nupon the individual reader. The sensation must not volatilize; it must re-create; it\nmust refer itself back to the reader's view of life and there recognize its contrasts and\nestablish its comparisons. It will stimulate the personal question and generate the\npersonal comment. It will arouse such inquiries as these — Do I believe this? Does\nmy experience support the view ? Just what differences are there between the situations\ndescribed and my own situation on a particular occasion ? How would I have acted in\nsuch circumstances?\nMay the author's teaching be accepted as universally true?\nAs teachers we must ever bear in mind the enlargement which this subjective view\nmeans. It means that all these images, these pictures in the mind, the sensory impressions— in a word, the imaginative concepts — find their basis in experience. Imagination\ntakes these experiences, enlarges, reduces, readjusts, revamps; and out of the old emerges\nthe new. Oftentimes the spirit of a passage allows us to take a familiar scene — perhaps\nfrom our childhood home — and a simple repeopling or recostuming creates the proper\neffect.\nWhether this message comes in the form of story, essay, or poem, the method is the\nsame. The objective message of the writer is interpreted, vivified, and re-formed by the\nsubjective mind of the reader. The struggles of the character are the reader's struggles,\nand all the victories and the defeats are thus vicariously shared. Sympathy is generated, views of life enlarged, and the reader begins to feel his kinship with the universal\nheart of mankind.\nMay I add in conclusion that I assume that it is apparent to all that the comprehension of the objective and the subjective meanings of literature is not in ordinary life\ndistinctly differentiated ? Nor is it to be supposed that they would under all conditions\nbe mutually exclusive. It is merely for purposes of analysis and intelligent apperception\nthat we consider them separately. We are to understand that the great province of\nliterature is the interpretation of life. The literary sensation will produce upon each\nmind which receives it a slightly different percept, depending upon the fabric and the\nexperience of the receiving individuality. And yet the general tone and temperament\nof human souls have so much in common that there is a wide gamut of general appeal.\nAs we progress from infancy to maturity our tastes and our capacities are in constant\nevolution. As teachers we must study these changes in our pupils and offer in each\nprogressive period the sort of literary pabulum which will best secure the existing mental\ngrasp and best incite the healthy reach. With growing strength and tenser fiber the\nmental power expands and the varying emotions find freer expression. The counterplay of life and literature grows more interesting, and each becomes a helpful interpreter\nof the other. Literature reveals its warnings, its encouragements, its wisdoms, its humors,\nand its beauties; and life absorbs these to its ultimate growth and good. It is to this\ngreat task — this task so rich in possibilities for the pupil's enrichment — that we English\nteachers have pledged our devotion. Who is there among us that will not be willing to\npray the prayer which John Milton prayed in preparation for his great epic:\nWhat in me is dark\nIllumine^ what is low raise and support ?\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentI\n\nORAL\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF TEACHING\n\nLATIN\n\n493\n\nIn teaching literature we shall constantly make earnest endeavor to increase the\nstudent's power to perceive the objective meaning of the literary message in order that\nthere may come, coincident with this, a fuller conception of the subjective message.\nAnd all this we shall do in the faith that this expansion of intellect and emotion means\nthe constant expansion of character.\n\nC.\nTHE\nGONZALEZ\n\nORAL\n\nLODGE, PROFESSOR\n\nMETHOD\n\nLATIN\nOF TEACHING\n\nOF LATIN, TEACHERS COLLEGE,\nNEW YORK CITY, N.Y.\n\nLATIN\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe oral method of teaching Latin is, properly considered, not a novelty. Its\napparent novelty consists in its application to the present conditions of the study of the\nclassics in our schools. For the oral method has been employed in the teaching of modern\nlanguages regularly in our schools for a number of years, and it was employed in the\nteaching of Latin universally down to a comparatively recent period, say, a century or\nmore ago. The introduction of the oral method in the teaching of Latin and Greek,\nthen, at the present day is, on the one hand, a reversion with certain modifications to\na form of teaching prevalent centuries ago, and, on the other hand, it is an adaptation\nof a form of teaching well known among our modern-language teachers.\nThe insistence upon a modification of our present system of teaching the classics\nis loud and widespread. It proceeds, as we all know, from a profound dissatisfaction\nwith the results of our present teaching. In a democracy like ours the appeal must be\nmade ultimately to the majority, and, if they are not convinced, they labor in vain who\ntry only to convince the cultivated classes. Democracy is only just now coming to its\nown in the field of education. Nowhere has conservatism held its place more stubbornly.\nMurmurs of the people against the systems of training to which they have been subjected have become seriously effective only in comparatively recent times.\nIn the minds of the unthinking criticism means immediate reform, and that reform\nis apt, sometimes, to take the form of obliteration, if it is opposed without due caution.\nNow the people at large are profoundly convinced of the inefiicacy of the training in the\nclassics which has come down to us as the traditional training of a gentleman. Almost\neverywhere the college graduate up to a quarter of a century ago had studied Latin for\nfrom four to six years. Not one in one hundred, when he left college, was convinced of\nany genuine command of the language, and the utter lack of knowledge of Latin which\nhe displayed in later years was always coupled with the feeling that he was woefully\nignorant of it when he left college. We may say that the college student forgets in afterlife what he knew on leaving college, of physics, of higher mathematics, of the details of\nhistory, etc., and that is true; but, as he looks back upon his college course there was a\ntime when he knew something about these things, and there was a period when he showed\na certain facility in his knowledge. Very rarely does a college student show facility in his\nknowledge of the classics. It is a common thing to hear educated people laugh about\ntheir ignorance of Latin, which they once studied. You rarely hear them laugh about\ntheir ignorance of the other subjects that they studied. In the defense of our work as\nteachers of the classics, we have fallen back upon the affirmation that they are of particular\nimportance as mental gymnastics, and to that in our modern times we have added another\nreason which we maintain with great enthusiasm, the importance of the study of the classics\nfor a proper knowledge of the intricacies of usage of our mother-tongue. The public is not\ninterested in either of these reasons, and is not inclined to accept our ordinary explanations\nof the lack of attainment of our students in our classes in Latin and Greek. This age is an\nage which demands results, and, if results are not forthcoming, is apt to visit its indignation not so much upon the teacher as upon the subject, as we have learned to our cost.\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\nWhat, therefore, people demand is that if the student studies Latin he should gain some\ngenuine knowledge of it; and while some of us may regard that attitude as unjustifiable,\nit is nevertheless one which we have to face. If such a demand were impossible of fulfillment, then we might lie back and face the worst, but we are not willing to admit that we\nare unable, with the time at our command, to develop a reading knowledge of Latin; and\ninasmuch as we have failed to do this according to the old method, thinking teachers are\nturning their eyes to the lessons of the past, and to the lessons that may be drawn from the\nexperience of their colleagues in the modern field, and so has arisen the advocacy of the\noral method, or, as it is sometimes called, the direct method.\nThe first question that presents itself in this discussion is: By the employment of the\noral method, do we mean that we desire to teach our pupils to use Latin in common conversation, asif it were a modern language ? Now this question may be answered unhesitatingly inthe negative. Latin, in spite of the dreams of some enthusiasts, cannot be made\na spoken tongue. What, then, do we mean to do ? In brief we lay down this premise ,\nthat the prime necessity for ready reading of Latin is ready knowledge of it, its pecuHarities of structure, its peculiarities of form, and, furthermore, that this reading knowledge\ncan best be obtained by constant employment on the part of the pupil of the knowledge\nthat he gains as he gains it. It must be remembered that, while modern languages are\ntaught now by the oral method, very few of those who study them may be expected to\nemploy them in current speech. Nay, even those students who go on to the higher academic degrees, for which all universities now require a rudimentary knowledge of French\nand German; even they are not expected, nor do they themselves expect, in the vast\nmajority of cases, ever to speak the language ; but the experience of our modern friends shows\nthat the best preparation for reading is the oral use of the tongue, and a proper theory of\nteaching would declare that what is true with regard to the modern language is true with\nregard to the ancient.\nThe literature of Greece and Rome, which has come down to us, is what we want to\nread, and what we want to teach our pupils to read, with a certain amount of ease. That\nliterature is, with slight exceptions, an elevated literature, and it does not embody the\nlanguage of the street or the home. There is, therefore, no occasion to employ in Latin,\nto any great extent at least, even in reading, the language of everyday life. This is an\nadditional reason why in advocating the oral method we do not claim to teach our pupils\nto speak Latin as an everyday language.\nIn brief then, when we speak of the oral method we mean the constant employment\nof that which has been learned, in speaking. What will be spoken, the material of the\nclassroom, will depend very largely, therefore, upon what is being studied at the time, not\nupon any merely conversational aim.\nFor reading Latin or any other language, the first thing that the pupil has to learn is\nforms, the next necessity for reading is vocabulary, and the third is syntax. Of these\nthree, so little syntax is actually needed in the 'initial stages of study that what is needed\nmay come almost without consideration as a by-product. The main emphasis is to be laid\nupon forms and words. Forms must be committed to memory, a truism everywhere\nacknowledged, but the committing to memory of a set of forms involves an amount of\nwaste if along with that acquisition does not go constant practice. It used to be customary to have declension bees and conjugation bees, and pupil was pitted against pupil\nin the ready giving of detached forms. While there may be some value in that practice,\nit is very slight, for experience shows that a pupil may be able to give the forms of a paradigm with exactness and still not translate correctly the individual form when he sees it in\na sentence. But this is not all. A student who is well drilled in the isolated forms will\nstumble badly when a number of different forms are associated in a sentence. If we take\na simple sentence, like \"The father gives to his son a book,\" we would expect our pupils to\ntranslate that sentence into Latin with ease and correctness. Now, as a matter of experience, the number of mistakes that a class of twenty can make in such a sentence, when\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORAL\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nLATIN\n\n495\n\nevery member of the class can inflect every one of the words necessary thruout correctly,\nis remarkable. I have seen a class of graduate students, with teaching experience, stumble\npitifully over such little sentences as that. I have seen a woman of ten years' experience\nin teaching when asked to render a sentence like \"He wished to see his mother,\" do it in\nthis way; \"Volo\" — a pause — a reflection — and finally — \"vult,\" \"video\" — a similar pause\nfor reflection, and finally \" videre,\" and in the same way with the third word. Now that\nis not knowledge — that is a more or less pitiful make-believe which may readily be remedied\nif the student has been trained from the start to tl»e difference between forms, as shown by\ntheir distinct signs, as distinct from the difference of meaning, as shown by distinct stems.\nThe oral method says, therefore, that we must not teach forms as mere tours de force\nof memory, nor must we trust to laborious translation of Latin sentences — with perpetual\nreference to the printed paradigm — but while we have the complete paradigm learned, we\nmust exercise the knowledge continually in actual utterance. Given in the first declension\nthe words regina, rosa, ptiella, agricola, and the verb forms dat, dant, dahat, dabant, the\nteacher will ring the changes as follows: \"The queen gives the rose to the girl of the\nfarmer,\" varying to \"queens give roses to the girls of the farmers\"; \"rose of the girl to\nthe farmer,\" \"girl of the queen\"; \"to the farmer\"; \"of the queen,\" in the plural, etc.;\nall rapidly, orally, and vivaciously.\nThe employment of Latin in oral speech in the classroom requires, to be sure, a certain\napparatus, particularly interrogative pronouns, such as quis and quid, quantum, qualis,\nquando, and the like, and also a certain number of imperative forms, such as die, narra,\nresponde, a certain number of particles, like sed, and at, and igitur, perhaps; but this apparatus is very small. Practically it can be entirely committed to memory during the first\ncouple of lessons in the first year. It does not require any particular book, that is to say,\nit can be employed with any book. In the majority of our beginners' books, the reading\nmaterial in the early lessons is extremely artificial. It is an unfortunate fact that the\nvocabulary of the first two declensions does not lend itself to the reading and conversation, but in spite of this, by the device of question and answer and with some ingenuity\non the part of the teacher, the oral method may be employed with every beginners' book\nnow on the market. Some are better than others, and in fact there have been attempts,\nin recent years, to provide material for oral practice in many beginners' books in the form\nof short dialogues or narratives, but in all these books the oral work has been incidental,\nand the written work and the set recitation have been essential. The oral method reverses\nthis, and makes the oral work essential and the written work incidental.\nIt is evident from what has been said that a very important side of oral work is the\ncontinual rendering of English into Latin. I know that some distinguished scholars maintain that the translation of English into Latin should be deferred for some months until\nthe student has acquired a fairly complete knowledge of simple forms. The oral method\ndenies this, and maintains that the boy who can render quickly at dictation a sentence\nlike \"The girl loves the rose,\" has a better knowledge of the forms involved than the one\nwho can laboriously spell out \"Puella rosam amat.\" In the majority of our beginners'\nbooks the exercises for translation have a definitely graded length. We have usually some\nten sentences for translation from Latiji into English for every lesson, and perhaps half\nthat number of sentences from English into Latin.\nNow if the pupil has studied a lesson that contains two or three substantives and the\nsame number of adjectives and verb-forms, the ordinary teacher can, as I have shown\nabove, ring innumerable changes upon these elements and instead of the paltry ten sentences can form thirty or forty, and as the lessons go on, with the increase in vocabulary\nthe number is practically unlimited. There are, however, some books that have been made\nespecially for this kind of work. Here we find the exercises consisting of a short piece of\nnarrative with directions for expansion on the part of the teacher. We have Enghsh and\nGerman books made after this fashion, and it is likely that we shall soon have American\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nones as well. That translation of Latin sentences is valuable is freely admitted, but in\nthe initial stages its value is slight as compared with the translation of English into Latin.\nIt is evident from what I have said that at the outset very little attention will\nbe paid to syntax. The use of the infinitive mood after a verb of saying, and subjunctives\nafter the particles ut and ne, and the indicative after a few particles like uhi and postquam\ngive material, together with the ordinary concords, for an immense amount of practice in\nverb-forms. The characteristic meaning of the cases, by which I mean the indirect object\nfor the dative case, particularly with verbs of giving and the like, the direct object with\nthe accusative case, the simple objective and partitive genitives, and the ablative of means,\nmanner, separation, and place where, will afiford ample material for the most extensive\ndrill in the forms of the noun; in fact, it is quite pos^ble, if it were desirable, to spend the\nwhole of a year on reading which would involve practically no more syntax than what I\nhave mentioned. How this amount of syntax is to be taught is a matter of small moment.\nIf the teacher can do it inductively, there is no objection. Most teachers will probably\nfind it preferable to give it deductively.\nIn the matter of vocabulary it is necessary to have a strict limitation. The ultimate\naim of Latin study, as indicated, would prevent any extensive employment of the colloquial phrases of the street. But even so, the work of the students should be devoted\nprimarily to learning those words that are likely to prove most useful in their reading, by\nreason of their relative frequency of occurrence; but even with the limited word-list of the\nfirst year much can be done, for the study of vocabulary can be combined with rudimentary\nstudy in word-formation, and just as a child can make an adverb from an English adjective\nor an adjective from an English noun, so elementary training in such work in Latin very\nearly in his course, will increase his command of words surprisingly.\nThe oral method lays very little stress upon home preparation of original work. Reviewing athome is entirely in place, but studying the advance lesson at home is somewhat\nto be discouraged with ordinary pupils, because in many cases it is ineffective, either on\naccount of assistance rendered to the child or by reason of the incorrect results that we\nare so familiar with. The translation of passages set for reading in the book should come\nfrom the study of the elements from which they are composed, and the home study would\nbe better devoted to this. In some of the European schools a small piece of translation\nis put on the board, and the meanings of the words being known, or given, the translation\nis elicited and the class drilled on the material involved in it, the home work being confined\nalmost entirely to reviews.\nBut here particular objection must be made to the use the vocabularies so commonly\nprovided in our textbooks. The remarks of Professor Rippmann on the bad effects of the\nuse of vocabularies in the case of modern-language study are so thoroly applicable to our\nown problem that I quote them {Modern Language Teaching, IV, 239) :\nThe worst thing is to let the pupils use a dictionary or a special vocabulary. To look\nup a word in the dictionary or vocabulary is to get the meaning with the least effort and\nthe least effect. The pupil who has been allowed to acquire the dictionary habit does not\nstop to see whether he can make out the meaning unaided. He turns the word up at once,\nand the impression is a slight one, even if he proceeds to write the word down with the\nmeaning beside it. Sometimes there is a little diflSculty that remains unsolved by the\ndictionary; a phrase occurs which cannot be made out by word-for-word translating, but\nrequires a little thought before the right English equivalent is obtained. Many editors\ndo not allow the pupil to do even this for himself; they supply notes which contain renderings ready made. A comparison of such editions and those on reform lines throws an\ninteresting light on the familiar charge that the newer methods are designed to make\nthings unduly easy for the pupil.\nOften, when I have advised the abandoning of dictionaries and vocabularies, teachers\nhave asked: \"How, then, are the pupils to prepare their work?\" My answer is that,\ngenerally speaking, home work should be revision and application rather than preparation;\nthat preparation with a dictionary has grave disadvantages; and that there are two ways in\nwhich a fresh portion of the text can be prepared without a dictionary, both of them educationally sound. The first method is the one which I should recommend for ordinary\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORAL\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF TEACHING\n\nLATIN\n\n497\n\nuse: The teacher glances thru the page or pages he is going to set for preparation, and\nunderlines such words as he knows to be unfamiliar to his pupils; when giving out the homework, he points out these words and explains them.\nNow what I have said of the oral method is applicable particularly to the first year\nof study. It is there that the foundations of accuracy are laid. It is there that iteration\nupon iteration is absolutely essential, and it is in the first year, in our ordinary system,\nthat slovenly habits of thinking are so frequently developed. In the subsequent years\nincreasing stress will be laid upon prepared translation outside of the classroom, but at the\nsame time the oral method always lays particular stress upon oral exercises. A favorite\nexercise of the kind is for the instructor to read before the class a piece of simple narrative\nin Latin, and quiz the members of the class as to the meaning of the passage, to see whether\nthey comprehend it thoroly. He then requires that the members of the class bring in on\nthe following day the story as they remember it. It is to be ODserved that here the training of the ear is continued in that the original Latin is understood only thru the ear.\nAnother exercise of a different character is to read a short narrative in English before the\nclass, so that they may have some connected idea of the story, and have them write out\nthe story in Latin. Such exercises as these afford plenty of opportunity for training in\nsyntactical discrimination, for with every exercise special constructions can be required of\nthe pupil. Naturally, if this were not done in the case of many pupils, the written Latin\nwould take the form of a congeries of short detached sentences.\nNow I have only attempted in the foregoing to give an outline sketch of the main\ncharacteristics of the oral or direct method. Perhaps the chief advantage of the method\nis that it is extremely elastic, and the fact that by reason of the demands that it makes\nupon the teacher it renders him at the same time practically independent of the textbook.\nIt makes the teacher a teacher indeed, not merely a hearer of recitations, and the interrogator of the lesson Jearned. It emphasizes the personal relation between teacher and\npupil. This very fact makes the method a more exacting one than the ordinary one of\nquestion and answer from the pupil, but at the same time its results are so much better\nthat it is worth the additional exertion.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn C. Kirtland, Phillips-Exeter Academy, Exeter, N.H. — Professor Lodge's\npremises I accept without reservation. The prevailing methods of teaching Latin furnish\na good example of stereotyped incompetency. They must again be humanized, if the\nstudy of the language is to perform its educational function and maintain its high place in\nour school curriculum. It is difficult, too, to deny the conclusion of our protagonist,\nfortified as it is by the authority of so acute an observer, so profound a scholar, and by the\nresults of his own experiment in practicing what be preaches. If I presume to offer some\nopposing arguments, it is only because of my feeling of responsibility as advocatus diabolic\nfor I can present only theoretical considerations.\nI take it that, despite the propaganda of Dr. Avellanus, it is scarcely worth while to\ndiscuss the question of the practical utility of the conversational use of Latin. In this\ncountry we have discarded the teaching even of Latin composition as an end in itself, and\nrestrict this side of our work to purely grammatical exercises. In the case of Latin, the\noral, or direct, method rests its claim upon its a-priori validity and its supposed greater\neffectiveness as a means of learning to understand the written language. If we could put\nto one side all considerations of expediency, we should be forced to acknowledge this claim.\nOne can never entirely enter into the spirit of a foreign language until he is able to read\nit without the intermediation of words of his own tongue and the ideas they suggest, and\nthis immediate apprehension is difficult of attainment by one who has begun with careful\ntranslation of every word and sentence.\nWe must reckon, however, with certain hard facts. The most important of these is\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "498\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthat the majority of the students who begin the study of Latin in the United States any\ngiven year will not go far enough to learn much Latin, whatever the method. As for those\nwho will study the language four years, I will not venture to express an opinion as to\nwhether they would learn more Latin in that period by the direct method than by the\npresent method, but I do feel sure that they could not be prepared in the former way for\ncollege-entrance examinations such as are now set.\nViewed in this aspect, I believe the entrance examinations are sound. With the\nstrongest conviction that they should be a real test of the candidate's mastery of the\nlanguage,\" I feel, nevertheless, that this mastery is valuable chiefly for the acquaintance\nwith the laws of language which it involves and for the training in English style which is,\nin translation, its outward and visible sign. In saying this I have in mind, of course,\nthose who will not carry the study of Latin beyond the school. Now, a strict application\nof the direct method would mean the disuse of translation and of formal grammar. The\nstudent's knowledge of the meaning of the original would be tested by the expressiveness\nof his reading and his ability to paraphrase or to explain in the language of the original.\nGrammar would be taught by the inductive method. I believe that we often, in this\ncountry, emphasize the wrong things in teaching Latin grammar, or emphasize the right\nthings at a wrong time and in a wrong way, but I should be unwilling to abandon entirely\nthe systematic teaching of the forms and the laws of the language.\nI hope I have made my position clear. I do not for one moment suppose that the\nhighest knowledge of a language consists in familiarity with the grammatical categories\nin which its usages are classified, or that it has any inherent and necessary connection with\ntranslation. I am concerned only with the pedagogical problem of teaching Latin with\nthe greatest profit to the American boy or girl who can give to the study only a fraction\nof from one to four years. Finally, I am apprehensive that the adoption of the direct,\noral method would render it still more difficult than it now is to convince the public of the\neducational advantage of Latin as compared with the modern languages. We should\nhave to surrender the arguments based upon our scientific procedure, the logical and linguistic discipline afforded by the conscious comparison of two languages so dissimilar in\ntheir expression of thought as Latin and English, and the training in the use of English\nwhich is conceded to be gained from conscious, laborious translation. I shall not try to\ndevelop this line of reasoning, but what I mean is this: that we should be substituting for\nratiocinative processes the imitative processes of the so-called natural methods of teaching\nthe modern languages.\nI have purposely spoken as if the adoption of the direct method would imply rigorous\nadherence to it thruout the course. Professor Lodge would not go so far, nor is it necessary to go so far; but it has seemed to me likely to be helpful if we should consider how far\nthe method might carry us, and recognize that each step would take us just so much nearer\ncertain things and just so much farther from certain other things. But, as I agree with\nProfessor Lodge in aim, so I agree with him also in placing emphasis upon oral teaching.\nWhat I mean by oral teaching is, however, not the direct method. I would have sentences\nturned from English into Latin off-hand and orally, discussed, and perfected, and only then\nwritten out; the constant reading of the Latin text; memorizing of fine passages and sentences illustrative of usage, such as Ovid's line : Si quis qtti quid agam forte requirat erit;\ntranslation of the short sentences of the beginners' book at hearing and without previous\npreparation. This sort of an oral method I myself employ, and not simply because of the\nimportance of the auricular impression, but because I have found that it is easier in this\nway to put the stress upon things that are vital and to insure a correct attitude in the\npreparation of lessons. I am inclined to think, on the other hand, that we have too little\ncareful, deliberate written translation. It is by no means easy to criticize convincingly\nthe form of a halting oral rendering. The student's understanding of the substance of\nthe original is perhaps not best discovered in translation.\nHe should be asked frequently\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSTIMULI\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nLATIN\n\n499\n\nto repeat the description, or narrative, or argument in his own words — but I would have\nthe words English, not Latin. A valuable exercise is the summarizing of a passage of\nunfamiliar Latin read by the teacher.\nNATURAL\nERNST\n\nAND\n\nRIESS, CHAIRMAN,\n\nARTIFICIAL\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSTIMULI\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nOF CLASSICS, BOYS'\n\nHIGH\n\nLATIN\n\nSCHOOL, BROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe condition of Latin-teaching at the present time calls for serious reflection on the\npart of every person interested in the continuance of classical education. No matter how\nconsolatory the statistics as to the number of Latin-students may sound, there are other\nfigures that threaten like the Mene Tekel of Belshazzar. Latin occupies the distinguished\nplace at the bottom of the report of the College Entrance Examination Board. Dr. Maxwell of New York in his report for 1909 states that in the number of students Latin has\nbeen surpassed by German, and he adds: \"Not that Latin holds second place, but that\nit still does so, is the surprising fact. For the teaching of Latin does the very best in its\npower to kill all interest in the subject.\" It is rumored, even, that the New York Board\nof Education is considering the curtailing of the time given to us Latin-teachers, and we\nhave had occasion to discuss this question in all seriousness with at least one member of\nthe board. There is, too, a noteworthy unrest among the more thoughtful of our brethren.\nConflicting proposals are made on every side : reduction of the amount to be read, changes\nin the authors to be studied, changes of method, all these thoughts are uttered not only in\nthe privacy of Latin clubs, but also in the market-place. Once more Wisdom crieth aloud\nand, I am afraid. Foolishness crjeth still louder.\nIt is not the purpose of this paper to discuss any of these proposed changes. Some\nof them, no doubt, are valuable. Others, no doubt, are mere concessions to the cry of the\nBanausoi. Against these we should set ourselves like the adamantine walls of Erebus.\nThis country is suffering too much, in every field, from the contempt shown to the expert,\nthe so-called theorist, as compared with the much-vaunted practical man. We shall earn\nthe respect of the community by asserting our self-respect. It is we who must be listened\nto when a change is to be made.\nBut no matter what is done, no teaching has any value unless it appeals to the\ninterest of the student. This must be our pedagogical Alpha and Omega. Many teachers feel this deeply, and many devices have been proposed to stimulate this interest.\nThis paper means to distinguish between true or natural and false or artificial stimulation.\nNatural stimulation here denotes such helps as grow naturally from the subject to be\ntaught or from the method of its presentation, while artificial stimuli are brought in from\nthe outside. A-priori reasoning, based on the principles of psychology, would favor the\nformer. The latter, however, are by far the more showy and therefore, when published,\nattract much more attention.\nWe will gather these latter under several heads.\nThere is, in the first place, the \"Milieu Fallacy.\" This has largely been borrowed\nfrom modern-language teaching. In this a great deal is made — and perhaps rightfully so —\nof plunging the student into the French and German atmosphere. For this purpose,\npictures illustrating French or German life are hung on the walls of the classroom, the life\nof the people is made the subject-matter of instruction, as in Le tour de France, or in Pope's\nGerman Composition, and the whole material is adapted to this purpose. Now, any\narchaeologist will tell you that imitations of ancient works of art can always be recognized\nby the fact that certain features of the originals are unduly exaggerated. In the same way,\nour imitators among the Latin and Greek teachers have proceeded. Instead of being\nsatisfied with pictures illustrating phases of ancient life, they have established, where they\nhad the means, Greek and Roman rooms, with all the features of the ancient house, from\nthe mosaic floor to the statues adorning the walls. Here their teaching is supposed to\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ngain a mystic enlivening from the surroundings. The fallacy in this is the violation of the\napperceptive principle. In modern-language teaching it is not the Carolingian or the\nmediaeval France or Germany which is brought home to the pupil, but the manners and\nthe life of his own times, which, while different, still present sufl5ciently numerous points\nof contact with the student's own life to be of benefit. To plunge the student, however,\ninto Greek and Roman surroundings is like putting him on Dr. Faustus' cloak and transporting him into absolutely strange countries. Instead of arousing a sustained interest,\nthey bewilder the student, and the fever heat of the first excitement soon passes away,\nleaving matters where they were at the outset.\nThe second is the \"Building Fallacy,\" which, being less costly, is more widely spread.\nHere belong the building of Caesar's bridge, of Roman houses, and so forth. This is much\nless dangerous than the first, its deception lying largely in the fact that no self-activity\non the part of the student is involved. I am a strong believer in visualization, but it must\nbe a spontaneous process, not urged by the teachers, and not simply carrying out the\nteacher's suggestions. One of the best cases on record is that of a very successful woman\nteacher, who, with the expense of much labor and time, has with her students reconstructed\na Roman house on a very large scale. The work is admirable, and was very helpful to the\nstudents who built it, but — what of the future generations of students? The chief objection to all this activity is the same which lies against much of our science laboratory\nwork, and against a great many of our textbooks that claim to emphasize the inductive\nor observational method. Instead of learning how to observe, the student is told what\nand how to observe, a process not at all more valuable, and requiring much more time\nthan the deductive method.\nThe \"Presentation Fallacy\" comes next. This is largely concerned with scenic productions, such as presenting on a stage scenes from Roman life, the dramatization of parts\nof Cicero's speeches, of scenes in the Aeneid, and so forth. These have indeed a missionary\nvalue, in that they may arouse the interests of the parents of our students. But they are\nfar from doing this for the individuals chiefly concerned, namely, the pupils. On the contrary, they consume too much of their time which is only too Umited.\nThere is lastly the \"Roman Commonwealth Fallacy\". This, again, is borrowed from\nthose elementary schools which try to foster civic education by establishing a school city.\nWhile opinions on this topic seem to be as yet hopelessly divided, I belong to those who see\nin the experiment a great danger. As it is, the public high school has constantly to fight\nattempts to do away with its democracy by establishing cliques within the school. The\nunavoidable rivalry in regard to offices, the heart-pangs of the unsuccessful candidates,\nthe remoteness from the actual life of the community, all these are drawbacks compared\nwith which the slight advantages dwindle into insignificance.\nTo sum up: all our objections may be condensed into the one sentence: all these attempts are forced and lack spontaneity. Were they a voluntary offering on the part of\nthe student body, they might, within bounds, be acceptable. As it is, however, they are\nall of them moribund and they demand too large a sacrifice of time and energy.\nNeither do they produce the desirable results of Latin-teaching.\nThese I take to be :\n1. Sharp and accurate linguistics, with a reflex action upon an improvement in the\nEnglish style;\n2. Appreciation of the literary merit of the reading-matter;\n3. Understanding the social and poHtical lessons to be drawn from the study of the\nauthors;\n4. Engendering in the student the desire to continue his Latin after the high-school\nperiod.\nWhich, then, are the stimuli in this direction, naturally springing from the subject ?\nIn linguistics, especially during the beginning year, an appeal must be made to selfactivity. This may best be done by doing away with the paradigm, having the student\nform his own examples. We like our own children best, and the student who has, in a few\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSTIMULI\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\nLATIN\n\n501\n\nsuccessive lessons, built up his own tuba, tubae, etc., who has found for himself the identity\nof the personal verb endings, will retain and employ them with greater love and with\ngreater tenacity. Hand in hand with this goes the development of a feeling of power,\nboth productive and critical. This is best achieved by emphasizing co-ordination, as\nbetween first and second declensions and conjugations, by making the pupil find, in his\nwork, parallels from the old to the new. Finally there is the stimulus of association and\ncontrast which is implied in the study of word-groups and synonyms, and the finding of\ncognates and erivatives.\nAll this demands, not a new textbook, but the cutting-loose from any textbook, I\nshould welcome the day when our beginners' classes shall have placed in their hands\nmerely an exercise book with vocabulary, while all grammatical teaching shall proceed\nviva voce and at the blackboard under the guidance of the teacher.\nIn literary appreciation the greatest stimulation comes from sight reading. This\ndoes not mean reading more than the prescribed texts, but reading these differently.\nThose are golden rules embodied in the recent report of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements appointed by the American Philological Association. Take each\nsentence exactly as it stands, and with strict attention to cases, moods, and tenses, have\nyour students translate it. It is only in the rarest cases in my experience — and I have\npursued this method for many years — that a student, even if dull-witted, fails to grasp\nthe drift of the thought. Stopping now, let the class give the meaning, at first in their\nown words, then again as a faithful, yet idiomatic translation. Slow as the process is\nin the beginning, there is a surprising growth in power, and in a brief time the students\ncome to like the exercise very much. Nor do they receive less grammatical benefit than\nby the old way. Much of the spirit-killing oral examination on constructions can be\ndispensed with and the time saved given to the real essentials. Even in classes beginning\nCaesar it becomes possible to read the whole assignment for the next day in class. This\nenables the teacher to assign definitely the new grammatical points to be looked up, thus\nremoving the great objection to Latin, so well illustrated in the story of the man who\nasked all students in the morning whether they knew their lessons. In mathematics and\nother subjects the answer was a clear \"yes,\" but in Latin it was a hesitating \"I hope\nso.\" This method further allows the teacher to make his students see the real nature of\nLatin word-order as based on principles of thought rather than on arbitrary rules. Take\nas an example the passage in the second book of Caesar (chap. 17) :\nadjuvabat etiam eorum consilium, qui rem deferebant quod Nervii antiquitus, cum equitatu\nnihil possent — neqiie enim ad hoc tempus ei rei student, sed quicquid possunt pedestribus\nvalent copiis — quo facilius Unitimorum equitatum, si praedandi causa ad eos venissent,\nimpedirent, teneris arboribus incisis atque inflexis crebrisque in latitudinem ramis enatis\net rubis sentibusque interjectis effecerant ut instar muri hae saepes munimentum praeberent,\nquo non modo non intrari sed ne perspici quidem posset,\nand after following it closely have the student show you how logically each subsequent\nstatement grows out of the preceding one — and you will notice the eager interest with\nwhich the class undertakes and grasps this analysis.\nThere is, furthermore, the stimulus most persistently advocated by Professor Lodge.\nThe attention of the student ought to be directed toward the pictures and episodes in\nwhich the three authors abound. I instance only the battle with the Nervii, with its\nclimaxes and anticlimaxes, the undaunted general appearing every time, like the deus ex\nmachina, when affairs seem to be most hopeless, or the delicious picture of the delicati in\nthe second Catiline, or the races in the Aeneid. The teacher who fails to have his class\nfeel this falls far short of doing his duty toward his class.\nFor years, now, editors and critics have been harping on the necessity of drawing\nparallels from modern literature. Here, however, I believe a decided reform to be necessary. Nobody can value more highly than I do the efforts of Professors Kittredge and\nMustard in this field. Yet I consider their work inappUcable to the classroom, for the\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "502\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nreason that our students lack, for the most part, the apperceptive basis; for their acquaintance with Milton, Dryden, Pope, Herrick is practically nil. Nor do I think they would\nmuch benefit by these verbal parallels. The comparisons that ought to be drawn are of\ncontent, not of form, and even where they advert to the latter, they ought to bring out\nthe difference in the modern treatment, not the mere verbal dependence. A much clearer\nappreciation of the Catiline speeches may be gained from showing how evidence is relied\non in modern forensic speeches. The Volusenus episode in Caesar may be brought home\nby showing the treatment of similar topics by Kipling.\nLastly, one of the most important stimuli in arousing literary appreciation is the\neffort at model translation. Here, too, self-activity is to be incited rather than mere\nreceptivity from the study of existing works. I remember with great pleasure the work\nof a senior class in Greek under one of the most successful teachers I have ever known,\nwork which resulted in a complete metrical rendering of Iliad I by the combined efforts\nof the class. Hours taken from the mere mechanism of reciting for this kind of work are\nmost fruitful.\nI need the less to dwell on the lessons to be learned from the study of antiquity, as I\nhave years ago expressed myself to some length on this topic (Latin Leaflet I), and as this\npoint is beginning to find attention from an ever-widening circle of teachers. The only\ncaution required here is tact coupled with fearlessness. Students are only too eager to\nfind parallels to Caesar, Cicero, and Virgil in the events of their own community, and it\n-requires a gentle but firm restraint on the part of the teacher to keep them from hasty\nconclusions. Nothing can stand the instructor in better stead in this particular than a\nthoro training in the methods of historical research, and I can but again voice my regret\nat the ever-widening breach between classicists and historians in secondary education.\nBut even if we cannot persuade our colleagues in the history department to allow us to\nteach some history, we can borrow from them a leaf in adopting their method of collateral\nreading and reports. The boy who has read some chapters from Boissier's Cicero will have\na better understanding of the relations between Caesar and the orator, and Baring-Gould's\nCcBsars will furnish him with a truer key to the understanding of Virgil's aims than all\nlectures and introductions can do.\nLastly, all of the work on the part of the teacher has gone for naught, if it does not\nresult in the mature fruit of the desire to read more widely than the limited range of highschool literature. Here we fall most frequently short of our own ideals. Even the best\namong our pupils leave us with a sigh of relief, and were it not for the compulsory Latin\nof the freshman year in college, they would never again open a Latin book. And yet it\nshould be our greatest pride to have our students return to us in later years with the\nstatement that they have continued their pursuit of Latin beyond what was demanded.\nI know it can be done: in the first place, the teacher must be an enthusiastic specialist in\nhis subject, not merely looking upon it as the cow that furnishes him with a livelihood.\nIn the second place, our students must leave us not with knowledge, but with power. The\nteacher who has given his class the ability to tackle any Latin text with the help of a\nvocabulary is sure to have engendered in their hearts the desire to make use of this power,\neven if it should manifest itself only in a few chosen breasts. So that this is the sumtotal of all our requirements: be widely read yourself, and your pupils will be widely read\nand appreciative disciples of their masters.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. E. Barss, Hotchkiss School, Lakeville, Conn. — The fallacies cited by Dr. Riess all\nhave the same origin — the confusion of means with ends. Devices which may attract a\npupil's attention, but which do not further stimulate interest, are useless. Any subject is\ninteresting in the hands of an interesting teacher. Our problem is how to be interesting\nmen and women.\nOne immediate way of making Latin interesting is to show pupils the\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTIMULI\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\nLATIN\n\n503\n\nenormous debt English owes to Latin, and that no one can possibly be a master of English\nwho does not know Latin and Greek. Then grammar has its dramatic side. Sketch for\nyour class, as roughly as you please, a football game. The boy kicking the ball represents\nthe nominative case; the ball itself, the accusative of the direct object; the goal toward\nwhich it travels, the accusative with ad; the other goal, a separative ablative; the crowd of\nexcited spectators, the dative — the case of the interested looker on.\nWilliam F. Abbot, Classical High School, Worcester, Mass. — I shall confine my\nremarks to natural stimuli, as I have had practically no experience with the artificial. My\nfeeling in regard to the latter has been one of distrust, due to the inability to see how the\ntime which is absolutely needed for the mastery of essentials can be increased so as to\ninclude interesting but non-essential details.\nThe strongest stimulus, it seems to me, in arousing interest in a subject, is the feeling\nthat the knowledge of it is worth while. This insures a desire on the pupil's part to study\nfaithfully. This interest a teacher can arouse by showing how important a part Latm\nhas played in the development of our modern civilization, and how necessary is an acquaintance with it for anyone who desires to be well trained in modern life.\nAnother stimulus is the growing sense of mastery over a new and difficult language,\nwhich a pupil gains under skillful guidance. This is a very strong incentive in arousing\nan interest in his work. Ability to do something well naturally tends to create a fondness\nfor doing that something. In order to enable a class to acquire this feeling of power the\nteacher must himself feel the value of what is taught and show a deep interest in the subject. Hence he must read widely in various authors and be himself a thoro student of\nmany details of his subject, which he can never expect to use in his class except in the most\nincidental way.\nFrom observation of my own classes, I believe that one reason for pupils' lack of\ninterest in Latin has been the narrow range of the curriculum allowed by college requirements. Therefore I welcome most heartily the recent proposed enlargement of the Latin\ncourse laid down for the secondary schools. My hope is that the results will be so successful that the list of authors will be still further extended. The result of narrowly\ndefined amounts of Caesar, Cicero, and Virgil has been to lead the teacher into ruts and\nthereby deaden his interest in what is taught. The inevitable outcome has been a corresponding lack of interest on the part of the pupil.\nIn the senior year of the school with which I am connected it is customary to review\nthe chief points of Latin grammar. I frequently discover that pupils have been using\nwords unintelligently. For instance, take the familiar rule of the agreement of a finite\nverb with its subject. I have never yet found a class in which the pupils were not\npuzzled by the question, \"Why called finite?\" The stimulus supplied by an understanding ofthe technical terms used, I consider an essential and necessary one; yet in this\nrespect classes regularly show a serious deficiency.\nTo the ordinary pupil the Romans appear a remote and strange people. Any method\nof instruction which will convince him that the Romans were just as wide-awake and alive\nas he is himself will stimulate his interest. One method of accomplishing this is by frequent comparisons, suggested by the text read, between ancient and modern customs.\nFor example, what high-school pupil who has attended the track games of his school will\nfail to note, when he reads in the fifth Aeneid, \"Ipse omnem longo decedere circo infusum\npopulum et campos iubet esse patentis,\" that the throngs of ancient and modern times are\nalike in their eagerness to crowd in upon the contestants ?\nAnother stimulus which is useful in kindling the enthusiasm of a class is the oral\nreading of some anecdote, sentence by sentence, to be interpreted sometimes individually,\nsometimes by the class collectively. The only trouble with this method is the eagerness of\nthe quicker members of the class to give their renderings before the slower ones have comprehended the meaning. This can be obviated at the expense of some loss of time by\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "504\n\nNATION A J. KDVCATWN\n\nASSOC! ATION\n\n|Sr...,„i».y\n\n(c'llInK llir ( lnhrt l(» willr llirlr lrun»livtl()nH, Kovcrul of whl( h ran br rriid mIiukI wIkmi iImI.Ill III rniilliiK liiut hrrii iiiiliilicd,\nill (OIK IiihIom I wotihl Miiy llwit I liritrllly lifter willi Dr. KicHHVrxi fllctit prcHciitiilioii\nof Ihn Hiilijtu t. i licllcvr Unit llic iiiiii ul' hrKindiiry lulionl iiihlriiclioii In Liilin Ih ii iIioid\nKnniiKlliiK <i|' Ihr piipll in llir rlynioli)Ky iind loninum conslriii tldiiH. Tlilw iiiuhI I»c HUpplcnii-nlrd liy it tiNithlr vodilmliiry, liiinrd upon ihc rliMiuiiliiry nininliiKH ol' wofdH iind\niildrd liy tialnliiK In llir proK^rth ol dciiviiiK from llichc iiiciinlnK)^ llic brnl l''.iiKliitli ('(|iiivii\nkiitrt rtititcd to tlir piihniiKc iUiidl('<|. All ntiniiili IcndliiK to help IIiIk iilni iirr niiltinil and\nUMoful. 8u(h ollirr lillniiill ivh may \\w Im'oukIiI lit witlioiil IriiHcnIiiK 1l)f attainnirnt of tlir\nnmin purp«>'»t' «»f tlir ntiidy iirc of conrHr prrmlHwIhIti. I »hoiild, howcvrr, coHNidrr tlial a\npupil who roiild not triiUNlutr Into fair I'IiikIIhIi wllli KuhHlantlal iiccuriuy a pircr of onllimry Latin provlouNly uiiHrrn liiul fallrd to gain tho tlcHlrnl rrnult of IiU »iUidy, nii<l llial\nllih failur«i could not br countprhalancnl by any amount of knowlcdgr acquired In'in\n\nartindal hllmiill.\n\nMiMM llli;i,KN II, Tan/kk, Normal CoUrKC, New N'oik (ily, N.N'. While I a^!;i(c\nhoarllly, ait ovrryonr mimt, with what haw been mild about the cndtt to be attained in the\ntpachluK of Latin, I am particularly (imcerned with what liiiHbcen wild about the ho tailed\n\"artindal Hiimull,\" Why, for InHlaiur, In there no nelf activity on the |)art of Mtudentn\nIII conHlructliiK buildinKH to illuHtrate their hludy of the cliiNnlcH? My own ex|)erlence\nwould lead me to dilTerenl conclu»lonn. My experlmenlK In thdno dlrcitlonN have been\nmade with college hludentH, but the principle Ih the name, tho not pcrhapn the applhatlon.\nThe Hrnt bulldliiKlhat I wan rewponnlble for wahdcujc three yrnni ago when about ten\nNtudentH, without receiving any acailemlc credit whatever for their work, built a recon\nHtrucllon of the Uoniiin I'oruin at about loo a.d. In pre|>aration for the actual buildiiiK\nthey made IhiMunelvew familiar with the lilrttory of the T'oruiii in cvt i \\ .!< l.ul. mul ^iiveoiily\ntheir Kpare time to mich work.\nThe Hecond of thene experlmenlH wait the buihliuK of a Koiiian liounc the year after\nby Home HtudeiitH who were takltiK a courwe of lecturen on the private life of the Ktimans,\nand who (lume that form of wmk Instead of wrltluK the Ioiik paper re(|uiie<l of the\nother membern of the clanH. Their manual labor wan preiedetl by a carefully written\nrepiirt of what It wan neceHHary for them to kmiw about the houne.\nIn both cancH the ntudentHKave a Kieiil deal of their private ielHiire to the reports aiul\nto the work and Heenuul to derive enjoyment and amuHcment from it. Uoth nuxleln have\nhern UHcd with Hubheipient tlaHHen «)f ntudentf* in aiithpillit'H and in lang^inK*'. The ntudenlH of Cicero')* (iration,\\ neenu'd to be Interested in the niodil tif the l''oruni.\nMy Ihlnl attempt wan of a dllTerent nature, but would probably also come undi-r the\nclaHHllicallon of artlhclal Htlmull, ho called, ThU winter about thirty Htudenth made\nKoman contumen and uned them In Hiving a preHenlatlon of a Uoniiin marriiiKc,\nI have brouKht photographn of thene three iillcinptH, which I mIuiII be nlad to show\nto anyone Interewted,\nI nail of thin work thcHtudenUconronied have nrcmed to me to have learnrd a great\ndeal more about the n\\atter In hand than T C(uild have re<|ulred them t«) do, and to have\nenjoyed the work Itself; while the renulth of their labors are on exhibition as a proof that\nthey have acciuupllrthed somelhliin In spite of their enjoyjuent. If It must still be Ihought\nof as artll\\rlal and unnpontane«iuH, then I «lo not understand those terms, I <lo not see,\nf(U' Instame, how the boy who reads Holsster at the suKKt'Hllon of his teacher Is any more\nspontaneiius in his actions. On the contrary, the reverse would seem to me to be the cftM,\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "nnmrimrn.l\n\nWHY DO WE SrUDV .If.-l 77/ /■.If. I T/CSf\nI).\n\nWHY\n\n/>() II / sri n\\\n\nTUDMAS\n\nI\n\nMCCOKMACK,\n\nSOS\n\nMA'I'III'M Alices\n\n1/ I ////!/ wrCS: A PUILOSOPUJCAL\n(1/\nl^iiKOSPECT\nI'UIM ll'Al.\n\nUlt'\n\nlUi;\n\nLA\n\nLA 8ALLB,,ILL.\n\nSAltK-VKWl'\n\nAND\n\nlowNSIIII'\n\nmSTORIUIOH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMATHEMATICS AN BCONOMIIATXON OF THOUOUT\nThe moit lalient practical foature of all identlAc thought it Iti economic or laborlaving purpose. The lawi of phyiici, of astronomy, of geology, etc., are, on their i^ractical tide, mere shorthand or rather thort-mind formulae or rules for recoverlnK. with a\nminimum of mental labor, by means of little brains and the mechanical manipulations\nof ti pencil, the past and future facts of nature, which, without these rules and laws, we\nshould have indefinite labor and take indefinite time in recovering. Such are the so-called\nphysical laws of refraction and of falling bodies, the prediction of eclipses, etc.; millions\nof cases reduced to a single case; all a saving of intellectual labor. <\nBut this economy of mental effort is most conspicuous in mathematics. Memorised\naddition-results save not only frirt ion of aboriginal fingers and toes, but save also brainstrain~nn economy still furtlicr lioiKhtened and typified by the modern addinK-mnchines.\nTlic multiplication table, the Arabic decimal machinery, determinants, intcKiution are\nall thought -saving devices. But pre-eminent among all these economic meclwtni/ations\nof huiniiii think inn are the tables of logaritluus, products, powers, roots, etc., in which\nthr in Ilium 1 1 ;. il l.iliors of generations have been capitalised and amassed for all time.\nIll III N h \\ III. development of mathematics becomes a continuously progressive\niil> Il > I . n .1)11 III .11 in. I petrifaction of quantitative thought, a permanent crystalli/.iii Ml >i .|iiiniii iin. in iiiiertonir thinking, a standardising of the machinery of the\nmind, wiiu ii n-.i, ii, iii, |.inii,M !,■ mi i|. i, hnnnrni ui I ho shorthsttd symbolism, or, as I\nl>n'iVi I.. ..ill II. Ill, ii,.ii\n„i ,,i I, ih.piM, 1,1, i.i. distinguished from stenographic)\ns\\ini...ii 111 ,.i .ii\". 1,1.11, .m.iU 1\n\\i-. I ill, 111 I III', vii'w, to quote the lucid words of an\nold ''dii\nI in, ii,i, I , 111, I ■•|,.ii.i.ii , ,,i 111. iiMiid. where it may enjoy the fruits of all\nitsioiiii. I i,,i>,,i .Willi. .Ill 111,- i,iiir.iir..i iiiiiii 111\" ■• Il 1 111, .-isential, paradoxical purpose\nof ma 111. mill,\n\n, 111 iiii . ...II.. i.ii,.ii, 1,1 r. I 11,1 ,,i iiiiiii iir- i,s \\cry dint of thinking.\n\nI 111 , 1. 111. 1.111, i\\ ml, II,. Ill ,1 1,1, r.iii iiii . ,,,11.. nil .11 i,,ii of mental and manual\n\nlid Mil . .111 !.(■ r\\ni I II,. I, |.,il|..il,l\\ 1 1 I, , ,| ri III. .I,.iii.iiii ,.| .ijnihcil nialhfnuitirK, in cnjiinecriuK, surveying, i»a\\ PMi 1,'M, .111,1 III, i, i\n,' 111\n\nNow\nI\"\"\"\n\n. '\"\n\nwli.il\nIl\n\ni'i (lie I,\n1'\"\"\n\nini. II, , hi.il .1, iiMi\\\n\n,,11 ,.|\n\nI \"\"1\n\nill Mil . ■\n\nI\n\nI I\n\n, III\n\n,\n\n, II, ,■ ..\n\nHll|.|.\n\n, II,\n\nI,\n\nIw..\n\n,,., . ,M,i.i. I Willi I\n\nill illl\n\nit an ii'.IIm'Ii,\n\nm\n\n|.ii.ili,,ii iImI\n\n1,1, In ..I n,.\n\nIh iHil, n\n\n1,1\n\nII. Ill\n\nn i.nl.il\n\n1 11\n\n1\n\n|.iiiii,,i.li.ii\n\n1\n\n111.\n\nIII. li\n\n.11, ,11\n\nnil. mi 111. .li .111.1\n\n.\n\nlin\n\nhave, in this\n>l all human\nV^il\n\n111.'\n\n1 1,,\n\n1 11,1\n\n|.. . i.iIIn\n\n1,. 1\n\n, i|.lm. . will, ll ..111\n\n11, .|im.' . Ii,.iii II .1 ,11 , ,,| ml, II, < lii.d |>..w,'\nto linn Willi ,',,,i.,l I, .1,1 l.\\ III,\n\nIlimr\n\nll .111.1\n1 ..i\n\nK.im, .1 llii |„,iiil ,.| V I, M\n\nll\n\n1 11, 1 1 1 111. ll Ol\n\nkliowl, <lr.\n\n,l,.,|.\n\n. ll in inteiiHe\nIII who\nhas\nliiaic\nstudy,\nloiifiht lionie\n.li.iw\n\n, . II ..i.,l\n\n.111.\n\\V(\"\n\nli..ni\n, 11 r\n\n1 mihial life.\n'1 i,. i.\nof fill i^',1 lie mil. Ill III 1 1 I lull (OUII'\nii|..ii I ,,ii Willi 1 11,1 1 of any ollu i .li . i|.lm, . .111.1 I\nI like i I Ilia! iln , i .i \\ icw whlch, l..i iT | .i .i. I i. 1 1 . , in, .ilional Vllhic, ii.r n..l m l 1. , I i\\ ,(|\nproper einplia.si;. in pcd.i.'.ni, .,) ilii,,i\\\nAnd the sec«)nd Ir, ., ,ii i ,, ih.ii i In\n\n■. i, w , ,,ii ii nli i., pi.i, 1 1, ,,l i,l, , , onnects OUr\n\nso-ealled formal theoretical :.iii,l\\ i.\\ ., In mr. Iml\n' Sco Hip worlo* of Krimt Mm\n\nli, ( In. mj;,.\n\nI Ik- ( tp.u ( '\n\n• I'roin fiiBi'ik, short, ttiid i/i/<i)i', ./<(ii>i'(i«, miiul.\n\nwiih ,,ni in.ii.ii.il mdiii.irial civillxai I'uM, .Inur < .,iiii, my\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "506\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntion, which sees the goal of life in the progressive minimization of all human labor and\nthe saving of human resources for higher ends. Both the practical and ethical implications of this view are immediately apparent, and it is gratifying to see its main trend\nfaintly emphasized in some of our recent textbooks.\nTHE\n\nIDEA\n\n\"practical\"\n\nEXTENDED\n\n\"Practical\" and \"utilitarian\" are current words of popular vogue that sadly need\nclarification and precise definition. Are not some things \"practical\" and more eminently\nuseful for purely ihtellectual, ethical, and social purposes than are some other things that\nfind ready and immediate application in the measurement of concrete realities? I\nthink we must seek a deeper meaning for the idea \"practical\" here. Not one- tenth of\nthe graduates of our high schools ever enter professions in which their algebra and geometry are applied to concrete realities; not one day in three hundred and sixty- five is a\nhigh-school graduate called upon to \"apply,\" as it is called, an algebraic or a geometrical\nproposition. Not one in ten of our high-school students ever retains sufficient mathematical knowledge or skill to solve even a tolerably difiicult concrete physical or mensurational problem after graduation. Why then do we teach these subjects, if this alone\nis the sense of the word \"practical\" ? For abandon them, we are all agreed we should not.\nTo me the solution of this paradox consists in boldly confronting the dilemma and\nin saying that our conception of the practical utility of these studies must be readjusted,\nand that we have frankly to face the truth that the \"practical\" ends we seek are in a\nsense ideal practical ends, yet such as have after all an eminently utilitarian value in an\nintellectual sense. What practical profit can a girl, or nine out of ten high-school boys,\nderive from a year and a half of algebra, unless it is the aesthetic joy and logical culture\nderived from participation in the upbuilding of a great abstract structure of symbolic\nquantitative thought, the sharing in the dramatic triumph of a great human intellectual\nconquest (which I referred to above in my references to mathematics as an economization of human thought), or that invaluable, incalculably important mental and manual\ndrill (which Chrystal has emphasized) in accuracy, neatness, and method that comes\nfrom the correct, systematic manipulation of algebraic forms; or, can the same average\nstudent derive from geometry, save that magnificent training in logical deductive power,\nin capacity for intense concentration of the attention, in systematic unerring pursuit of\na goal, in intellectual self-restraint, and, last but not least, that intensifying and heightening of the power of precise English expression and English thinking that make mathematics in our schools almost the substitute and the surrogate of a thoro legal training!\nBent as I am personally and naturally to the making of all mathematical instruction\npractical and applied in its most popular sense, I must say that in summing up to myself\nthe results of my own limited instruction I have always felt that the objects above enumerated have been attained in my classes in tenfold greater degree than have the so-called\nconcrete results I have so ardently sought and wished for, but obtained only in a limited\nnumber of individual cases.\nWe sometimes forget in our inordinate zeal to \"practicalize\" and popularize education, that our object is also to make men and women as well as engineers and \"ropestretchers,\" and that the former end is more commonly attained than the latter. Our\ntrouble and indecision arise from the very important psychological truth that it is impossible to weigh and measure psychical and ethical values, and that we have not always\nnecessarily failed when we cannot palpably catalog our results. Education is a subtle\nprocess, and withdraws itself from quantitative observation. This is why Plato, with\nhis divine tact, proposed for educated men the game of tit-tat-to with incommensurables,\nto replace the checkers of the porklings.^ It is the victory of the platonic over the utilitarian point of view, the victory of Pythagoras of Croton over Mr. Crane of Chicago,\nand leads us to say with St. Paul that for the purposes of genuine education we ought\n» Plato, De Legibus, vii.\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentI\n\nWHY\n\nDO WE STUDY\n\nMATHEMATICS?\n\n507\n\nsometimes to \"look not at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not\nseen: for the things which are seen are temporal; but the things which are not seen are\neternal.\" It is these eternal impalpable things, which remain with us all from our study\nof algebra and geometry, that constitute the sole profit that 90 per cent, of us ever\nderive from the study of mathematics, and it is this that furnishes the foundation of\ntruth to Emerson's paradoxical saying that \"education is what remains to us after everything we have learned at school is forgotten.\"\nUSABLE\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOR POTENTIALIZING\n\nKNOWLEDGE?\n\nLet it be admitted that 10 per cent, of our high-school graduates acquire a mathematical knowledge as distinguished from a mathematical culture, and that the graduates\nof technical schools also possess that knowledge. How long is it retained and how universal y isit applied? I personally know many successful engineers, but I know very\nfew who know mathmatics well and who can use it as a powerful auxiliary tool in the\nsolution of new engineering and mechanical problems. Their knowledge of the differential and integral calculus is a faint dream of their collegiate career. They are devotees\nof elementary methods and rule-of-thumb procedures in the higher domain. A few\nformulae, a few tables of integrals and collections of mechanical rules and tabluated\ncalculations are their chief stock-in-trade. Their sole pabulum is what I might call\n\"canned\" mathematics, using that term in its best and most esoteric sense, and not in\nits present vulgar and figurative perversion — that capitalized stock of mathematical\nthought which is preserved in the economy-jars of logarithmic and other tables and in\nroutine formulae, and which constitutes, in this capitalization and economization, a\ncardinal, essential' feature of mathematical intellectual activity. This, ninety-nine out\nof every hundred engineers will admit. But they will not admit, nevertheless, that they\nhave derived no profit from their mathematical training; that they have not preserved\nfrom it that unanalyzable power of thinking and visualizing things mathematically and\ngeometrically and of preconstructing in symbols of thought and pictures of the imagination the projects which afterward it is their business to create in space with physical\nmaterials.\nNow, what I contend under this point is, that, precisely as the engineer, who is\ntrained for mathematics yet usually cannot and does not use his mathematics, nevertheless derives inestimable benefit and power from his mathematical education, so the average high-school and university graduate, who is never expected to use his mathematical\nknowledge at all, invariably acquires from his mathematical instruction great moral and\nintellectual impressions and potential capacities of all sorts which will redound to his\npower and usefulness in every walk of life. And, in making this a cardinal benefit derived\nby the masses from mathematical study, I am not slurring, in the slightest, the great\nmaterial benefits of mathematical knowledge as an auxiliary engine of research, control,\nand creation in every profession. I merely say that this latter, important as it is, constitutes the least general practical acquisition from a mathematical training; while the\nformer makes up, in all cases, some nine- tenths of its value. For, if this were not so,\nthen instruction in secondary mathematics should be limited, as the public would largely\nlimit it, to arithmetic and practical mensuration. And we should thus save at least\none year of our time for the pure bread-and-butter studies. For how otherwise could\neducators justify this economic fact, which I cannot prove statistically but which I\nbelieve to be true, that there is more human time and energy spent on writing textbooks\nof mathematics, even applied mathematics, and on teaching mathematics, than is ever\nafter employed by all the people in the world in applying it to scientific and engineering\nproblems ?\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nCOMPLICATIONS\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF PRESENTATION\n\nThe considerations adduced above lead now to an important practical pedagogical\ndiflSculty. We seem to be seeking in our high-school curricula and textbooks to devise\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\na universal pedagogical machine for the instruction of everybody en masse for every\npossible end — cooks, dressmakers, and scribes, engineers and \"rope-stretchers,\" professional \"admirable Crichtons,\" and Jacks of all intellectual and utilitarian trades.\nAnd as a result of this our manuals have become a veritable mathematical polyglot and\nTohu-va-bohu. A glance at the problems of some recent admirable algebraic and geometrical textbooks will amply show this. They seek, in their problems, to cover the entire\nuniverse of applied knowledge, and some additional domains besides. And this is a\ngratifying and refreshing symptom, growing out of a genuine desire to modernize and\nvitalize mathematical instruction. But we forget in our new-born practicalizing zeal\nthat all this has been done before; and that the different epochs of the long development\nof mathematical instruction have shown the same ideal and trend. Each period has\nhad its practical problems, some of them purely intellectual, but, according to my view,\nstill practical. What we now regard in the older textbooks as pure rubbish and antiquated intellectual \"survivals\" were once mostly real problems. But to show this,\ninteresting as it is, would be to write a history of civilization, for which I have at present\nnot the time. I merely wish to call to your attention the fact that in the past the same\nstriving for modernity and vitalization led, as it will likely lead now, to an almost uncontrollable embarras des richesses; and that this superfluity of material forced the old textbook\nwriters, from sheer considerations of economy, to adopt the apparently harsh and arid,\nabstract method of presentation which we now so unanimously condemn, and to formulate general abstract problems for exercise, instead of a multitude of concrete applied\nproblems. For economy of presentation is of the very essence of our science and is as\ndesirable in textbooks from a purely practical point of view as from a theoretic one. It\nwas doubtless this consideration as much as the gibes of the Sophists that led Euclid to\nthe formulation of his Elements; and any one who douBts this view has but to compare\nthe beautiful, lucid, and concrete, but interminably prolix, treatises of the great Euler\nin the eighteenth century with the concise and condensed expositions of the generation\nthat followed him, which we now so cordially anathematize. The pedagogic pendulum\nswings back and forth by a natural intellectual law. And in less than ten years, I prophesy\nthe same economic need will present itself in our American textbook world.\nOLD\n\nAND\n\nNEW\n\nTEXTBOOKS\n\nIn respect to textbooks, no other domain can admit of comparison with mathematics.\nThe biological and descriptive sciences, chemistry, and even physics are of relatively\nmodern development, and the present textbooks, syllabi, and schemes of instruction in\nthese sciences are enormously superior to the books and schemes of twenty-five, fifty, or\nseventy-five years ago, even where these exist; but the mathematics which is now taught\nin our secondary schools existed, part of it in its fullest development, as geometry, two\nthousand one hundred years ago, and part of it, in its algebraic development, two\nhundred years ago. In the years between 1 700 and 1800 there were written textbooks\nof algebra' in which our present high-school scholars would find as much satisfaction\nand from which they would derive as much profit by individual study as from some\nof the books published within the last ten years. It is a commonplace of educational\nhistory that geometry as taught in our schools is, in its didactic form, essentially the\ngeometery of Euclid's Elements; and, apart from the supplying of practical motives in\nteaching, the only advance which has been made in the didactic presentation of the\nprinciples of geometry in two thousand years has been, first, the reduction of the verbiage of the old elements and the economizing by the use of concise language and shorthand symbols of the linguistic form in which the propositions were presented and proved;\nand, secondly, the introduction into the books of practical pedagogical, typographical,\nand pictorial devices which have heightened the economy of sensual presentation and\nremoved all physical sense-obstacles to the comprehension of the geometrical relations\n» By Clairaut, Euler, Lagrange, Laplace, et ceteris.\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nWHY\n\nDO WE\n\nSTUDY\n\nMATHEMATICS?\n\n509\n\n— an enormous advance in itself but one of which we should thoroly understand the\nscope and which we should not overrate — recognizing that it is an advance which we\nowe nearly as much to the development of the arts of the printer and the illustrator as\nwe do to the ingenuity of the mathematical author.\nOur science at least, so far as we are concerned with it as secondary teachers, is not\na new and growing science, but received its full development centuries ago; so much so,\nthat one of the greatest mathematicians of the eighteenth century, Lagrange, conscious\nof the exhaustion to which he was carrying his mathematical analysis, once remarked\nthat it would not be many years before, for the purpose at least of pure inquiry and the\ndiscovery of new truth along the old lines, professors of mathematics would be as rare\nat the universities as professors of Arabic. This fortunate fact should be remembered\nin all our discussions. No mathematical author is now perplexed with doubts as to the\nnew subject-matter which he should introduce into his textbook, as is the physicist, for\nexample, when he comes to write about ions. This being the fact, our task in both selecting and presenting the mathematical subject-matter in textbooks is limited almost wholly\nto removing the sensual physical obstacles to the intellectual comprehension of mathematical\ntruths. And how magnificently this is being done by color devices, photographs, models,\nsystematic and universal economic notations and designations in both our geometry\nand algebra textbooks is known to every one.\nHISTORY\n\nOF THE\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nThis beauty, precision, and economy of form which our modern textbooks are taking\non, and this supplying of practical motives, have been the outgrowth of a long development, of which the recent concrete practical methods of teaching mathematics are themselves the outcome. The movement is not so new as one would infer from the prefaces\nto the American and English textbooks of the last fifteen years. The French Revolution gave the first universal impulse to the change, and in the normal and polytechnic\nschools of Paris over one hundred years ago graphs, for example, were used by the greatest\nmathematicians of Europe to illustrate the principles of algebra — altho one would think\nfrom some recent writers that this device had been the product, if not of their own brains,\nat least of very recent years.\nBut the great educational reformers of Germany hastened this process in the elementary schools. Trendelnburg was prominent in attacking the blind deductive form\nin which the Euclidean geometry was taught in the schools and to ask for a more concrete treatment. Schopenhauer's works are full of onslaughts on the sterile, formal,\ndeductive methods of teaching geometry, among which the one making fun of Euclid's\nproof of the Pythagorean proposition, which Schopenhauer called the \"mouse-trap\nproof,\" is the most classical. Studying geometry by Euclid's method, Schopenhauer\nalso said was like cutting off one's legs in order to walk on crutches^\nBut it was the influence of Herbart that did most toward giving geometrical teaching\nits right bearings, and toward starting the movement which has resulted in the methods\nof such men as Perry and of scores of other equally effective teachers and schools in our\nown country whose names do not happen to be known. \"This is the ideal that seeks\nsimply to instill into the mind fruitful ideas (ideas which find a congenial soil in the\nstudent's existing knowledge and interests) and which, from a firm belief in the fertility\nof ideas has emphasized the value of geometrical knowledge as opposed to the study of\nlogical form. Let the boy,\" it says, 2 \"be thoroly at home with a new fact or property\nbefore he begins to apply formal logic to it. To attain this familiarity, do not reject at\nany stage the help of [physics, mechanics, and] experiment, and the recourse to common\nobjects and experience. Geometrical experiment may use models, frameworks, machines;\nbut there is a limit to the amount of apparatus that is convenient. We rely, therefore,\n» Welt'als Wille u. Vorstellung, I, i, 16.\n• ThQjdathamaHcalfiazeUe,J^on6.on, March, 1910.\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "5IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nin the main upon figures; freehand sketches, where a sketch will reveal the fact that we\nare looking for; accurate figures, where eye and hand alone are not clever enough.\nHence the amalgamation of geometrical drawing with geometrical theory, subjects once\ndivorced, to the great loss of both.\"\nTHE HUMAN\n\nBRAIN\n\n•\nITSELF\n\nA MATHEMATICAL\n\nLABORATORY\n\nI will stop here a moment to consider how far experiment, physical illustrations,\nand models may be carried in the teaching of geometry. This tendency has been generally exaggerated and overdone in some of our recent literature. I have seen in recent\ncurrent American educational magazines several suggestions for the physical illustration of theorems of algebra and geometry which remind one of the proverbial procedure\nof using a steam-hammer to crack a nut — procedures which are altogether unnecessary\nand a sheer waste of time. Practical and laboratory methods in mathematics and mechanics have their limited sphere of application; for it should be considered in this connection,\nand with special regard to our own science, that the human brain for our purpose is itself\na storehouse and laboratory of formal thought, where nearly all the experiences are\ncollected that are needed for experiments in algebra and geometry, and which can be\nhere conducted with far more dispatch and ease than in a special laboratory with levers\nand scale-pans. The human body and brain are a microcosm, a compact bundle of wellordered space and mechanical experiences, which are always ready at hand. The chalk\nand the blackboard in our science are mightier than all the tin-can junketry of the physical laboratory.\nCONCLUSION\n\nAll the varying arguments, all the contradictory points of view above intimated,\nall this emphasis now of one side and now of the other side of the value of the methods\nof mathematical studies, are due to a lack of historical and philosophical comprehension.\nIn its origin, mathematics was developed largely as an instrument for physical or mensurational research. After it was developed, and the logical, genetic interdependence\nof its truths and results was discovered, it became naturally an object of independent\ndevelopment in itself, and assumed necessarily an artificial, logical, and purely conceptual character. It created a professional caste, like the grammarians of India which\ncultivated it for its own sake; it became an end in itself; it was systematized, its principles economized and minimized, and its entire body of truth transformed and etherealized into a shadowy framework of pure logical forms; it lost its foothold in reahty and\nin the empirical soil from which it had sprung, and became barren and sterile; it ceased\nto produce fruitful and creative investigators, and was ultimately rejected in this form\nby practical minds. Hence the contradictory opinions and utterances on the value of\nthe two phases of its development as an educational discipline; and hence the varying\nhyperemphasis that the one or the other aspect of it receives, according to the changing\nneeds and ideals of each historical epoch. The truth, to which we must hold, lies in\nneither; itmustbesoughtinanamalgamationof the two; mathematics arose from a physical, empirical soil; it reverts in its applications to that soil; but in the transition it has\npassed thru a purely intellectual domain, in which it has suffered a transformation that\nis of its very essence. And the study of its subject-matter, its logical and genetic development in this transformation, is just as important an educational discipline for the\nintellectual needs of life as the study of its applications is for the material needs of life.\nAnd the former are, I think, more easily and more frequ:ntly obtained in practice than\nthe latter.\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nTHE\n\nREPORT\n\nOF GEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n511\n\nPRACTICAL LIMITATIONS OF AN IDEAL COURSE IN SECONDARY\nMATHEMATICS, AND THE EDUCATIONAL WASTE OR ECONOMY\nIN THE PROPOSED SEQUENCE OF STUDIES\nJOHN\n\nSHAW\n\nFRENCH,\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nMORRIS\n\nHEIGHTS\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nPROVIDENCE,\n\nR.I.\n\n(Synopsis)\nThe aim of secondary education is twofqld — the acquisition of knowledge and the\ncultivation of intellectual activity. The former, however, should be regarded as subordinate to the latter. This, together with the principles of genetic education, should\nbe basic in the setting of a course in mathematics.\nPrimal consideration should be given to the importance of mathematical training\nin developing vigorous, varied, and protracted mental activity. As a tool in the activities of the everyday life it is invaluable and hence its presentation must be so arranged\nas to combine the two aspects of utility.\nThe method of presentation must at all times meet the requirements of mental\nassimilation. It is for the teacher to judge as to the ability of his pupils to grasp the\nsignificance of a rigorous proof and his success is dependent upon the manner by which he\nshapes his course to meet these conditions. The arguments frequently given that lack\nof logical rigor in the proofs given in these courses destroys their value are to my mind\nvery much over-estimated.\nUnification of subject-matter and mastery of methods are the foundations of an\nideal course in secondary mathematics. Algebra and geometry should be so taught that\neither can be used to illustrate and fix in the mind the principles of the other; to this\nsame end physics and trigonometry should be taught as correlative topics.\nSubconscious use of mathematical terms leading up to the formulation of a mathematical language, thus developing the power to think mathematically, comprehends the\nrequirements of successful teaching in secondary mathematics.\n\nPRELIMINARY\nCOMMITTEE\"\n\nREPORT\nOF THE\n\"NATIONAL\nGEOMETRY\nSYLLABUS\nAND ITS PRACTICAL PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS\nWILLIAM\n\nBETZ,\n\nEAST\n\nHIGH\n\nHISTORICAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nROCHESTER,\n\nN.Y.\n\nRETROSPECT\n\nFirst tendencies toward standard. — It may not be out of place, by way of introduction,\nto trace the connection between the work of this committee and similar efforts in the\npast. This historical retrospect must necessarily be very brief.\nThe National Education Association, so far as I know, was the first body of teachers\nin this country that recognized the importance of national standards in education. Ever\nsince its organization, in 1857, it has powerfully affected the educational activities of the\ncountry. Much of this influence was due to the efficient work of its committees. The\nfirst National Education Association document that attracted world-wide attention\nwas the now celebrated Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary- School Studies (published separately by the American Book Co., 1894). The Committee of Ten was appointed\nat the meeting of 1892. Under the chairmanship of President Eliot it organized so-called\nconferences on all high-school subjects. The mathematical conference was in charge\nof a subcommittee of ten. Professor Simon Newcomb. of Johns Hopkins being the\nchairman. Of other distinguished members I will name Professor Byerly, Professor\nCajori, Professor Fine, and Professor Olds. It is significant that only two public high\nschools were represented on the committee. The final report was a result of a conference\nlasting three days, held at Cambridge, Mass., December, 1892. A number of conclusions reached by these gentlemen were very important and at once influenced mathematical teaching. The committee recommended an introductory course in concrete geome-\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntry, begun at the age of ten, and lasting at least three years. It emphasized especially\nthe necessity of much more oral work, and called attention to the function of original\nproblems in demonstrative geometry. It declared that \"geometry cannot be mastered\nby reading the demonstrations of a textbook.\" However, the report had nothing to\nsay about a uniform system of propositions.\nIn 1899, the Committee on College Entrance Requirements, after four years of\ncareful investigation, presented its famous report. In mathematics its recommendations\nwere practically an agreement with those of the Committee of Ten, but gave more attention to the mathematical curriculum. Incorporated in the main report was the supplementary report, submitted by the Chicago section of the American Mathematical Society.\nThe latter document was prepared by a committee of ten, only two being highschool teachers. Professor J. W. A. Young was the chairman. Excellent pedagogic\nsuggestions were offered, and the importance of concrete geometry and of a preliminary\ncourse in demonstrative geometry were again pointed out. The reports of 1899 are\nepoch-making also in that we are offered for the first time a clear recognition of the desirabiUty of a six-year curriculum.\n(See Proceedings, 1899, pp. 659, 700, 701.)\nIt will be seen that in all these reports there is no thought whatever of a national\ngeometry syllabus. That idea was advanced for the first time, so far as I know, by Mr.\nGeorge W. Evans, of Boston, at the meeting of 1901. The Proceedings say that Professor\nEvans, of Boston, suggested \"that a carefully selected collection of propositions would\nbe of great value to teachers and students of geometry, as furnishing a common basis\nof reference and a syllabus that may be used in examinations for admission to college.\"\nHe advocated the appointment of a committee to take the matter in hand. The motion\nwas carried and a committee of eight high-school teachers was appointed. As the subsequent volumes have nothing to say concerning this committee, we must assume that\nit died a premature death.\nIn 1903 Professor Tyler, of Boston, presented a brief preliminary report of the\nAmerican Mathematical Society, on college-entrance requirements. The passage referring to plane geometry contains three sentences.\nFirst syllabi. — In 1904 Mr. Evans, not discouraged by the failure of this first committee, found a more auspicious soil for his efforts in the newly organized Association of\nMathematical Teachers in New England. In that year, at its Boston meeting, the\nassociation voted: \"That a committee be appointed by the chair to consider recommending the approval by the association of a syllabus of geometry now in existence, or\nto draw up a syllabus, and that this committee confer with organizations similar to this\none and report at the next meeting.\" A committee of six was appointed, with Mr.\nEvans as chairman. Three of its members were high-school men. The desired syllabus\nwas finally prepared, after a series of sixteen meetings and much preliminary correspondence. An attempt was made to secure the co-operation of other associations. The\nlist of propositions in this syllabus is very complete. Logical sequence is intentionally\nignored; but the topical plan is retained. Besides, there are a few suggestions to\nteachers.\nEvidently the New England syllabus did not become generally known, a fact much\nto be regretted. Two years later, in December, 1906, a Syllabus Committee of four,\nappointed by the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers, presented\na prehminary report. This report gained wide circulation. It contained brief discussions of a number of mooted topics, such as terminology, indefinables, assumptions, pedagogy. It indorsed the careful study of a much smaller number of propositions. The\nlist of theorems submitted was very condensed. I cannot help feeling that the general\nexcellence of this report is marred by a nimiber of unfortunate contradictions. In one\nsentence, for example, hypothetical constructions are indorsed, for it is recommended that\n\"no demonstration be deemed invalid because of assuming the possibility of constructing the figure used.\" The very next sentence says: \"In the first theorems involving\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF GEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n513\n\nsuperposition the actual construction should be followed instead of appealing to the\nimagination.\" One paragraph advocates the experimental verification of certain mensurational facts, and the very next paragraph tells us that \"the treatment of mensuration in\nmost texts is extremely unfortunate,\" the demands of rigor not being met. On the one hand\nthe pupil is not to be confused with subtleties, and on the other he is expected \"to verify by\nobservation and experiment and to record in a notebook\" such astounding \"assumptions\" as this, \"A sect has one and only one mid-point.\" Let it be conceded, of course,\nthat the harmonizing of the liberalism of a Perry and of the rigor of a Hilbert is the very\ndifficulty confronting the geometry teachers.\nIn concluding this historical summary, we can safely say that at present no syllabus\nthus far pubUshed has secured anything approximating national significance. This\napplies also to the Harvard syllabus. It seems to me that the reasons for this result\nwere the following:\n1. The membership of the committees was too small.\n2. The reports were too one-sided.\n3. High schools and colleges were not represented in equal numbers.\nThe National Geometry Syllabus Committee. — ^Two years ago, at the Cleveland meeting of the National Education Association, it was my privilege to read a paper oifthe\nteaching of geometry. Realizing the insufficiency of existing syllabi, I recommended\nthe appointment of a National Geometry Syllabus Committee, and outlined a plan of\nprocedure. Professor H. E. Slaught was authorized by the Mathematics Section to\norganize such a committee.\nLack of permanence of organization, and therefore of right to appropriate money,\non the part of the sections temporarily stopped the work, altho Dr. Slaught continued\nto canvass the country for representative men to form the committee. At the Baltimore\nmeeting of the American Federation of Teachers of the Mathematical and the Natural\nSciences, in December, 1908, Mr. E. R. Smith, as the representative of the Middle States\nand Maryland Association, presented the matter to the federation, and urged the continuance of the work apparently dropped by the National Education Association.\nThe federation at once adopted the scheme, accepted Dr. Slaught as chairman, and to\navoid losing the work already done by him, asked him to nominate to the Executive\nCommittee the teachers he thought should be on the committee. Soon afterwards the\nNational Education Association again took up the matter, and as a result a joint committee\nof fifteen was appointed. This committee was then divided by the chairman into three\nsubcommittees. I\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nHaving brought the history of this movement up to the present year I shall submit\na very brief outline of the work done by the committee thus far, I am authorized to\npresent, first of all, the following report of the chairman. Professor H. E. Slaught.\nChicago, June 23, 19 10\n\nTo the Mathematics Section of the Secondary Division of the National Education Association:\nYour Committee on a Syllabus in Geometry presents the following report on the\norganization and progress of the work entrusted to it:\nImmediately after the joint authorization of this committee [explained above] an\nextended correspondence was begun looking toward the selection of the members so as\nto fairly represent the various sections of the country, and the chief educational interests\nwith respect to the teaching of geometry. This canvass resulted in the selection of the\nfollowing fifteen members of the committee, seven from colleges or imiversities, and\neight representing secondary schools:\nH. E. Slaught, Chairman, The University of Chicago; C. L. Bouton, Harvard University; F. Cajori, The University of Colorado; H. E. Hawkes, Yale University; E. R.\nHedrick, The University of Missouri; H. L. Rietz, The University of Illinois; D. E.\nSmith, Columbia University; William Betz, East High School Rochester, N.Y.; E. L.\nBrown, North High School, Denver, Colo.; William Fuller, Mechanic Arts High School,\nBoston, Mass.; W. W. Hart, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis, Ind.; F. E. Newton,\n' See the Mathematics Teacher, June, 1910.\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nPhillips Academy, Andover, Mass.; E. R. Smith, Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y.; Mabel Sykes, South Chicago High School, Chicago, 111,; R. L. Short, Technical High School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nEarly last summer a preliminary organization of the committee was effected, and\neach member contributed in writing a statement of the situation with respect to geometry\nin the school as it appeared to him, together with whatever suggestions he desired to\nmake, either as to methods of procedure, reforms to be proposed, purposes in view,\nresults desired, and so forth. These were manifolded in July of last year and complete\ncopies placed in the hands of all the members, together with a resume of what seemed to\nbe the salient features gathered from all these preliminary suggestions. In this way\neach member was fully informed of the point of view of each of the others, and all were\nthus prepared to undertake the work with a full understanding of the situation so far as\nthe members of the committee had analyzed it up to that time.\nIt was then proposed that the committee resolve itself into three subcommittees of\nfive members each to address themselves respectively to the following phases of the\nwork:\n1. Logical considerations, including axioms, definitions, symbols, new terms, forms\nof proof, treatment of limits and incommensurables, purposes whether formal or practical,\nplace in a curriculum, etc.\n2. Lists of basal theorems, including types of courses as given in various countries\ntypes of courses for different classes of students, for non-college preparation, minimum\nlist of theorems for various standard courses, grouping or classifications of theorems, etc.\n3. Exercises and applications, including the grading and distribution of exercises,\nrelative importance of algebraic and geometric work, special classes of exercises such as\nloci problems, correlation with other subjects, such as trigonometry, concrete applications related to drawing, decoration, architecture, ornamental design, mensuration, surveying, machinery, etc., etc.\nThe membership of these sub-committees is as follows: On Logical Considerations,\nD. E. Smith, chairman, William Betz, C. L. Bouton, E. R. Smith, William Fuller. On\nLists of Theorems, E. R. Hedrick, chairman, W. W. Hart, E. L. Brown, F. Cajori, H. E,\nHawkes. On Exercises and Applications, H. L. Rietz, chairman, R. L. Short, F. E. Newton, Mabel Sykes, H. E. Slaught.\nThese subcommittees have been organized and have worked during the past two\nyears, and extensive investigations have already been made in preliminary form. It is\nproposed to carry on the work of the subcommittees to as great a degree of completion\nas possible and then to bring the report of their work before the committee as a whole for\nfull consideration, discussion, and action. Not less than a year longer will be required\nto bring the work to completion.\nIn the meantime, the committee finds itself hampered by lack of funds for the prosecution of the work. So far the expenses have been met, for the most part, by the personal contributions of the members. But soon the cost of manifolding preliminary\nreports will increase, and later the printing of the final report will demand consideration.\nIt would be well if the committee might know at this time approximately to what extent\nthe National Education Association will back it up in the cost of prosecuting the work.\nRespectfully submitted,\nH. E. Slaught, Chairman\nA preliminary report of Subcommittee One was published in the June, 1910, number\nof the Mathematics Teacher. A persistent effort was made to embody a sanely conservative point of view, and yet to open the doors to progress.\nSubcommittee Two, thru its chairman. Professor E. R. Hedrick, has forwarded to\nme a very interesting partial statement of its work. As the document is very voluminous, itcannot be given in toto. It embodies a bibliography on the teaching of geometry, and a history of attempted revisions of geometry. Being prepared by the authoritative pen of Professor Cajori, this part of the report will be of extreme value to American\nteachers.\nPRACTICAL\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nIMPLICATIONS\n\nEver since we gave up Euclid as a standard, we have had a great many widely diverging geometric texts. The field of geometric relations is, of course, infinite, and the\nentry into that field can be made in more ways than one. This subjective tendency is\nnot in itself alarming. The teacher is embarassed by it only because there has not been\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAPPLIED\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n$1$\n\na corresponding liberality in examination requirements. Uniform examinations, such\nas those given by the Regents of New York State, or by the College Entrance Examination Board, imply some agreement as to the essentials of a subject. This uniformity is\nonly vaguely defined in the college catalogs, by the statement, \"as much as is contained\nin the better textbooks.\" The textbooks on the other hand have based their conception\nof the essentials on the college-entrance examinations. So we are going around in a\nvicious circle. If your committee succeeds in turning out a satisfactory syllabus, the\npractical results ought to be a complete remedy of many of these diflSculties.\n1. Examinations. — The syllabus should furnish a national standard for geometry\nexaminations. It is prepared by representatives of leading colleges and high schools.\nMoreover, the present committee may be said to embody the cumulative efforts of eighteen years of continuous development, since Professor Cajori belonged to the original\nCommittee of Ten and Professor Bouton helped to frame the New England Syllabus.\nHence, I earnestly bespeak the support of all the examining bodies concerned.\n2. Uniformity vs. Freedom. — I know that most of us have a justifiable horror of uniformity. But let us remember that a little more uniformity is better than the prevailing\nchaos of texts and examinations. The work of this committee will in no way even\nremotely affect the freedom of the teacher. I wish to make this point very emphatic.\nThe committee does not expect to lay down a logical sequence of propositions, thus\nleaving it to authors and teachers to make their own approach. It does wish to give a\nlist of basal theorems, together with suggestions on maximum and minimum courses.\nThus the teacher — if this syllabus should become generally accepted — will know exactly\nwhat ground is to be covered, without being hampered as to method.\n3. Time. — The committee will recommend that one and one-half years be devoted\nto plane geometry, in which time also a few facts from solid geometry and trigonometry\nshould be incorporated.\nSchools all over the country are getting ready for a six-year curriculum. Many of\nour difficulties are due to lack of time. It is well known that the number of geometry\nstudents is less than half that of the algebra students, and yet the percentage of failures\nis from 40 to 50 per cent, and it is usually higher than in algebra. This shows that we\nneed more time. The extension of time recommended by the committee, together with\nthe greater definiteness provided by the syllabus, will at once react favorably on the\nresults of our teaching.\n4. Applications. — The question of real applications is very central at present. The\ncommittee hopes to be of great service to the teachers by summarizing all that has been\ndone in that direction up to date.\n5. Disputed points. — The report embodies a brief discussion of such matters as\nindefinables, axioms, new symbols. In regard to incommensurables and limits, it will\nundoubtedly indorse the present tendency of making these topics entirely optional.\n6. Pedagogy. — ^The report will refrain from orthodox prescriptions of method. It\nwill contain valuable bibliographies and references and will help to harmonize antagonistic tendencies.\nAPPLIED\n\n1\nWM.\n\nE. BRECKENRIDGE,\n\nHEAD\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF THE DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS,\nSCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY, N.Y.\n\nSTUYVESANT\n\nHIGH\n\nThe most urgent question before the mathematics teachers of today is. What mathematics ispractical ? All over the country our courses are being attacked and the demand\nfor revision is along the line of fitting the mathematical teaching to the needs of the masses\nof pupils. No longer can we be satisfied with meeting the requirements of colleges and\ncontend that what is best for the boy who is going to college is best for the boy who does\nnot go. Rather, the tendency is to revolt from college dictation in matters of curriculum\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "5l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nand demand that the 90 per cent, who do not go to college be given that training in mathematics which will best fit them for efficient service. The truth of the matter was well\nstated by Dr. Draper in an address to the graduates of New York University when he\nsaid, \"Of course every fond mother in our country expects her son to be president, but\nlet us give him such a training that in case he misses the presidency he can at least earn\na living and not become a charg^ on the state.\" In New York City committees have been\nworking during the last year revising the course of study. They have revised the course\nin several subjects of which physics is one. The time is close at hand when mathematics\nwill be called to judgment before a severe and critical tribunal and the demand will be,\nas each subject in the curriculum is called to account, \"Answer! What excuse has this\nsubject for existence in our schools?\" It is for us as mathematics teachers to be ready\nwith our reasons for justifying any subjects that we think should remain in the curriculum.\nThose of us who have thought about this matter know that there is great room for\nimprovement in the curriculum and in methods of teaching. One of the lines along which\nmany teachers are working today to effect an improvement in efficiency is the introduction of real applied problems. It is the purpose of this discussion to state as clearly as\nI can what I believe to be the function of real applied problems — what they can do and\nwhat they cannot do, to point out certain dangers in their excessive use, and to characterize briefly the material available at present for textbooks.\nThere seems to be some difference of opinion as to what a real applied problem is,\nbut I think we may define it as a problem that occurs in actual life. There are of course\napplied problems that are not real. These may be puzzles intended to amuse, problems\ninvolving number relations like the digit problems, or those in which the relation of\ndividend, divisor, quotient, and remainder are emphasized, work problems which can\nbe used very well to teach generalizations resulting in formulas, or they may be artificial\nproblems that were invented to furnish some application of mathematics but which are\nso far removed from everyday experience that their absurdity far outweighs any possible\nmathematical value which they may have had when they were invented. Hare and\nhound problems, and the old problem beginning \"If an egg and a half costs a cent and a\nhalf,\" are examples of this class. I have no doubt that puzzles and problems teaching\nnumber relations have a definite use in mathematical training, but the question that is\nvital just now is. What is the use of real appHed problems ? Teachers differ widely in\ntheir views of this question. On the one hand, some apprentice schools teach nothing\nbut real problems; on the other hand, some high schools never teach problems that are\nreal. What is the truth about the matter? I have been studying the practical use of\nreal problems for two years from the viewpoint of a teacher in a high school where 85\nper cent, of the graduates go to college, from the viewpoint of a teacher in an evening\ntrade school, as chairman of a Committee on Industrial Education in the Association of\nMathematics Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland, and as an examiner in\nmathematics for the International Committee of the Y.M.C.A. I am convinced that a\nmore extended use of real problems would be a decided help toward efficiency in mathematics teaching. Let us consider some advantages which I believe the teaching of real\nproblems afford.\nCertain real problems have a practical use in that they prepare a student to do real\nwork of a nature similar to the problem. Such are problems in surveying, mixing-problems in chemistry, and problems from the shop, e.g., those dealing with speeds of pulleys\nand cutting speed. A student who knows how to do these practical problems can command ahigher wage than one who is ignorant of them. In New York City guaranty\nand trust companies and civil service engineers are looking for boys who understand\nsurveying, while a boy who knows the theory of machine work such as can be secured\nfrom certain mathematical problems is more valuable at the start to his employer and\nwill receive more money. Boys of this kind often become foremen in the shop within a\nshort time. This practical use of mathematics applies most of all to trade schools, to a\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAPPLIED\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n$1\"]\n\nlarge degree to manual training schools, to a less degree to schools fitting for technical\ncolleges, and very little to the academic high school.\nAnother use of the real problem that applies to all schools is to hold the interest of\na student while he is being taught pure mathematics. Of course pupils in academic\nhigh schools are usually obliged to attend up to the limit of school age, but the great\nfalling-off of students in the first year makes the problem of interesting them a vital one.\nIf a theory of interest is to be tried out, the best place that I know in which to try it is in\nan evening school. Here the men are not obliged to attend. They will leave as soon as\ninterest dies out. The evening-school teacher must capture the interest of his class\nthe first night and sustain that interest thruout the course or the men drop out and the\nteacher is out of a job. Now the most interesting thing to a man of this class is a real\nproblem along his own line of work. So it is that the wise teacher gives a plumber who\ncomes asking for plumbing problems an exercise in such problems the first night. That\ncaptures his interest. But that wise teacher knows also that the best thing he can give\nhis men is training in the fundamental operations of mathematics. His plan then is to\nfeed his students real problems enough to hold them and at the same time assign as much\nwork in the fundamental operations of fractions, decimals, and formulas, as he thinks\nthe class will stand. Now, this plumber who today calls for plumbing problems may\nlose his job tomorrow and may wish to enter some other line of work. He may see an\nopening in machine work. If he does and it offers a few dollars more per week, you can\ndepend upon it he will take it. Then he will use his broad training in fundamental\noperations and be able to do machine problems with comparatively little trouble.\nThis same problem is present in academic schools. Interest a student in real problems, and he can often be taught an amount of pure mathematics that would be impossible otherwise. Do not misunderstand me here. Not all students are interested in real\nproblems. Some are much more enthusiastic over abstract than over real problems.\nBut if the greatest amount of interest in the whole class is to be maintained, both kinds\nof work must be used.\nAgain, real applied problems are not only useful in a practical way and helpful on\nthe side of interest, but they are also valuable for training. The student who solves real\napplied problems should develop the ability to apply mathematics intelligently. It is\na common complaint of science teachers that students who are good in pure mathematics\nrarely have any idea how to use it. If a new situation presents itself, the student is entirely at a loss how to meet it because, as he says, he has \"never had a problem like that.\"\nContinued use of his mathematics in real problems will give a student first of all an idea\nthat mathematics can be used, and second, it will develop some judgment as to how it\ncan be used. He will come to regard mathematics as a valuable tool with which he can\ndo efficient work.\nAnother point of training which real problems will teach is that in actual life results\nare very rarely absolutely correct. The results are approximations to the required degree\nof accuracy. There is usually an allowance for waste material in problems that concern\nwood- or metal-working. The student should develop a certain judgment as to what a\nreasonable allowance is in any particular case.\nAgain, he will learn from real problems that different degrees of accuracy are desirable in different kinds of work — a result correct to feet being sufficiently accurate in certain pieces of work, while in others measurements are required to ten-thousandths of an\ninch.\nIt is likely that experience with real problems will make it necessary for the student\nto brush up his knowledge of decimals and square root, make him seek short methods\nto abridge the tedious operations involved in many problems, and force upon him the\nadvantage of checking his work. It is evident that this training in appreciation of mathematics, judgment in its use, and insight into the nature of approximations — all of which\nforce the student to review the fundamental operation — is applicable to mathematical\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sl8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwork in any high school where real problems can be fitted to the course. To sum up the\nuse of real problems, then, we have found that they are useful in a practical way in schools\nof an industrial nature, that they develop interest which is indispensable in trade and\nevening schools and helpful in academic schools, and that they are valuable for training\nin all schools.\nI believe that while real problems are a necessity in trade schools and manual-training schools, they could be used in the academic high school with great advantage. The\nstudents who graduate from our high schools do not have their mathematics well enough\nin hand to apply to the work which they will undertake. Employers complain that\nboys whom they employ are not ready and accurate in the fundamental operations. A\nreview of arithmetic should be included in every high-school course. In this course\nthere should be short methods, the use of the sUde rule, methods of checking work, and\na large number of applied problems. One recitation every two weeks devoted to appHed\nproblems thruout the four years of mathematics in the high school, together with the\napplied problems that come in the regular course, would result in graduating students\nwith an appreciation of the value of mathematics, an intelligent idea of its application,\nand an ability to use it with efficiency.\nThere are, however, certain dangers in the use of real problems that it is worth while\nto consider.\nTheir excessive use may lead to a neglect of pure mathematics. This is a fatal mistake. It is of little use to a man to know how to do a practical problem involving the\naddition of fractions, if he is unable to perform the operation of adding the fractions.\nThis danger may be avoided by teaching some abstract work, \"problems without content,\" every day, and by keeping in mind that the pure mathematics is, after all, the\nthing which the student needs most.\nAgain, real problems are sometimes unorganized and ungraded so that the study of\nthem does not lead anywhere. The student is hurried thru a mass of problems and finds\non their completion that the product of his work is a confused notion of everything in\ngeneral and no clear idea of anything.\nThe remedy here is to grade and organize the problems. Even in the evening trade\nschool where the demand for practical work is so great, the most practical work in mathematics isa good general training in rapid, accurate work in the fundamental operations\ntogether with their application to practical work. The aim of the man in an evening\ntrade school is to improve his condition. If he can do this in his present occupation, all\nvery well, if not, he is eager to change the occupation. A broad training in the fundamental operations of mathematics enables him to change easily from one occupation to\nanother that is more attractive. These dangers, however, are of minor importance and\neasily avoided. The emphasis at present by mathematics teachers should be on making\nour courses more practical. To this end the real applied problem is a great help. The\ngreat difficulty is to find real problems suited to classwork. Much is being done along\nthis line at present. I will give a brief list of some material that is available. The list\nof books for work in real problems includes the following:\n1. The Hampton Arithmetic — for industrial schools. Grades One to Eight — is a book\nof excellent problems which have been tried in the shops and the mathematical classrooms of Hampton Institute. This book will not be available for general use till a new\nedition is issued.\n2. Shop Problems in Mathematics (Ginn & Co.) for any schools where there are shops,\nfor upper grades of elementary schools, trade schools, manual-training schools, normal\nschools. This book contains problems in woodworking, metal-working, and a review\nof calculation, including short methods and a chapter on the slide rule.\n3. Problems collected by the Committee of the Central Mathematical Association\nmay be obtained of Miss Mabel Sykes, South Chicago High School, Chicago. (See\nSchool Science and Mathematics.) Not all of these are real, but many of them are good,\ntho of course they are unorganized.\n4. The Stone-Millis Arithmetic, Algebra and Geometry.\nMany excellent problems.\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN NEW\n\nENGLAND\n\n519\n\n5. Slaught and Lennes' Algebra and Geometry.\nMany instructive problems.\n6. Young and Jackson Algebra.\nEspecially strong in its application to science work.\nAt least three other books are in process of being printed.\nBest English books:\nCastle's Workshop Mathematics (Macmillan).\nCracknell's Practical Mathematics (Longmans, Green & Co).\nIn conclusion, then, I wish to urge the increased use of the real applied problem.\nIt is indispensable in trade schools, normal training schools, and evening schools; it has\na well-defined value in all schools on the side of interest and training. Its intelligent use\nwill prepare us to answer the challenge, \"What is the use of mathematics?\" and will fit\nour students to do efficient mathematical work in the serious problems of real life.\n\nE.\n\nMODERN\n\nFOREIGN\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nMODERN-LANGUAGE\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN NEW\n\nJULIUS\n\nTUCKERMAN,\n\nCENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nENGLAND\n\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe present observations are based on a questionnaire sent out by a committee of the\nNew England Modern Language Association and on the final report rendered by that\ncommittee about six weeks ago.\nIt seems fitting that, in a national gathering such as is now taking place, along with\nthe wide national movements certain sectional conditions be considered by way of comparison and contrast. If I were living in the West or the South, I should be interested\nto know the situation in the East and especially in New England, to learn something of the\ntendencies, the progress, and the results obtained here; not that the West and the South\nneed to learn anything from us, but that the best kind of inspiration comes to us in facing\nfacts as they are rather than in indulging in prophecies of what may be. To this end, I\nhave noted some tendencies that seem to me significant, some conditions that need to be\nremedied, if modern-language teaching is to yield any serious results.\nThe first thing to strike an observer from the West is the preponderance of French over\nGerman which is a characteristic of New England. As a result of the questionnaire above\nmentioned, it appears that there are twice as many students in French as in German.\nThis predominance of French is a curious phenomenon and shows how conservative New\nEngland has been, how little she has changed from the time of Lafayette and Franklin\nwhen France was our ally, when thru sentiment rather than a desire for efiiciency we have\nclung to French as a polite language, as an accomplishment which every boarding-school\ngirl and every gentleman shall have studied or at least forgotten. That we in New England should receive so little inspiration from a virile language like German, that we should\nbe almost cut off from a knowledge of the mighty deeds of Germany in commerce, industry,\nand invention, is due to the scanty influence that the German language is having in New\nEngland. To us no longer call \"the voices of the spirits, the voices of the masters\"; we\nare isolated, isolated from a powerful branch of the human race that is striving like the\nWagnerian gods against ignorance and inefficiency.\nThe figures in regard to Latin show it to be slightly behind French, while Greek is\npractically gone. There is what amounts to an \"irrepressible\" conflict between the\nclassics and modern languages, a conflict that is in many ways unfortunate and perhaps\nwithout vaUd grounds, but which nevertheless exists, owing partly to the assumption on\nthe part of the classics of superiority to modern languages, partly to the greater recognition which the classics receive in credits for college entrance. There ought, however, to\nbe no conflict between them. The desire of each ought to be not to supplant but to supplement the other. Since the main purpose of the ancient languages is linguistic training\nand the educating of one's taste in literature, their place is in the college where the maturer\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmind takes delight in accuracy of inflection, in fine shades of meaning, in comparisons of\nliterary style; whereas in the secondary schools where care in inflection is a burden, where\ndepth of thought and subtlety of meaning are conspicuously absent, the emphasis may\nwell be on the training of the ear to understand, on the acquisition of the tools for research.\nThis would mean fewer students of Latin but more Latin scholars, fewer pupils who have\nbeen exposed to Greek, but more who have been inoculated with the true love of learning.\nIn brief, we as modern-language teachers do not wish the classics to go but rather to see\nthem thrive and we hope that there will always be pure vestal souls to keep alive the\nsacred fire of learning and not to desert the altar the moment they enter the college temple.\nThis conflict between the classics and modern languages is perhaps part of a general\nconflict between the school and the college. The attitude of the school toward the college\nis one of impatience with its procrustean standards, of chafing at its senseless restraints.\nThat is gradually disappearing in New England and would disappear entirely if the gap\nbetween the high schools and the colleges were closed. If the New England colleges will\naccept what the high schools have to offer, if each would limit itself to its own special\nprovince, it would be as natural for a student to pass from the high school to the college\nas it is for him to pass from the grammar school to the high school. In modern languages\nespecially, where standards are not yet fixed, where uniformity does not prevail, there is\nneed of a rapprochement, and happily our New England Modern Language Association,\nwhich gathers in groups and annual meetings and is composed of college and secondaryschool teachers, has already accomplished a vast amount of good. At its last meeting,\nMay 14, it drew up a platform on which colleges and secondary schools may stand together and work for progress. With free discussion and mutual acquaintance, suspicion\nand hostility are bound to go. In this, Harvard University, as the predominating educational influence in New England, can be of material assistance. If in the revision of the\ncollege-entrance requirements she will insist on rational methods of teaching modern\nlanguages, if she will demand that due attention be given to the training of the ear and the\norgans of speech, she will have rendered a greater service to the cause of good teaching\nthan when she revolutionized the teaching of science by demanding a practical laboratory\ntest and certified experiment books to supplement the examination in theory. Teachers\nin New England are in substantial agreement as to the wisdom, the necessity, yes, the\npracticability of a viva voce or \"oral test.\" Not that they claim that their students are\nable to speak French or German with any degree of fluency, but that those students who\nhave been trained to understand what is spoken or read aloud and who, in turn, can be\nunderstood when they read aloud to others, shall be examined in this part of their training\nand receive credit therefor. This reasonable demand of modern-language teachers is sure\nto be heeded, for modern languages will never be content to be formalized like Latin but\nwill prefer to remain living tongues, working-tools first, instruments of culture afterward.\nWith greater harmony between school and college must come a division of work, a\nclear delineation of the province of each. Textbooks, for instance, must be divided; highschool teachers for high-school texts, college teachers for college texts, since the aim and\nmethods of the two must be distinct even if supplemented. We must have greater care\nin the preparation of textbooks, a little more scholarship and less advertisement, a little\nmore life and less mechanism. Let us hope that the words \"easy,\" \"simple,\" \"short,\"\nas applied to language texts, will disappear. A foreign language is neither \"easy\" nor\n\"simple,\" nor is \"short\" the word to apply to anything where mastery is concerned. But\nfar above the improvement in textbooks must come both in school and college an improvement in teaching. There must be more oral work and less writing, more reading and less\ntranslation, a greater emphasis on the content and less on the form. The useful must be\nkept steadily in the foreground. There must be a purpose and an accomplishment of that\npurpose. The pretense at culture must be discarded. We cannot give culture or literary\ntaste to young people of thirteen to seventeen any more than we can give them old age.\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN NEW\n\nENGLAND\n\n521\n\nIn college let us hope we shall have more teachers and fewer investigators, more nurses\nand fewer doctors. The colleges must remember that high-school teachers are not specialists in spite of the fact that this is the most frequent charge against them. As head of\na large modern-language department, having frequent occasion to examine candidates\nwith experience, I must say that the painstaking preparation for teaching, the delight in\nthe skill of one's craft, the pride in the mastery of one's subject, are too frequently lacking;\nrather do we find that the typical modern-lariguage teacher is a young woman who has\ntaken a few courses in French or German, who has rarely had any training in phonetics,\nwho can scarcely command more than a few classroom directions in the language, and who,\nif she has spent any time abroad, has been limited to part of a summer vacation. There\nhas been, it is true, a marked improvement in the last ten years, but it has been confined\nalmost wholly to the large cities where better salaries with perhaps a liberal pension system\nhave attracted genuinely able men and women who are masters of their subjects. In the\nsmaller high schools where perhaps half a dozen teachers try to maintain as many courses\nas are to be found in the larger cities, where for the past decade a so-called \"enrichment\"\nof the high-school course has taken place, the results in modern languages are rich indeed.\nHow long we in New England shall live in this fools' paradise, how long we shall talk glibly\nof culture for boys and girls that need first the plainest training for efficiency, I do not\nknow. Surely it would seem that better than the conservation of forests and water-power\nwould be the conservation of children and mind-power from the wasteful methods that\nnow prevail, from the scattering of energies that could so easily be turned to some useful\npurpose.\nThere is no other ground on which one may justify the presence of modern languages\nin the curriculum of the high school, except life-efficiency. Neither as an ornament, nor\nas a preparation for college have they a place in the secondary school. And if they are\nto be taught for efficiency, if this purpose must be kept in mind, they must be freed from\nthe danger which is continually besetting all studies, the danger of formalization. It is\na human weakness, more peculiar, it seems, to New England with its tendency to conservatism and its worship of precedent than to the free and daring West. To this human weakness isdue the fact that we lay such great stress on grammar, and that, too, not as a check\non incorrect speech but as an end in itself. We have classified all the nouns, we have\ndeclined all the adjectives, we have arranged alphabetically all the prepositions with the\ncases they govern, and after a student has memorized all these things and has thoroly\nclassified the language, then we proceed to acquire it with the mental reservation of always\nidentifying every word as to family and species. Every teacher is familiar with the fact\nthat students may know the paradigms in the grammar and yet not be able to write correctly letter\na\nin German ordering a book. Modern languages will therefore have to prove\ntheir right to existence in the school curriculum. This right should be based not as to whether\nor not they prepare for college, but rather as to whether or not they prepare for life; not\nas to whether or not they are good as \"training\" or \"discipline,\" but as to whether, in the\nwidest sense, they have a genuine intrinsic value. If the modern languages are to keep\ntheir place in the school, they will have to prove that they are useful instruments in a larger\nlife, that they widen one's mental horizon, that they give ready access to the wonderful\nliterature of two mighty peoples, and that culture, which is neither teachable nor tangible,\nbut rather an attitude of appreciation of whatever is human, can best become a habitual\nattitude thru hnguistic contact with two modern nations that have inherited in large\nmeasure the culture of the ancients. To this end modern-language construction must cut\nloose from the despotism of literal translation, from the mediaevalism of memorizing\nparadigms, rules, and exceptions, from the stupidity of learning about the language instead\nof learning the language itself. Therefore in the words of Victor of Marburg, \"modern\nlanguage instruction must turn back,\" reverse the process of dissecting a language before\npossessing it, reverse the process of script first and speech afterward, reverse the process\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONiASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof transferring the foreign language into our element instead of bringing the foreign\nelement into the life of the pupil.\nI must mention in closing some disquieting influences now affecting among others\nthe teaching of modern languages. The College Entrance Examination Board is assuming\na leadership which before long will raise some very interesting questions. Having begun\nas an organization to standardize all subjects for college entrance, it has gradually assumed\na control that the colleges originally entering into the board could not have foreseen. The\ndesire for some measure of uniformity, the desire to be freed from the bother of making\nout and correcting examination papers, the desire perhaps to be protected against invidious\ncomparisons, have led to the formation of the board and to its gradual absorption of a\nlarge share of the examining power. But note how power once delegated to hands outside of the college assumes power not originally intended. Note how the name of the\nexaminers originally printed on each examination has been eliminated, note how the board\nwill suggest, first methods, then textbooks, for only recently it sent to the schools a suggestion to use a certain syllabus in geometry, and from syllabus to textbook is only a\nshort step. There is danger in modern languages of mechanizing the subject by making\nit all a written examination only, so that language in the words of the French shall not be\nlangage but plumage. If anyone thinks that such boards are an unmixed blessing or that\nlike all anonymous organizations they do not tend to abuse their constant increase of\npower, let him note the Carnegie Foundation and see how a laudable plan for pensioning\nsuperannuated college professors has become not only a judge of college standards but\nby its attitude of insistence on \"points\" and quantity it has already laid hand on modern\nlanguages in one New England college and therefore on the schools that prepare for it.\nNot long ago at a joint meeting of two committees working for more rational methods\nin teaching modern languages, after incontrovertible proof had been submitted as to the\nvicious one-year course in French and German, a representative from a New England\ncollege, admitting the folly of accepting one year of language preparation for college, said:\n\"What are we to do ? The Carnegie Foundation found that we were one 'point' short in\nour requirements for entrance. We had to make up the point and rather than lose the\npension privilege of the Carnegie Foundation we decided to require one year of a modern\nlanguage to make up the required point.\" Shades of Erasmus! What argument can\nscholarship offer against the Carnegie Bread Line ?\nAnother disquieting influence in modern-language teaching, in New England especial y, isthe preponderance of women. It is not to be understood from this that the presence of women in the teaching profession is in itself undesirable, but when one considers\nthat over 90 per cent, of all the boys in the United States leave school without ever coming\nin contact with a single male teacher; when there are fewer male teachers in the United\nStates today than in 1880, while the number of women teachers has doubled; when you\nconsider that I have frequently attended modern-language meetings where I was the only\nman present, you will not wonder that the course of study and the point of view are almost\nwholly feminine, that the tendency of the reading is toward the mawkish story and the\nsentimental lyric rather than toward history or scientific books. It is a sad commentary\non the wisdom of a nation that spends vast sums on fine school buildings and equipment,\nand then hires the cheapest teachers it can get. It is a curious fact that those women who\nhave avoided matrimony and its usual accompaniment, the rearing of children, should\nbe the very ones to be put almost exclusively in charge of the education of children and\nespecially of boys at the age when they most need the guidance of strong men.\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDIRECT\n\nMETHOD\n\nTHE DIRECT\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF TEACHING MODERN LANGUAGES,\nENT CONDITIONS IN OUR SCHOOLS\n\nFREDERICK\n\nMONTESER,\n\nHEAD\n\nOF\n\nOF TEACHING\n\nGERMAN\nDEPARTMENT,\nNEW\nYORK CITY, N.Y.\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nDE WITT\n\nCLINTON\n\n523\n\nAND\n\nPRES-\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWhoever has observed the methods of modem-language teaching in this country\nduring the last decade cannot fail to recognize the slow but steady progress which has\nbeen made during this time. \"The chaotic Und bewildering conditions\" of which the\nCommittee of Twelve complained in their classic report of 1898 have given place to a\nfairly well established system, adopted by practically all the leading colleges and schools of\nthe East, and by many institutions in the other parts of the country. The establishment\nof the three normal grades of instruction — elementary, intermediate, and advanced —\nrepresenting courses of two, three, and four years respectively, with a definite aim and\nscope for each, was an important step in advance, while the committee's suggestions\nwith regard to methods of teaching have proved to be of great value.\nSome of these suggestions, in fact, altho commonplaces of theory and discussion,\nwould seem to need as much emphasis today, as they did when they were first made, and\nit is perhaps not too much to say that their general adoption in the classroom at the\npresent time would raise modern language instruction in this country from a rather low\nto a relatively high plane of efl&ciency. There is still too little emphasis laid on pronunciation, there is not enough care used in the selection of reading matter, and grammar\nis still too frequently treated as if it were an aim in itself and not rather a means to an\nend.\nIn particular, that method-suggestion which appears to me to be the most fruitful\nof the whole report, is also, at least as far as my observations go, the one most generally\nneglected. I refer to the \"oflf-hand reproduction, sometimes orally and sometimes in\nwriting, of the substance of short and easy selected passages\" of the reading-matter.\nI believe that nothing would tend more toward vitalizing our methods of instruction than\na systematic, thoro-going, and persistent following-out of this suggestion. It is right\nhere that the pivotal point for the reform of our present methods must be sought.\nThe reason why the good seed of this suggestion has so far been unable to thrive in\nthe soil of our schools, is because it has been choked by the rank growth of other matter.\nIt was practically useless to put this excellent recommendation before the teachers, when\nat the same time they were overwhelmed with such a mass of grammatical and reading\nmatter that time would not suffice for anything but the most mechanical working-over\nof the quantitative requirements. Thus quality had to be sacrificed to quantity. Moreover, the nature of the college-entrance examinations, with their insistence upon sight\ntranslation from an almost unlimited range of vocabulary, apparently made, and still\nseems to make, it necessary to prepare the pupil by giving him a large amount of reading\nso that, with the help of a good deal of more or less judicious guessing, he may be enabled to puzzle out the meaning of an unseen French or German passage.\nIt is not, however, the purpose of this paper to complain of existing conditions, but\nto point out, if possible, some specific way by which, under the present arrangement of\nclasses, text-books, examinations, etc., we may immediately bring our methods a little\nmore in Une with modern ideas, such as prevail in European schools, and escape those\nsevere criticisms of our instruction which of late years have been expressed by both\nnative and foreign observers. Furthermore, I take it for granted that all progressive\nteachers nowadays agree that modern language instruction without a careful training\nof the ear and the organs of speech is of no more value than the teaching of dhemistry or\nphysics without experiments. The time is approaching when such training will receive\nits proper recognition in examinations, but the problem for the teacher right now is to\nmeet present requirements and yet get the time for those things which his pedagogical\nconscience tells him are indispensable.\nThe fact is, we are in a period of transition.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nold order is changing, but is changing rather slowly. We are not in the position of the\nFrench, where the Minister of Public Instruction simply issues a decree, revolutionizing\novernight, as it were, the methods in use in all the schools of the country. We have to\ntake into account traditions, prejudices, and vested interests. So our procedure must\nbe cautious, conservative, in the nature of a compromise.\nLet us assume, then, the ordinary class of beginners in an average high school,\nwhich, by the use of the textbooks at hand, has to be prepared in two years to meet the\ntest known as the elementary French or German requirement. They will have to know\na fairly large amount of elementary grammar, to translate at sight a passage of not altogether simple text, and to put some English prose into the foreign idiom. It is plain\nthat we shall have no time for an extended phonetic introduction, nor will it be\npossible to extract inductively the necessary amount of grammar from a reading-text\nalone. We shall hardly be able to do without one of the established beginners' books,\nbut it is in the way in which this book is used and in the way in which it is supplemented\nby oral work that the difference between the progressive and the unprogressive teacher\nwill come in. Our book will probably be divided into lessons, and each leasson will contain paradigms of conjugations and declensions, some rules, a short vocabulary, and\nfinally two sets of sentences, one in the foreign language and the other in English.\nHow shall we treat the lessons in our beginners' book, a book perhaps not even of our\nown choice, but which does not differ so very essentially from half a dozen others that\nmight have been selected? Shall we give out the paradigms, rules, and vocabulary to\nbe memorized, hear them recited, have the sentences translated from French or German\ninto English and vice versa, correct the mistakes, give out the next lesson, and go on in\nthe same way to the end of the term? Such teaching does not call for much original\nefifort on our part, the teacher needs to be but a little ahead of the class; if he but holds\nthem steadily to their tasks, they will by dint of plodding acquire a fairly good mastery\nof the forms of the language, a certain range of vocabulary, and they will pass their\nexaminations. But by the same token, they will not have much real interest in the\nlanguage, there will be no spontaneity in their work, and they will not develop what the\nGermans call SprachgefUhl, that almost instinctive feeling for what one can or cannot\nsay in a langauge. The teacher himself soon loses all interest in this routine work, from\nyear to year the drudgery gets to be more irksome; and when he listens to sharp criticisms of his methods, and perchance reads of wonderful results attained in Germany and\nelsewhere, he only grows more and more disheartened. \"Die Botschaft hor' ich wohl,\nallein es fehlt der Glaube.\" Is there no way out of this dreary wilderness ? Do we have\nto wait until the pedagogic millennium arrives, when classes will be small, courses properly\nlengthened, ideal textbooks introduced, and no examinations set by outside authorities ?\nOr can we take these things as they are, and by putting our heart and soul into the work,\nmake a little improvement right here and now, in spite of adverse conditions ? I think\nwe can; and in order to do it, we must emancipate ourselves from the tyranny of the\ntextbook, use it as our tool, not bow down to it as to our master. I propose to show in\na nimiber of specific instances how this may be done, and, as my own work lies wholly\nin the field of German, I shall confine my remarks to that language, since the same principles will apply equally well to French or any other modern language. The fundamental\nidea must be that language is intended primarily to be spoken and to be acquired by the\near, only in the second place to be read and to be acquired by the eye. Hence, new material must be presented with books closed; the first impression must come from the lips\nof the teacher to the ear of the pupil. Secondly, the unit of speech is the sentence, not\nthe word. We must, therefore, not start with the abstraction of a paradigm or a list of\nwords, but with complete sentences, however simple. The beginning may be made with\nsentences of the \"Das ist . . . .\" type, naming the different objects in the classroom.\n\"Das ist der Tisch, der Stuhl, die Tiir, die Tafel, das Fenster, das Papier,\" etc. No\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nDIRECT\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF TEACHING\n\nLANGUAGES\n\n525\n\ntranslation, of course, is necessary, the new name being directly associated with the\nobject. As these things are named, the answers are written on the blackboard, thus\nsupplementing and checking up the auditory impressions by sight impressions. The\nnecessary directions may as well be given in German from the very beginning : \" Schreiben\nSie das an die Tafel,\" etc. It is not necessary at this stage that the pupil understand\nthe syntax of such a sentence, he understands it as a whole and remembers it just as\neasily, or rather more easily, than an isolated word.\nFrom the sentences written on the board, two facts may be gathered inductively,\none that, in German, nouns denoting things may be masculine, feminine, or neuter, and\nthe other that all nouns are capitalized. The next step might be made by using the\nsame nouns as objects of the verb \"Ich zeige,\" which will bring out the difference between\nthe nominative and the accusative. The necessary grammatical explanation is briefly\ngiven in English. The attempt to obviate entirely the use of English in the classroom is\nimpractical. Pupils of high-school age want to know the reasons for making changes\nin the forms of words, and they should be given those reasons in the quickest and most\nintelligible way. Not more than a very few periods can be given up to this preliminary\noral work, supplemented all the time by writing on the blackboard; then the systematic\nstudy of the lesson-book begins. It is perhaps needless to state that, for the beginning,\nI regard the careful preparation of each lesson in the classroom as absolutely essential.\nFor a long time the homework of the student should be nothing but a review of the work\ndone in the class, otherwise the former is apt to result in more harm than good. This\npreparation will consist in introducing in as natural a way as possible the new words of\nthe lesson and in developing in an inductive way the necessary grammatical rules, always\ntaking care to use the old words over and over again, giving the necessary directions in\nGerman as far as possible, and adding to this stock of phrases as fast as the class can be\nmade to absorb them.\nWe now come to the German sentences. They have been framed by the author of\nour text to illustrate some grammatical facts and to employ a certain vocabulary; the\npupil, who has been introduced to those facts and to that vocabulary in the manner\nexplained, has, of course, no difficulty in translating the exercises. Suppose he comes\nto the class with that preparation. Shall the time of the recitation be spent in re-reading and re-translating the sentences ? This is what commonly happens, but it is hardly\nthe best use that can be made of this material. The sentences should be treated as little\nstories that can be told in answer to questions, and as models for similar stories which the\ningenuity of the teacher may try to make as hve and interesting as possible. It is surprising how much can be done in this way with material that, at first glance, would appear\nhopelessly dry and uninteresting. Let me illustrate by an example taken directly from\nthe classroom. The book I am using contains in one of the first lessons the following\ntwo sentences which are framed chiefly to illustrate the declension of the article (definite\nand indefinite), and to use the names of some occupations and some terms of relationship.\nThey read like this: i. Wie heisst der Sohn des Lehrers und was ist er? Er heisst Hans\nund ist Kiinstler. 2. Ist der Schiiler Fritz Franke nicht der Sohn eines Zimmermanns\nin der Kanalstrasse ? Nein, er ist der Sohn einer Frau Franke in der Bismarckstrasse;\nZimmermann Franke ist sein Onkel.\nRegular Ollendorfian style, you will say. Not quite; I admit these sentences are\nnot very deep, but still they are not altogether unnatural; one may consider them as bits\nof conversation that under some conceivable circumstances might have been uttered by\na German speaker. For this reason they may be used as the basis of a sort of conversational drill. The members of the class understand that the questions asked of them are\nnot intended to elicit information about themselves or members of their families; they\nare encouraged to give as varied answers as they can, irrespective of their material truth,\nprovided they are reasonable. It is a game we are playing, and they enter into it with all\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "526\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe zest of the play spirit. A sort of conversation like the following may ensue: \"Wie\nheissest du? Ich heisse Karl Kaufifman. (May be not the boy's name at all, but he\nchooses it because it sounds German.) Wessen Sohn bist du ? Ich bin der Sohn eines\nSchumachers. (Other pupils in the class answer the same question in a variety of ways,\nas \"eines Arbeiters, eines Lehrers, eines Musikers,\" etc., always, of course, in the form\nof a complete sentence.) 1st dein Onkel nicht ein Kaufmann in der Wallstrasse ? Nein,\ner ist ein Lehrer in der Hochschule,\" and so on, as long as the time and the interest of the\nclass will permit. While one pupil is reciting a dozen are eager to give a different answer\nto the same question, four or five are writing their sentences on the blackboard, and all are\nintensely interested. Moreover, every word that has been spoken or written is in German,\nand every moment of the time has been utilized to the best advantage.\nYou will observe that this kind of exercise is as far removed from the aimless talk of\nthe old so-called \"natural method\" as it is from the deadly grind of the dry-as-dust\ngrammar-and-translation method. It is perfectly definite, and it serves the purpose for\nwhich the sentences of the lesson-book are designed. Only it gives very much more practice than is usually afforded by the working-over of the lesson material, and it makes this\nmaterial alive and interesting, also it calls forth the best efforts of the teacher and of the\nclass.\nWhat about the English sentences to be translated into German? It is plain that\nunder our plan these sentences become practically unnecessary, since the pupil has had\nall the drill that is needed to fix that particular lesson in his mind. But there is a far more\nimportant consideration than this. By centering the pupil's attention on the English\nidiom, we are running a great risk of breaking up the very same associations which we have\njust been laboriously building up by our German conversation. We are tempting him,\nas it were, to make mistakes which, when expressing himself freely in German, he would\nnever think of making. If, therefore, translation into the foreign language is considered\nnecessary at all, it should come later in the course, possibly in the way of review and only\nafter the pupil has developed Sprachgefuhl enough to keep him from falling into gross\nerrors caused by following too closely the English idiom. Some of the best teachers, however, dispense with this sort of exercise almost entirely and yet their pupils, when called\nupon to translate from English, do as well as those who have had abundant practice in\nprose translation.\nFor another reason, too, translation from English into the foreign language is of\nrather doubtful value. When by means of it we wish to drive home a grammatical rule\nor fix a set of forms, there are so many difficulties to be considered at the same time,\ndifficulties of vocabulary, word order, idiom, etc., that the pupil's attention is distracted\nfrom the main issue. \"Er sieht den Wald vor lauter Baumen nicht.\" A much better\nplan for this purpose is to furnish the pupil with a ready-made German sentence, leaving\nblank those words or endings in which the application of the desired grammatical rule\nappears. In this way he has to deal with only one difficulty at a time and his attention\nis not drawn to a number of side issues. Familiar examples are the supplying of endings\nof adjectives, or cases after prepositions, etc. Similar devices, however, may be used in\nmany other cases. Suppose, for instance, we have to teach the verbs which take their\nobject in the dative, such as antworten, begegnen, danken, dienen, etc. Let the teacher\nwrite incomplete sentences on the board such as these: \"Das Kind antwortet\n. Auf der Strasse begegnete ich\n. Wirst du nicht\ndanken ? Der Soldat dient\n, etc. The pupils will vie with each other in\nsuggesting proper objects for these sentences; they will draw upon their whole previous\nvocabulary and incidentally will review all the different forms for the dative which they\nhave learned. The homework following this lesson consists in writing original sentences\nin which verbs requiring a dative object are used, and the crop of correct and interesting\nsentences which will be brought in by the class the next day will compare very favorably\nwith any similar set of sentences devised by the average grammar-maker.\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDIRECT\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF TEACHING\n\nLANGUAGES\n\n527\n\nExamples of this kind might be multiplied, but enough has been said to suggest to\nthe thoughtful teacher how he can follow a textbook and yet make himself independent of\nit. The main thing is always to devise a variety of exercises by the use of which the\nforeign language material can be handled, changed, transformed, without the constant\nintervention of the pupil's vernacular. This, to my mind, is the essential feature of the\ndirect method.\nThe same principle applies to reading. To turn a pupil loose, with a grammar and\na dictionary in his hands, upon a page of strange text in a foreign language seems to me\nalmost a pedagogical crime. As in connection with the grammar, so now in reading, the\npupil should get his first impression of the new material from the teacher in the classroom.\nTo illustrate : In the book which I am using with my beginners' classes, I find a simple\nversion of the Lohengrin story. Before assigning this story for home study, it is my practice to put before the class the picture of a German mediaeval castle. With the help of\nthis picture, a number of new words which will presently appear in the story such as Burg,\nRitter, Ross, Riistung, kampfen, etc., are taught. Then the story is told to the class in\nGerman, using language still simpler than that in the book, and is immediately reproduced\nby the pupils in answer to questions in German. If the story is now assigned for home\nstudy there will be no need of thumbing the vocabulary, or of translating at all. The\nstory will be understood in its own language, and there will be no difficulty in reproducing\nit the next day either orally or in writing. Moreover, a good many of the words will have\nentered the active vocabulary of the pupil, that is, they will occur to him when he wants\nto use them in any connection whatsoever. This is what almost never happens, or happens only to a very slight extent, when the ordinary methods of reading are used. In this\ncase, the words the pupil has met enrich, at best, only his passive vocabulary. He recognizes them when he meets them again, but they have not entered his mind in such a way\nthat he can recall them at will.\nIt must be conceded that reading done in this way is a far slower process than when\ncarried on by the customary method. But that ig just as it should be, particularly in the\nbeginning. Nothing is gained by trying to cover a large amount of ground superficially.\nFood hastily bolted is not properly digested, the features of the landscape thru which we\nare rushed at railroad speed fail to make a lasting impression on our minds. Every teacher\nof classics or modern languages is familiar with the type of student who has to look up the\nsame word over and over again, to whom translation always remains the dreariest kind of\ndrudgery, and who finally, in desperation, either gives up the task, or tries to lighten his\nburden by illegitimate means.\nOn the other hand, if the student is carefully prepared for reading in the manner\ndescribed, he will gradually gain in power, so that reading to him will by and by become a\npleasure. He will carry away from school an abiding interest in the language, a permanent\nenrichment of his mind. All the wealth and beauty of the foreign literature will be open\nto him. Needless to say, he will have no trouble in passing examinations. For has not\nall his reading been practically at sight ? He will realize that he must understand a passage before he can attempt to put it into English, and will not piece words together,\nregardless of whether they make sense or not.\nWhat I have tried to bring out is not a new scheme at all, but is in accord with the\nmethods of the best teachers at the present time. To put it into practice in any schoolroom where modern languages are taught, no revolution is needed. It can be done at any\ntime, by any earnest teacher, whether native- or foreign-born. I do not mean to imply that\nwe should stop our agitation to bring about more nearly ideal conditions, but the surest\nand quickest way to reach this result is for us to make the best possible use of our present\nopportunities.\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "528\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nDISCUSSION\nC. A. Krause, Jamaica High School, Jamaica, N.Y. — ^We learn a living language in\norder that we may be able to understand it and to use it. To attain both ends, the spoken\nand the recorded language must be considered. The most economical way of becoming\nproficient in the latter is by way of the former. If we have anything to say and can say\nit, we can write it also. But how can we write efifectively if we have something to say\nbut are not thoroly conversant with the usage of the tongue ? What is the result ? A\nheterogeneous composite d la mosaic, but with an effect that js appalling.\nNow let none misunderstand tne. I am not championing a so-called natural method\nof teaching modern languages, which is a lucus a non lucendo, but a rational method which\nwill be productive of best results. If we start with the sounds, words and phrases, and easy\nsentences of the foreign language, soon the habit of thinking in it will not only be engendered but become stable. I should advise not using any books at all in the initial stage\nof our modern-language instruction, and this for two reasons: (i) No printed symbols\nwill confuse the pupil in the very beginning. (2) The constant staggering from one\nlanguage into an entirely different one will be avoided. After some five weeks of preliminary practice of aural and oral training, an easy reader may be taken up, reserving the\nstudy of systematic grammar to the very end of the first term after the pupil knows something of the language.\nSomeone will speak of the difficulties confronting us in employing the direct method\nof teaching modern languages. I say, diflSculties there are everywhere, and there is no\nroyal road to learning. But most difficulties are not very serious, or appear greater than\nthey really are. Let us take, for example, the age of the pupils, the time and length\nallotted to the study of modern languages, and the inherent diflSculty, chiefly of German.\nBelieve me, all of these seeming obstacles will vanish before an energetic, resourceful\nmodern-language teacher. Our pupils entering upon the study of foreign languages are\nabout fourteen years old. To be sure, I should like to see them start a few years younger,\nbut what of it ? Their vocal organs are still flexible. They have imagination and enthusiasm in abundance. As to time, five periods a week and four years' length are enough to\nobtain good results, as is proved by the Frankfurter Reform Realgymnasien for the study of\nEnglish. Of course, a one-year course in modern languages is an absurdity.\nGerman inflections are serious, I grant, but the results achieved in France with the\ndirect method are more than satisfactory, and go to prove that even the most troublesome\nfeatures of German accidence can be readily mastered in this way, i.e., cases, prepositions,\nadjective and noun declensions, genders, position of words, etc.\nAs to the dearth of properly trained teachers, which is one of the most important\nproblems — it is really amazing to record how little it takes to employ and succeed with the\ndirect method. A conscientious teacher does not need to be a Sprachmeister, but must\nhave so assimilated the work in question that intelligent queries may be asked and suitable\nfull answers be given. Docendo discimus is true everywhere and likewise \"practice makes\nperfect.\" A given text has its specific vocabulary, which can easily be handled by any\nfairly well-prepared teacher. I can safely assert that in our own city not many teachers,\nif any, could be found who could not appeal to the pupils directly in the foreign tongue\nif they, the teachers, were encouraged and directed to proceed thus. The effect upon the\nteaching would be a vitalizing of our instruction and a regeneration, or, at least, a vivification of both teachers and pupils alike.\nHow about our present examinations ? Do they test the pupils' knowledge of language and Sprachgefuhl? I most emphatically say. No; but they bring forth some\nnominal and verbal formations that are truly wonderful, at times impossible, at times\nmeaningless.\nWhat do you think of questions like: Conjugate, in the singular, vorgef alien in the\npresent indicative, anfing in the perfect indicative passive. Write with the definite article\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentI\n\nWRITING\n\nIN GERMAN\n\n529\n\nthe genitive singular and the nominative plural of Sonne. Translate into idiomatic\nEnglish: \"Diese Behandlung der Fabel ist nichts weniger als notwendig,\" where at our\nBorough Conference of German Teachers most of those present broke down. Write the\nsynopsis of hob auf in the second singular passive. Imperative, werde aufgehoben, reminds\nme of werde geboren.\n\nI shall not speak at length now of these examinations, especially the so-called Regents',\nsince I reserve them for another day. All I want to say is : as long as grammatic formalism\nand pedantic erudition reign supreme, so long we cannot expect to teach German and\nFrench properly. Let us free ourselves from this incubus of modern-language instruction\nand let us take the road which leads to happiness and conscious power, i.e., the direct\nmethod of teaching modern languages. Let the work in modern languages be primarily\nwork in aural and oral facility and let it be tested in all examinations, for the ability to\nspeak a foreign language is the best means to the desired end of learning that language.\nThe educational authorities of New York City are beginning to realize the importance of\nthis matter.\nWRITING\nJOHN\n\nA. BOLE,\n\nEASTERN\n\nIN GERMAN\n\nDISTRICT\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe direct method emphasizes oral work in language-teaching, and properly so.\nThis side of the work is sadly neglected where translation and grammatical rules are the\nchief means of teaching a foreign language. But the fact remains that writing maketh\nan exact man, and this quality is as necessary today in the training of pupils as it ever was.\nThe prevailing type of written exercise in American schools is still translation from a\nmore or less prepared English text into German. The nimiber of composition books published isevidence of this. To the same class belong the English exercises based on the\ntext, for translation into German, which pad so many editions of the texts read in our\nschools.\nTwo objections to this type of exercise may be noted. One is that the English text\ntempts to all sorts of mistakes. Take, for example, the sentences: \"He has gone\" and\n\"Yesterday I saw my friend.\" Such sentences contain a temptation to wrong German\nwhich can be resisted only by a very great conscious effort on the part of the pupil. This\nsuggestion destroys whatever Sprachgefiihl may have been acquired.\nA second objection is that attention is not directed to the subject-matter of the\nGerman read. The pupil has his material provided for him. He does not have to rely\non his memory for it, and the habit of ignoring the subject-matter of what he is reading,\nwhich has been acquired by translation from German, is strengthened.\nThe results obtained by translating from English into German are so unsatisfactory\nthat we ought to be ready to agree with Sweet when he says:\nIt is evident that the impossible task of translating into an unknown or only partially\nknown language can be accomplished only under restrictions which make it either an\nevasion or a failure\nWe have also to realize what is meant by making mistakes\nin our exercises and correcting them afterwards. It means the laborious formation of a\nnumber of false associations which must be unlearned before the labor of forming the\ncorrect ones can be begun\nEverything in the nature of exercise-writing ought to\nbe abolished not only in the beginning but thruout the whole course.\nA new type of written work should be adopted that will co-ordinate with the direct oral\nwork and supplement it where oral work does not suffice. It will be based on a German\nmodel and no English will be put before the pupil.\nThe chief aim of one set of direct written exercises will be grammatical drill. There\nare in German a number of grammatical phenomena the constant recurrence of which\nmakes them of prime importance. If the pupil forms the habit of using these correctly, much satisfactory German will follow without great effort. In other words, he has\nacquired some measure of Sprachgefiihl.\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "53°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nOne such phenomenon is inverted order. A sentence such as: \"Ich habe gestern\neinen Brief von meiner Schwester erhalten,\" may be given to the pupil with instructions\nto write it four or five times at the board, in each case beginning with a different member\nof the sentence. Repeated drill on a limited number of such sentences will in a short time\nmake inversion seem a perfectly natural thing. Transposition may be taught in the same\nmanner. Groups of simple sentences are given to the pupil, which he is to combine at\nthe board into complex sentences.\nOmitted-ending exercises will assist in teaching prepositions. A series of passages\nmay be prepared in which the endings of articles and other inflected words have been\nomitted after prepositions. The pupil is instructed to write the passage at the board,\nfilling in the blanks. When the pupil has learned to use prepositions correctly in some\nten or twelve such passages, he will use them with some degree of correctness elsewhere.\nThe proper use of the second personal pronoun is another stumbling-block to beginners. A letter may be given to the pupil with instructions to change it from the formal\nto the intimate style, or to write it to two intimate friends instead of one, and vice versa.\nSimilar exercises may be devised to teach the use of conjunctions, of pronouns of\ndiflferent classes, of the subjunctive in indirect discourse, in wishes and conditions.\nEffective drill on forms and other points of syntax may be obtained in the same manner.\nThe controlling idea in these exercises is that the pupil is working all the time with German\nmaterial and has no English before him to mislead him.\nA second kind of writing which will replace translation from English is reproduction.\nThe earliest exercises will be the exact reproduction by the pupils of what they have just\nread or heard. The teacher speaks short sentences which are repeated by the pupils.\nWhile this is going on, other pupils at the board are writing the sentences they hear spoken\nby teacher and pupils. Four pupils at the board writing alternate sentences are able\nto keep up with the oral work. The written board- work will then be inspected by the\nclass and errors in it corrected.\nA little later the teacher may ask questions on matter that has been read. The\npupils answer and both questions and answers are written at the board by other pupils.\nAnother simple exercise is to write a passage from the text in hand with some modification,\nchange of number, of tense, of person. Or a story that has been read may be written in\ncharacter. One pupil may write in the person of Little Red Riding Hood, another in\nthe person of the wolf. The longer stories usually read in the second year may be divided\ninto portions suitable for reproduction. Almost every page of Immensee presents some\nsituation which easily becomes a unit for reproduction. After the passage has been read\nthe teacher and class should work it thru by question and answer. By this means the\nteacher can fix the vocabulary and phraseology of the passage and he can also suggest the\ndisposition of the pupil's reproduction. After the questions and answers the passage\nshould be reproduced connectedly by one or more pupils orally, then reproduced at the\nboard and corrected.\nTwo points should be observed. That which is to be written should first be worked\nthru orally. This will give more rapid movement to the written work and prevent many\nerrors from appearing in it. Second, that which has been spoken by the pupils should be\nwritten at the board.\nOral work, not checked by written, tends to become inaccurate.\nThe acquisition of new vocabulary and facts of grammar will take place in class\nunder the direction of the teacher where it properly belongs. The homework of the pupils\nwill be the review and fixing of what has been presented in class. A useful definite assignment for homework is the mastery of the new vocabulary. The lesson for the next day\nmay be read by the teacher, the new words and phrases explained, in German preferably,\nin English if necessary. The pupils will be instructed to learn the new words in the\nsentences in which they occur. The next day the teacher or a pupil names the new words\nand the pupils give the sentences in which the words are found.\nThe questions of the teacher will not be asked at random but will have a definite aim.\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWRITING\n\nIN GERMAN\n\n531\n\nAt one time they will be so framed as to call attention to the subjects or the objects. At\nanother time they will put stress upon the verb. They may put in use a vocabulary that\nthe teacher wishes to fix, or they may bring out clearly the thought of the passage.\nIf a classic literary work is read in the third year much of this too can be used as\nmaterial for writing. For instance, Hermann und Dorothea contains many episodes which\nthe pupils renarrate with real pleasure. Some such are: Hermann is sent to help the\nexiles; Hermann meets Dorothea for the first time; Hermann's visit to his rich neighbor;\nHermann visits Dorothea at the well. After' such an episode has been worked thru and\nreproduced, it may be reviewed at any time by suggesting the title to a pupil and asking\nhim to write about it. The subject-matter of the work studied may thus be constantly\nkept fresh in the minds of the class.\nIn the more advanced reading of the high-school course many passages are well\nadapted for reproduction and should be so treated. Here also a third type of writing\nbased on the German original is in place, the resume. A model of a resume of a classic in\nsimple language is given by Bielschowski in his discussion of Hermann und Dorothea in\nhis Life of Goethe. Skillful questioning by the teacher will lead the pupils to make some\napproach to this model in summarizing some work they have read.\nOccasionally in the last year of the high school and more frequently in more advanced\nwork a pupil may be asked to write something from his own experience or observation.\nAfter having read in German some account of travel, he may write a description of some\ntrip of his own. If he has been reading German history he may be asked to describe some\nsimilar incident from American history. If he has discussed the character of Wallenstein\nhe may be told to characterize Macbeth. The important point is that before attempting\nto write he should first have studied similar matter in German.\nEven with the reading-material we now have, encouraging results can be obtained\nby the procedure here outlined. But to get more satisfactory results we must have a\ndifferent kind of reading-matter. This should be for the most part narrative and descriptive prose. For obvious reasons poetry does not lend itself well to reproduction and\ndialog is of little use. About all that can be done with it is to repeat it. The readymade questions which are appearing in so many editions of school texts are rather a disadvantage. Ateacher who cannot frame questions of his own of more interest and\nprofit to the members of his class than those in the book had better not attempt questioning in German.\nSince the connection between what is read and what is written is so intimate the\nsubject-matter read becomes of greater importance. It is so constantly worked over that\nit should be something worth while, something that will be a valuable permanent possession ofthe pupils. Incidents from German history, sketches of German life, biography\nof distinguished Germans might well replace much that is now read.\nThis scheme does not contemplate a mass of written paper work to be corrected by\nthe teacher. The writing should be done at the board while the German original is fresh\nin mind and where mistakes can be corrected and the proper forms substituted and fixed\nbefore the false forms have made a deep impression. In regard to blackboard we have a\ndecided advantage over our German colleagues. They have a small ornamental affair\nin the front of the room large enough for two pupils. Blackboards cost too much, they\nsay, and besides they would destroy the aesthetic quality of the room, making it look too\nmuch like a schoolroom. The American classroom has blackboard space for fifteen pupils.\nAccording to one authority the three American contributions to school economy are the\nwoman teacher, the textbook, and the blackboard. Modern-language teachers should\nmake the utmost use of this third innovation. The boards should be covered with written\nwork every period. The correction of this work will not take so much of the teacher's\ntime as might be thought. While the oral work is progressing under the direction of the\nteacher several pupils may be sent to the board to underline mistakes in the written work.\nVery few will escape them.\nThe teacher can then with the help of the class correct the\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nerrors and fix the proper forms in a short space of time. It is not a serious matter if the\nteacher does not find time to correct all the board-work. The pupils have had practice\nin writing and the whole class will benefit from that which is corrected. Errors, too, tend\nto correct themselves as the one rule of conduct is to observe and follow closely the German text.\nThe mistakes of the pupils whether in speaking or writing should not trouble us too\nmuch. Walter was right, altho criticized, when he said that the important thing is, that\nthe pupil speak, not that he speak correctly. The greatest modern educator, Goethe,\nemphasizes practice as the essential in learning. \"Vollenden ist nicht die Sache des\nSchiilers, es ist genug, dass er sich ubt.\"\nAt the end of a three years' high-school course in German, pupils who have been thus\ntrained in writing should be able to reproduce in tolerable German a simple narrative\nthey have just heard or that they have read a single time, and they should be able to ask\nand answer questions on such a narrative. The advanced work of college could then\nextend the student's command of German in speaking and writing and give him a wider\nacquaintance with German life and literature, and not spend the valuable time of the\nclassroom in translating from and into German.\nThe ability to use German with tolerable correctness in speaking and writing is certainly desirable, but it is not for the reason that it produces this result that the direct\nmethod is primarily advocated. It is at the same time the quickest and most effective\nway to learn to understand German both written and spoken, and so to become directly\nacquainted with German thought and German activities. This is a dignified aim worthy\nof our best efforts. An acquaintance with German affairs is a growing necessity for\nleaders in all fields of activity and the office of the modern-language teacher thus becomes\nof increasing importance. \"Uns Neuphilologen gehort in Schule und Leben die sprachliche Zukunft.\"\nDISCUSSION\nJ. B. E. Jonas, Brown University, Providence, R.I. — If, as the first speaker tells us,\nFrench so decisively preponderates over German in conservative old New England, this\nmeeting is surely an invasion of \"the enemy's country\" by the Germans. All the papers\non the program and thus far all the discussions have been on that side of the house.\nDr. Tuckerman's racy and incisive paper calls for much assent and little dissent.\nOne point failed to leave quite a clear impression on my mind. The speaker at once pleads\nfor greater co-operation between the preparatory schools and colleges, and at the same\ntime demands greater differentiation between them, going so far as to advocate entirely\ndifferent textbooks, teachers of different training and attitude, etc. To the first we all\nagree. The pathetic spectacle of the colleges pulling one way and the secondary schools\nanother, without interest in, and understanding of, each other, is deplorable. Much can\nbe done by establishing personal relations to improve these conditions, as the New England Modern Language Association, composed of members of both, shows. Its example\nshould be followed. Whatever cases of individual grievance the secondary school may\nhave, I am here to state emphatically that colleges do not take the attitude of sitting in\njudgment on an exalted throne and dictating impossible or even unreasonable requirements. We mean to be fair, but we must be exacting; and, believe me, we have much\njust fault to find. But we do not mean to be unreasonable. Our education is rapidly\nbecoming standardized, and standards we must have that should be at least approximately met. The much-berated college-entrance examination must at least be touched\nupon here. I am not a passionate partisan. Statistics show that in colleges admitting\nby both, a far larger percentage of students admitted by examination fail than of those\nadmitted by certificate. But you teachers refuse to grant certificates to many students.\nWe must therefore examine.\nWhat else is there to be done about it ? The ideal — if the\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWRITING\n\nIN GERMAN\n\n533\n\nword ideal can be used in speaking of so difficult a matter — is found in Germany, where\nthe secondary school has the sole and final decision on fitness to enter the university. A\nteacher who has known and worked with a pupil for three or four years obviously knows\nhis ability better than an unacquainted college professor, who bases his knowledge of him\nsolely on four or six pages of written matter. That stands to reason. Furthermore, a\ntwo-hours' examination is rarely — I am strongly inclined to say never — a just test. Some\npersons work to great advantage under pressure of the nervous strain, others fail to do\nthemselves even remote justice. But under present conditions, the examination, with all\nits shortcomings, is inevitable. Let us hope for — work for — a better day, and not blame\nthe college too bitterly.\nThe other question, that of differentiation, is subtle and really lies beyond the province of this meeting. That, taken as a whole, the secondary school and college have\ndifferent ideals and aims is true: one aims at instruction, the other seeks to impart culture; one deals with immature minds, the other with maturing intellects. Yet the generic\ndifference is not so great: a good college teacher would, I think it entirely safe to say, make\nan excellent secondary-school teacher, and a textbook that is found to excel in the secondary school would be found equally superior for college work.\nThe paper of your chairman is so sane and in every way admirable that I feel sure\nthere is no one here but heartily endorses all he has said, and will attempt to carry out his\nsuggestions as far as possible in his own teaching. Many, of course, feel timid about\ntrying the new way. It is easier and safer, they think, to adhere to the old way. Four\nper cent, interest may be less remunerative than eight or twelve or even twenty, but there\nis such serenity in its security! In midstream there is always a strong temptation to keep\nhold of the boat instead of launching out; but once resolutely cut loose, and it is not so\nhard, after all, to swim — and it is so much better fun and exercise! Others have done it;\nyou can, too.\nMr. Bole's stimulating paper, on \"Writing in German,\" or rather negatively stated,\non \"Not Translating from English into German,\" no doubt seems to many revolutionary\nenough to call for a declaration of war. Not to translate from German into English is\nbad enough, but now not from English into German! Pray, what test shall we have,\nthen? But Mr. Bole is entirely right. There should be much more oral work. In\none of my courses I have been doing this sort of work, relating a short narrative and\nhaving it retold the following day, and one written once a week, and it is astounding how\nautomatically the word-order, genders of nouns, and most endings take care of themselves.\nAnd now, finally, the question of grammar — or omission of grammar — that all the\nspeakers have emphasized and which is the real import of the direct method. Language\nwas not mafde for grammar, but grammar from language. To some of us the experiences\nof the speakers, using no grammars for a whole year or more, and some even dispensing\nwith a textbook of any kind for a long period, seem hard to believe and harder to follow.\nStill it is true that few of us know much about English grammar. The same is true of the\nGermans, French, and other nationalities with reference to the formal grammar of their\nlanguages. And we all know that if we go to Germany or France we do not learn the\nlanguage of these countries by grammar, but by actual contact with the living speech, and\nthat the language once ours, it is no great task to learn the essentials of the grammar — if\nwe have any desire still to do so. This same attitude with necessary modifications and\nadaptations is the aim of the direct method. How far each individual can go toward\nrealizing this ideal must be left to conditions and judgment, but it is pretty safe to err on\nthe side of tending away from formal grammar. Much has been accomplished in the\nteaching of modern languages by this method, both in Europe and here. More still\nremains to be done.\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nHIGHER\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — George E. Fellows, president, University of Maine\nVice-President — Charles E. Bessey, University of Nebraska\nSecretary — Frank E. Thompson, University of Colorado\n\nOrono, Me.\n.Lincoln, Nebr.\nBoulder, Colo.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 5, 1910\nThe meeting was called to order in the Second Church, Copley Square, Boston, at\n9 : 30 A.M. The President's address was delivered by President George E. Fellows, president of the University of Maine.\nThe first paper was by James H. Baker, president of the University of Colorado,\nwhose subject was \"Administrative Problems Outside of Teaching.\" The subject was\nfurther discussed by James K. Patterson, formerly president of the State University of\nKentucky.\nThe second paper was by Frederick P. Keppel, dean of Columbia College, whose\nsubject was \"College and University Administration: the Office Side of the Question.\"\nAdministrative problems suggested by the papers presented were discussed informally\nby President C. A. Duniway, University of Montana; President James K. Tillman,\nUniversity of Arkansas; Chancellor Samuel Avery, University of Nebraska; Miss E. A.\nCol ton, Meredith College, North Carolina; Dean James A. Smith, John B. Stetson\nUniversity; President Walter B. Clippinger, Otterbein University; President A. R.\nTaylor, James Milliken University; and others.\nA Nominating Committee was appointed, consisting of President C. A. Duniway,\nUniversity of Montana; Chancellor Samuel Avery, University of Nebraska; and ex-President James K. Patterson, State University of Kentucky.\nSECOND SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 7, 1910\nThe first paper of the session was presented by W. H. P. Faunce, president of Brown\nUniversity, on \"Relations of Faculties and Fraternities.\" The discussion was opened\nby Ralph K. Jones, librarian of the University of Maine, and taken part in by Chancellor\nSamuel Avery, University of Nebraska; President A, R. Taylor, James Milliken University; Dean James A. Smith, John B. Stetson University; President Arthur Grant\nEvans, University of Oklahoma; Professor Wayland J. Chase, Beloit College; and others.\nA paper on \"College Discipline,\" by Thomas Arkle Clark, dean of men, University\nof Illinois, was presented, followed by a general discussion, including remarks by William\nDeWitt Hyde, president of Bowdoin College.\nThe Nominating Committee presented its report, which was adopted and the following officers declared elected:\nFor President — James H. Baker, president of University of Colorado, Boiilder, Colo.\nIdaho.For Vice-President — James A. MacLean, president of University of Idaho, Moscow,\nN.Y. For Secretary — Frederick P. Keppel, dean of Columbia College, New York City,\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nRalph K. Jones, Acting Secretary\n535\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nGEORGE\n\nEMORY\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nFELLOWS,\n\nPRESIDENT\nORONO,\n\nOF\nTHE\nMAINE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\n[Higher\n\nMAINE\n\nI feel that this department has resting upon it a grave responsibility,\ninasmuch as the work of higher education has expanded most wonderfully\nin the past few years.\nIn nineteen of the United States there is a state university with an\nagricultural college as one of its departments. There are nineteen states\nand territories in which there is a state university and an agricultural\ncollege in addition, and there are several states and territories which have\nan agricultural college and no state university.\nThe numbers in attendance at these institutions are striking. In the\nstate institutions they vary from a few hundreds to five thousand or more.\nSeveral of the largest privately endowed institutions also have five thousand or more students. The great numbers in attendance at these colleges\nand universities not only increase the problems of the institutions themselves but increase the problems of this department, which should certainly\nconsider with great care the relations of the higher institutions of learning\nto the great public-school system, as well as the relations of these higher\ninstitutions to each other.\nThere are other problems which might well be discussed in this department. During the past few months there have been serious student\ndisorders, in one of the large middle western universities, in one of the large\neastern universities, and in one of the smaller New England colleges. There\nhave been student strikes, because of the enforcement of discipKne, in one\neastern institution, and even in several high schools. There have been even\na few deaths resulting from initiations into societies, and there are frequently absurd and idiotic performances in connection with such initiations. There are many so-called colleges and universities, professional\nand academic, which are run chiefly for financial profit.\nIt is highly fitting that this department, composed as it is of the members of the faculties and administrative ofiicers of institutions for higher\neducation, both private and public, should discuss and outline definite\npronouncements on many of these topics. Here also should the principal\nrelations of liberal and practical education be considered.\nThis department might perhaps sit as a court to reach judicial decision\nupon all these questions, after hearing the advocates of each.\nComing to the front with its insistent demands, is the whole question\nof industrial education. The relation of this to higher education needs\ncareful consideration, also how far privately endowed institutions should\nfollow the lines of work mapped out by law for state institutions, especially\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nADMINISTRATIVE\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n537\n\nin agricultural and other technical lines. We might also very properly\nconsider the whole field of extension work in higher education which is\nalready carried out so fully by the University of Wisconsin, the University\nof Chicago, Columbia University, and Boston University.\nPrivate institutions have problems of their own which are often considered intheir associations. The stat£ universities have problems peculiar\nto themselves which are carefully studied in annual meetings of the National\nAssociation of State Universities. This department of the National Education Association has still left to it a very broad field for usefulness in\ntouching upon those problems which are of general interest to all colleges\nand universities.\nI sincerely hope that the members of this department, not only in these\nsessions but in future sessions, will so eagerly grasp the opportunities which\nare presented to discuss and reach conclusions upon the topics mentioned\nand many others, that such conclusions shall have the weight and influence\nwhich the pronouncements of the National Education Association always\nhave on public-school questions.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nADMINISTRATIVE\nPROBLEMS\nTEACHING\n\nJAMES\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nH. BAKER,\n\nOF THE UNIVERSITY\nCOLO.\n\nOUTSIDE\n\nOF COLORADO,\n\nOF\n\nBOULDER,\n\nAdministrative problems in a university might be dismissed in saying:\nThe conditions are the problem and the fit man is the solution. Or they\nmight be resolved by simply stating them: The problems of administration\nare to select a good faculty, to organize the faculty, to encourage efficient\nwork, to create an atmosphere of scholarship, optimism, courage, and\nidealism — in short, to effect a strong internal organization and estabhsh\nexcellent standards. With these an institution will gradually advertise\nitself.\nBut we must touch briefly upon the various functions of a president\nof an American university and the increasing complexity of administrative\nduties. It is sometimes humorously suggested that there should be five\npresidents: an executive president, a literary president, a political and\nfinancial president, a religious president, and a social president. Surely\na position making such demands is one to w^hich many may feel called, but\nfew wisely chosen.\nThe aphorism of a practical civilization, \"We must first live in order\nto live well,\" is emphatically true of educational institutions today. The\nability to raise money, whether from wealthy men or thru state legislatures\nis a sine qua non for the American university president.\nIt is to be hoped\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nthat in the near future standard institutions will be placed upon an adequate and permanent foundation in order that the executive energy maybe used in creating an atmosphere favorable to scholarship and research\nand conducive to the making of good citizens, and in service to the public.\nThe universities are too much controlled by the spirit of the time, are\ncompelled to measure everything too much by quantity rather than quaUty.\nUnder such conditions, the executive head must more or less neglect essential functions of his position. But funds must be secured, and usually\nthe president is the director of the forces used to get them. He will find\nmany able and willing helpers, if his administration commands confidence,\nand he has a way of impressing the importance of his mission and the\nvalue of the service which he invites from others. State universities in\ntheir demands on the legislature must plead their cause on its merits and\navoid all doubtful methods of influence and all political entanglements.\nNext, the economical and wise use of funds, keeping within the limits of\nthe revenues, maintaining a proper balance in the cost of teaching, cost of\nbuildings and equipment, and in the incidental running expenses — all\nthese things the president is held responsible for by the popular estimate,\nwhether he be merely the adviser or the principal financial agent of the\nboard of control. The confidence of the board in his business acumen,\nin his acquaintance with the various claims on the treasury and his just\nattitude regarding them, counts much toward his possible usefulness as\nadviser. The financial integrity and wisdom of an institution are the\nfirst practical essentials. A wise executive will insist that the board be\nintimately acquainted with all important problems and the reasons for\nthe various demands involving expenditure. But the executive is held\nresponsible for erratic judgments, even when conditions are beyond his\neffective influence.\nThe prime essential in advertising an institution is real service, first\nin its work of teaching and research and in its moral power, second in the\ninterest of every department in extending its influence and helpfulness\namong the people. If an agricultural college is a part of the university,\nits service, aside from its instruction and experiments, is evident and is\nreadily appreciated. A school of engineering in addition to its scientific\ntraining can aid the economic and industrial interests of a state. Medical\nschools in the future must not only educate physicians but must study the\nprevention of disease and the general conditions of health. The college\nof arts can offer lectures and extension courses and take a part in many\npublic interests which are not strictly political and partisan. But an\ninstitution should go slowly in imitating the policy of carrying the university to all the people. The experiment is at an uncertain stage, and it\nrepresents a job in paternahsm of startHng proportions. Of course the\ntime will come in America when scientific knowledge, humanistic training,\nresearch and discovery will be recognized as the highest and almost exclu-\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nADMINISTRATIVE\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n539\n\nsive mission of the university. In proper ways the public which the\nuniversity serves must be informed of the activities and merits of the institution, and in return therefor financial support may be justly demanded.\nThe relation of the state universities to the high schools is especially\nimportant, and again helpfulness^is the best means of gaining sympathetic\nmoral support — and this spirit of helpfulness should be mutual. Annual\nconferences may bring about co-operation and a solution of common\nproblems. An administrative problem is to organize and encourage the\nproper agencies to reach these various ends.\nTo secure the practical support of the alumni is always a problem in a\nyoung university. Among the formal agencies which have proved useful\nare: permanent class organization on graduation, local alumni clubs,\ngeneral alumni organization with paid secretary, a graduate magazine,\npublishing an alumni register, keeping in touch with graduates thru university literature and by sending representatives to local alumni meetings.\nIn the early growth of a university persistent and hopeful work must be\ndone for years to create a strong alumni sentiment.\nThe relation of a president to the board of control is a chief problem.\nUsually the members are eager to be just and prudent in all their legislation. Occasionally an eccentric individual makes a demand on the patience\nof the other members. But a good board brings a wisdom to its work\nwhich deserves respect, and on practical questions frequently has a point\nof view of vital worth to the institution's welfare. The confidence of the\nboard and harmonious relation with it must be gained. All large questions\nmust be fairly and fully presented and the final decision must be executed\nin good faith. Sometimes the president must urge the distinction between\nlegislative and executive functions, between fundamental rules and improper interference with affairs which by a wise tradition are usually left\nto the control of the faculty. An executive who fails here lacks the foundation for successful administration.\nThe faculty problems are more numerous and complicated. The\nselection of instructors should be on the nomination of the president, but,\nif he is wise, he will seek the advice of the department concerned or allied\ndepartments. Mere scholarship is not the sole criterion; character,\nideals, ability in teaching and in writing and speaking, and especially\npower of growth must be weighed. In a large university the general\nfaculty may be organized into a council of deans, a senate made up of all\nthe professors and having power to deal with problems common to all the\nfaculties, and finally the faculties of the various schools. Of all these\ngroups the executive should nominally be the presiding ofiicer and should\npreside at the meetings of the council, the senate and the arts faculty and\nshould appoint all committees of these groups. The general powers and\nduties of these organizations should be defined by the university statutes.\nThe duties of the faculties should not be merely mechanical and adminis-\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ntrative, but should include the discussion of problems and methods; the\nspirit should be one of progressive adaptation to new demands and insights.\nFaculties often maintain an aloofness and unwillingness to regard just\npopular claims and to keep in touch with new tendencies. Frequently\nmatters affecting the policy of the institution should be referred to the\nboard of control, but decisions within the province of a faculty should be\nexecuted in good faith. The president must have needful power to carry\nout the policies of the institution and to safeguard it at every quarter, but\nhis service will be fruitful as he is a leader and not an autocrat, and as he\nconfides in and uses the judgment and power of committees and represents all the advisory and constructive forces of the institution. People\nare demanding a still larger administrative responsibility for the general\nwelfare of students, and a more efiicient form of organization. The duties\nof an executive are already excessive, and faculties are overburdened with\nadministrative problems, to a loss of teaching-power. The energy of the\npresident should be devoted more to large questions, to organization, to\ncreating the right spirit in all the departments and affairs of the institution. One writer suggests an administrative department to consist of the\nfollowing bureaus:\n1. Statistics and forms.\n2. Waste, i.e., student failures of every kind.\n3. College activities.\n4. College home life.\n5. Health and physical exercise.\n6. Bureau for alumni (employment and for studying results of college training).\n7. College plant (oversight of teaching staff).\n8. Publicity.\n\nThis subject needs study and cautious experiment. The plan is expensive. But much of public criticism is just and there is a waste of student\npossibilities which should be prevented. Conditions which leave the\nfreshman to survive as he may, and, if haply he escapes many perils and\nfinally graduates, without further thought allow him to depart a possibly\nundesirable citizen, are a crime against civilization, and call for administrative remedies.\nThe question of discipline may be troublesome but not usually where\njustice and discretion prevail. Youth has a keen sense of justice and is\nresponsive to common-sense appeals. A co-operative spirit in many\naffairs of the university should be constantly invited. When misunderstandings arise a frank statement to the student body, or a conference\nwith representatives of classes, organizations, or groups will usually result\nin accord. The certainty of punishment for unbecoming conduct is more\npotent than severity. A class or school may be asked to correct mistaken\nattitudes of its members or make proper restitution for damage to property.\nI have never known a class to fail in a responsibihty of this kind, if the\nmatter was properly handled.\nShould extreme discipline be necessary,\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nADMINISTRATIVE\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n541\n\nit should be used without fear. Matters of formal discipline should rest\nwith a small group like the council of deans. But the sentiment of the\nstudent body is more important than problems of discipline; cultivation\nof right sentiment and ideals will remove the causes of offending. It is a\nvital part of administration to use all forces to develop a high type of manhood. In student assembly and on various public occasions, the best\nideals may be presented, but this is not enough. The faculty must be\ninspired with the spirit of idealism. Alumni, fraternities, student organizations, class officers, all may be enlisted in creating a healthy student\nsentiment. There should be no doubtful note regarding honor in athletics\nor in business affairs, clean life, and the quality of a gentleman. Regarding\nathletic evils some large institutions have been little short of cowardly.\nMore and more the force of public opinion in college life will be used, and\nstudent self-control be substituted for faculty discipline. An organization called the Associated Students is found in some universities. In the\nUniversity of Colorado such an organization has existed for a year and\nwith encouraging results. Its constitution provides for a commission and\nfor the initiative, referendum, and recall. It controls many student\naffairs including athletics, public debates, etc. It regulates many student\ncustoms, and co-operates in university interests. It is subject to the rules\nof the university Senate and the faculty, is represented on the commission\nand on important committees. Such an organization has in it great possibilities for good, and, if wisely guided, may create something like a revolution in student life.\nThe president of a university has a difficult position, and many believe\nthat the organization of the American university is not ideal, or what will\nobtain in the future. Be that as it may, the present organization is a part\nof the history of the country, of present conditions, and of the spirit of the\ntime, and changes in form of administration will come, if at all, when the\ncountry and its institutions have passed thru the stage of rapid development and have reached a more settled condition. A writer on the subject\nholds that the best to be said of American university presidents is that\nupon the whole they have not done much harm. In the period of rapid\ngrowth and adjustment, the present form of organization is necessary.\nThe executive will find his lot a tolerable one as he has a natural adaptation\nto his function. If he cannot be a specialist, he may be well read in many\nlines and keep in touch with the spirit of the time, educational and sociological, and study the necessary adaptation of higher and special education\nto the real demands of our civilization today. He should present his view\non vital themes from time to time from the university platform and elsewhere. He should be an active factor in solving large educational problems for the country, should assume a leadership in reorganizing the American college, and in developing along right lines all departments of university training. He must be a man of thoroness and sincerity, a man who\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "542\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ndoes more than he promises, a man of character, courage, optimism, and\nidealism. He should be a leader, not an autocrat. His first study should\nbe the conditions, scope, and possibilities of the institution to which he is\ncalled. With all the wisdom that can be gained from all sources, a farreaching policy should be inaugurated and this policy should be pursued\nwith consistency and firmness. Nothing must be done for mere superficial popularity — this is always harmful, dangerous, and transitory. To\nseek the respect that is due to strength, justice, and wisdom, and devotion\nto the vital interests of the institution is the only worthy aim.\nDISCUSSION\nJames K. Patterson, ex-President, State University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.\n— For a president to be successful under present conditions he must be of eminent ability,\nshould have received a collegiate or university training, and if possible should be a man\nof administrative experience. In the election of a new president, altho there are many\nadvantages in choosing a man of marked abihty already connected with the institution,\nit is often preferable to select a man from the outside. A faculty must be homogeneous\nin character and maintain sympathetic relations with the president. The position should\nbe parallel to that of the President of the United States surrounded by the members of\nhis cabinet, and he should have a free hand in questions of appointment and dismissal.\nA general policy should be outlined by the board of trustees, and the president is responsible for carrying it out. He should be present at all deliberations of the trustees. A\nsuccessful president must be just, sympathetic, and filled with the purpose of sending\nout graduates who fear God and hate covetousness.\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY ADMINISTRATION:\nSIDE OF THE QUESTION\n\nFREDERICK\n\nP. KEPPEL,\n\nDEAN\n\nOF COLUMBIA\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nNEW\n\nTHE\n\nOFFICE\n\nYORK\n\nCITY, N.Y.\n\nThe administrative officer of an American college or university has to\nsteer his course, like the mariner of old, between two rocks, on one or other\nof which his academic bark may come to grief. The first is the prevalent\nconfusion to which President Pritchett has called attention so cogently\nthat I need say no more about it— the confusion as to the distinction\nbetween government and administration. This bears primarily upon the\nofiicer's relations with his administrative superiors and in particular with\nthe trustees or other finally responsible body. The second is the confusion as to the distinction between constructive administration and routine administration. Here the difiiculties will lie primarily in his relations\nwith the members of the teaching-staff.\nNo general theory of academic administration can be evolved in detail\na priori for any single institution or indeed for any t3^e of institution.\nThe men like Mr. Clarence Birdseye, who are calling attention to the need\nof improved administrative methods in colleges, are doing an important\nwork and we owe a great deal to them, but, perhaps inevitably, they are\nseeking to swing the pendulum too far. It is not Hkely that the adminis-\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n543\n\ntrative officers of colleges and universities thruout the country are all of\nthem wrong, and they are, I think, unanimous in their belief that the analogy\nbetween the problems of the factory and those of the college is not nearly\nso close as these men think. In Mr. Cleveland's phrase, it is a condition\nand not a theory that faces each institution and a condition in each case\nsui generis. The local conditions and, the historical background must in\nevery case be considered. It is interesting to see that in no two of the\ngreat American universities do we find the same lines of cleavage as to\nadministrative work. This does not mean, however, that we have nothing\nto learn from one another or from the world outside. In addition to Mr.\nBirdseye's two books perhaps the most useful material thus far published\nfrom this \"outside\" point of view is Mr. William M. Williams' article on\n\"University Organization and Accounting\" in the American College for\nMay. From the \"inside\" there is the report of the Oberhn College Committee upon \"Tests of College Efficiency\" printed in the last volume of\nthe Annual Reports of Oberlin College and also in the American College for\nApril and May. This report contains a mass of valuable material and\ndeserves the close attention of all who are interested in college administration.\nIn view of the fullness of these recent publications it would be foolish\nfor me to attempt here a detailed analysis of the problems involved and\nthe following observations, based upon ten years' experience in the details of\nuniversity administration, will have served their purpose if they provoke\nsome expression, probably not wholly in agreement, from others who are\nengaged in the same work.\nAs our institutions have developed, the position of the presiding officer\nhas attained an importance that it wholly lacks in England or on the continent of Europe. There are those who feel that we have gone too far in\nthis direction, but when one considers the extraordinary development of\nour American colleges and universities within the past half-century the\nburden of proof may fairly be placed upon these critics\nAt all events the crucial point in the whole question with which we\nare dealing today is the position of the presiding officer, and in this connection there are a few things which it is well for the teacher who by training\nand temperament is not \"institutionally minded\" to remember. The\nfirst is, that after all the president is a human being and practically sure,\nin this imperfect world, to make a fair share of mistakes. The thing to\nconsider is his general average of performance rather than his specific\nshortcomings. As our institutions have developed, he has been given or has\nbeen permitted to take, which amounts to the same thing, far too many\nkinds of duties upon his own shoulders. For example, it is scandalous\nthat in the twentieth century the president of a great institution should\nbe permitted, far less expected, to go out with his hat in his hand. The\nalmost inevitable forgetfulness to consult his colleagues from time to time\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\non matters which affect them, which ordinarily is due almost wholly to\nthis overloading, is imputed unto him for deliberate arrogance. The poor\nman. is in a position where he gets no credit when he does consult, and is\nbranded as almost criminal when he forgets to do so. As a matter of fact\nthe president can nearly always be guided, but from the very nature of\nhis position he cannot be bulldozed. The university organization is not\nand never should be, a military hierarchy. The president's position,\nhowever, as both the single channel for communication with the trustees\n(with the best intentions in the world direct communication between individual professors and individual trustees is a source of endless mischief)\nand the agent after all responsible for the appropriate subdivision of the\ninstitution's resources, requires authority commensurate with its responsibilities. The need of a central apportioner is not imaginary. No professor isworth his salt who does not firmly believe that his subject or his\ndepartment is of greater relative importance than it really is. Indeed the\nnatural temptation to develop their own departments on the part of men\nwho refuse to see that after a certain point this development is at the\nexpense of the whole institution is not the least important reason for our\ndiscreditably low level of academic salaries today.\nAfter all the whole question is one of team play. If a professor becomes\nthoroly out of sympathy with the administration of his institution, he\nshould first try to get his scheme of things adopted, and should try in a\nspirit of co-operation, not of petulance. If he cannot do this, it is, tho it\nmay be hard to realize, best for him to get out. A good man will have no\ndifficulty in finding another place, because there are not enough good men\nto go around. If he is in the wrong, which being interpreted usually\nmeans if he has seen things out of proportion, he has done absolutely the\nwisest thing. If, on the other hand, he is in the right and the administration isin the wrong, and if two or three other good men with the courage .\nof their convictions also leave, the administration is going to change. A\nman would often do more good for the college he loves by leaving it than\nby remaining to kick against the pricks.\nUniversity officers are notorious gossips, and I have talked over these\nmatters with men from all over the country and, so far as I can gather, the\ndifficulties between professors and presidents — barring occasional pathological cases of la folie des grandeurs on one side or another — if the fault\nis with the president, lie in his forgetfulness of one of three facts. In the\nfirst place, he cannot be expert in everything. Secondly, his first duty is\nto the institution of which he is president, and while he should take a fair\nshare in public affairs he should not, under the guise of representing his\ninstitution in public, neglect his real responsibilities to it. The world\ntoday is full of little people who spend their time arranging meetings and\nother enterprises which are to be brought to a successful issue only thru\nthe good natured help of those whose names have a certain value with the\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n545\n\npublic. Thirdly, even if his energies are not scattered by outside activities\nhe cannot do the whole thing himself, and in particular he must not let\nhimself be tied up in routine details. Otherwise he cannot bring a fresh\nmind to bear upon each new problem as it arises. In order to keep his\nown decks clear, he should adopt the principal of functional administration now practically universal in business corporations. In other words,\nhe should gather about him, in addition to the deans of the several faculties, a group of executive officers — as many as the resources of the institution will justify, and preferably young college graduates — to whom he\nshould give a free hand in carrying out under his general oversight the\nroutine administration of the institution. In certain cases one such officer\nmay well look after two or even three administrative units ; or a man who\nis doing some teaching or even a man primarily a teacher, may be made\nresponsible for one of them. We must, however, never lose sight of the\nfundamental fact that this administrative work falls into several easily\ndefined groups, which should not be confused even tho the same man may\nperform more than one. The more important of these may be roughly\nstated as follows (it should be noted that the control of the finances, the\ninvestment of funds and the collection of fees and other income should be\nin the hands of a treasurer co-ordinate in power with the president) :\nThe care and development of the buildings and grounds — and here a competent\ncolleague furnishes perhaps the greatest relief to the president.\nThe keeping of student and other academic records.\nThe unification of purchases.\nThe administration of public academic meetings.\nGeneral correspondence.\nEditorial and publishing work.\n\nPersonally I have no doubt all of these tasks can be best performed\nby men outside the teaching-staff. I am not forgetting that the college\nshould be a democracy and I fully realize that upon all matters of constructive administration, the teacher should have his say, either directly\nor upon some representative basis. With routine administration, however,\nand by far the greater share of the day's work is routine administration,\nthe teacher should, frankly, have just as little as possible to do. He has,\nso to speak, been bred to another t5T)e and, disregarding the exceptions\nto which attention .could be called in any general statement, his work of\nroutine administration, whether done singly or in committee, is badly and\nexpensively done: badly, because it is not the work in which the man is\nprimarily interested, nor that for which generally speaking he is temperamentally suited — one fault, for example, is that of unnecessary and frequently harassing delay in getting things done; expensively, because we\nmust measure its cost not in terms of dollars and cents but in terms of the\ncontributions to scholarship, in teaching and research, which might be\nmade with the time and energy devoted to administrative routine.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\napparent but fallacious saving in dollars and cents is the reason why administration byfaculty committee persists so generally today. The intrusion\ninto faculty meetings of two-penny details dependent upon the application\nof principles already determined upon after long consideration by all hands,\nwhere they waste the time not of one professor of or a small committee,\nbut of the whole group, is utterly indefensible.\nOf course we have no idea that the burden of \"chores\" can ever be\nremoved from the professor. He will always have them and tho he may\nscold, he really enjoys them. His \"chores,\" however, should bear the\nfruit of his peculiar preparation and experience. They should either have\nto do with effective teaching, the pursuit and direction of research, the\nediting of periodicals; or they should, thru personal relations to students,\ntend to make the institution, in fact as well as in theory, one great academic family.\nThere is a second class of administrative matters where the best results\ncan only be obtained by co-operation between the administrative and the\nteaching officer. Here the work involves both constructive and routine\nadministration:\n1. The enforcement of academic regulations of all kinds, including admission of\nstudents and the administration of the requirements for advancement.\n2. The personal oversight of students in non-academic matters.\n3. The appointment of new officers of instruction and the promotion of those already\non the stafif.\n\nIt is in work of this character that the deans find their greatest field\nof usefulness.\nThe question whether the deans should be from the form of their\nappointment the representatives of faculties or of the central administration may in these days of pragmatism be dodged. The red tape of it\ndoes not matter so long as the dean is in sympathetic relations with both\nteachers and central administration. My personal belief is that the best\nresults are obtained when they are not elected by the faculties but appointed\nupon the nomination of the president in the same manner as other administrative ofiicers. It is not impossible, of course, that a mistake may be\nmade in an executive appointment, but it is likely to be of a kind that will\nrectify itself more promptly than will the kind of good-natured mistake\nthat a faculty is likely to make in its selection.\nThe successful carrying-out of the principle of functional administration depends absolutely upon sympathetic consideration and tact on the\npart of the administrative officer. The places where hitches are likely to\noccur are, first, in those features of executive work which indirectly become\nconstructive; such things as the editing of announcements, the conduct\nof correspondence, etc. Here, as I have said before, the situation calls\nnot for formal regulations but for horse-sense and tact on both sides. The\nsecond danger comes from the tendency to overload the instructor with\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n547\n\nuncongenial work — reports, marks, and the like. From the administrative point of view we now realize the importance of really knowing instead\nof guessing. The cost account of the factory is teaching its lesson to the\ncollege and university. But while the central principle is of the greatest\nimportance we must not forget that its operation requires in academic\nmatters great consideration and sympathy. We must remember that the\ninstructor has not the fun of seeing the result as a whole. His side of it is\nall uninspiring drudgery. The question, therefore, is how to get the\ninformation which he alone can furnish and which we know it is vital for\nthe institution as a whole that he should furnish, with the least wear and\ntear upon him. In the first place, he must be asked only for those details\nthat are really important. There is nothing easier in the world than for\nan ingeniously minded youth in an executive position to spin out schemes\nfor reports and statistics that involve unnecessary and intolerable burdens\nupon his academic elders and betters. No brains in the institution are\ntoo high in quality to outline, if necessary in laborious detail, just what\nresults are needed, and how they may be obtained with the greatest economy\nof the instructor's time and attention. The instructor should never, for\nexample, be asked to do the same thing or give the same mark twice. If\nmore than one executive officer needs it, it should be recorded in the Registrar's office and drawn off from there. The professor should have adequate\nclerical assistance. We are beginning to realize that a departmental stenographer may be a better investment than an additional instructor. The\nmodern business devices for duplicating can, with a little ingenuity, be\napplied to academic conditions, and will result in a great saving in routine\ndetail. By a sensible organization of departments the main burden of\nroutine duties can be taken turn about, with no serious loss of efficiency,\nand a great saving of irritation. Finally, the teaching-officer should\nalways have some natural outlet for complaint when the administrative\nburden becomes too heavy.\nFor broader constructive problems, which for the future are likely to\nlie in the development of the rapidly disappearing frontiers that once lay\nso clearly marked between the several departments of knowledge, and in\nnew groupings of subjects to meet the new demands that are constantly\narising, for these problems the representative university council (or, in a\nsmaller institution, the faculty), in which general subjects may be thrashed\nout, is a great safeguard. We administrative people chafe under the\nformalities and delays which it involves, but in our moments of sanity we\nknow that it means building on a broader and surer foundation.\nDISCUSSION\nC. A. DuNiwAY, president, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont. — I have been\nimpressed with the difficulty of a correct discrimination between problems of legislation\nand administration, but faculties should legislate, not administer. Presidents and deans\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Higher\n\nshould administer, not legislate. Rather than be an autocrat, a president should endure\nthe evils of occasional unpleasant situations.\nJas. K. Tillman, president, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark. — I do not\nbeHeve in the plan of a faculty's electing its own president. I desire information as to\nthe experience of others concerning student councils. RepHes to this question indicated\nthat success was chiefly dependent upon the personality of the student representatives.\n\nTHE RELA TION OF THE COLLEGE\nW.\n\nH.\n\nP.\n\nTAUNCE,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nFACULTY\n\nBROWN\n\nTO FRA TERNITIES\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nPROVIDENCE,\n\nR.I.\n\nThe growth of college fraternities in America is part of a social tendency characteristic of all American life. There are now some six hundred\nof the so-called \"fraternal orders\" in this country, and there are some\nthirty-five different national college fraternities (not counting the sororities) embracing nearly two hundred thousand of the finest men in the United\nStates. The growth of these college organizations in the last thirty years\nhas been silent, but swift and noteworthy. It has been a growth in numbers, in property, in influence on undergraduate life, and in slowly recognized responsibility. At the University of Michigan about $500,000 is\nnow invested in chapter-houses. At Columbia, where real estate is so\nmuch more valuable, I am told that nearly $1,000,000 is represented in\nfraternity property. Under such circumstances fraternities can no longer\nclaim to be merely private organizations to be severely let alone. They\nare bearers of a responsibility which cannot be escaped. They compete\nwith college dormitories for students. They vitally affect standards of\nscholarship, they shape athletic methods, they create ideals of honor, of\nduty, of manhood, they hold the reputation and the character of the\ncollege in their keeping — and for all these great powers they must be held\nto strict account. What now shall be the attitude of the college faculty\ntoward these new powers in the college world? There are four possible\nattitudes.\nI. Prohibition and suppression. This was the attitude of Dr. McCosh\nat Princeton, where the national fraternities have never gained a foothold.\nIt was for ten years the attitude of the University of Illinois. It was the\nattitude of the faculty of the University of Chicago for a short time after\nthat institution was founded. But in every case with which I am familiar\nthat attitude has proved a mistake. A«t Princeton the fraternities were\nindeed ejected, but many Princeton men will say that the eating-clubs\nare simply local fraternities with the same inevitable problems. At Illinois\nand Chicago the opposition of the faculty has long since been withdrawn.\nSome sort of social grouping our students must have. We cannot expect\none thousand or five thousand students to form a merely homogeneous\nmass in which all personal preferences are forgotten. In the mediaeval\nuniversities of the Continent the grouping was sometimes by \"nations.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nFACULTY\n\nAND\n\nFRATERNITIES\n\n549\n\nIf the grouping in our American universities were according to race, or\nwealth, or place of residence, it would be far more objectionable than now.\nMoreoVipr, the attempt at repression of course creates resistance, and\nthe fraternities acquire factitious importance thru our endeavors to abolish\nthem. Probably the opposition to high-school fraternities has been so\npronounced as to be overdone. Many evils will die if duly neglected.\nProhibition of fraternities by sheer authority is likely to defeat its own\nobject.\n2. A second possible attitude of the faculty is the attempt to close the\neyes and ignore the existence of fraternities. This is the traditional\nattitude of our eastern institutions. It has been held by most of our\nfaculties that the college may well refrain from any action touching fraternities, since such organizations are purely student affairs. Of course the\nsame argument would hold against any supervision of athletic, or dramatic,\nor musical organizations, where our faculties have found frequent interference wholesome and necessary. But for some reason we have felt that\nfraternities occupy a different ground and that we may well shut our eyes\nto their existence.\nThis attitude is no longer reasonable. The great growth of which I\nhave spoken makes intentional ignorance ajmost inconceivable. Unless\nwe are prepared to affirm that we are not concerned with what our students\nmay do in athletics we cannot affirm that we have no duty toward fraternity life. If \"the side-shows have swallowed up the circus,\" then we\ncannot ignore our duty to the side-shows. We must deal in some way with\nthe problems presented — deal frankly, firmly, and persistently.\n3. A third attitude occasionally adopted is that of minute and drastic\nlegislation, amounting to faculty direction of fraternity action. This is\nalways unwise and sure to create new difficulty. Anything Uke espionage,\nlike the old-time paternal attitude, anything like fussiness and inquisition,\nis a species of reaction from the academic freedom which is our heritage.\nCollege men are to be treated as men — if they are still small boys, whose\nlights must be put out at a certain hour and whose footsteps must be\nwatched, they should be sent back to the strict personal supervision of the\nfitting school.\n4. The true attitude of the faculty is that of attempt at sympathetic\nunderstanding, constant consultation, and endeavor to enlist fraternity\nsupport in the best movements in. college life. This is not the easiest\nmethod of deahng with the situation, but is the only one that can give\nenduring results. To annoimce rules and punish their infringement is\nalways easier than to bring men into cordial sympathy. But the modern\ncollege student has both limitless power of resistance to official pronouncement, and limitless power of response to appeal for loyalty and co-operation. The entire movement of college life today is toward some form of\nstudent self-government.\nThe movement is often most effective when\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "550\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nquite informal. There need be no \"senate\" or \"council\" or \"senior\nsociety\" or \"honor system,\" but there may be and should be a steady\nappeal from faculty to students for aid in maintaining desirable traditions,\nworthy ideals, and crushing out all that is base and mean. The student\nresponse to such appeal is sometimes surprising. Students are usually far\nmore severe than faculties in meting out punishment for real offenses.\nThey are far more effective than any police force in maintaining order,\nmore effective than any preacher in upholding ideals. When made serious\nby acceptance of responsibility for his fellows, the American student\nbecomes the ally of all that is most desirable in college life and the mainstay of the administration. In many colleges today the fraternities offer\nthe machinery thru which the student body is effectively directed and controlled. \"I have found,\" says President Guy P. Benton of Miami University, \"the college fraternity a most potent factor in maintaining standards, both of scholarship and morality.\" Provost Harrison declares:\n\"The fraternities constitute one of the very best aids in the control of our\nlarge student body.\" \"On the whole,\" says Dean Clark of the University of Illinois, \"I consider the moral tone of the fraternities somewhat\nabove the average of the general student body.\" Where the moral tone of\nthe fraternities is lower than that of the non-fraternity students — as it\nobviously is in some places — the cause may lie in the fact that the college\nhas given no thought to the direction of the vast social and moral power\nwhich the fraternities represent. How then may this power be harnessed\ninto the service of character-building in American colleges ? Can such a\nresult be achieved ?\nIt is often achieved indirectly thru developing a sense of responsibility\nin prominent alumni. In some fraternity houses an influential alumnus\nalways resides. In nearly all cases there is an alumni committee, vitally\ninterested in the welfare of the organization and quick to feel either stigma\nor honor attached to the organization. A single alumnus may influence\nthe whole tone of a fraternity chapter for a quarter-century. He may be\na physician, called in to attend any case of illness. He may be a man of\nmeans who has loaned money to the chapter. He may be simply a forceful and persuasive personality.\nOf course this influential alumnus may throw his influence on the\nwrong side; then the problem is to replace him. A strong alumni committee may for this reason be better than a single man. At times it may\nbe necessary to appeal to the whole group of the alumni of a particular\nchapter. If we may appeal to alumni for loyalty manifested thru gifts\nto endowment, may we not appeal for gifts in the form of moral reinforcement, of social direction, of persistent friendship for undergraduates ? If\nwe may ask them to secure for us new students, may we not seek their aid\nin safeguarding and developing the students we already have ? They are\nrapidly coming to recognize their new responsibility, and in that sense\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nFACULTY\n\nAND\n\nFRATERNITIES\n\n551\n\nof responsibility a college administration may find a constant source of\nstrength.\n,\nBut this co-operation may be more directly secured from upper-class\nmen in the local fraternity chapter. A group of strong and loyal seniors\n\nI\n\nis the best asset a chapter can have. They frequently \"coach\" the underclass men, and may be more influential than all his teachers in the case of\nan individual student. The administration of the college should explain\nto influential seniors its general policy, point out weaknesses in the past,\nhold up the vision of a possible future, and ask for aid in reclaiming students\nwho are morally flaccid and wobbUng. Nothing develops students like\nbeing trusted. Nothing so honors them as being asked to assist in helping\nothers to a higher level. They will talk freely, if they know that the\ninformation given will not be used for purposes of discipline. It ought to\nbe possible for such men to discuss freely undesirable conditions, with\nfull assurance that the information they impart is confidential, just like\ninformation given regarding one's own family or relatives. There is a vast\ndifference between an informer seeking to get others into trouble, and an\nadviser seeking to get his friends out of trouble, and every worthy executive\nrealizes that difference. Students will on this basis frankly state facts,\nassured that such facts will not be used against them or their friends, but\nused only as the basis for wise and sympathetic measures of relief and\nimprovement.\nThis direct consultation may lead to requests for aid on the part of the\nfraternity. Sometimes the request is for the standing of each member of\nthe fraternity in his classes, in order that the fraternity may warn or coach\nany student who is in danger of failing. Such a statement given to each\nfraternity in confidence would be a means of stimulus and incentive. Any\naid that the college can legitimately give to a group of its own students\nshould surely be given. Such aid will assist the college in demanding, as\nit must, that no fraternity shalj harbor in its house any student who is\nsuspended or expelled. The fraternity may at such a time be inclined to\nassert that the chapter-house is private property and that the college has no\nright to eject any studejit. But no fraternity can afford to press such a\nclaim, whether legal or not. No fraternity can afford to become a refuge\nfor offenders against the law of the college community. If it acquires such\na reputation it will surely suffer when the next geason comes round. The\ncollege must regard every fraternity house as a part of the college property,\na section of the academic home. A student who is banished from the classrooms for failure in scholarship or character is ipso facto banished from the\nchapter-house also. Indeed I have known a fraternity to come to the dean\nof a college and beg for his help in removing a student who had dropped out\nof college but continued to remain in the chapter-house, living in idleness\nand injuring the morals of the chapter.\nThe college cannot tolerate the existence of any buildings in which groups\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "552\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nof students are housed unless such buildings are in some sense a part of the\ncollege property. All such buildings must be subject to sanitary inspection\nsatisfactory to the college authorities. They must be free from practices\nwhich the authorities consider damaging to the reputation or the character\nof the institution. They must be open to visitation from college officers at\nsuch times as the college may deem wise. They must never be used to\nshield students from college discipline. They must be subject to such\nregulation as the authorities may approve, in the matter of receptions and\nentertainments and the use of intoxicants. The authority of a college\nover its students is limited only by the law of the land.\nBut the assertion of this unlimited power is another matter. Happy is\nthe institution where the bald assertion of power is never made, where\nauthority is so exercised that the students are unconscious of it, where the\nstudents are so consulted and advised and quietly led toward worthy standards that they seem to make the laws which they obey. Happy is the\ninstitution where the students in a fraternity house voluntarily adopt the\nideals of the college faculty and reject all else. Men may do as they please\nwhen they please to do right.\nSuch co-operation of faculty and fraternities is needed to bring about\ncertain pressing reforms in our present fraternity life. The \"pledging\"\nsystem and the \"rushing\" system of the present day are full of evils. Students are frequently pledged, before the end of their high-school course, to\nan organization of which they know nothing, and to which they are expected\nto be loyal thruout their lives. In many cases the student bitterly regrets\nhis choice, and leaves the college when he discovers his irrevocable blunder.\nIn many cases the fraternity finds it has loaded itself down with an uncongenial and undesirable member. Yet in some western states this pledging\nfrequently occurs in the first year of the high school. A reform in the\npledging and rushing systems is however almost impossible apart from\nfaculty assistance. The regulation of so(;ial events and the maintenance\nof proper social atmosphere, the cultivation of simplicity and democracy,\nof refined manners and usages — all these things can best be attained where\ncollege officers and college students are frequently meeting to consult and\nto plan. An ounce of advice when evils begin to appear is worth a ton of\ndiscipline after the evils are full-blown and defiant. Five minutes spent in\ngetting a good student to become responsible for a feeble and wandering\nbrother is worth three hours of exhortation to evildoers and threatenings of judgment to come.\nIn one college of my acquaintance an undesirable fraternity of generally\nunsavory reputation suddenly appeared, and announced the formation of a\nchapter. Instead of abolishing the new society by fiat, the dean called together the other fraternities and asked them to take action. Within two\nweeks they brought such pressure to bear on the new organization that it\nwas quietly and permanently dissolved. In one eastern college a group of\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nFACULTY\n\nAND\n\nFRATERNITIES\n\n553\n\nJewish students asked permission to form themselves into a fraternity.\nThe president was opposed by principle to any organization of students\nfounded on racial or religious distinctions. Before giving his answer, however, he called the other fraternities into conference. They unitedly agreed\nwith the president's position and offered to support him. When his reply\nwas made, absolutely prohibiting the formation of the new group, he thus\nhad with him the support of all the leading men in college and his prohibition became effective and irresistible. Scores of questions are constantly\narising where the bare assertion of power is a mistake, where the end can\nbe attained noiselessly and almost imperceptibly by merely enlisting the\naid of the chief social groups which the college contains.\nIf it be said that this is a dangerous proceeding, since it brings down the\ncollege officer to the level of a mere adviser, I would answer. The college\nofficer is no longer an absolute monarch, or even in loco parentis. He is no\nlonger to maintain himself thru fear, but should seek for understanding,\nsympathy, and co-operation. If it be said that to ask student advice is to\noblige oneself to follow it, I answer, I have never yet known the leading\nstudents in any American college, after time was allowed them to think and\ndiscuss — I have never known them to choose the evil rather than the good.\nOn the contrary I believe their judgment in a question of conduct is more\nlikely to be normal and unsophisticated and absolutely just than the judgment of some of the specialists on the average college faculty. Training for\na Ph.D. in mathematics of the fourth dimension or writing a thesis on the\ncolor-epithets in Homer may not be as good equipment for deciding social\nand moral problems in college life as is afforded by living in a dormitory or\nplaying on a baseball team. Securus judical orbis terrarum, which being\ninterpreted may mean: On simple questions of duty a thousand students\nwho have taken time to think will not go far astray.\n4. Such co-operation will naturally lead to a friendly attitude toward\nthe national fraternity organizations. It is of course undesirable that the\nfaculty or the administration should consult officially with any national\nbody, just as it would be unwise for the college to have official relations with\nany corporations save those of other colleges. But the traveling secretary\nof a national fraternity may well be cordially received. Thru him much can\nbe accomplished. It is no uncommon thing for the dean of a college now\nto receive requests from such secretaries for full information concerning the\nstandards and ideals of the local chapter. Thru these national affiliations\nthe local group gains vastly in wisdom, poise, and strength. The only\nsecret society that is always to be feared is a local society, having no wisdom or inspiration outside itself, submitting to no check from its peers,\nfearing no tribunal outside the walls of the college, and having no sense of\nnational dignity and responsibility. Our national fraternity organizations\nhave, so far as I know, never attempted to dictate to the colleges. They\nhave erred not in the direction of too great assumption of power, but in the\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ndirection of irresponsibility and indifference. At last these fraternities\nare awaking from their sleep. They are coming together in an annual conference. They are revising constitutions, raising standards, sending out\nsecretaries, studying local evils and their remedy. It remains for the faculties also to bestir themselves, and to meet these organizations at least halfway. Since some social groups must exist, let us utilize those we now have\n— utilize them in seeking for higher standards of scholarship, character, and\npreparation for American life.\nDISCUSSION\nRalph K. Jones, Librarian, University of Maine, Orono, Me. — Of the various problems in the relations of faculties and fraternities perhaps the most important is that\ndue to the effect of fraternities upon the scholarship of their members, indicated by\nthe publication of statistics at various western universities which have shown that the\nwork of men in fraternities was distinctly inferior to that of the non-fraternity men in\nthe same institutions, as well as by the interesting studies of President Schurman of\nCornell on the same subject.\nIn order to have definite information as to just what present conditions are, a brief\ncircular letter was sent out a few weeks ago for the purpose of obtaining information as\nto what is now being done to stimulate good college work by members of fraternities. This\nwas sent to the general fraternities and to the ninety colleges that contained five or more\nchapters of general fraternities at the date of publication of the latest edition of Baird's\nAmerican College Fraternities.\nReplies were received from eighteen of the thirty-one fraternities, and these eighteen\nincluded those embracing four-fifths of the total number of chapters. They included,\nwith one solitary exception, every fraternity having over twenty-five chapters, and with\nthe same exception, every fraternity of western or southern origin.\nOf the ninety colleges from which inquiry was made, thirty-seven are eastern,\ntwenty-four southern, and twenty-five western. Although half of the southern and a\nthird of the eastern colleges did not reply, only four of the twenty-five in the west failed\nto do so.\nThe percentage of replies from both fraternities and colleges indicates a far greater\ninterest in this matter in the West than in the East.\nThe replies from the fraternities, with hardly an exception, indicated that the necessity for improvement of scholarship is recognized by them, and nearly all either have\nalready adopted some system looking toward this result or are now considering the subject with a view to deciding upon something in the near future. Among the plans already\nin operation by fraternities are the following: careful investigation of each chapter by a\nvisiting officer who obtains full information about the standing of his men from the\ncollege authorites; similar investigations by other fraternity officials; investigation of\neach chapter twice a year by one of its own graduates who reports to the fraternity;\nobtaining statements from the college authorities by the fraternity officers of the standing\nof their undergraduates; awarding honor certificates to those who attain a certain degree\nof efficiency; requiring chapters to obtain statements of the standing of their members\nfrom college authorities to be forwarded to the fraternity officials; requiring all freshmen\nto observe study hours; requiring all chapters to place each initiate under the supervision ofan upper-class man whose duty it is to watch over all his activities.\nAmong the noteworthy practices at various colleges, by the college authorities, are\nthese: appointing a member of the faculty for each chapter as an adviser, it being his\nduty to keep himself informed of the condition of the work of those under his charge\nand to confer with those in danger of falling behind; appointing a member of the faculty\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nI\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nFACULTY\n\nAND\n\nFRATERNITIES\n\n555\n\nas one of a committee for each chapter in which the other members are an alumnus of\nthe chapter and two undergraduates, and furnishing this committee with necessary\ninformation; giving each chapter at frequent intervals information as to the standing\nof delinquent members and in some cases pointing out apparent reasons for delinquency;\nmaking public the relative standing of all fraternity chapters and other college organizations; posting the records of all freshmen and sophomores in a dean's office where they\nare open to inspection by all; prohibiting the initiation by the fraternities of conditioned\nfreshmen; prohibiting the initiation of any student until he has completed a minimum\namount of college work; prohibiting the attendance of freshmen upon more than a\nlimited number of specified social functions; prohibiting the holding of social functions\non other than Friday or Saturday evenings.\nIn order to secure undergraduate opinion, the circulars were sent also to the chapters\nof one of the larger fraternities, one that has not enacted any legislation, but whose general\nofficers have endeavored to impress upon the undergraduates the necessity for maintaining themselves creditably in their college work, and for which recent statistics show that for\nthe ten years ending with June, 1909, practically 50 per cent, of its initiates have graduated, or 8 per cent, more than the general average for all college students. Of its about\nseventy chapters, nearly one-half replied. These replies from the undergraduates were\nnot the least interesting received. Without an exception, the letters that were received\nindicated that some plan was in use whose purpose was to encourage good scholarship.\nAmong the most interesting were these: appointing a scholarship director charged with\nthe duty of obtaining information as to the standing of all members of the delegations\nfrom the lower classes and charged with the duty of seeing that tutors were provided\nwhere necessary; maintaining a committee of upper-class men with .similar responsibilities; furnishing blanks to instructors with a list of men in their classes concerning whose\nwork information was desired, with a request for a statement of opinion as to the cause\nof delinquency where such existed; asking for a similar statement from the college office\nat regular intervals; sending return postal cards to instructors for statements concerning\nthe work of delinquents; reading grades of all members at regular meetings, with commendation ofthose doing good work and urging improvement by those in whose cases\nimprovement was necessary; using the \"big brother\" system by which each initiate is\nplaced under the special oversight of an upper-class man who supervises all his activities;\nelecting a member of the faculty as an adviser, having him meet with the chapter once a\nmonth and having free discussions over cases of individual scholarship and morals, as\nwell as about fraternity and college matters in general, all information obtained in this\nway being regarded by the members of the faculty as strictly confidential.\nThere are a number of different movements related to the subject under consideration which deserve special mention. One of these is the Interfraternity Council at the\nUniversity of Nebraska. This was organized five years ago for the purpose of discussing\nand regulating all matters relating to fraternities that the council cares to discuss. It\nis composed of one undergraduate member and one alumnus of each academic fraternity\n(not honorary or professional), and one member of the faculty. It has enacted legislation regulating the dates for pledging and initiations and for the entertainment of new\nstudents, and has required that no student be pledged or initiated whose name appears\non the delinquent list. That it has accomplished what has failed in other places is due\nto the fact that the council is recognized by the regents of the university and given power\nby them to enforce its regulations, to the extent of depriving any fraternity that violates\nits rules of the right to pledge or initiate for a year and making any student pledged or\ninitiated in violation of its decree subject to expulsion from the university.\nPublicity given to relative standings has been a powerful stimulus at some institutions in bringing reform where reform was needed.\nAt the University of Wisconsin the Interfraternity Conference awards a cup each\nyear to the fraternity having highest rank for the year, it being held each term by that\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "5S6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\none which has highest rank the preceding term. At the University of Maine, a senior\nsociety has given a cup to be held each year by the fraternity ranking highest the preceding year, to become the property of that one who holds it the largest number of times\nduring a period of twelve years.\nAt a number of colleges the undergraduates have adopted a point system, under\nwhich the so-called outside activities in which one student may participate and the number of offices he may hold are restricted to a reasonable amount.\nThe Ohio Wesleyan plan of the election by each fraternity of a member of the faculty,\npreferably one of its own alumni, as a confidental adviser has been adopted at a number\nof institutions.\nAltho aside from the subject under consideration, the practice at Amherst of having\neach fraternity house inspected annually as to sanitary conditions and protection in case\nof fire by committees composed of the college physician, the college treasurer, and an\nalumnus of each fraternity, deserves mention.\nLast summer, at the suggestion of the Religious Education Association and upon a\ncall by President Faunce, an Inter fraternity Conference was held in New York City at\nwhich twenty-six fraternities were represented. It appointed a committee on the relation of fraternity chapters to the college administration, and this committee is to report\nat a second conference to be held this summer.\nThe importance to the colleges of the movement among the fraternities for higher\nscholarship will perhaps be appreciated better when we reahze that nearly seventy per\ncent, of the entire number of men undergraduates are in attendance at the colleges in\nwhich fraternity chapters are maintained, and that one-fifth of all of those in the fraternity colleges are» members of these organizations. There can be no question that this\none-fifth embraces those who are most popular, most prominent, and most influential,\nand whatever stimulates this body of leaders must inevitably exert a vital effect upon\nthe ideals and the life of the entire undergraduate body.\nIt is surprising, and if the same report had not come from more than one source among\nfraternity ofl&cials as well as undergraduate chapters, it would be almost incredible that\nthere are college registrars who have refused to supply information solicited for the purpose of promoting good work by undergraduates, and that only too often efforts to secure\nthe co-operation of individual instructors have resulted in complete failure.\nThe fraternities, working thru their general organizations if they are given the\nsympathy and assistance of college faculties, will do more in five years to bring about\nradical improvement in the college work of undergraduates than the entire faculties of\nthe one hundred and seventy-three colleges in which fraternities exist can accomplish by\nthemselves in five times that period.\nProfessor W. T. Chase, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. — The problem of the nonfraternity students has been met at Beloit by the organizations of non-fraternity men\nand women, subdivided into sections.\nDean F. P. Keppel, Columbia College, New York City. — The fraternities at ColumWa would welcome action by the authorities which would restrict the initiation of freshmen to those who have satisfied the entrance requirements.\nRev. J. M. Foster, Second Reformed Presbyterian Church, Boston, Mass. — The\nchurch to which I belong requires separation from all secret, oath-bound lodges as a\ncondition of membership. We have a college in Beaver Falls, Pa., named Geneva College.\nNo Greek letter fraternity is allowed in the student body. Our reasons for excluding all\nsecret orders from the institution are:\nI. Because they are essentially selfish. They divide the students into cliques and\nare damaging to the college esprii de corps. One fraternity aims at elocution. The\nstudents who have oratorical gifts are invited, while those who are not so talented in this\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\n557\n\nline are left out. That is, the students who need help in this departin'ent are not chosen,\nand those who do not need it are asked. Another fraternity seeks social excellence, and\nthe students who are the brightest social lights are taken, and the others left. So again,\nthose who need encouragement are denied it, while those already well up are given this\nhelp. A third seeks literary excellence, and the same state of things prevails; so that\nthe selfish and not the benevolent spirit is cultivated by these orders.\n2. Because they are secret, and so directly contrary to the policy of our Lord, who\nsaid: \"I ever spake openly and in secret have I said nothing.\" You could not conceive\nof the boy Jesus entering a Greek letter fraternity and, putting his hand over his heart,\nswearing in the name of Almighty God ever to conceal and never to reveal the sayings\nand doings of the lodge. And if he would not do it, we should not encourage our boys\nto do so. Secrecy is darkness and belongs to Satan's empire. Christ is the Light of the\nWorld. His people have been brought out of darkness into His marvelous light.\n3, Because they prepare the students later to join the more objectionable orders,\nsuch as Free Masons, Odd Fellows, etc. There are 11,000,000 members in the secret\noath-bound lodges of the United States. They are the deadly upas. The college fraternities are its roots. Let them be cut oflf. \"And now also the axe is laid at the roots of\nthe trees.\"\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\nTHOMAS ARKLE CLARK, DEAN OF MEN, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL.\n\nThe greatest handicap in my experience to successful college discipline is\nthe excessive number of rules laid down by the colleges for the conduct of\nstudents. Too many college officers feel that when an evil exists, or an\nerroneous custom prevails, the only thing necessary is to pass a regulation\nagainst the evil, or the custom, and the matter is settled. The real fact is\nthat generally the more rules an institution has, the more difficulty the\ncollege officers find in maintaining good discipline, and in keeping the young\npeople within bounds.\nIt is safe to take for granted that young people of college age know in the\nmain what is right and what is reasonable as to conduct, so that it is not\nnecessary that every sin in the decalog, or that every violation of the law\nunder the statute, should *be named in the college catalog and the penalty\nfor its violation attached. Rules often prevent individual action in specific\ncases. Every violation of good order should be taken up, looked into, and\njudged as if it were the only one of its sort. Rules often hamper such\njudgment. Many college rules are virtually a dead letter because they are\ndifficult or impossible of execution, and the existence of such regulations\ncan do nothing less than bring the whole system of college statutes into\nridicule and disrepute. I believe, for illustration, that it would be a most\nexcellent thing if college students did not visit saloons, for I have known\nvery few students who were not to a greater or less degree injured by such\na practice. It seems to me, however, usually worse than useless, and in\nfact often harmful, for a college to make a rule prohibiting students from\nentering saloons, because it is so evidently a rule unlikely or impossible to\nbe enforced.\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "^S^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^\n\n[Higher\n\nMore than this, the very existence of regulations will frequently incite\nstudents to insubordination that would not otherwise have been thought of.\n\"I've just discovered,\" one freshman said to another, \"that it's against the\nrules to smoke in the quadrangle. Now, I suppose it will make me sick,\nfor I don't care much for smoking, but I couldn't let a thing like that go\nby without having a try at it.\" I am not arguing against regulations per se;\nsome of course are necessary for the proper conduct of any business or institution, but the fewer the better, and then only those which are absolutely\nnecessary.\nThe young person who enters college is on a different basis, and should\nreceive different treatment, from the same person in the high school. He is\nmore nearly an adult, and he should be treated as such. He is more independent, more upon his own responsibility, and so far as possible he should\nbe left to manage his own conduct and his own affairs. The more he can\nbe let alone the better. This last statement does not mean in any sense that\nno one should know what he is doing. Much of the trouble that occurs in\ncollege — nearly all that occurred in my own undergraduate days — comes\nfrom the fact that rules more or less arbitrary and often foolish are made\nin the belief that such legislation will in itself correct any tendency to wander\nwhich the undergraduate may evince. Seldom is any effort made to keep\nan eye upon the young student, and to forestall any dereliction into which\nhe may fall. The best way to manage the student guilty of misconduct is\nto look after him so personally and so carefully that he may be brought to\naccount just before he has been guilty of the act that would subject him to\ndiscipline. This last statement may seem like a paradox, or an Irish bull,\nbut I am sure that the most skillful disciphnary work which I have ever done\nin the ten years during which I have been a disciplinary officer has been\nconnected with the things that never happened, because they were not\nallowed to.\nGranted that the college has made few rules, and that there is someone\nwho keeps himself pretty thoroly conversant with what is going on, there will\nstill be infractions of regulations, and necessity on the part of college officers\nto exercise authority. Youth is still young and irresponsible, and is quite as\nlikely to be guided by impulse as by judgment. In my own undergraduate\ndays, twenty years ago, when a young fellow had been drunk, had danced in\na college hall, had carried away the campus fence to add fuel to the bonfire\nin celebration of Hallowe'en, or had backed the cannon into the sluggish\nstream that flowed thru the campus in order to show his disapproval of\ncompulsory military drill — when he had done any of these things and was\ncaught, he was brought before the entire faculty assembled in most serious\nsession, and here he was tried. It is a harrowing experience, as some of us\nwell know, and one not likely always to bring justice. A man may perhaps\nmake a good teacher, or a good scientific investigator, without making a\ngood judge. When an entire faculty deliberates on disciplinary matters\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\n559\n\nthere is likely to be too much talking, some wrangling, and uncertain conclusions. The responsibility is too widely scattered, and the student and\ngood order are sure to suffer.\nDisciplinary matters will be handled more satisfactorily to all concerned\nif put in charge of a small body composed of from three to five persons\nchosen because of their knowledge of student hfe and conditions, and\nbecause of their special fitness to give reasonable and sympathetic judgments on the cases that come before them. The members of such a committee should be young, or should have once been young with the memory\nof that time still in mind. They should be broad-minded and above petty\nprejudices. They should still be interested in the things outside of books that\ninterest normal, healthy young people — such as athletic sports and social\npleasures. They should have backbone enough when an unpleasant thing\nhas to be done, and ought to be done, to do it even tho it hurts some students, and some fathers and mothers. Ordinarily I should not consider it\na calamity if neither women nor lawyers were on such a committee. Women\nare more often than men influenced by their prejudices or their emotions,\nand lawyers are likely to insist upon a \"legal\" conviction. Conditions are\nsuch that a man should often be allowed to go free who has really violated\na college regulation, while another man who cannot be proved guilty of\nany actual dereliction may yet clearly be proved a detriment to the community, and should be sent away.\nIn institutions where both men and women are in attendance I believe\nit will often be found of advantage for a different committee to pass upon\nthe cases of discipline of women from the one which considers the cases of\nmen. Men and women are so different, espeyally young men and young\nwomen, in the crises which matters of discipline bring, that I believe they\nmay very well be handled by people of somewhat different temperaments.\nMen, for instance, I have found will almost always tell the truth about their\nown escapades, being careful, of course, not to bring in any of their companions, but shielding themselves very little ; while girls, under similar conditions,\nfrom sheer nervousness or terror, will often tell the most palpable untruths.\nWhether or not such a committee should be given absolute and final\npower, or should report its findings to the faculty, or to some higher power\nfor confirmation and final action, will depend upon local conditions. Whichever method is employed the findings of such a committee should virtually\nbe final, or its power and influence will count for very little.\nIn such a disciplinary committee as I have discussed the general management should be in the hands of a chairman who should be a man of experience and judgment, well acquainted with students and student activities,\nand he should allow only such matters to come before the committee for\ntrial as cannot be settled in some more amicable and satisfactory way.\nCases requiring discipline may be reported to him either directly or thru\nthe proper college officer.\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "56o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nA disciplinary oflFxcer to be successful must have the confidence of both\nstudents and faculty. The faculty must feel that matters given into his\nhands will be dealt with squarely, and without delay. No college instructor\nwishes to be humiliated by having matters of discipline which he reports\neither ignored or treated lightly. Neither should he feel that he is compromised ifevery student whom he reports for discipline is not found guilty.\nI have known college instructors who refused to report cases of alleged cribbing, because of the fact that a student previously reported had not been\nfound guilty by the disciphnary committee. It was not justice they desired,\nbut conviction. Many instructors are annoyed by what they consider\nunnecessary delay in disciplinary affairs. They do not reaHze that it takes\ntime to assemble committees, to gather facts, and to come to conclusions\nwhich will do justice to everyone concerned.\nNo disciplinary officer will get on well unless he has a reputation for\nplaying fair. If the college officer is willing to give the square deal, he will\nhave gone a long way toward solving his official difficulties. He will sometimes have to listen to some long stories, he will perhaps have often to go a\nlong way and suffer some inconvenience to discover necessary facts, but the\ncollege students whom I have known have for the most part been square,\nand have been willing to take without complaint or whimpering what was\nlegitimately coming to them for their misdeeds, when it was shown to them\nthat the college officer was inclined to do the fair thing.\nI long ago learned that it will never do to reach a conclusion with regard\nto any matter under dispute without hearing both sides of the story. No\nmatter how damaging or convincing the evidence may be, it is always best\nto hold one's judgment in a]?eyance until the accused party has been heard,\nand given a fair chance to defend himself.\nOnly a few days ago a woman called me up to settle a dispute with reference to an alleged agreement which she had had with a student. \" Should\nnot a student who has rented a room for a semester, and who leaves before\nthat time, pay for the whole semester ?\" she asked. \" Ordinarily, yes,\" I\nanswered, \"but I should like to talk to the student before answering.\"\nAnd when I did, I found that in reality the woman had violated her contract, but wanted still to hold the student to his.\nIt is never advisable to convict a man on circumstantial evidence, no\nmatter how convincing it may appear to be. The committee of which I am\nchairman in my own institution have made it a rule to give the student the\nbenefit of the doubt unless the case is clearly proved. We have never felt\nthat we have lost by this method, for even tho some guilty ones have escaped\nwe have always been able to justify our actions, and to hold to our decisions.\nThis last point is a really important one. Whenever a disciplinary body\ngets a reputation for reversing its decisions, or changing its action at the\nfirst appeal, it loses force and influence.\nIt is no light matter to send a man\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\n56 1\n\naway from college; it may deprive the student of his chances of an education, and it is a disgrace and a sorrow to the family at home not easily borne.\nFor that reason, such action should be taken deliberately, with a clear\nnotion of what the facts are, and what the punishment means. Being once\ntaken, unless new evidence is presented which alters the circumstances and\npresents new conditions, it should not be reversed. Any collegie disciplinary\nbody will have to withstand tears and (promises of reform, petitions and\nthe onslaught of influential friends. If the decision was right, however,\nit should stand; if it was wrong, it should never have been made.\nWhenever a disciplinary ofiicer shows unusual consideration for the\nposition or the connections of anyone under examination, he loses his grasp\nof the situation. A student should not be shown favors because he is someone's son, or because he is related to someone who has social position or\ninfluence. Everyone should be treated alike so far as his social position\nis concerned.\nPersonally I have found the greatest help in the solving of disciplinary\ndifficulties in the students themselves. I should have far more trouble than\nI do were it not for the reliance which I have upon individual students, and\nstudent organizations, to help control situations. One of the main reasons\nwhy I have favored fraternities, and other social organizations among students, isbecause I have found them of the greatest help to me in controlling\nand directing student activities, and in preventing dissipations and outbursts which might otherwise occur. One active student leader can help\nimmensely to keep things under ^control..\nOne of the greatest difficulties of student discipline lies in the changing\ncharacter of the student population. Every year, perhaps one third of the\nstudent community is new, and must become accustomed to the traditions\nand the regulations of the college. Whether this number consists of one\nhundred or one thousand, it should be someone's business to get acquainted\nwith these freshmen, to know so far as possible who they are, where they\ncome from, where they live, and what they are doing. If students have\nthe feeling that some college officer knows what they are doing, and if the\ncollege ofiicer goes far to make this feeling a reality, the problems of student\ndiscipline will be minimized. We are coming more and more to see, I believe,\nthat tho college students should be allowed so far as possible to think and\nact independently, they should be so situated that someone will know what\nthey are doing; then, if trouble is brewing, someone will know where to look\nfor it, and perhaps how to prevent it; if not, he will at least have a more\nintelligent idea of how it may be ended with the least friction on student\nand faculty.\nIf a man hopes to succeed as a disciplinary officer he must keep closely\nin touch and sympathy with student life and student activities. He must\nbe willing to praise the virtuous, to commend the worthy as well as to pass\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\njudgment upon the derelict. The wider his acquaintance the better; the\nmore fully he understands human nature the easier will be his task. He\nmust often know a great many things which he does not tell, tho he must not\ntell things which he does not know. He will not lose if he sometimes does\nthe unexpected thing, and no matter how many years he may live he must\nalways be young.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nNORMAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^Joseph H. Hill, president, Kansas State Normal College\nVice-President — D. McGregor, resident regent. State Normal School\nSecretary — W. S. Dearmont, president, State Normal School\n\nEmporia, Kans.\nPlatteville, Wis.\nCape Girardeau, Mo.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 6, 1910.\nThe Department of Normal Schools met at 9 : 30 a.m. in the Second Church, Copley\nSquare.\nThe meeting was called to order by the president of the department, Joseph H. Hill,\npresident of the Kansas State Normal College, Emporia, Kans.\nPresident Hill addressed the department on the subject, \"The Distinctively Professional Content of Normal-School and College Courses.\"\nPresident Hill's address was followed by a paper by Guy E. Maxwell, president,\nState Normal School, Winona, Minn., on \"Legitimate Spheres of Influence of the Normal\nSchool in Public Education.\"\nThis paper and the address of the president were discussed by John R. Kirk, president. State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo., followed by John F. Sims, president. State\nNormal School, Stevens Point, Wis.; A. O. Thomas, president. State Normal School,\nKearney, Nebr.; Z.X. Snyder, president. State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.; Miss Louise\nConnelly, superintendent of schools, Summit, N.J.; Frank Webster Smith, president,\nPaterson Normal Training School of New Jersey; and John W. Cook, president, State\nNormal School, De Kalb, 111.\nSECOND SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 1910.\nThe Department of Normal Schools met at 9: 30 a.m. in the Second Church, Copley\nSquare.\nThe meeting was called t6 order by the president.\nThe general topic of the session was \"The Special Preparation of Teachers for the\nRural Schools.\" The first paper, by W. S. Picken, principal, Western State Normal School,\nHays, Kans., discussed \"Preparation thru Secondary Schools.\" The second paper, by\nWalter E. Larson, inspector of rural schools, Madison, Wis., dealt with \"Preparation\nthru the County Normal School.\" In a third paper, Ernest Burnham, director of Rural\nSchool Department, State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich., presented \"Preparation\nthru Special Courses in the Normal Schools.\"\nThe general topic of the morning was discussed by John R. Kirk, president, State\nNormal School, Kirksville, Mo.; W. S. Dearmont, president, State Normal School,\nCape Girardeau, Mo.; Chas. P. Gary, state superintendent of public instruction of Wisconsin; William A. Baldwin, principal. State Normal School, Hyannis, Mass.; John W.\nCook, president. State Normal School, De Kalb, 111.\nA report of the Committee on Simplified Spelling, and also a report of the National\nCommittee on Agricultual Education, were presented by Homer H. Seerley, president\nof State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nBoth reports were received and ordered printed in the proceedings of this department.\n563\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows :\nFor President — D. B. Johnson, president of Winthrop Normal and Industrial College,\nRock Hill, S.C.\nFor Vice-President — William J. Hawkins, president of State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo.\nFor Secretary — Guy E. Maxwell, president of State Normal School, Winona, Minn.\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported as follows:\nThe Normal School Department of the National Education Association declares as\nfollows:\n1. The true function of the normal school is to prepare teachers for all grades and\nkinds of work in public schools.\n2. Since the members of the faculties of the normal schools should be men and\nwomen of unimpeachable character, broad, thoro scholarship, and skillful teaching-power,\nequal in qualifications to those demanded in other institutions of higher learning, we\nbelieve that salaries paid to our faculty members should be equivalent to those paid in\nany of the higher institutions of learning.\n3. Since our work ranks in importance with that done in other higher institutions\nof learning, and even outranks it in public usefulness, the members of our faculties should\nbe entitled to the same privileges accorded to members of faculties in those institutions,\nincluding the privileges of retirement funds.\n4. This department commends and approves the United States Senate Bill No. 8809\nconcerning vocational training.\n( H. H. Seerley, of Iowa, Chairman\nCommittee\n\\ W. J. Hawkins, of Mo.\n( John F. Sims, of Wisconsin\nIt was moved by John W. Cook, of Illinois, that a committee be appointed to correspond with Mr. Andrew Carnegie in regard to the possibility of the normal-school faculties participating in the benefits of the Carnegie Foundation. F. F. Murdock, of North\nAdams, Mass., John W. Cook, of De Kalb, 111., Frank W. Smith, of Paterson, N.J., discussed the question, after which the motion was adopted.\nThe committee appointed was:\nE, Oram Lyte, principal of First State Normal School, Millersville, Pa., Chairman.\nJohn W. Cook, president of Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb, 111.\nGuy E. Maxwell, president of State Normal School, Winona, Minn.\nOn motion the department adjourned.\nW. S. Dearmont,\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nDISTINCTIVELY PROFESSIONAL CONTENT\nSCHOOL AND COLLEGE COURSES\nJOSEPH\n\nH.\n\nHILL,\n\nSecretary\n\nPRESIDENT,\nKANSAS\nSTATE\nEMPORIA,\nKANS.\n\nNORMAL\n\nOF NORMALSCHOOL\n\nThe work of the American normal school as it was organized seventy\nyears ago had for its specific purpose the training of elementary teachers.\nThe early workers in the normal schools thought only of the training of\nelementary teachers as a function of the state because the idea of popular\neducation that was just coming into public consciousness was itself a hmited\nconcept and the notion of the common public school supported not only by all\nthe people was the notion of an elementary school only; but the normal\nschool, from the beginning, rested upon this proposition as fundamental —\nthat training for the teaching vocation is a special training different in aim\nand differentiated in method from the general training that is assumed to be\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nI\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nCOURSES\n\n565\n\nthe function of the school in preparation for life. In the beginning it is not\nstrange that undue attention perhaps was given to the devices of instruction,\nto formal, or if you please, normal method. We had yet to develop, we are\nonly now developing, a philosophy of education ; but with the development\nof that philosophy of education, as our concept of the meaning of education\nbroadens and our view of the processes of education becomes more truly\nscientific, there is in the very nature of the case increasing emphasis to be\nplaced upon the idea that training for teaching, to be adequate and effective,\nmust be a distinctive training; in the best sense of the word, as our ideal\ngrows, professional.\nIn the three-quarters of a century since Horace Mann and Henry Barnard\nand their coadjutors began laying the foundation of a common-school\nsystem in America, the American common school, the community school,\nhas immeasurably expanded in the scope, the magnitude, and the significance of its activities. The public high school as an integral and universally accessible part of our common-school system is the product of our\neducational generation. The community school, beginning with the kindergarten and continuing thru the grades, commonly known as the high\nschool, is legally and logically a unit. The cleavage between the so-called\neighth and ninth grades is merely historical, not logical; and the logical\nbasis of the normal school in the beginning, namely, the proposition that if\nthe state is to maintain its schools, it must train its teachers, applies with\nequal force to every part of the system of community schools from the\nkindergarten thru the high school. For this fundamental concept more\npositively and directly than any other educational agency, the normal school\nstands today as it always has stood; and with this naturally and properly\nexpanding meaning of the concept, the just-now-developing normal college\nis a legitimate evolution.\nSo far as the convictions of this body are concerned, the acceptance of\nthe propositions just set fort*h is a matter that has passed beyond the stage\nof discussion ; so far as the entrance by the normal schools in an organized\nand effective way into every portion of the field of common-school teachers'\ntraining is concerned, the matter has passed beyond the stage of experiment;\nso far as the general trend of educational sentiment is concerned, the proposition that in the training of teachers for secondary as well as elementary\nschools there is implied something more than a thoro knowledge of the\nsubject-matter of whatever subject finds a place in the curriculum, is rapidly\npenetrating the consciousness of educational thinkers everywhere except\naround the cloistered shadows of a few mediaeval university departments.\nI do not wish to be misunderstood. No one welcomes more than I the\nrelatively recent organization and the present development in several of our\nwestern state universities of genuine schools of education. Whether in a\ngiven state the training of teachers in any field be done in one institution\nrather than another is a local question; the important thing is that it really\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nbe done. I merely sympathize with the handicap of those who are working\nin departments of education in some, at least, of our universities, who must\nmake headway against the inertia of an unsympathetic atmosphere and the\ncomplex of adverse influences tending to minimize those professional ideals\nand that professional spirit that are dominant in the great schools where the\nexclusive purpose is the training of teachers.\nTraining for teaching cannot properly be a mere incident in a student's\ngeneral course. The normal college, as a distinctively professional school,\ndiffers from other professional schools in this — that so far as subject-matter\nis concerned, its various courses deal with the same material and traverse\nmuch the same ground as in a school the purpose of whose curriculum is\ngenerally literary or scientific; hence the difficulty of securing a clear recognition of the actual differentiation. There is the possibility, however, of\nestablishing a definite line of demarcation. This is the common problem\nof all schools for teachers' training. This is what the normal schools and\ncolleges are doing. If they are not, and cannot, they have no reason for\nbeing. In the light of the present-day demands and developments in\neducation, the problem of the content of normal-school and college courses\nbecomes a vitally important one. An ideal professional scheme for the\ntraining of teachers is now in the making and all of us who are workers in\nthis field of education are privileged to be sharers in its evolution.\nIn such a school, as it seems to me, there is a sense in which everything\nshould be distinctively professional, not in too narrow or specialized a sense,\nbut in the broad sense that the purpose of teacher-training must never be\nforgotten in any of the activities of the school. The teaching spirit, the\nteaching atmosphere, must be pervasive. The school for the training of\nteachers has this advantage in the very limitation stated a moment ago\nthat marks it as different from other professional schools. The training\nthat makes for general development, power, or culture can no more be separated from the process of teacher-training than could the blood from the\nflesh to be weighed on Shylock's scales ; and tho neither merely general culture\nnor yet specialized training in particular branches of study in themselves\nmake a teacher, you cannot really make a teacher without developing in the\nprocess something of the vision, the power, and the efficiency that constitute educated manhood and womanhood. The ideal teachers' school, then,\nmust not alone make teachers, but scholars who are to teach, or better, men\nand women who are to teach. For the accomplishment of this end, the\ncurriculum of the normal school in training for any grade of teachers must\nhave certain essential or distinctive characteristics. These may be enumerated:\n1. A well-organized body of pedagogical theory that will lead to a comprehensive and philosophic concept of the general ends of education, whatever the special subject ultimately to be taught. This element is so obvious\nthat it needs in this presence no discussion.\nThe historical and social\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\n'NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nCOURSES\n\n567\n\naspects of education, the school considered as an organism, the psychologic\nbasis of education, the analysis of the teaching-process — these suggest parts\nof a system of educational philosophy.\n2. The linking of educational theory with practice in the training school\nor school of practice. This also is obvious; yet it seems to me that nowhere\nis there a more vital problem than in the work of correlating every department of a teachers' school with the exemplification of the work as organized\nin the actual training of boys and girls in the elementary and secondary\nschools. The efficient organization of this phase of the work for the elementary school has been a chief source of strength for the normal school of the\npast. In its expansion its training-school organization must logically\nextend to the secondary school. The departmental organization of the\nsecondary school suggests the establishment of a convenient link in the\nadjustment of relations between the training school and the various departments of a normal college.\n3. Specific attention on the part of the intending teacher from the point\nof view of mature preparation, and with particular reference to their organization for teaching, to the subjects that have traditionally had a place only\nin the elementary curriculum or are just now finding their way as new\nsubjects into the elementary or the secondary curriculum. What constitutes\na college subject ? Certain traditions and authorities have determined this\nin the past largely upon a historical or conventional basis. The normal college, unhampered by these traditions, may say: Our first consideration in\nthe selection and the evaluation of a subject is this: What is its bearing\nupon our problem of preparation for teaching ? Granted the preliminary\npower and maturity that permits the approach to a subject with the attitude\nof a college student, and granted the pedagogical organization of a subject\nso that it has a genuine content, it is not the name of a subject that determines its value but the content and the organization of that content as a\npart of the experience of the student pursuing the course. To make a concrete illustration from this point of view, arithmetic may be worth more to\na teacher than trigonometry, geography than paleontology, and should be\nevaluated as highly. Just so in the normal-college curriculum upon equal\nstanding should come every subject whose organization the demands of\nsociety upon the school today require for the elementary and secondary\ncurriculum. I do not mean to indicate by this that the training school for\nteachers should be a caterer to the whims or the fads of society, or a weathercock to register the direction of popular breezes, but rather do I mean to\nsay that nowhere is there a better opportunity for genuine educational\nleadership than in the training schools for teachers in the practical application of an educational philosophy to existing or changing conditions,\nso as to determine what is worth while, and to sift, reject, or accept as the\ntests are applied. Here is a measure of freedom for experiment, tempered\nby the natural conservatism that comes from the necessity of philosophic\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "568\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\neffort to correlate theory and practice. Music, drawing, commerce, industrial training, physical education, all subjects outside the traditional scope\nof the old education, these are illustrations of special fields of opportunity\nfor the normal colleges to organize work on pedagogic principles; or what is\nmore important, to give a pedagogic content to these subjects by putting\nback of them the personality of trained teachers who are not merely special\nteachers of the subjects, but who have a philosophic appreciation of their\nrelation to the special ends of education.\nThese considerations as to the subjects of the normal-college curriculum\nsuggest as a fourth enumeration: the recognition in the organization of\nevery subject that the prime purpose in every teachers' school is the organization of the subject-matter for presentation, or rather with a view to the\ndiscovery of its relations to the mind of the taught. All organized knowledge isbut a means to an end in the process of education. The latest fetich\nin education we have deified under the name of \"original research.\" The\ndiscovery of new truth may be the supreme function of the university, but\nin the genuine sense that is the function of the few. The new discovery of\nold truth is the world-old problem of the school, discovery whose direct\nvalue is its reaction on the discoverer. The problem of the organized\nschool for which we are to train the teachers is that of giving to the word\nthat is spoken that which makes of it spirit and life for the many.\nIn the field of secondary education is to come the next great educational\nmovement. Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Herbart, began the work of the\nemancipation from tradition of the elementary school and the principle they\nheld in common, tho apprehended in varying degrees, was this — that the\ncenter of all things is not the matter to be taught, but the mind of the\ntaught. Secondary education is still mediaeval. The scientific study of\nadolescence is yet to have its application in the complete reorganization of\nthe secondary curriculum without reference to its articulation to any existing institutions or to any scheme of things, however high the authority\nthat imposes it, but with reference solely to the dominant interest and\nthe natural stages of development in the life of the adolescent youth. Let\nthe scholars of the universities in their scientific study of education give to\nus for this reorganization a basic philosophy; let the colleges for the\ntraining of teachers consider it their high function to exemplify such a\nphilosophy in practice and confirm its results by experiment; let those who\nteach go forth from their halls to build life and quicken spirit, confident\nthat the truth will find its place and its meaning only in the living bodies\nand minds and hearts of men and women.\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nLEGITIMATE\nGUY\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSPHERES OF INFLUENCE FOR THE\nSCHOOL IN PUBLIC EDUCATION\n\nE. MAXWELL,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\n569\n\nNORMAL\n\nWINONA,\n\nMINN.\n\nThose who have developed the normal-school curriculum during the\npast fifty years have appreciated the enlarging conception of the place of\ncommon schools in the life and progress of the state and have steadily\ndemanded for teachers a higher standard of technical knowledge and skill,\nand of general scholarship and culture. The original course of two years\nbeyond the eighth grade has been trebled in length and scope. While the\nhonor of developing an esteem and demand for professionally trained\nteachers belongs primarily to the normal school, to have maintained and\nperfected a work even of such great public service will not serve to perpetuate this type of school if it fails to respond to the needs of the next halfcentury or even of tbe next decade.\nThe normal school was founded and has been maintained for the single\ndefinite purpose of preparing teachers for the public schools. It developed\nits characteristic features in the time when the public schools were exclusively elementary, the course of study comparatively narrow and uniform,\nthe demand for teachers of special training not general or pressing, and\nexpert administration unknown. But the public schools are no longer\nexclusively elementary; elementary education itself varies with local conditions, and is developing a definitely differentiated form in rural schools;\nthe curricula are so broad and varied that school authorities, in the interest\nof efTective work, resort to the departmental teacher and the special teacher,\nand school supervision and administration have become a vocation. It is\nfitting that under such changed conditions inquiry should be made as to\nthe forms of influence for which the normal school is properly and necessarily responsible.\nThat the normal school must continue to render the service to which\nit has always given its best thought and effort, viz., the preparation of the\nregular grade teacher, is a truth so well established and fundamental that\nit need not be discussed here. There are, however, four added related duties\nfor brief consideration :\nI. The normal school should afford special preparation for rural-school\nteachers. Henry Sabin was able to say only five years ago, \"As far as I\nknow, there is not a normal school in the land making any attempt to supply\nteachers for the country schools\" (Ed. Rev., May, 1910). The intervening\nperiod has seen a great change in this respect in a marked response on the\npart of the normal school to the national interest in an improved rural life\nand rural education. The trained teachers whom the rural schools have\nheretofore secured have been prepared for graded-school work under the\nmistaken impression that rural schools could be organized and taught\nunder graded-school conditions.\nWe now know that rural schools deserve\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nand require a different organization and course of study from graded schools\nand that they require teachers possessing sympathy with, and appreciation\nof, rural-school conditions; that is, teachers with special training for rural\nschools.\nThe normal school, therefore, should offer courses for rural teachers,\nplanned and administered with special reference to rural needs, including\npractice work either in a near-by rural school or in an ungraded school in the\ntraining department. The fact that county normal schools are springing\nup as supplementary to the older institutions for training teachers, rather\nthan lessening our efforts for rural schools, should cause us to take the lead\nin rural education by establishing and maintaining the thoroly efficient\nrural-school departments which our longer experience, our larger financial\nmeans, and our specially trained teaching corps make possible.\n2. The time has come for an advance in normal-school work in response\nto the demand for persons prepared to teach and supervise the newer subjects which have been introduced into the public schools. It is desirable\nto discuss briefly the length of the course required for adequate preparation\nfor such special work.\nTwo years of work beyond the present standard normal-school course of\nstudy should be regarded as the ultimate minimum of time necessary for\nthe preparation of special teachers of music, drawing, manual training,\nhousehold economy, and agriculture. The special teacher must teach in all\ngrades, including generally the high school. He must be a teacher of\nteachers, often directing the instruction thru the regular room teacher.\nThis special teacher must not only supervise his special subject but he must\norganize the material to be employed as well, since in none of these fields\nhas a generally accepted assignment of subject-matter been adopted, nor\nhave textbooks been prepared which fully meet these new needs of the\nschools. Since these new subjects should be taught in close relation with\nother school effort, the special teacher must be familiar with the general\nfield of work thruout the school in which he teaches his special subject, and\nshould therefore have a broad knowledge of the relative educational values\nof all school subjects. Poorly trained teachers for these new subjects will\nattempt to teach them as separate work; being poorly taught the subjects\nwill lose public favor, not because they lack the values they seem to possess,\nbut because the values are not brought out by the instruction of a poorly\nprepared teacher.\nOn the other hand, for the normal school to offer the special work without additional time-requirements will mean the crowding of these courses,\nsince the generally higher salaries for this service and the location in larger\nvillages and cities, of the positions open for teachers of special subjects, are\nsufficient to attract a majority of students, even were the subjects themselves\nnot especially inviting. Moreover, the fact that teachers now seek training\nin these fields by attendance on the work of private institutions, at a very\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n571\n\nconsiderable added expense for travel and tuition, promises that the longer\ncourses of easily accessible state schools, with free tuition and the added\nbenefits of state certification, first-class instruction, and practice teaching,\nwill easily hold their own with the competing, privately managed short\ncourses.\n3. The normal school should promote the interests of general education,\nand afford help to teachers in service thruout the state, by a systematic\nplan for extension work.\nIt is regrettable that the normal school does not do more for the teacher\nin service and for elementary education in general, by carrying its teaching\nand influence to every part of the state; that it does not maintain a foreign\nmission, indeed, as well as a home gospel of. education. The normal school\nis under obligation to the people who support it to multiply itself everywhere, by the extension of its life and influence thru bulletins, lectures,\nclasses, institutes, and correspondence. The value of the present rather\ndesultory service of this kind, rendered by individual members of faculties,\nis so marked that it insures the vastly greater benefits to be derived from a\nsystematized and wisely prearranged plan well understood by the people.\nThe reaction of such a plan upon the inner life of the normal school itself\nwould be a rich return for the investment, a leaven, indeed, which would\nquicken the life of the whole institution. It is worth noting, too, that the\nsometimes-grudging normal-school financial support afforded by legislatures, will be changed to liberality in the ratio in which the people come\ndefinitely to feel, thru ways which they can see and understand, the close,\nreal, practical, and permanent influence of the normal school upon the\nschools of the state. When people come to be in earnest about education,\nno workers in society will receive more sympathetic support than those\nwho educate children. It is a part of our business to create this earnestness and intelligent public sentiment.\n4. The educational demands of the present day place upon the normal\nschool the responsibility for such an extension of its course of study, equipment, and faculty, as will enable it adequately to fit teachers for principalships, supervision, and general educational leadership in the common or\npublic schools of the state. This means for the normal school a teachers'\nprofessional course of four years, an equipment and faculty sufficient to\nprovide such a course, and in connection therewith and requisite thereto\nthe pursuit of experimental and research work in elementary education.\nThis proposal grows out of the changed conditions to which reference\nhas been made, and its realization makes possible and includes the other\nthree kinds of effort suggested. It grows out of a conviction that the time\nhas come for a very definite forward step in normal-school work thruout the\ncountry if this institution is to maintain its position as the principal means\nin the hands of the state for the training of teachers for the public schools.\nThere is developing very rapidly at the present time a form of elementary\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nnormal school whose purpose is to train teachers for rural schools. In\nMinnesota this rural training has taken the form of a department of the\nhigh school, there being now twenty-six of these departments in the state.\nIn Wisconsin this school is known as the \"County Training School\" and\nits very rapid development within ten years indicates that within the next\ndecade it will find a place in practically every county in the state. In\nMichigan these county normal schools, forty of them, partake of the nature\nof a combination of the Minnesota and Wisconsin plans, and already furnish alarge percentage of Michigan rural-school teachers. Nothing is more\ncertain than that these schools will flourish and increase. They are already\nbeginning to do two years of work instead of one year as originally, and are\nsure to move beyond the rural, school into the field of the graded school —\na move which will doubtless eventually carry with it the successful effort\nto secure graduate certification by law, so that the county-normal-school\ndiploma will become equivalent in legal certificate value to that of the regular normal school.\nOn the other hand, the universities are rapidly developing the college\nof education. The normal school has heartily supported those interested\nin this undertaking, believing that the university should maintain a professional school for teachers co-ordinate with its professional school for\nlawyers, physicians, and others. While interested primarily in high schools,\nthe teachers' college is at the same time entering the general field of education, elementary as well as secondary, and is carrying on its extension work\neven among rural schools. The normal school deserves credit for having\ndeveloped such an appreciation of trained teachers that institutions which\nformerly opposed professional teacher-training are now introducing departments to do the work they recently ridiculed. But unless the normal school\nserves the present age and gets ready to serve the future age by keeping\npace with the rapid march of educational progress, it will soon be crowded\nout of the procession. It will be ground between the millstone of the\nuniversity department of education above and the county training schools\nbelow.\nOne of the weaknesses which present conditions have shown in the case of the\nnormal school, [says United States Commissioner Brown] is a tendency in such schools\ntoward isolation from the main currents of secondary and higher education. Even if\nthey are to devote themselves chiefly to the preparation of teachers for the elementary\nschools, there is need that they should carry into the training which they give our prospective teachers something of the sweep and outlook of the higher education, or rather\nI should say of all education, considered as one, from the lowest to the highest.\n\nHaving in our faculty men and women who are chosen because of their\nspecial fitness to become teachers of teachers, persons whose study and\ngrowth in the school add continuously to their preparation to do more\nadvanced and effective work; possessing, as all admit normal schools do\npossess, a real professional educational atmosphere; enroUing ambitious\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n573\n\nstudents and graduates anxious for advanced study in preparation for\neducational leadership in general supervision, principalships, critic work,\nand high schools; maintaining as our distinctive feature successful model\nor training schools with practice teaching therein reduced to an art — offering all these advantages at small per-capita expense to the student and to\nthe state, we should now extend our equipment, coursee, and influence so as\nto minister to the people by training good teachers for all departments of\ntheir public schools. Such a lengthened and enriched normal-school life\nwill provide a spiritual atmosphere in which a young person, privileged to\nstudy and live, will become a sane and enthusiastic leader in public education.\nThe statement is emphasized here that there is no ambition on the part\nof the normal school to become a teachers' college for the purpose of withdrawing from elementary education, or to direct its efforts toward the preparation of high-school teachers except as a phase of its work. Our great\nfield will always be the elementary school. But the elementary school with\nincreased salaries, with broader curricula necessitating better-prepared\nteachers in all grades, and trained specialists, principals, supervisors, and\nleaders, sufficiently justifies the enlarged facilities urged here for advanced\nwork. Indeed, there is no field where the service of scholarship is more\nneeded than in the problems of public elementary education, nor problems\nwhose solution will more fully minister to the welfare of society. The normal school, claiming such problems as distinctly and quite exclusively its\nown, should attack them with the energy and enthusiasm inspired by a\ngreat mission, demanding and improving the opportunity for the growth\nand expansion commensurate with the difficulty and importance of the\nresponsibilities involved.\n♦\nDISCUSSION\nJohn F. Sims, president, State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis. — I desire to\nemphasize one point in President Maxwell's paper, to wit, the suggestion to include as a\nlegitimate function of the normal schools of the country the preparation of teachers for\nthe high schools. We believe that the great business of the normal schools is the\npreparation of teachers for the public schools, from the kindergarten to the high school\ninclusive, embracing teachers and supervisors of special subjects. The normal school\nessentially is made up of faculty and students. Wholesome conditions obtain when the\nfaculty is composed of a homogeneous body of men and women of broad scholarship and\nhigh teaching-power, who are imbued with a high notion of the destiny of its graduates\nwho are to go out as teachers — as missionaries spreading the gospel of intelligence thruout\nthe length and breadth of the land. Both faculty and students must be immersed in the\nbelief that the normal school is not mere school, but life, and as a section of life both must\nwork together in achievement of the ideal above set forth. In proportion as we achieve\nit, we succeed. The normal school creates a professional atmosphere which permeates\nthe personality of its students, whereby the teaching attitude becomes second nature,\nand it does this more completely than any other institution.\nDuring recent years its field has been invaded, its citadel has been stormed. On the\none hand the university asserts that the preparation of high-school teachers is not the\nmission of the normal, but the work of the university. On the other hand, the advent\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\n. NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nomal\n\nof' county training schools and the introduction of professional courses in academies and\nhigh schools assail it in the field of preparation of teachers for the rural schools, while the\nspecial schools question its ability to prepare teachers of special subjects such as music,\ndrawing, manual training, domestic science, and others. So we find ourselves in a position to be ground between the upper and nether millstones.\nIf we are to retain the high position we now occupy we must fight, or otherwise we\nmust abandon a portion of the field. This department should take a firm stand and wage\nbattle to perform our great mission. We should raise aloft the standard upon which is\nemblazoned the truth, that the normal schools are here to prepare teachers for the public\nschools, high schools as well as elementary schools, and that we do not propose to retreat\na single inch.\nBelieving that we create a professional spirit, which equips our graduates with those\nweapons of offense and defense used with strategic skill, enabling them to meet any\nemergency that may arise in the intellectual development of their pupils, and believing\nthat we give them the academic and professional training which arouses the selfactivity of those pupils in most wholesome ways, and believing that we accomplish\nthese results for the factors which are to be the guardians and promoters of genuine\ndemocracy, more completely and effectively than any other institution can or does, I\nmake plea for advancement rather than retrenchment of function — a consummation\ndevoutly to be wished.\nFrank Webster Smith, principal of Normal Training School, Paterson, N.J. — ^This\nthought which has entered into the discussion is but part of a larger one — that of specialization inprofessional training for teaching. The idea of a general normal school with a\nsingle and uniform course, which began with the establishment of our first normal schools\neighty years ago, cannot now be maintained. Today there is great complexity and great\nvariety in educational conditions. The sociology of teaching has changed remarkably.\nTo administer most successfully a city position in a typical city, with its peculiar population and peculiar problems, requires a special study of city problems and practice with\ntypical city children; for the psychology or mental equipment of the city child is unique,\nhis social and industrial relations are also xmique. The city teacher should know her\nfield before being intrusted with work in it.' To furnish facilities for her necessary training, the normal school must have a city location or city connections so intimately related\nto its central plant that the whole will form one unified interrelated organism. These\nthoughts have been forced upon me in connection with my own work.\nIn the same way the country presents a sociological (which is only a larger and more\ninclusive way of saying educational) problem of its own. The teacher of the country\nschool deserves just as complete and just as specialized facilities for training as the city\nteacher, viz., study of country problems, sympathy with country conditions, study of\nand practice with country children.\nSuch specialization as I have referred to, however, must eventually be built upon a\nbroad and strong general education, both academic and pedagogical. Mr. Maxwell is\nright in his insistence on this broader preparation. Mr. Thomas is right in urging broader\nnormal-school facilities.\nJohn W. Cook, president. State Normal School, De Kalb, 111.— This is the last word\nin specialization. The peril arising from excessive inbreeding menaces city systems.\nThe country people have slight difficulty in adapting themselves to city life. Its condiditions are not difficult to master. There is a narrowness and a conventionality about\nthe life of the city which seem at first formidable but which are most easily met by intelligent men and women.\nThe movement from the city to the country is not so easy.\nThe city needs the country teacher, for he takes to its schools a breadth of experience\ngreatly needed and tiighly appreciated by the boys and girls. They are wise officials\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPREPARATION\n\nTHRU\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n575\n\nwho make it easy to reinforce the teaching body of the city by large importations from\nbeyond its boundaries.\nAs to the claim of the gentleman from Missouri that college graduates should be\nwilling to teach in country schools, I have only to say that those who have spent sixteen\nyears of their lives in the work of educational institutions, can find more extended fields\nof labor than such schools can possibly afford.\nThe country schools should utilize the material that is available for their purposes\nand that is within the reach of their economic ability. The county training school is a\nwise instrumentality from whatever angle it may be observed.\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nA.\nW.\n\nS. PICKEN,\n\nPREPARATION OF TEACHERS\nRURAL SCHOOLS.\nTHRU\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nSECONDARY\nWESTERN\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nHAYS, KANS.\n\nThe Kansas legislature of 1909 passed \"an act to provide for normal\ntraining in certain high schools and academies, and to provide for state aid\nto high schools giving such normal training.\" A part of Section I of the\nact reads as follows: \"That for the purpose of affording increased facilities\nfor the professional training of those preparing to teach, and particularly\nthose who are to have charge of our rural schools, the State Board of Education shall make provision for normal courses' of study and for normal training in such high schools as said State Board of Education shall designate.\"\nFifty thousand dollars a year was appropriated to aid in maintaining\nsuch courses for the two years following the session of the legislature.\nThis law committed Kansas definitely for two years at least to the poHcy\nof affording definite state- wide preparation of rural-school teachers thru the\nsecondary schools of the state.\nThe policy was not a new one in Kansas. Twenty-three years earlier\nthe state had passed a law providing for the creation of \"coimty high\nschools\" in which was a definite provision for the maintaining of a normal\ncourse, which course in the language of the law \"shall be designed for those\nwho intend to become teachers and shall fully prepare any who wish to\nenter the first year of professional work at the State Normal School.\"\nIt was provided that graduates of such course should receive a teacher's\nsecond-grade certificate. Under that law and special acts passed in Une\nwith its spirit there are operating now in the state twenty-two such county\nhigh schools, from which, up to the close of 1908, 3,285 graduates had been\nsent forth. Unfortunately the reports of the state superintendent's office\ndo not state what number of these had completed the normal course. The\nnumber was considerable, however, and prepared the minds of the people\nof the state for a larger extension of the plan.\nThe first year under the more recent law closed on June i, and statistics as to its initial operation are now available. One hundred and ten\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nhigh schools and academies have had the course in operation. Of these,\nninety have received state aid — the academies being barred from such aid\nby the terms of the law. A total of 1,320 students enrolled for the course\nand 720 took the yearly examination, success in which means a two-year\ncertificate to teach in any of the common schools of the state — a certificate\nrenewable on conditions established by the State Board of Education.\nAt the time this paper was prepared 575 had successfully passed the\nexamination — a number which by this time may have been increased slightly\nby the grading of some belated manuscripts.\nThe overwhelming majority of rural schools in Kansas are one-teacher\nschools, and in these schools 7,937 teachers were employed in 1908. With\nall possible increase in the normal-training courses in high schools and\nacademies for next year it is hardly to be hoped that beyond 10 per cent,\nof the rural teachers needed for one-teacher schools can be prepared next\nyear in the secondary schools of the state.\nSeventy-eight of the 105 counties of the state have one or more of the\nno high schools and academies recognized by the State Board of Education.\nAs to the nature of the preparation to be gained now for rural teachers\nin the secondary schools of Kansas, the board's regulations for the first\nyear require that those schools must give at least one-half unit in psychology, one-half unit in methods and management, including a certain amount\nof observation and training work, and one unit of review of common\nbranches, the latter to be nine weeks each in arithmetic, geography, grammar, and reading.\nOn the broad question as to the wisdom of giving some distinctively\nprofessional preparation of rural teachers in secondary schools, the writer\nof this paper must record his conviction .that such a procedure is a wise\nmakeshift pending the day, yet to come, when the professional preparation of rural teachers shall be so broad that only well-equipped normal\nschools above the secondary grade can hope to accomplish the task. That\nday will come only when the people in their capacity as state and nation\nshall provide for rural-school teaching as an honorable and reasonably\nremunerative life-occupation.\nOf course any professional training for rural teachers is better than\nno such training. But in using the secondary schools as agencies for\ntraining teachers for rural schools there should be contemplated such\nchanges in high-school curricula as will insure that the high school is preparing for rural life-relations rather than preparing solely for the college\nwhich has heretofore been supposed to prepare for life.\nI need not here voice the steadily rising insistent criticism of h'gh-school\ncurricula which demands that such curricula get away from the traditional\npreparation for the college. That criticism will have its effect and the\nsecondary schools of the country will line up in obedience to its demands.\nNo one would suggest that less than the two units of professional work\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nTHRU\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n577\n\ncalled for by the Kansas State Board should be accepted in any secondaryschool preparation of any class of teachers. The imperative necessity of\nthe one-half unit in psychology and the one-half unit in methods and\nmanagement with the unit in review of common branches will doubtless\nbe conceded by all. But in the methods and management the bearing\nof everything thereunder relating to the one-teacher rural school should be\nmagnified if the work is to prepare rural teachers. The beauty of any\npreparation which leads to success in handhng a one-teacher school is that\nit lays the foundation of success in managing any other kind of a school.\nIt is not merely an accident that teachers who have broken into the profession thru an initial experience in teaching a school of all grades prove\nthe best teachers in any future field. The preparation for handling child\nlife there is a better preparation for handling less artificial child life than\nanywhere else outside the home and the one who succeeds in this environment is more apt to succeed in the less natural closely graded city-school\nsystem.\nBut the phase of method and management work loosely referred to\nby the Kansas Board as \"a certain amount of observation and training\nwork \" needs to be emphasized. In connection with every secondary school\nlicensed to prepare rural teachers there should be a readily accessible district school taught by an expert teacher — a school which would be in its\nessentials a model district school. Here the theory of the methods and\nmanagement class should be tried out by most careful observation of expert\npractice. Thus may a reasonable ideal of a good rural school be gained.\nBut the other work demanded of the candidates for rural-school teachers' licenses in the secondary schools should have a specific bearing upon\nthe problems of farm life. To make clear the spirit of what I mean I\nquote from the resolutions offered by the Governor of Georgia before the\nBoard of Trustees of the University of Georgia at the meeting called to\ndefine the status and scope of the congressional district agricultural schools\nauthorized by the act of 1906. The second of these resolutions reads as\nfollows:\nThat the course of study be limited to four years' work, including at least one year\nof common-school or elementary studies, and that the scholastic year be forty weeks;\nthe school day to be so arranged as to assure at least three hours a day of classroom work\nin agriculture and related sciences, English, mathematics, and history, and at least three\nhours a day on the farm or in the laboratory or shop, the hours in actual farm work to be\nregulated by the exigencies of the farm; the program being such as to provide for alternation of the work and study anv)ng the classes morning and afternoon, thereby securing\ncontinuous operation of the farm and shop; the female students to be provided with a\npracticable and comprehensive course in domestic science, sewing, household economics,\nand kindred studies.\n\nIn the carrying-out of this resolution in spirit a tentative course of\nstudy was adopted in which the outline for the spring term of the fourth\nyear reads as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n578\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCLASSROOM\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nEnglish— Preparation of Essays, Classic Readings.\nMathematics — Geometry.\nRural Economics.\nChemistry.\nEconomic Biology.\nLABORATORY,\n\nFIELD, AND SHOP INSTRUCTION\n\nChemistry of foods, bread-stuffs, fertilizers, and animal products, laboratory investigations, with some work in bacteriology, three hours a week.\nLibrary Reading — Three hdurs a week.\nHousehold Management— Planning a Home; three hours a week.\nMINIMUM\n\nREQUIRED\n\nWORK\n\nFarm work — Nine hours a week.\nHome work — Nine hours a week.\n\nSuch an outline of instruction compared with the traditional course\nto prepare a foundation or a liberal education appears revolutionary but\nwe have come to an age demanding a revolution in our school systems.\nAnd somewhat along these lines in a manner yet to be worked out should\ncome a reformation of secondary-school courses which would minister to\nthe preparation of rural-school teachers.\nAssume that the preparation for teaching which can be secured in the\nsecondary schools is all the preparation the would-be teacher of a rural\nschool will ever get; then that preparation should be with an eye single\nto the needs of the work to which such a person aspires. If later opportunity presents itself to enter other professions let the preparation for such\nprofessions be deferred to an opportune time.\nThat a preparation that will place the rural teacher in a position to\nenter fully into the spirit of the farm will be a pretty good preparation for\nlife in its broader phases is indicated in words of Dr. S. A. Knapp of the\nUnited States Department of Agriculture when he says,\nThe ownership of a small farm teaches conservatism in society and government;\nthrift; independence of thought and action; the management of affairs; the necessity of\nco-operation, and the federation of interests to carry out great projects.\nA small farm is a state reduced to few acres. The owner plans, manages, legislates,\nvotes, governs, is employer and employed, superintends and labors, suffers the defeats\nof wrong policies, and reaps the rewards of successful administration. It has been\nobserved for many years that the sons of small farmers develop managing ability. From\ntheir earliest years they are compelled to do things and act independently. It is from\nthis source that the greatest numbers of managers of the various enterprises of our country\nhave been drawn.\"\n\nB.\nWALTER\n\nTHRU\nE. LARSON,\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNTY\n\nINSPECTOR\n\nOF\n\nNORMAL\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nMADISON,\n\nWIS.\n\nThe Wisconsin plan of training teachers for the country schools in a\nspecial institution known as the County 'Irainmg School for Teachers\noriginated in the early nineties.\nAmong those who started the movement\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nTHRU\n\nCOUNTY\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n579\n\nwere men of experience in this particular field of educational work. After\nsome years of discussion and agitation a law was enacted in 1899 authorizing the establishment of two such schools. Applications were immediately made by two counties. Since that time each legislature has\nincreased the number of training schools. At the present time twenty-six\nare authorized and of this number twenty-four have been established.\nOne of these will begin its work next September.\nIt will be seen from the foregoing that these training schools are authorized by the state legislature but brought into existence by the action of\nthe County Board of Supervisors. This board votes to make an application to have one of these schools located in the county. The board elects\ntwo persons who, with the county superintendent, constitute the Training School Board. Two-thirds of the expenses of maintenance are paid\nby the state and the remaining third is provided by the county board.\nThe schools are, therefore, county institutions under state supervision.\nDuring the past year twenty- three of these schools have been in operation. The aggregate enrollment was about eleven hundred — an average\nof forty-eight for each school. The students, according to their preparation, consisted of the following groups:\nPer cent.\nHigh-school graduates (four years' course)\nThose having had three years high school\nThose having had two years high school\nThose having had one year high school\nState graded-school graduates . . . .»\nDistrict-school graduates\n\nabout 7^\nabout 3^\nabout 10\nabout 15\nabout 14\nabout 50\n\nIt is seen from the above figures that most of the students in these\nschools are from the country communities. With these country students\nare included many who have had high-school work. To those who have\nHttle knowledge of the rural problems this may seem to be a serious mistake. The question is asked how it can be possible that these young people\nwith such limited preparation can go back into the country schools and do\ngood work. It is true that many of them are too young and mmature to\ndo good professional work. Yet we must remember that the purpose of\nthese training schools is to improve the teaching in the country schools, and\nto accomplish this people must be sought who are familiar with the rural\nenvironment. Those who have been studying the rural-school problem at\nfirst hand all agree that the great majority of rural teachers — ^both elementary and secondary — must be recruited from the rural communities\nthemselves. Not only do such people understand the conditions better,\nbut they are more content to remain in this field of work with the intention\nof building it up. Teachers brought up in the city usually take the first\nopportunity to get into city-school work even tho the salaries paid in the\ncountry exceed those in the city. As a rule, also, the country-bred teacher\nis a greater force in the life of the community.\nIn the year that has closed\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "580\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normtl\n\nthere were graduated from the training schools from four hundred to foujr\nhundred and fifty, and practically all of these will go into the countryschools of Wisconsin next September.\nOf the twenty-four counties having training schools, fourteen have provided special buildings. In a few cases unused county buildings have been\nremodeled, but more frequently new structures have been erected costing from\n$7,000 to $28,000. Three of these training schools are in the same buildings as the county agricultural schools. Four other counties have provided buildings large enough for the two schools, anticipating the establishment ofan agricultural school in the future. Ten of the counties rent\nquarters or are provided free quarters by the villages or cities \"n which\nthey are located. In some instances portions of high-school buildings are\nused, and in others portions of library buildings. The average cost of maintenance for the year ending June, 1909, was about $4,500.\nThe course of study covers two years of work. High-school graduates\nand others of sufficient maturity and preparation may complete the work\nin a year. The common branches are studied both from the academic\nand from the professional standpoint. It is not the purpose of the schools\nto give a superficial knowledge of the so-called higher branches. The\nteacher in the elementary school must first of all know the branches she\nis to teach. It is a sad comment upon some of the phases of present-day\nhigh-school work that many students entering the training schools from\nhigh schools are no better prepared in the common branches than many\nwho come directly from the country schools.\nIn addition to the common branches, professional subjects are taken\nup. These are school management and theory of teaching. The state\nmanual of the elementary course of study forms the basis of the professional\nwork in the different branches. From ten to twenty weeks of observation\nand practice-teaching under competent supervision are required of each\nperson who is graduated. In many of the schools considerable additional\nobservation is done during the year in country schools, reports of the same\nbeing made to the faculty. In many of the schools also some work is done\nin drawing, manual training, and the like, special emphasis being laid upon\nsuch phases as can be utilized in country-school teaching.\nNature study, agriculture, and farm life, in some form or other, are\nkept before the students continually. All schools preparing teachers for\ncountry-school work must get their students familiar with the vast amount\nof material found in outdoor life. The country teacher should use the\nenvironment as one of her assistants. To do this she must know not simply\nbooks, but things. Even many of our trained teachers today are as innocent of the knowledge of things as Whittier's uncle was of books.\nTeachers should be leaders in the communities in which they work.\nTo develop this power literary societies are organized and in these the\nstudents get training in conducting public meetings, preparing programs.\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nTHRU\n\nCOUNTY\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n581\n\nand in public speaking of various kinds. The programs are usually of\nsuch a nature that they are suggestive of work that may be done in the\ncountry schools or work that may be carried on in the community by means\nof organizations of various kinds, such as farmers' clubs, debating societies,\nand the like.\nAs a rule there is a strong professional spirit pervading all these schools.\nThe students are there for a definite purpose. They are preparing themselves for a special vocation. All the work of the school, the academic as\nwell as the professional, is taken up with special reference to country\nconditions.\nThe total number of training-school graduates (not including the year\n1910) is about 1,850. Of these about 1,150, or 62 per cent., taught the\npast year. About 150, or 8 per cent., have since graduation done work\nin higher institutions. From information obtained recently from county\nsuperintendents who have had several years of experience with trainingschool graduates, we have the following summary:\nNumber\nNumber\nNumber\nNumber\nNumber\nNumber\nNumber\n\nof counties considered\n13\nof teachers needed in those counties\n1715\nof these teachers who are training-school graduates. 709 (42%)\nof training-school graduates doing excellent work . . 30%\ndoing good work\n40%\ndoing fair work\n20%\ndoing poor work\n10%\n\nThe superintendents report that the graduates of the training school\nshow a knowledge of country-school problems found in no other class of\nbeginners. They know what to do and how to do it. As a class they are\nenthusiastic in their work and show evidence of daily preparation. The\ngreatest improvement has come about in the teaching of primary reading —\nthe foundation for all school work.\nThe teachers in the training schools are invariably strong men and\nwomen. They are selected with reference to their fitness for this special\nkind of work. The faculty consists of two, three, and sometimes four\nteachers. The average salary paid the principal is $1,800 a year. The\nfirst assistants average $1,150 and the second assistants $800. Of the\ntotal number of fifty-five teachers, twenty- two a,re college or university\ngraduates and twenty-eight have diplomas from normal schools. The rest\nhave life state certificates. While good scholarship is essential to success in\ntraining-school work, yet there are other qualifications that are even more\nimportant. A person who has good scholarship but who does not know\ncountry conditions or love country life is utterly disqualified for work in a\ntraining school. We have in our training schools some of the best teachers\nin the state.\nThe work of the training school is not confined to the schoolroom. As\nthese schools are preparing teachers for country schools the faculty must\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nknow the conditions obtaining in these schools. This necessitates visitation. The training-school faculty are a great aid to the county superintendent in his work. Much field work has also been done to stimulate\ninterest in the country schools. The training-school principal is the county\nsuperintendent's helper in arousing educational sentiment in the county.\nNumerous educational gatherings are held during the year in various parts\nof the county and these are frequently attended by members of the faculty.\nThis phase of the training-school work cannot be overemphasized. If\nour rural communities are to improve educationally, they must improve\nfrom within. There is an abundance of material on every hand that can\nbe utilized but it needs to be organized. Much has been done in many\ncounties by the county superintendent with the aid of the training-school\nfaculty and the graduates who have been under their influence. The\ninstitution becomes a unifying force and the result is greater efficiency\nthru organization and co-operation.\nThe principal drawback to the efficiency of the training schools at the\npresent time is that the students in many cases are too young and have too\nlittle preparation for the work. To remedy this we need rural high schools\nto which parents can send their children until they have received a more\nthoro preparation. It is out of the question at present to require a highschool preparation as an entrance requirement to the training school as\nthat would in many cases turn away the material we are most anxious to\nget into our country-school work. With the establishment of rural high\nschools this objection to the training school will gradually disappear. It\nis also certain that many of these schools will be established in the near\nfuture and that the work done will be much more efficient in preparing the\nboys and girls of the country to develop in every way the communities\nin which they are living. The training school, then, as an institution,\nworks hand in hand with other institut'ons.\nThe training school is a growing institution. It is by no means perfect,\nbut it is giving its entire time and energy to this one problem — the uplifting of the rural communites to the best possible life. Some of the most\ncapable men and women are engaged in the work. Thru their efforts the\nteaching in the rural schools is being greatly improved and social and educational forces organized. In many counties the salaries of teachers have\nalready been increased as a result of this better work. The importance\nof this work is second to none and the state can well afford to put its best\nworkers into this service and pay them salaries that will enable them to\nmake it a life-work.\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nC.\nERNEST\n\nPREPARATION\n\nTHRU\nBURNHAM,\nWESTERN\n\nCOURSES\n\nTHRU\n\nSTATE\n\nIN STATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nNORMAL\n\nDIRECTOR\nOF THE\nDEPARTMENT\nOF\nSTATE NORMAL\nSCHOOL, KALAMAZOO,\n\n583\n\nSCHOOLS\nRURAL\nMICH.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe chief arguments for better-prepared instructors for rural schools\nhave been: first, the relatively low grade of instruction now given in\ncountry schools; second, the necessity for teachers who are made capable\nand inspired for leadership in the industrial and social redirection of the\ncourse of study by special preparation in these lines; and third, the desperate necessity of changing the balance of interest in country life from urban\nto rural ideals.\nExperience has been the chief available means for the better preparation of teachers for rural elementary schools, but this has lacked full fruition because efl&cient supervision, the chief aid to growth by experience,\nhas not yet been thoroly worked out for rural schools. Aside from supervision the whole reconstructive process has found expression chiefly thru\nthree lines of activity: first, the granting of certificates to teach in rural\nschools to students who have partly or wholly completed the secondary\nschool; second, the granting of such certificates to applicants who, in\naddition to part or all of the secondary-school course, take one year of\nspecial preparatory work in a county normal training class; and third,\nthe establishment of courses in state normai schools which are intended to\nbe especially adapted to the needs of teachers of rural schools.\nAll of these movements have contributed in a cumulative way to the\nrapidly growing appreciation of specially prepared teachers in rural communites. They have all been handicapped by the tradition that little,\nif any, special preparation is needed for teaching the common country\nschool, and it is this tradition plus the static circumstances growing out\nof it that has dictated the elementary character of the courses thus far\noffered for prospective country teachers. However, in the brief years\nthru which these activities have made returns to the rural schools, there\nhas been such an accumulation of this service in spite of its meager nature\nthat an increased minimum has been made possible and the promise is\nthat the extension and enlargement of courses for country teachers will be\npossible in much more rapidly increasing measure as the years pass.\nThe local county or bi-county training class has the advantage of more\nconscious public attention and wider opportunities for practice teaching\nthan have thus far been afforded in any state normal school. These local\nclasses have made and are making a rich contribution to rural elementary education. Their most serious fault is that they may perpetuate by\ntheir brief courses the belief that httle preparation is needed to teach\na rural school. It is this belief that is the fundamental obstacle to a just\nsolution of the problem. However, in spite of their brief courses, these\nclasses are doing much to break down indirectly the very belief they seem\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "584\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nto perpetuate, since in many of the young people who have the advantages of these classes there is bred a belief that their preparation is inadequate, and their seeking in higher institutions for more adequate education\nwill help to destroy the traditional handicap of the rural school.\nState normal schools in many states are becoming conscious of the\nnecessity for grappling with the question of preparing teachers for service\nin rural elementary schools. Dr. Harris some years ago clearly pointed\nout the many essential differences in the teaching of a school of many\ngrades with few pupils in each grade from the teaching of one grade with\na large number of pupils in it. The rural school is thus seen to demand\ndistinctive character of organization and a direct and well-articulated application of the best-known facilities for instruction. Current rural progress\nhas fixed attention upon the great social significance of the rural school,\nand thus has been emphasized the necessity for rural teachers receiving\nsome specific training for social service. In 1892 Dr. Henry Barnard, after\nfifty years of close identification with state-normal-school work, said that\nhe regarded the raising-up of a corps of teachers prepared for service in the\ncountry as an unsolved problem.\nThis problem is still unsolved. Various plans are in process of development in the different states, general reference to which has already been\nmade. The limits of this paper permit but a single state example, and for\nthis illustration the plan which has been developed in the state normal\nschools of Michigan, and the particulars of that plan as found in the Western State Normal School at Kalamazoo, will be taken.\nCounty normal training classes were authorized in Michigan in 1903.\nForty- two of these classes have been established, and a total of 2,129\ngraduates have gone out from them to teach rural schools. The training\ngiven is one year. The entrance requirement is the completion of ten grades\nof public-school work or its equivalent. The certificate granted is good\nfor three years. Renewals have been granted to 342 of these teachers after\nthree years of successful experience. These classes are really more effective than appears from the foregoing, since many of their students have\nhad teaching experience and some have been graduated from high school\nbefore entering the classes.\nBy multiplying the centers of interest in the betterment of rural elementary education; by making necessary in their own instructors the identification of well-paid, trained, and experienced teachers with this field;\nand by the rapid sending-out into the service of the rural school of hundreds of young people who have heard that the teacher of a country school,\nat least in as large a measure as the teacher of children anywhere, is working\nat the fountain-head of progress — by these direct and specific results the\ncounty normal training classes have richly proven their right to be.\nThru these particular services these classes are a large factor in the\naccomplishment of a more general — and obviously, ultimately to be a far\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nTHRU\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n585\n\ngreater — service to rural elementary education. Michigan state normal\nschools were already making some attempt to serve the rural schools when\nthe county classes were established in 1903. At first there was a disposition on the part of some state-normal-school people to discount the county\nclasses but this had to stop, for within a year it became evident that the\ncounty classes were likely to get better results than had thus far been\nsecured by the state-normal course for rural teachers. This course offered\ntwo years' work to graduates of the eighth grade; the county class course\nwas one year to graduates of the tenth grade. That the state normals\nhad underestimated the status of the rural school was proven by the\ngreater success of the county classes; that the present status was still\nunderestimated, or else was rapidly advancing, was proven four years\nlater, when the state normals estabhshed a course two years stronger than\ntheir original course and one year better than the county classes, for there\nwas no serious problem in enrolling students for the new course, which is\nacademically equal to graduation from the standard twelve-grade high\nschool.\nThe spirit of the times forbids the continuance, for a longer time than\nis made necessary by the present order, of paid public instruction to rural\nchildren by instructors who are two, three, four, and five years less well\nprepared than the paid public instructors gf urban children. Present\npublic-service ideals also forbid any state normal school, supported proportionately byall of the taxable property of the state, to concentrate its\nactivities and consequent expenditures upon the needs of urban education.\nCountry property, from one-third to one-half the total, and country children in somewhat the same proportion to the whole in many of the most\npopulous states, have but to ask, in the court of public opinion, to receive\na verdict against urbanized state normal schools. This is a verdict with\nits roots in the past and its fruit in the future. The fruit is not forbidden\nto the state normal schools of America.\nReturning to the promised illustration of special courses for rural\nteachers in a state normal, found in the Western State Normal at Kalamazoo, Mich., the facts follow: The law establishing this school, in common\nwith the laws of the state establishing other normal schools, definitely\nstated that it should always be one of the purposes of the school to train\nteachers for rural schools. In compliance with this law provision was\nmade, when the new normal was organized six years ago, for a department\nof rural schools to be directed by a man ranking oflficially and in salary\nwith other heads of departments. It was proposed that the department\nshould concentrate the school's interest in, and activities for, the preparation of teachers for rural schools; and force the necessary constructive\nevolution of the normal's course of study and all available special aids for\nthe training of country teachers. This department has grown proportionately with the other parts of the school. There has been constant\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "586\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nsympathetic co-operation by all department heads and continued enthusiastic support by the administration. Constant work in teachers' and\nfarmers' institutes and associations has brought the department a rapidly\nincreasing appreciation in the state. All of these encouragements have\nmade possible more and more satisfactory results. At the end of the first\nyear four students finished the course for rural teachers; the second year,\ntwelve; the third year, eighteen; the fourth year, twenty-eight; the fifth\nyear, fifty-seven; and the sixth year, seventy-six. The rapid increase in the\npast two years was caused by offering a more advanced course of study.\nThis year forty-one completed the original course (two and one-third\nyears' work by eighth grade graduates) and thirty-five completed the new\nand more advanced course (two years' work by graduates of the tenth\ngrade). There were ten men in the class this year, of whom seven were in\nthe better course. The original course will be discontinued after one more\nyear, when, it is believed, the enrollment in the more advanced course will\nreach the present capacity of the school in this department.\nAside from the regular academic subjects of high-school instruction\nwhich are quite rigidly held to, there are three groups of subjects thru\nwhich special adaptation to rural-school teaching is sought: First, the\nprofessional, including psychology, method, and management, twelve\nweeks' instruction being given in each. Observation of children both with\nand without definitely assigned problems is given in connection with the\nstudy of psychology and the class work is unified by the use of a textbook.\nIn method the state course of study for rural schools is carefully considered\nand observations with reports and discussions of the same are assigned\nin both the urban and rural training schools. The fundamental subjects of\nthe elementary-school curriculum are emphasized, and special attention'\nis given to the more recent additions of the rural-school course of study,\nsuch as handwork, nature study, and agriculture. In management the\nlarger problems of the organization of the rural school, together with its\nrelation to the township, county, and state phases of the educational system, and the laws governing school officers, teachers, and pupils are studied.\nIn connection with this work observations are assigned in the training\nschools and in the neighboring schools.\nThe second group has to do with the localization of the school by the\nintroduction of home geography, nature observation, agricultural investigation, and application in the school of some definite problems in domestic science and art. Laboratory and garden work are done and the successes of farmers who are within traveling distance are carefully observed.\nAffiliation is also had with the farmers '-institute movement which is\nsatisfactorily developed in the state, and the generous co-operation of the\nagricultural college has always been had. A graduate of the agricultural\ncollege gives the instruction in this group of subjects.\nThe third group is intended to develop social intelligence and inspire\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nTHRU\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n587\n\nto purposes of rural social leadership. A rural sociology seminar has\nfortnightly meetings in which papers, research reports, and debates are\ngiven touching topics of rural industrial, social, and moral significance.\nThis work is supplemented by a brief classroom course in rural sociology.\nIn recognition of the exceptional importance of this group a series of annual\nrural-progress lectures was instituted four years ago. The lectures have\nbeen given by President K. L. Butterfield, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College; Dean L. H. Bailey, of the New York State College of Agriculture; Dean Eugene Davenport, of the Illinois Agricultural College; and\nHenry Wallace, editor of Wallaces' Farmer. Representatives of the various farmers' organizations of the state attend these lectures, and the\nstudents of the department of rural schools give a reception in honor of\nthe lecturer and the guests. In 1910 the lecturer of the State Grange held\na lecturers' conference at the school in the afternoon of the day of the\nlecture. This was attended by about seventy local and state grange officials, nearly all of whom remained for the evening lecture and the reception.\nThe president of the State Association of Farmers' Clubs, and two professors from the Agricultural College were present. This gives the young\npeople in the rural-school courses an occasion peculiarly their own which\nis intellectually and socially as significant as anything that forms a part\nof the annual life of the school. The importance of dignifying and in the\nbest realizable sense standardizing the work of state normal schools for\ncoimtry teachers cannot be overestimated.\nThe greatest special agency thus far developed by the Kalamazoo Normal\nfor the assistance of prospective teachers of rural schools is a rural observation school. This is a real country school within ten minutes' car ride\nof the normal, and in it candidates for graduation in the rural-school\ncourses are given repeated opportunities to observe expert rural-school\nteaching. This school is in process of realizing the possibilities of the\npresent rural school. It finds a new frontier each year and occupies the\nnew field without losing its distinctive country-school characteristics. It\nis hoped that opportunity will soon be found to make similar affiliation\nwith an adjacent two-room school, and with a fairly convenient consolidated school. It is no more the business of state normal schools to typify\nurban-school conditions, as is now done, than it is their business to develop\ntypes also for schools in smaller communities.\nThe conscious and purposeful identification of the normal schools of\nAmerica with the intellectual and social phases of the great conservation\nmovement is an impending educational problem of vast proportions. The\nnormal school has a strategic position in the current campaign for rural\nprogress. The local school is the most peculiarly democratic and public\ninstitution in rural life. The teachers of these local schools, may, in so\nfar as they are individually equal to their opportunities, dominate these\nschools and fix their type on the rising generation. From this vantage-\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\npoint the teacher may become the local, personal realization of the best\ntype of human life; and likewise the school may localize a typically efl&cient social institution. Rural progress awaits the mutiplied localizations\nof these two constructive types. The teacher is the shortest cut to public\nparticipation in rural progress. As this fact comes into full pubUc appreciation there will be a rapid evolution in American state normal schools.\nREPORTS\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nOF COMMITTEES\n\nPROGRESS OF SIMPLIFIED\nAMERICA\n\nSPELLING\n\nIN\n\nTo the Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association:\nYour committee is able to make a report of progress that is very encouraging to those interested in the simplification of the spelling of English,\nas the year has been notable in the things that have been done and in the\nco-operation that has been secured. This has been due to the interest\nthat has been shown by an increasing number of scholars, educators, and\nbusiness men. The use of many of the simplified forms is occurring more\nand more in the correspondence of the influential and the authoritative\nas well as in that of the men of affairs and of action. The ridicule and\nthe contumely heaped upon the movement five years ago has almost entirely\ndisappeared, and the opposition to a reasonable consideration of its demands\nand claims is gone. This is somewhat demonstrated by the following\nfacts:\n1. Webster's New International Dictionary has recognized the principle\nof the movement by introducing more than 3,000 shorter forms of spelling\nthan are found in the Webster's International Dictionary, but has not abandoned yet the diacritical marking of words as the proper method of determining the true pronunciation of said words. This will make the way\nclear for the development of a universal key alphabet that will be generally approved by linguists and educators as suitable to be introduced uniformly inall text books and reference books used in schools and colleges.\n2. The Twentieth Century Edition of the Standard Dictionary has\nrecognized many more of these shorter forms than even the Webster's\nDictionary, and the next edition of the Standard, now being prepared for\npublication, will recognize many thousands more of these new and easier\nforms as worthy a place in English publications. This dictionary will also\nuse the new key alphabet as endorsed by the linguists and the educators\nas specially adapted for public-school work.\n3. Some years ago the Department of Superintendence appointed a\ncommittee on \"A Universal System of Key Notation,\" which committee\nwas to co-operate with the American Philological Association and the Modern Language Association in adopting and recommending such an alphabet\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON SIMPLIFIED\n\nSPELLING\n\n589\n\nas could be universally adopted for school use. This committee has come\nto such conclusions that the members are now practically a unit on the\nbest form for all practical purposes that this key alphabet should have.\nHence, today it is possible to say that there is practically assured a\nNational Education Association key alphabet that should commend itself\nto all educators for its simplicity and its possible usefulness in all publicschool work. This alphabet conforms closely to the usage in other modern\nlanguages and will be, therefore, more acceptable for use in teaching the\nlanguage to foreign children.\n4. The Provincial Normal School of Nova Scotia, the State Normal\nUniversity at Normal, 111., the State Normal School of Colorado, and the\n\nI\n\nState Teacher's College of Iowa are printing their bulletins in such text as\nto use the new simplified forms adopted by the Simplified Spelling Board.\nTheir use of these shorter words has shown the public that the printed page\nis not disfigured and that there is no sensible reason for any school to fear\npolitical or scholarly repudiation when it consistently represents thus the\ninterests of the children in the public schools. These schools also use the\nsimpler forms in the correspondence of their offices, in the mimeographing\nand duplicating of circulars and outlines that are distributed in the classwork of the teachers, and in all other ways that can educate people to an\nappreciation of the shorter and easier forms of spelling.\n5. The Simplified Spelling Board has created the North Central States\nBranch and preliminary steps have been taken to more fully organize these\nstates for a more helpful work in that special territory, so that the membership both of the board and of the advisory council will be more fully developed during the year in this part of the United States. This will enable\nthese states to consider the problems involved and the work to be done\nwithout depending upon the more widely scattered main organization.\nEvery normal school or college that will co-operate in helping extend this\nwork by the using of these simplified forms will be granted a membership\nin the advisory council, and will thus be regularly consulted in all future\nendeavors of the main board.\n6. The normal schools are more interested in the progress and the\nsuccess of this movement than any other kind of educational center. They\nhave much to do in developing public sentiment. They are leading factors\nin extending universal education to the masses. They realize the difficulties of the problems involved in teaching English, and they should,\ntherefore, welcome every plan that means more education with less effort\nand less expenditure of time and money. The normal schools are not\nbound by traditions that interdict the adoption of sensible reforms. They\noccupy the key to the position, and their managers should be patriotic\nenough to co-operate in helping forward a change that means everything\nfor educational progress. To this end the presidents and the faculties of\nthis order of educational institutions should be found in the front rank of\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Normal\n\neverything that means rational and rapid improvement in all ways that\nare real and genuine.\n7. At the St. Louis meeting the preliminary vote of the members of the\nNational Education Association was reported as being largely in favor\nof something prominent being done to hasten the day when English spelling\nmight be simplified. At the Asbury Park meeting that followed it was\ndecided by the National Council of Education not to appropriate any money\nfrom the National Education Association treasury for such a propaganda,\ntho the importance of the work to be done was recognized as worthy the\nattention of philanthropists. To know, therefore, that in a few years such\nremarkable results as now exist could have been accomplished indicates\nthat when the people are ready for reform then is the time to take the\nopportunity and urge activity and sensible management.\n8. This report cannot be truthfully closed without bearing tribute to\nthe patriotism and the admirable service of the members of the Executive\nCommittee of the Simplified Spelling Board, who have regularly and systematically met weekly in New York City and have gratuitously given\nspecial scholarship and valuable time in order that the prestige and the\nconsideration necessary for such an important and difiicult work might be\ngiven. Such attention and labor has been thus conferred upon the movement that the respect and the esteem of linguistic scholarship, both at home\nand abroad, has been cheerfully accorded.\n9. Your committee is of the opinion that the time is now here when all\nnormal schools should accept the shorter spellings on a par with the standard spellings, that they should use the simpler spellings in their ofiicial\ncorrespondence and printing, and that they should encourage the adoption\nof such a custom by their students and teachers. The progress made\njustifies this sort of recognition of a rational, scholarly undertaking, and\nin no way can public elementary and secondary education be more rapidly\nimproved.\nRespectfully submitted,\n( Homer H. Seerley, Chairman\nCommittee i David Felmley\nCharles McKenny\nREPORT\n\nOF THE NATIONAL COMMITTEE\nEDUCATION\n\nON AGRICULTURAL\n\nTo the Members of the Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association:\nThe Year. — Much activity has been necessary this year as the work\npossible to be done has been specially effective and encouraging. An\nannual meeting of the committee occurred at Indianapolis, Ind., in connection with the annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence,\nat which time reports were made by the secretary and by the members of\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n591\n\n'— i\n\nthe Executive Committee, and addresses were given by prominent educators who are cordially co-operating in endeavoring to secure national and\nstate attention to the immediate need of more industrial and vocational\neducation for the masses thru the administration of public elementary and\nsecondary education. At this annual meeting the vacancies existing in the\ncommittee were filled, selection being made from states most active, and a\nmore positively effective organization' of workers was thus made. The\nextending of the membership to the different parts of the United States\nthru the addition of such persons as would take an active interest in the\nprogress of legislation in the states represented has been decidedly advantageous inhelping public interest.\nThe hearing before the Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry. —\nDuring the month of April the Senate Committee on Agriculture and\nForestry gave a hearing to interested citizens, members of the National\nCommittee, representatives of labor organizations, and all others who were\ndesirous of giving reasons and arguments for the national government\nundertaking to encourage the adoption and the developing of industrial\nand vocational education among the masses. This hearing was attended\nby Secretary E. E. Balcomb, of Rhode Island,\" and by President Thomas\nD. Miller, of West Virginia, who presented effectively to the Senate Committee the views of the normal-school and public-school educators concerning the problems at hand. The impression made upon the country\nby this hearing was very favorable. Later the facts presented at this\nhearing were published in pamphlet form and have been widely distributed\nby Senator Dolliver, the chairman of the Senate Committee.\nThe hill pending. — For some years there have been sundry bills pending\nin Congress to encourage the adoption of education in agriculture in an\nelementary and secondar)'^ form by the public schools. This year the\nDolliver Bill in the United States Senate and the Davis Bill in the House\nof Representatives were the measures that were most actively under consideration. These were modifications and improvements of the previous\nbills that had been pending the past two congresses, and include most of\nthe characteristics that the members of the committee desire to see accomplished. These bills make provision (i) for expansion of vocational education in the present high schools of this country; (2) for the organization and establishment of new high schools of an agricultural type where\nsuch an undertaking is necessary for the proper education of the whole\npeople; (3) for the organization of suitable experimental work in connection with these new agricultural high schools; and (4) for the education\nand training of the elementary and secondary teachers in vocational subjects thru the state normal schools. All of these objects are fairly met by\nthe proposed measure and for this reason the later bill seems to be more\nacceptable than the previous undertakings.\nThe popular interest. — This movement had the hearty, sympathetic\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "592\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nco-operation of ex-President Roosevelt, who at the time of the Washington\nmeeting of the National Committee gave a hearing and showed large\ninterest in the prospects and purposes of the movement. The same cordial\nco-operation has been granted by President Taft, who has shown a willingness to accept the propositions as desirable. The friends of the measure\nhave reason to believe that this bill could pass the Senate with a good\nmajority. The co-operation of normal-school and public-school educators\nhas been almost universal, while the state superintendents of public instruction ofthe several states have done all that was possible to advance\nthe interests of the cause. The labor organizations of the country, the\nagricultural press, and the friends of popular education in general have all\nshown a willingness to take a part in promoting the cause thus represented,\nwhile the people themselves are decidedly in favor of something in this hne\nbeing done at as early a day as possible.\nThe difference of opinion. — The only note of discord that has been discovered has come from those congressmen, citizens, and educators who\nseem to think that the states should manage this matter for themselves\nand that education is not a matter of national concern. The only reply\nthat is necessary to be made for such claims as these is that every other\nkind of progress that is advocated except education has now the support\nand co-operation to a large extent of the national government. Since\npublic secondary education, teacher education, and elementary education\nare of notable benefit to national as well as to state life, there can be no\ngood and sufficient reason why the national government should not have a\npart in this great work. It is well known that all sorts of public enterprises\nthat have to do with the financial, material, and social progress of the times\nare fostered, aided, or supported by the national government, the majority\nof which things are of less moment and value to the people at large than is\npublic education, and hence the contention of the National Committee on\nAgricultural Education that popular education is as much a matter of\nnational concern as post-offices, world's fairs, battleships, airships, ship subsidies, improvement of rivers and harbors, and the Panama Canal, which\nhave received reasonable and sympathetic acceptance by the majority of\nthinking people. The condition of the controversies in the House of Representatives as well as in the Senate has made any new legislation of a\nnational and patriotic character hard to get consideration, and hence it is\nthe more remarkable that a report of progress is even a possibility at this\ntime. There is particular need, at present, for the friends of the vocational\neducation of the masses to stand for the important principle rather than\nfor the specific plan, as the developing of the plan should be properly left\nto Congress and to the state officials to whom the work must be later committed. The danger to the cause now is with the average educator. He\nis more active in making plans and in opposing proposed methods of operating than he is regarding the establishing and the developing of the prin-\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n593\n\nciples that are the real foundations. The main proposition to be accepted\nnow is that of getting something started in both state and nation, rather\nthan to be so particular as to just what specific plan is started. Progress\nis only a reality when there is something to do with. Experience and trial\nwill lead to proper modifications, as time passes. Interest should be paramount in endeavor rather than paramount in persons or methods. Success\ndepends upon a beginning of something rather than waiting until a perfect\nsystem can be formulated and adopted. To this end the coming year\nshould be one of keeping at the problem without any show of discouragement or discontent. The largeness of the undertaking makes it imperative that years be given, if necessary, to reach the goal so absolutely essential\nto public welfare.\nRespectfully submitted.\nHomer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa, Chairman\nE. E. Balcomb, Providence, R.I., Secretary\nThos. C. Miller, Shepherdstown, W.Va.\nE. C. Bishop, Lincoln, Nebr.\nD. B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C.\nH. G. Williams, Athens, Ohio\nAlbert Salisbury, Whitewater, Wis.\nCommittee { M. Bates Stephens, Annapolis, Md.\nJ. B. AswELL, Natchitoches, La.\nJ. Y. JoYNER, Raleigh, N.C.\nJohn R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.\nR. J. Aley, Indianapolis, Ind.\nN. C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.\nAlfred Bayliss, Macomb, 111.\nWilliam Stewart, Salt Lake City, Utah\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL TRAINING AND\nART EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— ]AtiES C. Monaghan, principal of Trade School\nNew York City, N.Y.\nVice-President — Miss Ednab A. Rich, president State Nor. Sch. of Man. Arts and Home Econ.,\nSanta Barbara, Cal.\nSecretary — C. Valentine Kirby, supervisor of art instruction\n\n. . Buffalo, N.Y.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 5, 1910\nThe meeting was called to order in the ArUngton Street Church, Boston, by VicePresident Ednah A. Rich in the absence of the president.\nThe first paper, \"Our Public Schools as Preparatory Schools for Practical Life,\" by\nEdward A. Rumely, of Laporte, Ind., was read by Mr. Rumely's representative, John\nFoster Carr, of New York City. Charles H. Keyes, superintendent of South District\nSchools, Hartford, Conn., spoke upon the topic, \"Better Preparation for Life Needs of\nIndustrial Demands.\"\nThe discussion were participated in by the following: George W. Bryant, superintendent of manual training, Newport, R.I.; George E. Meyers, principal, McKinley\nManual Training School, Washington, D.C.; Paul Kreuzpointner, institute lecturer, of\nAltoona, Pa.; Arthur L. Williston, director, School of Science and Technology, Pratt\nInstitute, Brooklyn, N.Y.; and John C. Brodhead, director of manual training, Boston,\nMass.\nThe Rev. Henry Williamson, convener. Manual Instruction Committee, of Dundee,\nScotland, brought greetings from abroad.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION, Wednesday Forenoon, July 6, 1910\n\nThe session was called to order at 9:45 a.m., in the Arlington Street Church, President Monaghan presiding.\nThe first speaker was Arthur D. Dean, chief of the Department of Industrial Education, State of New York, Albany, N.Y. Subject: \"A Practical System for General\nTraining in Industrial Education.\"\nC. B. Connelley, dean of Carnegie Technical Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa., presented a\npaper on \"The Conservation of Educational Methods.\"\n\"The Training of Teachers of Industrial Work\" was the subject of a paper presented\nby Michael W. Murray, director of manual training, Technical High School, Newtonville,\nMass.\nThe discussion was opened by Daniel Upton, principal of State Normal School,\nBuffalo, NY., and the following took part: Joseph B. Richey, superintendent of\nschools, McKeesport, Pa.; Alvin E. Dodd, director, North Bennet Street Industrial\nSchool, Boston, Mass.; Frank H. Ball, director of manual arts, Cincinnati, Ohio; Miss\nAlice L. Lanman, Boston, and others.\nThe president appointed the following Nominating Committee:\n595\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "596\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nJohn C. Brodhead, director of Manual Training, Boston, Mass.\nMiss Susan Odlin, Dayton, Ohio.\nMiss Helen Louise Johnson, Associate Editor, Good Housekeeping, Springfield, Mass.\nThe following resolutions were presented by Mr, Arthur L. Williston and on motion\nwere adopted:\nWhereas, Many high schools in the United States are now giving good courses in\nshop work, drawing, household science and art; and\nWhereas, These subjects contribute to the increase of intellectual and imaginative\npower, to the broadening of social understanding, and to the usefulness and happiness of\nthe student in ways not afiforded by other subjects; and\nWhereas, The recognition of these subjects by college-entrance credits would encourage high schools in extending and intensifying this work; therefore be it\nBy betheurged\nManual\nTraining\nSection toofthese\nthe subjects\nNational asEducation\nAssociation,\nthat 'Resolved,\nthe colleges\nto grant\nrecognition\nelective whenever\nthis\nwork is well taught in any high school.\nIt was further resolved that a committee of seven be appointed by the chair for the\npurpose of carrying into effect this resolution on college credits.\nUpon motion duly seconded and carried the chair appointed the following :\nArthur L. Williston, director, School of Science and Technology, Pratt Institute,\nBrooklyn, N.Y., Chairman.\nMichael W. Murray, director of manual training. Technical High School, Newtonville, Mass.\nWilliam C. A. Hammel, Department of Manual Arts and Physics, State Normal and\nIndustrial College, Greensboro, N.C.\nClarence D. Kingsley, teacher of mathematics. Manual Training High School,\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\nMiss Ednah A. Rich, president, State Normal School of Manual Arts and Home\nEconomics, Santa Barbara, Cal.\nMiss Helen Louise Johnson, associate editor. Good Housekeeping, Springfield, Mass.\nClifford B. Connelley, dean, Carnegie Technical Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nTHIRD SESSION, Thursday Forenoon, July 7, 1910\nMeeting called to order at 9:45 a.m.. President Monaghan presiding.\nThe first speaker was John Ward Stinson, Interlaken School, Laporte, Ind. Subject: \"Professional Suggestions and Experiences in Upholding a Vital and Organic Art\nand Artisanship for America.\"\nC. Valentine Kirby, director of art instruction, Buffalo, N.Y., was the next speaker.\nSubject: \"Art as a Medium for Liberal Education.\"\n\"The Advancement of Drawing and Art Teaching in our Public Schools as Compared with the Advancement made in Foreign Countries\" was presented by Miss Bonnie\nE. Snow, Prang Educational Co., New York City, N.Y.\n\"Drawing and Its Relation to the Arts and Crafts of the Public Schools\" was the\nsubject of a paper presented by William C. A. Hammel, Department of the Manual Arts\nand Physics, State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro, N.C.\nDiscussion was led by John Ward Stinson, Interlaken School, Laporte, Ind.\nClosing remarks by President Monaghan,\nReport of the Nominating Committee :\nFor President: Clifford B. Connelley, Dean of Carnegie Technical Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nFor Vice-President: Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,\nBoston, Mass.\nFor Recording Secretary: Miss May Gearhart, supervisor of drawing, Los Angeles,\nCal.\nFor Corresponding Secretary: Walter Sargent, professor of education as related to\ndrawing and manual training. The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nThe Report was adopted unanimously.\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nAIMS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nIN MODERN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n^97\n\nFOURTH SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 19 10\nThe meeting was called to order at 9: 30 a.m., President Monaghan presiding.\nMiss Helen Kinne, director of household arts, Teachers College, New York City,\nN.Y., read a paper on \"The Vocational Value of the Household Arts.\" This was followed\nby a paper by Miss Ednah A. Rich, president. State Normal School of Manual Arts and\nHousehold Economics, Santa Barbara, Cal.,on \"A Supervisor's Viewpoint of the Practical Application of Art and Science to the Average Day Life of the Child.\"\nMiss Irene E. McDermott, director of household arts, Allegheny High School, Pittsburgh, Pa., presented a paper on \"The Scientific Department of the High School and Its\nRelation to the Household Arts.\"\nThen followed the president's address, \"Aims and Methods of Modem Education.\"\nThere was then a general discussion, led by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Massachusetts\nInstitute of Technology, Boston, Mass., and Miss Laura A. Cauble, assistant professor\nof household economics, Margaret Morrison Carnegie School for Women, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nWilliam C. A. Hammel, of the Manual Arts Committee, read a resolution of thanks\nto the local committees for their courtesy and hospitality, and this was unanimously\ncarried.\nThe department then adjourned.\nC. Valentine Kirby, Secretary\nThe Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Education completed its report\nduring the year. In accordance with the authority granted by the Board of Directors\nat its meeting in Denver, Colo., July 5, 1909, the Secretary of the Association printed the\nreport in May, 19 10, and distributed it to the active members. The report was discussed\nin the National Council at the Boston Convention. The full report is printed in the\nvolume at the close of the \"Papers and Discussions\" of this department, since the committee was a department committee, not a Council committee. The council discussions\nare transferred from the proceedings of the Council to the close of the report for the\nsake of unity.\nIrwin Shepard, General Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nAIMS\nJAMES\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nC. MONAGHAN,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nIN MODERN\nOF TRADE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nEDUCATION\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY, N.Y.\n\nI am a little at a loss, to begin with, for the word modern in education\nmay mean almost any hour in the last hundred years. Perhaps it may be\nbest to speak of educational aims that prevailed previous to the world's\nwork along the lines of the education advocated in recent years by ourselves :\nindustrial and industrial-art education. The aim before that time was to\nbuild up boys and girls, particularly boys, without any particular aim.\nPerhaps I should divide the past, the period of which I am speaking, into\ntwo parts, one in which little or no thought was given to the largest number\nof boys beyond giving them the three R's, or if anything better, not\nenough to lift them into the category of boys Hsted for a college career.\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nWith progress, prosperity, and men's and women's social aspirations\ncame the high schools, boarding schools, and the smaller colleges. Then\nthe aim was higher — the methods the same with certain additions acquired\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "5 9^\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nby a study of foreign methods. As we went along the high school, whose\npurpose had never been very clearly defined, began to lose what it was\nhoped by many that it would have, the character of a local finishing school,\nto take on the more dignified but less important character of a college or\nuniversity feeder. Its aims, as far as it formulated any, were not just what\nthe nation needed nor really what its advocates wanted.\nAs we went on and on and on, this became more and more apparent.\nEmerson's advice to boys, to hitch their chariots to stars, was being\ninterpreted by the high schools as intended to encourage the masses to\nemulate the classes by aspiring to a college education. In this way our aim\nwas subject to social aberrations. Perhaps no page or pages in all our past\nput forth so perfect a picture of New England's, if not the nation's, educational and other aspirations as does that page in Webster's Pilgrim's Day or\nPlymouth Oration, beginning with a quotation from the Athenian Commander on the plains of Marathon, before the great battle that was to\ndecide \"whether the Persian or the Greek banner was to wave victorious\nin the beams of that day's setting sun.\" \"If we conquer,\" said the\nAthenian commander, on the morning of that decisive day, \"if we conquer,\nwe shall make Athens the greatest city of Greece.\" A prophecy how well\nfulfilled!\n\" 'If God prosper us,' might have been the more appropriate language\nof our fathers when they landed upon this Rock,\" says Webster.\nIf God prosper us we shall here begin a work which shall last for ages; we shall plant\nhere a new society in the fullest principles of liberty and the purest religion; we shall\nsubdue this wilderness which is before us; we shall fill this region of the great continent,\nwhich stretches almost from pole to pole with civilization and Christianity; the temples\nof the true God shall rise, where now ascends\" the smoke of idolatrous sacrifice; fields and\ngardens, the flowers of summer, and the waving and golden harvest of autumn shall\nextend over a thousand hills, and stretch along a thousand valleys, never yet, since the\ncreation, reclaimed for the use of civihzed man. We shall whiten this coast with the\ncanvas of a prosperous commerce, we shall stud the long and winding shore with a hundred\ncities. That which we sow in weakness we shall reap in strength. From our sincere,\nbut houseless worship, there shall spring up splendid temples to record God's goodness.\nFrom the simplicity of our social union there shall arise wise and politic constitutions\nof government, full of the liberty which we ourselves bring and breathe; from our\nzeal for learning, institutions shall spring which shall scatter the light of knowledge thruout\nthe land, and, in time, pay back where they have borrowed, shall contribute their part to\nthe great aggregate of human knowledge; and our descendants, thru all generations, shall\nlook back to this spot, and to this hour, with unabated affection and regard.\n\nWebster's dream was the dream of those by whom he was surrounded\nnot only in the body, but in the spirit that day. It was the hope, held tight\nto the hearts of our fathers, that this land that had had a great birth in\nfreedom, was to have a higher birth, were that possible, in law and learning,\nand in the love of God. That the nation is not all the fathers dreamed is\nnot due to lessened aims, but to the methods. No one now working in our\nranks aims any lower than men aimed then.\nNobody favors a system that\n\n!\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAIMS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nIN MODERN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n599\n\nis to exclude a single thing in the Fathers' dreams. To hear men talk and\nto read after others one would suppose we were working for a kind of inferior\nculture. As a matter of fact we are working for a higher kind of culture\nthan has ever been seen here or elsewhere. If our scheme, dream, or aim\nis ever obtained in America it is to give us an age as far above that of Pericles\nor the Renaissance as these were superior to other, far inferior ages. We\nwant women and men to work amid surroundings far superior to any in any\nage of the world's history. We hope to have ten times as many in our colleges and universities as are there today. If, as. we are told, the ordinary\ntoiler advances in ten years, from his twenty-second to his thirty-second\nyear, from $10.00 to $10.10 a week, the (Ordinary apprentice, from $12.30\nto $15.76; the industrially trained or trade-school graduate, from $17.00\nto $25.00 and the technical-school graduate from $13.00 to $43.00, it\nstands to reason that the more we have in the last two categories, the more\ncandidates will come up out of the ranks of labor for a college or university\neducation.\nNo man on earth is so eager as the mechanic to give his boy the best\neducation there is. Germany has lost, or is losing, none of her old power of\ngreat numbers in higher education. Besides, it is a great mistake to think\nthat culture is confined to any particular course in college, as some do, giving\nthe culture to the classical course. Some of the most cultured men I ever\nmet were scientists; some of the greatest boors, teachers of Latin and Greek.\n\nI\n\nIf, as Mathew Arnold says, \"Culture consists in spreading sweetness and\nlight and making God's will prevail,\" I see no reason for claiming more for\nthe classical than for the scientific course. The finest lives lived in England\nin a hundred years were lived by its Lord Kelvins, Tyndalls, Faradays, etc.,\nand the largest and finest life in the last hundred years of French history was\nthe life of Louis Pasteur.\nAs I stand sometimes on an ocean steamer and feel the throbbing of her\nengines, I go back to Watts working his long nine and one half years in the\nUniversity of Glasgow perfecting his engine. I see George Corliss and the\ncountless cultured men of science working on and perfecting that matchless\nMinerva of the great mechanics' brain. When I look back from the deck\nof a Lusitania to the splendid arches of Brooklyn's great bridge I recall its\nbuilder, Roebling, the great engineer. I remember reading somewhere that\nhe went blind before the bridge, the masterpiece of his life, was finished.\nTo please him they carried him in a carriage every day to a little hut at one\nend of the bridge, enabling him to hear the ringing of the hammers. As I\nread that I remembered that Homer, greatest of the ancient poets, was blind,\nthat a boy led him along the shores of Scio's rocky isle, noting down the\nmatchless and priceless sentences sung or sobbed forth by the side of that\nsobbing and singing sea. In my foolish way I put them side by side,\nRoebhng and Homer, the great scientist and the great poet, the poet of iron\nand steel, the poet of words and water.\n\nIn the harmonies of Brooklyn's\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "600\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwonderful bridge, in its faultless lines, I find what I find by running thru\nevery page of the world's poetry — I find the same charm, the same beauty\nthat I find in the great Greek's matchless verse.\nOUR\n\nAIM\n\nOur aim is high, high as it ever was. We want all the culture that is\npossible. How often have we shouted and shouted for men and women at\nwork rather than for mere working-men and working- women. Not a single\ndream of the race is to be blotted out of life's lexicon as we want it. Not a\npage of all that is best in the past shall be put away or aside at our request.\nOne cannot make the culture wanted or worked for too high to suit us.\nBurke, the wisest of statesmen, in his Reflections on the French Revolution has\na clause often quoted and always worth quoting.\nHe says:\nInstead of casting away all our old prejudices, we cherish them because they are\nour old prejudices; and the longer they have lasted, and the more generally they have\nprevailed, the more we cherish them. We are afraid to put men to live and trade, each\nin his own private stock of reason, because we suspect that this stock in each man is small,\nand that individuals would do better to avail themselves of the general bank capital of\nnations and ages. Many of our men of speculation, instead of exploding general prejudices, employ their sagacity to discover the latent wisdom which prevails in them.\nIt they find what they seek, and they seldom fail, they think it more wise to continue\nthe prejudice with the reason involved than to cast away the coat of prejudice and to leave\nnothing but the naked reason; because prejudice with its reason has a motive to give\naction to that reason and an affection that will give it permanence. Prejudice is of ready\napplication in the emergency. It previously engages the mind in a steady course of wisdom and virtue, and does not leave the man hesitating in the moment of decision, skeptical, puzzled, and unresolved. Prejudice renders a man's virtue his habit; and not a\nseries of disconcerted acts. Thru just prejudice his duty becomes a part of his nature.\n\nWhile all that is true, it is just as true that habits long continued become\nprejudices and look to their owners like virtues. It is against the men of\nprejudice that our work is to be warmest, least valuable, and most worrying and fatiguing. But we must go on. The battle is not always to the\nstrong, but to the active, the vigilant, the brave. The Latin Labor omnia\nvincit is tersely expressed by our \"Work wins.\" And this must be our\nmotto. Present ideas of education have been based upon the notion that\nmanual labor means weakness, subjugation, and inferiority. Education\nfor the purpose of increasing efficiency in productive work has been regarded\nas unworthy of the free man. The leisure-class theory of education seems\nto be based on the notion that only non-industrial occupations were worthy,\nusing \"industrial\" in the narrow sense. The coercive utilization of man\nby man rather than the utilization of nature, or, rather, man's non-human\nenvironment, was regarded as a worthy aim, and training that would\ndevelop him for war or for the professions was regarded as a worthy ideal.\nThe training of the muscles that would prepare for exercise in war was\nregarded as the proper thing; while the training of the same muscles in\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAIMS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nIN MODERN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n6oi\n\nsome useful trade was looked upon as degrading and lacking in cultural\nvalue. The same general principles develop in the selection of studies for\ntraining the intellect. The training of the moral nature incidental to these\nviews was inevitable.\nNo matter what the aim is it cannot be higher than it has been. The\nmethods may be changed, improved. No one on our side is willing to\ntake a tenth, a ten thousandth part of a tenth of the smallest thing thought\nof from the cultural side of the education offered to American youth. We\nhold that our aim is to make, and if carried out will make, a far higher\ntype of man, woman, and child than has any system or method thus far\ntried. I fail to see how the miner who has been taught geology enough\nto enable him to understand the marvelous laws that are to be seen in the\nmines, in the position of ores, who has learned the economic laws affected\nby his labor, is to be less cultured than the man who has never learned the\none law or the other. The horse-shoer who has a large knowledge of the\nanatomy of horses' hoofs, who is able to drive a nail, never touching the\nquick, who is able to detect incipient stages of disease, wKo is familiar with\nthe history of the horse from the time it was a five- toed animal, down to\nour day, who has learned lesson after lesson of how England and other\nlands handled horses till our present breeds rewarded intelligent effort,\nis he likely to be less cultured than a horse-shoer, who is ignorant of those\nfacts; is he less likely to find life Hvable and lovable? And so on all the\nway up or down.\nFor a long time we wandered aimlessly. At last we found more men\nright here in Boston, among them Wendell Phillips and Horace Mann. Yes,\nWendell Phillips! No tongue ever talked more bravely — that was to be\nexpected — or more eloquently or more intelligently, than did Phillips before\nBoston audiences and before legislative bodies for the very same system\nadvocated by us today. Phillips was a pioneer, one of the nation's most\nadvanced thinkers, an indefatigable worker. I like to look back into the\npast and see him, Aaron-like, holding aloft Horace Mann's hands as the\narms of Moses were held aloft by this brother.\nNeither the high nor the grammar school of the early days had any\nvery definite idea of what a boy was to be. The inspirations of the boys,\nthose that were able to stay at school to go thru the high school and colleges,\nwere for the professions, law, medicine, or the church. Even teaching,\nthen as now, to the nation's great loss and shame, was made a steppingstone to the other kinds of life, law, medicine, and the church. The result ?\nWell, I leave that to conjecture. What it had to be, I hate to think, much\nless express. Methods among the men folk's teaching could hardly be\nwhat they would have been had there been as much chance for the teacher,\nin the teacher's profession, as there was for the lawyer and the doctor in\ntheirs. There was no aim that was worthy of the name, as we understand\nthe word \"aim\" today; that is, for the vast masses of boys and girls; nor\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "602\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwas there any very well-defined method beyond the three till one got into\ncollege.\nA CHANGE\n\nBy and by a change came over the country. Horace Mann had not\nlived in vain. His work, his papers, his desires began to have their effect.\nThe first steps of what in our day has been defined as vocational training\nwere taken. Business men began to ask for better-trained boys: Looking\nout over the tariff walls, behind which we had failed to build schools in\nwhich to train the high-class help, we found the men needed. We went\nfor them to all parts of the Old World, particularly to England, Germany,\nand France. Then again, the aims of others, particularly Germany, led\nus to look carefully to our own aims, curricula, and results. Thus taken,\nthe second period of our past was inspired and inaugurated. Emerging\nout of a chaos caused by a most curiously compounded and confounded\nsystem, we went over to sorne very wild ideas as to what would be wisest\nand best. Harnessed to the car that was to carry culture, tho it carried\nnothing else, and with very ill-defined ideas of what constitutes culture,\nwe called — some of us clamoring — for something that would enable young\nAmerica to earn a living. Manual training came as a sop to the educational Cerberus barking at our heels.\nThe Merrill Bill of 1862 that passed Congress lent light and a definite\nidea to a movement that has gone alongside of the manual-training movement. As in the olden day, so in the manual-training day, there was\nconfusion worse confounded; for manual training was supposed to add not\nonly enough of what the nation needed, but it was to start in the way of\nthose bent upon what they deemed the better aim and way, that which\nwas, or is to lead to, vocational training, industrial and industrial-art\neducation.\nIt is hard to make the masters and advocates of manual training see that\nmanual training, good in its own way, a necessary and splendid part of a\ncultural education, is in no way, nor should it be regarded as, a substitute\nfor, or the equivalent of, industrial training. While it is time that the boy\nor girl getting manual training gets, or is supposed to get, hand dexterity,\nit is not the hand dexterity desired or required in a special trade. The boy\nwho is going to be a lawyer reads in school, he reads law books, works that\nwill qualify him for his life's work as a lawyer; so the physician, the engineer, the architect; all professional men read, in school, in college, in the\nuniversity, but the day they start into work for a profession their reading,\ntheir work is of a kind that is calculated to fit them for their life's work.\nHitherto in the thirteen, fourteen, or fifteen millions of children of school\nage, less than six hundred thousand are or were getting last year and the\nyear before a training for a vocation. These included clergymen, lawyers,\ndoctors, engineers, teachers, and nurses. Think of it! That is far from\nbeing the best possible system.\nIt cannot go on. Besides, the cost, as I\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nLIFE\n\n603\n\nsaw it stated, puts the education of each university student at $158 a year,\neach high-school student, $57; each grade-school scholar, $27. To the\nuniversity goes only one out of every one hundred and twenty that start\nout for an education. Only one in twenty ever gets to the high school,\nwhile less than 25 per cent., I have seen it stated as low as 17 per cent.,\never get thru the grades.\nIf education ought to be a preparation for life, its aim ought to be to\neducate the masses rather than the classes. All we see seems to indicate an\neducational system that is upside down, a pyramid on its apex. Culture\nis in no danger — what is worth keeping will be kept. Is such a system as\nwe see around us the right kind ? Is there no need, no chance for profitable and valuable changes ? That the present system, in spite of all its\nsplendid aims, is not what it ought to be is as evident as the sun at the\nzenith; but, like the sun at the zenith, there are those so weak-eyed they\ndare not gaze upon it. Some there are so prejudiced, so wedded to the\npast, that any hand that is raised against what is dangerous is the hand\nof an enemy. To effect our purpose, to carry our cause to a successful\nissue, we shall have to do what our motto suggests — work; but there is\ncomfort in the thought that work has always won in the past, is winning\nin the present, and is bound to win in the future. \"Let us then be of good\ncheer,\" as Sumner said near here, half a century ago, \"From the great\nlaws of progress let us derive at once our hopes and our encouragements.\"\nHumanity has ever advanced, urged by the instincts and necessities\nimplanted by God; thwarted at times by obstacles it has seemed to retreat,\nbut still ever onward. In the recognition of that law, there are motives\nto benefit activity that shall endure till the last syllable of life. Let the\nyoung embrace it; they shall find in it an ever-living spring; let the old\ncherish it still; they shall derive from it fresh encouragement. It shall\ngive to all, both old and young, a new appreciation of their existence, a vindication ofthis force, a new revelation of their destiny.\nOUR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDWARD\n\nSCHOOLS AS PREPARATORY\nPRACTICAL LIFE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nA. RUMELY, SECRETARY AND TREASURER, M. RUMELY\nLAPORTE, IND.\n\nFOR\nCO.,\n\nNo one sees more plainly than the manufacturer that the future of the\nAmerican Republic depends upon the school. And he asks this question:\nHow can this school, which is giving immediate shape to the nation of the\nfuture, give our boys and girls a training that will be efficient preparation\nfor the practical work of life, which is also the work of the nation? In\nspite of one hundred and fifty years of earnest effort, the school still clearly\nfavors the few who have no other aim than to be clerks in stores, banks,\nand offices, and the fewer who take the courses leading to the professions.\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "604\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nBut it neglects the ninety boys out of every hundred who are to engage in\nmanual work as machinists, carpenters, printers, telegraphers; the girls\nwho are to be milliners, dressmakers, housewives — the thousand sorts of\ntoiling bread-winners. How shall the future give them their needed\ntraining ?\nOur educational progress has not kept step with the wonderful advance\nof the world. By practical standards the school has changed little within\nthe last century, while our civilization has been magically transformed from\nprimitive-rural to complex-urban. The age of universal transportation\nhas arrived, and has suddenly made the world small, until remote nations\nseem next-door neighbors. We are now conscious of the swarming tumult\nof men on the globe with whom our human relations have multiplied enormously. The small tool of the old worker has given way to the vast\nmachines of the factory and the labor-saving implements of the farm. The\nautomobile, the bicycle, the telegraph, the telephone, the typewriter, the\nphonograph, the motor engine, with its myriad uses, enter into the daily\nroutine of our lives. All Hfe has come to depend upon mechanical marvels,\nand its pace has been keyed to wonderful swiftness.\nWe must adapt the immense new experiences of the world to the educational needs of the future. As an industrial people we must see that skill\ngoes with schooling. Practical work in the school must prepare for practical life. Our children must learn to conserve, if possible to increase, our\nstore of natural resources. Think of the pressing need!\nWe have become a spendthrift race. Extravagance is the order of the\nday. James J. Hill told us the other morning that our trouble is not the\nhigh cost of Hving, but the cost of high living — privately and publicly the\nwild waste of natural resources. Four generations ago our forefathers had\nto their west a vast untouched continent, rich in timber, ores, and soilfertility beyond anything the white man had ever found. The entire\npopulation of the country, scattered along the Atlantic seaboard, was\nlimited to a couple of milHon people. These vast natural resources were\nsuccessfully exploited, our wealth increased as if by magic, and today our\npopulation of ninety millions has occupied the whole continent from ocean\nto ocean, but not without leaving its mark upon the land. Our forests,\nlaid low by giant mills, are more than half cut. Our streams and lakes\nhave been looted of their fish by water-wheels and steam-drawn seines.\nOur mines of ores and coal are beginning to show signs of depletion. Our\nsoil, with impaired fertility, now yields eighteen and twenty bushels in\nplace of the forty of the virgin prairies. At the end of it all we are beginning to see that our national wealth is not all the product of wise and intelligent labor. Largely, we have done no more than transmute, and often\nrecklessly, our natural resources into the uses, ornaments, extravagances\nof our civilization: foodstuffs, houses, clothes, railroads, palaces, monuments, elegances of living, lavish show of gold and silver.\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nLIFE\n\n605\n\nThe machinery of plunder has been tremendously developed. By its\nuse we have been able to export enormous quantities of raw material and\nthe bounteous products of our fields. Now, however, our agricultural exports are falling, and the time is already at hand when we shall need our\nown foodstuffs to feed an increased population. It will soon become an\nactual question of food. Most of the original natural wealth of the land is\ngone, and every child born into the world brings into it the mouth of a consumer, but no natural wealth except the labor power of its two hands.\nLife, henceforth, must be supported by high intelligence, skill of hand, the\nhonest work of men, and not by systematic robbery of nature. Henceforth we must export neither our raw materials nor our foodstuffs, sacrificing to other nations the riches of our soil. For the future, we must\nexport the factory value of the skilled work of our hands, which can create\nwealth of all forms. For the future, the annual per-capita value of our\nmanufactured products must show a steady rise from the present estimated\nstandard of $74.53.\nGermany says consciously to herself: \"Skilled workers produce high\nvalues. Unskilled workers do not. The hewers of wood and drawers of\nwater are dull peasant types. The men of directive power who lead the\nworld come from the skilled classes. Let us save our own natural resources,\nand get from other nations our raw materials and the rough manual labor\nthat produces them.\"\nSuch competition as this will force us to become predominantly a manufacturing and industrial people, a course upon which we have started and\nmade astonishing progress. We have perhaps four million skilled workers;\nperhaps three million five hundred thousand unskilled workers. While\nwe can get our unskilled labor abroad, it is of vast importance that as many\nas possible of our own citizens become skilled workers, and so creators by\ntheir toil of products of high values. Considering material advantage\nalone, the annual money difference to the nation, whether the 90 per cent,\nof our million boys, who will leave school next year, become skilled or\nunskilled workers, reaches a prodigious total of hundreds of millions of\ndollars.\nIf we care to maintain our present position among the nations, the\nmasses of this country must excel by their superior skill as workmen. For\nwe shall be obliged to meet, at first in the world's markets, and later at\nhome, the products of Germany and Japan, our ascendant modern nations,\ncrowded thruout with a surplus of skilled and efficient labor. We cannot\ncompete with them thru cheap raw materials and a low cost of living, which\nare now things of the past in the United States. We can meet them only\nby the superior skill and better training of masses of American workmen.\nWhere are they ?\nIt is a curious thing, as Mr. Roosevelt has said, that in industrial training, \"we have tended to devote our energies to producing high-grade men\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nat the top rather than in the ranks. Our engineering schools compare\nfavorably with the best in Europe, whereas we have done almost nothing\nto equip the private soldiers of the industrial army — the mechanic, the\nmetal-worker, the carpenter. Indeed, too often our schools train away\nfrom the shop and the forge.\"\nGreat branches of our industries have been built up to their present\nprosperity by the educational foresight of Germany, by her skilled mechanics, trained in her splendid technical and trade schools; but today there is\na serious dearth of skilled industrial workers, and we cannot longer depend\nupon other nations for such supplies of trained men. A carpenter's bench\nand a lathe — the manual training that is being enthusiastically given\neverywhere — do not solve the problem. And no other sources of supply\nare discoverable. The old apprenticeship system has almost entirely\ndisappeared, leaving, at the best, substitutes that only supply individual\nneeds. In all our crowded cities the sons of skilled workers are going in\nextraordinary numbers into box factories, candy factories — a hundred\nunskilled trades — hopeless of earning high wages or developing high efi&ciency. Yet competent mechanics are needed in every branch of our\nindustry, from a pin factory to a giant automobile plant.\nAll this defines one side of our need for effective industrial education.\nBut there is another view of the question, which is equally, nay, more\nimportant. For the training of manual work, the keen discipline in learning any one of the skilled trades, is the schooHng that is needed by all boys\nnot only because it is going to make efficient men of them, but because it is\na necessity to their bodies that are 52 per cent, muscle. This can now\nonly be got thru the school ; yet from the school until now we have had the\none-sided mental training, which physicians are beginning to understand is\nthe first great cause of the wide-spread nervous troubles of today — a thing\nso exclusive to our own land that our prevailing form of nervous disease is,\nin Europe, called \"Americanitis.\" From such diseases we shall suffer\nmore and more until the school gives our children strong trained bodies\nand practical, well-trained minds.\nUntil a few years ago the work of everyday life at home made special\nmuscular training unnecessary. Industry was centered in the home, where\nour parents used to grow their own food, spin and weave their own cL,th,\nmake their soap, dip candles. Eighty per cent, of the population was\nagricultural. The father, if he happened to be a cabinet-maker or blacksmith, shaped'his wood and forged his metal near his home, within the sight\nof his children. Each child was called upon while still young to share the\nparent's activity. He gained not only an insight into the industrial processes, but he acquired habits of work, keen discipline, moral training for\nhis future occupation.\nBut now we are become a new sort of cave-dweller. Even in our\nsuburban homes wehave^accepted the automatic ways of apartment-house\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nLIFE\n\n607\n\nlife; luxury, indulgence, ease are softening our fibre; and industry has\npassed forever from the home to the factory. This has thrown new duties\nupon the school. Fifty years ago the academy boy was an efiicient and\nintelligent part of that mid-century civilization. The entire industrial\nprocess was known to him. Today, thru the enormous complexity of hfe\nand its minute specialization in work, this has so far been lost that the city\nhigh-school boy has not even the elements of knowledge sufficient to build\nup imaginatively the vital facts of daily life and labor. He has studied\nbooks and heard things talked about, but even of his father's productive\nwork he has had little or no share. Chalk and blackboard and books,\neven when supplemented by our new manual training, are no longer enough.\nOur new civilization has its own vital needs. The knowledge necessary\nfor use in the productive industrial processes has increased enormously.\nSciences, like physics and chemistry and electricity, have become essential\nfactors in the daily work of the world. The tempering of steel formerly\nmeant no more than the heating of the metal to cherry red; it is now an\nintricate process requiring a difficult study of temperatures and 'alloys.\nAnd today skill and accurate knowledge in the use of the hands are needed\nas never before. Clearly, we must immediately have a new sort of school,\nfor children now need the training of their muscles as well as of their minds.\nAnd they need the training of their minds thru their muscles.\nFew realize how much muscle means to the brain. Yet the brain is\ntaught by the muscles as well as by the two nerves of ear and eye; and fully\n98 per cent, of our life is guided by muscular sensation. The baby depends\nupon it almost wholly during a long period of its early life. Its development thru the training of life and experience is a type of the later education\nthat is practical. Thru its every muscle — above all by its hands — it drinks\nin knowledge of the outside world. Nor is this importance of the muscle\nlessened, either in later childhood, or in adult years. And_ the master\norgan remains the hand. Almost every animal has a keener eye or ear or\nnose than man. But man, as he rose from the ground, and gradually threw\noff his brute inheritance, explored space with a new sense organ — the\nhand.\nAnd this it is that has given him dominion over the world.\nThe eye thru the nerve of seeing teaches us form and color. We see\niron — the gray metal — its crystals, its luster, its surface. But we need to\nbend and break it; we need to weld and hammer it, file it and test it, and\nput it to mechanical uses with our hands before we can truly know much\nabout that metal which has become the main carrier of our civilization.\nThe hands interpret what the eyes see. And the eyes become efficient\nalone thru their muscles. The mechanism of the eye is as perfect in the\nbabe as in the grown man. Yet the babe stretches out its hands for the\nmoon, as if it were within reach. In the end he learns to gauge distance,\nand he does this thru the muscles of the eye. We now know that we are\nable to estimate distance by the eye-movement that is necessary to obtain\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o8\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\na perfect focus; that our whole conception of space is built, not upon\nsensation transmitted by the optic nerve, but upon muscular sensation.\nOur buoyancy and depression, the undercurrent of all our consciousness,\nour very growth, all depend upon muscular sensation. The muscles\nexpress the most intimate sensations of the soul. The Romans made a\ntrue guess at this, which is preserved in our word \"emotion\" — a moving\nout of sensation. Our feelings are most vividly portrayed by gestures\nand the shifting play of expression that the facial muscles give the face.\nSee an angry man thru a glass door, and you do not need to hear a word\nto know his state of mind. And so, joy, grief, love, every passing mood\nand passion has its instantly recognized physical expression.\nFrom the violin the bow draws out its harmonies in a timiult. Yet\nthese harmonies, first in the soul, can only reach the world translated by\nthe muscles — on the one side the swinging arm, wielding the bow; on the\nother the precise and delicate working of the fingers, now swiftly and\ndaintily touching the strings, now fiercely clutching at them. What is\nit all but the finest training of a multitude of muscles as well as of the nerve\nof the ear ? And so with the drill of things in practical Hfe — the work of\nchemist and electrician, surgeon, blacksmith, carpenter; the housewife\nkneading bread, sewing, bed-making. Skill in all these things is largely\nmuscle knowledge, got thru what is in the truest sense muscle-training.\nThe muscles are trained more easily than the mind to the quick ways\nof unconscious habit. We learn in childhood to dress and undress, to walk,\nto go thru the motions of eating, to perform our many bodily functions\nwithout thinking, almost automatically. This is all the more important\nbecause it is so largely unconscious.\nGrasp the significance of this unnoticed side of life, and you realize the\nplace of huge importance that the training of the muscles should have in the\neducation of our youth. This training and use of all the muscles are\nnecessary for health, particularly in an age when the machine has relieved\nus of so large a part of the old healthful work of the body; and when, at\nbest, the high specialization of our work brings only part of our muscles\ninto play. Without such training our race will lose in vigor and fall into\ndecadence. The second and third generations of city-bred men, in the\npast, have always shown a weakHng strain. Under stress of twentiethcentury Hfe, unless a remedy be found, degeneration will be still more rapid.\nAnd this training thru work is a first necessity for the boy himself; a\ndefinite practical education to fit him for any industrial position for which\nhe is mentally and physically capable. He needs it made prominent in\nhis schooUng for the development and perfection of the body to its fullest\npossible effectiveness in normal, living. He needs it, even if he is to be a\nbusiness or professional man, that he may have a sympathetic understanding\nof the Ufe of those who bear the heaviest burden of the day. He needs it,\nwhatever his occupation in Hfe is to be, in order that he may be an intelH-\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nLIFE\n\n609\n\ngent part of our civilization. He needs it for the zest that it will give to\nhis mental growth and life. He needs it for a full-rounded development\nof all his powers.\nThese are the necessities of our daily life that the school immediately\nmust meet. It is no longer in serious question whether we shall, or shall\nnot, have industrial education; whether we shall have the joint training\nof hand and head and heart in efficient preparation for life. It is now a\nmatter of the quick transformation of our schools to meet this primary\nneed of men — the rapid focusing of educational thought to give this new\nservice to the nation.\nHow shall we bring about the new school? What shall we eliminate\nfrom our present overcrowded course of studies ? How shall work be made\norganically a part of it, and every public school be broadened so as to take\nin all children, giving the many the training that will fit them for the\nmanual work that they have before them, and giving the few such knowledge as will enable them to enter the university ?\nThese are the questions that cannot be solved by further discussion,\nbut by earnest practical work and practical experiment.\nDISCUSSION\nGeorge E. Meyers, Principal McKinley Manual Training School, Washington,\nD.C. — I wish to speak on the organization side of this question. Apparently the importance of providing for a system of education that shall give due recognition to\nvocational preparation from the elementary school to the university is not receiving proper\nemphasis. It is not enough that industrial arts shall be given a place in the elementary\nschool, and that vocational schools of intermediate grade and technical schools of higher\ngrade shall be established. The different types of schools which are proposed must be\nbrought into relation to one another and to public education generally. This is necessary not only in order that a pupil may pass from a vocational school of one grade to\nanother of the next higher grade, but also, and more important, that the entire field shall\nhe covered — provision shall be made for all — and yet without duplication.\nThe National Education Association appointed a committee to consider and report\non \"The Place of the Industries in Public Education.\" I have been eagerly awaiting\nthe report of this committee, hoping that it would propose a well co-ordinated system of\nindustrial education, which, with due allowance for differences in the industrial activities\nof diflferent communities, would provide reasonably adequate preparation for all classes\nof industrial and technical workers. The report is published. It is remarkably clear\nin definitions of terms and rich in suggestions. It proposes the introduction of the industrial arts in a vital way into the elementary school. It proposes the establishment of intermediate industrial schools, and outlines in comprehensive manner their field and function.\nIt points out the demand for distinctively technical high schools, and indicates the work\nwhich should be expected of them. It urges evening industrial improvement schools for\nadult workers. Yet, valuable as the work of the committee is, it has not done what its\nname led me to expect of it, viz., to propose a well-co-ordinated plan whirh would give\nthe industries their legitimate place in public education and thus provide suitable vocational preparation for all classes without unnecessary and wasteful duplication. In fact\nthe committee has submitted three reports instead of one, each, in the main, dealing with\na different aspect of the problem but dealing with it independently of the other? and from\na different point of view.\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l O\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe committee, however, lias discussed in the reports of its three subcommittees\nmost of the features of a comprehensive system of industrial education, even tho it has\nnot brought them together into a system. It is with some hesitation that I shall attempt,\nin the few minutes allotted me today, to suggest the barest outline of such a system.\nThis outline was first formulated more than a year ago, but in presenting it today I shall\nmake frequent use of the committee's report. To be sure, not all features of the suggested\nsystem would find a place in every community. There must be pupils enough available\nto make a class of fair size or the expense of maintaining the school will be too great.\nSome of the German states have shown, however, that quite small schools are feasible,\nmuch smaller than we are in the habit of thinking of in connection with this subject.\nSuch a system would involve:\n1. A reorganization of elementary education, particularly of the upper grades, so\nas to make it center around the industrial activities of the community. This would\nmean not only introducing elements of the principal or type industries of the community\ninto the work of the school, but having the rest of the school work take its cue largely\nfrom these industries.\n2. Industrial improvement schools for those pupils who leave school at the close of\nthe compulsory-education period. The number of pupils who drop out of school at\nfourteen years of age will continue to be large no matter what changes are made in the\nelementary-school course, and no matter what kind of industrial schools are provided\nabove the elementary school. These should be required by law as in Wuerttemberg, Germany, to attend some kind of industrial improvement school a certain number of hours\nper week for at least two or three years longer, their employers excusing them from work\nfor this purpose.\n^.\n3. The intermediate industrial schools discussed by the committee with, however,\nmore attention to preparation for specific trades, open to pupils fourteen years of age,\nwhether they have completed the grammar grades or not. These schools would train\nin a broad way for the high-grade skilled industries, giving attention not only to the\nconcrete work of the trade but also to related technical subjects and the general vocational\nstudies referred to by the committee.\n4. Industrial improvement schools for older workers. The night schools conducted\nin many technical and manual-training high-school buildings are performing this function. In agricultural communities day schools conducted for a short time during the\nwinter months, farmers' institutes and agricultural-college extension work will meet this\nneed, especially on the less concrete side. Of course attendance should be voluntary.\n5. Technical high schools open to all who have completed the grammar grades and\nopen also to those who wish to transfer from the intermediate industrial school after the\ncompletion of a prescribed amount of work. As stated by the Committee on Industrial\nEducation in Secondary Schools, \"the technical high school should have for its main\nobject the preparation of its pupils for efl&ciency in a large group of important positions\nin industrial Ufe. Its aim is to cultivate industrial intelligence and those quaUties which\nare essential for efficient industrial leadership.\" It should, however, be \"open at the\ntop '* for those who wish to enter higher technical or engineering schools, tho preparation\nfor such schools should be a subsidiary aim.\n6. Manual training, related to the industries of the community, in all high schools.\nThis must become a part of any adequate preparation for life-needs because of its educative value, since handwork has so nearly disappeared from the home, and also in order\nthat those who are to go into the professions shall know something of the activities of the\nindustrial classes.\n7. Finally, the higher technical and engineering schools of college and university\ngrade. These, already better developed than any other type of school mentioned, constitute afeature of the system whose function is well known.\nPaul Kreuzpointner, chairman. Committee on Industrial Education, American\nFoundrymen's Association, Altoona, Pa. — In discussing the better preparation for lifeneeds it is not so much a question of the demands of our industries which we have to\nconsider, but the demands of the life-needs of industrial society. The life-needs of\nmodern industrial society are primarily social-economic with education as a means to an\nend rather than the end itself. The phenomenally rapid development of our industries\nand material resources created millions of industrial workers for whose educational needs,\nfor whose intellectual and moral standard, for whose social Ufe and economic necessities,\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nLIFE\n\n6ii\n\nthere was no provision made in our educational system, in our political institutions, in\nour social structure, or in our social traditions and structure.\nIn the haste of our material development the productive capacity of the industrial\nworker was pushed to the front, creating the impression that the solution of life-needs\nwas wholly within the range of industrial education and was to be sought in terms of\nschool shop-work and manual-dexterity training. While the acquisition of the latter is\nnecessary in order to secure us our bread and butter, without which we cannot support\nourselves and civilization, it is after all the aggregate social-economic activities of society\nwhich create those favorable conditions as a result of which industrial demands attract\nour attention. Thus industrial demands are the effects of a cause, the cause being socialeconomic activities, and the life-needs to meet these demands successfully and permanently must be found in terms of co-operative endeavor, in terms of civic duty and responsibility, interms of industrial ethics in the sense that we speak of professional ethics. Industrial education then becomes a means to an end, a tool, as it were, to develop that industrial intelligence among the mass of industrial workers which will aid them to understand\nthat, besides their mechanical efl&ciency which must secure to them their material welfare, they must aquire likewise the ethical and civic efficiency whereby all of us\nshould be enabled to contribute our share toward those favorable social conditions which\nwe call public welfare, meaning thereby a maximum of social-economic activity in a commimity and without which the individual cannot prosper.\nIn other words, the preparation for the Ufe-needs of industrial demands must not\nonly include mathematical precision;' manual dexterity, mechanical skill, and the technique of a trade, but must also include that degree of intelligence and culture which must\nvouchsafe to industrial society a sufficiently high ethical, aesthetic, and intellectual standard of the average individual industrial worker.\nThis preparation, then, should include a knowledge of the raw materials used in his\nor her vocation, the rudiments of the processes whereby these raw materials are converted\ninto workable materials and the nature of these materials. This knowledge can be made\nto serve for an understanding of the meaning of conservation of resources and as an\nappeal to civic responsibiUty, thus to be made the means for the teaching of social ethics.\nQuestions of transportation, commerce, export, import, tariff, associations, corporations,\nlabor unions, as these questions are affected by industrial activity and scientific progress\nand influence the social relations of the body poUtic.\nThese and other factors in the make-up of our complex civilization tax the intelligence, the character, the technical knowledge, the economic scrutiny, the patriotic selfsacrifice of the citizen and industrial worker even more than the purely material aspect\nof the application of one's skill to earning bread and butter. At present we are not well\nprovided with the instrumentalities for such a scheme of preparation, but if we raise the\nquestion of better preparation we must keep an ideal before our minds and I am confident pedagogic expertness will be able to use existing instrumentalities of instruction to\nbest advantage.\nThe Cincinnati plan of continuation schools, as outlined by Professor Ball, seems to\npromise good results and I am convinced offers at present the best practical solution of a\ndifi&cult educational situation.\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l2\n\nA\nARTHUR\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSYSTEM\nFOR GENERAL\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nTRAINING\n\nD. DEAN, CHIEF OF DIVISION OF TRADES SCHOOLS, NEW\nEDUCATION DEPARTMENT,\nALBANY,\nN.Y.\n\nYORK\n\nIN\nSTATE\n\nThe invitation to speak upon a topic so comprehensive and involved\nimplies that I am either to confine myself to a few glittering generalities\nand thus avoid the presentation of any definite scheme, or else I am expected\nto assume that some one practical scheme is to be presented and at the same\ntime the audience is to recognize that there are many possible solutions.\nIf industrial education means a re-directing and adapting of our education\nto fit the economic and social needs of our people, then it is a problem which\nhas no single solution. There will be as many school classifications as\nthere are groups of industries, nearly as many solutions as there are types\nof communities, and there is no single inflexible course of study nor a single\nline of procedure.\nIt would not be within the range of human effort to present before a\nnational body of educators from all sections of the country and from all\ntypes of schools a definite plan for the introduction of industrial training.\nGive just a moment's reflection on the magnitude of the problem before\nus if the topic is to be taken literally as printed. There are two sexes for\nwhich to provide. There are 377 occupations in which they are engaged.\nThey are working in communities ranging in population from four and onehalf millions to the small town of Bingville with its ninety-two souls.\nThe wage-earners in the manufacturing industries number seven millions;\nthose in agriculture, ten millions. The capitalization of the manufacturing\nplants amounts to thirteen billions, while the value of the farms reaches\nover twenty billions. This \"practical scheme\" which I am to present is\nto touch twenty-four million children who are between the ages of five and\neighteen, and is to appeal to the intellect and understanding of four hundred\nand fifty thousand teachers. Do you wonder that I hesitate at accepting\nthe topic as it stands? With your permission I will, therefore, present\nbut one phase — the co-operative system of industrial training — a scheme\nwhich will undoubtedly play an important part in the solution of the problem of industrial education.\nThe rapid development of the manufacturing interests of our country\nduring the past decade, particularly in the metal-working lines, has increased\nthe problem of finding an adequate supply of labor and of a proper degree\nof efiiciency. The modern system of production has had much to do with\nsuch conditions. The absence of a definite system of factory training has\nits share of the responsibility.\nMeanwhile, the public school desires to hold its pupils, but youth wants\nto earn money, and parents ask the eternal question, \"What shall we do\nfor our boy ? \" The mother sees that if her boy goes to work in the average\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nGENERAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n613\n\nfactory he is likely to fail in learning a trade, while it is almost positive that\nhe will shut the door against that further liberal education which he might\nget in the high school.\nNow, let us imagine that the boy is able to say, \"Father, the problem\nis solved. The co-operative school is about to be opened. In it I will\nbecome a skillful machinist, able to earp more than a living immediately\nupon graduation, and I will also have all the benefits of a high-school education at the same time.\"\nThe fundamental principle of the co-operative system is very simple.\nIn brief, it is this; The technique or the practical side of the work is taught\nonly in a shop or store which is working under actual commercial conditions; the science underlying the technique is taught by skilled teachers\nin a public school.\nTo many it seems feasible so to organize the public-school system that\nit will be capable of dealing with all these children — those in school and\nthose out of school. It would seem that a solution of the problem would\nbe some system of co-operation between the schools and the factories for\ntraining these young people in industrial and civic efiiciency after they\nhave found their work.\nThere are well-defined and distinct advantages in both systems of\nindustrial training — co-operative and public trade school. It is hardly\nnecessary for partisans on either side to overreach in their arguments.\nThe real issue at stake is not whether the co-operative system is the only\nproper system of training, but, rather, to what extent each system can find\nits proper place in American education. There is room for both, and an\nanalysis of the principles involved is well worth while at this point.\nUndoubtedly the co-operative system is economical from the standpoint of school equipment. It places upon the taxpayer almost no burden\nof taxation, as the existing equipment of commercial shops is used. It is\nobvious, of course, that trade schools are necessarily somewhat expensive.\nThe same may be said of dental, medical, agricultural, and mechanic-arts\ncolleges. But it is doubtful if the public will be willing to make any unjust\ndiscriminations based upon financial considerations against a necessary and\nproper industrial training of the mass of our people who work in the great\nconstructive industries, in favor of those who are engaged in professional\nwork. We must look beyond such a material argument.\nIt is claimed that educational waste will be avoided in the co-operative\nsystem by using foremen in the shops as teachers of shopwork rather than\nteachers specially trained. Who can guarantee that they will make good\nteachers ? The practical mechanic without pedagogical training may be\nable to impart to the student the mechanical manipulations of his trade,\nbut if he cannot make the proper connection with the pedagogic end of his\nwork he will be deficient to that extent.\nAnother point in favor of the co-operative system — one. which comes.\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "614\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nunder the head of educational waste — refers to the fallacy of attempting\nto give specific trade education in a public trade school to a boy of sixteen\nyears of age when he does not know what trade he wants to learn, or when\nhe can hardly afford to spend three or four years in a trade school without\ncompensation.\nAnother weakness of the public trade school is said to be the break in\nthe continuity of systematic mental effort which will exist between the\nperiod at which the boy dropped out of school at fourteen and the tradeschool period when the boy enters it at sixteen; this lack of continuity\nforcing the trade school to gather up the interrupted, loose, and disorganized threads of mental activity.\nIf the advocates of the co-operative system feel that they must oppose\nthe public- trade school-movement by such arguments, they have at least\nfurnished a valuable contribution toward an argument for vocational\ntraining between fourteen and sixteen. Such training is intended to arouse\na set of industrial interests which will require specific training for their\nsatisfaction; the latter training to be given either in the trade school,\nopen to pupils who are sixteen years of age, or in the shops themselves.\nOpen to boys who are sixteen years of age, the co-operative system\nmakes one strong appeal. It gives them an opportunity of earning something. They are earning while learning, whereas under the trade-school\nsystem they do not earn until they have completed their trade education.\nThe co-operative system makes it possible for a child to continue in school,\nwhereas now he is compelled to take a low-grade, poorly paid, unskilled\nposition perhaps without any future prospects either in money or the\nacquirement of skill.\nThe co-operative system will naturally serve to keep the business men\nand employers in constant touch with the public-school system if for no\nother reason than the selfish incentive to get the most out of it for themselves. Given an opportunity to co-operate, it is expected that they will\nstudy the schools with their own needs in mind, and as one result they may\npossibly become interested and aroused enough to better the schools. At\nleast there can be co-ordination between the school instructor and the\nshop force. So far, in carrying out the co-operative plan in the different\ncities that have tried it, the instructors have been acquainted with the\nlocal shop practice. They spend part of the time in the shop and part of\nthe time in the school. It is their business to observe the students at\ntheir work, to study the shop system and any other matter of interest,\nnoting particularly the everyday shop applications of the various sciences,\nas mathematics, physics, chemistry, and drawing.\nIt is expected that the co-operative system can be applied not only to\nthe machine trades but also to the tailoring, baking, butchering, building,\nor any other trade where the mechanical equipment or natural conditions\nare somewhat different from the trades which have already adopted it.\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGENERAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n615\n\nAlready a department store in New York City has introduced the system.\nAmong other things the salespeople are taught psychology and salesmanship, and are given as much technical knowledge as possible of the things\nthey are selling. In addition, they receive a certain amount of general\neducation.\nIn many instances where the co-opQrative system is employed there is\nan apparent one-sidedness in the agreement between apprentice and\nemployer which it appears might be avoided. While it may be said that\nall these employers are men of known integrity, on the other hand, the\nsuccess of the whole scheme depends entirely on their doing what they\nought to do. If an agreement is necessary, it seems g,s if the employer\nwould be likely to stand in much better light with the public if he also was\nunder an equal bond to fulfill some definite agreement. Undoubtedly\nthere is much of value in the co-operative scheme, but before it can have\ngeneral indorsement, the public must be assured that the plan is so worked\nout that it results in all-round training and that the half-time idea does\nnot become a half-way scheme.\nThe pupils that are merely taken into the shops on the half-time, or\nco-operative plan, may not receive that systematic and progressive advancement in learning the different parts of the industry that is desirable. To\na certain extent, the pupils may be exploited for the benefit of the manufacturer, for the money value of the product of the boy's labor often seems\nto be more determinative to the manufacturer than the pupil's progress\nin learning the trade. On the other hand, in a public trade school where\nthe work is not carried on under the conditions of a real factory it may be\nimpossible for the pupil to attain a practical skill and efl&ciency equal to\nthat of a good workman in a factory. Of course much depends on the way\nthe school is conducted. Unless the method of instruction in the school\nis different from that at present in vogue in our manual-training schools, the\nworkman's time as a factor in the cost of production never can be sufficiently\ndemonstrated to a pupil where his presence and wages do not depend upon\nhis active productive ability. Neither can the time that may properly be\nused and the skill required for the different operations be sufficiently\nunderstood by the pupil until the product is put to actual commercial use\nand the pupil rewarded for his work in proportion to his perception and\nadjustment of these factors of production. Perhaps this is the strongest\nargument for the co-operative plan.\nThe co-operative system has tremendous advantages. In presenting\nit I have endeavored to be fair to both the public trade school and the\nso-called \"Cincinnati scheme.\" Certainly the plan is worth trying. It\nis very largely based upon a German method. The success of the German\nsystem is due not only to the fostering care of a central government but\nin a large measure to social and economic conditions inherent in the situation. In that country it is taken as a matter of course that employers and\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nschools will work together to promote thoro industrial training. In such\nan atmosphere the co-operative scheme can achieve its highest development. In America conditions are different. Employers have not taken,\nup to the present time, any great interest in the work of the public schools\nexcept to criticize them. Neither have schoolmen taken any interest in\nthe labor conditions in our industries. Evidently the co-operative system\noffers a means of getting together. But if the school authorities adopt this\nplan simply to avoid spending public money, and employers take up the\nscheme in order to throw the burden of responsibility of obtaining skilled\nlabor upon the public schools, simply because they have been negligent in\nthe past in doing what may have been their duty, then the scheme is\ndoomed to failure. The co-operative plan must get beyond selfish, personal motives if it is to be a part of an American system of education.\nPrimarily the schools are managed in the interests of their boys and girls.\nI would not dampen the ardor of those that favor the co-operative system,\nbut no association of employers can be allowed to dictate a system of\npublic education unless it be along lines which are of direct personal advantage to the boys and girls. Then it will not be dictation, but co-operation,\nand that we all welcome.\nTHE\nCLUTORD\n,\n\nCONSERVATION\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nMETHODS\n\nB. CONNELLEY,\nDEAN\nOF THE SCHOOL\nOF APPLIED\nCARNEGIE\nTECHNICAL SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA.\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nPerhaps at no time in the history of this country has there been a more\npersistent cry for conservation than there is at this present day. Whether\nit be in the domains of the forest, in the realms of the fields, or in the circles\nof thought and action, the demand for conservation is acute and keenly\nfelt; and it seems particularly proper that the same age which abounds\nin strenuosity and unrelaxing energy should raise this cry for conservation,\nfor it is not until people begin to realize the ebb of strength and resources\nthat they learn to appreciate the vital necessity of saving and renewing\nthe sinews which will make it possible for the present generation to continue in its struggle for pre-eminence and which will enable the people of\ntomorrow to continue to completion the undertakings of those of today.\nStrange tho it may seem to one who views the matter in a calm way, it is\nnot until the woods are on the verge of deforestation that men begin to\nlook about them and raise the cry of conservation for the sake of the future.\nIt is not until our communities are threatened with depopulation from the\nrelentless toil and ceaseless energy of our citizens that we realize the need\nof conserving the strength of our men, women, and children by inducing\nthem to lead lives of less strenuosity and more reasonable regularity. The\nlesson of conservation in every path of life is a lesson which America is but\nbeginning to learn and appreciate.\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSERVATION\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nMETHODS\n\n617\n\nNor is the field of education an exception to the need for rational conservation. Progression and conservation must go hand in hand in communities and among people where the ultimate welfare of the nation is to\nbe considered. At no age in our nation's development have there been\nmore problems confronting the educational profession than there are today,\nand likewise, at no time have there been men and women more ready with\nsuggestions and plans to meet these very problems. The diversified interests of our people, the various pursuits of the countless communities of\nour country — these, and many other causes, have contributed to the\nnecessity which lies before us today to offer a multitude of methods for\nmeeting situations in what appears to us to be the proper manner in each\ninstance.\nOur schools and educational institutions at the present time are offering\ninstruction in branches which only a decade ago were thought hardly a\npart of what the schools of our nation should offer our boys and girls, but\nwhich experience and study have shown us must be a part of our curriculum ifthe public school and its kindred institutions are to meet the demands\nof the times. It is not necessary for me to go into a detailed account of\nthe variety of courses which our schools are offering at present, for you are\nall as conversant with this subject as I am. My purpose in this address\nis to sound the cry of conservation in our methods, to suggest what seems\nto me a timely thought in keeping with the spirit of the day.\nConservation of educational methods means securing the greatest possible eflSciency with the least possible waste of energy — not the stinting of\nenergy where energy is necessary, but the wasting of it in multifarious ways\nwhere the result can only be the weakening of abilities which are so essentially the fundamentals of whatever success may be ours in the chosen\nfields of our endeavor. There are millions of young men and young women\nto be taught today, and there are numberless branches in which they must\nbe taught. The task before the educational profession of this era is stupendous, and the problem of conserving our efforts and our methods so\nthat the greatest good may come of whatever labors we expend is relatively\nas stupendous. Our duty toward the youth of today must prompt us to\narrange our methods in that manner which must prove the most efficacious\nand effective for all concerned.\nConservation of educational methods appears in the proper placing of\nstudies in the course to avoid duplication, or needless repetition, and in\nthe proper emphasis within the subjects themselves. Waste is specially\nseen in the treatment of arithmetic, which has too often been needlessly\nrepeated several times in the course, when one proper teaching of the subject rightly placed should suffice. Loss of time and energy also appears in\nwrong emphasis within the subject itself, when topics are treated at length,\nwhich might altogether be omitted or be better considered under algebra.\nThe same might be said of other misplaced and misused subjects. But\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "618\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nI believe it may safely be said that the need of conservation in educational\nmethods applies particularly to the field of industrial education.\nIndustrial education in the public schools of America is by no means\nthe oldest branch of our curricula; in fact, in its present scope and purpose\nit is but a child of the present generation. It is but natural, then, that the\nideas of educators upon the subject in the line of industrial training must\nbe various and diversified, as are also the methods adopted to present this\nfeature of our educational work to those for whose direct benefit the subjects are offered. That industrial education has come to stay with us\nforever can no longer be denied by even the opponents of the subject, and\nrecent years have been so fruitful with evidences of the value of this branch\nof our training that the pros and cons of the argument no longer furnish\na fertile field of debate. Industrial education has produced results, and\nmagnificent results, too ; and, in an age where men and methods are measured by results accomplished, this branch of school training has commanded and received the praise and indorsement of thinking persons thruout the length and breadth of the civilized world. It remains for the\nsponsors of industrial education to continue in their chosen duty, progressing as new fields and new methods are developed as the result of\nexperience, thought, and study. It remains also for us to conserve as we\nprogress, to preserve all the while we build and grow.\nThe idea of conservation will readily be understood when we attempt\nto apply its precepts to individual features of industrial education and its\npresent-day needs. First of all, let us look at the subject as it relates to\nthe undisputed fact that different communities in our land require certain\nbranches of the curriculum and certain adaptations of those branches more\nparticularly than others, that diversified interests mean diversified training in the industrial and technical schools of those communities. It has\nwell been said that\npsychologists will argue, perhaps, that boys and girls are the same the world over, but\neducators, without ignoring or gainsaying that fact so far as it goes, must recognize that\nthe boy and the girl on the Florida plantation will grow up into a very different Ufe from\nthat of the boy and girl in the town of Minneapolis; that the boy on the farm will need\nto be familiar with very different things from those which a girl in a New York flat will\nneed to know. They cannot fail to recognize that tho all men may be born free and\nequal, they are not many months in outgrowing both freedom and equality. What\nheredity does not effect, environment will, and the slight residuum of absolute original\npersonality is all the \"free and equal\" material left which might be common to all\nchildren, and that is too abstract and altogether too uncertain to deal with apart from\nits influences.\n\nSo it is not difiicult to perceive that the boy in the textile community\nmust be prepared to meet different conditions from those to be met by the\nlad in the steel centers of the country; and this comparison might be carried\non indefinitely. Praiseworthy indee4 would it be if the schools of every\ncommunity in our land could successfully prepare every student to meet\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSERVATION\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nMETHODS\n\n619\n\nthe needs of every other community; but since the days of the school life\nof our children must necessarily have some limit, and since the possibilities\nof the schools themselves cannot be both unlimited and consistently thoro,\nit seems vitally necessary to apply the lesson of conservation in our methods\nand of concentration in our efforts so that the schools of our communities\nmay serve their environments as they should. It will hardly be practicable\nfor the public schools of Maine to offer their students, not only what Maine\ncommunities require of them, but also what communities in far-off Oregon\ndemand. Each community must conserve as much as possible its methods\nand its energies to enable it to bring into the community young men and\nyoung women prepared to carry on the work of that locality. If there be\nany surplus power and surplus possibility, well and good; but, if it requires\nall the time and strength of the public school properly to fit its pupils for\nthe work which must necessarily be theirs, let that tnne and energy be\nconserved toward that end.\nOf course, much of what is true in this respect as regards the industrial\ntraining in the public school will not apply so forcibly to those higher institutions of advanced instruction which draw for their patronage from all\nsections of the country. The young men and young women who enter\nthese schools are evidently preparing to take up their vocations in whatever sections of the country their own inclinations and their own best interests may dictate. It is not necessary, therefore, for the industrial university or technical college to confine its work to any one or several branches\nof training, for the very purpose of higher educational institutions is to offer\nadvanced and varied courses in their particular fields; but while this may\nbe true as far as limitation in courses of study is concerned, yet these higher\ninstitutions must also recognize the application of the theory of conservation and apply it in all its force to each department of such institutions.\nNo one department of any university can successfully attempt to offer\ncomplete training in every branch of industrial or other education, but\neach must conserve its resources in such a way that its specially assigned\npurpose may best be promoted and that its students may best be prepared\nto take up their chosen vocations or professions.\nSecondly, the theory of conservation strikes us significantly when we\nconsider the fact that by far the greatest number of our children today\ncan remain in the school but a few years at most. Persistent demands for\nwage-earning persons, brought about by high costs of living and other\ncauses, which belong more properly to the economist than to myself to\npoint out, have made their influences felt so keenly in this age that the\nchildren of today are of necessity forced into the sphere of work and hard\nlabor when, in many cases, they should be spending their youthful years in\nthe public school, the high school, or the college. Let me quote briefly\nwhat has been said upon this very subject by one who has made a thoro\nstudy of this unfortunate condition of life in America today:\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "620\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nHow many of all the school children get to the university ? How many even enter\nthe high school ? As a matter of fact, according to no less an authority than Dr. Elmer\nBrown, the Commissioner of Education, only 6 per cent, of all the children who enter the\nprimary school ever get as far as the high school. The 94 per cent, are dropping out at\nevery point along the Une. Some must leave school at the most critical period of youth without any formed idea of what they are going to make their life's work, except to earn a Uving,\nand without any hope of working at a trade for two or three years. The urgent and\nimmediate necessity of earning a living calls many away from school. And what place\ndo these children who do not get to the high school or the trade school, come to have\namong the world's workers ? Of the population of the United States eighty-five per cent,\nare engaged in some sort of industrial work, whether agriculture, the trades, or household economics.\n\nIt must, therefore, readily appear to us that we owe it to our children\nso to conserve our methods and our teaching that we may offer them the\ngreatest amount of real education possible in the few years which they are\npermitted to spend under our care and instruction. As I have suggested\nin connection with the schools of various communities, let me again say\nthat, while it would indeed really be noble if every school could offer every\npupil a thoro knowledge and course of instruction in every feature of industrial education, this must be impossible from a practical standpoint for\nreasons already stated.\nIt therefore behooves us to arrange our work in such a manner that\neven the economic demands of our day cannot wholly steal from our children an education in keeping, at least in part, with what their future will\nrequire of them. We cannot attempt to include the entire sphere of industrial education in any course which cannot, because of economic conditions,\nextend over more than a few short years of the child's life. Necessarily,\nthen, we must conserve our methods and apply our strength so that the\ngreatest possible efficiency may be produced in the short space of time\nallotted to us in which to prepare the young for the battles of the world of\nlabor and of wage-earning possibility.\nHow particularly does this truth apply to the field of industrial training!\nFor is not this part of the child's education the first which it will be required\nto use as soon as it embarks upon the course of its employment? We\nshould indeed like to keep the children with us until we have given them\nall the training in this department which we feel they ought to have, but\nwe must meet conditions as they exist on all sides of us, and we can only\ndo so by properly conserving our energies in the directions which the age\ndemands of us.\nConservation in industrial education is most wisely effected by eliminating bad and useless methods in teaching the trades. Abstract book learning, here as elsewhere, should be reduced to zero; demonstrations by the\ninstructor should be abolished, unless they are used to illustrate specific\nprocesses and are followed by actual shop practice. Inductive methods\nand practical work under skillful supervision should predominate, almost\nexclusively.\nAbove all things, in industrial schools the pupils should\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR INDUSTRIAL\n\nWORK\n\n621\n\n\"learn to do by doing.\"\nThus, with the acquisition of skill, they will\nlearn to think and to express their thoughts readily thru their hands.\nI trust I have demonstrated the need for conservation of educational\nmethods, particularly in the field of industrial education. It is altogether\nimpossible to present the subject as definitely and as thoroly as the needs\nof the moment require in a paper so brief as this one must necessarily be.\nIt is given to me merely to sound the note of suggestion and to prepare the\nway for consideration; and, if I have brought home to you today the need\nof conservation even in a meager degree, I shall feel that my remarks have\nbeen of some real value, for the subject which I have touched and brought\nto your attention is one that must of its own accord and importance give\nyou matter for serious and extended thought in the immediate future.\nConservation is the cry of the twentieth century, and twentieth-century\neducators will not be long to recognize its vital application in the fields of\nthought and of education.\nTHE\nMICHAEL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nW.\n\nDIRECTOR\nOF MANUAL\nSCHOOL, NEWTONVILLE,\n\nMURRAY,\n\nFOR INDUSTRIAL\nTRAINING,\nMASS.\n\nWORK\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nHIGH\n\nThe Manual Training Department of the National Education Association has been criticized because it seems to be changing front and devoting its program to a discussion of industrial or vocational training; but it\nseems to me the eminently proper place to discuss it. The manual-training leaders have been the first to recognize that their work had its shortcomings, and does not meet all the needs, but, with its proper place in the\nschool scheme, it should lay the necessary foundation for the separate\nindustrial school, and much that I shall have to say about teachers for the\nfrankly vocational school applies with almost equal force to the teachers of\nmanual training both in the grades and the high school.\nThere are two reasons why our manual training has received so much\nadverse criticism. First, a sufficient amount of time has never been\ndevoted to it. The manual-training teacher quite generally has to handle\nbetween three and five hundred different pupils weekly, an impossible\ntask for any but a very unusual teacher. Second, the compensation has\nnot been at all adequate to command the talent required. Probably many\nof us are familiar with letters inquiring for a manual-training teacher who\nmust have a long list of qualifications and be willing to accept $800 or\n$1,000 a year.\nWith perhaps the exception of commercial education in the high school,\nthis work will give us the first opportunity to have our product measured\nsquarely by a definite standard, the needs of the industries for which we\nare training, and if the product falls below the standard, our work will be\nconsidered a failure, at least from the standpoint of industrial demands.\nLike all other school work, its success will depend primarily upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "622\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nteacher; if we get the right kind, it will be successful; if we blunder, the\nworst kind of failure will be recorded.\nIt is my purpose in this paper to deal with the question of the selection\nand training of the teachers of this new kind of work which is planned to\nmeet the needs of the boys and girls who are not now being reached by the\nmanual training in the grammar grades, or by the technical training of the\nhigh school. Both the high-school courses and the work in the upper\ngrades should be closely related to industrial Kfe, but so far we seem to\nhave failed in this respect, the boys in the grammar grades usually getting\ntoo little manual work, and the boys in the high school being educated\nbeyond the point of being workmen, so in addition we must have the industrial school for boys of fourteen years who need to be educated thru doing.\nI fear that many superintendents who have not yet introduced manual\ntraining will be carried away by the sentiment in favor of industrial education and will introduce a course under the name of industrial training which\ncan be nothing more than manual training, and, of course, will fall short of\neducating along industrial lines, a plan which can but injure both the general\nand the special industrial work.\nWhile an average of an hour a week has been devoted to manual training, for the shopwork in an industrial school worthy of the name we should\nhave not less than twenty hours, and in about this proportion the teachers\nof the industrial schools must be better equipped on the shop or practical\nside of their work. While it will probably continue to be the practice,\nand I believe that it is a desirable one, for the grade manual-training\nteachers to be school-trained men with shop experience and sympathies\nwhich should be gained by working at a trade during the summer vacation,\nthe teachers of the industrial school must be the very best and most broadly\ntrained workmen whom we can find.\nIf it is granted that we must go to the trades for our teachers of industrial work, we must then decide upon the means for training them to teach.\nThe ideal would be a two or three-year day-normal course but the financial\ncondition of the men in the industries will lead us to conclude that this\ntraining cannot be given in the existing normal schools, certainly not in\ntheir day courses. It will have to be given in continuation courses, and\nshould follow three lines: first, such further training along the line of their\ncrafts as will enable them to teach more than one special part of their\ntrade; second, training which will show them the place of their future\nschool work in the general educational scheme, with such studies in psychology and pedagogy as will enable them to understand their pupils and\npresent their subject-matter properly; third, further academic training\nalong lines related to their trade, with the expectation that they will teach\nat least one academic subject in addition to the theoretical part of the\nmechanical work they may have.\nThose who are preparing to be teachers of industrial work must keep\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "k\n\nDepartment]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nWORK\n\n623\n\nclearly in mind two things: first, that there is a definite need in the\nschools for industrial training, and that it will be given to the pupils who\nare not reached by the academic subjects. They are usually the more\ndifiicult ones to reach, and it requires men and women who understand boys\nand girls and who know how to teach them and to sympathize with them.\nFrom this standpoint only the most Skillful teaching will avail and in\naddition we must have men and women who have their technical subjectmatter well in hand. As it is next to impossible to find a thoroly equipped\nmechanic in any given line of industrial work, our task will be indeed a\ndiflScult one.\nHow shall these people be selected? How can we give them this\ntraining ? What shall their compensation be ? Of course, only the most\ncapable and best-trained men should be chosen. If the training is to be\ndone at the expense of the state, it will be wise to have an age limit, say\nthirty years, for two reasons. First, a man has more energy and adaptability at this age, and second, his period of service will probably be longer.\nOn the other hand, men of this age are not likely to have had the broadest\nshop experience, if indeed we can find a man of any age who has. This\nwill necessitate a course along the third line suggested, further experience in\ntheir crafts. Since the training will have to be secured mainly thru continuation courses, we shall be able to use our present school plants; also\nsome of the teachers in our existing schools would probably be available.\nWe should have a complete and thoro course which will extend over a\nperiod of three or four years of evening work. The men who take such a\ncourse will have to make considerable sacrifice in time and energy, and in\nsome of the industries, it will probably necessitate a sacrifice in salary as\nwell. For this reason, in order to induce men to undertake such a course\nof training as they should receive, school authorities must offer inducements greater than those in the shops at the present time. The inducement certainly will nqt be found in easier work, hence it must be in financial\ncompensation. The minimum salary should be $1,300 or $1,400 a year,\nand should be increased as teaching eflaciency increases.\nThere are few lines of industrial work in which we can find workmen\nwho are masters of the whole trade. Of the skilled trades, pattern-making\nprobably produces more all-round mechanics than any other; yet even\nthis is divided into two branches. In machine-work it is still more difiicult,\nwhile in the shoe industry it would probably be impossible to find such a\nperson. As it is impracticable to employ a man for each of the different\nbranches, changing from one machine to another will be a necessary part\nof the training. Some time should be spent in visiting other shops and\nreporting on the work and methods used. The training which will enable\nthese prospective teachers to see the proper place of their work in the\neducational scheme, with further training in the theory of their work,\nmight well be given in an evening trade school where practice-teaching\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ncould be done. All this will take time, but I have reason to believe that\nif we offer proper inducements, we shall find men who will take such a course.\nIn the meantime, we must have teachers, and the only solution for the\npresent is to attract the best men available, and make it worth while for\nthem to take up teaching. We must see to it that their summers are\nprofitably spent for professional improvement.\nWe have been a long time coming to the point where we are willing to\ngive to the boy who is going into the industries the same chance that we\ngive to his brother who is going to college, and now that we are facing the\nproblem of training his teacher, let us do the right thing and give him the\nbest to be had.\nDISCUSSION\nAlvin E. Dodd, director, North Bennet Street Industrial School, Boston, Mass. —\nI want to emphasize and enlarge a little on the significance of one statement in Mr.\nMurray's paper. He says that those who are preparing to be teachers of industrial work\nmust keep clearly in mind two things: first, that there is a definite need in the schools\nfor industrial training, and that it will be given to the pupils who are not reached by the\nacademic subjects. They are usually the more difficult ones to reach, and it requires men\nand women who understand boys and girls and who know how to teach them and to\nsympathize with them.\nAltho there has been an earnest \"feeling after\" the needs of young people in shaping\nmanual courses of work, this has in the past been confined mainly to deciding whether a\npiece of construction was proper at a given time. None know better than those of us\nwho are in the business how deplorably weak have been the teachers in their perspective\non the human or social relationships of both their work and themselves, to their pupils.\nAs our department of educational work has grown, the complexity of the problem\nof social and economic betterment has come to the consciousness of a few of the leaders\nand those few are realizing that it is of vital importance that teachers should have not\nonly a broader knowledge of trade conditions and requirements and the means for preparing to meet them, but also an intensive knowledge of the economic and social status\nof those in their charge. Only by such knowledge can it be determined what opportunities and incentives will appeal and how far young people will be able to use such a\nknowledge of opportunities.\nTry to involve yourself with human life at as many points as possible, and you must\nalways press beyond the individual and the family into the subtle network of community\nrelations, into a complex little universe of human strivings. President Lowell, who is a\nyachtsman as well as a college president, has likened a democratic community to a jellyfish— if it is not lifted all together, it breaks.\nIn terms applicable to an industrial teacher, no matter how much skill of hand you\ndevelop in your pupils, you have given them very little unless you show them something\nof the relationships of that skill. This is manual training, plus\n. And this recognition and understanding of social relationships is to be the path of progress for the teacher\nof industrial work who, during the next few years, will be in largest demand and who will\nrise highest in his position.\nAs Professor Carleton puts it, \"The greatest wealth of a modern nation is its citizenship and this, thanks to the industrial factor, is chiefly a social product. The industrial\nfactor is the 'chief in modern social, poUtical, educational problems, because industry is\nthe determining factor in fixing the conditions of living, working, associating, and resting.\"\nAnd yet how many industrial teachers have made real efforts to obtain any sociological\nbackground for their work ?\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR INDUSTRIAL\n\nWORK\n\n625\n\nThe teacher of industrial subjects is the one above all others who should know something about the working conditions in v?rious industries — the hours of labor, laws and\nregulations, wages — and be able to give such notions as shall be of large assistance toward\nthe proper selection of a vocation.\nIn no department of school work does a boy show himself as he really is to such an\nextent as in the shop, and therein lies the great opportunity for the industrial teacher to\nhelp in guiding his pupils in the choice of life-work. Such help is precisely what President Eliot advocated at the Chicago meeting of the National Society for the Promotion\nof Industrial Education, but which was so generally misunderstood.\nThat this is a perfectly feasible thing to do is evidenced by the Vocation Bureau in\nBoston which is gathering data that can be used in counseling young people. The Boston\nSchool Committee has recently appointed a committee from the Vocation Bureau to\nhelp train vocation counsellors of which over one hundred have been appointed for service\nin the Boston Public Schools.\nIt is interesting to note, however, that the very men who ought to be the ones best\nfitted for such service, namely, the manual-training and industrial teachers, were, with\nonly two or three exceptions, not asked to take up this work. The reasons are obvious\nones.\nPaul Kreuzpointner, chairman. Committee on Industrial Education, American\nFoundrymen's Association, Altoona, Pa. — The question of trained teachers for the\ncoming industrial and trade schools is a serious one with us in this country and deserves\nthe earnest consideration of our educators and teachers' training schools. I have often\nbeen asked how the German industrial and trade schools obtain desirable teachers. In\nanswer to my inquiry, Dr. G. Kirchensteiner, superintendent of schools of Munich, Germany, kindly furnished me the following statement concerning the method in vogue in\nMunich to obtain the necessary teachers for the trade schools of that city.\nThere are two sets of teachers of these schools, the academic-trained teacher for\nthe academic subjects and the expert mechanic for the mechanical part of the instruction.\nThe academic-trained teacher, when detailed to teach in a trade or industrial school,\nis frequently furloughed for a given number of months to work in a shop of the trade he is\ndetailed to teach. Not, however, for the purpose of learning that trade, but to familiarize himself with the business language and business method of that trade, so that he may\nbe able to apply the knowledge for the benefit of the pupils whom he is to instruct.\nFor the instruction of the mechanical part of the trade school only expert mechanics\nare engaged. If, in the course of two years or so, these experts prove their inability to\nteach, they are dismissed and other ones engaged in their stead at whatever expense.\nHowever, in trades like those of carpenters, machinists, etc., where expert mechanics\nare more numerous, there are always some who desire to become permanent trade-school\nteachers with a state teacher's certificate.\nThese have to submit to the following rules:\nI Conditions of admittance :\na) Proof of having attended a trade or technical school for at least three years.\nb) Proof of practical trade education and practice.\nc) Presentation of drawings and specimen of practical workmanship.\nd) Possession of: certificate of dismissal from school, certificate of health and good\nphysical condition, certificate of employment in practical work of the trade.\nProvision a may be modified by the candidate attending a trade school during the\ntime of his provisional engagement as a teacher.\nII Condition for examination:\na) Production of drawings demanded by the board of examiners.\nb) Proof of suflicient knowledge of the materials used and technical knowledge\npertaining to the trade.\nc) Production of specimen of workmanship in conformity with the drawings.\nd) Estimates of cost of the work done and material used.\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL\n\nED UCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nIII Rules concerning time and duration of examination :\na) Examination is to take place before beginning of the school year so as to enable\nthe candidate to be present at the opening of the school.\nh) The examination may be extended over a period of seven hours.\nIV Conditions for the one year's candidacy.\nThe candidate is obliged:\na) To be present in the school shop every day from 8 to 12 a.m. and from 2 to 6 p.m.\nh) To attend the technological lectures and assist the lecturer.\nc) To carry out the details of the curriculum, to make the necessary workingdrawings, and to give trial lessons.\nd) According to time and opportunity to keep in proper condition the collection\nof models and technological apparatus.\nDuring the one year's provisional engagement the candidate receives no compensation whatever, nor acquires the candidate thereby the right to a teacher's position. Only\nif the candidate shows extraordinary ability and qualifications may he make application,\nafter six months, for part compensation.\nV Conditions for admittance as teacher after the completion of the provisional year :\nToward the end of the school year the candidate has to pass an examination, consisting of candidate's making a drawing in the presence of the pupils, who afterwards have to execute the same drawing and to produce the object represented by\nthe drawing, under the direction of the candidate. Upon the strength of the candidate's successfully passing the examination he may be given a temporary position\nas a teacher.\nVI Conditions under which a candidate may receive a permanent engagement as a\ntrade-school teacher after three years of temporary service:\na) date.\nPresentation of drawings and specimen of workmanship executed by the candih) Estimate of cost of a piece of work according to drawing given by the examiner.\nc) Production of an essay on some subject pertaining to the trade.\nd) Lecture on some subject pertaining to the trade, knowledge of tools, drawing,\nbookkeeping, and estimating cost of production.\nIn case the candidate fails in his first examination, a second examination is permissible. Permanent teachers' certificate will be given only after the successful passing of\nthe examination.\n\nART\nC.\n\nVALENTINE\n\nAS A MEDIUM\nKIRBY,\n\nFOR LIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDIRECTOR\nOF ART INSTRUCTION,\nBUFFALO, N.Y.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe subject assigned me appears upon first thought to be a delightful\none fairly effervescing with rich inspirational material for our discussion\ntoday, but upon further consideration its very suggestiveness fills me with\nembarrassment since we have never reached a consensus of opinion as to\nan ideal definition either of art or liberal education.\nTo some art is, \"man's thought expressed in his handiwork,\" \"the\npower of impressing on matter the stamp of mind,\" \"the inventive use of\ntools and materials.\"\nTo others it implies \"the unfolding of personality,\" or the \"harmonic\nexpression of human emotions;\" and I believe it was Emerson who defined\nis as \"nature passed thru the alembic of man,\" and still to others it is just\n\"the expression of joy in a man's work.\"\nThe art-instinct is common to all, and altho its manifestations may\ndiffer in degree and kind they are substantially the same in essence; not\nalone the painter and the poet, but the mechanic and the merchant are\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nAS A MEDIUM\n\nFOR\n\nLIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n627\n\nartists as they reconstruct existing elements to realize an ideal. \"Art in its\nhighest sense is but the faculty of expression\" (Crane).\nAs to the constituents of a liberal education we seem to be even farther\nat sea, but are earnestly seeking upon this and like occasions to understand\nits true significance in the light of the twentieth-century demands; but may\nI not assume that in the main we understand liberal education to imply\na conversance with the life of the past and the demands of the present, to\nthe end that the young may be prepared for an active, intellectual, and\nmoral participation in the civilization of our time ?\nFrom the beginning, two great instinctive forces have worked in man\nimpelling him to expression. These are the demands of necessity leading\nto invention, and the demands of his emotional nature to satisfy his longings.\nSomeone has reminded us that \"the art of infancy is the infancy of art.\"\nIn the crude, often grotesque art of the past we read man's attempts to\nsupply his simple needs and satisfy his primitive tastes, and we see a people\nin process of evolution as they applied nature's forms and forces to their\ninventions and sought to beautify them in accordance with the principles\nof order, unity, balance, rhythm, and harmony. When these people passed\naway their art was all that remained and in it we largely read the history\nof their civilization, a book of art that records not alone their thoughts,\nbut their deepest and best feelings as well. Art has ever been a medium\nfor liberal education, for it has been the vehicle for its propagation and\ndissemination. As our education opens the door to the world of art, the\nworld that man has created, and we contemplate the mighty works of\narchitecture, sculpture, painting, music, and literature, we are so impressed\nby characters and scenes bearing in turn the mighty impress of the artists\nwho created them that we follow where they have led, hoping by so doing\nto reach the same heights.\nIn our public art education we should have a consideration for the\ncapacities and needs of the many rather than for the talents of the few,\nwith faith in the potentialities of all. We should assume that all can draw\nand build, as others assume that all can write and cipher; and while we\ncannot expect to make many great artists, shall we not be better teachers\nif we look at each child as a possible Milton or Michelangelo ?\nWe must not forget that our aim should be the boy and not the box;\nit should not be the drawing that may be hung upon the wall, but the\nfaculties that may be developed in the child. If these premises are correct,\nI believe that our public-school art education has a particular significance\nas a medium for a liberal education, since it has for its prime aim the training of the senses and the co-ordination of the potential but very discordant\nfaculties of the child. Is it not true that efl&ciency and fitness for life's work\nare primarily dependent upon the harmonious working of the motor and\nsensory centers of the human machine, and that drawing, the basis of all\nman's creations, is the best vehicle for insuring such control in the young ?\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nEquipped with true eyes and obedient hands one has the fundamental\nrequisites for insuring success along many lines and an ever-increasing efficiency for life's work, as well as a greater appreciation of its beauties.\nThis mobility acqmred in early years not only furnishes the \" mechanical\nexpertness\" in all lines of expression, which Goethe talks about, but it goes\nfarther and lays the foundation for intellectual development as well.\nBiology teaches that the more the senses are co-ordinated the higher the\ntype. As art teachers we should be quick to appropriate what the psychologist recognizes, namely, that the brain is developed primarily by\nmuscular control in response to sense-impressions and that this mutual\nrelationship is ome of the most constant factors in nature. The men of all\ntime who have been the greatest representatives of our race have carried\nthe dexterity of their hands to the highest degree of perfection. May we\nnot find the secret of the genius of the ancient Greeks in their bodily exercise and muscular control ? Lucia della Robbia, Ghiberti, Andrea del Sarto,\nMichelangelo, Raphael, the greatest artists the world has seen, were\ncraftsmen, mechanics, inventors, soldiers, men of affairs. Angelo Mosso\nsays, \"I am convinced that muscular movements have formed the omnipotence of genius.\" As a further argument we may point with some degree\nof pride to the development and enlargement thru the work in which we\nare engaged of such vitally essential faculties as attention and the power\nof accurate observation, which is the basis for clear perception and sound\nreasoning. We might also mention the enhanced joy of living thru the\nrefinement of the color-sense. Thru design one learns the importance of\norderly arrangement and obedience to law. As the hand and mind jointly\noperate in registering the facts of nature and art, and recreating them in a\nnew order, the memory is trained and the imagination quickened. The\nability to think clearly and plan logically is quite as essential to commercial\nsuccess as to art achievement; moreover, this continual stimulation thru\nexpressive training makes the completion of the thought-circuit a habit, the\ndreamer becomes a doer, and the dream a reality prized for all time.\nIt is not necessary for me to remind you of the importance of drawing\nand the various art-activities as a correlative force in our general scheme\nof liberal education. The intimate correlation of drawing with nearly all\nof the school studies not only makes the pursuit of these studies more\nattractive, but the facts gathered from them, which might otherwise be\nhazy and fleeting, permanent and lasting, an experience to be remembered\nalways.\nThe correlation of construction work of all kinds with mathematics,\nbased as it is upon real things and their demands of careful plans and\naccurate dimensions, has long been practiced. The educational value of\nconstruction work in clay, cardboard, wood, and metal is incalculable,\ndeveloping as such work should the sense of touch, the muscular sense, and\na real understanding of three dimensions.\nWe must have clear-cut images\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nAS A MEDIUM\n\nFOR\n\nLIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n629\n\nand concrete concepts before we can expect to have abstract idealizations.\nLet me quote here from Dean Shaler :\nThe value of drawing in all departments of science, not only as a language but as a\ndiscipline of the mind, can hardly be overestimated. Many students entering Harvard\nUniversity can think in one dimension, some few in two dimensions, but those who can\nthink in three dimensions are exceedingly rare.\n\nDr. Eliot has expressed himself as follows:\nI have recently examined all the courses offered by the university and I find but one,\n(the course in theology) in which a knowledge of drawing would not be of immediate\nvalue, and even there I think it might help in some cases. The power to draw is greatly\nneeded in all the courses and absolutely indispensable in some of them. A very large\nproportion of studies now train the memory, a very small proportion train the power to\nsee straight and do straight, which is the basis of industrial skill.\n\nNor does our art training stop with the training of the senses and the\nawakening of the imagination: it goes farther than the development of the\nphysical and intellectual natures, it penetrates man's spiritual nature and\nbears the fruits of morality and happiness. In our mad rush for material\ngain we must not forget that after all these are but the means to a more\nsatisfying end, an end in which we may find joyful rest and relaxation.\nDr. Eliot, in addressing a body of art teachers last year, said:\nYour service to the conmiumty is threefold; you train the eyes and the hands of the\nchildren, and give them another means of expressing and recording what they see; you\ndevelop artistic quality in our national industries, and so promote the intellectual interests\nof the men and women employed in them; and you cultivate in the population at large\nthe precious sense of beauty. Are not these worthy objects for the work of our lives ?\nYou need to have a liberal addition made to the time spent in the artistic subjects\nin our educational institutions, you need a better appreciation on the part of the guardians\nof educational institutions of the high possibilities of art education, and you need a more\ngeneral sympathy on the part of the public with your calling.\n\nWe are engaged in a great work upon precious plastic material and with\nthe tried tools of the ages. We must dignify our work by our attitude\ntoward it and be so conversant with its deeper significance that we may make\nothers respect it as they should in the interests of all. For our part, we\nmust command this respect by a wise discrimination between the true and\nthe false, between the real aims and tried methods and the superficial fads\nand fancies of the moment.\nArt is indeed a medium for liberal education working ever for the more\nefficient individual, the richer personality, and the fuller life, and as such it\nshould receive from our higher institutions of learning and those in authority\na recognition and due credit commensurate with its aims and achievements.\nIn closing, permit me'to say that it would be most presumptuous on my\npart to assume that I had brought you anything new or original today. I\nhave, however, sought to remind you of old truths, and if my thesis is correct, itis an arraignment against those who call themselves educators and\nstill believe that a liberal education is confined to words and books, and look\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nupon our work as a mere appendage, permitting its operation and confining\nits practice to one or two school periods a week, when it is worthy of being\nthe very root and core of our educational system.\nTHE\n\nADVANCEMENT OF DRAWING AND ART TEACHING\nOUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS AS COMPARED WITH THE ADVANCEMENT MADE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES\n\nBONNIE\n\nE. SNOW,\n\nEDITORIAL DEPARTMENT, PRANG\nNEW\nYORK\nCITY, N. Y.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIN\n\nCO.,\n\nA comparative study of European and American methods of promulgating art education among the masses inevitably brings to mind the exhibitions of the International Art Congress, held in London during the summer\nof 1908. Interesting and significant as these exhibitions were, their best\ncontribution to the cause they represented has been the discussion that they\nhave prompted among students of education in all parts of the world. It\nis not so much what we saw there, as it is the conclusions that we have drawn\nand the questions that have been raised from what we saw, that has made\nthe Congress so important an element in the development of art education\nin all countries of the civilized earth.\nThe ideals of a nation determine its educational policy; what a country\nreally desires, that will she train her children to attain. All countries do\nnot cherish the same ideals, and therefore we find a difference in the educational poKcies of the nations. England has stood for centuries for classical\neducation and for culture. Rugby and Oxford are famous as the seats of\ngreat classical schools, founded on traditional ideals. England teaches the\nboys of her upper classes the things that their fathers were taught — the\nthings \"that a gentleman should know.\" As a result we find in the educated English gentleman of today, the delightful scholar, the born aristocrat,\nwith centuries of culture behind him, speaking the English language with\na purity and an elegance that delight the ear to hear. But we find that\ncultured gentleman out of sympathy with the industrial classes, without\nan understanding of their problems, unable to legislate wisely in the behalf\nof those classes, upon whose welfare and industrial attainments the fate of\nthe nation depends. England has been content to educate a comparatively\nsmall number of her people for a Hfe of leisure and of culture; she has neglected to educate her masses in a way that would lead them to ideaHze in\nany way their daily toil. Because of her devotion to learning and to tradition, she has sacrificed her position as mistress of the manufacturing and\ncommercial world, and has been surpassed in these respects by both Germany and France.\nA half-century ago she awoke to the gravity of the situation and looked\nabout her. She found at that time that France was taking away her foreign\ntrade, and a royal commission was appointed to investigate the cause.\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nDRAWING\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n631\n\nThe commission reported that the 'manufactured products of France were\nof a much higher standard than those of England; that the French wares\nwere marked by a certain artistic elegance that was lacking in English products. This artistic characteristic found for French products a readier\nmarket and a better price. What did England do about it ? She saw that\nher workmen, her industrial classes, her common people, must in some way\nattain the good taste and the skill possessed by French workers, and so,\nentirely in the interests of industry, she endeavored to correct her faulty\neducational scheme, and introduced drawing into her public schools. Not\nthe least interesting of the sights that London offered to her visitors in 1908\nwas the Franco-British Exposition, where the products of the two countries\nwere marvelously arranged in competitive display. Few of the art teachers\nwho came to the Congress visited the Exposition at Shepherd's Bush, yet\nthere they might have seen the real result of art teaching in two mighty\ncountries, not in the imperfect tasks of children, but in the products of mature\nminds and practiced artisans. The real results of public-school instruction\nare shown in the products of the masses of the people, and not in the school\nexhibitions that we school teachers flock to see. The test of our teaching\nlies in the quality of our country's manufactures, in the contents of our\nstores, in the ways in which we spend our money, in the habits of our\npeople.\nWe have said that the ideals of the different nations are expressed in the\nwork of their peoples. Let us look for a moment at Germany. We think\nat once of her technical schools, her researches in science, her hospitals, her\nwonderful Krupp guns, her battleships, her general scientific and industrial\nsupremacy. The label \"Made in Germany\" is found on innumerable\narticles of daily use in our own and in other countries. Germany has filled\nthe markets of the whole world with her manufactured products. We, in\nAmerica, buy largely from her and so do other countries. In her wares we\ndo not find, it is true, that essence of art that puts the product in the highest\nclass, but her goods are solid and worthy, and they fill a need. She has surpassed England in educating her masses along industrial lines. What\nGermany should endeavor to do now is to make her industries artistic. In\nher educational preparation for industry she has overemphasized technical\nexcellence and has thought too much of utility.\nIn France, since the days of Napoleon, all children have been taught to\ndraw. Up to the present time, instruction in drawing has been based on\nthe ideals of the French academies and art schools, with little regard to\neducational conditions, or to the life-interests of children. The teachers\nof drawing in France have all been trained in her great art schools to a high\ndegree of technical excellence and skill. As a result, they have carried to\nthe children the methods of the art schools. They have insisted on getting\nfrom the children precision of outline and accuracy of form. Their drawing\nhas lacked freedom, spontaneity, and content.\nIt has not been taught as a\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n'\n\n[Manual Training\n\nmeans of expression of what children think, see, and feel, but as an exhibition of skill in the delineation of form, and in the portrayal of traditional\nideas of decorative design. Such training has made France a nation of\ndraftsmen. France has taught art for the sake of art. The manner of\nrendering has been the point of emphasis, and she has trained a large industrial class to appreciate beauty of line, proportion, and color. As a result,\nher industries have been marked by a certain refinement and elegance\nwhich have made her the envy of the commercial world. Yet, are we willing\nto adopt in the American schools the methods and the processes followed\nin France? By no means! We already recognize as one of our troubles\nthe inability of the teacher of art, trained in an art school, to cope with the\nproblems that she meets in our public-school systems. The attempt to\nfollow academic ideals, to teach art-theories and art-processes without\nregard to the rest of a child's education, has already, in our country, met\nwith failure and defeat. We in America are not to teach the classics for\nthe sake of the classics, we are not to teach trades and industries for the\nsake of trades and industries, we are not to teach art for the sake of art, but\nwe are to take as our task the teaching of the child, and we are to give him\nsomething of classic culture, something of industrial intelligence and understanding, something of artistic appreciation and skill, and something greater\nthan any of these — that spiritual uplift which is the highest and best result\nof education and of discipline of any kind.\nWhat is the educational ideal for America ? And in the development\nof this ideal, how much of a factor is the teaching of art ? Like England,\nGermany, and France we are, or we are rapidly becoming, an industrial\nnation. We are dissatisfied with our present organization of school work.\nWe realize that in this country, as in England, our schools have placed the\nemphasis upon literary and intellectual studies to the exclusion, heretofore,\nof those studies that relate to the practical arts and to industry. We wish\nto correct this overemphasis of books and of letters, and to attain, not less\nculture in proportion to industrial intelligence, but a broader culture. But\nwe do not wish to follow too closely in the footsteps of Germany, because\neven if the results she has secured are satisfactory to Germany they would\nnot be satisfactory to us in America. The trade school does not seem to\nflourish here as the ideal of secondary education, or as a substitute for our\nmuch-criticized high schools. We are willing that trade schools shall be\nestablished for \"the other fellow,\" but we do not wish to send our son or\nour daughter to be trained exclusively for some trade — to become, for instance, a plumber or a milliner. We desire rather that our boys and girls\nshall have the opportunity for development along many lines — that their\nschooling shall consist of a certain proportion of literary work, a certain\nproportion of \"shop\" or industrial work, a certain proportion of physical\ndiscipline and training, and a certain proportion of practice in the fine arts,\nsuch as drawing, music, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n633\n\nSo far as the teaching of art is concerned, there appears to be a greater\nnecessity than ever before for a wiser and broader application of the principles and the spirit of art. Industry demands from its workers greater\nskill of hand, better execution along every line, more knowledge of the\nartistic accomplishment of the past; and from the patrons of industry — the\nbuyers and consumers of the manufactured products — there must develop\na more general appreciation of quality, and a deeper sense of beauty.\n\"What can we do,\" asks Dr. Ross, \"to bring the spirit of art into the life\nwe are living and into the work we are doing ?\" Back in the seventies the\nstate of Massachusetts sought to improve the industrial output of her factories by providing free instruction in drawing, not only for children, but\nfor all men and women in towns of more than five thousand inhabitants.\nA normal school for the training of teachers of drawing was established in\nBoston in 1873 and the introduction of so-called industrial drawing became\ngeneral, not only in the public schools of the state, but thruout the country.\nBut the industrial drawing of those days had little of the spirit of art within\nit. Such design as was taught was geometric and formal, and was seldom\n\"applied,\" as we now understand the word.\nRapidly developing educational philosophy soon pointed the way to\nanother kind of drawing — the drawing that expressed a mental concept or\nan impression of the child. The drawing in our schools then became a\nlanguage — crude and imperfect, but still an expression of thought, and so\nit was better for the children than the formal and to them meaningless flat\ncopies that had prevailed at first. For a time drawing was looked upon as\na means of expression, and pictorial work dominated our art courses. Industrial drawing was almost forgotten in our public schools. The paintbox came into general use, and for a while we went quite mad over color —\ncolor as a means of expression, not color harmony as an element in design.\nThen came the movement for manual training, and for the crafts, and now\nwe find ourselves facing the problem of industrial drawing again. But with\nwhat a different point of view than we had in the seventies! We have\ngained much from our thirty years' experience, and we shall bring a greater\nintelligence to bear upon our reorganized or modified courses of study.\nThe movement for vocational work is bound to react forcibly on art\nteaching, demanding not less teaching of art, but looking for more definite\nand tangible results. A much closer union must exist between two departments \"that never can be sundered without tears\" — the departments of\ndrawing and manual training. Each needs the assistance of the other.\nThe art teacher who withdraws herself from contact with the physical\nmaterials upon which the manual-training teacher relies for expression will\nfind her power decreasing and her sphere of influence diminishing in proportion to the degree of her withdrawal.\nIn our teaching we must get into more intimate touch with industry.\nWe who stand for art must employ every means — omental, spiritual, and physi-\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ncal — to bring our message to the understanding of the common, everyday\ncitizen. If we have failed to do this with our picture-making and colorwork, or in our carefully formulated theories of design, clear enough to us,\nperhaps, but vague and indefinite and \"up in the air\" to the practical mind\nof the layman, then let us try the new way. Let us show in the thousand\nways that are open to us that art is like the small boy's definition of salt:\n\"It is what makes things taste bad when it is left out.\" Art is like many\ngood things — it is like religion, of greatest good when in service. To have\nideals and not use them is worse than to have no ideals at all. Let art\nteachers serve the cause of education, then, remembering that \" the greatest\nis he that serveth.\" Art is like poetry or song, as Edwin Markham has\nbeautifully expressed it in his poem\nSONG\n\nMADE\n\nFLESH\n\nI have no glory in these songs of mine:\nIf one of them has made a brother strong,\nIt came down from the peaks of the divine,\nI heard it in the heaven of Lyric Song.\nThe one who builds the poem into fact,\nHe is the rightful owner of it all;\nThe pale words are with God's own power packed.\nWhen brave souls answer to the bugle-call.\nAnd so I ask no man to praise my song,\nBut I would have him build it in his soul,\nFor that great praise would make me glad and strong.\nAnd build my poem to a perfect whole.\n\nIn a magazine the other day, I came across a short dissertation on\n\" Imagination.\" It is written by Charles Ferguson, and is so fine that I am\ngoing to risk the charge of triteness and close my paper with a quotation —\nbecause this paragraph contains all that I would like to have said, if my own\nimagination and my executive powers had been sufficiently quickened:\nIf a supremely great man — wise above others to see the truth in its proportion and\nput the first thing first — were summoned suddenly to die, and were given a moment only\nto sum up his discovery of life I think he would say in substance what follows. I think\nso because this is, as I understand it, the message — not in words, but in the sense of them\n— that was actually given to the world by the Greatest Man we know:\nThe secret of beauty and power hes in the right use of the imagination, for it is the\nimagination — the abiUty to conceive things that do not exist — that distinguishes men\nfrom animals and makes it possible for men to escape from creaturehood and become\ncreators. Now the right use of this faculty to conceive delightful things that do not\nexist, is to make them exist. If the faculty be otherwise used — used to accuse or deceive\nothers, or to create a mere no-man's land of dreams — it will in the end make one sick and\nimpatient, and spread disease and weakness all around one.\nTo have ideals and not use them is sin and death.\nThose who live well are those who by faith, daily perform the miracles of making\nsome coarse thing fine — by some adventure of the creative imagination.\nThe charm^of a woman is not in the delicacy of her ideals, but in her daring to use\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nCRAFTS\n\n635\n\nthem in homely circumstances. The digni<:y and fame of a man consist at once in his\nbeing idealistic and executive — driving the sword of his spirit deep into the bowels of\nfact.\nThe heavens above us are latent with creative lightning, and the gross earth electric\nwith expectation. The imagination reaches for the thunderbolt to subdue the earth.\nAnd the secret of beauty and power is to make one's own body the vehicle of the fire from\nheaven.\n\nDRAWING\n\nAND\n\nITS RELATION TO THE ARTS\nTHE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nCRAFTS\n\nWILLIAM C. A. HAMMEL, DEPARTMENTS OF MANUAL ARTS AND\nSTATE NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE, GREENSBORO,\n\nOF\n\nPHYSICS,\nN.C.\n\nWe have come a long way in the theory and practice of education since\nthe comfortable, untroubled, pedagogy-less days scarcely a generation ago\nwhen the only drawing taught in any of the schools materialized in the poor\nbut proud efforts of the boarding-school girl. Brought home and placed on\nthe wall to be admired by fond relatives and envious visitors, these pictures\nof impossible deer and horses, cavorting without regard to anatomy over\nlandscapes with woolly waterfalls and foamy trees against horizons baffling\nthe scientist — pictures copied from other pictures hardly less remarkable —\nthese were the first outpourings of the schoolgirl's artistic soul. And when\nfrom these pencil and crayon drawings the talented young lady was promoted next year into the oil class, she was reverently spoken of as an\n\"artist.\"\nThe art institutes, meanwhile, were specializing in \"art for art's sake,\"\nas a thing wholly apart from common life and its interests — drawing and\npainting pictures the whole term thru for the annual exhibition. Except\nfor the mechanical-drawing classes that later came to be held at night for\nworking men and boys, these schools permitted no practical or utihtarian\npurpose to creep into the hallowed circle of their ideals.\nEfforts to bring drawing into the public school on any plea failed again\nand again, until but a comparatively few years ago. Then it was granted\na reluctant admittance by grace of its \"cultural,\" \"pedagogical,\" or \"psychological\" value — it is difficult to decide which, for this value manifested\nitself like the acquiring of it, in a very abstract, totally unrelated way, having no connection with anything in or out of school other than the straight\nhnes — horizontal, vertical, oblique — the angles, triangles, circles, cubes, and\ncylinders at the top of the page in the drawing-book, placed there in systematic order to be copied with great precision.\nIt is small wonder that, to quote from the experience of a supervisor\nof drawing in those days, the highest ambition of the pupil was to turn the\npages as fast as possible until with unspeakable joy the tombstone — the\nfirst intelligible combination of these Hnes — was finally reached on the last\npage.\nNever a thought of drawing from life, never a pencil stroke that might\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "6s6\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ndirectly or indirectly add beauty to anything, no thought of any possible\napplication of these senseless \"straight\" and \"curved\" lines. Making\na correct copy was the end and aim of drawing in the public schools — an\nend that was in some way indefinitely entangled with the \"pedagogical''\nand \"cultural\" value of the subject. In this training with a single view to\nprecision, skill and quickness, drawing was half-brother to the earlier forms\nof manual training.\nA little later, even in the public schools, drawing became recognized as\nhaving a real reason for being; it was recognized as a medium of expression,\nas another language than the language of words, a language that could say\nthings words are inadequate to say. Then it began to be correlated with\ngeography, history, arithmetic, English, until eventually no subject could\nbe taught intelligently without it. It became picture-making, composition,\nworking-plans. It had begun to have some life, some meaning, some concrete relation. It was lifted from the field of the fine arts in which but few\neven of the called are chosen, into a broader, more practical field, useful\nand open to all. It became an expression of ideas.\nWith the introduction of manual training it grew to be still further vitalized, not merely a practical but a necessary adjunct of hand-training, a\nmeans of closer communication between the brain and the hand, a medium\nbetween \"thinking\" and \"doing.\" And now that the influence of manual\ntraining has gone forth into two broad territories — the arts and crafts and\nindustrial training — and both of these are becoming intimately interwoven\nwith the general system of education, any question as to the value of drawing\nin connection with these studies seems more for the sake of argument than\nfor any necessity for conviction.\nAs the arts and crafts movement has extended and progressed, artists\nand thinking artisans have begun to awaken to the truth of the doctrines\nof Ruskin and Morris, to believe in the arts of life, the \"architectural\",\nstructural, or ornamental arts, and to place them on a plane no less high\nthan that occupied and distinguished by the fine or \" academic \" arts. They\nhave come to believe in the \"intelligent producer\" of other things than\npaintings and sculpture. In spite of this awakening, how rare is the artistcraftsman. He could not, of course, be expected in great numbers in a\ngeneration. His gift to make beautiful things well is more by special inspiration, an hereditary outcropping of something of the spirit of the old guilds,\nthan the result of training. We have come to know our need of art in everyday life. We need it so much more than we need the $500,000 paintings\nfor the art galleries. But we have so little artist-artisan material to supply\nthis need all at once. There is no better way, indeed no other way, to\nsupply it effectually and generally as a national thing than thru the training\nof public taste from the very foundations of education in the public schools.\nEducators recognize this, and in the very short career of manual training\nin the public schools have taken a great step forward.\nThe arts and crafts\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nCRAFTS\n\n637\n\nin the public school have given a more real, substantial meaning to handwork, and a greater appreciation of the beautiful. There cannot be what\nsome call an \"unnatural union between art and manual training.\" It is\nimpossible to dissociate the idea of design from that of craftsmanship, or\nof craftsmanship from design. The designer and the craftsman, however,\nare too seldom one and the same person. This is the \" unnatural \" situation.\nNot only in the manufactures are the designer and the worker kept apart.\nToo often is this true of the handicrafts, mainly for economic reasons — the\ndesigner concentrating upon designs can thus make more designs; the\nartisan, uninterrupted by the necessity of making his own plans, can turn\nout more pieces of work. Neither is acquainted with the problems the\nother has to contend with, and both design and craftsmanship suffer thereby.\nThe ideal craftsman is he who works from his own designs, designs that\nrepresent his own thought and embrace every element of good quality which\nhe desires to put into his work, with regard alike to material, use, form,\nand ornamentation. It is this sort of artist-craftsmanship that Morris and\nRuskin sought to re-establish, and that their followers in the arts and\ncrafts movement are striving to encourage. It is this sort of training that\nthe arts and crafts of the public schools must give, not merely exercises in\nskillful construction, worked out blindly and unintelligently with no thought\nbeyond the \"making.\" The ideal combination is skill with the best of\nthought. Whether the thought be transferred to the work directly or not,\nthe thought is the design. This mental design, bodied forth in a drawing,\nis already partly visualized. The drawing becomes a language that is more\neasily interpreted into workmanship, it is a bridge between thought and\nexecution, bringing the work nearer to the thought, making each step surer,\nand the whole way clearer. \"Every human creature,\" says Lethaby, \"is\nin some sort a designer.\" Not all craftsmen, however, commit their designs\nfirst to drawing. But the thinking craftsman thinks the more clearly thru\ndrawing.\nRuskin says emphatically:\nUnderstand this cleady: You can teach a man to draw a straight line, and to cut\none; to strike a curved line, and to carve it; and to copy and carve any number of given\nlines or forms, with admirable speed and perfect precision; and you find his work perfect\nof its kind; but if you ask him to think about any of these forms, to consider if he cannot\nfind any better in his own head, he stops; his execution becomes hesitating; he thinks,\nand ten to one he thinks wrong; ten to one he makes a mistake in the first touch he gives\nto his work as a thinking being. But you have made a man of him for all that. He was\nonly a machine before, an animated tool.\n\nDrawing is an indispensable language of the craftsman in at least some\nstages of his work; it represents actualities, it represents things as they exist\nand cannot be separated from craftsmanship more consistently than thought\ncan be.\nNor can pure design as such exist alone. It cannot be considered apart\nfrom that to which it is meant to be applied. Only a few years back, a\ndrawing-class in a certain secondary school spent all the time allotted to\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ndrawing in making designs — ^borders, centers, and the like, from conventionalized flower forms. But no one ever knew for what purpose or for what\nplace these borders, corners, centers, and squares were to be used, nor to\nwhat material they were to be applied. They were exercises, they were not\nmade to be used, they were not real. Later, elaborate designs for oilcloth,\nwallpaper, china, added a bit of interest to the exercises — for they were still\nexercises. They were meant for an imaginary something; no oilcloth, wallpaper, or china was ever destined to bear these designs. They were \"useless as a painted ship upon a painted ocean.\" They had no relation to the\nthings of life, and the teacher in his enthusiasm in teaching design failed\nutterly to teach applied design.\nEducation is today so much more a part of the life of the child that there\nis nothing he does in school that is not related to his life. From the lowest\ngrades his schoolroom activities reflect the needs and the capabilities of the\nchild mind, and are constantly leading him into a new world of ideas and\nactivities. He tells his fairy stories in pictorial form with the pencil or\nwith the brush and colors; with scissors and paper he makes silhouettes of\nthe most characteristic groups in the nursery rhymes — learning thru these\nactivities outline, composition, tone, and color. He models in clay, and\nthru its plastic obedience to his thought, learns much of form; he folds\npaper to line from given directions and thus takes his first lesson in interpreting amechanical drawing ; he constructs paper and cardboard boxes and\nsolids from geometrical drawings made by himself from given directions,\nand learns the necessity for accuracy in making and translating mechanical .\ndrawings; from a solid block of wood he cuts a glove-mender and learns how\nto make tools and materials respond to the language of the working-drawing.\nAll the while he has been acquainting himself with this language which is\nhelping to bring \"thinking\" and \"doing\" into harmony with each other.\nAnd while he has been learning the \"how\" he has been learning the \"why.\"\nWhile he has been learning to make things well, he has been learning to make\nthem in good design, of comfortable proportion, on consistent hnes, of\nsuitable material, and to decorate when advisable in an approved way. He\nhas been further enriching his experience in \"thinking\" and \"doing\" thru\nwork in brass and copper, silver and iron, in wood-carving, block-printing,\nstenciling, basketry, weaving, bookbinding, pottery — drawing always the\ngeneral plan of construction, either in outline with the pencil, or in mass, or\nin space-arrangements with the brush, ornamenting where ornament will\nadd interest and emphasize form, but not confuse and weaken, never losing\nsight of suitability of design to the material, to the tools, to the method of\nworkmanship, or to the uses to which the finished product is to be dedicated.\nIn original problems all along the line he has been given abundant opportunity for the play of the creative instinct, for invention, for individuality,\nand imagination, all within bounds regulated by the recognized laws of\ndesign, seeking to produce artistic quality as well as good construction.\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nCRAFTS\n\n639\n\nThru the whole process there has been scarcely a step where he has not\nneeded to use something of mechanical drawing or pictorial drawing, a\ncertain degree of accuracy in both construction and decoration. This\naccuracy has not been the only quality striven for, and it has helped, not\nhampered the freedom of both design and construction; the \" be-sure-you'reright,- then-go-ahead \" quality. He has had to keep before him the entire\ndesign as a unit comprising the mass or form of the object together with\nits proposed decorations. The laws of design have kept him well down to\nthe structural plan laid out in the drawings he has made. In the drawings\nhis imagination has been given direction and has been kept from running\nriot in over-ornamentation, or the merely \"unique\" that is so often mistaken\nfor originality. He has had to recognize the limitations as well as the possibiHties of design, he has had to keep true to tones and values and fitness,\nto adapt his drawings with a view to the uses of the completed object, and\nto the materials and tools employed in making it. And if in the work of construction ordecoration he finds he can improve on the drawing — so much the\nbetter. He is learning to judge and to criticize, learning right values, learning to think ahead.\nNo hard-and-fast line of demarcation has been made in his mind between\nrepresentative drawing and decorative drawing. He uses each as it best\nserves his purpose and best expresses his idea. He has shown that drawing\nis the very bone and sinew of the arts and crafts, that the arts and crafts are\nafter all but a vehicle for applied design. Thru drawing he has learned to\nthink constructively, to think connectedly, and to achieve definite and connected results. He has learned that art is not something to which craft\nis somewhat inferior, but that they are one and the same thing ; and this both\nthe greatest designers and craftsmen, and the greatest painters, sculptors,\nand architects today agree upon.\nThe experiment to teach the crafts without a knowledge of drawing —\neither mechanical or freehand — has been tried. But \"experience,\" as\nHenry James says, \"has a way of boiling over and giving us an opportunity\nto correct our methods.\" Experience in a normal college has taught that\nan attempt to go into any branch of manual arts before some training has\nbeen given in interpreting and making drawings, results in confusion, indecision, and ultimate defeat in the work. A trial of training in simple problems in paper-folding and cardboard and the drawing-problems these\ninvolve, to those students who had never before had any training in drawing\nor any branch of the manual arts, immediately proved the saneness of the\nmethod. The students found themselves, and from having floundered\nhelplessly about in one craft or another, came to work systematically and\nintelligently and joyously when they understood drawings and how to\nmake them for themselves.\nLet me further illustrate this unquestionable value of drawing in its\nrelation to the arts and crafts by citing the case of a class of untrained\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nadults who wished to take a few lessons in brasswork. The only specimens\nthey had ever seen were specimens of very inferior craftsmanship. But\nthese grown-ups did not consider them so and thought they would be content to make something half as good. They rather fretted under the drawing and pattern-making that the teacher insisted upon for both construction\nand decoration and were impatient to get on to the \"making.\" When the\nfirst pieces — fern-dishes — were completed, carefully soldered and zinc lined,\nthey proved to be quite satisfactory models of workmanship and design.\nComing again upon the original fern-dish which had inspired emulation,\none of the students not habitually given to deep thought, looked upon its\npoor design, and poorer workmanship, with the simple but expressive\nremark — \"Well, you certainly do see more when you do things.\" And so\nsay the psychologists. Drawing in the arts and crafts is but \"seeing\"\nJe/ore \"doing.\"\nIt may be unnatural or unwise to expect drawing with any idea to construction from young children, but as the child learns to express his ideas\nin material form — and this he does very early — drawing may be correlated in\nthe simplest manner possible with construction. Later when he needs to\nwork out his own ideas from plans he has drawn he will already quite unconsciously have learned to visualize his design applied. If he must live thru\nthe history of the race he will want first to make unintelligible scrawls, then\nsymbols, then pictures, and then plans or designs to be applied.\nWe cannot today get away from the relation of the public school to the\nlife of the community. It is no longer a matter for pedagogists and school\nboards alone to decide; the people are insisting upon it, as the activity\nof the Association for the Promotion of Industrial Education has abundantly\ntestified in the past few years.\nArts and crafts in the public school have opportunity for a wider influence\nthan almost any other work in the schools. Yet even in their highest\nflights of fancy it has never been the hope of teachers of the arts and crafts\nto make artists or craftsmen of even a small proportion of their pupils;\nshould the pupil's inclination take him into any field of art, whether the fine\narts or the architectural arts, he will be all the better'prepared by reason of\nhis training in the schools. But what is far more vital to the people than\nthe work of an individual painter, sculptor, designer, or craftsman, is the\ninfluence and training that make for better taste in individuals regarding\nthings made, things bought, things used. As the individual, so the\nmass.\nNinety-six per cent, of all working-people are employed in the industries.\nIn the school the child meets the same sort of drawing and construction\nproblems that confront the furniture-maker, the silversmith, the carpetmaker, and yet it would be folly to believe that these trained children from\nthe public schools can, on growing up and going into the industries, make\nany appreciable impression upon the character or the quality of manufac-\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nCRAFTS\n\n641\n\ntures. They do not go into the industries as factors but rather as a part of\nthe machinery.\nHowever, they will have acquired a sense of good form, of good design,\nand a love of beauty that will eventually insist upon being satisfied.\nIndustrial conditions are too large, too mighty, too well organized, too\nuniversal, too permanent, too progressive,- to turn aside for the boy and girl\nof the public school. What the boy and girl can do is to grow up to demand\nbetter products of the manufacturer by refusing what is unsatisfactory, to\nforce him to make furniture, carpets, wall-papers, chandeliers, china, in\nbetter design and coloring and at less cost, so that their homes may be more\nbeautiful, that objects of everyday use may be made on good lines, without\nover-ornamentation — ^in a word — ^in general good taste.\nThen shall we see the passing of the tortured curves in furniture, grotesques and arabesques in wall-papers, the realistic red roses scattered carelessly over the emerald green carpet, \"fashionable\" headgear and gowns,\nthe bespouted and behandled bric-a-brac of impossible color and decoration\nand dust-harboring kinks and twists.\nPeople of even small means may then surround themselves with necessary furnishings of dignified and quiet lines, and in the home, at least, there\nwill be a chance to get away from some of the restlessness of the age, some\nof its ugliness. (Perhaps, indeed, some of this restlessness is due to too\nconstant and too long association with ugliness.) By their persistent demand for wares in good taste they can compel manufacturers to produce\nmore tasteful wares. It is a slow process; it looks almost hopeless in view\nof the disproportionate power of the industries both financially and executively. But truth is mighty.\nPeople of moderate means can begin in their own homes to harden their\nhearts to some of the monstrosities cherished too long, and, not as in other\ndays, take the offending piece from parlor to sitting-room, then upstairs,\nthen out, but out at once; not give it away, that is not helping the cause.\nThey can bring themselves \"to burn the things they once loved, and love\nthe things they once burned. ' ' They can make a bonfi re, with a celebration ,\nof the mustard-plaster oak sideboard with the grillwork and the mirrors\neverywhere, and make a plain one of handsomely grained wood stained and\npolished, or they can bring down from the attic and restore to its place the\nold mahogany or walnut sideboard with the strong, simple, graceful lines\nand satisfying proportions. They can refuse to live with ugliness, and the\nmanufacturer will come 'round.\nThe manufacturer is making his millions producing for others articles\nhe himself would disdain to use in his own home. With a public whose\ntaste refused this ugliness the manufacturer would in time have no alternative but to get in line and exercise good taste in the production of what\nthe public purchases. This is not too sweeping a statement, not too hopeful a view, but its realization will not happen tomorrow.\nWhen it does\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ngradually come the general improvement in taste and appreciation of beauty\nwill react upon civic conditions and cannot help but have a bearing upon\nnational greatness, a national art, and give us the place we ought to have\nin the progress of civilization.\nTHE\nHELEN\n\nVOCATIONAL\nKINNE,\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE HOUSEHOLD\n\nPROFESSOR OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE, TEACHERS\nCOLUMBIA\nUNIVERSITY, NEW\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nARTS\nCOLLEGE,\n\n1. The title of this paper might better read, \" How may the Household\nArts Have True Vocational Value ?\" For while at first sight it would seem\nthat the household arts must have vocational value, we may well pause to\nconsider whether the presentation of the subject is such that this end is\nattained. A subject to be vocational must always have the practical end\nin view. The aim of the practical work is a controlling element in the\nselection of subject-matter. Courses in household arts as we find them in\nthe schools would seem to form a part of the general educa tion rather than\nto serve as training for any specific end. The household arts, to be truly\nvocational, must give thoro training for home-keeping; or must thoroly train\nthe girl to earn her livelihood. The average course of study is too incomplete to accomplish this purpose. More time should be allotted and the\ncourses better organized within the given time. The word \"vocational\"\nis used in a twofold sense in connection with the household arts. The keen\ninterest now awakened for industrial education must not blind us to the\nfact that in the vocation of home-making lies the full significance of our\nsubject. This, then, is the first meaning of the word. When, however,\ncertain of the household arts are used for trade or business purposes, we\nhave the second interpretation of the word vocational.\n2. Training for Home-keeping. — The term vocational always implies\nthe practical end — some actual achievement. The power to do something\nwell is always involved. So, in the vocation of home-making, practical\nefficiency, skill in the arts themselves, is an absolute necessity. But more\nthan this is required. We must develop a well-organized group of ideas\nwhich shall include knowledge essential to the modern house-keeper. Even\nin the upper elementary school it is possible to a greater extent than we have\nyet realized, and our high-school courses seem thin and weak in view of what\nwe yet have to do.\nA wide range of topics is necessary for this purpose if we keep in view\nthe knowledge that is necessary nowadays for the house-keeper. The subject of foods and cookery, so prominent in all our courses, is important, but\nis only one element in the situation. This topic, too, is on the whole too\nrestricted, where nothing more is taught than the food principles, the effect\nof heat upon them, serving, and so on; for the selection of wholesome food\nhas become a science and an art. What matters it how well a house-keeper\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nARTS\n\n643\n\nmay cook a turkey if she does not k^ow the difference between an edible\nfowl and one that has been several years in cold storage ? Poultry of this\ndescription was sold by the dozens in a department store of New York\nlast Thanksgi\\'ing, which would seem to prove that such knowledge as this\nis not common. We must in our household-arts courses give accurate and\nattested facts in regard to food sanitation, (which would include state and\ncity sanitation), sanitary -inspection laws, the condition of cold storage and\nmarkets. The papers for years have been full of facts in regard to the\nnecessity for pure-food laws including both sanitation and adulterations;\nyet what are we teaching in our elementary and high schools? Are we\nteaching our pupils, for instance, not to buy jam made from turnip-pulp\ncolored and flavored with aniline products and mixed with hayseed ?\nThe question of sanitation, moreover, touches the field of textiles, where\nmanufacturing conditions in our great cities are positively revolting. What\ndo we actually teach about sweat-shop work and the prices that must be\npaid for clothing made under decent conditions? The entire sanitary\ncondition is treated on the whole rather as a side issue. We have health\nassociations, a proposed National Department of Health; we fight tuberculosis, we talk about^stamping out typhoid fever; and yet a state board of\neducation has just refused to include a course in sanitation in its syllabus.\nWho needs to know, more than the elementary-school or high-school girl\nwho will pass from the school to the shop, the fundamental decencies of life ?\nIn this vocational work of household arts we must hold steadily before\nthe public and the educators the full scope and content of this subject.\nNo course in household arts can truly train the home-keeper that does not\ninclude sanitation, and the hygiene of the individual, including nutrition,\nas well as all practical aspects of the subject.\nEconomics and the cost of living form another neglected topic, treated\nincidentally rather than fundamentally.\nYet again, while the papers are full of this topic, and a Congressional\nCommittee has been investigating this question, what is done in the schools\nthat would give vital aid in the solution of the problem of the cost of living ?\nThe home-keeping course must always have practical work, but this\nmust be given in relation to the larger whole, if any worthy result is to follow.\nThis practical work itself needs sifting out and rearranging. We need\nto find more short cuts, to select type forms, so that the pupils may not have\na series of isolated and disconnected processes. We must, in some way, plan\nfor more repetition — the doing of fewer things, doing them oftener, and thus\ndoing them better. It is some weakness here that arouses such a question\nin the public mind as this — \"What is the use of cookery in the public\nschool?\"\n3. Training for a Livelihood. — Here a word must be spoken in behalf of\ncourses that train for a livelihood. In some quarters there would seem to be\nan explanatory or apologetic attitude for work of this nature; yet in a world\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "644\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwhere a girl is forced to support herself, because no one else can, should we\nnot rejoice in being able to open new means of self-support in work which\nwill be pleasureable as well as remunerative; which will not degrade her\nwomanhood or dissipate her physical energies ? Happy it is for the household arts that they can do this; that certain of the household arts have\nbecome industrial, without taking on the worst features of industrialism;\nand that even in the school we may so train a girl that she quickly rises to\nbetter positions in her field of labor.\nHere the textile subjects have the advantage, since trade dressmaking,\nmillinery, and design offer a field for the young worker, and already we see\nresults in such trade-training.\nIn the food and hygiene fields we are yet experimenting, but as assistants\nin institutional management, as lunch-room helper, or caterer, openings are\ncoming for the younger women.\nEvery woman should be alive to the aspects of home-keeping as already\ndescribed, but in the course that trains for a livelihood the general aspect\nmust be given in a brief survey course. For financial purposes there must\nbe skill in a somewhat narrow field. This means a large amount of practical work and much repetition under conditions as much like those of a trade\nor business as is possible. Facility and rapid execution are necessary in\nany line. This certainly holds good in the textile field, where dressmaking,\nmillinery, and design are taught for trade purposes, and is true also in training for catering or lunchroom management or anything that has to do with\nthe food question. Our trade schools and technical schools are already\norganizing their work with these facts in view. The outlook here is truly\nencouraging.\n4. In both cases — vocational training for the home and for a livelihood\n— a scientific basis is absolutely essential. This is clearly understood in\nall other practical vocations at the present time. The manufacturer\nemploys a chemist in order to make his business pay, yet this same manufacturer, ihe\nf happens to be a member of a school board, will object to the\ninclusion of the chemistry of foods in a household-arts course because he is\nafraid it is not practical. If a course in dietaries is presented to a school\nboard for adoption, it is possibly rejected with the statement that the girls\nneed something that they can use at home. Why is there such a curious\nlack of logic when the mind applies itself to the question of home-keeping ?\nIn agriculture, a practical art the most nearly parallel to house-keeping,\nwhat strides have already been made in restoring the worn-out soil and\nincreasing the income of the farmer! The young farmer goes to the winter\ncourse in scientific agriculture. Happily his sisters are finding something\nthat they need in the winter courses in home economics. Yet still the\nteacher who believes that sound science is necessary to sound practice in\ncookery meets a murmur of dissent. There is a prevailing fear in the minds\nof men and women that home work cannot be practical if time is taken to\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF HOUSEHOLD\n\nARTS\n\n645\n\nestablish foundation principles thru scientific experiments. We can lay\nthe ghost of the old-time cook, who knew no chemistry and never measured\nanything, only by demonstrating practically that in these days the best\npractical results are inseparably connected with scientific principles established in the chemist's laboratory. Here the household-arts teacher must\nhave the co-operation of the teachers of. the natural sciences. The present\nferment in this line of teaching will ultimately work for good to all concerned ifthe pure-science and applied-science teachers will work together.\nWe shall probably obtain best results in connecting theory and practice in\nthe classroom in proceeding from the concrete to the theoretic. This\nwould be true anyway in work for trade purposes, where there may be little\ntime for foundation courses in science. Here, certainly, we may safely\nfollow the advice of Aristotle — to do the thing first, and find the reason\nafterward. In the textile field principles of art are as essential as are\nchemistry, physics, and biology in the other fields.\n5. Classroom methods. — For home training, conditions are fairly satisfactory already, yet much has still to be done in developing a better method,\nespecially in this development of the general relation of things, the connection of theory and practice. In teaching methods for trade purposes we\nmust be on our guard that confusion does not arise between the apprentice\nmethods and the schoolroom method. We must make the class copy\ntrade conditions as much as possible. This is possible only to a degree.\nThe apprentice system requires much time. The method is individual.\nThe learner is given one thing to do, passes on to another, and covers the\nwhole field by slow degrees. Again the learner gets detail, but does not\ndevelop a working principle unless she has a keen mind and rises to the\ntop. In the schoolroom, time is limited. The program is hard and fast,\nand short cuts must be devised. The pupil must get her working basis\nand her practical methods as rapidly as possible. There must be class\ndemonstration, class discussion, and notebook work, and in this way the\nestablishment of principles to be worked out by the individuals. We need\nto devise some happy mean between the slow apprentice system and a\nclass method so rapid that nothing practical results.\n6. Qualifications of the teacher. — Here lies one of our greatest difficulties.\nFor both home work and trade work the teacher should have scientific\ntraining, a practical experience in business, either home work or trade work,\nand a knowledge of teaching. Teachers from our training schools lack\nbusiness experience and the short cuts of the trade or practical house-keeping methods, unless there has been experience outside of the training school.\nOn the other hand, a woman from a dressmaker's shop or a practical housekeeper wastes time in the classroom because she again does not understand\nthe short cuts of the trade of teaching, and her knowledge is not organized.\nIf such a woman is a born teacher, matters go fairly well. If not, she is\napt to carry the slower method of the shop into the classroom; the pupils\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "64 6\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nare confused by detail and are not helped to organize their material.\nWhether it would be better to put a trained teacher into a shop or lunchroom, or a woman with practical experience into a training school is an\nopen question, and so, as always, we turn to the ideal teacher as the only\nsolution of the problem before us. The household arts will not have their\nfull vocational value until the teacher has a scientific foundation, practical\nefficiency, and good teaching method, and is heartily supported by the\nschool boards of the land.\nTHE SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS\nAND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS\nIRENE\n\nELIZABETH\n\nMCDERMOTT,\nDIRECTOR\nHOUSEHOLD\nHIGH\nSCHOOL, PITTSBURGH,\nPA.\n\nARTS,\n\nALLEGHENY\n\n(Abridged)\nSomeone has said that the Romans conquered the world because they\nwere the only people who did not have to spend time endeavoring to learn\nLatin.\nThe wise man who said this must have surely been a prophet, and foreseen the evil days which have dawned upon us, so far as concerns the\nforced, formal, and oftentimes unwise study of this and other subjects\nwhich have been in the limelight of public favor for centuries.\nScience, shrouded as it was by mystery for the ordinary mind, vouched\nfor by those who were termed heathen, pagans, and infidels, was derided\nand treated with contempt by the priests who handed the omens down to\nthe Early, Dark, and Middle ages of modern civilization.\nIt requires years to live down even fooKsh superstitions and traditions;\nconsequently even in this day and age there are teachers who still insist\nthat the higher education should be for what they call culture and that\nscience has no part and parcel in such company. As a means to an end,\nin the bread-and-butter question, the most progressive of these people are\nwilling to admit that science may be endured in schools set off by themselves, and labelled, after the manner in which the modern quarantine\nofficer might placard a house which lodged an undesirable disease germ.\nThere was a time when we endeavored to teach science in our high schools,\nas we have taught and are teaching many other subjects, bound fast with\nthe fetters of pedagogic forging. The teachers did much talking, demonstrating with some experiments, suitable for college work, and the textbooks\ntried to do more talking, sometimes of that quiet, soothing sort which\nenables one to go to sleep. Perhaps the young student did some thinking,\nbut found it possible not to acquire much wisdom on the subject, either\nqualitative or quantitative.\nThe household-arts department is fitting the young woman to take\nher rightful place in the world's activities.\n\nIn her social relationship as\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] SCIENTIFIC\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n647\n\ndaughter, wife, mother, or her economic relationship as the individual unit\nor citizen in society at large, she must be fitted to discharge her functional\nactivity for the wants and needs of her race.\nIn the formal study of science, even in elementary stages, an opportunity is afforded for observation and conclusion. Concentrating these\ninferences on some concrete form of practical application enhances the\nacquired knowledge into wisdom, which is knowledge plus the power to\nmake use of it.\nWe must consider the function of women in our social and economic life.\nHer position varies with time and country. Primitive woman was the\nexecutive part of the home. In many cases she was the owner of the\nhousehold (not after the manner of present-day forced commercial assignments). She was also held responsible for the fruits of the soil, with no\ngranaries of Egypt to help her out in times of famine. In those days man's\nchief occupation was not what we term menial work. His time was required\nfor war and hunting. Women and slaves carried on the occupations connected with the home and peace.\nFood and clothing were the first natural wants of man. These natural\nwants might be associated in an order of sequence, as follows: The natural\nwants being associated with the physical functions, the material needs,\nthe social instincts, intellectual activity, the love and appreciation of the\nbeautiful, and the demands of conscience.\nIf we are to make the study of science practical and valuable in our\npresent school system, it will be necessary to eliminate many things which\nare now there.\nThe difference between an educated person and one who is not eligible\nfor such a classification is the ability which the former should have for\nplacing a real value on the essentials and non-essentials of life's complex\nmake-up.\nAssuming that those who are responsible for our educational institutions are able to make this discrimination, we may hope to see the time\nwhen science is no longer obliged to waive its rightful place in the highschool curriculum. There are many changes which must be made before\nthis subject is placed in its proper relationship with other subjects.\nToday many brave teachers are eliminating what in days past were\nconsidered absolute essentials, to this end, even where such ejections\nbecome a martyrdom of cherished ideals.\nThe mind expresses itself in four ways: first, by language, spoken or\nwritten; second, by gesture or motion; third, by reproducing the thought\nby means of drawing or painting; and fourth, by construction in a material\nsense.\nIn all these forms of expression, with the exception of the spoken language, the hand must be the factor to serve the mind. The eye, the ear,\nand the tongue all serve in acquiring and expressing, but the hand should\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Trai^ng\n\nbe a factor worth reckoning with as an instrument of acquisition and\nexpression.\nIf sitting on a log in the wilderness with a great teacher occupying the\nother end of the same log constitutes a university, as someone has said,\nthen the faithful study of science would give a liberal education, including\nfair treatment for the hand. We need this good, common-sense education\nwhich concerns itself with the nature of the human body and mind, together\nwith the great natural forces governing the world in which we live, move,\nand have our being.\nWell-directed effort is a basic quality in science teaching. We are\ntold that the basis of all habit and character must be well-directed effort.\nDreams and ideals may for a time lift and lure, but self-directed effort\nalone is able to sustain until the activity forms itself into a reality.\nScience to become correlated and related to the household arts would\nhave to concern itself with the factors used as a material medium, in the\npracticing of these arts, the producers, and the finished product. To\nfill these requirements, the science department would be called upon to\ngive elementary biology (vegetable and animal which might include agriculture), chemistry, physics, together with some structural and functional\nphysiology and household bacteriology, all of these subjects based on the\nhuman interests rather than mere scientific development. To get the\nbest results, it is necessary to differentiate in high schools having both\nboys and girls in the classes. However, much care must be taken that this\nmodification is not carried on to excess. There are basic principles which\nmust be learned. In the modification we bear in mind that a woman's\nplace is the home and administering to the natural needs of the race. Thus\nher application of science would be along activities connected with her\nown special work. On the other hand, the duties of a citizen should make\nit desirable for the woman citizen or the man citizen to rightfully administer to the comfort and well-being of the community, which would be a\ncollection of homes. Thus it will be seen that the individual application\nand the community application are related.\nIt would not be wise for a girl to spend undue time on the mechanics\nof physics, in the high-school period, when she might be getting knowledge\nwhich would mean more to her, when used under the guidance of a good\nteacher, or necessity.\nIn most cases it is advisable for the director of the household-arts\ndepartment to recommend an outline for the science work. This may be\nfully amplified by the science teacher. For helpful appHcation of laboratory\nscience in the cooking and sewing laboratories, certain fundamental topics\nmust be developed, as they are profitable to our everyday occupations.\nThis help from the study of science changes what otherwise might be\nprosaic or commonplace operations into experiences of scientific interest\nand value.\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] SCIENTIFIC\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n649\n\nNor is it only the practical life that is served. Under the guidance of\na teacher the girl is taught to regard the work of nature in its truest sense.\nThe very food which she has always accepted as existing only for food,\ntakes on an added interest. The starch in the potatoes and other vegetables is no longer merely food for the animal life alone, but has been\nmanlifactured by nature to afford nourishment to the young, struggling\ngerm, which is to continue its kind for future generations. The perfume\nand color of the flowers were not made for her beauty-loving nature alone,\nbut to serve in the great economic plan of nature, that the pollen may be\ntransplanted to other plants that they might be more fruitful. The lusciousness and attractive color and flavor of the fruit were made that its\nseed might be scattered over the earth. The silk of the ear of corn, the\nwaving tassel of the towering stalk, the golden dust of the dandelion, the\nactivity of the bee — all these things become living books to the girl who has\nhad her eyes opened in a sane, practical, and progressive science course.\nThe work should be placed on the right grade for the age of the average\ngirl, and to be comprehended by the average girl, remembering that the\nlaw of science is the law of the average.\nThe mere memorizing of formal lessons could never bring forth such an\nupliftment. The mere preaching of a formal moralist could never hope to\nattain such freedom from what we term selfish human nature.\nIt surely requires a knowledge of elementary science to appreciate\nintelligently why two light-weight garments afford more warmth to the\nwearer than one heavy garment;\ntime.\n\nWhy light-colored garments are worn in warm climates, and during our own simimer\n\nWhy one large window admits more light than the same window-surface divided\ninto two or more smaller surfaces.\nWhy gas escapes when the valve is open.\nWhy ice-cream freezes when the ice melts.\nWhy cream rises to the top of milk.\nWhy water is sometimes added to skim milk to make the correct specific gravity.\nThe reason for quickly searing the surface of meat, or in other cases soaking the\nmeat in cold water.\nThe reason for cooking some vegetables in a small quantity of water, and using an\nabundance of water for others.\nThe reason we allow yeast mixtures to stand, in order that they may become light\nbefore placing them in the oven, while baking-powder mixtures are baked at once.\nWhy eggs are more easily digested when cooked at a low temperature.\nWhy we are able to settle coflfee with cold water. On the other hand how we are\nable to clarify coflfee by using the white of an egg, or soup by the white of an egg, or a little\nfinely chopped raw meat.\n\nThe state of New Jersey has set an example which other states might\nemulate with profit. A summer school now in session at Cape May gives\nevery New Jersey teacher an opportunity for acquiring a knowledge of\nelementary science governing the everyday activities. Here, imder the\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nleadership of the Hon. T. D. Sensor, who has given freely of his means and\ntime, and the best of his own noble nature, the students of this school are\nbeing fitted to carry acquired knowledge and well-earned wisdom to many\nschools which have been groping in the dark.\nThe papers and magazines published thruout our country have given\nPittsburgh her rightful share in the \"shame of the cities,\" but few have\ncited the gift of the unknown donor who has made it possible for one hundred and fifty teachers to be sent away each year, that they might get in\ntouch with the truth which modern science is giving, under the guidance\nand direction of our great universities.\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Ellen H. Richards, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. —\nAn idea takes about twenty years to sprout, so as we grow old we give up the hope of\nseeing results and just go on sowing. I have dug up for you an idea that is fourteen years\nold, but it is showing signs of life. In 1898 some of us here in Boston petitioned the\nBoard of Education to start a high school for us. This was started three years ago. At\nthe time we first planned for it we made out this schedule, which you may be interested\nto study. We provided for English because it expresses ideas in language, history and\ncivics, as preparation for citizenship, mathematics for accuracy and as a tool, drawing\nas an expression of ideas in art and decoration, science for moral and mental development\nof the individual, handwork to develop power of execution, and gymnastic work for the\nphysical welfare. If the high school is the people's college, the sciences given should\naffect the life and moral and intellectual development as well as the mere technical\nefficiency.\nLaura A. Cauble, Margaret Morris on Carnegie School for Women, Pittsburgh, Pa. —\nThe extension of the elementary-school courses in cooking and sewing into the highschool department of household arts is a response to the demand for an education for\nwomen which shall function in their lives.\nThe essential demands on a woman's life are to make and conserve the home; to care\nfor children; to relieve the suffering and helpless; to make the world a Uttle better and\nsaner place to live in because there are women in it. I shall not attempt to discuss the\nrelation to vocational Hfe as that has been covered in another paper.\nIn the Department of Household Arts we organize our means and resources and\nshape them with definiteness and economy in the direction in which life calls us to move.\nWe study the home, its construction, its cost, its care, its function; the child, its\ncare, its nutrition, its growth; the family dietary in sickness and in health; the school\nlunch and institutional problems; we observe the growing demand upon women's interest\nand influence in municipal affairs; the necessity for knowledge of sanitary science; the\ncomposition and the care of food in the home and in the markets; the water supply; the\nmilk supply; the sanitation of streets, public buildings and conveyances; public-health\nmeasures and movements for social prophylaxis. The question of the production, the\nmanufacture, and the adulteration of foods and textiles must be investigated.\nEvery art is a final expression of life thru the basis of some fundamental activity\nwhich at a certain stage of its development becomes a science. The change in the terminology of our department from Domestic Science to Household Arts is a conscious expression\nof the broader viewpoint. We can have no household arts without the fundamental\nprinciples of the underlying sciences taught practically and from the viewpoint of a\nwoman's experience.\nThis may necessitate some changes in the preparation and method\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department! SCIENTIFIC\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n651\n\nas well as the subject-matter of the teachers of science. The most pertinent criticism of\nscience teaching came from the science teachers themselves at yesterday's meeting.\nThey recognized that the large percentage of loss in attendance and interest in science\ncourses in the high school is due to the lack of correlation of their work to human problems. It is not enough now, as it may have been in the past, to focus the sciences on industrial, commercial, and cultural ends. There must also be the social end to meet the\ndemands of aroused pubUc consciousness.\nPhysics, perhaps the most formaUzed science, may be related to the industries and\nto the processes of nature. The problem of the fireless cooker, the ice-cream freezer, the\nfurnace and hot-water heater may arouse the interest and conserve the energy of the\nfuture administrators of the home or of public utilities.\nChemistry has more to do with the materials and processes of our changing industrial life, and must be taught as practical commercial and household chemistry. If\nmanufactured foods meet every requirement of physiological chemistry at a lower cost,\nlet us know it. It becomes a means of regulating and controUing a woman's experience\nin the home. Elementary biology leads the student from individualistic thought of her\nown life to the unity of creation and her relation to it.\nThe study of micro-organisms gives her knowledge and power to safeguard her\nhome. A test in bacteriology in a New York high school consisted in cultures made from\nthe dust of the window ledge and floor, from the common towel, the hands after they\nwere washed and wiped on a clean towel, and from a hair out of each girl's head. The\nlater discarding of disfiguring and unsanitary head-dress was effected without effort of\nthe teacher.\nThe conservation of resources, birds, mammals, fish, Crustacea are related to the\ntypical industries and laws governing them. The useful and harmful insects are studied\nas related to our orchards and work of the Department of Agriculture. The care in\nbreeding animals on the farm and its economic aspect should be taken up, since more and\nmore women's interests are turning to this economic end.\nMore difficult than these demands is the one now so insistent in the social consciousness, the need of better teaching of human physiology and hygiene. The ethics of the\nmedical profession, the unpreparedness of most parents, and the cut-and-dried methods\nof most teachers have left this subject practically untouched. Let us have structural\nand functional physiology and hygiene taught separately to the sexes. The economic\nneed of the world for strong races and for better health has incited discussions on eugenics; a study of infant mortality, blindness, infection and immunity, and social prophylaxis have inspired a work on euthenics. It is time to see the subject \"sanely and to\nsee it whole.\" The principles underlying heredity and reproduction come from teaching biology. The hygiene of sex, the appreciation of health and vigor and the conditions\nfor their preservation must also be given. The opportunities for physical education and\nthe motor character of the fundamental forms of social activity involved in much of the\nwork in household arts safeguard the girl and make for chastity of thought and action.\nThere is one other science we now demand for women, the last to be studied as an\nexact science — the science of human wants. In our college days we studied it from the\nstandpoint of man's needs and uses — economics or political economy, the science of\nwealth or value. A little later with a more humanized view it became the inquiry into\npoverty! With our changed social order it becomes the science of human wants.\nWoman's relation to production and consumption and her economic function must be\nstudied. Her work in the home must receive its value in production and her labor thus be\ndignified.\nWill not our teachers of history co-operate with us to develop for the girl a knowledge\nof the essential conditions of industrial and social prosperity and her relation to them?\nIf she is more largely the consumer than formerly, let her know the cost of production.\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "65 2\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nIf there needs to be a wiser production and a more economic consumption, a more careful distribution of income, shall the woman as chief consumer attempt her problem by\nintuition? The work of the world is not done by woman but thru woman. Shall the\nwoman of the future be equal to her work ?\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE ON THE PLACE\nIN PUBLIC EDUCATION\n\nOF INDUSTRIES\n\nTo The Board of Directors, National Education Association:\nThe undersigned Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Education, appointed at the meeting of the Board of Directors at Los Angeles, CaL,\nJuly II, 1907, has the honor to submit the following report.\nThe report proper is preceded by an historical statement as to the organization of the committee by the secretary, an introduction written by the chairman,\nand by the three following papers:\n\"The Industrial Factor in Social Progress,\" by Frank T. Carlton,\nProfessor of Economics and History, Albion College, Albion, Mich.\n\"The Industrial Factor in Education,\" by Ernest N. Henderson, Professor of Psychology and Education, Adelphi College, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\"History of Industrial Education in the United States,\" by the secretary,\nCharles R. Richards, Director, Cooper Union, New York, N.Y.\nAt the end of the report is a selected bibliography prepared by Howard\nD. Brundage and the secretary.\nJesse D. Burks, Chairman\nErnest B. Kent\nCharles R. Richards, Secretary\nCharles H. Keyes\nEdgar S. Barney\nE. Euphrosyne Langley\nHoward D. Brundage\nFrank M. Leavitt\nFlora J. Cooke\nArthur D. Dean\nWilliam H. Elson\nCarleton B. Gibson\nCalvin N. Kendall\nHISTORICAL\n\nGeorge A. Merrill\nCharles H. Morse\nCarroll G. Pearse\nDavld S. Snedden\nCharles F. Warner\n\nstatement\n\nAt the meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Education Association on July 12, 1907, in Los Angeles, Cal., the following resolutions were\ncommunicated to the Board of Directors by Mr. Frank M. Leavitt, president\nof the Department of Manual Training:\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS OF THE MANUAL-TRAINING DEPARTMENT\nNATIONAL\nEDUCATION\nASSOCIATION\nNOW IN SESSION,\nJULY\nII, 1907\n\nOF THE\n\nWhereas, The accumulative work of the department during the last two years\nseeking a more rational statement of courses of manual training, seems now to indicate a\nnecessity for some definite work by a special committee;\nBe it therefore resolved, That the manual-training department of the National Education Association, now in session, recommend the appointment of a committee for the\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\n653\n\npurpose of collecting data of the manual-training work done thruout this country, that\nsuggestive courses adaptable to various conditions found therein, may be formulated by\nthem.\nFurther he it resolved, That this committee consist of three persons now actively engaged\nin manual training, with power to add to their number, a superintendent of schools, a\nteacher of art, a child's study specialist, a grade teacher, and a representative from such\nother departments as may be deemed advisable to rncrease the efficiency of their work.\nBe it further resolved, That the aforesaid committee of three be appointed by the president of this department.\nBe it further resolved, That this committee be appointed for a term of two years, being\nrequested to make a preliminary report at the next meeting of this association.\nResolved, That a committee of one be appointed by the president of this department to\nmake formal application to the Board of Directors of the Association for an appropriation\nto defray the expenses of the committee.\nRespectfully submitted,\nChas. M. Miller, Los Angeles, Cal., Chairman\nAugust Ahrens, Warrensburg, Mo.\nAda F. Blanchard, Los Angeles, Cal.\nCommittee on Resolutions\n\nOn motion, the application of the Department of Manual Training was\nreceived and approved and it was ordered that the desired committee be\nappointed by the president of the Department of Manual Training and that\n$500, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be appropriated for the expenses\nof that committee.\nThe committee was organized at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence atWashington, February, 1908, with the following membership\nas appointed:\nJesse D. Burks, Director, Bureau of Municipal Research, Philadelphia, Pa,,\nChairman.\nCharles R. Richards, Director, Cooper Union, New York City, Secretary.\nEdgar S. Barney, Principal, Hebrew Technical School, New York City.\nHoward D. Brundage, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City.\nCarleton B. Gibson, Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ga.\nCharles H. Keyes, Supervisor of Schools, Hartford, Conn.\nElizabeth Euphrosyne Langley, School of Education, University of Chicago.\nFrank M. Leavitt, Director of Drawing and Manual Training, Boston, Mass.\nGeorge A. Merrill, Principal, California School of Mechanical Arts, San Francisco, Cal.\nCharles H. Morse, Secretary, Commission on Industrial Education, Mass.\nCharles F. Warner, Principal, Technical High School, Springfield, Mass.\n\nIt was decided at this time to increase the scope of the report to include a\nstudy of the entire question of the place of industries in public education and\na plan for the arrangement of the report was adopted.\nThe committee made a report of progress at the Cleveland meeting of the\nNational Education Association in July, 1908, and at this meeting the Board\nof Directors authorized the increase of the number of the committee to not less\nthan fifteen and not more than twenty.\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nAccording to the terms of this authorization the following members were\nadded to the committee :\nFlora J. Cooke, Principal, Francis W. Parker School, Chicago, 111.\nArthur D. Dean, Chief of Trades Division, New York State Education Department.\nWilliam H. Elson, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\nCalvin N. Kendall, Superintendent of Schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\nErnest B. Kent, Director of Manual and Industrial Training, Jersey City, N.J.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\nDavid S. Snedden, Commissioner of Education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.\n\nThe work of preparing the main body of the report has been done by three\nsubcommittees, as follows:\nthe place of industries in the elementary\nElizabeth Euphrosyne Langley, Chairman\nErnest B. Kent, Secretary\nHoward D. Brundage\nintermediate\n\nschools\n\nFlora J. Cooke\nCalvin N. Kendall\nFrank M. Leavitt\n\nindustrial schools\n\nCarleton B. Gibson, Chairman\nEdgar S. Barney\nDavid S. Snedden, Secretary\nCharles H. Morse\nCarroll G. Pearse\nindustrial and technical\n\neducation\n\nin the secondary\n\nschools\n\nCharles H. Keyes, Chairman\nWilliam H. Elson\nArthur D. Dean, Secretary\nGeorge A. Merrill\nCharles F. Warner\n\nThe secretary of the general committee was ex officio a member of each\nof the subcommittees.\nAt the Denver meeting of the National Education Association the General\nSecretary of the Association was authorized by the Board of Directors to print\nand distribute an edition of the report sufficiently large to supply the active\nmembers of the Association.\nCharles R. Richards, Secretary\n\nINTRODUCTION\nThe manual-training ''movement\" and its successor, the present vigorous\nindustrial-education propaganda, have exercised for more than a quarter\nof a century a dominant influence in the educational thought of the United\nStates. The early arguments for manual training and the later arguments for\nindustrial education have a singular and significant resemblance. More\nvital motive for school work, better adaptation of the curriculum to the needs\nof the rank and file, reduction of school \"mortality,\" and promotion of national\nindustrial efficiency — these are among the more urgent reasons that have been\nadvanced, thruout the entire period, for a more adequate attention to\n\"handwork\" as a supplement to, or substitute for, the traditional \"headwork\"\nof the schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\n655\n\nWith the abandonment of the theory of ''general training\" based upon the\nso-called \"faculty psychology\" the arguments for manual activities in the\nschool, while retaining much of their original form and phraseology, have\nbeen given more specific application than was at first thought necessary.\nNot motor training, but specific motor abilities; not accuracy, judgment, and\nhonesty, but keener appreciation of some of the most significant industrial\nprocesses; not preparation for life — any life — but preparation for a specific\nkind of life is now urged by those who are leading in the present demand for\nindustrial education.\nNotwithstanding the obvious similarity and direct connection between\nthe early and later attitudes toward handwork and industrial activities, there\nis, then, a most important distinction between the two points of view. The\nearlier movement emphasized abstract psychological values; the later places\nthe emphasis upon concrete social values. This change in emphasis is, of\ncourse, but one aspect of the general trend of educational thought for the past\ngeneration.\nThe present report attempts to gather up and put into coherent and convenient form the results of these thirty-five years of thought and practice.\nIf this service has been acceptably rendered, such reiteration of accepted\ntheory as has characterized educational discussions for three decades, may be\nappreciably reduced during the next three decades. A larger proportion of\nthe energy of educational leaders may then be devoted to working out in practice\nthe theories that all accept; to testing both theory and practice by facts instead\nof by opinions; to measuring results by standards that make comparison\npossible and intelligible; and to reporting results so accurately and so clearly\nthat school officers, students of education, and citizens anywhere may find it\neasy and profitable to read the story of educational achievement for every\ncommunity that has a story to tell.\nReaders of this report may be disappointed at the relatively small attention given to results as distinguished from opinions in the field of industrial\neducation.\nFor this relative emphasis there are several reasons.\nIn the first place, a similar disproportion has marked the actual development of manual training itself and, to a considerable extent, of industrial\neducation as well. Opinions have been more plentiful than facts, and vastly\nmore has been said than done. About one-half of the thirteen hundred city\nand town school ''systems\" in the United States, it is true, have introduced,\nsomewhere in their curricula, various forms of constructive activity denominated handwork or manual training. In only one hundred and fifty of these\ncases, however, does the handwork extend thru all of the grades of the\nelementary schools, and in only about one hundred cases into the high schools.\nOf the six hundred school systems having manual training, three hundred\ngive less than an hour a week to it; and only thirty-seven devote as much as\nhalf an hour a day to the subject.\nIn the field of elementary education, then, the continuous and at times\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "65 6\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nstrenuous discussion of thirty years has not produced results commensurate\nwith the importance attributed to manual training by its advocates. Notwithstanding much notable advance, due largely to the influence of manual\ntraining, toward a more intimate and vital connection between thinking and\ndoing in the school, handwork in the school is still in the main abstract, isolated, impractical, and unsocial in character.\nThe industrial-education propaganda of the past decade has likewise, in\na measure, failed to affect educational practice to the extent that public interest,\nprofessional and lay discussion, and legislative provisions might have justified\none in expecting. There is doubtless a keener appreciation than ever before\nof the social need for industrial education; but there has been relatively little\nadvance in the way of detailed working-out of curricula, organization, and\nprocedure for industrial schools of various types. Within the last few years,\nhowever, the demand for indastiial edacation has made itself felt even within\nthe field commonly assumed heretofore to be the exclusive territory of elementary education; a few public intermediate schools and trades schools of a\ndistinctly vocational type having come into being. The result of these\nexperiments is being awaited with eager interest.\nIn the field of secondary education, there is even greater discrepancy\nbetween the promise of theory and the reality of practice. There are about\none hundred and fifty schools of secondary grade in the country that are classified in the reports of the Commissioner of Education as manual and industrial\ntraining schools. Of this number, however, only one-half are reported\nas giving any attention to the manual arts. Thirty of these are public high\nschools; most of which devote from five to nine hours a week to manual,\ntechnical, and industrial instruction. Some give as little as four hours a week,\nand a very few as much as twelve hours a week; but fewer than half of them\ngive as much as one-third of their time to such instruction. With two or three\npossible exceptions, none of these public high schools may be ranked as technical high schools according to the definition proposed in the present report —\nthe distinctive industrial or vocational purpose being almost uniformly absent.\nA second reason for the disproportionale attention given in this report to\nopinion, without an adequate body of supporting facts, is the difficulty of\nobtaining verified data from the records and reports that are available. Aside\nfrom bare statements concerning enrollment, attendance, and gross expenditure,\nbut few records of actual achievement and few measures of efficiency can be\nobtained as a basis for exact study of the problems involved. Opinions are\nnumerous but facts are few when one seeks to ascertain what are the elements\nand what the evidences of ''industrial intelligence\" of various types; when\nthese evidences may be expected to appear in boys and girls; how natural\naptitudes may best be discovered and fostered; how the industries are to be\nclassified on the basis of mental and physical abilities required; what industries do and what do not lend themselves to effective treatment thru industrial education; or what is the probable cost of various forms of industrial\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\n657\n\ntraining. Authoritative answers to such questions are essential to a safe and\norderly development of a program of industrial education. Actual experiment\nand practice, however, are so limited in extent, and descriptions of results\nso lacking in accuracy and detail, that any careful and comprehensive study\nof industrial education must very largely lay its own foundation.\nThorogoing scientific investigation of the problems of industrial education\nclearly ought to be made. Limitations of time, of financial resources, and\npossibly of imagination and vision, however, have not permitted the committee\nto ascertain, by original research, data necessary to a critical and constructive\nreport that should be at once comprehensive and convincing.\nThe report is, nevertheless, both critical and constructive in its purpose\nand method. It looks forward to the further accumulation of facts, to constant comparison, and to progressive readjustment of thought and practice\nin the field that it attempts to survey. The report, it is hoped, will furnish\nmany points upon which those who continue to explore this field may get their\nbearings. Even if some of these points prove to have been wrongly located,\nthe report will have served a useful purpose if it leads more careful observers\nto verify its base lines and test its calculations.\nThe report, it will be noted, makes no pretense of considering all of the\nobvious relations of industry to public education. The household arts and\nagriculture, for example, are hardly more than mentioned, tho these are\nclearly among the most significant of all industries. Trades schools, evening\ncontinuation schools, and technical schools of college grade, likewise, are considered only so far as to show their place in a comprehensive scheme of industrial education; not at all in detail. The aim has been to state, with some\ncompleteness, a theory of the place of industries in public education; and to\nillustrate the specific application of such a theory to a certain type of school\nin each of the three fields of elementary, intermediate, and secondary education.\nBriefly summarized, the results of the committee's work may be stated\nas follows:\n1. Industry, as a controlling factor in social progress, has for education a fundamental\nand permanent significance.\n2. Educational standards, applicable in an age of handicraft, presumably need radical\nchange in the present day of complex and highly specialized industrial development.\n3. The social aim of education and the psychological needs of childhood alike require\nthat industrial (manual-constructive) activities form an important part of school\noccupations.\na) In the elementary school, such occupations are necessary to provide concreteness\nof motive and meaning; to insure positive and lasting results for instruction; and to\nbring about a vital relation between life within the school and life outside.\nh) In intermediate schools, industrial occupations are an important element in the\nwide range of experience necessary for the proper testing of children's aptitudes as a basis\nfor subsequent choice of specific pursuits either in vocations or in higher schools.\nc) In secondary schools, industrial occupations properly furnish the central and dominant factor in the education of those pupils who make final choice of an industrial vocation.\nVocational purpose is the distinguishing mark of the \"technical\" high school as distinct\nfrom the \"Manual Training\" high school.\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nNATIONAL\n\n4. The differences among\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nchildren as to aptitudes, interests, economic resources,\n\nand prospective careers furnish the basis for a rational as opposed to a merely formal distinction between elementary, secondary, and higher education.\n\nLater in the report, these three stages of education are clearly defined from\nthis point of view. The proposed definitions are, of course, radically different\nfrom those that underlie prevailing usage. The constant introduction into\ncurrent discussion of such terms as ''intermediate\" school, \"upper grammar\"\ngrades, \"lower high\" schools, \"junior\" and \"senior\" colleges, is in itself evidence ofa real need for readjusting both our educational concepts and our educational organization to conform more nearly to the facts of genetic psychology and\nsocial requirement. From this point of view, then, it is of the highest importance\nthat attention be directed upon the differences in function which are more or less\nclearly recognized in all attempts to separate education into its several stages.\nNotwithstanding some confusion in terminology, due to an attempt to\nfollow prevailing usage so far as possible, the committee's report as a whole\nrecognizes the distinctions proposed in the second chapter. According to\nthese definitions, it will be noted, \"intermediate\" industrial schools, the college\npreparatory \"high\" school, the \"manual training\" school, and the non-technical \"college\" would all be classified as secondary; their common and\nprimary purpose being to recognize and provide for differences among their\npupils — bringing these differences clearly to light, and furnishing the basis\nfor intelligent choice of careers. The \"trades\" school, the \"technical high\"\nschool, the \"professional\" school, and the \"university\" would alike be classified as higher schools, their common function being to provide special training for persons who have advanced to the point of making definite choice of\ncareers and who are qualified to undertake the requisite specialized training.\nWhile it is not expected that the proposed distinctions will modify established terminology in any radical way, it is submitted that a scheme of education based upon some such concept of function is absolutely essential to that\n\"equality of opportunity\" which educational leaders have so enthusiastically\nassumed to be the foundation of democracy. In our devotion to equality of\nopportunity as an abstraction, we have long denied to our children the reality\nof opportunity as measured by varying needs, tastes, and abilities. In our very\nworthy insistence that every individual should find an open door to any distinction that may be within his reach, we have held on persistendy to a system\nof education originally adapted to the requirements of the \"learned\" professions,\nand are just now finding that such a system is poorly adapted to the development of leaders in commercial, agricultural, domestic, and industrial pursuits.\nThe present report assumes that a democratic community, by its very\nnature, must accept the obligation of providing every boy and girl with an\neducational opportunity that shall be not merely free, but enlightening; not\nmerely compulsory, but compelling; not merely expansive, but vitalizing. A\nsystem of public education affording such opportunities is absolutely essential\nto the development of an intelligent, responsive, and efficient citizenship;\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nFACTOR\n\nIN\n\nSOCIAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\n659\n\nand this, in turn, furnishes the most secure, if not the only, guarantee of a\npermanent and triumphant democracy. It is with the purpose of clarifying\nthis ideal and of hastening its realization that the committee submits its findings\nand constructive suggestions as to the place of industries in public education.\nJesse D. Burks,\nDirector of the Bureau of Municipal Research, Philadelphia, Pa.,\nChairman\nTHE\nFRANK\n\nINDUSTRIAL\nT.\n\nFACTOR\n\nCARLTON,\nPROFESSOR\nALBION COLLEGE,\n\nIN SOCIAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF ECONOMICS\nAND\nALBION, MICH.\n\nHISTORY,\n\nSocial progress is vitally and intimately connected with modifications in\nthe methods of doing the world's work. As the means employed by the members of society in getting a living are improved, institutions, customs, and\nsocial conventions undergo radical changes. The advance of a primitive\npeople from the hunting or the pastoral stage was accompanied by revolutionary changes in the home, industrial, military,, and social life. The character,\nideals, customs, beliefs, and training of the people suffer gradual, but important, transformation as an inevitable result of new work, discipline, and experience which exert silent, but constant, pressure upon each and every individual\nmember of the primitive tribe or horde. In the agricultural stage constant\nmigration is replaced by relative fixity of habitation. Personal property which\nwas an impediment to a pastoral people becomes a desirable acquisition of the\nagriculturalist. The rude hut is built or improved. Property in land begins\nto emerge, and slavery arises. New ideals and customs characteristic of an\nagricultural people slowly displace those built up among the hunters or the\nherders. A multitude of social, political, military, commercial, and religious\nchanges are the natural and inevitable results of the modifications in the industrial life of the people. The progress from slavery to serfdom and from serfdom to the modern wage system was preceded by changes in the density of\npopulation and in the industrial methods employed in the community.\nEspecially within the last century and a half the intimate relation between\nindustrial evolution and social progress has been forced upon the attention\nof all students. The occidental peoples have been transformed. Rural life,\nisolation, the domestic system of industry, non-specialized work, are replaced\nby urban life, interdependence, the factory system, and minute subdivision of\nlabor. The individuals and nations of the globe have been brought closely\nin touch with each other. The fighter has been displaced by the financier,\nstatus by contract, the isolated worker by the trade unionist, the partnership\nby the giant corporation, the local by the world market, the stage coach by\nthe Pullman, and the sickle by the harvester. These kaleidoscopic changes\nin industry are distinctly and inevitably reflected into the home, social, and\npolitical life of the community. New laws, new governmental forms, modified\nrelations between husband and wife and between children and parents, new\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "66o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nsocial imperatives, and new relations between different social classes are the\nvisible fruits of industrial transformation. If one would gain an intelligent\nknowledge of the evolution of legal forms and ceremonies, political institutions,\nsocial conventions, educational ideals and methods, and religious and ethical\nconcepts, industrial evolution must first be carefully investigated. Much of\nthe current discussion of reform movements of various kinds is vitiated because\nadequate attention is not paid to the fundamental forces which are producing\nthe visible social changes.\nIn the study of the political, social, educational, or ethical problems of today,\ntwo important facts, often neglected by the student who is unacquainted with\nthe history of industrial evolution, must be given careful consideration. In the\nfirst instance, the social environment including the sum-total of influences\nwhich bear upon the life of the individual has been enlarged. People, intelligence, goods, now come from or go to distant parts of the earth quickly, regularly, and surely. The world of the twentieth century is one vast neighborhood;\nno dark, unknown continents remain upon the map. In the second place,\nspecialization of industry has tended to confine the life and activity of the\nvast majority of workers of all grades within very narrow grooves. While\nmodern methods of communication and transportation, world markets and\nthe multiplicity of industrial products offer opportunities to broaden the mental\nhorizon and tend to differentiate the demand of each individual for necessities,\ncomforts, and luxuries, occupations have been specialized and subdivided until\nthe life of the individual is cramped. Earlier forms of industry gave the worker\na relatively broad outlook, and did not force him into a rigid routine. Our\ndaily work and home environment usually tend under modern conditions to\nastigmatize our view at the time when democracy and world unity should\nthrive. This is the grim and forbidding paradox of modern industrial life.^\nHuman society presents a bewildering panorama of rapidly shifting scenes.\nOur problem is not to prevent industrial and social change, but to reduce the\nfriction which necessarily accompanies it and to eliminate evils which are\nconnected with it. To conserve the good and to minimize the evil is the double\ntask of society. The factory system, for example, is an economical and laborsaving device; but it has certain undesirable features such as extreme specialization and the employment of young children. How can the system be preserved and the danger reduced to a minimum? is our problem. It is not:\nHow can the system be abolished? The task is not the preservation of the\nold intact; but it is the adaptation of social, political, ethical, and educational\nideals and methods to the unique conditions produced by industrial advance.\nThe meaning and scope of such terms as morality, law, justice, liberty,\npatriotism, and nation change with the world's progress. In like manner are\nthe meaning and scope of education changed. There is no fixed and cosmopolitan definition for any one of these terms. Industrial organization quietly\nforces its peculiar impress upon each and all. In order to illustrate this point\n■ Carlton, Education and Industrial Evolution, pp. 47-48.\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nFACTOR\n\nIN\n\nSOCIAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\n66l\n\nconsideration will be given to the influence of industrial change upon educational evolution. Education in its broadest sense includes the totality of personal experience which forms the character and personality of a particular\nindividual member of society. Education from this viewpoint is life, and is\nimparted in an informal way as well as in a formal manner.\nEducation in the\nnarrower and technical sense is the training which is given by a more or less\ndefinitely articulated mechanism usually denoted a school system.\nOr, in\nother words, it is training given in a formal manner.\nHuman progress causes\nthe transfer of certain forms of training from the informal to the formal group.\nLmong primitive peoples education was entirely informal ; but among modern\njople of the industrial type, the sphere of formal education has seriously\nicroached upon the old preserves of informal education.\nIn the long eras\npreceding modern times, education was received in an informal manner from\nle father, the mother, and associates.\nThe young were apprentices.\nIn\nle Middle Ages and down to comparatively recent times formal education\nras for the privileged few, and was divorced from the ordinary activities of\nfe. Even in the United States until recent decades, the functions of the school\n^ere not numerous; the chief work of educating the youth devolved upon the\nlome, the shop, and the farm.\nToday the scene is changed.\nSlavery, feudalism, isolation, militarism, aristocracy, have been replaced by the wage system,\ncrowded populations, co-operation, industrialism, democracy.\nThe home\nshorn of its industry and its playground and the shop of its apprenticeship\nsystem, have been deprived of many educational functions.\nFormal school\neducation has suddenly assumed a dignity and importance unknown to it in\nthe past history of mankind.\nDuring the last century industrial and scientific progress outran all other\nforms of development. An intricate problem of the modern sociologist is to\nbring our educational, legal, economic, and social values and ideals into harmonious relations with the present industrial situation. Legal, political, religious, or educational concepts formed when militarism was predominant are\nuseless or worse than useless today. Concepts formed when modern industry\nras in its infancy, when it was still differentiated into small and isolated units,\nrhen standardization, specialization, and world markets were still of the future,\ndo not square with the requirements of the modern integrated and interrelated\nindustrial system. Sociology, political science, and scientific education must\ndiscard the old and accept the new in so far as progress makes such a change\ndesirable. Time is, indeed, required to remodel educational, legal, political\nand ethical systems so that they will conform to the demands of a modern\nindustrial society familiar with railways, telegraphs, giant corporations, and\ncrowded cities. It is the primary function of an educational system to aid\nin this adjustment. After an era of extraordinary economic progress, the\nconflict between the inertial force of established institutions, customs, and\nlegal dogmas, and the pressure of a new social and working environment\nl^ecomes a most\nstriking\nsociological\nphenomenon.\nThe\nhaphazard,\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIManual Training\n\npatched-up condition of the American school curriculum, the contradictorydecisions of the courts of law, the widely differing codes of morality, and the\ndissimilar standards of artistic criticism of the present era are, in no small\nmeasure, due to the antagonism between traditional norms and standards\nwhich were conceived before the modern industrial era was ushered in, and\nthose norms and standards which are being developed under the stern pressure\nof today's unique economic and social relationships. Both reformers and\nreactionists have been too prone to appeal to authority, class prejudice, superficial manifestations, and vociferous declamation. The resultant clamor and\nconfusion have obscured the real situation, and have retarded the calm and\ndeliberate investigation of social forces.\nThe proper function of an organized school system as well as of a political\nor a legal system, is one which constantly changes to fit the shifting social and .\nindustrial conditions of the country and of the epoch. Not only has the division of functions between formal and informal education changed, but the\nscope of formal education has been immeasurably broadened with the advancement of mankind from primitive to civilized modes of living, working, and\nassociating. The work of formal education has been broadened not merely\nbecause of the growing intricacy and complexity of human life and industry,\nbut also because the educational functions of other institutions such as the\nhome, the shop, and the home playgrounds have diminished in importance.\nThe school has been obliged to add duties which have hitherto been performed\nby other institutions. The home can no longer give youth adequate training\nin manual industry. The shop because of subdivided labor and speeded-up\nmethods of modern industry offers inadequate opportunity for the young\napprentice. Society must adjust itself to a more crowded environment and\nto systematic and large-scale industrial operations. In the process of adjustment involved in passing from small-scale and unsystematic to large-scale\nand routinized industry, social and political institutions including the publicschool system must undergo fundamental modifications. The scope of formal\neducation can only be definitely and scientifically delimited by determining\n(a) the totality or content of education in a given epoch, and (6) the portion\nof this entire field which can be adequately occupied by the various institutions\nwhich informally train the youth — the home, the shop, the store, the farm, the\nhome playground. If education is to become a social science, this problem\nmust be patiently and systematically studied. Cultural imperatives and\npsychological investigations are insufficient; a science of education rests on\nthe basis of social and economic progress and demands. Until this basic\ntruth is clearly recognized no science of education can be formulated.\nThe classic concept that formal education consisted chiefly in mere passive\nreception of abstract ideas, that it was in reality only a carefully worked-out\nsystem of mental gymnastics, was a view indigenous to an epoch before specialization of industry and the factory system became predominant in fixing the\nmethods of doing the world's work.\nThis idea was the product of a period\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nFACTOR\n\nIN SOCIAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\n663\n\nwhen education was chiefly informal, when the home and the small shop readily\nprovided the training necessary for all except a small number of professional\nmen. In recent decades a more positive view of the function of an educational system has been generally accepted. The introduction of manual training and laboratory work into the curriculum of the public schools definitely\nmarked an important modification in the theory and practice of education.\nThis social phenomenon was the visible and direct consequence' of important and revolutionary changes in American industrial methods and social\nconditions. These strangers in the sphere of formal education found the way\nsmoothed because of the rapid progress in industrial development which was\nproduced by the Civil War. Trade, business, industry, did not bulk large in\nthe direct determination of American educational methods and values until\nafter the second industrial revolution which followed the outbreak of domestic\nstrife.\nThe laboratory and the manual training school are not content with mere\npassive receptivity on the part of the student; but require self-activity and\nconsttuctive work. The introduction of these important educational accessories indicates clearly to the thinking student of social science and industrial\nevolution that the home, and probably the shop, had at that time lost many\nof their industrial characteristics. Division of labor and large-scale industry\nwere becoming predominant in the manufacturing world. Important industrial innovation led directly to revolutionary changes in the political and\neducational spheres. The old methods of formal education were discarded\nand the old concepts displaced. At the opening of this epoch in the history\nof education, the school entered upon a new period of evolution; it became\nmore than a mere place for the unwilling student to con over the problems\npresented in books. The functions of a workshop and of a laboratory are\nadded to the duties of the traditional school. The work of the school system\nhas become something more than that of mere preparation for some one of\nthe so-called learned professions.\nEthical, social, and educational values not only change from generation to\ngeneration in response to industrial advance, but they are dijfferent in different\ncountries at any given time. Furthermore, the various classes in a community\nwill not agree upon any customary or new standard of education; it must be\nfrankly admitted that even the most broad generalizations are liable to meet\nopposition because of fundamental differences of opinion as to the proper\npurpose of a public-school system. In like manner many social reformers\nmeet serious opposition because of vital differences of opinion as to the desirability ofcertain changes in social relationship.\nToday one class of men who are insistently urging that the public school\nemphasize industrial and trade education, do so because they wish an increased\nsupply of workers who are mere workers or human automatons. Many\ninfluential employers in the United States are demanding in no uncertain tones\nthat the public schools be utilized to turn out narrowly-trained industrial\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nworkers who may become passive links in the great industrial mechanism of\nthe present age. Systematization and specialization are the favorite watchwords of this class. The application of factory methods to the school is\ndemanded in the name of efficiency and economy. Standardization, not\nindividual treatment, is the ideal of the business man. The manufacturers\nwere not vitally interested in manual training which was introduced as a pedagogical necessity in order that each and every child might have an opportunity\nto use his hands in some form of constructive work. In fact the manufacturers,\nbecause they were taxpayers, were inclined to oppose manual training as it\nwas expensive. The purely educational value of this training to the American\nyouth did not appeal to them since it did not directly swell profits and increase\ndividends. But now, when skilled men are an urgent necessity, the proposition isjudged very differently; an organized effort is being made by captains of\nindustry to convert the public schools, or certain departments of the educational\nsystem, into schools for apprentices.\nAnother class of men are standing for the proposition that the public-school\nsystem should train efficient workers who are also thinking men and women\ncapable of enjoying art, literature, and leisure, and who will be able to intelligently consider the political and social problems which will inevitably arise in\nthe twentieth century. This class demands that a well-rounded development be given each child, and that each student be prepared for useful and\nefficient work in the community. These two views are almost diametrically\nopposed to each other. The standards utilized for the measurement of educational values are entirely different. The first class, however, is quite harmonious in its agreement as to the proper scope of educational work; the second\nclass unfortunately is not.\nThe progressive educators of the nations, those who are attempting to\nformulate a real science of education which will be a directive factor in social\nprogress, must definitely place themselves within the second class. Industrial\nor vocational education should become an integral part of formal education\nin an epoch or a nation when industry has become large-scale and subdivided,\nwhen the home and the shop are no longer adequately fitted to impart vocational training. But since large-scale industry and subdivided labor are\nnecessarily only present in a period of world markets and world intercourse,\nvocational training must be indissolubly linked with other forms of training\nwhich will broaden the outlook of the student, which will make him a citizen\nas well as an efficient worker with hand or brain. The aim of modern education should be, if the aim be anything more than the production of a nicely\narticulated industrial system, to produce men, not machines. The school,\naccording to any broad and reasonable social concept of its function, should\nsend from its doors healthy, efficient, and well-trained producers who possess\ncharacteristics which will enable them to live as well as to make a living.\nHowever, before it will be possible to obtain a semblance of unanimity\nin regard to sociological or educational values, some fairly definite standard\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nFACTOR\n\nIN SOCIAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\n665\n\nof judgment for all social and political institutions must be utilized. This is\na prime essential.\nIs there any yardstick for the measurement of social values\nwhich will be acceptable to many different classes and interests ? The customary standard of recent decades has been social welfare, the good of society\nconsidered as a unit. But this popular criterion is open to the serious indictment\nof indeterminateness and ambiguity; it is too indefinite for practical use.\nSocial welfare is interpreted in as many different ways as there are different\nclasses and interests in the community; and industrial progress has increased\nthe number of classes and interests, and has brought different nationalities\ninto contact with each other. If we are to judge accurately of the influence of\nindustry upon social progress, of the value of any social or political institution,\nor of the importance of any proposed measure of reform, some fairly definite,\ntangible, and fundamental standard must first be established which will\nsupersede that of the social welfare or the good of the greatest number.\nIf\n^^^is can be successfully accomplished, all except the most radical reformers\n^Br revolutionists on one hand, and the most reactionary of the conservatives\n^Hhould be able to meet upon common ground, and to work in practical harmony\n^^n hastening institutional reforms of various kinds.\nProfessor E. A. Ross,\n^^K the University of Wisconsin, has insisted that policies and institutions\n^^hould be evaluated according to their significance in improving the character\nof the human race or the \"breed of men.\"\nMen can fairly well agree upon a\ndefinition of health,^ efficiency, and individual and social stamina; but not\nupon that abstract concept, the good of all or social welfare.\nFew there are\nwho will openly question the desirability of any institution or any measure\nwhich will aid in raising the standard of health, economic efficiency, or intellectual ^cumen. Industrial or vocational education, or any other policy from\nsocialism to the abolition of child labor in factories, should stand or fall by\nthis definite, fundamental, and universal test: Does or does it not tend to improve the health, vigor, and efficiency of the race ?\nRecent study and investigation have shown us that industrial progress has\nmade society rather than the individual chiefly responsible for the existence\nof dislike of school work, inefficiency, ill-health, and criminality. The greatest\nwealth of a modern nation is bound up in its citizenship; and its citizenship,\n\nj^\n\nthanl^s to the \"industrial factor\" in modern life, is chiefly a social product.\nThe presentation of abstract educational ideals and values without due regard\nfor tfie conditions of home, shop, and leisure-hour environment, is a futile\nprocess. The great problem of the present, the one which towers above all\nothers, is to universalize opportunity for decent health and comfortable living\nnot for a few but for all ; it is to give to each and every child in this great and\nrich land of ours the heritage of a child — decent home surroundings, sufficient\nand proper food, opportunity to play, and a chance to use hand and brain in\nsome form of constructive work. This is the social, political, and educational\nproblem of the age ; and the peculiar form in which it is presented to the present generation is due to industrial advance.\nThe key to its solution can be\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nfound only by him who searches by way of the path of industrial evolution.\nThe \"industrial factor\" is the chief factor in modern social, political, and\neducational problems; because industry is the determining factor in fixing\nthe conditions of living, working, playing, associating, resting.\nIf this basic and tangible standard for measuring institutional values be\naccepted, education and statistics become the trusted servants of sociology —\nthe science of social progress. The true function of an educational system\nis now clearly seen to be directive; it should give efficient aid in reducing the\nfriction inevitable in human society as industrial and social changes occur.\nEducation should produce the adaptable man and the adaptable society. In\na modern industrial nation this concept of education presents industrial or\nvocational education as an integral and important part of the work of the public\nschools. The aims, methods, and character of formal education in any epoch\nor in any given nation can only be scientifically and rationally determined by\nresort to psychological investigation and to a careful study of industrial evolution aided by accurate statistical information. The basic standard of judgment should be its effect upon the health, efficiency, and intellectual vigor of\nthe youth of the nation. Until educators and school authorities are ready to\naccept these fundamentals, \"groping in the dark\" and confusion as to essential\nprinciples will continue.\n\nTHE INDUSTRIAL\nERNEST\n\nN. HENDERSON,\nADELPHI\n\nFACTOR\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF PSYCHOLOGY AND\nCOLLEGE, BROOKLYN,\nNEW YORK\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nAccording to the plan of the committee the purpose of this chapter is to\ndiscuss \"the psychological and social need for constructive handwork and for\nindustries as a 'subject' in school.\" The aim will be to analyze and to state\nas compactly as possible the various phases of this need as it displays itself\nin the child growing up thru the school to maturity. The discussion will\nassume the results of the preceding chapter as to the importance of industries\nas a cultural force and will leave for the succeeding chapter the history of the\ntheory of industrial education.\nIt seems, however, almost necessary to preface a discussion of the psychological need for any subject in the school by a comparison of the part psychology has in the past played in the determination of the work of education with\nthe function assigned to it by schoolmen today. The great educational reformers— Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel — were convinced that the •\nfundamental need in education was that it should be based on a sound psychology. So thoroly were they possessed with this point of view that they\nlooked to psychology to determine not only the method but also the aim of\neducation. The problem of the schoolmaster they conceived to be a development of that which is potential within the child. In this attitude they were\nprotesting against an endeavor to enforce upon him a number of disagreeable\ntasks more or less remotely connected with the business of life. Even Herbart,\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nFA'CTOR\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n667\n\nwith his emphasis on the importance of the external process of instruction,\nagreed that the aim of education is \"the harmonious development of all the\npowers\" or, according to his phraseology, the development of \"many-sided\ninterest.\" Education according to this view aims at personal culture, at realizing the self, at bringing to light the possibilities that God implanted in the\nchild; these are all methods of stating the purpose of education which leave\nto the psychologist the problem of determining its specific character. For who\nbut he whose study concerns the nature of the mind can be expected to know\nits potentialities ?\nThe theory that psychology should determine not only the method but also\nthe aim of instruction possessed the minds of the earlier advocates of manual\ntraining in the United States. Among the important characteristics of the\nchild is the fact that he has a body and is capable of doing an enormous number of things with it. Moreover, he is intensely interested in doing many of\nthese things. For a long time the physical activities are rather more in eviKde\ndence than the mental ones, and all of the instincts point toward them. Soon\nhe instinct of constructiveness appears, fashioning the form of many games.\nhe teacher, alert to the potentialities of the child, marks the power and the\nstinct to use the hand, and cultivates it to insure that perfectly developed\nman toward whom his task is conceived to direct itself.\nWith the progress of time the ideal of personal culture has been largely\nmodified or replaced by that pf efficiency. According to this aim education\nConcerns itself with preparing for life rather than in cultivating all the powers\nof the child. The study of what man has to do, particularly the study of the\nsocial organization into which he must fit, has come to be conceived as the\nproper method of determining the purpose of education. On this basis the\nmere fact that a child possesses a capacity is no reason that the school should\naim to develop it. On the contrary, many capacities, since they bear no relation to social life as at present constituted, may well be suffered to atrophy.\nIf there is to be education in constructive work, it must be because there is a\nsocial rather than a psychological need for it.\nSuch a need is not, however, far to seek. The growth of industry in modern\ntimes has been such as to place it at the very front among the interests of communities and of nations. Science, for many ages merely the pursuit of a learned\nleisure, has been harnessed and put to work. It has concerned itself with the\ntasks intrusted to the servile classes. It has relieved their labor of some of\nits severest strains, has elevated its character, making it more intelligent, and\nhas created the need of a broader intellectual training as a preparation for\nnearly all the vocations than was required a century ago. If education is to\nprepare for, life, it must begin by preparing to make a livelihood, and the\nvocations of the vast majority of those whom a democratic society would\neducate involve forms of handwork and industry in which the school can give\nan extensive training. Such training is becoming increasingly necessary\nbecause of changes in the industrial life that tend to check or to destroy the\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\napprentice system, and because this life is continually becoming more complicated and difficult to understand without specially directed study. Thus the\nschool is being forced to take up vocational training in a great variety of occupations hitherto prepared for adequately in other ways, for the negative reason\nthat the other ways are disappearing and the positive one that it alone is capable\nof furnishing a training suited to modern needs.\nIt is evident, therefore, that, from the standpoint of aiming to prepare its\npupils for efficient living, the modern school is more and more compelled to\ntake into account both constructive work and the study of industry as a fundamentally important group of subjects. There is a social need for such work.\nBut in the endeavor to fit it into the course of study difficulties arise. Since\nthe work is commonly recognized as vocational, many parents see no need of\nit for children who are not expected to pursue the callings to which it is supposed\nto lead. This is especially true of the constructive work, the survival of\n''manual training.\" It finds difficulty in making its way into the earlier part of\nthe curriculum, which is necessarily the same for all. To effect this entrance\nand to maintain its ground, it has been compelled to assume generalized\nforms that seem to constitute integral parts in the culture of everyone. Moreover, ithas been tempted to defend these forms not on account of their somewhat remote utility, but rather on the ground of the older psychological\narguments of discipline and all-round development. If these arguments are,\nas seems inevitable, to be abandoned, it is evident that the elementary school\nmust find and teach that phase of industrial life that is suited to children and\nuseful for all, and cease to rely on the cultivation thru manual training of such\ngeneral powers as accuracy, moral rectitude, co-ordination of eye and brain\nand hand, etc.\nMany considerations conspire to make wise the postponement of the\nmore purely vocational part of constructive work and the study of industry\nuntil at least the dawn of adolescence. It is specialized work and to introduce\nsuch training early seems bad foj at least three reasons: (i) It encourages\ndifferentiation before the child has revealed himself to others or has discovered\nhis own tastes and aptitudes. (2) It initiates specialization before a child has\nobtained the general foundations of his culture, and while he is still immature.\nMany declare that this leads to prematuration and to arrested development.\n(3) It tries to teach children what can be learned effectively only by older\npersons and especially under the pressure of practical need. This results\nin a waste of time.\nThe problem of constructive work and of the study of industry has thus\nvery quickly resolved itself into one of determining on the one hand the elements\nof general culture and on the other those of specialization that these subjects\ninvolve. This analysis completed, the two factors can be assigned to different\nparts of the school program. The special training can well be postponed\nuntil the work of the elementary school has been finished. The general culture would need to be properly correlated with the age of the pupils and the\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nFACTOR\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n669\n\ngeneral arrangement of studies in the school. Herein the issue comes to involve\nquestions of the psychological needs of childhood.\nBefore taking up these questions, however, let us note a little more carefully the nature of that general social need at the behest of which the studies\nin question should be introduced into the elementary school. It is evident\nthat their general utility is not identical with what it has been in the past.\nWith the development of industry into more and more elaborate organizations\nof highly specialized activities, the all-round manual skill so important in both\nmen and women a generation ago is ceasing to be an especially valuable source\nof efficiency. On the other hand economic interdependence is becoming\ngreater, and it is growing increasingly important for each to know many things\nin order to keep his activities socially and vocationally in efiBicient co-operation\nwith the activities of others in different walks of life. The substitution of\neconomic interdependence for economic independence has made it necessary\nfor each, if he be not to descend into the position of a mere tool of the social\nmachine to be taken up or laid aside at the will of those who use him, to understand the relation of his vocation to others well enough to exert a controlling\ninfluence in reference to its status and its development. He must be able not\nonly to readjust himself to changes in his vocation, but to assist in the work\nof readjusting his vocation to the varying conditions of community life. To\ndo this he needs a general knowledge of many vocations. The world of industry in general becomes of importance to him as well as his own specialty.\nIt is to the task of laying the foundations for a general knowledge of\nindustrial life that the elementary school must address itself. In this work\nmere manual training becomes subordinated to the study of industry, as a\nmethod rather than an aim of instruction. The group of subjects becomes an\nintroduction to a fundamental phase of economic life and serves a utility quite\nas definite as that of instruction in the three R's or in geography. Culture having this general aim may well continue after the study of specific vocations has\nbegun. The more effectively it is mastered the more surely, we may suppose,\nwill the trained man be master of his vocation rather than its slave.\nWhatever may be the factors in industrial intelligence, it is evident that one\nis a knowledge of the general facts of economic and industrial life such\nas enables the individual to see clearly the relation of his own vocation thereto.\nUpon such knowledge is founded sound judgment as to the rights and duties\nof each craft as well as of its possibilities and necessities.\nWe turn now to the psychological problem— the problem of adjusting\nconstructive work and the study of industry to the nature of the child. It\nmay be said of both, and especially of the former, that nature has left the schoolmaster little to do. Children inherit so great an interest in such activity\nthat it, so far from needing aid in order to be made enjoyable, constitutes one\nof the most effective means of arousing interest in any subject that can be\ntaught thru its assistance. Those educational reformers, who have striven\nto reorganize education, making it more interesting and more in accord with\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthe nature of the child, have usually been pronounced advocates of constructive work. We may distinguish between two general uses for which it has been\nemployed: (a) to give motive for school work otherwise meaningless and uninteresting, and (6) to render more positive and lasting the results of instruction.\nAs a means of motivation constructive work possesses the following advantages: (i) It appeals to the love of activity, especially physical activity so\nprominent in children. To younger children the mere making of things seems\nworth while apart from any uses to which the product may be put. (2) It\nappeals to the primitive interest in the concrete, that which represents processes and results easily apprehended by both sight and touch and the muscular\nsense. In such material young children are absorbed, and it is astonishing\nhow little general meaning or value is necessary to insure their interest, provided the material with which they are working be of this tangible character.\n(3) Constructive work connects itself with occupations and products the\nutility of which is seen illustrated in the every-day life about the child. Indeed,\nthey are among the first utilities to be grasped by the child's mind.\nWhen we turn to the value of constructive work as a means of strengthening the results of instruction we distinguish two fundamental advantages:\n(i) It furnishes one of the easiest and most effective ways of applying the principle that learning should, or, as the 'Afunctional\" psychology puts it, must be\nby doing. (2) It teaches through the application of principles to a sort of\npractice more nearly similar to that of the life-situations in which these principles are expected to function than is that of much of the school.\nThe newer psychology takes the ground that we do not attend, do not discriminate, and so are not conscious, except when this is necessary to bring about\nreadjustment between reactions and stimuli. Learning is always connected\nwith the reorganization of our modes of behavior. Apart from constructive\nwork the school presents only one form of physical activity of great importance. This is that of language, either oral or written, and the great aim of\nsuch activity is to come into adjustment with certain standard words, notably\nthose of the teacher. Now while such activity must always remain one of the\nmost fruitful occasions for learning inasmuch as nothing can vie with the\nsocial situation in offering emergencies for readjustment, it is exceedingly\nvaluable not to be limited in school doing and learning to this sort of thing.\nThe addition of the endeavor to manipulate materials supplies a characteristically different sort of emergency. In adjusting himself to other minds the\nchild is dealing with persons who are continually by their own efforts furthering, or hindering, his endeavors. In either event, the condition of dependence is\nemphasized. The child is led to consider success or failure to be a matter of the\npoint of view of others; and this point of view may be and all too frequently is\ndependent upon circumstance and mood, inaccurate, uncertain, transitory, unjust, or absurdly compliant and easy rather than fixed, true, and inevitable. The\nmethods of dealing with minds vary from cajolery and domineering to persuasion and the appeal to the sense of right. In any case they differ greatly from\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nFACTOR\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n671\n\nthe dealing with mere physical materials, where there is one law, the mastery\nof which is the only method of securing results, and where the child can have\nno thought except that of simple direct control. It is an unquestionable addition to the resources of the child that he has accustomed himself to deal intelligently with physical materials as well as with human minds.\nMoreover much that is learned in the school is intended to be applied not\nin the control of men, but in the manipulation of material. In that event\nconstructive work in the school offers the only method by which the principles\ncan there be applied as they would be in life. That they should get this sort\nof school application is fundamentally important. Facts learned in order to\nbe recited are, by a simple principle of recall, not apt to be remembered where\nthe circumstances and the emergencies are so vastly different as in the case of\nThe more\nquestioning on the one hand and a workshop on the other.\nI:hool\nearly the school environment corresponds to that of life in general, the more\nkely it is that the ideas learned in the former will be applied in the latter,\n\n'he identity of principle is not sufficient with most minds to overcome the\nffect of diversity in all other associations, and the mind recalls many things,\nut not that far-away bit of school learning which is the one thing useful,\nt may therefore safely be said that whatever is to be applied to problems in\nconstruction should be learned wherever possible in connection with such\nproblems.\nVery much the same analysis that has been made of the psychological\nneed for constructive work in the school applies to the study of industry.\nIn fact it deals with that phase of life to aid in the study of which constructive\nwork finds its principal use. Connecting itself with interest in and imitation\nof the simpler forms of adult life, it leads gradually to a desire to participate\nin the work of the world. It is to be hoped that the constructive work and the\nstudy of industry in the elementary school will ultimately be of such a character that when the pupil reaches the age at which the activities of adult life make\ntheir appeal, he will be able to make a wise choice in reference to them, and be\nalready advanced in an appreciable measure toward the goal of his special\nvocation.\nIt is especially in connection with relating school work to the realities of\nlife that the study of industry becomes important. The public in a democratic\nand commercial and industrial community are apt to find reality rather more\nin such work than in science and art, literature and philosophy. The children\nof such a public are prone to discover in the study of industry something that\nconnects the systematic and especially the formal work of the school with the\nreal problems of life. Under these conditions the school finds this study a\nmeans of putting motive into many contributory studies and of securing such\na setting for its teaching as will make likely its application at least to the utilitarian pursuits of life.\nThe problem of motive becomes especially difficult in the later years of the\nelementary school.\nChildren at this time pass, so far as regards their outlook\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nupon life, into a distinctly different phase of development. We can bring this\nout by describing the earlier phases. The young child is a creature of impulse\nand of imagination, absorbed in doing or thinking that which is immediately\nsuggested to him. Reflection is gradually forced upon him. The period from\neight to twelve is a critical age, an age of rivalry in games, of the felt presence\nof social criticism and coercion in reference to all the physical and mental\nactivities that the child puts forth. Under this pressure he becomes reflective.\nHe subjects imagination to standards, the standards of social acceptability,\nof truth, of propriety. Such standards vary with individuals and social groups.\nThe teacher does not always agree with the parents, much less with the man\non the street. Among the children groups arise on the basis of difference\nin ideals. Later on the adolescent discovers that among these warring views\nof life he must choose one for himself to be his own. He arrives at the age\nof independence and becomes himself the critic, declaring his freedom from\ncoercion.\nIt is at this age that the rate of elimination of pupils from school becomes\nportentous. The reasons that cause children to leave school are very numerous, but unquestionably a very large proportion, at least a majority, give up\nbecause they cannot feel that it will repay the sacrifice of effort or expense or\nboth that it involves. Other reasons are for the most part contributory. This\none is fundamental. There are two classes of children to whom school work\ndoes not seem worth while. One of these consists of pupils who can and do\nget on well in the school but find the activities on the outside more interesting\nand profitable. The other is composed of pupils who do not prosper in the\nschool. Such children naturally grow discontented. No one can be expected\nto regard as worth while for him that which he is incapable of doing. Moreover, in such a competitive atmosphere as a school merely to pass means\npractically to fail.\nNow it is evident that just as constructive work may offer the motives of\nactivity and the making of concrete things to younger children, so to older\nones it, especially when combined with a study of industry, will seem worth\nwhile to many of both these two classes of the ordinarily eliminated. For\nthose who fail in the older studies of the school, the constructive work may\noffer a field for success. For both classes it should constitute the main part\nof the later school program. As an integral part of the preparation for life,\nit deserves a place proportionate to the number of those who need such preparation and the amount of such preparation it is possible and desirable to give.\nWe have reached again from the standpoint of the study of the developing\nnature of the child the issue of specialized vocational training. It is evident\nthat the general training of the earlier years of the elementary school should be\nwhat is deemed necessary to all and what introduces those who are to specialize\nin some form of industry to their work of specific preparation. We have not,\nhowever, as yet considered sufficiently the problem of the initial steps in differentiation or specialization.\nThis problem is in our democratic system one\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nFACTOR\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n673\n\namong the most difficult and important that we face. It is a question whether\nthe problem of determining what the vocation of the man shall be is not more\ndifficult and exacting than that of preparing him for what has been chosen.\nThe European systems of education, which have not been burdened to such\nan extent as our own with the ideals of a democracy, have found it easy to\nengraft vocational instruction upon an elementary system intended only for\nthose destined by birth to some form of industry. In our boasted continuous\nladder of schools, where the elementary school leads into the high school and\nthe high school into the college,, the introduction of special training in industry\nhas not been so simple. It means differentiation. It has seemed like cutting\noff from the children who took it the opportunity for such careers as\nwere limited largely to those who had completed the higher course. We have\nfelt that education shall give to all an equal chance to attain any distinction\nin life. Hence we have clung to a system associated with the training of leaders, even tho such a system may be poorly enough adapted to the education of\nanyone else.\nIt is likely that we shall find our way out thru a change in our conception of\nleadership on the one hand and a discovery that our time-honored method of\ntraining any sort of a leader needs extensive modification, if not revolution,\non the other. It is not, however, the purpose of this chapter to discuss these\nchanges. We may confine ourselves to the crying need for a system of education that shall provide training adequate, in the first place, to enable a fairly\nintelligent choice of a calling to be made and, in the second place, to prepare\nfor whatever may be selected. We are fully alive to the need for the second\nof these advances. It is doubtful whether our educational leaders have been\nin general adequately impressed with the need for a system of school work the\nprimary purpose of which should be to enable the pupil to find himself and the\nteacher to give to him intelligent advice on the matter.\nFrom the point of view of the development of the child, the age at which\nthis process of experimentation toward a calling should be definitely initiated\ncorresponds fairly well wdth the beginning of the seventh school year. Its\nexternal symptom is the high rate of elimination from school at that time, and\nits internal sign is the unrest, the questioning of values, the beginnings of\n** storm and stress\" that characterize the commencement of the age of\nindependence, of adolescence. It would seem that at this time the secondary\nphase of education should begin.\nThere has been in our country some trouble in defining just what secondary\neducation is. The demarcation between it and the elementary school on the\none hand and higher education on the other has been one of years and of\nstudies rather than of general function. There has been no clear reason except\ncustom and a felt convenience for having secondary education begin and end\nwhere it does. It is possible, however, to distinguish three well-marked functions of education, which might be assigned to elementary', secondary, and\nhigher education, respectively, without much destructive readjustment of our\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\npresent system. Elementary education concerns the essentials and the fundamentals. Itis the education that precedes any attempt at differentiation.\nWith the development of the child up into the age where such differentiation\nbecomes necessary an epoch of experimentation sets in. The main purpose\nof the education of this period should be to afford an adequate basis of experience for the choice of a specialty and to guide the process of selection. Such\neducation we may call secondary. When once it has been determined as well\nas is practically possible what the child should do, the time for higher education,\nthat is, for the special preparation for a vocation, has appeared.\nOn this plan we should not have a system in which, while elementary\neducation is supposed to be for all, secondary education is only for a few, and\nhigher education for the very few; but each phase of the work would find\nrepresentation in the education of all or most pupils. At the beginning of\nthe seventh grade the work of experimentation might well begin, A large\nnumber of children have by this time demonstrated their unfitness for what\nmight be called a professional career. For them the severer studies, involving\nthe power of mind to grasp and utilize the abstract ideas and processes involved\nin mathematics, science, language, etc., are not profitable. They should be\ngiven experimental work along the line of industrial training supplemented\nby concrete cultural work in literature, civics, geography, and science, such as\nadapts them for the duties of citizenship and social life. We may tentatively\nsuggest that two years of such work would put these children in the position of\nmaking an intelligent choice of a vocational school in which to complete their\neducation.\nAt the beginning of the seventh school year those whose mental traits make\nit desirable might enter schools where the older type of secondary work is\nprominent. But we might expect that continually new revelations will be\nmade in regard to the talents and tastes of such pupils, and that little by little\nthose who are unable to do the w^ork that leads to the higher professions will\nbe selected out to enter vocational schools that prepare primarily for intermediate positions in industry, commerce, the civil service, etc. The period\nof secondary education would, on the theory proposed, extend until the choice\nof a vocation has been made on the basis of sufficient experience. The\nknowledge necessary to make such a choice is of necessity more extensive, the\nmore advanced the vocation. Properly speaking, the secondary school would\ninclude the present liberal college course.\n*\nThe characteristic feature of the secondary school on this theory is the\nemphasis upon experimentation and selection. In such a school the experimental subject would be especially prominent. This may be defined as a\nsubject studied primarily for the sake of finding the extent of its appeal to the\npowers and interests of the student. Experimental studies therefore should\nnot be elective but prescribed, for their function is to compel, as it were, the\nstudent to explore the field of human thought and endeavor adequately before\nhe is permitted to settle upon his peculiar specialty.\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN UNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n675\n\nAn adequate range of experimentation would involve the secondary but\nby no means unimportant gain of a broad outlook upon life. Thus the student\nwill be getting his liberal culture to a great extent while he is engaged in the\nprocess of selecting his vocation. The study of industry and constructive\nwork would thus constitute factors not only in the elementary but also in the\nsecondary education of every student. All children would have enough of\nthem to know and to do the things that they concern in so far as they enter\ninto the life of all. Every student should have enough more such study to enable\nhim, no matter wl^at his calling may be, to understand and to sympathize and\nco-operate with those whose life-work lies in these fields. The process of\ndifferentiation initiated by the completion of the elementary course would still\nleave to all some further work along such lines both for experimentation and\nculture. We may assume that when the experimental work has been completed\nthe\nthe needs of culture will have been in most cases fairly well satisfied.\nThe current usage assigns vocational schools of the trade-school or technicalool type to secondary rather than to higher education, where they would be\nced according to the classification just suggested. This arises historically\nbecause such work is usually taken in lieu of the secondary training of the older\nsort. The classification made in the preceding discussion aims to provide\na basis for the determination of the character and function of constructive\nwork and the study of industry as we go from the age of elementary education\non into that of experimentation toward a vocation and further into that of\nspecialized preparation for the one selected. In the subsequent chapters dealing\nwith the work of special schools the classifications of current usage are retained,\nbut the spirit of the distinctions that have been made in this chapter is\nembodied.\n\ni\ni\n\nSOME\n\nNOTES\nON\nTHE\nHISTORY\nOF INDUSTRIAL\nEDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES\n\nCHARLES\n\nR.\n\nRICHARDS,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF\n\nCOOPER\n\nUNION,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nUp to the middle of the last century, while American communities were\nstruggling to afford an elementary education to all the children of the country, the\nquestion of training for industrial life claimed little attention as an educational\nproblem. Up to the end of this period industrial life was for the most part a\nmatter of small units as to organization, and of small quantities as to production.\nIndustrial processes were far less subdivided than today and apprenticeship, or some form of training beginners, was far more general.\nUnder these\nonditions the division of function between school and shop was clearly drawn.\nThe school centered its efforts upon general instruction, and the shop and factory took care of the training of their own recruits. For his subject-matter,\nthe schoolman looked away from the industries rather than toward them; his\ndm was naturally the organization of a body of instruction of a thoroly\ni^^eneral character based first of all on the tools of communication, and extending\nlater to the subjects of literature, history, and science.\n\nU\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nDuring the last sixty years social and industrial conditions in the United\nStates have undergone great changes. To these changes educational ideals\nand methods have been very slow in adjusting themselves. The old division\nof function between school and shop built up a persisting conviction that an\ninherent virtue lies in jealously excluding everything pertaining to vocation\nfrom public-school instruction, and led educators stoutly to insist that all such\ntraining should be gained in commercial practice, or at least outside of the\npublic schools.\nDuring these sixty years the course of industrial development in this country has been marked by a tremendous increase in the size of productive units\nand attendant quantity production; by extraordinary division and subdivision\nof labor; by the steady introduction of machinery, and by the proportionate\nlessened need of the highly skilled worker. At the same time the methods of\nthe industries have become immeasurably more dependent upon the principles\nof exact science, and more and more have come to require some need of specialized knowledge on the part of the skilled worker. This development, which\nhas left but few industries untouched, has changed the industrial organization\nfrom comparative homogeneity to a situation in which a minority of workers\nrequires even greater skill and intelligence than formerly, and a majority\nwhich need skill only in a narrow range of operations.\nCoincident with this industrial development, many industrial practices\nhave been taken out of the home life and away from the farm and the village\nand segregated in the factory. Life in the tenements of the modern city affords\nfew of the manual experiences of the earlier days, so that today the average\nboy in school is very much farther removed from a contact and knowledge\nof industrial processes than was the case sixty years ago.\nThis industrial expansion is confessedly the most important feature of\nour national economic life during the last half-century; it is the current that\nis gradually changing us from an agricultural to a manufacturing people and\nwhich will in the near future constitute the largest element in our national\nwealth. During this tremendous evolution both the public school and the\nindustrial establishment have preserved their separateness of function. The\nschool has held in the most part to its original attitude and the shop to its early\nmethods of training. It is only of late years that the steady pressure of economic necessity, and the fact that the old methods of training for vocations have\nbecome inadequate, have forced the realization that new conditions demand\nnew methods, and that in the double problem of general and vocational\neducation, once so sharply divided, the school must assume an increasing\nshare, and on the other hand that the shop must borrow some of the methods\nof the school.\nIn spite of this general lack of correlation between education and industry\nthe school as a matter of fact has in a number of ways reacted upon\nthe industrial situation.\nThe first efforts to meet the new conditions resulted in the establishment\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN UNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n677\n\nof evening schools under private auspices. Coop)er Union and the Mechanics'\nInstitute of New York City, Franklin Union and the Spring Garden Institute\nof Philadelphia, the Ohio Mechanics' Institute of Cincinnati, and the\nMechanics' Institute of Richmond, Va., were nearly all founded or opened\nevening classes during the fifties. The immediate demand upon such schools,\nand the obviously important results in affording ambitious youth an opportunity\nto obtain the technical equipment increasingly demanded in their daily pursuits, should apparently have resulted in the early inclusion of such work in\npublic education. That these results did not follow was undoubtedly due to\nthe fact that the spirit of public education was at that time distinctly alien to\nsuch work. As a matter of fact, our public evening- school work has limited\nits scope almost entirely to instruction in language, arithmetic, and other general studies, and it is only in recent years that differentiated and specialized\ncourses relating to industrial needs have been introduced in evening public\nschools.\nThe next important reaction of organized education upon the industrial\nsituation was that which took place for the most part in the period of mining\nand railroad expansion following the Civil War, and which resulted in the\nestablishment of many engineering schools or institutes of technology. The\nestablishment of such schools was at first thru private foundation but the\npassage of the Morrill Act in 1862, by which large land grants were made to\nthe states for the support of instruction in the agricultural and mechanical\narts, resulted shortly in the inclusion of engineering departments in most of\nthe western state colleges and universities.\nThe development of this type of institution has been widespread in the\nUnited States and has produced an institution in some respects superior to\nanything of its kind to be found abroad. The function of such schools is, of\ncourse, to produce the engineering and technical expert, the men needed to\ndesign industrial constructions, to devise technical processes, and to superintend industrial production. The object of such schools is not to train workmen or even to develop men of the foreman type.\nThe first serious agitation for the inclusion of industrial education in the\npublic schools was, naturally enough, when the prevalent attitude of the schoolmen is considered, not for real vocational training but for the inclusion of\nmanual work in the general course of study as an element of culture and general efficiency. The Manual-Training School connected with Washington\nUniversity, St. Louis, opened classes in 1880 and was rapidly followed by the\nestablishment of manual-training high schools in other cities, some under\nprivate foundation but in many cases organized as part of the public-school\nsystem.\nIt was not until the years between 1887 and 1890 that manual training\nreached the elementary school. Starting with shopwork classes in the upper\ngrades it gradually made its way downward thru the school until it is now\nrepresented thruout all the grades in the schools of many cities.\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe trend of thought in the whole subject of industrial education is well\nindicated by the changing conception of manual training as a feature of school\nwork. In the early agitation for the introduction of manual training in the\neighties, the claims put forward for the new subject as evidenced in the discussions of the National Education Association, and particularly in the\nmeeting of the Department of Superintendence in 1888, were in the main based\non the conception of formal discipline. Manual training was entitled to a\nplace in the school because it exercised the observation, trained the reasoning\npowers, and strengthened the will.\nAltho it is doubtless true that public support of the new movement\nwas due to a vague but sincere conviction that the introduction of handwork\nstood for industrial training, educators as a rule most carefully refrained from\nadvancing a claim for utilitarian value in the work and all utterances were\nfor the most part expressed strictly in terms of the prevailing faculty psychology.\nThe practice of manual training in these early days was as barren as its\nphilosophy. The type exercise was the universal form in which handwork\nappeared. Not until the influence of Swedish Sloyd began to make itself\nfelt in the nineties, with its emphasis on the value of working for a useful end,\ndid a new idea enter into the manual-training conception. Whatever may be\nsaid of the limitations of this influence, its effect was at least to make practice\nmore realistic and to bring into methods of teaching the vital principle of interest.\nAbout this same period the doctrine of formal discipline began to lose its\nplace as the cornerstone of manual-training philosophy. By the beginning\nof the present century the conviction had developed that such work comes into\nnatural relations with the worker only when he contributes something of his\nown thought to attain the end placed before him.\nOut of this attitude aided by a deeper study of the thought of such educational leaders as Froebel, Pestalozzi, and Herbart, and clarified by the emphasis\nof the psychologists on the unity of the mental processes, developed the conception of manual training as a means of expression, a means of expression\nin terms of form, color, materials, muscular activity, and concrete ends, a\nmeans of expression peculiarly adapted to child life.\nDuring the last five or six years the growing emphasis placed upon the\nsocial meaning of education has caused attention to be turned more and more\nto the subject-matter or content side of manual training and the conception\nof manual training at least in the elementary school has come more and more\nto be that of an educational instrument interpreting the fields of art and industry in terms adapted to child life and the limitations of the school.\nIn the high school, however, neither practice nor philosophy has undergone\nmuch change. Halting between the cultural and the vocational aim such\nschools have increased in numbers but still continue to occupy a somewhat\nindefinite educational status.\nTurning to definite efforts to train workers for the industries in public\nschools we come to the trade school, the intermediate industrial school, and\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n679\n\nthe part-time school. All of these institutions are of late development. It is\ntrue that the first trade school in the United States (the New York Trade\nSchool) was founded in 1881, but in the first twenty years after that date only\ntwo important schools giving training in the mechanical trades were added,\nviz., the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades near Philadelphia\nand the Baron de Hirsch Trade School of New York. To these might be\nadded the Miller School of Albermarle, Va., which gives agricultural and trade\ninstruction in the later years of a course of general education. The existence\nof each of these schools is made possible by extensive endowments.\nSince the year 1 901 some ten or twelve institutions that may strictly be called\ntrade schools have developed in different parts of the country under either\npublic or private support as well as a number of commercially conducted\nschools in the building and other trades.\nIn 1907 the trade school entered upon the stage of public administration.\nIn that year the already established Milwaukee School of Trades was taken\nover by the city under the terms of the industrial education law passed by\nthe Wisconsin legislature. Since that date public trade schools have been\nopened in Philadelphia, Pa., Portland, Ore., and Worcester, Mass.\nSuch schools are still in the experimental stage. They face grave economic\nproblems that are still unsolved. First among these is the problem of support\npresented to the student worker during the period of instruction. This diflSculty serves to restrict the number that can take advantage of such schools\nto the comparative few. Training for the skilled trades is in common practice\nrestricted to the period above 16 years of age and as the great bulk of the youth\nwho will form the mechanics and industrial workers of the country must of\nnecessity enter upon remunerative work at sixteen or shortly after, the sacrifices necessary to permit attendance at a trade school can be expected only\nin cases of exceptional foresight and home conditions above the average.\nThe second aspect of the economic problem in relation to such schools is\nfound in the large expense of administration, instruction, materials, and physical maintenance in proportion to the number of students that can be instructed.\nDuring the last three or four years a fundamentally different type of school\nhas been much under discussion, viz., the intermediate industrial, general\nindustrial, or preparatory trade School for boys and girls from fourteen to\nsixteen years of age. Interest in this type of school was developed by the\nreport of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial and Technical Education made in 1906 in which much stress was laid upon the lack of economic\nprogress experienced by children who leave school before graduation and start\ninto industrial work before the age of sixteen.\nSince then the conviction has been growing,- not only that the large number\nof children leaving the elementary school before graduation constitutes a most\nserious educational and social problem, but that it is a problem vitally related\nto the whole question of training for the industries. The idea has been\ngaining ground that one of the greatest needs of industrial education is to\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "68o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Manual Training\n\nprovide a school training for those who expect to enter the industries at sixteen\nthat will give a sound basis of general principles and a wide acquaintance with\nmaterials and processes and so make possible the development of industrial\nintelligence and in consequence of industrial adaptability.\nThe aim of such schools is not a specialized trade training but such instruction in the processes fundamental to several trade groups that will give an\nadvantage to the boy of sixteen, whether it be to enter upon the work of mill\nor factory or to take up the task of learning a skilled trade. Schools of this\ntype have been established as parts of the public-school system in New York\nState at Rochester, Albany, and New York City, and New Bedford, Mass.\nThe part-time or co-operative school plan is an attempt to combine practical training in a commercial establishment with general and technical instruction in a school. This plan which has been in very successful operation for\nsome years with the engineering students of the University of Cincinnati, has\nvery lately been applied to students of the high-school age.\nThe details of such co-operative systems seem likely to vary considerably\naccording to whether the student body comes originally from the shop or from\nthe school. In Cincinnati a group of two hundred machine-shop apprentices\nare being given four and one-half hours of instruction per week in the public\nschools. In Pittsburg and Beverly, Mass., on the other hand, elected groups\nof high-school students are given a week in commercial establishments followed\nby a week in school.\nThe attempts to develop the part-time plan of instruction have only begun\nto appear, but it is safe to assume that the great economic and practical advantages of the plan will result in many further experiments in the near future.\nOn the side of state legislation, the increasing interest in industrial education is reflected in the passage of laws providing a measure of state support\nand state direction for industrial and trade schools in the states of Massachusetts, New York, and Wisconsin.\nThis brief resume may serve to indicate that many American states and\ncommunities have committed themselves to the general principle of industrial,\nor more broadly speaking, vocational education as a part of public education.\nIt will serve to indicate also that while certain types of schools have proven\nof unquestioned value, others are still in the experimental stage, and that\nseveral years of further study and experience are needed to demonstrate fully\njust what types of industrial education are destined to find a permanent place\nin the American public-school system.\n/. REPORT\n\nOF SUB-COMMITTEE ON THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\nSince a large part of the population, three-fourths to nine-tenths, according\nto locality, never succeeds in entering any other than the elementary school,\nthree obligations, distinct and somewhat conflicting in the demands which they\nmake upon the curriculum, would seem to be placed upon this school:\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n68i\n\n1. To develop as much as possible of culture — enrichment of life thru knowledge\nand appreciation of human achievement in history and art.\n2. To give the best possible start toward the life-work in which the person will be\nmost content and most efficient.\n3. To furnish the best possible training for citizenship thru developing a sense of\nsocial obligation and by preparing for effective membership in the various social groups.\n\nTo these might be added the aim of giving to a minority the best possible\npreparation for continuing their education in higher schools.\nEven if the whole effort of the school were given to one of these aims, the\nresults obtainable in so short a time and with pupils so young would necessarily\nbe inadequate, and the more so since the time must be divided, in some degree\nat least, between the three. They must compete therefore for time and\nemphasis in the curriculum, except in cases where the material and treatment\ndeemed most appropriate for one is found to be the most appropriate for the\nothers also.\nComplete unification in this fashion is hardly to be hoped for. It is,\nhowever, the belief of the committee not only that the subject-matter furnished\nby the industrial arts holds a fundamental place in relation to all three of these\naims, but that this material, more frequently than other subjects in the curriculum offers opportunities for realizing these aims conjointly.\nAs a cultural subject, history, broadly defined, will doubtless be granted\nthe first place in the curriculum. But much of the content of history is beyond\nthe grasp of children. The development of industry is the most concrete and\nthe most clearly continuous aspect of history which can be selected for them,\nand it is a factor so fundamental in social progress that an appreciation of it\nmay well be made a first aim of the school. Industrial history is also the\nhistory of science, and, if in less degree, the history of social organizations.\nIt is, as Dewey says ''no materialistic or merely utilitarian affair. It is a\nmatter of intelligence. Its record is the record of how man learned to think,\nto think to some effect, to transform the conditions of life so that life itself\nbecame a different thing.\"^ Equally an element of culture, in this industrial\nage, is some understanding and sympathetic appreciation of modern industry,\nits methods, achievements, and social significance. As culture, there must be\nstudy of the more important industrial materials of the present day, of the\nprocesses thru which they pass; of the machines and reagents utilized; and\nof the two great factors in the continuing progress — science and organization.\nFrom the vocational point of view, it is clear that the industrial arts are\nequally serviceable. Whether this is to be a major or minor aim in the elementary school the industrial opportunities of the average city are such that an\nacquaintance with the industries, in addition to that acquaintance with commerce which is already provided for, will be the most promising form of\nvocational assistance to be offered to those pupils about to enter gainful occupations. This is a subject which concerns mainly the later years of the schpol,\n^Elementary School Record, p. 200.\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "682\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nrather the elementary period as a whole, and may be most appropriately\ndiscussed as special work for the grammar grades.\nThe bearing of the industrial arts upon citizenship, and upon general\nsocial effectiveness other than economic, is a topic which leads somewhat away\nfrom consideration of subject-matter as such. Training, as well as knowledge\nand information, is a factor in the development of a proper social attitude and\nspirit, and tho modern psychology which has shown that confidence in many of\nits forms and methods has been misplaced, training and discipline still remain\na fundamental aim of the school ; the main difference being that the discipline\nis now being brought as close as possible to the special field in which it is\nexpected to do duty. If general training is a myth, particular types and lines\nof training are the more essential.\nThe problem of training for citizenship, therefore, becomes that of placing\nthe child in an environment which permits and demands the exercise of citizenship, and the greater the resemblance between his present and future fields of\ncitizenship, the more effective the training secured.\nIt is generally recognized that the conventional school life, while developing\ncertain social habits of importance, is yet a very artificial type of social experience, when compared with the life outside. The argument here for the study\nof the industrial arts is simply that, since it may be carried on not merely by\ntextbook or recitation but by actual reproduction of their processes, it may\nfurnish the pupil rich social experience, more genuine and closer perhaps to\nthat of the outside world than the school can offer him in any other way.\nThe line between the purely social and the economic values in such training\nis naturally difficult to draw. Such experiences in production should not only\ndevelop a social adaptability, thru the working over, under, and with\nothers, but should also habituate pupils in a degree to such planning of work,\nestimating of cost, and economizing of materials, as the outside world will\neventually require.\nIt is apparent that the study of industrial arts here contemplated includes\nmuch more than the various lines of handwork which have already found\nlodging within the curriculum. \"Manual training,\" as its name indicates, was\nintroduced as a means of formal discipline and the place which it has made\nfor itself is well apart from its relations to the industrial life. Taken in hand\nby students of child psychology, it has been made to appeal effectively to\nchildren's motor and imitative instincts, and to serve as a means of comparatively spontaneous expression. It has also been made to furnish some concrete\napplications for other school work in mathematics, science, or art. Its effectiveness in these respects probably justifies all the recognition which it has\nreceived. But such work may be, and often is, carried on successfully from\nthese points of view with only the most incidental reference to the industries as\nsuch, and without developing any generalizations regarding them; and so\nmuch has been made of its value as a method of securing either manual skill or\nfree expression that the question of its subject-matter has often been ignored.\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n683\n\nIt is only of late years that the significance and meaning of the industrial\narts as social subject-matter has had attention, and it is a fair assumption that\nthe present curriculum shows only the beginning of the recognition which this\naspect is destined to receive. Following this there may be expected a proportionate increase of emphasis upon actual constructive work, which will then\nhave place in the school life not only as an appropriate means of expression\nbut also as experience thru which fuller understanding of the nature and\nsignificance of the industries may be gained.\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nGRADES\n\nThe younger the pupil, the greater, of course, are the limitations under\nwhich the school work is conducted and the more of attention to be given to\nmethod as opposed to subject-matter. Without denying that the later school\nyears are concerned with the doctrine of interest and the conception of education as expression, it is clear that the earlier years are the ones most directly\nconcerned from this point of view; in the primary grades special attention is\nto be given to the reactions which are secured from children and that these\ndepend largely upon the appeal which is made to their native instincts\nand impulses.\nNumerous studies in the psychology of childhood have combined to\nemphasize the significance of the motor impulses during this period, and the\nstrength of the interest in concrete materials. They need not be quoted here.\nOur present problem is, recognizing fully the importance of an education during these years that shall ''start from the child,\" to see in what ways the concrete and motor work may \"lead into society\" — how to give social content to\nthese spontaneous interests and activities.\nFirst may be noted an important element of value available from almost\nany form of \"manual training\" quite apart from any direct relating of this\nto the industrial arts; i. e., general acquaintance with the qualities of common\nmaterials, their measurement, and their manipulation. This will at least have\nvalue as a foundation for the work of the later school years. However, if the\nhandwork be centered around the fundamental industries pupils may gain\ntwo further types of knowledge and experience:\n1. Knowledge of the nature and operations of the industries upon which their own\nlives are most immediately dependent.\n2. Knowledge of the history of these industries and the course of their development.\n\nThe relative value of these two types of subject-matter for the primaryschool period is a question much discussed and with no general agreement as\nyet. Upon the decision here depends the choice between what may be called\nthe neighborhood approach and the evolutionary approach to industries.\nIn taking the neighborhood approach, the pupils would be led to the\nobservation and reproduction of the activities which they see to be meeting\ntheir own immediate needs, such as those of bakery, truck-farming, or housebuilding. Other industries having special local prominence would come\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nin even tho their service were of a less fundamental nature. The evolutionary approach, on the other hand, would select the most fundamental\nindustries, and would produce first the earliest and simplest processes, following in order the steps of their development toward the complex forms of the\npresent time.\nEach plan has obvious advantages. For the neighborhood approach it is\nto be said that —\n1. It takes the child exactly where it finds him, dealing with his actual and immediate\nenvironment and thus avoiding the difficulties of creating an imaginary environment as a\ntheater for liis experimental work.\n2. In the progress of the work the reference is constantly to near-at-hand processes\nwhich are to be seen in the large by the children individually and in class excursions.\n3. This constant combining of productive work with observation will develop a habit\nof attention to the facts of his environment and will be the quickest and most direct means\nof increasing his appreciation of its activities.\n\nFor the evolutionary approach it is to be said that —\n1. The child meets the industry reduced to its lowest terms and deals in the first place\nwith its bare essentials, thus avoiding the confusion likely to accompany study of the\ncomplicated modern processes.\n2. Thus simplified, the reproducing of an industry demands reinvention by the pupils\nof the successive improvements in the processes — effort more original and more educative\nthan mere observation and imitation of processes seen around him.\n3. It involves a grounding in the elements of industrial history which will not only\nfurnish an important background for the appreciation of modern industry but also serves\nwell as a basis for the interpretation of other lines of historical work.\n\nMost current practice could be shown to combine these two plans, at least\nin some measure, so that the question is really one of relative emphasis. It is\nrecognized that the very beginning must be with the immediate environment,\nand also that at some point attention must be given to stages of development\nwhich have preceded. Some, however, hold that the child on leaving the\nkindergarten should be sufficiently prepared for the transition backward;\nothers would postpone it until three or four years later. Some again advise\ngoing back to the cave-dweller, and others no farther than the colonial period.\nAll these variations need to be much more fully tested before a course of study\nat all authoritative in these respects may be offered. In Appendix A will be\nfound more specific suggestions for courses of study realizing some of these\npossibilities.\nTHE\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nGRADES\n\nThe final aim in the study of past stages of industry is of course to prepare\nfor the fullest appreciation of those of the present. Children twelve to fourteen\nyears of age are entering the stage of analytical and discriminating interest\nin the social life about them. The daily paper receives attention, and current\nevents are discussed. The group game with its demands for organization is\nmuch in evidence. Free constructive work tends to concern itself with articles\nfor actual use or with the building of mechanical models very closely imita-\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n685\n\ntive of the originals, and embodying all of their more fundamental mechanical\nproblems. The impulse toward reality repudiates the toy play and doll play\nof previous years and also, in many cases, feeds the impulse to leave school and\nget to work. The whole situation makes strong demand for an intensive study\nof present industrial methods and practices.\nThis situation, in the view of a majority of the committee, demands sexdifferentiation of work at this point: for boys, toward the larger industries;\nand for girls, toward the household arts. All admit important social-ethical\nvalues in giving to either sex a clear appreciation of the nature and requirements of the work done by the other. But now that the work of the average\npupil is beginning to have significances to him thru a recognized relation to his\nown future, it becomes difficult to secure a feeling of reality in connection with\nthe work of the opposite sex. Further-, at least for the large majority who will\nhave no secondary education with its opportunity to specialize, it is probable\nthat the time would be better spent in broadening the pupils' view of their own\ndistinctive fields.\nAssuming this separation then, there is still much difference of opinion\nregarding the aim and purpose of each type of work. The question of vocational education in the elementary school is one much under discussion at the\npresent time, and its advocacy is calling out emphatic protests against departure\nfrom the more general aims which have until now obtained in the elementary\ncurriculum.\nUpon this question the committee would submit the following thesps:\n1. Vocational education, if defined in the narrow sense as training for efficiency in\nsome one specific occupation or industry, is not appropriate to the twelve- to fourteen-year\nperiod. Given at so early an age it could not avail either to increase appreciably the pupils'\nearning capacity or to shorten the period of apprenticeship. Further it would presuppose\nchoice of vocation, which clearly should be delayed until later, in as many cases as possible.\n2. It is entirely practicable, within this period and within the limitations of the elementary school, to give such notions of leading industries as shall be of large assistance\ntoward the proper selection of a vocation, or in the case of those destined for high school\nand college, toward fhe proper selection of a higher school.\n3. Whether precedence be given to this semi-vocational aim or to a more distinctively\ncultured one, i.e., general appreciation of the pupil's social-industrial environment, the\nsubject-matter and the methods demanded will be much the same for pupils of this age,\nand the practical suggestions later to be offered will be equally appropriate.\n\nThe cultural values of such work are clearly of importance to all classes\nof pupils. The boy destined for a profession needs experience and knowledge\nthat will make him appreciate the factors of industrial life. The one destined\nfor a highly specialized industry ought to have such acquaintance with other\ntypes as will show him his own in a proper perspective. At the same time, work\nand study that are well adapted to give this acquaintance can hardly fail to be\nof material assistance in the choosing of an occupation.\nIt is doubtful whether this latter service and the need for it is fully appreciated at present.\nThe situation may be stated briefly as follows: a large\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNA\n\nTIONA\n\nL\n\nED UCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nmajority leave school at about fourteen years of age, and of these again a large\nmajority are certainly to earn a living with their hands. Ordinarily the\nschool has emphasized the commercial side of life in a way to send them out\nwith a strong bias in its favor. Few have any opportunity even to observe the\nvarious types of industrial work; so that the selection of an industrial occupation, as shown by the report of the Massachusetts Commission, is very largely\na matter of chance. The desirable trades have a long apprenticeship term,\nare not available before the age of sixteen or seventeen years and have an initial\nwage lower than that of the many juvenile employments. When the boy\nreaches this age he is naturally reluctant to accept the reduction in wages,\nbut even if he has the foresight to accept this sacrifice, his work of the previous\ntwo years, whether in office or factory, has neither trained him for more skilled\nwork nor has it in any noticeable degree clarified his ideas regarding the types\nof work for which he is adapted. His school work in manual training, to be\nsure, may have given him some notions about his suitability for woodworking\ntrades, which is valuable so far as it goes; but these trades now include no\nmore than a tenth of the more desirable openings, and even tho he has proved\nan entire failure at cabinet work, he may yet have in him the making of a good\nplumber, foundryraan, electrician, or even machinist — the requirements of\neach being so fundamentally different. Industry has now become so varied\nthat success or failure in any one line offers little evidence regarding one's\nprobable success in others. Thus all the factors in the situation conspire to\nbring him into the ranks of the casual, rather than of skilled labor. Any\nother outcome will be due to happy chance or to exceptional foresight and\ndetermination on his own part or that of his parents.\nThree general methods of attack are available at this point:\n1. That of the intermediate industrial school. This would offer a curriculum devoted\nprimarily to the industries and their processes, with the academic work closely related to\nthese. It would be open to pupils from fourteen to sixteen years of age and should do\nmuch toward making these \"wasted years\" subserve educational ends.\n2. A readjustment of the present manual-training courses in such ways as to give\nmore varied industrial knowledge and industrial experience.\n3. That of the special industrial class within the elementary school. This would\nrequire a much larger time-allowance for construction work; permitting a more intensive\nindustrial experience for the pupils specially in need of such opportunity. It would\nserve in short as a substitute for the intermediate industrial school in localities where the\nestablishment of such a school is not found practicable.\n\nThe first of these three topics is treated at length in another chapter of this\nreport. The second and third are the subjects to be considered respectively\nin the two following sections.\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nCOURSE\n\nThe limitations of the school present serious obstacles to this type of work,\nif undertaken in a broad way. Some discussions of the variius methods of\ntreatment may, therefore, best precede that of the appropriate industries for\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n687\n\nstudy. Three general modes of treatment may be distinguished, the first at\nleast, that of discussion being always available. It should of course include\nconstant use of photographs, illustrations in trade papers and popular magazines, trade catalogs, etc. Attention should also be given to its social and\neconomic aspects; wages, hours, seasonal fluctuations, length of apprenticeship, etc. Much may be accomplished by this means alone, assuming\nadequate preparation by the teacher, in bringing to the pupils a conception of\nthe meaning and methods of a given industry.\nThe second method is that of the class excursion, nearly always available\nin the case of local industries, despite popular opinion to the contrary. It has\nbeen the experience of many that practically all manufacturers will, if the\nmatter is clearly set before them, permit a properly conducted class excursion\nthru their works, and that many of them come to take a strong interest in\nthe plan. The value of such an excursion depends very largely upon the\ndiscussion and study which has preceded it. If this has been neglected the\npupils will often become confused by the complexity of the plant and the trip\ndegenerate into a mere vague gazing about. But properly prepared for, it\nbecomes a means of fixing in a most vivid way the fundamentals of the process\nand of acquiring a very much more rounded and complete conception of the\nindustry than could be secured in any other way.\nThe third mode of approach is the reproduction of the industry or some\nof its more fundamental processes by the pupils themselves. This, while not\nalways practicable is a most desirable conclusion of the study. Actual feeling\nof the materials will produce many phases of appreciation, which mere observation fails to develop. It is this treatment also which will count for most in\nthe discovery of special interests or aptitudes in individual pupils, and will,\nprobally, have the most direct influence upon their choice of vocation. It is\nto be assumed that the processes reproduced will be greatly simplified, that the\nproduct will usually be upon a much reduced scale, and that much of the\nworkmanship will be crude. It is sufficient that the pupils view it with a\nsense of achievement and that its processes reproduce those of the industry in\na typical rather than a merely imitative way. In studying carpentry, for\nexample, the framing of a model house from laths might be called a fairly\ntypical treatment, while the making of a cardboard house would be a purely\nimitative treatment, having little value outside of the primary grades. The\nimitation, in other words, must be in structure, not simply in appearance.\nSELECTION\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIt is clear that of the many industries which demand attention comparatively few can be treated in this fashion within the available time, so that\nselection becomes a difficult and important matter. Five considerations\nwhich bear upon this choice may be noted in the order of their importance :\n1. General importance and extent of the industry.\n2. Local importance.\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\n3. Dependence upon a distinct and comparatively high type of industrial ability.\n4. Desirability as an occupation.\n5. Practicability of reproducing its processes at school.\n\nThe relative importance of local industries may be ascertained from the\nU. S. Census Report, which shows, for each city, the number of persons\nemployed in the various lines of work. (Vol. \"Occupations,\" pp. 550 ff.)\nThe rank of the more prominent ones is well shown for the country as a whole\nin the chapter of the present report upon intermediate industrial schools\n(pp. 59-80). The grouping of industries there indicated is suggestive for our\npresent purpose; but the number of topics indicated is much larger than\ncould be treated within the elementary school, at least in the intensive fashion\nwhich we are at present considering. The number of topics must unquestionably be reduced to six or eight. This may, if necessary, be done by the outright selection of the most prominent and the most individual, a plan which\nwould not be wholly discredited by the fact that these industries represent only\na minority of the industrial occupations. However, the effort should be made\nto recognize any similarities which exist and, by the selection of type industries\nand of those most divergent in nature, to make the scope of the work as broad\nas possible. The classification just referred to is suggestive in this regard but\nstill contains too many topics for treatment by the elementary school.\nThe following rearrangement of groups may meet this situation in a degree:\nGroup\n\nTrade\n\nNumber of Males Employed\n\nCarpentry\nWoodworking\n\n600,000\n350,000\n\n^ stoneworking and concrete construcI> ^^f^'^'^Y\ntion\nPainting and glazing\nPlumbing and pipe-fitting\n/ Structural ironwork\ni Foundry work\nII. Metal and machine trades ( Machine-shop work\nI Blacksmithing\n\\ Engineers and firemen\n\n220,000\n270,000\n100,000\n100,000\n100,000\n280,000\n220,000\n400,000\n\nI\n\nBuilding° trades\n\nof textiles\nWeaving\n!\nClothing manufacture\nShoemakmg and leather work\nOther metal working\nIV.\nV.\nVI.\nVII.\n\nElectrical work\nPrinting\nAgriculture\nMining\n\n250,000\n170,000\n200,000\n80,000\n100,000\n140,000\ng, 000, 000\n500,000\n\nA classification so general must be far from satisfactory. Thus the building\ntrades have very little in common on the purely technical side; plumbing,\npipe-fitting, and structural ironwork are intermediate between Groups I and II\nand about as appropriate to one as the other; engineers and firemen and many\nprinters belong technically to Group III, etc. On the other hand, it would\nseem that relations among the building tpades are so intimate that any serious\nstudy of one would lead to measurably clearer notions about others; that the\nstructural iron-worker is, on the whole, more nearly related to the machinist\n\n!\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nthan to the builder;\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n689\n\nand that engine operators also require much of the\n\nmachinist's equipment.\nUpon the basis of the five considerations already mentioned, each \"group\"\nwould seem entitled to a place in the curriculum and in the order named,\nbarring special local conditions. Each should be studied by means of at\nleast one of the subordinate industries; more, if possible. Each, however, of\nthe first four at least is held to outrank any'one of the included trades; e.g.,\nthe course of study should not undertake a second or third trade under the\nbuilding or machine industries until it has assigned some place to electrical\nwork.\nThe building-trades group being so populous, and representing so dominant\na proportion of skilled labor, seems clearly entitled to first place, and the large\nnumber of woodworkers goes far toward justifying the usual manual-training\ncourse from the present point of view. If but one industry is to be dealt with,\nclearly this is the one. Yet it is doubtless in some senses a waning industry\nand it would not be surprising if the approaching census reduces its preponderance materially.\nIn Group II the machinist certainly has first place, not because of the\nplurality indicated, but because his work and his knowledge are fundamental\nto so many other industries. Technically he is a builder of machines; but\nthis involves some ability as a metal-worker combined with some understanding\nof machinery in general, its adjustment, alteration, and repair. Men with such\nequipment, whether nominally machinists or not, are to be found in any type\nof industrial establishment and are the ones whose special talents gain the\npromptest recognition and advancement. Two aims should characterize the\nschool work at this point: (i) to give the general notions of the processes\nin the building of machinery; (2) to study and, so far as practicable, to construct various mechanisms with a view to the development of mechanical\ningenuity. The taking-apart and reassembling of any mechanism, the construction ofany mechanical project or moving toy and experimenting with\nvarious adjustments to secure its proper operation — all of these may be\nexpected to increase the pupil's understanding of machinery and to disclose\nand develop any latent mechanical talent which he may possess.\nGroup III, that of machine-handling, is seen to consist largely of what may\nbe called semi-skilled industries, which command a wage distinctly better than\nthat of the common laborer but below that of the journeyman mechanic.\nThe ability here required is ordinarily that of deftness or speed in the operating of a machine rather than any thoro understanding of the machine itself.\nThe question of what special types of education, if any, will be advantageous\nto the very large number of pupils who are destined for this group, is doubtless\nthe most difficult one of all.\nWhat may be done for the person who is confined to a single process in an\nindustry or a small part of a process ? Clearly a perspective view of the industry, from the sources of its raw materials to the social functions of its product,\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nis one of the first services required, and this should doubtless be the foremost\naim of any attempt to deal with these industries. Further, any work leading\nto the better understanding of machinery, such as has been suggested for the\nprevious group, will have value from two viewpoints: (i) It will have a selective influence, encouraging the more capable operatives to rise above the rank\nof operative. (2) For the operatives who are to remain such, this would hardly\nhave the same practical value; but the ability of these to understand and\nappreciate the mechanism of their machines ought surely to mean a much\nmore intelligent interest in their work and much more satisfaction in its conduct. It would appear then that the treatment of this group of industries\nmust be very largely cultural in its purpose.\nThe electrical industries while employing fewer men are considered as a\nseparate group for several reasons. Electricity is a factor which no cultural\nsurvey of modern .industry, no matter how elementary, can possibly ignore,\nand on the vocational side two special factors require its emphasis : {a) It is\nconstantly becoming a more significant factor in the fields of the leading\nindustries, so that some acquaintance with its theory and applications is of\npractical value to many times the number listed in the census as regular electricians, {h)It demands a unique type of ability both mental and manual —\nan ability frequently discovered in pupils whose progress in many other lines\nis unsatisfactory. This is one of the industries in which study by actual reproduction ismost available, since the construction, alteration, and operation of\nsimple bells, motors, telegraph sounders, etc., is fully practicable at small\nexpense in the usual school shop, and is a type of work well calculated to\ndevelop a general conception of the nature and application of electricity.\nBrief reference may be made to the remaining groups bracketed above\nbecause of special difficulties involved in centering the school constructive\nwork upon them.\nPrinting, like electrical work, is classed as a group rather than as a trade\nbecause of its marked individuality and the fact that it has so little in common\nwith other industries. It is of the last three the most feasible in the school,\naltho requiring special equipment and also, possibly, smaller classes, tho\nfurther experiment is necessary to prove this fully. The school can of course\nmake use of a great variety of printed matter and this is apparently the one\npoint at which industrial work may be carried on in continuous service of the\nschool as a whole, and one which should therefore have special value as a\nsocializing influence. That it could be in so large a sense a regular industrial\nenterprise, conducted by the school, should give a peculiar sense of reality to the\nwhole process and particularly to such considerations of cost of supplies and\neconomy of materials, which in the usual types of constructive work must be\ndeveloped in a somewhat artificial way if at more detail.\nThat agriculture occupies nine million men shows in how great a degree\nthis is still a farming nation. Unquestionably the city school as well as the\ncountry school must find means for its presentation, but it is usually considered\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n691\n\napart from the lines of industry already discussed and space does not permit\nits detailed consideration here.\nMining is also seen to be of high rank numerically and it is in many aspects\nworthy of a place as a skilled industry, but it is so highly localized and so\ndifi&cult of reproduction in the school in any typical aspects that it would not\nseem available for treatment except in the most general way.\nIn the treatment of any of these industries it is clear that the school work\nshould aim consciously at developing a comprehensive view of the industry as\na whole, and some appreciation of the value of this may be counted on from\nthe pupils, tho continuous attention to these aspects cannot be expected from\nchildren of this age. Almost any manipulation of the materials involved will\nbe of assistance here, but very few industries have sufficient fascination in their\nmere processes to secure the most desirable quality of attention and interest\nfrom the pupils. This' is ordinarily dependent upon the securing of a product\nembodying in a vivid, concrete way the knowledge and technique that has\nbeen acquired; such product to be a unity, a project complete in itself, not\nsimply a series of exercises or experiments. Thus in the case of carpentry,\nthe framing of a model house would be appropriate; in the case of concrete\nconstruction the erection of a model building or possibly the laying of some\nsidewalk on the school grounds. If in addition the product is usable as a toy\nor otherwise, so much the better; e. g., in studying the strength of materials\na bridge would be good but a multiplane kite possibly better. Similarly in\nelectricity a motor would be good, but an electric motor boat better.\nThis whole field, however, is one in which the school is just beginning to\nfeel its way, and until the results of much further experimentation are available,\ndetails of method may be suggested only in the most tentative way. The\none certainty is that the content of the industrial arts is such as to demand a\nmuch more serious exploitation on the part of the elementary school, and\nthat fuller knowledge of this content will be an important influence toward\nthe better after-adjustment of pupils to their industrial environment.\n(Appendix B contains more detailed suggestions regarding work of this type.)\nSPECIAL\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCLASSES\n\nHowever, even with the fullest development of the industrial element\nin the regular course, the educational needs of a large percentage of the pupils\nwill not be met. This is especially true in the cases of those pupils who do\nnot readily respond to our usual methods and who, therefore, do not progress\nregularly from grade to grade.\nThese pupils leaving school at fourteen, especially when they leave from\nthe lower grades, are unable to secure occupation which promises regular and\nsatisfactory advancement. These workers, entering as they do into unskilled\nor into highly specialized industries where the subdivision of processes is\nminute, require for their own well-being and for the benefit of their employers\na general rather than a specific industrial training.\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nFor these reasons it is extremely desirable to introduce special industrial\nclasses in connection with the regular work of the last two or three years of the\nelementary school, that will appeal directly to the above groups of children\nand occupy four or five hours a week.\nIn order to make the best adjustment and to secure the best results from\nsuch classes, it will be necessary to institute a variety of experiments — experiments that may be as varied as the size of the school system permits. These\nexperiments should be governed to a considerable extent by the varying industrial conditions prevailing in the different localities and should connect with\nthe other work of the school at as many different points as possible.\nSuch special classes give promise of doing much to solve the problem of\nthe backward or non-progressive pupil, the problem which conscientious and\nthoughtful teachers have ever taken seriously to heart.\nAnother type of special class might deal even more specifically with\nindividual pupils just on the point of leaving school, occupying perhaps two\nor more of the afternoon school sessions per week. Pupils taking this course\nwould continue for the remainder of the time in the regular school classes, the\nwork there being so arranged that they would drop certain subjects entirely\nrather than parts of different subjects. The more fundamental subjects\nwould naturally be confined to the forenoon and in these no distinction between\nregular and special pupils would be required.\nAdmission to such a class might be limited to pupils fourteen years of age,\nor those on whom the school has no further legal hold. It would obviously\ninterfere with entrance to high school, and should presumably be placed before\nthe pupils as an inadequate substitute for a secondary course, none being\nadmitted except upon evidence of inability to afford or profit by the conventional high-school course and upon written consent of parents.\nThe work of such a class might deal with a small or a larger number of\nindustries according to local conditions and requirements. In either case,\nhowever, with such a time-allowance it could clearly be much more thoro,\nsystematic, and technical than that of the regular manual-training courses. It\nmight well be expected not only to give a semi-vocational preparation to a considerable number of the more mechanically minded boys but also to lengthen\nmaterially the terms of their school life — in which case both the industrial and\nthe academic work secured would be for the pupil just so much clear gain.\n\nFURTHER\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nREGARDING\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIt has not been found possible to offer a complete course of study representing any phase of the work which has been discussed. The following pages\ntherefore deal with isolated topics only with a view of illustrating certain types\nof treatment available for a study of the industries.\nIn order to make this material as practical as possible in its suggestion, it\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n693\n\nis confined for the most part to an account of work which has had actual trial\nwithin the schoolroom.\nAs has been suggested earlier, there are various\nles of constructive work which deserve place within the school from the view)int of the child's immediate interests and requirements, but are without\nlirect bearing upon the industries. These are omitted here as lying outside\nle scope of the present discussion.\nA.\n\nSTUDIES OF INDUSTRIES\n\nIN THE PRIMARY\n\nI.\n\nAPPROACH\n\nTHE\n\nEVOLUTIONARY\n\nGRADES\n\nFirst Example — Study of the Textile Industry^\n(Second Year, Horace Mann School, New York)\nThe work centers about the main lines of thought during the year, in connection with\ne study of social occupations as they are found among the pastoral and early agricultural\npies. As these types represent very simple conditions, the activities are still largely\nose involved in thp securing of food, clothing, and shelter.\nThe study of the first grade\nrms a basis for comparison, and aids in the solution of similar problems under new conlions.\nIn the pastoral stage the domestication of animals, especially sheep, determined very\ngely the life and occupations of the people, and greatly enriched their sources of supply,\nrticularly that of clothing. The child brings with him into the second grade a vivid\npicture of the dress of the primitive hunter. He has learned that he used woven grasses,\nleaves, and skins for clothing. He remembers that the skin garments were very hard to\nprepare, and that the cloth of woven grass and rushes was not strong nor soft, nor close\nand fine like his own clothing.\nThe children are now given pieces of silk, cotton, and woolen materials, and some\nraw wool from a fleece. By the sense of touch and examination of the raveled threads they\ndecide upon the woolen cloth as being of the same material as the fleece. They are asked\nto find out which articles of their clothing are made of wool, at what season we wear wool,\nand to name other things made of wool. Having traced the woolen materials back to the\nwool, they are ready for the study of the sheep. They are then taken to Central Park,\nwhere they see the sheep in flocks. They notice the shape of the body, head, legs, and tail;\nhis manner of moving and feeding, and his way of giving alarm. Memory sketches are\nmade on the return to the classroom. In the lesson following, a fleece is shown and by\n^■examination the children notice where the wool is thickest and softest, where finest, and\n^Birhere coarsest. Different methods of shearing are discussed, and the old way compared\n^Brith the new. Pictures help very much. Each child cuts a handful of wool from the\n^Hleece and examines it very carefully. One child discovers that it feels oily, another that it\n^Hb not white, another that it is full of burrs and sticks. It is decided that it must be cleaned\n^^>efore it will be ready for spinning. They try cleaning by hand, but this method is decided\nto be too slow. Some one suggests washing. While talking, some of the children try to\ntwist the fibers with their fingers and usually succeed in producing some short, uneven\nthreads. This gives them a chance to imagine how the pastoral women must have started\ntheir spinning. Then they try to use their pencils to wind the thread, and suggest that\nsticks of some kind might have been used long ago for this. Gradually by getting used to\nthe motion they are able to keep the pencil with the threads whirling, and the idea of the\nspindle is evolved. These are made of wood by the children and they spin a short length\nof the coarse wool.\nAs they decide to wash the wool, tubs of warm water and soap are brought to the\nclassroom.\nThey discover that much energy makes the wool mat together.\nThey also\ndiscover that the oily feeling is gone, and that it does not spin as easily.\nThe question now\n» Teachers College Record, Vol. VII, pp. 344-47.\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\n^^\n\nTIONAL\n\nED UCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\narises as to the best manner of getting the matted condition smoothed out, and finally combing is suggested. It -is found that combing with the fingers is not a success, and that even\nthe ordinary comb does not seem strong enough, so it is decided to make special carding\ncombs. These are made of wood ^\"Xg\". The children use rulers, knives, hammers,\nand nails in construction.\nFour rows of nails about }\" apart complete the comb.\nThe children tried a few experiments with dyeing in their Indian work, so they are\nasked to suggest vegetables, berries, or roots that might give color to the wool. Such\nthings as grapes, tomatoes, beets, onions, squash, poke berries, and blue-berries are\nusually tried by the children. They cook the vegetables and crush the- berries, and dip\nthe wool only to find that most of the colors will not hold. Out of all the materials tried\nthey find only a few, such as grape skins and tomatoes, that are satisfactory in giving a\nfairly good and fast color.\nIn the first grade the children had woven grasses on a rectangular frame making use\nonly of their fingers. They now construct a somewhat similar frame and study various\nmethods of securing the finer woven warp thread to the two end-pieces. For the woof\nthey use a manufactured yarn of difi'erent colors — blue, brown; black, and white. With\nthis fine material the great length to be pulled thru each time proves very awkward,\nand discussion of some way to relieve the difficulty develops the idea of winding the entire\nweaving thread on a small stick, thus producing a primitive shuttle. After some further\nwork the amount of time and labor required to raise and lower the individual warp threads\nbecomes very evident, and the advantage of some means by which a whole set of alternate\nthreads may be raised or lowered at one time is apparent. After much study and after\nsome suggestions and experiments several forms of string heddles are developed and put\ninto use.\nIt is decided that the rugs to be made will be more attractive if several colors are used,\nand a study ensues as to the easiest and best w-ay to arrange the different colors. Stripes\nare decided upon, and a few suggestions are placed on the black-board, discussed, and\ncompared. After this each child decides upon his color scheme, and draws a pattern for\nhis rug, which he carefully follows in the weaving. As a result there is much originality\ndisplayed, and a great variety in the productions made. This work occupies the principal\npart of the first half-year, and in connection with it visits are made to the Natural History\nMuseum, and to the Department of Domestic Art in Teachers College, where illustrations\nand demonstrations of the different processes are seen. The modern methods of carrying\non these same processes are also touched upon. As there are no factories in the immediate neighborhood which can be visited, most of this work is illustrated by means of\npictures enlightened by the experiences of children and teacher.\nSecond Example — Candle Making in the Third Year\n(Francis W. Parker School, Chicago)\nAn illustration of how the study of an industry may be combined with the meeting\nof a present social need — in this case the making of candles for a Christmas tree.\nThe first thing to do was to choose the material of which the candles were to be made.\nWax, paraffin, spermaceti, stearin, and tallow were shown to the children. Spermaceti\nand stearin were excluded on account of expense. To help in making a choice of paraffin,\nwax, or tallow, candles of each of these materials were burned. The paraffin flame was\nthe largest, and that material was the one chosen.\nHow to make the candles was the next question. One of the boys said his father had\nread to him of boys making candles in bamboo canes. This idea was quickly taken up by\nthe children and modified in various ways.\nThe children were asked to work out their plans at home. The result was candles\nmade in five different ways.\nOne was made in a paper mold. A piece of heavy paper had been wrapped around the\nhandle of a duster and the edges of the paper glued.\nDarning-cotton was used as a wick\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n695\n\nand the tube stood upright in a low tin can, being held in place by paraffin that had solidi|fied around the tube.\nParaffin was poured into the mold — the mold, of course, having to\nbroken to release the candle.\nAnother was made in a bottle, and another in a wooden\nlold.\nA wooden mold was made from a block 7X2X2.\nA half-inch hole was made lengthrise, almost thru the block.\nThe block was split, and the two pieces fastened together\nrith hinges and a clasp.\n(Help had been given in putting on the hinges and clasp.)\nA\n(piece of string was used for the wick.\nAnother candle was made by dipping a piece of string in and out of wax repeatedly;\nlother, by rolling paraffin, partly warm, around a string.\nWe liked the size and appearance of the dipped candle, and thought, too, that it was\nle easiest of the five ways shown for making candles; so it was decided to make the\n-istmas-tree candles by dipping.\nFive pounds of paraffin were melted. Three wicks were tied to each of two sticks,\nlils being tied to the wicks to make them sink easily into the paraffin. These nails were\nIt off as soon as the paraffin stiffened the wick.\nTwo dozen candles were made in this\nThe children thought they would like to make candles for home, so we planned to\nlake larger candles, and candle-sticks of clay to fit them, as Valentines or Easter gifts.\nThe children were shown some tin candle molds. These they thought would make\nnice candles of just the right size. To the paraffin for these candles was added some stearin\nto make them harder.\nA candle made of paraffin alone will bend in a warm room.\nThe children drew plans for their candlesticks. They were then shown some simple\ncandlesticks of good design, and their second plans were better.\nMany wished that the candles might be colored. Green is the only color we have\nmanaged successfully.\nThis is made by dissolving green and yellow aniline dye in stearin.\nThe candlesticks for the green candles were glazed green; for the white candles blue.\n2.\n\nTHE\n\nNEIGHBORHOOD\n\nAPPROACH\n\nTO\n\nINDUSTRY\n\nThird Example\n(Plan of work in the University of Missouri, Teachers College)^\nActing in accordance with this view the Elementary School at the University of\nMissouri is using the following curriculum: In each of the first three years the playing of\nwholesome games, the observation of anything interesting and profitable to children, and\nthe making of things useful and ornamental. In the fourth year, local industries, as\nfound in the blacksmith shop, the post-office the laundry, the grocery store, the meatmarket, the dairy, the shoe factory, the farm. In the fifth and sixth years, industries at\nlarge, such as fishing, lumbering, mining, manufacturing, transportation, government.\nIn the seventh year, the development of important industries, especially within the United\nStates.\nIn pursuance of such a course the three R's — language, drawing, geography — contribute what they can. A bit of handwork in the making of a calendar by the first grade\njust before Christmas is much enriched by a personal account of the making which is read\nby the pupils. Further, it is the occasion for writing, number-work, artistic decoration,\nlanguage. The simple game of tossing bean-bags into concentric circles on the floor is a\nwholesome occupation and greatly ennobles the social instincts. The game itself is\nmuch enriched by the oral discussion on how to play, by the reading of a personal account\nof the game, by the number-work involved in keeping score, by drawings illustrating the\ngame.\nFurther illustrations would show all the formal studies in the first three years wholly\n• From Fundamentals in the Elementary School Curriculum, by J. L. Merriam, Ed. Rev., Apnl, 1909,\npp. 396-97.\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "696\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nsubservient to real activities in wholesome games,\nhandwork.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nprofitable observation,\n\nand useful\n\nIn the fourth grade a study of a local dairy — occupying ten days — includes the following: (i) an excursion of three hours, (2) reading from twenty references, (3) thirteen compositions amounting to twenty pages, which include (4) forty problems with additional\ndrill exercises involving the four fundamental processes, fractions, United States money,\nliquid and avoirdupois measurements, (5) chemical experiments in the souring of milk, (6)\nhandwork in the making of butter and cottage cheese, (7) science work in the study of\nvarious kinds of cows and the care of them, (8) sentence-structure to make clear their own\ncompositions, and (9) seventy-four words liable to be misspelled. All these various\n\"studies\" serve as means in the study of the larger problem, that of the dairy as a local\nindustry. This is a type of the work done by the fourth grade in one year's work on local\nindustries.\nIn the fifth grade the lumber industry is given twenty-five days. It includes the following work: (i) four excursions to a forest, a sawmill, a planing-mill, a lumber-yard; (2)\nreadings from eighty references, (3) eighteen compositions covering forty-two large-size\npages, (4) twenty-three concrete problems, involving the four fundamental processes,\nsquare measure, board measure (in both this country and foreign countries), common\nfractions, decimals, percentage, and considerable drill exercise in all of these topics;\n(5) geography of almost every country on the globe, with the maps carefully drawn; (6)\nscience work on trees, lumber, other forest products, sawmills, etc.; (7) drawing in twentytwo illustrations; (8) literature in both poetry and prose fiction.\nIt needs but a little study of the manufacture of cotton cloth, for example, in the sixth\ngrade, to call for much arithmetical work, geographical data, studies in science, drawing,\nreading, etc.\nFourth Example — Garden Work\n(Francis W. Parker School, Chicago)\nThe garden of the Francis W. Parker School occupies a plot of ground one hundred\nand twenty-seven by fifty feet, some fifty feet east of the building. The area is well adapted\nfor the purpose, being open on all sides and shaded only at the southeast corner by some\ntall Cottonwood trees.\nFortunately for the drainage of the plot, the subsoil consists of coarse sand and gravel,\nwhich was placed there when the excavation for the school building was made. Upon this\nfoundation a heavy layer of properly fertilized loam was placed. Each succeeding year\nthe garden has been plowed and fertilized. This has been the cause of one difficulty.\nThe plowing excluded from our available plants all perennials. Each year the garden was\nplanned anew without \"an old year's brand to light the new.\" That deprived the gardeners\nof many experiences which are absolutely necessary in the growth of those who are to\n\"love the green things growing.\"\nAccording to the plan followed for the first three years, every grade planted a bed of\nsome grain or vegetable for the common use of the school. A second bed was assigned to\neach grade, to be divided into individual plots. It is evident that under this plan the garden\npresented a motley appearance, since every child planted in his bed whatever he chose,\nirrespective of what was in his neighbor's bed. Sometimes several kinds of vegetables and\nflowers were planted in a bed two by three feet. Tall plants shaded and interfered with\nthe growth of low ones; vines overran and crowded out other crops. The effect of the\nwhole was not beautiful. The crop was limited in quantity and poor in quality. The\ncare of the garden grew into a burden rather than a pleasant task. What is more important,\nthe great opportunities which garden work offers toward unifying the school and enriching\nthe social life were not realized.\nAfter three years of such experience the children were ready to combine and organize\ntheir efforts, and last year, with the help of the teachers, a new plan was made, the teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN THE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nkeeping in mind that the garden should be beautiful; that each child should be allowed to\nchoose what he would plant; that he should have a feeling of ownership about his garden\nbed and the crop he would harvest; that all plants should be placed in the environment\nbest suited to them; and that every part of every bed should be easily accessible to the\nsmallest child.\nFirst, every member of the school wrote a paper indicating in order of preference his\nchoice of vegetables and flowers to be planted in the garden. The accompanying lists\ninclude all plants mentioned:\nVEGETABLES\n\nLettuce\nRadishes\nOnions\nPotatoes\nTomatoes\nCabbage\n\nTurnips\n\nPansies\nSweet Peas\nCosmos\nAsters\nBachelor Buttons\nSweet Alyssum\n\nViolets\n\nBeans\nPeas\n\nCarrots\n\nWatercress\nCelery\n\nParsley\nSpinach\n\nBeets\nPeanuts\n\nCorn\nPopcorn\n\nCotton\nWatermelon\nPumpkin\nCucumbers\nMuskmelons\n\nFLOWERS\n\nMignonette\nBleeding Heart\nForget-me-nots\nMoss Roses\nRoses\n\nGeraniums\nSweet Williams\nHeliotrope\n\nMorning-glory\n\nNastvu-tiums\nLady Slipper\nHollyhocks Valley Candytuft\nCoreopsis\nDaisies\nLilies of the\nEaster Lilies\n\nTo this list were added names which the teachers suggested of plants which would be\nof service in the science, industrial, and art work of the school and which would add new\nacquaintances to the children's flower friends:\nVEGETABLES\n\nWheat\nSugar beets\nFlax\nKohlrabi\n\nDill\nSage\nBohnenkraut\n\nNicotine\nCaladium\n\nStock\nWallflower\nSalvia\nOrnamental Pepper\n\nLavender\nKale\nPepper\n\nPlum Tomatoes\n\nMarigolds\nAmaranthus\nScarlet Runner\nSunflowers\n\nCelosias\n\nAsparagus\nGourds\n\nFLOWERS\n\nFour 0' clocks\nAgeratum\n\nCanterbury Bells\nZinnias\nCypress Vine\n\nCommittees were formed, composed in each case of children who had chosen the same\nplants. The first two choices of every child were adopted. If, as in several cases, these\ncommittees were too small, the third, fourth, or sometimes fifth choice of a child was considered and sometimes volunteers were called for.\nAfter these groups had been formed, a detailed outline of the work necessary to make\nthe garden a success was as follows:\na) Making of the general plan.\nb) Drawing of a plan for each teacher, indicating the parts of the garden for which her\npupils were responsible.\nc) Writing lists of names of children to act on various committees, these lists to be\nposted in the hallway.\nd) Making individual seed envelopes.\ne) Labeling same with name of seed, name of child, and grade.\n/) Apportioning seed.\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nseed.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ng) Writing and attaching to each envelope clear and concise directions for sowing the\nh) Surveying the garden.\n\nbeds.\n\\- ,\n\ni) Digging-out of the paths (marking beds with string has not been satisfactory).\nj) Making garden stakes and labeling same to correspond with envelopes.\nk) Making large stakes with small signboards attached, to aid in readily finding the\nI) Placing of stakes in garden.\nm) Making of a hotbed.\n\nThis list was presented to the school and the various kinds of work were either chosen\nby or assigned to the grades where they were best adapted. For instance, the plans were\ndrawn by the seventh grade, envelopes made by the third grade, and directions for planting\nformulated by the fifth grade.\nThe making of the plan was the most responsible piece of work. It required consideration ofmany phases, most important among which were beauty, proper shapes of\nbeds for convenience in planting, relative sizes of beds and their positions as to best conditions of light and moisture, and numbers of children acting on the various committees,\nfor example, the favorite vegetable was lettuce. The amount of lettuce seed likely to be\nused was calculated, and this, with the size of the committee, was considered in determining the dimensions of the lettuce bed. In some cases an entire bed was assigned to one\nclass, for the special study of some crop necessary to the work in that particular grade.\nFor instance, the sixth grade took charge of sugar beets, the fourth grade of flax, the fifth\ngrade of wheat, and the first grade of popcorn.\nThe work mentioned under b was important. From these plans every teacher knew\nwhat was to be planted in every nook, and by the colored spots knew at a glance where\nshe might expect to see some of her pupils working. The names of the children did not\nappear on the plans, because the teacher in charge had a plan which included the names\nand directed the placing of the individual stakes. The beds were marked ofi\" by means\nof a board, the edge of which was pressed into the ground. The depression made was\nfilled with sand, which stayed in place long enough to serve the purpose.\nThe flower garden was more diflScult to plant, because the rows overlapped, and the\ngeneral arrangement was more complicated. Here the beginning and end of every row\nwas indicated by a stake, the two stakes being labeled alike and facing one another.\nWith this plan every child had all the information necessary to make him independent\nin locating his bed nnd doing his work. All stakes were marked with paint or ink to make\nthem proof againvt the rain. A red chalk mark was the means by which the children\nindicated thai a bed had peen planted.\nFormulating directions for planting was an interesting piece of work. The motive\nof making all the directions so simple and clear that they might be read and understood by\na child in the first grade made a demand for good concise English which the fifth-grade\nchild could thoroly appreciate. Directions poorly stated might mean failure, disappointment, and a mar to beauty.\nThe interest shown in making the hotbed is worthy of mention. The science work on\ndecomposition, generation of heat, plant food, and germination was done with zest. The\nhotbed was so generous in its productiveness that there v/as a good supply of plants to\ngive to all children who wished to start home gardens. Many children made small gardens\nalong the edges outside of the big garden. All summer good reports came of tomato and\ncabbage crops, fine specimens of flowers, etc.\nAfter the planting was accomplished a careful record was kept in writing and painting\nof the date of planting and the date of germination and appearance of plants in the first\nstages of growth, and the changes from week to week. This record was made in order to\nenable us anotheryearto distinguish the young plants from the young weeds.\nMany\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n699\n\nmistakes in weeding were made this year. In some cases the children were temporarily\ndiscouraged because they expected the plants to appear too soon. One little girl who\nplanted ageratum waited five weeks to see signs of growth. Just as school closed she\nfound a few minute leaves. Four weeks later the plants were one foot high. This fall\nshe supplied every classroom with blossoms for several weeks. Another year the data\nrecorded will prevent this discouragement.\nThe school garden was a great benefit to the work in the art department, as it furnished\n^abundant material and afforded the opportunity for continual use of flowers and vegetables\nthe study of elementary composition.\nSome of the sources of special pleasure to the children were: the asparagus hedge\njlanted to separate the vegetable garden from the flower garden, this hedge having been\n)lanted in May and started from three-year-old roots; the bright red and yellow celosias,\n)me of which grew four feet tall and waved plume-like on either edge of the long center\nLth of the vegetable garden; the muskmelons, which grew so thick and luscious that\n[from a bed of twenty-four by nine feet were harvested over forty melons; the watermelons,\nmmpkins, gourds, and green peppers; the celery bed, which supplied the school for seven\nireeks; the caladiums, which grew from bulbs two inches in diameter to plants five feet tall,\nnth leaves two and one-half feet long. Last, but not least, the garden gate, and the\nsenches which the small boys made from an old tree trunk which they chopped down,\nlould surely be mentioned, for they would appear in any child's list of the special attractions of the garden.\nOne grade took complete charge of the grounds in front of the building. There they\nplanted all favorite flowers, making every effort to have a variety great enough to insure\nblossoming plants thruout the seasons. Some children made frequent visits to the garden\nduring the summer. They weeded and watered at those times, but coming irregularly\ncould not give the garden proper care. The watering and weeding during the vacation\ntime was kindly done by the man left in' charge of the building, and by other interested\npeople. Some children expressed a commercial instinct by selling vegetables to their\nparents and to other children. They agreed to put the income into a common bank, the\nmoney to be used in buying some of the seeds for next year's garden. The treasury was\nalso increased by funds coming from a neighboring grocer, who bought at regular market\nprices what produce was not given away.\nIn August Canterbury bells, Sweet William, and hollyhocks vy^ere planted. The\nyoung plants have a good start, and there are enough hollyhocks to plant along the entire\nfront of the building.\nThis fall the flower garden was cleaned and spaded. A large number of bulbs were\nplanted and by this means the children may enjoy the garden for many weeks before June,\nwhile other years they have had few blossoms before the close of school. At present many\nchildren are nursing geranium cuttings and old stocks planted in window boxes. The\npepper plants are adorning several classrooms. All are waiting for the spring when we\nshall make a much larger hotbed and supply the home gardens and perhaps some children\nin other schools.\nAside from the definite knowledge gained and its all-around educative value, if the\nwork in our school garden adds a few names to the list of those who will always love and\nmake gardens, it would seem that it has been well worth the time and labor expended upon\nit.\nFifth Example — A Study 0} Transportation.\nThird Grade^\n(Francis W. Parker School, Chicago)\nThe following reports were given by the children of the third grade at morning exercises. They are the outgrowth of a year's work in the study of the history of Chicago, and.\nillustrate one phase of the development of transportation.\n« From the Elementary School Teacher, January, 1905.\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "700\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nLast year the third grade studied about early Chicago, and the different ways of\ntraveling in the early days. We decided to make a train of cars in the sloyd shop. We\nchose the cars because they are made just outside of the city, and because Chicago is such\na very large railroad center, and because going by train is the most rapid way of traveling.\nThe reason we did not make a passenger train is because there is so much shipping and\ncommerce going on in the city, and the passenger cars are too hard to make.\nWe also made plans for the truck, the wheels, and the track. We thought it would\nbe nice to give the cars to the kindergarten children.\nJosephine Palmer\nTwo people worked on a car.\nIf each child made one car, there would be too many\ncars, and we would not get them finished.\nOne worked at the sides and floor; the other\none made the ends, the top, and the running-board.\nWe put two coats of paint on them.\nOne child put on one coat of paint, and the other put on the last coat.\nWe grooved the\nsides and ends with a carving tool to make it look like boards running up and down.\nWe\nused large staple tacks for the steps.\nWe named each car and planned the lettering.\nWe\ncalled the cars the \"F.W.P. Fast Freight.\"\n\nMildred\n\nZenos\n\nWe did not go to the carshops to measure the cars, as we had all seen freight cars, and\nwe had a good book with pictures and measurements given.\nEach child used the book and selected the car he liked the best. I chose the coal car.\nIt was 34 feet long. We decided upon the scale to use in making the cars. We first\nthought we would make them i inch to i foot, but 34 inches would make them too long.\nThen we thought that i inch to i foot would be better.\nHelen Stauffer\nWe wanted to know the capacity for our cars. We used inside measurements. The\nbox car is 18J inches long, 4 inches wide, and 3 inches high. I made a drawing of the floor\nof the car. We used i-inch cubes to see how many cubic inches there were in one layer.\nWe found 74 cubic inches.\nIn three layers there were 222 cubic inches.\nI made a drawing of the floor of the coal car too.\nIn the first layer there were 58J\ncubic inches.\nIn two layers there were 116J cubic inches.\nFrieda Maynard\nHow we made our wheels: We wanted to have iron wheels for our cars, but we could\nnot make them.\n\nWe used Frank's wooden model for casting wheels in lead because we\n\nwanted to know how they cast large wheels.\nWe took two flasks and pounded molder's\nsand into one of the flasks, and set the wooden wheels half way in. Then we sprinkled\ndry sand on so that the molder's sand in the other flask wouldn't stick.\nThen we put the\nother flask on it and the pegs held it in place.\nWe then took the two flasks apart and took\nthe wooden model out.\nWe made air holes in the flask on top with a hatpin and a larger\nhole to pour the melted lead in. We put the flasks together again and poured the lead in\nthe hole.\nWhen cool we took the flask apart and this is the way the lead wheels looked.\nThe reason there are these holes in them is because there were not enough air holes in the\nflasks and the melted lead couldn't push the air out.\n\nDorothy\n\nWing\n\nWhen we made the wheels we used the same scale that we did in making the cars,\n\nThe reason we did this is because the little cars are not\nonly we made the flange bigger.\nheav>' enough to stay on the track.\nI made a model of the wheels on the lathe.\nFrank Packard\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n701\n\nEverybody in the third grade last year made a drawing for the truck for our cars, and\nwe at last decided upon one. The truck is made of some metal. It fits on the bottom\nof the car and holds the wheels onto the car. We are going to screw our truck to the car\nso it can turn a little when going around curves. We did not plan to keep the side of the\ntruck from hitting the wheels, and if it did the car could not move very easily, so we think\nwe will put a washer between the truck and the wheels. The wheels are | inch below\nthe bottom of the car. We made them that way so the wheels will not hit the bottom of the\ncar. We shall make the hole that we shall put the axle in larger than the axle, so it will\nhave plenty of room to turn around.\nLucy Smith\nIf we were to use these cars we would send the stock car west to the cattle ranches to\nfilled with cattle and bring it back to the Stock Yards to unload. The refrigerator cars\nire would send to the Stock Yards, fill with fresh meat, and ship to the East where the\n)ple need it most. The coal car we could send right down in Illinois and fill with coal to\nlelp carry on the great manufacturing in the city. The furniture car we could fill with\nrniture here and ship West, where the people need it most. The box car we could take\nMinnesota to fill with grain, or it might be used for any common freight. The caboose\nused for the people who work on the train and the men who look after the stock.\nWe went down to measure the kindergarten circle, and found it was sixteen feet in\nimeter.\nWe found there was room just outside the circle for the track.\nIt is to be made\nin sections so it can be stored away when not in use.\nAs we have done all we can on the cars, we have asked the big boys to help finish\nthem, so the kindergarten children can use them very soon.\nOwen White\n\nThere were many problems in arithmetic not suggested in the children's reports,\nsuch as finding the capacity in real cars, and finding the number of board feet and the cost\nof the lumber used in making cars.\n\nB.\n\nSTUDIES\n\nOF INDUSTRIES\nI.\n\nTHE\n\nCERAMIC\n\nIN THE\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nGRADES\n\nINDUSTRIES^\n\nIt is the purposfe of pottery teaching not to develop a craft nor, primarily, skill, but\nto present for the first time in school life a complete view and knowledge of some one\nindustry (ceramics), and to call attention to artistic excellence as something to be desired;\nin other words, to develop a high order of industrial sense, and this involves design.\nlObjects to be modeled should in every case have a real use, and that use should be in mind\n*to the last. They should be familiar objects and usually admit of a bit of decoration or\ndecorative treatment.\nThe following list will be suggestive;\nTiles (square, round, oblong, triangular) for flower-pots and teapots. Square tiles\nof various weights for paper weights.\nIncised, inlaid, and modeled decoration.\nShallow saucers and trays.\nBowls. These if well modeled are an addition to the tea or dining table. Incised or\nmodeled decoration.\nAsh-trays, match-holders.\nInk-wells, which may have space provided for pens.\nFlower-pots. These furnish one of the best problems in fine proportions and reserved\ndecorative treatment.\nIncised or modeled decoration.\nReceptacles for flowers. The vase should be designed for characteristic kinds of\nflowers — those with long or short stems.\n\nIncised or modeled decoration, suitable color.\n\n' From \"A Course of Study in Manual Training,\" by C. L. Boone, Manual Training Magazine, December,\n1908, February, 1909.\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "702\n\nbox.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nFern-boxes. These are usually square but may be oblong like a miniature windowEach of the four sides offers a most tempting space for decoration.\nJars with covers, for crackers, candies, tea, tobacco, etc. These are fine technical\n\nproblems representing the greatest development of fourth- or fifth-grade work. The design\nproblem here is simple and definite.\nThe above exercises aggregate more than any class can do in one year but they repre\nsent work which has been tested in the fourth and fifth grades\nProcesses\nThe teaching is begun in the following way: pupils are instructed in the handling of\nclay and in the manner of making good tiles that will not crack or warp. Tiles are built\nmost easily on common school slates. The size of the tile having been determined, a thin\nlayer of clay is built with small pieces well worked together, making a foundation somewhat\nlarger than the required size. On this foundation other small bits of clay (as large as a\nmarble or walnut) are thoroly worked until the tile is f inch thick, homogeneous and\nperfectly smooth and level. The edges can then be cut straight and the corners square\nwith a thin-bladed wooden or wire-end modeling tool. One tool with a wire loop at one\nend is sufficient for every pottery purpose in the intermediate grades. This tile is the\nfoundation for all other pottery problems. It is the first thing made, serving as the bottom\nfor jars, flower-pots, and boxes.\nBowls, trays, and other vessels are usually built by the method still used by the\nIndians. It is the practice which has been followed by most primitive people and can be\nmade to produce very perfect ware. A lump of clay is rolled into a thick rope, \\ inch in\ndiameter. This is coiled to form the bottom, and the coils well worked together on one\nside, the whole turned over and the opposite side treated in a similar manner. Additional\nrolls are laid around the edge of the foundation, on the tile, making the wall of the pot.\nWhen the wall has been built up three or four layers these should be worked together both\ninside and out to make the wall solid and firm. Each layer must be securely fastened to\nthe one below, otherwise the vessel will crack in firing.\nThis practice of using rolls of clay produces pottery rather quickly and enables the\npupil to soon learn to control the shape of the piece. To make the pot grow larger in\ndiameter as it grows up, each successive layer is laid a bit toward the outer edge of the rim;\nto contract the top, the successive rings of clay are attached to the inner edge of the roll\nbeneath. To be successful the rolls should be made with the fewest possible manipulations,\nas clay tends to dry and crumble with much handling\nThis primitive process is quite as satisfactory for rectangular things, only care must\nbe used to keep corners square and the sides straight.\nPottery, even built ware, should be as thin as possible. As pupils gain skill their\nbuilding ought to be more true and they should make lighter pieces. All pieces made in\nthis way must be scraped down smooth on the outside, and this process can be carried on\nuntil the walls of the pot are quite thin. The scraping (with the tool mentioned) should be\ndone if possible after the work has stood a day or two and become somewhat stiffened, so\nthat handling will not put it out of plumb\nDecoration\nOrnament should keep its proper place as a part of the whole design. The application\nof ornament should be consistent with the material of the object decorated. Clay pieces\nmay be embellished by motifs scratched in the soft material, or modeled in relief, or even\npainted on, if the painting be done in color that will stand fire. The most direct ornament is that incised in the clay itself and this kind is the backbone of design for pottery\ndecoration.\n(These articles include detailed directions for applying decoration, firing, glazing, etc.,\nwith lists of material required and their cost.)\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n2.\n\nA STUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nOF THE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nMACHINE\n\nSHOP\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOL\nGRADE\n\n703\n\nVI'\n\n(Horace Mann School, New York)\nFrom the handicraft work of the preceding year the sixth grade advances to a study\nof the factory, or mill, as illustrating the modern method of production.\nIn carrying\nforward this study, the class constructs a model of some type of factory and installs models\nof machines, which are belted to lines of shafting and driven with water-wheels.\nAlong\nnce, is the study of an actual factory,\nimporta\nequal\nfully\nof\nand\nwork,\nctive\nconstru\nwith the\nI\nits system of organization and division of labor, the source of power, and the nature of its\nprocesses and products. Visits to shops and mills are an important help in this part of\nthe work.\n\nJust how the study is conducted may perhaps best be illustrated by describing the\nwork of last year. After a discussion of the importance of the factory in modern industry,\nhow its great development was made possible by the introduction of power and by the\ndivision of labor, the boys suggested various kinds of factories that they would like to build.\nThe machine shop was most popular, and it was proposed to combine with it the woodworking mill, second in choice, in order to represent a complete equipment for manufactuting in wood and metal. The erection of a suitable building for this equipment was discussed by the class. The problems were presented as to what kind of construction was\nrequired to accommodate heavy machines, and how these machines should be arranged\nwith reference to their operation and the use of power. The boys thought out the different\nproblems quite intelligently, and gave a number of good suggestions as to how the factory\nshould be built. They suggested that the most particular work needed the best light, that\nthe heaviest machines should be near the walls, that machines of the same kind should be\ngrouped together, and that they should be placed in rows in order to receive the power from\nthe lines of shafting. The ideas brought out were reduced to a definite plan which was\ndrawn on the board, and from it a lesson was given on the names and functions of the\nprincipal structural parts of the mill, and the methods of framing them.\nThe class was then organized into several construction squads for the purpose of\nerecting the factory building. Long strips of wood were provided, and each squad proceeded to make and assemble its assigned part. When the boys on the sill and plate\ngroup had completed their part, they located the places on the sill and plate for the studs,\nfloorbeams, and stringers. As each portion was finished, it was put in, the roof trusses\nwere placed, the floor laid, and the entire class of twenty to twenty-five boys was kept\nbusy up to the time the building was completed.\nThe next part of the work taken up was the machine equipment. The boys were\nasked to describe some kind of machine that they had seen in operation.\nWhile most of\n>the boys could describe a machine as to its outward appearance, few could tell how it\nworked, or what was its value as a producer. Their observations as a rule had not penetrated below the surface. Visits to shops were made with the definite aim of securing the\nimportant facts about the things seen in these shops. Previous to taking a class on a visit,\nquestions were given to the boys to be written in their pocket notebooks with spaces between\nthe questions for answers. The boys were asked to note the name of each machine and its\npurpose, to describe the cutting tool, the kind of power used, and how the work was held in\nthe machine.\nWhen the class went on a visit to a mill, and the use of the various machines was\nobserved, each boy was kept busy filling out his answers and making sketches, and as a\nresult he came away with certain definite ideas, and was too much occupied during the visit\nto get into trouble. It has been said that it is useless to take classes of young boys on\nvisits to shops, because they have little knowledge of what they see, and do not appreciate\nthe meaning of it all. We find, hov.ever, that if the boys have become interested in the\nwork of such shops, and if they know definitely what they are to look for, there is no question\n' From the Teachers College Record, Vol. VIII, No. 3, pp. 56-60.\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "704\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Manual Training\n\nthat the results realized are worth while. Papers were written describing these visits as\npart of the homework, and at the next lesson a discussion on the meaning and value of the\ndivision of labor was held. The boys described how the work was passed from man to man,\neach doing a part, and only one part. Reasons for having a man do but one small part of\nthe work — just one operation — were asked for, and the suggestion was soon forthcoming\nthat repeated practice enables a man to do one thing better and quicker. This, it was seen,\nmeant less cost in labor, power, and room, and made the workmanship more uniform.\nOn the other hand, it was suggested that to do but one thing all day and to know nothing\nelse, was a disadvantage to a man as it hindered his advancement and gave him little to\nthink about.\nModels of machines were made for the mill, each boy making one machine.\n\nThe\n\nwoodworking mill was equipped with models of wood-planers, circular saws, and lathes,\nand the machine shop with drill presses, lathes, and planers. As each boy completed his\nmachine, he installed it in the place planned for it, and then helped to build and put in a line\nof shafting and pulleys, and to run and adjust his belt. Class discussions were held on\nthe subjects of shafts, bearings, hangers, and belts, as these elements were met with in the\nprogress of the work.\nThe subject of power was then studied. The boys named the varioiis sources o\npower with which they were familiar, as the steam-engine, electric motor, gasoline engine,\nhot-air engine, water-wheel, and windmill. The value and general uses of each were\ndiscussed, and the boys decided that the water-wheel was the one type that they could make.\nDifferent kinds of water-wheels were considered, making use of the observations of the boys\nin the country and in traveling. Catalogs and pictures were also shown. The impulse\nor jet wheel was chosen as the one best suited to be run by the city water supply. A model\nwas shown the class with a demonstration of its operation and the question of the best\nform of buckets was brought forward. Various shapes of copper buckets were made and\ntested to find out which was the most efficient. The double-cupped pattern was proven\nto be the best, and a set of dies was provided at the suggestion of the boys, so that the\nbuckets could be stamped out in copper in modern fashion. Each boy built his own wheel,\nand made the buckets for it. When the wheels were finished they were tested, and four\nof the best were picked out and coupled to the driving-shafts of the mill. These four were\nsufficiently powerful to drive the entire plant.\nThe project as a whole combined co-operative group work with individual work.\nEach boy, when the project was finished, had a machine and a water-wheel to drive it.\nAt the same time he had co-operated with the other boys in his class in building and\nequipping the model mill, he had met the problems this work presented, had played a part\nin solving them, and was rewarded by seeing his work form an essential element in the\nwhole result. Owing to the group organization of the work, the boys showed little of the\ntendency to lean on the teacher that is often the case in individual work. With responsibility placed upon them they found it necessary to act on their own initiative and to do their\nown thinking.\nThe subject of the power-driven factory, complicated and difficult as it appears at first\nsight, is in reality admirably suited to the boy of the sixth grade. His awakened interest\nin things mechanical, things that \"go,\" is here given play and utilized to accumulate ideas.\nIndividual ingenuity and initiative are aroused to the utmost by the constructive problems\nthat the work presents, and the fundamental ideas of the factory organization are grasped\nwith surprising readiness thru this intimate constructive experience. The boys obtain a\nbroader experience in handwork in making this project than they would in making a course\nof useful models in some one material. There are a greater number of simple tool processes, and a larger variety of materials to work with. The subject is intensely interesting\nto the boys, and the ideas and principles are of value in the writer's judgment, far beyond\nthe possibilities of any course of so-called useful models.\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n3.\n\nTHE\nA STUDY\n\nELEMENTARY\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\n705\n\nPRINTING!\n\nPrinting is essentially a democratic art. It does not lend itself readily to the selfish\nuses of the few. Knowledge formerly in the hands of the few became the property of the\nmany with the advent of printing. Its development has been parallel with the development of humanity, whose servant it has ever been.\nThis quality is one which recommends it especially for use in the schools. The\naverage school is organized on an individualistic basis\". Pupils are there for selfish motives\n— to gain knowledge. Social service in the ordinary schoolroom is so seldom met with\nbecause no opportunity is afforded to practice it. At times the spirit of social service\nreeps into some of our school subjects in a spasmodic way and then shamefacedly retires,\nid the old selfish, individual spirit reappears.\nWe find this the case in our woodworking shop, when the occasional group-project is\nworked out for the school, and then the relapse to the individual model. On this side,\nlen, of providing opportunity for social service, the value of printing as a form of manual\n:tivity is noteworthy. A boy may go to the workbench to do a piece of work. This is\n5ually for selfish motives. Seldom more than one piece is made. On the other hand, it\nhard to conceive of type set up for one impression; it is seldom done. Printing preipposes many copies to benefit many individuals.\nTake an inventory of the things a boy could print and enjoy selfishly, all his own, and\nley would be few indeed. I confess I have tried and find the list very small. His personal\nird, letter head, book-plate, and a few others would probably cover the list. Now take\na list of the things he could enjoy with others and see the vast possibilities: motto cards,\ncalendars, invitations to school parties, tickets to school entertainments, school paper.\nAgain make a list of the things which are a daily necessity in the life of this community,\ni.e., the school, and where does the list end ? Report cards, blanks, spelling-lists, arithmetic lessons, labels for shop, labels for library shelves, circular letters, etc., etc. Do you\n-^ not think the boy is more a part of his community, more in sympathy with it thru\nhaving served it ? He is an important, valuable part of it. This feeling of responsibility,\nof value thru service, is an important lesson in citizenship.\nSUGGESTIVE\n\nOUTLINE\n\nFOR COURSE\n\nIN PRINTING\n\nI. Talks on History of Printing.\n1. Early methods of transmitting knowledge.\n2. Discovery of movable type; Gutenberg; effect,\nc) Improvement in type-making; lead.\nb) Improvement in press; Franklin.\nc) Modern methods; cylinder press; linotype.\nII. Practical shopwork.\n1. Names of material used in printing-ofl5ce.\nPractice in holding stick and in setting type properly.\nSetting type from \"pied\" matter for practice in holding stick.\n2. The type-case; lay of the cases, cap and lower.\nType-faces; prominent names.\nPoint system; lining system described.\nDistribution of type set in previous lesson,\nIII. Excursion to a typical job office to see all the processes of printing in operation,\nespecially noting workmen and their methods.\nIV. Practical shopwork.\nI. Simple composition; spelling-lists.\nMargins: top, bottom, and sides.\n' From \"A School Print Shop,\" by L. W. Wahlstrom, Manual Training Magazine, December, 1908,\n\npp. 134-48.\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Manual Traini\n\nJustification of lines.\nRemoval of type from stick; tying up type.\nRemoval from galley to stone.\nCorrecting.\n2. Plain reading-matter.\nRules for spacing; indenting paragraphs.\nSpace between words and at end of sentence.\n\n,\n\nSize and style of type in relation to nature and use of job.\n'\nConsideration of paper: size, quality.\nMargins: bottom, sides, and top.\nSize of type-mass in relation to shape of page.\nEnglish composition, reprints of lessons, school papers, etc., will furnish abundant\nmaterial of this nature. A long job may be divided into paragraphs, each boy setting one or\nmore paragraphs.\nThis makes possible rapid work.\n3. Tabular work with rules and leaders.\nMathematics necessary to figure out job.\nProgram blanks, report blanks, statements, charts, diagrams, etc.\n4. Broken reading-matter.\nWork calling for considerable judgment in regard to spacing, margins, and\ngeneral planning;\nprograms, invitations, posters, and similar work.\nThis should be attempted only after considerable practice in other forms above\nmentioned.\nV. Talks on methods of illustrating.\na) Woodcuts.\nh) Stereotype and chalk plate.\nc) Zinc-etching,\nd) Photo-engraving.\n\nVI.\nVII.\n\ne) Half-tones.\n/) Electrotyping.\ng) Stereotyping from linotype composition.\nExcursion to an engraving plant where processes may be observed,\nPractical work.\n1. Woodcut: each pupil to design and make a woodcut; tail piece; initial letter\n(possibly in two colors).\n2. Zinc-etching: same as for woodcut; book-plate for library; illustration for\nschool paper; program cover. Combination of these designs with type composition.\n3. Presswork: making ready of tympan; overlay and underlay; proper impression\nand inking; method of feeding.\n\nVIII.\nIX.\n\nExcursion to lithograph printing-plant.\nExcursion to newspaper plant.\n4.\n\nA STUDY\n\nOF THE\n\nFOUNDRY^\n\nTo introduce the subject, a demonstration of molding and casting in soft metal was\ngiven with a borrowed flask and tools and some sand. The purpose of each tool was\nemphasized and, as each step progressed, the boys took notes and made sketches. Then\neach boy made a flask, rammer, slicker, and vent wire. As soon as the flasks and tools\nwere finished, the classes were taken into the school foundry and given simple patterns to\nmold and cast in soft metal.\nTo furnish power for the operating of a model of a foundry, water-wheels were made\nand the best of these selected to run the blower.\n' From \"Industrial Studies in Manual Training,\" by E. E. MacNary, Proceedings, Eastern Manual\nTraining Association, ipog.\n\n<i\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "BpartmentI\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n707\n\nAs the boys finished their water-wheels they were organized into groups for constructag the different parts of the foundry, including the building, cupola, elevator for fuel and\nletal, blower, and the crane.\nDrawings were prepared for each part, with simple specificalons, and put into the hands of the foreman of each group.\nThese foremen were made\nsponsible for the work of their own groups, and the teacher as superintendent dealt only\nith the foremen.\nThese foremen were changed occasionally to give others some of the\nResponsibility.\nVisits were arranged, and articles and illustrations were collected from\nlagazines and trade journals.\nEach boy wrote a composition upon the process of molding\nmd casting, explaining the parting, draft, venting, etc,\nWTiile the processes of construction were going on, each boy was treated as an employee\na construction company.\nIt was surprising to see how sincerely the boys conformed to\nle industrial organization idea, and to note the individual growth as they measured up\ntheir responsibilities when they were assigned to important positions.\n\nC.\n\nSPECIAL\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCLASSES\n\nI. SPECIAL CLASSES — (In the Boston Public Schools)\nIt was for the purpose of making such experiments as are suggested at the end of the\n)receding report that the Boston School Committee on May 6, 1907, passed the following\nirder, namely:\n\"That the Superintendent be authorized to designate one or more boys'\nlementary schools in which the course of study may be experimentally modified for the\nirpose of determining in what way these schools may become more effective in training\npupils for industrial pursuits, while at the same time maintaining their efficiency for\npreparation for high schools,\"\nIn accordance therewith, the Superintendent selected the Agassiz School, Jamaica\nPlain,\nAbout a week before the close of school, copies of the following circular were distributed among the boys who were to be in Grade VI during the coming year,\nAgassiz School, Jamaica Plain, Mass., June, 1907.\n\nAn opportunity will be offered, next September, to fifty boys of Grade VI in the\nAgassiz district, to enter a class in which the course of study is planned especially for boys\nwho have an aptitude for industrial pursuits.\nThis course will offer more manual training, shop arithmetic and working drawing,\nind at the same time maintain the efficiency of preparation for high schools.\nIf you wish your boy to join this class, please sign the following blank form, and\niturn it to the master of the school.\nAs the number who can be accommodated in this course is limited, the earliest applica)ns will be considered first.\nThe class was divided into two sections of twenty-five boys each, and each section\nrorked one hour of each school day.\nIn determining the nature of the work to be done, and in selecting the articles to be\nlade, one fundamental principle served as guide. Everything was made to conform as\nclosely as possible to actual industrial work in real life. The product was not only useful\nbut needed, and was put to actual use. It was something which could be produced in\nquantities. The method was practical, and both product and method were subjected to\nthe same commercial tests, as far as possible, as applied in actual industry.\nFor two years these boys had done the regular manual-training work of Grades IV\nand V, cardboard construction, so it was decided to begin the industrial work with boxmaking.\nIt was found that pasteboard boxes, costing three-quarters of a cent each, were being\nused by the school department in sending out certain supplies, and the class undertook the\nmanufacture of several hundred of these boxes.\nThe method employed was as follows: First a sample box was studied and careful note\nwas taken of its use, of the material of which it was made, and of the details of its construe-\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ntion. Especial attention was called to the dimensions and to the need of obtaining accurate\nresults in order that all boxes might serve the purposes for which they were intended and\nalso be alike.\n,\nEach boy then made one entire box, drawing, cutting, scoring, gluing, staying corners]\nand pasting.\nNext, by a brief talk, and with necessary demonstration an explanation was given of\nthe greater economy of employing \"industrial methods.\"\nJigs were made for facilitating some of the operations and for securing greater uniformity inthe product. The class was organized into different groups of from two to sis\nboys each, each group performing one of the several operations involved in the making of the\nbox or the cover. There were the box-cutters, cover-cutters, stayers, pasters, fitters, and\ngluers. There were those who assembled, inspected, packed, and counted the boxes, and\nthere were the assistant teachers — foremen in embryo.\nOf course this was not all done in one lesson. By the time 750 of these boxes were\nmade and packed ready for the supply team, the boys had gained at least a glimmer of\nlight on five points of superiority of this, the industrial method, over the method first\nemployed: First, that there was greater economy in the use of material. Second, that\nmuch time was saved, since it was not necessary to lay aside one tool and hunt for another\nat the completion of a single operation. Third, that the skill increased very rapidly by\nperforming the same operation many times. Fourth, that a standard of accomplishment\nin a given time was established, below which no self-respecting boy wished to fall. Fifth,\nthat a \"good\" box could not be produced if any of the group of boys did \"bad\" work.\nThe second project was a box smaller and more finely constructed than the first.\nSixteen hundred of these were made.\nIn speaking of the methods used in making the later projects it is only necessary to\nnote two points in which they differed from those first employed: First, in the earlier\nproject the groups were chosen with reference to the ability of individual boys and the\ndifi&culty of the several operations. In the later, the groups were formed by taking the\nboys in order, just as they came, and a \"foreman\" was appointed for each group.\nSecond, a system of \"check\" was introduced which made it possible to trace poor\nwork to its author — thus fixing responsibility. After the completion of the second project\nsome calculations were made to ascertain the increase of eflSciency, and it was found to be\nabout 400 per cent.\nSubsequent projects were vellum-covered pencil boxes, for use in high-school drawingclasses, and \"Harvard\" covers of vellum with leather backs and corners. Of the former\nabout 475, and of the latter about 800 were made.\nDuring the second year there were made, in addition to the above, and in considerable\nquantities, modeling boards, window-boxes, specimen boxes for the Normal School, spoolholders for the Practical Arts High School, looms, with heddles and shuttles, for the elementary schools, and cabinets for pencils, crayons, etc., for the Evening Industrial School.\nThe experiment is now in its third year, and 150 boys, three grades, are at work. The\nresults have been so promising that the School Committee has inaugurated several similar\nexperiments this year (October, 1909).\nThe nature of these experiments is as follows:\na) Classes in Grade VI, giving five hours a week to manual training and drawing,\nwithout losing rank in the regular graded system. These classes will be called general\nindustrial or work classes, and the product which they turn out will be such as can be\nutilized by the school supply department. It is expected that the work done will arouse\ntheir interest in things industrial, and that they will more naturally enter into more advanced\nindustrial classes.\n6) Classes made up of boys and girls fourteen years of age or over, selected from lower\ngrades, and given drawing and constructive work for periods varying from ten to twenty\nhours a week, and also arithmetic, language, and other academic work. It is expected\nthat some of these pupils on completing the first year will leave school, as they would other-\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n709\n\nwise have done, but that a considerable number will remain for one or even two or three\nadditional years in higher industrial classes. The subjects included are, woodworking,\ncabinet-making, metal-work (heavy), sheet-metal work, bookbinding, and printing.\nc) Classes open to graduates of the elementary school, similar in nature to those\ndescribed in b.\nd) Special classes in high schools where pupils will have the benefit of the regular\nhigh -school work and an opportunity to study intensively one industrial subject such as\njewelry and silversmithing or electrical manufacturing, in the afternoons.\nIn most of the above classes it is expected that the product will be such as can be\nmanufactured in some quantity, and such as will be of actual use to the city. It is felt\nthat there is great value in this productive labor on the part of the children. An experiment of two years has proved that it is as vitally interesting to the pupils as any form of\nmanual training which we have ever employed.\n2. SPECIAL CLASSES — (In the Bnai Brith Manual Training School, Philadelphia)\nThe general plan was for three distinct but related lines of work.\n\nThe first of these\n\nwas necessarily the supplying of manual training to the public-school pupils, since this\nwas not provided by the Board of Education, except for girls. Arrangements were accordingly made with the nearest public school which permitted the boys of the four upper grades\nto attend once a week during school hours, exactly as they go in other cities to a regular\nmanual-training center.\nThe other two lines of work were arranged in the late afternoon and evening. The\nafternoon classes were to provide more intensive work outside of school hours for publicschool pupils, while the evening work was to aim at elementary preparation for certain\ntrades.\nIt was thought that these three departments would in time become closely integrated,\nand that they would open up the field of industry to the boys of the section in a very effective and natural fashion. The public-school classes would reach every boy and the time\nallowance, tho brief, would necessarily give him some clearer idea of his fitness for mechanical work. The late afternoon classes would attract the most mechanical and would give\nopportunity for sufficient variety of work to enable them to ascertain more definitely what\nspecial lines were best suited to them. This work, it was thought, would in many cases\nestablish the interest and habit sufficiently, so that, on leaving the public school at fourteen\nyears of age, they would take up an evening trade course. This would not only tend to\nkeep alive their interest in mechanical work during this critical two-year period, but would\ngive enough of practical preparation to assist them materially in finding apprentices'\npositions, and possibly shorten somewhat their apprenticeship term.\nThe four late afternoon classes (twice a week, 4:00-5:30) are no doubt the most\ndistinctive feature of the school's work. It was the purpose that they should be classes in\nfact, following definite courses of study, and not merely a group doing haphazard extra\nwork. No one cared to predict the proportion of the public-school classes that would\nregister, nor the proportion of those registering that would continue. But almost from the\nfirst, 30 per cent, of the pupils in the three upper grades have been upon the roll, and the\nmonthly attendance is from 90 to 97 per cent. Thus, for about a third of the boys serious\ninstruction in manual work proves to be a preferred form of play. Two classes specialize\nin the making of furniture, the other two in mechanical problems. Efficient turning-lathes\nhave been built, with babbited bearings and pulleys cast from lead alloy; also water-wheels\nwith power sufficient to run the lathe, sewing-machine, or small dynamo, the latest trade\ncatalogs being consulted by the class in the effort to secure the highest efficiency. When\ncompleted they were tested under a pony brake, each boy calculating his horse-power\naccording to the formula. A small screw-cutting lathe has recently been secured and the\nmost advanced class is now building electric motors from the rough castings — learning in\nan excellent way the elements both of machine construction and of electricity.\nThe turning-\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "7IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nup of a dozen armatures on one lathe required extensive organization and some overtime\nwork on the part of the pupils acting as lathe assistants, but the difficulties were not serious\nenough to disturb the interest of the classes in the problem.\n\n//.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF SUBCOMMITTEE ON INTERMEDIATE\nINDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS\n\nAim of chapter. — This chapter aims to discuss a limited field of vocational\neducation. On the one hand, it is confined to the industrial arts (the manufacturing and mechanic-arts pursuits as given in the U. S. Census); on the\nother to that form of vocational education which may be given in schools to\nyouths (boys and girls) of from approximately fourteen to seventeen years of\nage, the majority of whom may be expected to constitute the rank and file of\nthe industrial army.\nThe data or experience available as a basis for conclusions are extremely\nlimited. In practice vocational education of an organized sort for the industrial callings has set sixteen as the minimum age — the usual age of\napprenticeship. Again, existing types of vocational education have been\neither for particular trades, and so of a very specialized character, or so\nbroad as to constitute merely the partial foundations for a subsequent\ntec'hnical training. Hence the report must confine itself to an analysis of\nthe subject, and a study of the few existing schools which shed light on\nthe problem.^ But in view of the fact that so many communities and educators are willing to undertake experimental measures at the present time,\nit is felt that such a report as this may be helpful, especially in the fact that it\nconverges its efforts on a fairly special problem in the entire field of vocational\nor industrial education. The following questions will indicate the lines of\napproach to the topic as elaborated in the following pages:\nI. What is the meaning of intermediate industrial education ? (Problems of definition\nand terminology.)\nII. What are the elements in the social demand for this form of education ?\nIII. What are the industrial fields in which this form of education is possible ?\nIV. What are the available groups of children for whom this education is desirable ?\nV. What are the practicable aims of intermediate education in industrial arts ?\nVI. What are the possible types and courses of work to be offered ?\nVII. How will the proposed form of education relate itself to:\na) Traditional forms of liberal (social and cultural) education ?\nb) The manual training of the elementary school ?\nc) The higher technical or industrial-arts education ?\nd) Trades and trade education ?\nVIII. What are the possible schemes of organization and administration, as regards\nsupport, control, etc. ?\nIX. What may be expected to be the cost and return of such work ?\nX. What are the possibilities as to co-operation of school and shop ?\nXI. What are the most significant features in experiments already begun ?\n' The report assumes familiarity with such recent material as the reports of the Massachusetts and New\nJersey commissions; the Industrial Education number of the Annals of the American Academy, Bulletins\nof the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nINDUSTRIES\nI.\n\nTHE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nMEANING\n\nINTERMEDIATE\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n711\n\nEDUCATION\n\nA. Principal divisions of education. — Vocational education, as the term\nis employed in this report, is one of the four great divisions into which all\neducation which is not distinctly elementary (and therefore largely undifferentiated), may be divided. These four divisions are: (i) Physical education; (2)\nvocational education; (3) social or civic education; and (4) cultural education.\nThe above classification needs explanation. It is not generally employed,\nbut the committee finds no agreement as to educational terminology, and\nmuch confusion results if terms are not defined. Therefore the committee\nadopts what appears to it the best classification at hand, clearly recognizing,\nhowever, that the above is neither complete nor are its divisions exclusive.\na) By physical education is meant all that educational effort carried on\nin a deliberate fashion (in school, home, shop, etc.) which is designed to\nimprove and prolong bodily welfare. Physical training, instruction in hygiene,\nmaintenance of hygienic surroundings, etc., are parts of this division as we\nfind it in the schools. Physical education makes contributions to vocational\nefficiency, but is not designed deliberately for it.\nb) By vocational education is meant all that training and instruction\nwhich purposely ministers to self-support and productive capacity. Historically, itmust be recognized that vocational education has been given by what\nmay generically be called the \"shop,\" including in this term the office and\nthe store, under conditions of apprenticeship. The home has for many,\nespecially girls, been the \"shop\" in this respect.\nc) By social education is meant that training, instruction, and stimulation\nof ideals which are aimed to improve one's ability to live the \"group\" or\n\"membership\" life. It embraces what we usually mean by such phrases as\n\"moral training,\" \"ethical instruction,\" \"civic training,\" \"religious education,\" etc.\nd) By cultural education is meant that which aims primarily at the cultivation ofthe interests and appreciations which are intellectual and aesthetic in\ncharacter, but which have more relation to avocation than to vocation.\nLiterature, art (when considered apart from productive necessities), science,\nhistory, general knowledge, etc. — these are elements of culture which may be\naimed at apart from vocation, and they may be made the basis of a rich life\nduring hours of non-employment in the vocational pursuit.\nIt is recognized that the pursuit of any one of the above large educational\naims reacts on the others; but it is contended that an effective education\ndemands some knowledge of aim or purpose which can best be subserved in\nthe later stages of schooling, by keeping the above aims separate in planning\nwork and adapting methods.\nIn common practice two of the divisions given above (cultural education\nand social education) are described by the one word \"liberal.\" Where\n\"liberal education\" is hereafter spoken of, it will embrace these two divisions.\nB. Definition of vocational education. — While we define vocational\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "712\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\neducation as that whose means and methods are determined mainly by\nthe requirements of particular callings or groups of related callings, it\nis evident that the directness with which any given educational procedure\nbears on vocation may vary indefinitely. The study of science, mathematics,\nor art may or may not be vocational according to its purposes, emphasis, and\nthe types of students concerned. Some studies may be vocational, not in the\nsense of conferring any immediate vocational power, but in giving certain\nbroad foundations for development. Thus, manual procedures, such as shop\nand laboratory practice, may be vocational, tho having no specific end in view.\nNo absolute line of demarcation can be drawn here, but for convenience we\nshall recognize the following divisions of procedure in vocational education:\n1. Around any vocation, or large or small group of related vocations, may\nbe assembled a certain amount of history, geography, economics, etc., which\ncan be studied for the sake of ''industrial intelligence,\" breadth of view,\nvocational ideals, etc. Outside the field of industrial arts such studies are now\nfound, e. g., around the study of medicine, law, engineering, commerce, and\neven agriculture. There is no reason why such studies should not develop\nappropriate to various grades and classes of workers in industrial arts. If\ndesigned primarily to reinforce vocational power, growth, and satisfaction,\nthey should be called vocational studies. In this report they will be designated as the \"general vocational studies.\"\n2. Back of almost all groups of related vocations are certain phases of\nmathematics, science, drawing and art, and manual practice in which training,\ninstruction, and laboratory practice may be given primarily with a view to\ntheir ultimate application to a vocation. These will be called the technical\naspects of vocational training.\n3. The third group of studies or practices involved in vocational training\nwill be called the concrete. Under this head in industrial arts is comprised\nmanipulative practice with the materials and tools such as are found in the\nindustrial-arts processes themselves. Shop work, field work, the construction\nof usable and salable products, are all more or less involved. In this division\nthe manipulative practice becomes the chief means of learning, whereas in the\ntechnical division it is the secondary means.\nIt is not assumed that vocational efi&ciency comes only thru specialized\ntraining to that end; physical education, training in civics and morals, and\nmany of the aspects of cultural education make contributions to vocational\nsuccess; but in practice these results are secondary effects of the pursuit of\nother aims.\nUnder vocational education we have five great divisions: {a) professional;\n(6) agricultural; (c) commercial or business; [d) industrial; {e) household\narts. The United States Census divides vocations into five main classes,\nwhich correspond largely with the above. The following are the divisions,\nwith the number of workers (women workers indicated by the second number\nin each case) in each : {a) professional, 800,000 and 400,000 ; (h) agricultural,\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentI\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n713\n\n9,400,000 and 900,000; (c) trade and transportation, 4,200,000 and 500,000;\n{d) manufacturing and mechanical pursuits, 5,700,000 and 1,300,000; (e)\ndomestic and personal service, 3,400,000 and 2,000,000.\nIn each of the above divisions we may recognize stages of educational\npreparation, as elementary, intermediate, secondary, and higher. In the\nprofessional group an intermediate or secondary stage of vocational preparation\nis usually undifferentiated; all professional education belongs to the \"higher\"\nstage. Technical schools, high schools of commerce, agricultural schools,\nschools of household arts — all give us well-defined \"secondary stages,\" taking\nselected individuals who have completed the elementary course and who have\nability and economic position sufficient to justify the hope that they may\nbecome leaders in their respective fields. Elementary vocational training is\nsomething hardly recognizable as yet. The term \"intermediate vocational\neducation\" may be applied to that which does not assume either the ability\nor the length of course presupposed in \"secondary education,\" but assumes an\nage beyond that commonly found in the elementary school.\nC. Definition of intermediate industrial arts education. — This form of\nvocational education is primarily {a) for youths from fourteen to sixteen or\nseventeen years of age, in (6) the fields of the trades and manufacturing industries, and {c) does not assume in its students completion of the elementary\ncourse of study. It is primarily designed for those who will probably be\nthe rank and file of industrial workers. It is not assumed to give complete\ntrade training, or complete equipment for specialized factory processes, but\nrather to lay a practical foundation for these.\nSchools already existing indicate, however, that an intermediate school\nmight, according to circumstances, (a) prepare for an effective apprenticeship\n(like the vocational school in Rochester), or (6) for actual trades work where\nthis is relatively simple (like the Manhattan Trade School for Girls), or (c) for\nstudy in more advanced trades schools, where these take the place of apprenticeship. The possibilities of preparation for highly specialized factory\nprocesses are yet obscure.\nn. THE SOCIAL DEMAND FOR INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\nThis subject has been much discussed in recent literature, and the report\nis in substantial accord with the more complete expressions which have been\nmade by various commissions, special students, etc., in recent years. For\nconvenience, however, the commonly accepted positions are summarized here:\nA. General considerations. — i. Vocational education, given by some\nagency, is indispensable both to the success and happiness of the civilized\nindividual and to the prosperity and development of the civilized state.\n2. The agencies formerly responsible for producing vocational efficiency\nwere the home and the shop (apprenticeship in all callings — industrial, commercial, agricultural, and household). But, for a variety of demonstrable\nreasons, connected largely with modern economic development, each and all\nof these have declined in efiSciency as educational institutions.\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "714\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\n3. In the field of cultural and civic (liberal) education the state has assumed\na constandy increasing role in all countries. State support, state control, and\nstate compulsion of the individual toward attending school and reaching a\ncertain standard, tend constantly to increase. Better-trained teachers, better\nequipment, free books, specialized schools — all these indicate the increased\nsocialization of liberal education. On the other hand, barring certain professions and engineering callings, the part played by the state in vocational\neducation has actually become less. No longer do laws of apprenticeship protect the child against either himself or his economic environment. The home\nhas become relatively helpless. In other words, the social principle of laissez\nfaire has assumed ascendency in the field of vocational education with disastrous consequences so far as large numbers of individuals are concerned, and\nwith harm to the state.\nB. Special considerations. — i. Especially under modern conditions does\napprenticeship fail to provide for the intermediate stage of industrial arts for\nchildren from fourteen to seventeen. During this time multitudes of children\nenter the so-called juvenile employments which are peculiarly adapted to\nprofit by their labor, and which are fairly remunerative, but are devoid of\nopportunities for genuine industrial training. In fact they are more than\neducationally sterile — many of them directly disqualify the child for further\nvocational advance, owing to their effect on health, morals, and other forms\nof efficiency.\n2. So far has this last condition been recognized that in the more progressive states legislation defining the conditions of undesirable industries or\nfixing more satisfactory educational standards is rapidly having the effect of\nclosing many industries to youths under sixteen. This increases the need that\nthe period of at least two years after the elementary school shall be utilized for\nvocational training.\n3. The industrial world is persistent in its demand for more efficient\nworkers. In some cases the efficiency demanded is that of mere technique or\nskill; in others for qualities of intelligence or moral character. We have no\nsatisfactory evidence that both sets of qualities may not be produced by\nappropriate educational procedures centering along vocational lines. It is\nwell known that in some industries this education is now given, supported by\nphilanthropy. It is reasonable to expect that systems of vocational education can be devised which will enhance the productive capacity of a very considerable number of individuals, that will relieve the population in time of the\nlarge proportion of untrained laborers who now so largely fill the ranks of\ncasual labor, and easily become the unemployed.\n4. The evening continuation school which was formerly thought to be a\npossible solution of the problem of industrial education has largely failed to\nrealize expectations, and under present industrial conditions, probably ought\nnot to be expected to, so far as the group of young people here under discussion is concerned.\nYouths of from fourteen to sixteen are still too young to\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN THE\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n715\n\ncarry on night study after a full day's labor, especially if the principle of the\nshorter working day has not been accepted. Sleep and rest must not be withheld, and it has been proven that evening instruction for such youths is largely\nfutile owing to the tired condition of the body.\n5. It is not assumed that in the years from fourteen to sixteen it is practicable to give a complete vocational education; in most cases the completion\nof the education must be found in the actual pursuit of the calling. What is\naccepted is that under school conditions, where the needs of related groups of\nvocations are kept clearly in mind, it is practicable to give a very considerable\npart of the training which makes for vocational efficiency, and especially those\nparts which the industry itself proves least able to give. What shall be given,\nand what proportions relatively of the general, the technical, and the concrete,\nmust be determined by the economic conditions and capacities of the children\nconcerned, the characteristics of the industry, etc. In some cases, the conditions may permit the fairly complete realization of vocational efl&ciency in\na comparatively short time; the Manhattan Trade School for Girls in New\nYork provides such an example. In other cases it may prove most feasible\nto utilize this period largely for general and technical training, with the reservation that this shall be adapted to the major groups of children concefned\nrather than to a few select individuals who may reach the higher levels of\neducation or vocation. In still other cases it may prove necessary to have one\nkind of concrete work in the school, and another kind in the actual industry.\nThese represent problems to be worked out in the process of adapting vocational education to localities, or rather to groups of young people in connection\nwith the industries possible for them.\nni.\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nFIELDS\n\nFOR\n\nSPECIALIZED\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\nSpecialization characterizes modern industry. A fundamental objection\nto trades training in public schools is found in the great diversity of trades,\neach of which would require a separate school. Hundreds of distinct trades\nare recognized by the United States Census, scores of which may be found in\na single population center. What was once the simple vocation of shoemaking\nhas evolved into several dozen trades, in some of which skilled, in others\nunskilled, labor is in demand. The intermediate industrial school cannot\nprimarily aim at trades teaching because (a) these are too many and diversified,\nand because (b) training for them would be narrow and intensive, and would\nprevent the realization of the larger vocational qualities which such education\naims to attain. But it appears that back of many groups of trades or factory\nprocesses are found certain elements of likeness in the materials employed,\nthe tools used, and the general character of the product.\nShoemaking, for example, involves on the part of nearly all the specialized\nworkers experience with leather, and with leather-working tools. Something\nof chemistry, of physics, of trades, of history, can be profitably utilized by all\nvarieties of shoeworkers.\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "7l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nAs another example, in the United States something like a million workers\nare in trades or factory processes based on wood and woodworking tools.\nWhile there are dozens of specialized trades, there is a fundamental body of\nexperience and knowledge which may be acquired thru concrete and even\nproductive work on a relatively simple scale.\nSimilarly we find in the steel- and iron-working vocations something like a\nmillion workers. It is evident that machine-shop practice, forge work, foundry\npractice, etc., are more or less truly vocational for these callings; and these\nsubjects are already taught under school conditions. Given more time to\nordinary boys for concrete practice, and the related theoretical work, it is\nevident that vocational training for this group of industries becomes quite\nfeasible.\nThe following represents a classification of the chief industrial groups\nrepresented in the United States toward which it would seem that the intermediate industrial school might operate to best advantage. The number of\nworkers in each is roundly stated (where two numbers appear, the second is for\nwomen workers) :\nA. Industries based on wood and woodworking tools: Carpenters, 600,000;\ncabinet makers, coopers, saw-mill workers, etc., 346,000.\nThe bench work of the upper grades of the elementary school offers suggestions as\nto concrete work. Drawing, physics, study of woods, the crafts studies, some phases of\neconomic history, principles of forestry, etc., for supplementary studies. Some forms of\nwoodworking are localized, like furniture-making (which the new school in Rochester\nrecognizes); but each large city requires a constant supply of carpenters. Trade schools\nfor carpentry already exist (Baron de Hirsch, New York; Williamson School, Philadelphia,\netc.). An important part of such a course would be the analysis and operation of such\nwoodworking machinery which involves main principles of machine action. This field\nof intermediate work offers peculiar facilities for producing usable and even salable products;\nin certain industrial centers the part-time system might be developed, especially in connection with furniture-making.\n\nB. Industries involving primarily work with iron and steel: Blacksmiths,\n226,000; iron and steel workers (in mills), 290,000; machinists, 283,000;\nplumbers and gasfitters, 97,000; others, 100,000.\nHere trade-school work and the shopwork of technical high schools offer suggestions.\nMuch of this work leads to well-defined trades. The intermediate school might confine\nitself to preparing for successful apprenticeship. Drawing, certain phases of applied\nchemistry, applied physics, analysis of machine tools, study of the contemporary aspects\nof the production and consumption of iron and steel — ^all these oflfer rich opportunities for\ndevelopment of supplemental cotirses. Perhaps this field does not ofifer abundant opportunities for productive, i. e., usable or salable work; but its possibilities have not been\nfully tried.\n\nC. Bookbinding and pasting trades. Bookbinders, 14,000 and 15,000\n(women); box-makers, 3,000 and 17,000: and, possibly, some of papermakers, of whom there are 26,000 and 9,000.\nThis is a limited and usually localized group of industries. Preparatory vocational\nwork would necessitate specialized practice, and specialized technical work.\nA good field\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentj\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN THE\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n717\n\nfor making of complete products.\nSome experience in this field has been had under\nmanual-training conditions.\nThe work is well adapted to girls.\n\nD. Printers' trades, 139,000 and 16,000.\nThese offer peculiar opportunities for preparatory vocational training. Successful\nexamples found in reform schools, and in the volunteer work of some public schools.\nTechnical studies and general vocational studies Could easily be evolved, as the field is\nrich in material.\nLargely localized.\n\nE. Industries involving leather and leather-working tools: Boot and shoe\nmakers, 169,000 and 39,000; harness and saddlery, 40,000; tanners, 42,000;\ntrunks, etc., 5,000 and 15,000.\nA great variety of trades rest on these materials, many of which are localized.\nUnskilled labor is said to play a considerable part, but one aim of industrial or vocational\neducation here discussed is to give the laborer in fields not requiring skill some appreciation\nof social significance of his work, and capacity for change from one minute division to\nanother. Obviously opportunities for concrete expression here are abundant; and usable\nand salable products might, within certain limits, be produced. Technical work would\ninvolve special aspects of chemistry, physics, experimentation with materials, and, possibly,\ndrawing. Mathematics might or might not figure. Analysis of machines, certainly a\nlarge part. Schools of this kind exist in England, but on advanced or technical scale.\nGeneral vocational work could easily be devised.\n\nF. Textile work on factory scale: Cotton mills, 125,000 and 120,000;\nhosiery mills, 12,000 and 34,000; silk mills, 22,000 and 32,000; woolen mills,\n42,000 and 30,000; other textile mills, 53,000 and 51,000.\nA great variety of trades, in which it may prove difficult to find basal courses, since\nthe statistics include under these mill-workers, dyers, spinners, etc., who work with quite\ndifferent materials. The problem here is complicated by doubt as to whether the mill\nitself is not, in many cases, the only school that can give operative skill. The Public Industrial School at Columbus, Ga., is giving work in this field, but for foremen rather than\nrank and file. It is evident that, if it should prove worth while, it is not impossible to\nprovide the concrete work here, beginning even with hand processes, as in woodwork.\nTechnical work could involve analysis of machinery, study of textiles, possibly some physics,\ndrawing, mathematics, and chemistry doubtful, except for specialized workers. General\nvocational studies — of markets, sources of supply of raw materials, economics of consumption, etc., easy to develop.\n\nG. Clothing Trades: Dressmakers, 2,000 and 344,000; millinery, 1,000\nand 86,000; seamstresses, 4,000 and 146,000; tailors and tailoresses, 160,000\nand 63,000; shirts, collars, etc., 8,000 and 30,000.\nIn this field we have much experience to draw upon, notably that of the Manhattan\nTrade School for Girls and the Boston Trade School for Girls. Opportunities for concrete work of a satisfactory type (usable, even salable) abundant. Related technical\nwork in art, drawing, analysis of tools and machines, and possibly in the properties' of\nthe peculiar materials employed fairly numerous. Some mathematics of a practical nature\ncan be developed. A rich field for general vocational studies, like economics of consumption, history of textiles and their uses, geography of markets and sources of supply, social\nconditions of workers, etc.\n\nH. Engineers and firemen: It would appear that there must be over 400,000\nworkers in this field.\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "7l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe evening schools and the new school at New Bedford seem to offer suggestions as\nto practical courses for the type of boy here under consideration. Concrete work could be\nfound in machine work and engine running, technical work in mechanics, heat, engine,\nmachine construction, drawing, etc. Many sources of general vocational work.\n\nThe following groups are important in numbers of wage-earners and\nvalue of product but represent less evident possibilities of approach for the\nintermediate industrial school.\nI. Industries involving primarily work with stone: Masons, 160,000;\nroofers and slaters, 9,000; marble and stone cutters, 54,000; plasterers,\n35,000.\n\nIn the formation of intermediate school work in this group of industries, we have little\nexperience to fall back upon. Apprenticeship still survives here in considerable measure.\nSome of the concrete work would be similar to that found in iron and steel; theoretically\nit would appear easy to provide other forms of concrete work with building-stones, marble,\netc. The technical studies would involve modified forms of drawing, art, mechanics, and\nmathematics; and general vocational studies based on specialized phases of geography,\ngeology, history, economics, would be easily supplied if the school of this type were called\ninto existence. Many of these industries being localized, the establishment of such schools\nwould be a simple proposition.\n\nJ. The clay and glass industries, where furnace heat is also a factor; Brick\nand tile makers, 50,000; glass- workers, 50,000; potters, 16,000.\nThese industries are usually much localized. Some of them now employ child labor\nextensively, suggesting the possibilities of some \"half-time\" connections. They require,\nin so far as they utilize skilled labor, specialized forms of art instruction, and, as further\ntechnical studies, could develop a specialized chemistry and physics. Schools in these\ncallings are yet rare, except on remote artistic levels.\n\nK. Industries concerned with paint, paper, plaster, etc. : Painters, glaziers,\nvarnishers, 277,000; paperhangers, 21,000.\nA variety of trades having apparently a large common basis. Concrete work should\nbe easy to provide, as suggested by trades schools now in existence. Drawing, mathematics,\nscience, etc., of a specialized kind. Largely localized so that each large city could afford\nto maintain such a school, if it appears that apprenticeship is ineffective.\n\nL. Food making or preparing industries, but not household arts: Butchers,\n113,000; bakers, 74,000 and 4,000; confectioners, 21,000 and 9,000; miscellaneous food-preparers on factory scale, 65,000 and 5,000.\nA fiield in which little is done in America in preparatory industrial training, but numerous examples in Germany. It would appear that opportunities for concrete work should\nbe abundant and field of technical work in biology, chemistry, physics, quite unlimited.\nPossibly one of the few industrial fields not requiring art or drawing as a vocational study.\nAbundant general studies from the economics of consumption. Much of the theoretic\nmaterial could be derived from best schools in household arts. Since confectionery making,\nfor example, is now a juvenile industry, half-time co-operation might be feasible.\n\nM. Workers with tobacco: 87,000 and 43; this is largely an unexplored,\nbut socially important, field of production.\nN. Miners and quarrymen: 500,000.\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n719\n\nThis is an immense and important field of industry. It may offer good opportunities\nfor preliminary training but it has so far received little consideration. Possibly half-time\nwork might suffice to give part of the concrete work. A certain amount of concrete work\nwith wood and steel would be of some service. Opportunities for technical work in science\nand mathematics abundant, and also probably in analysis of machines, studies of gas,\nexplosives, etc.\n\nOther divisions might be made. For example, metal-working on a small\nscale, or with materials other than iron and steel, furnishes certain fairly\nlocalized trades, for which special preparation might be necessary. Schools\nfor jewelers and watchmakers may furnish some hints, as also evening classes\nfor tin and sheet metal work. This work is being taken increasingly by girls.\nLet it be repeated that the above classification is merely tentative, with a view\nto finding a few simple groups of callings, for each of which suitable basal\npreparation could be given.\nIV.\n\nGROUPS\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\nAVAILABLE\nFOR INTERMEDIATE\nSCHOOLS\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSchools or courses cannot be established to meet individual wants. Economy requires that there should be available for any type of vocational school\nlarge groups whose interests, capacities, and probable economic destination\njustify the maintenance of such schools. The following commonly accepted\nfacts are important:\n1. Large numbers of children, commonly more than half of those entering\npublic schools, do not complete the eighth grade, and these usually leave school\nas soon as the compulsory period of school attendance has elapsed.\n2. Of pupils finishing the elementary a majority either do not enter the\nhigh school, or their period of attendance thereat is brief.\n3. In urban communities large numbers of the above children enter the\nnon-educative juvenile employments.\n4. In the majority of cities of the United States, excepting those that are\npurely commercial centers, there is a considerable localization of industry.\nExamination of the census of manufactures will reveal that this is the tendency\nto an extent not commonly realized.\n5. In all large cities there are found enough workers in certain trades to\njustify preparatory schools looking toward these industries: woodworking,\nworking with iron and steel, printing, painting, varnishing, etc., food stuffs\n(baking, butchery), and possibly stone and tile work. For each of these groups\nenough workers in prospect should be available to justify the maintenance of\nIsuch schools.\nNo satisfactory studies exist showing the distribution of the grades or\nkinds of ability suitable for the various major types of vocational training\nproposed above. Probably such studies may not be expected until society has\nbegun establishing schools, and finds a considerable group of children not\nadapted to one, but probably suitable for another.\nExperience shows that it is not difficult to fill up a vocational school, once\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "720\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nits purpose and industrial value are recognized. Ultimately we may reasonably\nexpect attendance to be made compulsory on some form of vocational school,\nthe pupil being left to elect the type of vocation toward which he will aim.\nV.\n\nTHE\n\nPRACTICABLE\n\nAIMS\n\nOF\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIn view of the average age attainments, and economic necessities of the\nchildren here under consideration, it is evident that intermediate industrial\neducation must carefully define its aims. We note in the first place that it is\nnot practicable for it to aim {a) to train educational leaders, or {b) to lay the\nfoundations for any and all forms of vocational power by a single course of\ntraining; and it is not desirable that it should aim (c) to make vocational training incidental or subordinate to further liberal training, or {d) to confine itself\nto a narrow and highly specialized trade training.\na) The training of educational leaders in the field of industrial arts has\nalready received much attention. Schools of engineering and mechanic arts,\nsome of which receive national aid, already exist; the cities now support a\nvariety of forms of technical training. While youths of promise will always\npass from schools like that under contemplation to the higher schools, it would\ndefeat the true purpose of the former if it allowed its program to be materially\nmodified in the interests of those who are probably able to take the more\nprolonged and higher forms of training.\nh) It is a favorite dream of educational theorists that some form of allaround training will give equipment for all vocations alike. This is a survival\nof the theory of formal discipline and of the belief that the logical order within\nstudies is also the pedagogical order. From this point of view, drawing in its\nmechanical aspects, and mathematics, are fundamental vocational studies.\nBut an analysis of industries will show that in many drawing is hardly used at\nall; and that in all, the drawing, mathematics, and science that are used are\nvaried greatly according to the industry. Hence it is essential that each group\nof related industries should develop its own preliminary course of training, as\nillustrated in the discussion of the groups of industries previously given.\nc) There survive in educational administration certain forces which constantly tend to deflect education, which has been intended to be vocational,\ntoward general or liberal ends. Those who support this tendency take far\nmore account of the few pupils who succeed in any type of school than of the\nmuch larger number who usually drop by the wayside.\nd) It is possible to give a type of vocational training to youths which shall\nbe so narrow and specifically technical as to entail the same effects as too early\nindustrial work. This undue specialization is far more apt to take place\nunder private than under public-school auspices.\nAmong the aims which such a school may well follow are these: (a) the\ndevelopment of a part of the experience, intelligence, and skill requisite in a\ngiven group of related industries; (h) the adaptation of its work to the prevailing industries of the locality; (c) A certain amount of vocational selection;\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN THE\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n721\n\n(d) The development of certain moral qualities and ideals, such as business\nhonesty, fidelity to ideals of workmanship, a sense of industrial responsibility;\n{e) The production of certain large industrial qualities such as adaptability,\ncapacity to advance, interest in work, etc.\na) How much the school of intermediate grade, having comparatively\nyoung pupils for two or three years, can accomplish along vocational lines is not\nyet known. Much will depend upon the type of industry involved. The\nManhattan Trade School for Girls in New York within a year is able to\naccomplish much toward vocational fitness in certain clothing trades, and yet\ngives considerable attention to the physical, moral, and even cultural development of its pupils. For other industries, whose apprenticeship can only\nbegin at sixteen or later, the intermediate school can only give a variety of\npreliminary experience. It is believed by many students that the kind of\nexperience which a farmer's boy obtains along vocational lines is a valuable\nfoundation for subsequent development. He works with many tools, with\nmany kinds of materials, and usually with some appreciation of the outcome\nof his work in terms of the socially valuable. Courses in industrial arts can\nbe devised, which, at least, will give similar experience with the tools, materials,\nproducts, information, etc., involved in groups of related industries.\nb) Both on the side of its pedagogy and in connection with its social usefulness and command of local support, industrial education should grow out\nof community needs. For this reason, schools can be established, as a rule,\nonly where some prevailing industry makes a considerable demand for trained\nworkers. An examination of the census of manufacturing will show that to a\nlarge extent industries are localized in the United States, excepting only\nsome of the ''crafts\" such as carpentering, blacksmithing, baking, etc. This\nlocalization of industry gives a point of attack for those proposing the new type\nof school.\nc) Within limits a preliminary vocational school should serve as an agency\nof selection, primarily by indicating to youths the occupations for which they\nare manifesdy unfitted. Under modern conditions of employment, without\nsuch experience, intelligent vocational selection is almost impossible. Schools\nwhich give youths opportunities to work with a variety of tools and materials,\nunder competent direction, would enable parents to recognize the lines along\nwhich their children are most likely to succeed, and negatively those in which\nsuccess is most unlikely.\nd) The moral qualities most needed in industrial workers are easily recognized, but the psychology of their production is yet very obscure. But it\nseems reasonable to believe that the surest way to obtain such qualities is in\nconnection with the performance of actual work, and under commercial conditions as nearly as these can be approximated by the schools. The shopmen who direct the practical work would possess unusual opportunities to\nexemplify these qualities, and to develop them as ideals. The relation of\nworker to employer, the recognition of the mutual advantage of ''unscamped\"\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "722\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwork, the rights of union action, etc., should certainly all receive some\nconsideration.\ne) It is also certain that the psychology of such composite qualities as\n\"pleasure in work,\" \"industrial adaptability,\" \"power to advance,\" etc., is\nvery obscure; but it is most reasonable to expect that we shall have to learn to\nrealize them thru work of an educational nature in the field of concrete\neffort. The craftsmanship sense seems a very real thing in most youths; the\nschool may find ways to prevent its destruction and even to minister to its\nfurther development when the worker comes under the influence of factory\nproduction and minute specialization.\nVI.\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF\n\nSUBJECT-MATTER\n\nIt has already been made clear that the character of the subject-matter will\nvary according to predominant industries for which preparation is being made,\nand therefore according to locality. Under the discussion of the main groups\nor related industries, suggestions were tentatively made as to organization of\nsubject-matter. The following summaries, tho involving some repetition,\nare submitted for the sake of further clearness:\nA. Concrete work. — Recalling that by this is meant all work with materials\nin a manipulative way, including analysis of machines, the following principles\nseem valid:\n1. The concrete work should result in products which are usable and under favorable\nconditions salable. It will be noted that this principle is opposed to the one commonly\nemployed in technical and manual training, where the emphasis is on the exercise,\nor isolated-type exercise. It is true that in some successful industrial education today,\nonly exercises are dealt with; but almost without exception these schools have highly\nselected groups of workers. There appear to be strong pedagogic reasons for the acceptance of the above principle in the case of youths of from fourteen to sixteen who are finding\nthemselves in an industrial sense. Since some work in the nature of exercises will be necessary, in many lines of industrial training, pedagogical principles would seem to demand\nthat the work should deal primarily with whole products, reproducing actual conditions\nwithin practical limits, and that from work of this character should evolve the technical\nexercises and laboratory work.\n2. While in the earlier stages of industrial-arts training, attention will be given largely\nto quality of output, there will be stages in the course when, thru actual experience, the\nsignificance of quantity should become understood. That is, commercial conditions should\nbe sufficiently reproduced that an abiding appreciation of the importance of rate of work\nshall be developed. Some schools producing usable products accomplish this by keeping\nan account of each worker's contribution, and a computation of its probable or actual\nmarket value.\n\nB. Technical work. — Already emphasis has been laid on the pedagogical\ndesirability of having technical work — mathematics, drawing and art, sciences,\nlaboratory manipulation, and even English on the formal or expressive side —\ngrow out of and manifest its relations to the concrete work, in the intermediate\nstages of industrial-arts training. If this point of view is correct, it is evident\nthat we may expect the evolution of more than one kind of shop mathematics,\nshop chemistry, shop study of physics, etc. The development of this principle\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN THE\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n723\n\nwill be persistently opposed by those who believe that the pedagogical order\ntoward mastery is thru the subject studied first in its pure form. From this\npoint of view, mathematics must be studied as pure algebra, geometry, etc.,\nfirst, then its applications; a course in general chemistry must precede applied\nchemistry in dyeing, foodstuffs, etc. Experience thus far seems to demonstrate\nthat when the available time of pupils here imder consideration is taken into\naccount, as well as the importance of securing vital interest in such studies,\nthe most effective methods of approach in the technical studies is along the\nlines of their application, with comparatively short periods of time devoted to\nthe study of pure forms.\nIn view, too, of the limitations of time, it will be necessary in planning the\ntechnical work for each group of related industries to discover what technical\nstudies should enter, and to what extent each one should figure. There can\nbe little doubt that all vocational education is today, in this respect, affected\nby certain generalizations which emanate frOm the trade schools connected\nwith wood and iron work. Mechanical drawing, for example, figures largely\nin these industries, at least so far as the ability to interpret drawing is concerned; but there may be entire groups of industries in which mechanical\ndrawing has little or no place as a vocational subject. Similarly with regard to\ncertain sciences; chemistry may be of most fundamental importance in some\ngroups of industries, and quite superfluous in others.\nC. General vocational studies. — Around each group of industries may be\ngathered historical, geographical, economic, and sociological materials which,\nwhile not conferring immediate efficiency, do undoubtedly give vocational\nintelligence and vocational ideals. The evolution of any industry, or group of\nindustries, may be studied (history) ; the present distribution of such industry\nover the world, the varying conditions found, the new movement in its sources,\nits materials, its machinery, its social importance, etc. (geography); rates of\ncompensation, union conditions, relations between employees and employers,\ncompetition, effects of immigration, industrial hygiene, etc. (economic) — all\nthese may be made appropriate objects of reading and study. To this group\nmay be added, in certain lines, studies in the kind of English which has vocational significance.\nThe above program does not preclude the development in these schools of\nstudies that frankly have no vocational significance. English literature,\nmusic, art, history, science, may, if time permits, be studied as cultural subjects, as resources against time of leisure, or, as sometimes denominated,\navocational subjects. When we have once settled the program of vocational\nstudies, we may find time to introduce others which are thus frankly nonvocational. Under this head might be placed social or civic studies which\ncontribute to the making of the useful citizen. But for the present it seems\nthat civic studies, sufficient for the type of youth here under consideration, can\nbest be given in connection with vocational pursuits themselves, and hence\nin the division ''general vocational studies.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nIt should be obvious that a program of general vocational studies should\naim to reduce formal and detailed work to the minimum. For example, large\nnumbers of mechanically inclined boys delight to read accounts of invention,\ndevelopment of machinery, industrial movements in other parts of the world,\netc. Semi-popular journals like World's Work, Scientific American, and\nothers, should contribute material to this end. With the arising of a demand,\nthere can be no doubt but that we shall have an abundance of good reading\nmaterials for each principal field.\nVn.\n\nRELATION\n\nOF\n\nINTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL\nFORMS OF EDUCATION\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTO OTHER\n\nAmerican educational theory is committed to certain ideals of unified\neducation. Consequently it will be asked as to what are the relations of the\neducation described above to the various other forms already recognized.\nSome of the questions in this connection have already been partially answered.\nA. The vocational education described above may be thought of as exclusive of physical, cultural, and civic education, as these are commonly exemplified. Theoretically there is no reason why industrial or other forms of vocational education should take exclusive possession of the field at any time.\nPractically, in the present development of educational thought it seems almost\nnecessary to make this separation in order to give the vocational education\nfull opportunity to grow.\nIn schools like Hampton Institute vocational education is effectively\ncorrelated with liberal education (cultural and civic forms). Experiments\nhave been tried, and with some success, of having schools divided on the basis\nof a half-day for ordinary liberal training or academic work, and half for\nvocational training. Vacation-school work has in places taken the form of\nvocational work; which gives in the entire year's program an alternation of\nliberal and vocational training.\nB. It is commonly assumed that vocational education does not contribute\nto culture and to civic development. But this position is not fortified by\nevidence. The cultural standards assumed are apt to be those appropriate to\npeople of economic opportunities and cultivated surroundings. What is\nculture when thought of in connection with children who may not undertake\nthe opportunities of a secondary education? Many keen observers insist\nthat in the true sense vocational work, as above described, is essentially liberal\nin character, that it can be made to contribute the elements of an active culture\nas well as civic insight and knowledge.\nC. What will be the relation of intermediate industrial education to manual\ntraining? Present tendencies indicate that manual training will become\nricher and assume perhaps a more vocational form, occupying a larger place\nin the program. It is also probable that manual training, as specialized for\nboys, will be so administered as to reach boys of from twelve to fourteen,\nwithout reference to grade.\nIn this case, the bench and shop work will in\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN THE\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n725\n\nmany cases become a foundation for the industrial-arts work. It may be\nassumed, too, that with the establishment of industrial training, this will react\nback on the manual training, compelling it to assume a more definite and\npedagogical character, and possibly causing it to be somewhat differentiated\naccording to the probable future career of the pupils involved. The manual\ntraining now found for girls (household arts) is, for some industrial pursuits,\na fairly direct preparation. The fundamental difference between the two\nforms of education consists mainly in the fact .that manual training is an\ninstrument designed to form a part of the general training of all children, while\n(industrial training is more or less specialized instruction which deals with\nilected groups.\nD. Can industrial-arts education of intermediate grade be related to the\ndgher technical training ? Many educators feel that no system of education\nlould be allowed to develop blind alleys, and they wish to see the way kept\nlear for any youth to pass from one school to the next higher. While in\nlany cases this is an impractical demand from the standpoint of vocational\neducation, it is by no means impossible to pass youths from intermediate indusial-arts training into the higher forms.\nWhile they lack something of the\ntechnical training, they will have gained on the side of a knowledge of practical\nconditions.\nIn Germany, it is well known, a large number of the youths who\ntake the intermediate technical training (not that of the engineering level)\nmust have served a period of apprenticeship. Then the chosen ones from\namong apprentices are admitted to the middle technical schools.\nE. As noted before, the type of school or course under discussion does not\nassume to fit completely for any one trade. Theoretically at least it will be\noften possible to differentiate in the last part of the work so as to give some\namount of special trade training.\nVni.\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nAND\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nVocational education under private and philanthropic auspices is commonly\norganized in separate and specialized schools. When it becomes a part of\npublic education, several schemes of organization and administration become\npossible.\nA. The vocational school may be completely separated in the administration and support. This type is illustrated in certain state schools, which have\ntheir own boards, and to which authorities make assignments of funds. The\nCalifornia Polytechnic has thus a completely separate organization. At\ntimes it has been proposed that a separate state machinery of administration\nwas necessary to initiate and carry on vocational education. It is argued in\nsupport of this position that the administration of the newer type of education requires a different point of view, and different estimates of educational\nvalues from those which ordinarily prevail. Also that the degrees of affiliation\nwith business and practical conditions is such as to be most effectively accomplished byhaving separate governing boards and specially provided funds.\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntManualTraining\n\nThere are a variety of reasons why it may be expected that the state rather\nthan the locality will contribute more to this form of education than to\nordinary forms, the chief argument being found in the mobility of labor.\nB. The vocational education may be carried on by the regular educational\nauthorities, but in distinctly separate schools, under principals or directors who\npursue the distinctly vocational aim. Hitherto it has been hard to accomplish\nthis form of organization in such a way as to produce distinctly vocational\neducation. Only part of the work has been vocational in character, the aims\nof liberal education being pursued to the relative exclusion of others. But the\nintermediate schools now being organized in New York, under control of\nstate and local departments of education, provide a variety of checks by which\nthe vocational character of the school can be preserved. These are chiefly:\n{a) state inspection by a special agent of the state education department, (6) the\nprovision that the vocational work must be carried on by a separate organization, and (c) the requirement that the shop teachers shall be men with practical\ntraining and experience in the industries.\nC. It has often been proposed that vocational education should be organized\nsimply as a phase of a complete educational scheme, much as manual training\nis now part of the general program. Various suggestions along this line have\nbeen made: {a) That half of each day be given to work of the academic character found in the upper grades, and half to shopwork, household arts, etc. ;\nor (&) that the ordinary school day be kept for its present purposes, and that\nthe hours from three to five and perhaps Saturday forenoon be devoted to\npractical work; (c) the tendency where vacation schools have been established\nto use the regular school buildings and equipment during the summer months\nfor practical or vocational work.\nRegarding these plans, it has been urged that in the present temper of\nschoolmen the vocational work could hardly be expected to meet with sufficient\nsympathy and support, and that the traditional subjects, because they lend\nthemselves so effectively to ordinary methods of teaching would displace the\nvocational work. Probably this will not always be the case; when vocational\ntraining shall have established its own methods and content it may be able\nto hold its own. Furthermore, programs like the above seem better adapted\nto elementary vocational work when that shall have been established. In the\nmeantime, much may be said in favor of having the intermediate industrialarts school under its own roof, and working completely under its own program.\nThere is thus provided an industrial atmosphere, and such a school may be\nexpected to develop its own social spirit. It may require time and tact to\nprevent the growth of obnoxious class distinctions between the patrons of\ntwo different kinds of schools, but this is a problem that has already been met\nand solved in the universities of America, and in the introduction of scientific\nand commercial studies into secondary education. Let vocational education\nonce establish itself, and it may become quite possible to provide for an amalgamation ofthe various t)rpes of effort so as to secure social unity and the.\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN THE\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nmaximum of administrative economy;\nthe outset.\nIX.\n\nCOST AND\n\nSOURCE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n727\n\nbut that cannot be accomplished at\nOF\n\nSUPPORT\n\nA. The development thus far obtained in intermediate industrial-arts\neducation is insufficient to justify conclusions as to its cost of support.\n{a) The plant, while not necessarily as elaborate as that requisite for secondary\ntechnical education, will, owing to additional floor space required, be relatively expensive for each pupil.\n(6) Equipment, while not necessarily more\nlaborate or expensive than that now found in technical secondary schools,\nrill have to be found in greater amount in proportion to numbers of pupils\nigaged, owing to fewer sections that may alternate with same tools.\n\\c) Teachers will probably be confined to sections as small as those of the\n:hnical high schools, and, where the aim is to have the work eventuate in\nsable products, it may be necessary to have still smaller sections.\nOn the\n»ther hand, there seems to be no certainty but that in some forms of vocational\nraining, when textbooks, guides, etc., shall have been well developed it may\nrove possible to considerably enlarge the sections under each teacher.\nIt\nrill increase the cost in outlay for materials, especially where useful concrete\n\"work\nis attempted.\nhad from\nthis work. But under some circumstances profitable returns may be\nThe Manhattan Trade School for Girls, more directly vocational than\nmost intermediate schools, sells enough products to pay more than half the\nsalary-list of the school. In this case, the cost of materials used is especially\nlarge. The woodworking school in Rochester contemplates supplying a\nvariety of things needed by the school and other public departments of the\ncity. The textile school in Columbus, Ga., is able to turn out products that\ncan be used advantageously in dressmaking departments of the school. Few\nschools in metal have so far shown any capacity to do profitable work, the\nexceptions being reform schools which contribute to their own repairing,\nblacksmithing, etc. Another exception might be found in the negro schools\nof the South (Hampton, Tuskegee, etc.) which dealing with a large type of\nyouth, are able to do productive work in metals.\nB. The sources of support of vocational education exhibit great diversity\nin the United States. Technical high schools are commonly supported by city\ndistricts; secondary education in agriculture is commonly supported by the\ncounty area, or township area, with some state support. A number of states\nhave state-supported technical schools (Academy, Idaho; Textile Schools,\nMassachusetts; Polytechnic, California; Industrial School, Texas, etc.).\nHigher agricultural and mechanic-arts education is carried on in many states\nby a combination of state and national support, and pending measures in\nCongress look to the extension of national aid to agricultural education of\nan essentially secondary grade.\nThe Commissions that have investigated the subject of industrial educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "728\n\nNA TJONA L ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ntion are agreed as to the desirability of combining state and local support.\nExcept in New York, detailed plans do not yet appear.\nThe reasons for local support of industrial-arts education as contrasted\nwith agricultural, are found in the concentration of taxable property in manufacturing areas, and the probable return of outlay in this shape in the increased\nproductiveness of the local industries. But the mobility of labor, so characteristic ofAmerica, makes it desirable that a considerable portion of the\nsupport should come from the larger area benefited. In fact, so potent is this\nconsideration that it is not improbable that in time it will prove highly economic to enlist national aid to some extent in furthering industrial-arts education, owing to the tendency of labor to move from one state to another. But\nany scheme of appropriation of aid from state or nation should be accompanied\nby provisions for local contributions, and should involve inspection by the\nlarger units contributing. It would appear that some control, in the way of\nfinal approval, on teachers employed, courses adopted, etc., should emanate\nin all cases from the state authorities.\nA fundamental principle involved in securing of state aid for industrial\neducation is fou,nd in the fact that such aid, more directly, at least, than in any\nother forms of education, must serve in the nature of a social investment, the\nreturns of which will speedily be found in the increased productive capacity of\nthe industries benefited. From the standpoint of economics it may be doubted\nwhether any other form of social outlay of money will so certainly produce a\nlarge return, provided the education given is of the right kind.\nX.\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nSHOP\n\nIn Germany, it will be recalled, a considerable part of vocational training\nis effected through co-operation of school and shop. Boys are apprenticed to\nthe shops, and are either required to take the school work in the evening, or\nemployers are required to release the boys for a certain number of hours on\neach of two or more days each week. Under this arrangement the concrete\nwork given in the shop is real and productive; while the technical work of\nthe school can, if desired, be made to correlate intimately with it. The successful issue of this arrangement assumes a considerable spirit of co-operation\nbetween school and employer.\nIn America we find yet few attempts at this co-operation. It is a niatter of\ncommon knowledge that one engineering school has made arrangements for\njoint training with the shops of its locality. The high school in Fitchburg has\nalso effected a similar arrangement with shops in that city (see p. 80). It will\nalso be recalled that various large stores and shops have established schools\nwithin their own premises wherein their youthful employees might receive\ntechnical or academic training to supplement the practical learning acquired\nin the practice of their work.\nThese are but indications of possibilities in the field of vocational education. Theoretically, there are few reasons why this form of combined shop\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n729\n\nand school training should not be extended. Practically, the conditions of\nemployment in American industries are such at present that it is very doubtful\nif many such lines of co-operation could be developed. The employer is\naverse to the presence of young workers unless these are quite profitable to\nhim. For the type of youth here under consideration, the school would\nmanifestly have to have the final authority in controlling his time and education. The school would have to provide for a sufficient variety of work in the\nshop to prevent mechanization, and to preserve the industrial aspects of the concrete work. The employer usually seeks complete specialization of his workers.\nThe most that can be said is that a goal is presented here whose attainment\nwould be economically and otherwise desirable. But it is evident that a full\nco-ordination of the forms of control over children would be necessary. Childlabor legislation, compulsory-education legislation, the efforts of employers,\netc., would all have to have further adjustment than is possible at present.\nFor example, the law designed to protect children from the dangers of\npower machinery may, for the present, operate to exclude children in the\nindustrial schools of New York State from power machinery, in these schools\n— certainly an undesirable result. This entire field is one for further local\nexperimentation.\nXI.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nALREADY\n\nEXISTING\n\nSchools already existing, from which suggestive procedures can be derived\nare not many. A few types may be considered.\n1. The Hebrew Technical Institute of New York City. This school \"does not aim\nat teaching the higher branches of mechanical, civil, or electrical engineering.\" \"We\nexpect that the great majority of our graduates will ultimately find positions as skilled artisans, etc.\" To enter this school boys are not required to have completed the elementary\ncourse, but must have a fair education along common lines. They may be as young as\ntwelve and one-half years. During the first two years of the course they study the \"subjects which will be useful to them in whatever mechanical pursuits they may finally choose.\"\n\"In the third year they are encouraged to give special attention to that branch of work\nwhich seems most agreeable and suitable for each.\" A part of the work is academic,\nembracing not only general and technical vocational studies (\"Studies of Woods,\" industries, and natural resources of the United States; drawing; applied science, etc.) but also\ncultural studies, such as English, history, Jewish history, and civics. A large part of the\nwork is concrete, based on the trades dealing with wood and metal. This concrete work\nin the last year assumes a specialized character, as instrument-making, practical electricity,\netc. Some attention is given to the physical well-being of the pupil, especially in the shape\nof the provision of a hot lunch at low rates, and the compulsory use of shower baths. The\nday apprbximates the working conditions (seven hours for the upper-class students), as\ndoes also the year, which is longer than the ordinary school year. Obviously, the school is\nadapted to produce good apprentices, and to lay the foundations for industrial growth.\nIts long history proves that it has been successful both in adhering to its original aims and\nin realizing these aims. It would appear that its conduct involves no conditions which\ncould not be realized under a public-school system.\n2. The Manhattan Trade School for Girls, New York. Because the industries for\nwhich this prepares involve less extensive technical knowledge, little-developed apprenticeship, and the possibility of entrance at a comparatively early age, this school approximates\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 30\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nmore the definition of a trade school, tho its members do not exceed fourteen years of\nage on entrance, and need not have completed the work of the elementary school. Three\nof its departments rest fundamentally on textile industries, and another on the industries\nwhich employ paper, gum, etc. Academic work is reduced to a minimum, but arithmetic,\ndrawing, and some other studies are followed, largely with reference to their bearing on\nthe particular industries followed. The day and year approximate industrial conditions.\nIt is claimed, and with reason that, for the type of student reached, and the economic and\neducational conditions involved, the concrete work itself and the related academic work\nhave a significant cultural value. Children are received at fourteen, stay approximately\none year, and the school undertakes to follow them into the industry, and to keep track of\nthem afterward. The products of the school are primarily usable and salable, the school\naiming to contribute something to its support by sale of products. The sale of products is\nadjusted so as not to demoralize market conditions. In the final work of each student, rate\nof output as well as quality is measured, so as to approximate industrial conditions as far\nas practicable. This school contributes directly to the physical and social education of its\nstudents. Physical exercise, shower baths, and meals are provided in such a way as to bear\ndirectly on health co'hditions. Furthermore, careful instruction in hygiene acquaints the\ngirl with conditions of maintaining health in work, the importance of which is borne in upon\neach student. On the side of social education, each girl is especially instructed, in connection with the occupation into which she is going, on matters of relation to employers, and\nto fellow-workers in unions, etc. Owing to the possibilities of correlating much of this\nteaching, as well as that in hygiene, with actual industrial conditions, they become especially\nvital to the pupils.\n3. The Secondary Industrial School of Columbus, Ga. This is a part of the publicschool system, fitting boys for two fundamental industries, mechanical work with wood\nand iron, and textile work. A course of three years, begins with children of fourteen.\nMore than half the work of each day is concrete in character. The day follows working\nconditions, and the year lasts eleven months. The textile schools produce cloth for sale,\ntho some of it is used in other departments of the industrial school. The superintendent\nbelieves that the school might to some extent follow the Roycrofters' plan of producing\narticles which should be of use and would be especially valued because of their fine or\nindividual character.\n4. New\n\nBedford, Mass., Industrial School. This school contemplates a four-year\n\nprogram, but each year's work enough of a unit to be profitable to any pupils who take it.\nLocated adjoining high school, and some attempts will be made to avoid social segregation,\nbut the vocational aim of the school will not be lost sight of. It prepares primarily for industries resting on wood and metal; there will be no manual training, and no exercises apart\nfrom the making of products. Academic work based on the concrete or shop work.\nAlong the lines of productive work will be the finishing of the interior of the building, which\nis yet unfinished. Practically trained men will give shop work, and in some cases at least,\nrelated technical work. The school to receive one-third of its support from the state, and\nit is hoped eventually more. Its management is under the high-school committee of the\nlocal board, designated for this purpose by the Council. The school will aim to prepare\nfor the better class of artisan work.\n5. Rochester Factory Schools. The first school in the scheme was for boys from\nfourteen years of age who were in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, and who were\nmanifestly of a mechanical turn of mind. A two-story building was set apart for the school,\nthe entire lower floor being equipped for shopwork, the upper floor for academic studies\nrelated to the vocational work. The weekly program is evenly divided between shop and\nacademic work (shop, fifteen hours; mathematics, four hours; drawing, five hours; English and spelling, five hours; and industrial history, one and one-quarter hours), but almost\nall the academic work is based on industrial conditions or needs.\nThe lines at present mapped out (April, 1909) are:\n\n(a) elementary woodworking,\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n731\n\n(b) advanced woodworking, (c) elementary mechanical and electrical work, and {d)\nadvanced mechanical and electrical work.\nSchool is held six days each week, on five of which the hours are from 8 : 30 to 3, with\nhalf an hour intermission. The products of the woodworking shop are to be usable and\nat present are supplied to the schools of Rochester. Most of the teachers have had practical experience as mechanics or workers in other lines. The local management of the\nschool is under the Board of Education.\n6. Intermediate Industrial School of Albany, N.Y. This school plans to take two\nyears of the elementary period, and two years beyond, children entering at or about thirteen\nto fourteen. The work of the first two years, as proposed, is about two-thirds vocational —\ntechnical and concrete; and one-third general — geography, history, literature and composition and civics. Mathematics and drawing are taught with regard to vocational uses, hence\nare described as technical subjects. Part of concrete work is varied so as to form, at option,\nbeginnings of training for the printing, or leather-working, or woodworking, or metalworking occupations. But so far, in the last two years, the courses seem to plan mostly\nwood and metal-working callings for boys, and textile, industries and household arts for\niris.\nls\ng\n^ ir 7. Fitchburg High School, co-operative work.\nFirst year is spent wholly in school,\nn\n■ aining three years have program in which each pupil takes alternate weeks in school\nand in shops. Boy is paid for shop work at from ten to twelve and a half cents per hour.\nSchool work is English, current events, commercial geography, civics and American history, and technical subjects (mathematics, drawing, physics, chemistry, mechanism of\nmachines, etc.). An arrangement by which boys are employed in pairs, and by which\non Saturday the then shop boy locates his successor for the next week in the work, tends\nto preserve the interests of employers.\n8. Other schools. A variety of private or philanthropic schools offer suggestions for\nthis work. The Hebrew Technical School for Girls in New York deals with girls graduated from the elementary schools, and has courses two years in length. Its commercial\ncourses are most popular, but its \"technical courses\" leading to textile occupations are\nsuccessful examples of what may be accomplished in two years. The program is not limited\nto vocational work, cultural subjects receiving attention. Schools of the type of the Wilmerding in San Francisco are suggestive as to types of work, but the majority of the students\nin such schools are above the age of sixteen and they consequently do not represent methods\nmost suitable for younger pupils.\nThree-year technical courses are found in some of the high schools of New York City,\nwhile the Washington Irving is exclusively a technical and commercial school for girls.\nHere a considerable part of the program is vocational, and toward the last its work specializes somewhat.\nBut a description of its aim properly belongs elsewhere.\n\n///.\n\nREPORT\nOF SUBCOMMITTEE\nON INDUSTRIAL\nAND\nTECHNICAL\nEDUCATION\nIN THE\nSECONDARY SCHOOL\n\nThe committee has endeavored to study the problems of industrial and\ntechnical education in secondary schools:\n1. By ascertaining as thoroly as possible the needs and requirements for\necondary and technical education.\n2. By collecting data regarding methods of instruction and the practices\nof existing schools within this field, and information regarding the occupations\nand careers of their graduates.\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "732\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\n3. By collecting opinions as to the following points: notably regarding\nthe extent to which the technical courses and the academic work of the schools\nshould be made more directly vocational; whether the time at present allowed\nto handwork is sufficient; whether the results are satisfactory; the extent to\nwhich close correlation is practiced thru the entire school; and whether\nvocational work can best be done in existing schools or in separate schools.\n4. By collecting views on ways and means of making the existing schools\nand their equipment more serviceable to the public.\n5. By inquiring into the needs of girls as well as of boys.\n6. By collecting evidence regarding the demand for evening work.\nDEFINITIONS\n\nFrom careful analysis of the existing practices in secondary, industrial,\nand technical schools, and of the needs of this field of education, as evidenced\nby the testimony and expressions of opinion from a great number of educators,\nthe committee has formulated the following definitions of three types of schools:\nA. The manual-training high school, or the manual-training school, is a\nschool of secondary grade in which a greater or less amount of handwork is\nincluded in the curriculum and in which the greater part of the academic\ninstruction is similar to that found in other high school and college-preparatory\nschools, neither the manual nor the academic instruction being especially\nplanned to be of direct vocational service.\nB. The secondary technical school, or the technical high school, is a school\nof secondary grade having the distinct purpose of preparing its pupils for\nindustrial leadership — that is, for positions in industrial life requiring skill and\ntechnical knowledge and of greater importance and responsibility than those\nof the skilled mechanics. In such a school the instruction deals not only with\nthe important manual operations, but also with those principles of science and\nmathematics and their direct applications to industrial work that will help to\nprepare the student for successfully mastering the more fundamental processes\nand problems of those groups of industries which the school is designed to reach.\nC. The trade school and the preparatory trade school are schools which have\nfor their definite purpose the preparing of boys or girls for entrance to the\nskilled mechanical trades and which deal with their pupils during a briefer\ncourse and allow for earlier preparation for practical work than the technical\nhigh school. Such schools place their greatest emphasis upon practical\nhandwork instruction under conditions resembling as closely as possible\nthose prevailing in commercial practice. Such schools relate the academic\ninstruction at every point closely to the practical work, and include little that\nis not of direct bearing on trade work.\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nAs a summary of its investigations, the committee submits the following\nconclusions:\nI. From a study of the data obtained regarding existing practice, it is\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n733\n\napparent that, with a few notable exceptions, practically all of the existing\nindustrial and technical high schools now operating in the United States as\nparts of the public-school system, should be classified as manual-training\nhigh schools.\n2. From the evidence obtained, it is very clear that these manual-training\nschools are giving a very useful and highly important service.\n3. It is also clear from an analysis of the data obtained, that these manualtraining high schools, as a rule, do not in any degree cover the field or accomjtolish the purpose of either the secondary technical high school or the trade\nFschool.\n4. At the present time, by far the great majority of manual-training high\nfschools — practically all of them, notwithstanding the distinction in name —\n[differ in no important educational particular from the other high schools in\n[the United States; they admit pupils of the same general type, of the same\n[age, and of the same preparatory training. These schools aim to develop the\n[same type of intelligence, the same habits of thought, and the same kinds of\nibility as do the other high schools; and their graduates are found in the same\ndde variety of occupations. While the subjects taught are not identical, the\n[manual-training schools are nevertheless essentially schools of the college[preparatory type in which the instruction, mechanical as well as academic,\n'aims to provide the mental equipment of the kind required of those who would\ncontinue their studies in higher institutions. All of the work, as a rule, is\nmeasured by college-preparatory standards. The fundamental aim of these\nschools is a general training, and specific training for industrial occupations\nis incidental. In filling this function, these schools are ser\\'ing a useful purpose in that they offer a larger variety of means by which pupils who are capable of higher study can obtain intellectual training and preparation for higher\ninstitutions thru subjects which are congenial and adapted to their tastes.\nImportant as this function is, the committee believes that the evidence which\nit has collected makes it entirely clear that the field occupied by the manualtraining school is entirely distinct and different from the field to be occupied\n. by the secondary technical school on the one hand and the trade school on the\nother.\n»5. The evidence shows that there are very many children who should be,\nby their school influence, directed toward industrial life and prepared for some\nsort of efficient service in it.\n6. The committee has obtained from a great variety of sources what appears\nto it almost overwhelming evidence of the very great, in fact, imperative, need\nof both secondary technical schools and trade and preparatory trade schools,\nif all of the youth of the land are to be served with anything approaching equal\neducational opportunities.\n7. The secondary technical school, or technical high school, should have\nfor its main object the preparation of its pupils for efficiency in a large group\nof important positions in industrial life. Its aim is to cultivate industrial\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nintelligence and those qualities which are essential for efficient industrial\nleadership rather than abstract reasoning power. It differs from the manualtraining high school in the following important particulars:\na) Pupils are encouraged to enter technical high schools with a definite\npurpose of preparing for industrial careers.\nh) It frankly and definitely abandons all traditional college-preparatory\nwork.\nc) The time now devoted to foreign languages is given to more thoro\ntraining in English, industrial history, and economics, and such principles and\napplications of science as are likely to be useful in an industrial career.\nd) There is very little instruction in pure mathematics or pure science,\nbut instead, a large amount of time is given to applied mathematics and applied\nscience, all of which is closely related to the practical work of the course.\ne) So far as possible, all of the instruction, whether in English, history,\neconomics, mathematics, or science; whether in classroom, shop, or laboratory,\nis so designed as to be directly usable in the kind of occupations in which the\ngraduates of the school will naturally seek employment.\nf) There is the closest possible correlation between the branches taught\nin the school.\ng) Such schools will necessarily take on varying forms in different localities,\nsince the needs of the community must, to a large degree, determine their\neducational procedure.\n8. From the evidence which the committee has obtained, it is clear that\nboys who enter mechanical trades, almost without exception, leave the public\nschools before graduating from the grammar school. It should be recognized\ntherefore that the beginnings of trade education, if such education is to articulate with our present school system, must be had in schools that will draw their\npupils largely, if not entirely, from the class of boys who have not graduated\nfrom elementary schools. Such schools (intermediate industrial or preparatory trade schools) cannot therefore be really parallel with existing high schools.\nIn order to prevent possible misunderstanding by pupils or the public, the\nintermediate industrial school should be frankly recognized as independent\nin its requirements for admission and in its courses of study. Its courses of\ninstruction must be short. This is essential if such schools are to come within\nthe economic possibilities of boys and girls who will follow manufacturing\ntrades, and only such pupils should be admitted as can satisfy the principal\nof the school that they are the right kind of material out of which to make good\nworkmen, and are likely to spend their life in mechanical work.\nThe courses of study for this type of school must always be sufficiently\nintensive on the vocational side to give them the necessary economic value\nwhile at the same time the instruction should be suited to both the mental and\nthe physical capacities of pupils from fourteen to sixteen years of age. There\nshould be in the curriculum, therefore, nothing that is not of direct assistance\nfor preparing pupils for work in the industries.\nSuch mechanical drawing,\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n735\n\nmathematics, applications of elementary science and English as are necessary,\nshould be given with the direct purpose of increasing efl5ciency in the more\nconcrete and practical parts of the course. In other words, the spirit and\nthe method of the shop should be carried as far as possible into all of the\ninstruction given in the school.\nBeyond this point (sixteen years of age) comes the possibility of true trade\nschools in the sense of school training as a partial substitution for apprenticeship or the learning of a trade in commercial practice. Whether or not these\n.last schools will, in the future, become important factors in training large numbers of industrial workers, and whether or not they will become recognized as\na proper element in the American public-school system, it is clear that their\naim must be to impart the maximum of specialized skill and technical knowledge in the minimum of time. In order that it may be economically possible\nfor the future workman to attend such schools, their courses must be highly\nspecialized and the instruction must concentrate upon the development of\nskill and knowledge of direct practical bearing.\n9. The evidence collected by the committee shows an urgent need for evening trade and technical classes for bettering the opportunities of men and\nwomen already employed in industrial occupations during the day. The\ncommittee believes that one of the most important services which can be rendered byexisting schools that have shop and laboratory facilities, is to extend\nthe use of such equipment thru practical courses of evening instruction.\n10. The main ideas embodied in this report are applicable to girls as well\nas to boys.\n11. The problem of secondary industrial and technical education calls\nfundamentally for a clear distinction between elementary and secondary\neducation which shall take account of the significant differences of children\nin economic resources, and in the interests and aptitudes that appear before\nthe end of the present period of elementary education. Such a distinction\npoints to the end of the sixth year of school as the appropriate beginning of\nsecondary, that is differentiated education; it does not in any sense contemplate a six-year course as the maximum provision or requirement for any group\nof children.\nI. The subcommittee sent letters to prominent schoolmen thruout the\ncountry — men who occupy supervisory positions in cities carrying on technical\nwork, as well as men who are presiding over secondary technical schools,\nmanual-training schools, and industrial schools — inquiring whether there is\nneed for investigating the spirit and purpose of secondary industrial and\ntechnical education and for formulating a more definite plan for future extension ofindustrial work in our secondary schools.\nOne superintendent of schools writes as follows:\nI believe that the committee should formulate a definition of the technical high\nschool, perhaps both from an inclusive, as well as an exclusive, point of view. At the Chicago\nmeeting of the Department of Superintendence in 1909 a number of superintendents\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "736.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nexpressed a desire to do something of this kind but were in doubt as to what to do. A\nstrong definition of what constitutes a technical high school will go a good way toward\nclearing the atmosphere and will be helpful in pointing out the way to those who do not\nsee the light. If this is to be the primary aim of this report, then the data we need relates\nto what is now being done in the so-called manual-training high schools, with reference\nto kind of mechanical work offered, the proportionate amount of time devoted to it, and\nthe groups of academic studies offered with their relation to the shop activities — that is\nto say, whether the academic instruction is based upon the requirements of the shop or\nwhether it is isolated and running in a parallel column.\n\nA principal of a large manual-training high school says:\nThere is no uniformity in schools called by the same name; no uniformity in the number of hours devoted to shopwork or in the character of the work. My own experience,\nnot supported by inspection of every such school, is that a school which is a manual-training\ndepartment of a high school is inferior in shopwork and drawing to what might be called\nan independent manual-training school, such as the Indianapolis school. Especially is\nthis the case where the manual-training department has been added to the older academic\ndepartment. Where the principal of the older school is not fully in sympathy with manual\ntraining or, if in sympathy, does not fully comprehend the movement, the result is foreordained. Here, as everywhere, the principal makes the school.\n\nA professor of education in a university writes:\nThere is no definitely established policy with reference to secondary technical instruction in any section of the- country. Educators in general seem to be vacillating between\ntwo extremes, one of which looks toward the making of the handworking courses purely\nvocational; the other attempting to install the work in the high school as at present organized without materially changing the present status, and hence, of course, making it merely\nan adjunct to the present work. In the latter case, which is by far the more prevalent,\nthe work fails to be as satisfactory as it ought to be, largely because it is given too little\nattention and really has not become an integral part of the school work.\n\nThe dean of a college of engineering writes:\nWe ought to get an accxirate definition of what we are tryiTig to do. If the manualtraining high schools are trying to solve the problem of industrial education, they ought\nto say so, and if the work is cultural, they ought to say so; at least, let them define what\nthey are attempting to accomplish. If the technical high schools are trying to solve the\nproblem of industrial education, let them say so. If they are training men for colleges, let\nthem make a definite statement that they are not training men for the industries. So\nfar the public-school people have been bowing in one direction, saying, \" Lo, our work is\ncultural,\" and then in another, saying, \" Lo, our work is industrial.\"\nReally, what is it ?\n\nThe president of a technical college who has made a careful study of industrial work in secondary schools writes as follows:\nNo accurate definition has ever been given to the terms \" manual-training high school,\"\n\"technical high school,\" etc. These names generally refer to high schools which have,\nmore or less, manual-training work connected with them. So far as I am aware, there is\nno uniformity in regard to the amount of this work, altho generally these schools give\nmechanical drawing, turning, pattern-making, machine-shop work, forging, and in some\ncases, foundry work. Most of these high schools are of the regular type which give the\nusual high-school courses and fit for college; in addition, they give more or less manualtraining work. There is nothing to distinguish them from any other high school except\nthat they do give a little of this practical training. There is need of formulating some\ndefinition.\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n737\n\nII. These letters are typical of many other replies and clearly show that\nthe work of this committee is warranted. The next step was to obtain, by\ninquiry, the present status of the manual-training high school. The replies to\nletters sent out by the subcommittee show a marked variance in the purpose\nand methods involved in these schools. The original manual-training high\nschool, as conceived by Dr. Woodward, Charles H. Ham, and Dr. H. H.\nBelfield, has been duplicated or modified in many cities of the country. A\nword from Dr. Belfield is of interest at this point:\nThere was the desire on the part of some of us to offer to boys what was called a more\n\"practical\" education than that afforded by the ordinary high school, while avoiding a\ntrade school, to give the boy an acquaintance with the forces and conditions of modern life,\nto give him the use of his hands, or, as Dr. Woodward phrased it, \"to put the whole boy\nto school.\" Our thought implied the broadening, not narrowing, of the school curriculum.\nFor many years I had been impressed with the fact that the high school and the academy\nfitted a boy for entrance upon professional study only; that as comparatively few boys\nexpected to enter upon professional life, very few boys entered the high school, and a much\nsmaller number graduated therefrom. I thought these facts showed a great weakness in\nthe public-school system. I found many of my business acquaintances entertaining the\nsame opinion, but I failed to win to my belief any of my school friends. Two facts are\nhere worthy of mention: (i) The Commercial Club of Chicago, which founded the Chicago\nManual Training School, was composed exclusively of business men; (2) I resigned the\nprincipalship of the Chicago North Division High School to become director of the proposed\nChicago Manual Training High School, against the advice of every schoolmaster friend I\nhad. The original manual-training school was designed to develop all of the boy's powers\n— to fit him for life, but not to teach him a trade. One hour a day was given to drawing,\ntwo hours a day to shopwork, every day in the school year. With these branches were\ntaught, what we considered the fundamental studies of a high-school course — English,\nwith Latin and French elective; mathematics, including arithmetic, algebra, geometry,\ntrigonometry and for those able to take them, analytical and descriptive geometry; physiology, physics, chemistry, history, government, and political economy. The course (I speak\nnow particularly of the Chicago school) was not originally designed to fit for college, but,\nto my surprise, I found that about 50 per cent, of my graduates, beginning with my first\nclass (1886) entered college, the greater part of this 50 per cent, going to technological\nschools — the Massachusetts Institute, Sibley College, Michigan, Purdue, etc. Most of\nthe other half went directly into business. Very few entered a shop, and these, by reason\nof their intelligence, rose at once to be foremen, managers, etc. None, so far as I could\nlearn, remained long at the bench. The academic and shop courses were co-ordinated as\nfar as possible, and it is astonishing how much connection skillful instructors can find or\nmake between shop, laboratory, and classroom work. The school always seemed to me\nto be a unit. That the scholarship was, to say the least, not injured by the shopwork is\nclearly shown by these facts: graduates of the school entered, with ease, the best technological schools in the country, maintained themselves with ease, and graduated with credit,\nfrequently with honor.' The shopwork was always given credit in the higher schools. In\nsome the boys were excused entirely from shopwork. Credit was also given for drawing,\nso that it was not unusual for the four-year course of the technological school to be completed in three years. The comparatively small number of graduates who enjoyed scientific, literary, and classical courses in Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and other institutions also\nmaintained themselves. It was to satisfy such that Greek was introduced as an elective\nin the Chicago school.\n\nThis bit of personal history from an authority such as Dr. Belfield, points\nout the natural development which has taken place in the manual-training\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "738\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nhigh-school movement. At the present time some of these schools fit for all\ncolleges; some limit themselves to preparation for technical colleges; some\nhave strong commercial courses; and some correlate their shop work with the\nacademic work. Evidently all of them attempt to give their pupils an allround or symmetrical education by means of a joining of the humanities with\nhandworking courses. They attempt to cultivate dexterity of hand and eye\nalong with scholarship and mental acumen.\nThe investigation of Professor Ballou, of the University of Cincinnati,\nbrings out the variety of practice in regard to manual training in the high school.\nThis investigation shows that there is no uniformity, and almost an entire\nlack of definite aim in the relationship between the manual-training course and\nthe rest of the school work. The committee quotes the following from the\nresults of his investigation:\nThere are 33 cities which give the subject of manual-training one and a half hours per\nweek. There are also 33 cities which give three hours to this subject. In the first case\na double period is given, and in the second, of course, two double periods. There are\n25 cities which devote two hours to the subject and 20 cities that give four hours a week.\nThose that allot to the subject two and a half hours are eleven in number. Those that\ngive the subject twice as much time, or five hours per week, are twelve in number. The\nnumber of cities that give seven hours per week is 25, which means about five one-and-a-half\nperiods, or five times as much time as the 33 cities that give it one and a half hours. Out\nof 207 cities that offer manual training in the high school, 159 of them permit the students\nto elect such a course. In other words, 77 per cent, of the cities permit the students to\nelect the subject of manual training.\n\nNearly every reply brought out the point that the manual-training high\nschool has no clearly defined status; and that the definitions of the different\ntypes of schools are largely a matter of personal opinion. The shortest definition of a \"real manual-training high school\" which was given to the committee\nwas the following: \"A high school with a course in manual training in lieu of\nLatin and Greek.\" A number of schoolmen reported a manual-training\nhigh school as being a school in which manual training is intended as an aid\nin general development; that is, that the handwork is virtually a department\nof an academic high school just as Latin is a department in such a school;\nthat five double periods per week are commonly devoted to this work, three of\nwhich are usually given to shopwork and two to mechanical drawing: and\nthat the aim is not so much to develop technical skill as to give acquaintance\nwith materials and the use of tools, the handwork being regarded primarily\nas a training of the motor side of the student and as furnishing general information of a practical nature. In brief, the manual-training high school, in\nthe minds of these men, is one in which shopwork and drawing are offered\nmainly for the purpose of supplementing other studies for the so-called cultural purposes of education.\nSuch a manual-training high school does not differ radically from the\nregular high school with a manual-training department, for both are simply\nsecondary schools in which the curriculum combines various elements of\nmanual and academic work primarily for purposes of general training.\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\n^SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n739\n\nThe principal of one of the largest manual-training high schools in the\ncountry writes:\nOur school is claiming to make pupils better citizens, to open up to its graduates\nopportunities that would not be possible without the training they get. The academic\nstudies, with the exception of Latin and Greek, are the same as those given in any high\nschool, and the manual training is given for educational and disciplinary purposes only.\n\nHe agrees with another principal, who states that\nmanual training makes pupils better citizens; that the educational work of the school is\nof the first order; that it is not, in any sense, a technical high school, and that it supplies\nthe higher education demanded by those who are preparing for advanced technical\nor university work.\n\nIt is of interest to compare these statements with those which come later when\nthe question of technical high schools is considered.\nA fundamental difficulty in the situation seems to be that many schoolmen\nbelieve that every high school should have some manual training and that\nevery manual-training high school should prepare for college, the result being\nthat the layman is confused as to the part that the manual-training high school\nplays in the preparation for industrial vocations.\nAs a whole the replies received by the committee seem clearly to indicate\nthat the manual-training high school is ordinarily little more than a regular\nhigh school with a manual-training department.\nAs one writer states it:\nI have come to be of the opinion that most of these schools were started as a sop to the\ndemand on the part of the public for more practical instruction in the public-school system.\nThe presence of machinery in a school looks practical, and that is about as far as it goes.\nWhile I can see a cultural value in manual training, I do not think it was ever intended to\nmeet the call for industrial training, and if it was, it has certainly fizzled miserably. My\nown observation leads me to believe that these schools turn out people who disdain to be\nmechanics and who would rather be inferior draughtsmen.\n\nAnother of the replies has the following:\nThe manual-training high schools are too elaborate, too expensive, in a way, too\ndilettante, to lead to anything other than one of the industrial professions. Often they do\nnot even prepare for training in one of these. They are much more like schools than shops,\nwhereas they should be more like shops than schools. In buildings that have nothing of\nthe appearance of the shop, they have machinery, tools, equipment, atmosphere, theory,\nand practice, which differentiate them widely from the shop. They are managed by men\nwho are more teachers than workmen, when they should be managed by men who are at\nleast quite as much workmen as teachers. Often the machinery and tools make an interesting show without being needed or effectually used, because there is not a skilled workman to use them. Many a time a principal or teacher pleads for an appropriation with\nwhich to buy machinery, tools, and other equipment, without any definite theory or plan\nor end in view. If refused, he would feel outraged and become a martyr. If given the\nmoney he studies catalogues and sees agents for the purpose of spending the money in\nways that will look well and make an impression upon the people who always love an objectlesson and are often susceptible and superficial about industrial training. Real tradesmen\nand workmen discriminate, and they are amused by what they see. There is not enough\nsubstantial result to it. I know very well that this is not always true, but quite as well that\nit is often true.\nEnthusiastic advocates of manual training in high schools have been\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "740\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ncontent to rest their interest in it upon its all-around cultural and educational value, meaning thereby its value to intellectual virility and energy, rather than upon the fact that it\nwould make a more skilled craftsman and therefore an individual of more character and\na citizen of more strength.\n\nThe letters of many principals of secondary schools indicate a strong belief\nin the value of manual training. Such writers hold strenuously that training\nin the use of certain tools is one of the fundamental procedures in education;\nthat the square, the plane, and the needle lie at the bottom of civilization;\nand that the use of these tools affords the most direct and rapid means for\nteaching not only the co-operation of eye and hand, but also that rapid and\nready execution of ideas which marks the truly efl5cient man or woman. Such\nwriters have visions of a system of secondary education so correlated with\nelementary education upon the one hand and with the activities of life upon\nthe other, that the pupils need not specialize in their work; but that the secondary should be a place where boys and girls can ''find themselves\" and choose\ntheir careers with intelligence. They would not have special schools but a\nsystem of general schools sending their pupils out into life — some into trades,\nsome into business, and some on to c6llege and the professional schools.\nThe breadth and scope of these visions of schoolmen have resulted in great\nchanges in the secondary-school program. Many commercial and industrial\nsubjects have been introduced. Educational procedure in our high schools\nis in a more unsettled state than that either of our elementary schools or of\nthe colleges. The high school seems to be the battling-ground for educators\nat the present time, and the elasticity of modern secondary courses of study\nhas made possible a great variety of educational practice relative to manual\ntraining in different sections of the country.\nThere seems to be a movement on foot in some quarters to abolish the oldtime classical high school, as such, and to introduce general manual -training\nand commercial courses in all high schools. In some large cities these schools\nhave been duplicated on the district plan without any attempt at differentiation.\nThis viewpoint is expressed in a letter given to the New York Board of Education by the Brooklyn Educational League, viz.:\nWe can no longer speak of a uniform course of study for all high-school students. There\nare at least three distinct kinds of work that should be supplied by high schools in Brooklyn today, namely: (a) Commercial courses for both boys and girls; (6) industrial courses\nfor boys and girls, including courses to fit girls for homemaking, nursing, and domestic\noccupations; (c) academic courses, including work preparatory for colleges or technical\nschools, as well as a course designed especially to meet the needs of those who will enter the\ntraining school and teach without taking a college coiirse. The present method of building\nspecial schools in widely separated locations results in great educational loss, as many\nstudents choose a school because it happens to be nearer or because their friends go there,\ninstead of choosing the school best fitted to their needs. In such cases there is a great\nwaste of educational expenditure. The present method of offering only one kind of work\nin a school places an unnecessary barrier in the way of the student's changing his course\nwhen he discovers a change in his aptitudes or his opportunities. The grammar-school\ngraduate is often too immatvire to make wise and permanent choice of the kind of work he\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE. SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n741\n\nshould follow for the next four years. Placing only one kind of work in a school ignores\nthe fact that one of the most important functions of education, especially of high-school\neducation, is to encourage the student to discover his proper vocation. To perform this\nfunction, the different kinds of work must be accessible and each must receive its due\nmeasure of respect.\nThe school must have a broad and liberal spirit.\n\nA similar point of view has been expressed by Eugene Davenport, dean of\nthe College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, who writes:\nWe have learned that education must be adapted somewhat to the ends in view;\nthat as civilization advances and knowledge accumulates, there -must be many courses for\nmany men, and we have learned too that there is by nature nothing incompatible between\nthem, because higher industrial education flourishes nowhere else so well as when associated\nwith the old-time courses, that unique and modern association of teaching and investigation\nthat is designed to minister to all the needs — industrial, social, economic, and artistic — of\na rapidly advancing civilization. There is no conflict between the classics and the industries, but all thinking men see clearly now that whether the education be classical or industrial, itis alike a part and an essential part of the successful development of a young, strong,\nvirile race. The only question now is as to practical methods of procedure. There is\nlittle dispute any more as to the nature of courses best adapted to industrial ends, tho\nmuch improvement will be made as time passes. Academic standards and educational\nvalues are being set and the future of industrial education is assured, whethey regarded from\nthe standpoint of the individual or that of the industry. The only real question — and it is\ngigantic — is whether, and to what extent, industrial courses should be added to our existing\nschools or whether they should be relegated to separate institutions. Of one fact we may\nrest assured at the outset, and that is that industrial education is with us to stay. The\nindustrial people insist upon it and public needs demand it. We can, therefore, find a\nplace for it in our schools, making it an integral part of our system of universal education,\nor it will make a place for itself and a system of its own. I prefer that we retain the unity\nand integrity of our educational system by taking into our schools not only industrial education but all other forms of educational necessity that are now felt or that may in the future\narise, to the end that all interests may be well served, and that too, in a way not involving\ninfluences that tend to break up the homogeneity of our people, but above all preventing\nthe evolution of an American peasant class. Moreover, the strictly vocational courses\nsucceed nowhere else so well as when intimately associated with the non-vocational. It\nadds directness and initiative to the cultural, thus turning back to the community a product\nwhose individuals are highly schooled in specialized activities and therefor likely to succeed,\nyet who by association have learned to be broadly sympathetic with all activities and with\nall classes of effective people. In a word, I would see the policy of the state university transferred to the American high school, to the end that this most representative of all schools\nmay do for the masses what the university is doing for the few.\n\nMany schoolmen who are deeply concerned with the problem of secondary\nindustrial and technical education do not take the point of view so ably presented byProfessor Davenport. They feel that there is a conflict within the\ninner life of the present high school; that the aim and organization of this\nschool were designed for literary purposes and that the aim and organization\nof the high school for technical, scientific, and commercial purposes are so\ndififerent that it is almost impossible to unite these aims in one school. They\nfeel that the modern high school is endeavoring to serve several interests,\nwhere the organization was created solely for one, viz., literary education for\nthe professions.\nFiguratively speaking, the house was originally built to\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "742\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\naccommodate one family, whereas it is now proposed that it be extended to\nhold several families, each one of which requires different accommodations.\nSince much of the work has to be done with the same facilities, which are not\nalways suitable for the needs of all these families, there is unavoidable friction,\nloss of time, and weakening of forces.\nThe men of this group feel that there should be distinct differentiations in\nsecondary education and that each school should have its own line of work\nappropriate to the special demands placed upon it. The field of secondary\neducation, they urge, is becoming so large and its influence upon national life\nso important that the classical or literary high school or even the manualtraining high school is no longer able to do justice to the full demands\nof secondary industrial and technical education.\nA number of replies indicate a strong conviction that either the manualtraining high school should be organized on its own foundation with the academic work related to the technical work and so arranged as to meet the vocational needs of the students taking such a course, or that communities should\nestablish separate schools for technical education. In this connection James\nF. McElroy, of the Consolidated Car Heating Company, Albany, N.Y., writes:\nThe manual-training high schools do not meet the requirements imposed by actual\nindustrial conditions first, because boys must enter upon their life-work in the industries\nbefore a course in the high school can be completed; second, because financial conditions\nof those who -must spend their lives in the industries of the country make it impracticable\nfor the great majority of them to complete the manual -training high school course; third,\nbecause the work of the manual-training high school fits men better for foremen than for\npositions as mechanics.\n\nMr. McElroy goes on to state that instruction in these schools may be valuable\nbut it is of a higher grade than that required for the great majority of our\nlaboring class.\nSimilarly Mr. Kruezpointer states:\nThe manual-training high schools train their pupils away from the shops and therefore\ndo not reach the great mass of those who are to make their living as practical mechanics and\nhelpers. In quite a number of high schools manual training has been introduced, but it\nconfines itself chiefly to woodwork because of lack of funds for a more expensive equipment\nand lack of room. What is done goes but a little way because the work is along lines of\nmechanical dexterity chiefly and the drawing and academic part of the instruction is\ncramped for time, being obliged to go along with the classical course, the scientific course\nand perhaps some other course. Moreover, the boy who goes to high school rarely cares\nto go into the shop as an ordinary mechanic.\n\nAfter careful investigation of the status of manual-training high schools\nand manual training in the high schools, a committee of the Cleveland Chamber\nof Commerce reported in 1906 the following:\nThe amount of manual training taught in the regular high schools in the city is so\nsmall that it hardly seems wise to have it retained after the technical high school is organized. At present the students get about forty hours of mechanical drawing per year.\nWe understand that the amount of time given to it is one hour and a half per week and during this time the student must get out his drawing materials at the beginning of the period\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nJSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n743\n\nand put them away at the end. Very little can be learned in such a short time. The same\nthing can be said in regard to the work in the other departments. Students who really\nwish a manual-training course can go to the technical high school, and those who wish to\nfollow courses of study without manual training can be accommodated in the ordinary\nhigh schools. We cannot see why machinery should be placed in so many high-school\nbuildings and used only a part of each day. It should be possible for students in the regular high schools to take manual training during the-evening sessions.\n\nThe feeling that the scope and purpose of the manual-training high school\nshould be changed is not confined to men directly interested in the technical\nside of education, is evident from the following excerpt of a letter from\nDr. Thomas M. Balliet, of New York University:\nAs for a manual-training high school, which differs only from the literary and commercial high schools in that it has somewhat more shopwork and perhaps more mechanical\ndrawing and a literary course less extensive than the first, and perhaps a less specialized\nliterary course than the second, I confess I see no use for it in the future. It has no distinctive aim and character. In such a school there is so great a lack of correlation between\nthe academic studies and the shopwork that boys and girls recite together in their academic\nwork and separately only in their strictly technical work. Such a school is simply a literary\nhigh school with a somewhat narrow academic course and with a little more shopwork.\nThe problem before us is to transform all such manual-training high schools into technical\nhigh schools. The manual training of a technical high school is likely to be fully as good,\nand, I should say^ better, than the manual training in a so-called manual-training high school\nof the type here described. Manual training does not lose its general educational value but\ndistinctly gains by being given a more definite industrial bent than it has had in the past.\n\nProfessor Chamberlain, dean of the Throop Institute at Pasadena, Cal.,\nwrites:\nA manual-training school should offer manual training as an intrinsic part of the course\nof study and not as an adjunct. Again, this manual training is in one sense the foundation\nelement, and the manual-training high school must come more and more to industrialize\nits manual training. In other words, it must consider the trades element from the educational point of view. In my opinion, the committee can do a good work in showing that\nthere is a place for a school that shall lie in its academic side between the grades on the one\nhand and the upper years of the high school on the other. It should teach the industries\nin the form of trades and from the technical point of view, always in the light of educational\ntheory. These industrial forms of education should be taught not as adjuncts but as part\nand parcel of the academic side, so that mathematics, English, science, history, and other\ntraditional lines of school work will be seen in their relations to the important aspects of\nindustry.\n\nIII. It is commonly assumed that there is a correlation between the shopwork and the academic work in the manual-training high school. Such is not\ngenerally the case if judgment is to be based upon the answers received to the\ninquiries on this point. A careful study of the work of these schools shows\nthat they give vno kinds of courses — one academic and the other mechanical;\nand that there is little relation between the technical and academic work. The\nlanguage work, whether it be Latin, German, French, or English, is the same\nfor the \"manual training\" student as it is for the \"classical\" student. The\nmathematics is the same for all. The same is true of the history and the\nscience work. In short, the prevailing custom in these schools is to conduct\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "744\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthe academic work and technical work as isolated and parallel courses. A\nnumber of principals have written that they regret that the academic training\ndoes not take its cue from the requirements of the shop. The principal of\none of the largest high schools in the country acknowledges that the academic\nstudies are in no way treated differently for students who take the manualtraining course than for those who do not take it; that there is no relation\nbetween the manual-training work and its corresponding academic work, such\nas mathematics, science, language, etc. He states that the latter are isolated\nand arranged without reference to the manual-training work done by the pupils\n— that his school is one preparing for college; and that a student is expected\nto do his college-preparatory work in addition to his manual training. In a\nword, as he states it, ''the manual work does not dominate or guide the general\npolicies of the school in its general studies.\" Another principal takes a pessimistic point of view in that he says:\nI do not believe the subjects can be successfully correlated without considerable additional effort in that direction, not by teachers alone but primarily by the high-school officials and the makers of textbooks. There is too much chaff and not enough wheat in\nour secondary textbooks to enable them to offer the nourishment necessary in bringing\nabout a healthy and active state of mind in the manual-training course.\n\nStill another principal writes that\nthe two departments (manual and academic) are run on parallel lines rather than by correlating the one with the other. Even where there is some talk of definite relationship one\nfinds that this relationship is on paper rather than in fact. In practically no manualtraining covirse that I am familiar with does any consistent relation exist between the treatment of these school subjects and the shop activity.\n\nIn sharp contrast to these statements a few replies are given expressing a\ndifferent point of view.\nIn organizing the Technical High School in Cleveland, Dr. Charles S. Howe,\npresident of a special committee of the Chamber of Commerce, recommended:\nThat there be three recitation periods a day along three different lines of work: one\nline of mathematics, one line of science, one line of language. In mathematics, that practical arithmetic, algebra, plane and solid geometry, mensuration, and bookkeeping be\ntaught. All of these subjects are to be taught with special reference to their\npractical application.\n\nProfessor Barney, of the Hebrew Technical Institute of New York City,\nwrites:\nThe compositions and essays in the English department have a direct bearing upon\nthe work in hand and are therefore written with interest and earnestness. The extensive\nwork in the drawing departments incidentally enables the pupil to illustrate most of the\nwritten work, and this in itself helps to increase the interest. In the department of physics\nand applied electricity, certain definite experiments and measurements have to be made\nfrom a collection of blue-printed descriptions and problems. These occasion extensive\ncollateral reading and study and carefully kept notebooks are required.\n\nIV. The subject of preparation for college in manual-training high schools\nwas next considered: It was found that the majority of manual-training high\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n745\n\nschools fit for the same colleges for which the general high schools prepare.\nThe record of the graduates substantiates this point and shows that in this\nrespect the manual-training high schools do not differ from other secondaryschools. The consensus of opinion, however, indicates a strong conviction that\nit is unwise to fit students for all types of colleges in manual-training high schools\nand technical high schools. Those who tnke this point of view believe that\nfitting for all colleges almost inevitably means that such schools will be dominated by tradition rather than modified to meet the specialized needs of the\npresent; that the high school shapes its work too much toward the college\nrequirement; and that when opportunity comes to organize a new secondary\nschool, it should be planned to provide courses that will meet the special needs\nof its pupils. As one principal puts it:\nTo fashion ovir manual-training high schools so as to fit the pupils for all colleges,\ninterferes with the primary and direct purpose of such high schools. When colleges are\nmore ready to accredit value to the work of these schools it will be time enough for such\nschools to strain a point, if need be, by way of further encouraging and helping their\nstudents to enter such colleges.\n\nAnother principal writes that \"these schools should make a special effort\nto fit their students for the greatest usefulness without regard to meeting the\nrequirements of college-entrance examinations.\"\nDr. H. H. Belfield, of Chicago, writes:\nFor many years I have maintained that when the high school has become only a fitting\nschool for college, it is not doing its full duty. Many boys do not wish to go to college;\nmany cannot go to college. Let there be a high school to fit boys for college and a high\nschool directly for life. The two do not readily exist as one. The older form (the classical\nschool) should stay; the secondary technical school meets the other demand; it will fit\ndirectly for business and for engineering schools. With some adjustment, it may also\nmeet the needs of those boys who want the drawing and shopwork for entrance to scientific\nschools. But the primary idea of the secondary technical school should not be to fit for\ncollege.\n\nThe president of a technical college states that\nthe secondary technical schools should not fit for any college except a technical college.\nThe whole idea of these schools should be to fit boys for the manufacturing life, and if,\nfor any reason, the students cannot enter the technical college they should be instructed\nto do some special work during the last year of their secondary course.\n\nDr. Balliet expresses a similar idea, and suggests a definite plan, viz.:\nWhile the literary high school should fit for the traditional college and perhaps the\nengineering school, the commercial high school could well fit for the commercial departments in colleges, and the technical high schools for engineering schools of college rank.\nIt seems to me, however, that we should emphasize the fact that their function as fitting\nschools for higher institutions is secondary to their functions as above defined. I do not\nbelieve that it is well to have a secondary school from which a graduate cannot go to some\nhigher sc^ ool. All types of schools should be left open at the top to the most gifted pupils.\nIt is more than probable that there will be two grades of technical high schools — those having four-year courses above the elementary schools, and others having six-year courses.\nThe latter would then be practically fitting schools for the engineering colleges, and in that\ncase the engineering schools would be rated in the same way as similar institutions in Europe,\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "746\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwhere they are on a \"university\" instead of a \"college\" basis. Such developments cannot\nbe forecast with any definiteness; they must come by a natural process of growth.\n\nAssociate Superintendent Stevens, of New York City, in response to the\nquestion, \"Would you have the manual-training high school or the technical\nhigh school fit for college?\" answered, \"By no means. Division of labor\nmust apply in education as elsewhere.\" It is clear that if a high school is to\ngive its major attention to technical training it will be obviously unable to\nprepare for any but technical colleges.\nV. Let us at this point consider the record of the graduates of these schools.\nWe come now to a consideration of the effect of the manual-training high school\nupon the choice of vocation made by its graduates. The manual-training\nhigh school has never claimed to fit boys directly for industrial pursuits. In\nits early history this attitude was probably dictated by considerations of policy,\nbut in these days of rapid movement toward secondary industrial education,\nit is significant that the manual-training high school does not even now fit\ndirectly for industries and that there is little apparent tendency to modify\nthese institutions so that they may meet adequately the requirements of secondary technical education. The committee recognizes that the record of graduates of a school depends somewhat upon the school. In a school where\nshopwork is given but two periods a week, or where the teacher has only a\nsmattering of training, the graduates can differ but little from the graduates\nof the ordinary high school. Furthermore, it is difficult to judge the work\nthese schools have done by a mere study of the record of the graduates, for a\nvery different showing would be made if a record could be given of those who\nattended for a time but were not graduated. For example, in the day classes\nof the Lewis Institute of Chicago, seven or eight times as many students have\nattended as have graduated and many of these young men have found desirable\nplaces in industrial life.\nOne of the principals of an eastern school writes:\nFew graduates are working as journeymen, but many are, nevertheless, in industrial\nlife as superintendents of factories, foremen, draftsmen. There are a good many\njourneymen in the trades who have had a year or two in a manual-training school.\n\nPrincipal Warner, of the Springfield, Mass., school, writes in a similar\nvein, and Principal Morrison, principal of the Northeast Manual-Training\nHigh School of Philadelphia, states that\nthe graduates of this school are business men, professional men, professors, clergymen,\nand the great part of the remainder follow the enlarged opportunities offered in the advancement of the scientific trend of the age.\n\nPrincipal von Nardroff, of the Stuyvesant High School of New York City,\nwrites:\nOf the present senior class, numbering thirty, twenty-four are planning to continue\ntheir education in colleges, higher technical schools, and professional schools, and six are\nmmediately to seek employment in which they will make use of the technical training of\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] INDUSTRIES\n\nIN THE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n747\n\ntheir high-school course. Those who are going on to higher technical and professional\nschools are doubtless making the best possible use of the education that they have already\nacquired.\n\nThe principal of the Denver Manual Training High School sends the following record:\nOf the class of 1908, 51 per cent, entered upon advanced school work in technical\nschool or university; 72 per cent, of the class of 1907 entered upon advanced school work\nin technical school or university.\n\nThe Chicago Manual Training High School, one of the oldest in the country, makes the following statement:\nThe character of the work of the school may be inferred from the following statement\nof the occupations of some of its 661 graduates. In manufacturing or mercantile business:\n67 mechanical, electrical, or civil engineers; 61 superintendents or managers of manufacturing or other business establishments; 102 designers, draftsmen, foremen, chemists,\nmachinists, electricians; 152 bookkeepers, clerks, etc.; 137 lawyers, physicians, teachers;\n134 graduates are in colleges or other institutions of learning; 145 college degrees have\nbeen received by its graduates.\n\nPrincipal Larkins, of the Brooklyn Manual-Training High School, sends\nthe following to the committee :\nI know that a great many of our graduates, particularly women, have entered teaching,\nand that large numbers have gone to college from this school. Some are in clerical positions, some are merchants, and a few salesmen; a great many are professional men and\nengineers; two or three are draftsmen. So far as the trades are concerned, two graduates\nbecame machinists, one of whom has since died and one has left the business to go on the\noperatic stage. One, after a technical course in Columbia University, has become a plumber; that is to say, he has entered the service of his father who is one of the largest plumber\ncontractors in the city. One or two have become artists, four or five have become electrical mechanics, and a number have become surveyors.\n\nTo Principal Bogan, of the Albert G. Lane School of Chicago, the committee isindebted for the following:\nFrom the 40 students who expect to graduate in June, 10 will enter engineering schools;\n2 will enter law schools; 6 will become teachers cf manual training; 6 will enter agricultural colleges; 4 will enter drafting-rooms; 7 will enter trades, and 5 are undecided.\n\nDean Chamberlain, of the Throop Institute of Pasadena, Cal., states:\nI append my list showing the occupation of graduates. The fact that 13 per cent.,\nas per appended list, are engineers and 12 per cent, are managers, etc., shows that a large\nnumber go to technical colleges. Of the 28 per cent, that are teachers and students, a\nlarge majority are now in technical colleges. You can see at once that our list tallies with\nthe report of the Massachusetts Industrial Commission, as few go into the trades.\n\nIt must be remembered, however, that the value of handworking courses\nin these schools as Superintendent Stevens, of New York, so well states, \"must\nbe judged not only by the record of its graduates but by the proficiency it may\ngive the boy or girl who does not graduate.\"\nThe aims of the manual-training high schools as expressed by those who\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "748\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\npreside over them, the lack of definite correlation between academic and\nmanual work, and the record of their graduates, together make it clear that\nthese schools are academic rather than vocational in character, that there is\nlittle apparent tendency to bring these schools into more direct relationship\nwith industrial activity, and that there is little or no desire to specially train\ngraduates for the manufacturing life of the community. Practically no principal of a manual-training school has suggested that manual training be made\nmore technical or that it be reorganized so as to serve as a preparation for\nspecific industrial vocations.\nVI. This subcommittee was directed to examine the possibilities of technical\neducation in the secondary-school field, and to define the functions of technical\nhigh schools. This type of school is just now in process of development and\nit is difficult to forecast just what its ultimate character is to be. We have\nthe engineering schools of collegiate rank, but we have had until very recently\nno public schools which provide thoro technical training of secondary grade.\nThere is a great variety of positions coming between the engineer on the\none hand and the mechanic on the other. The special function of the technical high school should be to train men for these positions. The\nengineering schools have their own functions and do not give the practical\ntraining involving the essentials of a variety of trades and industrial processes\nwhich foremen, superintendents of shops, and men of that type need. The\ntechnical high school can give this practical training, and in addition, all the\nscientific and literary training which is necessary for such positions. No\ndoubt a large number of foremen and superintendents, designers and manufacturing experts will, in the future, come from the ranks of mechanics as heretofore, but the majority of such positions are more and more requiring a broader\nequipment than is afforded in commercial practice. Furthermore, just as the\ncommercial high school should not only train stenographers and bookkeepers\nand specialists, but also furnish broad training to gifted young men who will\noccupy responsible executive positions in the commercial world, so the technical\nhigh school should aim to give courses broad enough to train men who are to be\nmanufacturers and directors of industry. Such men need a more practical\nknowledge of mechanical and technical processes than the engineering college\nnow furnishes.\nSuperintendent L. D. Harvey suggests that technical high schools may be\nof different types. The committee quotes from his letter the following:\nThey may be schools designed primarily to prepare students for engineering courses\nin higher educational institutions; or schools designed to give such technical training as\nwill enable the students taking the course to master the technique of various occupations,\nnot perhaps to the fullest and most complete limit, but to the limit that is necessary to give\nthem the technical information requisite for foremen and superintendents in many of the\nlines of industrial work. It is possible that these two functions may be combined in the\nsame school. It is clearly evident that a school, whose courses have in view the needs above\nstated, must have a different content for these courses and must organize them differently\nthan the courses in existence in. the technical high schools that aim primarily to prepare\nstudents to enter any kind of a higher educational institution.\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n749\n\nPrincipal Weaver, of the Girls' Practical Arts High School of Boston, has\nthe following conception of such a school:\nIt is one that should aim to give training that will enable the pupil to enter upon some\nline of industrial work and successfully perform it. Instead of spending time on the various handicrafts, I believe that the pupils should be directed along one particular line.\nTechnical high schools, in preparing pupils tQ enter the industries, should give thoro\ninstruction in drawing, which is the basis of all handicraft. Our object is to train girls\nto be competent housekeepers whether they intend to become wage-earners or not. The\nlatter are prepared during the four years to become milliners or dressmakers.\n\nSuperintendent Elson, who has had much to do with the establishment of\na technical high school in Cleveland, makes the following analysis of such a\nschool:\nA technical high school I regard as a scientific \"school, a school that is headed toward\nintelligent service in the industries. It has high standards of technical work, it looks to an\neffective output, and it groups its academic subjects with reference to the needs of the technical problems. The student devotes about half his time to technical and the other half\nto academic studies. The academic studies include language mathematics, and science,\ntogether with some history and civics, hygiene and sanitation. The usual treatment of\nthe various phases of the academic studies — for example, mathematics — is not followed.\nThat is to say, there is no attempt to teach algebra as a science, or geometry as a science,\nbut rather such parts of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry are selected as are\nfundamental in carrying forward the requirements of the technical studies. The training\nin these is such as to give ready skill in the control of the necessary mathematical ideas to\nforward the technical problems in hand. The result of such instruction should be pupils\nwith a ready, usable knowledge of the fundamental problems and processes in arithmetic,\nalgebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Similarly, science should deal with those topics\nchosen especially with reference to their utility. The science should be applied science\nrather than general science. Again, English, German, or French offers opportunity for\ngiving the industrial bias to the work. The theme-writing can well include as topics the\nproducts and processes involved in manufacture. Such a school therefore groups its studies,\nselects its topics, and arranges its instruction with reference to its fundamental needs on\nthe technical side. Such a school is not headed for college. It seeks to make efficient\nworkers and intelligent workmen. The student need not have less culture and he certainly\nwill have a larger fund of usable knowledge than would be possible were the academic\nstudies carried in isolated, parallel lines and developed as entities, or as sciences\nThe technical school probably offers some opportunity for specialization during the last\nyear of its course. The manual-training high schools certainly do not meet the needs of the\nsituation. Indeed, from an industrial standpoint they have done very little to help conditions. There are no technical high schools in the country, or at most only one or two;\nand what they will do in the way of supplying industrial needs can only be determined by\nway of a guess. My impression is that this is the type of secondary school which has a\ndistinct and important place and which will be of great service to the cause of industry.\nIndeed, from an educational standpoint, I think the technical high school is of commanding importance. However, to my mind, we need, first, to get our general schools of a practical nature on a more effective basis. I believe that it is wise to move rather toward the\nmaking of technical high schools, than toward so-called manual-training schools. The\nneed for a purely literary high school is very limited in comparison with that of the school\nof the type of technical high school, defined above,\n\nGeorge H. Martin, secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education outlined the place and function of a technical high school in a paper\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "750\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nread at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at Washington in\n1908:\n(i) Such a school will have an avowedly vocational purpose. This will exclude the\nso-called general courses for culture which aim only to offer new intellectual feedinggrounds for boys who do not care to browse in the old academic pastures. (2) The vocations for which such a school would prepare are not in the professions. Hence, courses\nespecially designed to prepare for the colleges and for the normal schools would be excluded,\nthough these are really vocational courses. (3) Technical high schools may be commercial, agricultural, or mechanical. Mechanical high schools may be as varied as the manufacturing industries for which they are to prepare. A school may prepare for a single\nindustry or it may be polytechnic in its character, offering a variety of courses adapted to\nlocal needs. (4) In the age of its pupils, in the length of its courses, and in its preparatory\nrequirements, a technical high school should correspond with high schools of other sorts.\nThis would call for four -year courses following the completion of an eight- or nine-year\nelementary course, and would include pupils, roughly speaking, from fovirteen to eighteen\nyears of age. (5) Being a technical school its distinctive function would be to develop\neconomic efficiency, but in common with all public schools it must aim also to develop intellectual and moral character. Each of these aims is both individual and social. (6) The\nwork of the school will be threefold: (a) to furnish technical knowledge and technical\nskill; (6) to promote intelligence, breadth, and refinement of a cultural sort; (c) to develop\na sense of civic obligation. (7) For the first purpose there should be drawing, mathematics,\nand science, in kind and amount according to the needs of the industry for whose technique\nthe student is preparing. (8) Technical skill in mechanic arts can be acquired only in a\nshop, so that shop practice must constitute a large part of the work of the technical school.\nIt may be gained either in a school shop or in a commercial shop. Which is better, the\nexperience of the world has not yet determined. Both are in operation and each has its\nadvantages. Undoubtedly a good school shop is better than a poor commercial shop;\nbut a school shop, to be good, must contain the essential features of the best commercial\nshop. Its instructors must be shop-trained men; its hours and discipline must be those of\nthe shop; and its product must be a salable commercial product. Whether the product\nshould be sold or not is another question. What is true of the shop work is equally true of\nthe farm work. (9) In order that the student may become a useful citizen as well as a\nskilled workman, the school covirse should include history, economics, and civics. Time\nalso should be provided for thoro physical training, including personal hygiene and organized athletics. English should be cultivated thruout the course by composition and\nforensics. Opportunity should be offered to those students who might find relaxation and\naesthetic pleasure in the study and practice of vocal and instrumental music.\n\nThe committee does not wish to overlook those cities and towns which\ncannot have a completely differentiated high-school system, and wishes to\nmake clear that industrial and educational conditions in different communities\nare so varied that no one type of school can meet the needs of all communities.\nIt may be entirely possible in some communities to modify slowly manualtraining courses in high schools, transferring the prevailing cultural purpose\ninto the industrial, without any real loss of culture. In many communities\nthe technical high school is not at all feasible, altho there are many boys who\nought to have the opportunity of developing efficiency in industrial pursuits.\nThe committee suggests that in many of the smaller cities the manual-training courses in the elementary school and in the high school may be modified\nso as to meet this need in a fairly satisfactory way.\nIn such cases every effort\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentI\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n751\n\nshould be made to make the handwork an integral part of the course of study\nof the industrial pupils.\nAssuming that manual-training high schools do not make provision for\nindustrial education of secondary grade, and that technical high schools exist\nin exceedingly small numbers in this country, it remains to be shown that there\nis a real need for such schools. First, it may be noted that in the judgment\nof nearly every respondent, there is a distinct place for industrial education of\na secondary character. The manual-training high school was introduced into\nour public-school system very largely because of a belief on the part of the\npublic that in them students would be fitted for actual industrial pursuits.\nNow that these schools have found another place in the scheme of secondary\neducation, the field is left open for another type of secondary school that will\nmeet the expectations that were directed upon the older manual-training high\nschool. The committee does not urge that the literary, commercial, and\nmanual -training high schools are not worth all they have cost; on the contrary, itfeels that they contribute an invaluable element of modern education.\nIt is only intended to urge that they meet the needs of industrial education\nonly partially, and that their ideals and methods are such that it is impossible\nfor them to meet this situation adequately.\nHandwork in secondary education has another mission besides that of\ngeneral culture. While everyone should know how to use his hands, a preponderating number of each generation of school children must know how to\nuse them for some definite purpose. To them the question is not one of academic culture, but of livelihood. In every great manufacturing city this number is very large. The welfare of a city, its rank among the municipalities of\nthe land, must depend in a large degree on the efficiency of its skilled workers\nand industrial leaders. That large body of pupils who annually make their\nexodus from the elementary and high schools, beginning at the sixth school\nyear, to a very large extent, enter low-grade and poorly paid commercial and\nindustrial pursuits. After they work a year or two they often realize their\nlack of training. Some enter night schools, but most of them are beyond the\nreach of further educational influences. If some means could be devised\nwhereby these boys and girls would be more definitely strengthened for their\nvocations, while at the same time they were given a further general education,\na long stride would be taken toward making of them more self-reliant men and\nwomen and better citizens.\nIn New York City approximately 37 per cent, of the population are engaged\nin industrial and mechanical work; 37 per cent, in business, 19 per cent, in\ndomestic service, and 5 per cent, in the learned professions, and undoubtedly\nother large cities of our country would show a similar distribution. There\nare many schools for the 5 per cent, in the learned professions, and there should\nnot be fewer; but aside from the engineering schools of college grade, there are\nbut few containing thoro practical courses for the 37 per cent, engaged in industrial and mechanical work. The schools, both elementary and high, are too\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "752\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nexclusively literary in their character for large numbers of average active boys\nfrom thirteen to seventeen years. This is a period when such boys need to\nrealize a practical quality in their education. If such boys could enter a school\nwith a definite vocational end in view, where they could feel the interrelation\nbetween their mathematics, science, drawing, and shopwork; and where they\nwould realize that they were preparing themselves for definite work in the\nskilled industries, where their wages would be commensurate with their worth,\nit is not too much to prophesy that many such boys would continue at school\nboth from their own choice and with the encouragement of their parents.\nInvestigation seems to prove that there is a demand for this type of school\nfor the education of boys and girls of secondary age who do not care to take up\nthe work of existing high schools and who desire to prepare primarily for some\nparticular activity.\nThe facts developed by this report also seem to indicate clearly that such\na school must be in many ways a somewhat radical departure from present\ntypes of secondary school.\nIn 1906 the Board of Education in Cleveland appointed an educational\ncommission which was asked to make a study of the educational system of the\ncity and suggest such changes as would be beneficial. It took up the question\nof technical high schools and commercial high schools. In studying the problem the commission reported substantially as follows: Cleveland has six high\nschools of the old type which fit boys for college or which give them the broad\ntraining of the high school as preparation for their life-work, whatever that\nmay be. The majority of students who attend high school at all will continue\nto go to one of these schools. These schools do not give any special preparation for either the manufacturing or the commercial life of the city, and,\nin our opinion, there should be one school at least in each of these lines. The\ncommission- therefore recommended that a manual-training high school be\nestablished having a four-year course with morning and afternoon sessions,\nwhich should give at least one-half of each day to study and recitation work\nand one-half of each day to practical work in the shop, the drawing-room, or\nthe laboratory. The commission stated its belief that the graduates of this\nschool would be in great demand by manufacturers, and that while in some\ncases they would go into the shops as mechanics, they would undoubtedly,\nin a short time, if showing the ability, become foremen, and later on, assistant\nsuperintendents. The fact that they would be well-educated young men with\nspecial knowledge of drawing and the use of tools, would quickly fit them for\npositions of responsibility. Some of them might go into the shop; some might\ngo into the office; some might become salesmen; but in any, or all of these positions, the practical knowledge they gained would be of utmost benefit.\nThe report of this commission resulted in the establishment of a technical\nhigh school, and Principal James F. Barker, in a speech before the Eastern\nAssociation of Manual Training Teachers at Pittsburg, May, 1909, described\nthe educational practice underlying this school.\nParts of his address follow:\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n753\n\nLarge cities are coming to see that they must provide specialized schools to meet the\nneeds and popular demands of their people; that present-day schools do not meet these\nneeds in many cases is all too apparent. The number of children in the various grades\nin the Cleveland schools are as follows: ist, 14,509; 2d, 9,992; 3d, 9,530; 4th, 8,780;\n5th, 7,702; 6th, 6,179; 7th, 4,974; 8th, 3,154; High ist, 1,903; High 2d, 1,426; High 3d,\n930; High 4th, 740. Compare the first figures, 14,000, with the last figure, 700. The\n\nI\n\nhigh -school graduating class is only 5 per cent, of the first-grade registration. Figures\nof this sort have been hurled at our heads till we are weary and yet we do not grasp the\nsignificance of a tremendous loss like this\nWhat is the matter with the schools ?\nNothing so far as they go. They stop short of their full mission. The difficulty is elsewhere. Itis mainly in our industrialism.\nWe must readjust ourselves to these conditions\nand readjust our system of education\nBut education seems to have reversed the\nusual order of evolution, and instead of growing from the bottom up, it has always been\nfrom the top downward. From the university of mediaeval times to the preparatory schools\nof the past two centuries, thence to the grammar school, and last of all we have cared for\nthe little children in the kindergarten. And following this general trend of education, we\n\nI\n\nw\n\nestablish vocational high schools before vocational grammar-grade schools. So the Cleveland Technical High School, which is a vocational school, precedes the vocational school\nfor the seventh and eighth grades, but the duty of the vocational high school will never\nbe the same as the duty of the vocational school of the grammar grades. A vocational\nhigh school must train for industrial leadership, just as an academic high school trains for\nprofessional leadership. In planning the course for the Cleveland Technical High School,\nthen, the first step was to free ourselves from the dominating idea of the college-entrance\nrequirement, and this we have done. Our course is a four-year course, predominantly\nstrong in science thruout, with a two-year preparatory manual-training coui-se supplemented bytwo more years of trade instruction. The two years devoted to manual training\nhave \"general industrial intelligence\" as the watchword, with an effort to secure as much\ninformation related to the industries as can be gathered. At the completion of these two\nyears a trade may be selected by the student, with the assistance of the home and upon the\nadvice of the school. From that time on, twenty hours a week (four hours daily) for two\nyears gives us the desired opportunity to teach trades. But this is only half of the school\nday. Pupils are still required to study English, mathematics, and science as during the\ntwo preceding years, and thruout we are using the industries as the center about which to\ngroup the academic subjects. Our first-year mathematics is shop mathematics, with a\nstrong accent upon the simple handling of numbers (simple arithmetic in a high school,\nnote you). Next year we are going to take a group of boys thru a combination course\nteaching mathematics — arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry — as one subject.\nThe first year geography is related to the industries and leads up thru weather and climatic\nconditions to production of raw material into manufacture and thence transportation.\nOur English is taking on n]ore and more industrialism. We visit shops, write stories of\nmanufacture, and read stories of invention and industrial discovery. Thru the four years\nof the school we are relating the English, the mathematics, and the science to the shop\nproblem.\nWe are writing our own text as we proceed\nThe industrial branches\noffered to the boys, of course, differ from those available for girls. Evidently, then, from\nthe relationship between the technical and the academic work, the girls would not receive\nthe same instruction in algebra and other subjects as that given to the boys, and so in all\nsubjects the boys and the girls are segregated. The only place where they recite together\nis at the noon period during luncheon. In the trades we are offering cabinet-making,\npattern-making and foundry practice, machine shop, architectural, and mechanical drafting, printing and bookbinding, pottery and applied design, millinery, catering and cooking.\nAnother experiment which we are watching with considerable interest is that of the Summer\nQuarter. That is, the school is planned to operate forty-eight weeks a year — twelve weeks\nconstituting a quarter, with a single week's vacation between.\nTo graduate, twelve quar-\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "754\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Manual Training\n\nters are required. These may be taken three per year for foxir years, or four per year for\nthree years, or ad lihitum. The next class enters July 6. This we believe will mean a\ngreat deal to many boys, this shortening of the full high -school course from four to three\nyears. It means more, it means that teachers are paid for twelve instead of for ten months.\nStrong vigorous teachers can stand the strain just as any business man or woman engaged\nin other pursuits does. A teacher who would receive $1,500 thus earns $2,000, and has\nfour weeks of vacation per year. One reason why teachers are so underpaid is the fact\nthat during less than 200 out of the 365 days, less than six hours daily are given to active\nteaching. To date, about one-half of the boys are planning to attend the Summer Quarter.\nThe proportion of girls is somewhat less. In all, ovir Summer Quarter will enroll 450\npupils. During the last week of the 1909 summer session the attendance was 98.8 per\ncent, and at no time did it go below 96 per cent. (Principal Barker reports that during the\nsession the school lost an enrollment of twelve pupils out of a total enrollment of 430.)\nLast year about 5,000 pupils attended the six Cleveland High schools. This fall the\nTechnical opened with an attendance of nearly 700. The total falling o£f in the other high\nschools was 42 — that is, the establishment and opening of this school supplied the needs\nof 658 pupils who otherwise would have left school at the eighth grade. If no other good\nhas come of the project, this alone would have been full compensation for opening such an\ninstitution\nDuring the past winter an evening school teaching trades has been\nopen to men and women engaged at the same trade during the day. That is, classes in\nmachine-shop practice, for instance, were opened for men employed as machinists during\ntheir working-hours, and so on thru other lines of work. The applicants numbered three\ntimes the capacity of the school. One particularly interesting class was formed. An\norganization of men employing sheet-metal workers is sending its apprentices to evening\nschool. These apprentices are regularly indentured. Part of the contract calls for two\nyears' instruction in the evening technical high school, the employers paying $7.50 per\nterm for four terms for the instruction. Here is a trade that has perhaps felt as strongly\nas any the need of more intelligent workers. The evening class attendance was over\n85 per cent, of perfect in all classes and in some it was 95 per cent, for the winter.\n\nA Strong feature of this type of school is the direct bearing which\nthe academic instruction has upon the industries. This is an essential feature\nof secondary industrial education. Superintendent Harvey writes that the\nStout Institute is sjowly modifying some of its academic subjects from the\ntraditional ideas as manifested in textbooks in use in high schools with the effort\nto make the instruction bear a more definite relation to the activities of life\nthan it does in the traditional high school.\nPrincipal Bogan, of the Albert G. Lane Technical High School of Chicago,\nstates that his school is aiming to make all subjects as practical as possible —\nfor instance, much of the mathematics consists of shop problems. In physics\nspecial emphasis is placed on electricity. In fact, he proposes to offer a threeyear course in electrical physics preparatory to the one-year course in electrical\nconstruction. In English a large part of the composition work is devoted\nto shop activities, and much of the outside reading is devoted to the study of\nthe lives of great inventors, discoverers, and explorers. In physiography\nunusual attention is given to a study of the metallic ores; and in botany a\nlarge share of the time is devoted to a course in elementary forestry closely\nrelated to work in the wood shop. Mechanical drawing, freehand drawing\nand machine sketching, architectural drawing and machine design are closely\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] INDUSTRIES\n\nIN THE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n755\n\nrelated to the work of the science laboratories and shops.\nIn history emphasis\nis placed on the development of industry.\nDr. Balliet thinks that the shopwork and all the academic work must be\nmost closely correlated.\nHe further states:\nThe technical ideal must make itself felt, not only in the shopwork but in all the academic work, and especially in mathematics and the sciences. In such a school, science must\nbe taught as applied science, and mathematics as applied mathematics. Even in such\nsubjects as English and history, the technical ideal must considerably modify the treatment\nas compared with the treatment of these subjects in a literary high school. In this respect\nthe technical high school must differ radically from a literary high school or a commercial\nhigh school with a shop attached to it. Necessarily it follows also that, if science and mathematics are to be taught in their application to mechanical and technical processes, coeducation in a technical high school is impossible in the sense that boys and girls are to study and\nrecite together in the same class; for it is not possible that the two sexes should be interested\nin the same line of applications. Coeducation, in the sense that one-half of the school may\nbe attended by boys and the other half by girls, the two halves being practically as distinct\n[and separate as two independent schools, will of course be possible, but hardly desirable.\n\nThe Technical High School in Cleveland seems to the committee to\napproach most closely to the definition previously given for such a school.\nThere are several other ''technical high schools\" in the country, but an examination oftheir courses of study will show that they do not radically differ from\nordinary manual-training high schools.\nThe investigation also shows that some schools not called \"technical high\nschools\" are fulfilling the function of such a school as defined by this committee. The California School of Mechanical Arts at San Francisco is one of\nthese. This school has proved to its own satisfaction that there is a demand\nfor technical training of high-school grade. Its polytechnic course differs\nfrom the course usually given in manual-training high schools by leaning more\n:decidedly to the practical or industrial side: (i) in the amount and character\n;of the shop and technical instruction; (2) in the length of the daily program;\n[(3) in the type of its shop teachers; (4) in emphasizing applied mathematics\nrand science in preference to literary subjects; (5) in its distinctive viewpoint\nand atmosphere generally.\nVII. The special field assigned to this committee was that of secondary\nindustrial and technical education. The Committee has thus far attempted to\nshow the purpose, methods, and results of manual-training high schools. It has\nattempted a definition of the technical high school and has given considerable\nattention to the educational practice appropriate to such a school. It has\nemphasized the necessity of a direct relationship between academic studies and\nshopwork. It has pointed out that the course in such a school should not be\ninfluenced by college requirements beyond those of a technical college. It has\nattempted to make clear that the academic standards of such a school must be\ndifferent from those of a literary high school, and finally, that the consensus\nof opinion as based upon the replies seems to be that such a school can do its\nbest work when it is a separate educational unit. While this committee was\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "756\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nnot directly concerned with ttie question of \"trades schools,\" it was thought\nbest to send out a letter of inquiry to ascertain whether there was a demand\nfor trade instruction and whether the technical high school, in some measure,\ncould meet this demand or whether there should be a separate school unit for\nsuch instruction. Without any exception the replies point out that neither\nthe manual-training high school nor the technical high school can fully meet the\nneeds of all secondary industrial education. In all the suggestions offered\nto the committee concerning a plan for secondary industrial education, much\nwas made of industrial education of a grade somewhat lower than that of the\ntechnical high school.\nIn the words of Dr. Balliet:\nWe need a fourth type of school which might be called, perhaps, a secondary school,\ntho I should prefer, I think, the name \"intermediate industrial school.\" Such a school\nshould cover, in point of time, the last two years at least of the elementary-school course and\nthe first two years of the high-school course. In such a school there can be organized a\ngreat variety of courses fitting for corresponding trades. The local needs of the community\nshould largely determine the trades to be taught, and yet not entirely, as in these days the\nmigration of labor from place to place is so easy that we are not justified in urging a pupil\nto take up a trade for which he has little taste solely because there is a strong demand for\nit in tlie locality.\n\nThe report of the Subcommittee on the Intermediate Industrial School\ncovers fully this field as outlined by Dr. Balliet, and the attention that this\ncommittee proposes to give to this field is merely for the purpose of considering whether some of the work of the intermediate school can be done, temporarily atleast, in the building devoted to secondary industrial education.\nThe present discussion should be read in closest connection with that of the\nSubcommittee on the Intermediate Industrial School. If the intermediate\nindustrial school has a four-year course it will lie either entirely or partly\nwithin the secondary field of education, according to the point at which secondary education is assumed to begin. George A. Merrill, principal of the School\nof Mechanical Arts at San Francisco, suggests the following plan of organization:\nThe elementary school should end with the sixth grade. The present high school\nshould be cut exactly in two. Grades 7, 8, 9, and 10 should constitute an intermediate\nor secondary school by itself. Grades 11, 12, 13, and 14 should be grouped together as a\nhigher school or college. If the tendency thruout the nation is the same as it is in California, itis in the direction of some sort of an arrangement such as I have outlined. For\na number of years we have been discussing the advisability of a \"six and six\" arrangement,\ntaking the seventh and eighth grades from the elementary school and adding them to the\nhigh school. Now come the universities asking to have the college freshman and sophomore\nyears (Grades 13 and 14) transferred to the province of the high schools. The desirability of\nhaving the elementary school terminate with the sixth grade is pretty generally recognized,\nbut the importance of subdividing Grades 7 to 14 into two stages of four years each is what\nI want to emphasize, tho speaking only from the industrial point of view for the time\nbeing. As it stands today, boys finishing the grammar school at the age of fifteen (which\nis approximately the average) are too young, by two years, to begin apprenticeships.\nThat means that the natural age for beginning apprenticeships comes right in the middle\nof the present high-school period.\nThe intermediate school that I propose (to include\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n757\n\nGrades 7 to 10) would graduate boys at the age when so many of them drop out of the\nsecond year of the present high schools, and hence such a school would be the logical\nplace in which to develop \"industrial intelligence\" preliminary to an apprenticeship.\nThe high school or college that I propose (Grades 11 to 14) is where differentiation should\nbegin.\nSome would be trade schools, some classical schools, some pre-medical, some\ntechnical high schools, some commercial.\nThe basis of this proposed regrouping of the\nades is not a matter of speculation; it has been forced upon me through my experience\nthe Lick and Wilmerding schools.\nThe Wilmerding school is intended solely to teach\nys trades, and we have tried hard to keep within that province.\nMost of our boys we\nave taken just as they graduate from the grammar school.\nWe have tried to determine\nhether it is feasible to take such boys and teach them trades as an integral part of their\nneral education and preparation for life, and our experience tells us that it would be betr if we could take them two years later in life. The future American trade school must\nnd some way to get its boys at the same age at which boys ordinarily begin apprenticeips outside of school — not because of custom alone, but because that is the time when\nys seem mentally and physically ready to begin their trades.\nCertainly they are not\ndy or fit for trades at the usual age of graduation from the grammar school.\nThe\nactical difficulty at present, of course, is in winning back into the schoolroom the army\nf seventeen-year-old boys who have been out of school three, four, or five years, having\nopped out of school when the \"industrial instinct\" began to manifest itself within them;\nother words, at the end of the sixth grade.\nThe industrial branches most suitable to be\nincorporated in such an intermediate school will have to be determined by trial. The\nwoodwork and forgework of the present manual-training high school might well be retained,\nsince wood and mild steel still constitute the leading materials of construction.\nThat is the\ntest that I would apply, as a rule, in the choice of shop subjects; I would select occupations that have to do with the materials most commonly used in the industries. Applying that\ntest, I would say that electrical work and sheet-metal work are deserving of a more prominent place in school shops, since the modern tendency in the use of metals is in the forms\nof wire and rolled sheets.\nIn the intermediate school I would substitute electrical work\n(including light machine work) for the machine-shop course of the present manual-training\nhigh school.\nWe have tried it at the Wilmerding School and we find that it works well.\nI am amazed also to observe how bricklaying has become quite popular as an elective\nmanual-training subject among our students in the Lick as well as in the Wilmerding school.\nMy next observation has to do with the matter of academic studies in connection with\ntrade teaching.\nYear by year I have been forced back toward the conclusion that the\nfounder of the Wilmerding School was on the right track when he expressed the idea of\n\"teaching boys trades, with plenty of work and little study.\"\nUnfortunately, the average\nI\nboy who insists on leaving school at the age of twelve or thirteen needs Mr. Wilmerding's\n■ ^^prescription, and so does the average apprentice of seventeen or eighteen. The apprentice\nI^H^id the young journeyman who attend night school or who take correspondence courses,\nI^Ktc, do so, not to perfect themselves in their trades, but with a view to getting out of their\nI^^Krades. I am here merely telling what my experience dictates as the proper amount of\nB^Bicademic work to count on for the future trade school — not the intermediate school, but\nI^Hlie higher trade school. In the intermediate school the boy who wants plenty of work and\n^^^little study should be accommodated, if he insists on it, but he is the boy who will be\nj expected to graduate from the intermediate school into the trade school, while his more\nJ^^studious neighbor will be a candidate for one of the other high schools.\n\nThere appears to be a unanimity of opinion that the trade school should be\nseparate from the technical high school. The majority of respondents have\nsuggested that the term \"trade high school \" is a misnomer. Professor Charles\nR. Richards, of Cooper Union, voices the opinion of many when he states:\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nI do not believe that there is any vital possibility of such a thing as a trade scl.ool of\nhigh-school grade — that is, in the sense of beginning with pupils who have graduated from\nthe grammar school and continuing with a four -year course. The trade school is not a\nhigh-school problem in the above sense, and I do not believe there is any possibility of converting our manual-training high schools into trade schools.\n\nThe trade school looks to early entrance upon an industrial pursuit with\nan equipment of specialized skill and technical knowledge on the part of its\ngraduates that shall make it possible for them to materially reduce the time\nordinarily required to learn a skilled trade. It has a minimum requirement on\nthe literary and scientific side and a maximum requirement on the side of skill.\nWhile it may look to Individual, social, and mental development as well as more\nskill in execution, it places its greatest emphasis on the making of good workmen. It gives a minimum of academic training and a maximum of ready\nskill in processes of work in specific trades. Trade schools are not expected\nto develop leaders and furnish foremen and managers of industrial processes\nso much as to train the rank and file of the great army of industrial workers\nwhere such training cannot be satisfactorily had under commercial conditions.\nDr. Parmenter, of Boston, writes:\nI am inclined to leave out the term \"high\" in this connection, for an efficient trade\nschool will concern itself mainly, in the case of an individual pupil, with the particular line\nof industry for which he desires to fit himself. The instruction must necessarily be adapted\nlargely to giving knowledge of the principles involved in a particular trade and skill in\napplying the principles and processes. Little, if any instruction will be given that can\nproperly be called high-school work in the ordinary sense of that term. The above answer\nimplies that I think the trade school should differ very radically from the manual-training\nhigh school. If it does not it will be an unnecessary and indefensible duplication of\neducational machinery.\n\nPresident Charles H. Howe, of the Case School of Applied Science, makes\nit clear that trades schools are units separate and distinct from other secondary\nschools.\nHe says:\nI believe in trade schools most thoroly and think they are coming as part of the educational system of every city, but when they come, they are to be trade schools, pure and simple, the object being not to give an education to the mind but to teach a trade. I think it\nwill be possible in these schools to fit boys to become journeymen so that they can do a\nman's work when they graduate. A trades school will be in a building which is exactly\nlike a shop. It will have the same kind of machinery and as many different kinds as the\nbest-equipped shops. The teaching will be done by foremen who are taken out of the\nshops and who do all the teaching that apprentices in the shops receive. This school will\nmanufacture goods as a shop does and its product will be sold in the market as is the product of the shop. Some manufacturers would claim that this was not a school but a shop.\nI am perfectly willing that it should be called a shop, but I would still claim that it is a\nschool because its principal object is to teach, while the principal object of the shop is to\nturn out the manufactured product. A trade school cannot take students under sixteen or\nseventeen years of age, because if it does, its graduates will be so young that they cannot\nsecure positions as journeymen. In most states the limit of school age is fourteen years.\nI should think that there ought to be intermediate industrial schools established for boys\nfrom fourteen to sixteen like the continuation schools of Germany. In these schools the\nboys would be given a little instruction in practical arithmetic and they should be given a\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n759\n\ngreat deal of drawing and handwork. I should say that every boy in these schools should\nhave a thoro course in all the branches of handwork without regard to the particular trade\nhe intended to enter and then, at the age of sixteen or whatever age was fixed upon as the\nproper time for him to enter the trade school, he would begin the study of his particular\ntrade. The training given him in the manual-training school would of course be of great\nbenefit after he began his special work. The broader knowledge of all the trades, or a\nnumber of them, which he would get in the manual-training work, would fit him for a better\ncomprehension of the particular work that he was to do, and, I think, in many cases, would\naid him in later years to become a foreman or a master himself. I should say that the handwork which I have mentioned and the trade-school work should be entirely distinct from\nthe high school. The objects of the two institutions are entirely different. The industrial\nschool which I have compared to the continuation school would of course be a part of the\ntrade school, because the boy would go from it into the trade school as soon as his age permitted\n\nThe responses seem to have established the fact that vocational instruction\nleading to trades should begin below the high-school age. We must expect the\nlarger number of pupils to enter trades school from grades below the present\nhigh-school period, and we must devise means for attracting and holding them\nin school. The investigations of James F. McElroy, consulting engineer of the\nConsolidated Car Heating Co. at Albany, N.Y., not only clearly point out the\neducational qualifications of men who are in trades, but also emphasize that\na trades school cannot have the academic requirements of our present high\nschool.\nHe says:\nI have had inquiry made of over 100 workmen\n\ncomposed largely of machinists, and\n\nhence representing a grade of intelligence higher than the average. The inquiry has developed two facts in which we are concerned at this time: First, out of 102 men there was not\nto be found a single graduate of a high school nor a person who ever attended as a pupil\nin a high-school course. Second, out of 102 men I found only seven who had completed\nthe course in the grammar schools. From this it appears that the education of all of these\nmechanics was limited to such education as is furnished by the grammar schools and that\n93 per cent, of them belong to that class of pupils that drop out of school before completing\nthe grammar-school course. On the inquiry of other people interested in manufacturing\nI am informed that approximately the same condition exists among people engaged in trades\nin their employ.\n\nIn this connection Arthur L. Williston, director of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn,\nstates:\nIn my judgment, it is unwise — I would almost say, impossible — to make any compromise between a school where economic considerations govern and are supreme and a school\nwhere accepted educational notions govern. For this reason, I believe any compromise\nbetween manual training and trade instruction is impracticable.\n\nDr. Balliet expresses the same thought when he says:\nIt seems to me it will never be possible to teach trades in a technical high school.\nThe standard of admission would be too high for pupils who are to learn a trade, if it were\nmade uniform with the general standard of admission of the present high school; it would\nshut out fully 80 per cent, of those who ought to learn a trade. On the other hand, there are\nvery great difficulties in having two standards of admission to the same school, as every\npractical schoolman will appreciate.\nTo teach trades in a technical high school, therefore,\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "760\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwould mean practically that the school should consist of two institutions namely, a technical high school and a trade school, in one building. It is better to organize trade schools\nas separate schools than to try to unite them with technical high schools.\n\nThe Springfield Technical High School had a course in special shop practice. Experience in this city goes to prove that such a course is not successful\nwhen connected with a technical high school. Principal Warner writes as\nfollows:\nWhile our experience proves the attractiveness of practical high -school work of a\nmore general and scientific character than trades teaching, it by no means proves\nthat trades-school work itself in o\\ir high schools would prove equally attractive. The\nexperience on this point that I refer to is the history of our so-called C course in the Technical High School. We intended to make this approach very closely to a trades course. It\nwas very far from successful. Boys who entered it in the freshman year left it for the more\nstrictly academic courses along \"the way, or left school, so that by the senior year we had very\nfew, and sometimes none at all, to graduate from that course. This seems to me to prove\nconclusively that in Springfield and other cities like Springfield, the pupils who get into\nour schools under the present standard of admission, even those pupils who have a very\ndecided practical bent, do not belong to the class for whom the trades high school is to be\norganized.\n\nVIII. Evening trade instruction will be an important possibility of secondary industrial schools. There are young men in business or in shops who\nwould profit by elementary technical training but who cannot take advantage of\nsuch opportunities during the working day. One of the most important needs\nwhich these schools can fill is to better the opportunities of the youth already\nengaged in given vocations. The decline of the apprenticeship system incident\nto the subdivision of manufacturing processes has made it almost impossible\nfor mechanics to secure a broad and generous training. There is a crying\nneed .among semi-skilled working classes for industrial education; and the\ntechnical high school would be able to offer during the evening both practical\nand technical trade courses to men and women already engaged in a given\ntrade.\nDr. Balliet, who was the first school superintendent in the country to recognize the value of public evening trade schools by establishing one, writes as\nfollows:\nTechnical high schools can be utilized for trade-school pupils by organizing tradeschool classes in their shops as evening schools, more particularly for men already employed\nat their trades. There is no reason why, in the shops of every technical high school, there\nshould not be organized a trade school running every night of the week. I see no reason\neither why the shops of these schools should not be open for trade-school instruction,\nbetween, say, four o'clock and six, to boys attending the elementary schools, and from\nhalf-past five o'clock to seven for men engaged at their trades in day time. Under the\neight-hour law many men are free at five o'clock and could attend a trade school until\nseven; others could come after seven and attend until nine or ten. In this way the shops\nof a technical high school would be utilized twelve hours out of every twenty-foiir. From\na business point of view, as well as from an educational point of view, this, it seems to me,\nwould be a wise policy. It would make the instruction economical, make the school\npopular, and make it a powerful, uplifting^force in the^community.\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n761\n\nThe pioneer work of the Springfield evening schools of trades operating\nin connection with the day technical school has resulted in the organization\nof similar evening schools in various sections of the country, e, g., Cambridge,\nMass., New York City, Hartford, Conn., and Providence. R.T.\nIX. In the previous discussions the subcommittee has' apparently omitted\nany reference to work for girls. In many cf'the institutions which have been\nmentioned, work for girls is as prominent a feature as work for boys. The\nliterature of industrial and technical education is apt to emphasize the necessity\nof industrial and technical training for boys and to suggest courses of study\nadapted to their needs. There is no intention here to ignore the problem of\ngirls' training, and much that has already been stated can be applied to the\nl high school,\nwork for girls. The committee sees no reason why the technica\nI\nintermediate industrial school, and even some trade schools, should not include\ncourses for girls. Naturally the courses of study would differ, but the plan\n^ould be the same. These courses should, in many respects, be different from\nthose given to boys. There are some subjects which are studied very largely\nfor general knowledge. These are as valuable for girls as for boys, but while\nthe boys take a large amount of mathematics, the girls might be taught subjects which will be of more direct advantage to them. The girls in our schools\nwill be the wives and mothers of the next generation and the courses of study\nshould be so laid out that these girls will lead happier and richer lives and will\nbe more successful as the future homemakers of our cities. If the maintenance\n\nof a finer order of home is a matter of the deepest concern to every member\nof the community, it logically follows that the appropriate training of the mother\n— the homemaker — is essential to the general welfare. We shall be wise, then,\nto test every plan for the education of women, not merely with questions of\nimmediate expediency or of personal advantage, but always with the thought\nof the larger contribution to the common good, and the higher function which\nwoman can never surrender.\nA large class of girls whose elementary education is incomplete, are in\nimperative need of such industrial education as will enable them to earn a\nliving wage. Thru their self-maintenance, furthermore, the standard of the\nfamily life will be immensely advanced.\nThe aim of the courses for girls is twofold: (i) It is to enable them, thru\nthe right sort of homemaking training, to enter homes of their own, able to\nassume the most sacred duties with an intelligent preparation, and to perpetuate the type of home that will bring about the highest standard of health and\nmorals. (2) The courses of instruction should also train for work in distinctly\nfeminine occupations. The time is perhaps hot far away when every girl will\nlearn some specific kind of remunerative skilled work, just as we expect boys\nto do. This does not mean that married women will follow a vocation outside\nof the home, save in exceptional cases. It does mean that girls will generally\nearn a livelihood in some skilled work during the three, six, or eight years\nafter leaving school and prior to marriage, and will do so for their own and\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "762\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthe good of society; that this earning power will raise the standards of living\nin their parents' families and give the impulse to a higher level when the girls\nmarry and start their own homes; and further, that this possession of skill in\nremunerative labor will, after marriage, afford protection and support when\na family loses its male head.\nProfessor Andrews, of the Department of Domestic Economy of Teachers\nCollege, New York City, presents the following figures:\nIn the United States one married woman\n\nin five is a widow and is responsible, as was\n\nher deceased husband, for her own support and usually for that of her children. Woman's\npresent relation to remunerative employment in. the United States is shown by two facts:\n(i) Of women over 10 years old, 18.8 per cent, were, in 1900, engaged in remunerative\nemployment. (2) Of the 377 lines of employment for men and women listed in the census,\nwomen had, in 1900, entered all but 7, in greater or less numbers. Women are wage-earners,\nthen, already, and if men's training is to be considered, women's must be also.\n\nTaking these two points of view together, it is clear that industrial education for girls should embrace those subjects which the women should understand and which will be of use in life. Dressmaking, millinery, and cooking\nshould be taught, not only with the idea of enabling girls to direct a household\nin a better or more economical way, but also to make them proficient enough so\nthat they can earn a living if economic conditions demand it. It is increasingly evident not only that the demands of modern life are thrusting into the\nbackground the instruction that will be centered in the home, but also that\nthe women are entering the industries. With the disappearance of industrial\nactivities from the home, the increase of apartment houses, the multiplication\nof ready-made conveniences which have greatly modified the education of\ngirls, there has been an accompanying increase in the number of women who\nare obliged to earn their living which makes it desirable that girls be trained\nin some special occupation. Advocates of industrial education for girls feel\nthat training for efficiency in any line of industry will make for better women\nand better homes. In short, the educator is confronted with a twofold problem, as far as the education of girls is concerned: (i) Opportunity must be\ngiven for women who are never to become wage-earners to gain a knowledge\nof industrial conditions and processes through the introduction of technical\nand scientific schools and courses. (2) Opportunity must be given for women\nwho are obliged to become wage-earners at an early age to receive training\nwhich will enable them to enter some specific industry where continued\ndevelopment is possible.\nA brief description of the Boston Girls' High School of Practical Arts will\npoint out how girls are trained to meet these two needs: The' school has a\nfour-year academic course in which the girls receive a general education which\nbetter prepares them for future duties in the home and in society. The academic departments are English, history, art, mathematics, science, and modern\nforeign languages. The industrial department presents household science and\narts, sewing, dressmaking, and millinery.\nThe instruction in the practical\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n,\n\n763\n\narts aims to give not only a knowledge of the various processes in each industry\nstudied, but also a comprehensive understanding of these processes in relation\nto the entire scheme of work. This instruction should insure for the girls\nwho seek employment advancement to places of responsibility in the industries\nopen to them. The purpose of the art department is the cultivation of taste\nthru a study of the principles of beauty and- its application to the problems\nof dress and the home. The course in mathematics has two distinct purposes:\nto train the girls to think logically and clearly, and to enable them to solve\nsimple problems intelligently. A woman should be able to write down her\nhousehold accounts accurately as well as to understand the principles of algebraic and geometric problems. Principal Weaver of this school writes as\n^Kiollows:\n\nI\n\nA general course for all girls is given during the first year. At the beginning of the\n\nsecond year tl-ey may choose for t?eir industrial course which runs thru three years,\neither domestic science, dressmaking, or millinery. While especial attention is given to\nthis chosen industrial subject, training sufficient for home needs is given in the other two.\nIn the millinery and dressmaking courses an effort is made to introduce shop methods;\na study is made of the materials used and of their cost; record slips showing the amount\nof material, price, and time given to the work are kept with each piece of work. The work\nof the drawing-room is closely related to that of the shops. Before a garment, or hat, is\nbegun, a drawing is made giving full details; the design taking into consideration the figure\nof the girl, the quality, and kind of material to be used. This design is taken to the shop\nand serves as a working-drawing. When the garment is completed another drawing is\nmade of the product. The same plan is pursued in the millinery course. The pupils\ntaking domestic science make drawings along the lines of house-building, furnishings,\ndecorations, etc. We fully realize that drawing is the basis of our shopwork. Inasmuch\nas this school has been in existence less than two years I am unable to give any information\ntouching graduates. I have, however, great confidence that girls who finish this course\nwill find employment at fair wages, and be able to advance rapidly to good positions.\nOur academic work, as well as the drawing, correlates with the shop. Descriptions of\nvarious processes, with materials in hand, are required as lessons in expression in good\nEnglish. The chemistry deals with the questions of food, clothing, and shelter. The aim\nof these courses is to set before the girl the highest ideals of home life; to train her in all\nthat pertains to practical housekeeping; to cultivate good taste in furnishings and decoration; to give thoro instruction in sewing as a foundation for dressmaking and millinery\nby such training as shall lead the pupil toward the highest standards in the selection and\nmaking of her own garments and give her the ability to plan and execute for others.\n\nThe Cleveland Technical High School has a department of industrial-art\ntraining for girls. The nature of the studies and the purposes in view are so\ndifferent as to demand a separation of the girls from the boys. There is\ntherefore organized within one building a boys' school and a girls' school.\nThe purpose of the work in domestic science is threefold: (i) To teach all\nsubjects pertaining to the care and duties of a home, that girls may be prepared\nfor practical housekeeping; (2) to teach all theory relating to the above subjects as applied science, that girls may acquire intellectual development as\nwell as practical skill; (3) to teach institutional cookery and kitchen management as trade subjects, that students may be prepared for catering as a voca-\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "764\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ntion. To attain the end of training for housekeeping all work must necessarily be very practical and comprehensive. The home is a complex institution and its management involves the study and practice of preparation of\nfoods, cooking and serving entire meals, washing and ironing clothes, cleaning,\nfirst aid to the injured, care of invalids and children, household accounting,\nexpenditure of income, marketing, house-planning, sanitation, household\nfurnishing, and decoration. All these must be taught in the most specific\nand practical ways. Each student must be taught not merely about doing\nhousehold duties, but to do them. An attempt is made to correlate with the\ntechnical subjects all academic subjects included in the course for girls. In\narithmetic, problems are given involving the standard weights and measures\nused in cookery. The student is drilled in dividing the quantities used in the\nordinary recipe that she may appreciate the relation of the individual to the\npractical recipe. The cost of various foods at different seasons is computed\nin order to obtain an estimate of the average cost. The keeping of household\naccounts and divisions of the family income are also problems to be solved.\nExact computation of food values and the grouping of these foods to form\nwell-balanced menus involve mathematical problems that are studied with\nprofit to the housekeeper in the arithmetic class. The course in chemistry\nis directly correlated with domestic science, and its aim is to give such experiments as will be of practical value to the girls after finishing school. For\ninstance, if eggs are cooked in the kitchen laboratory, during the same week\ntheir composition and properties are ascertained in the chemical laboratory —\nhence, the theory of foods in the second-year cooking classes deals largely\nwith food composition and food manufacture. Domestic-science subjects\nare often given as themes in the English classes. See also the courses in domestic and applied arts for ways in which these are correlated with domestic\nscience. In short, all technical subjects involving homemaking are taken as\nthe basis of the course for girls, and the rest of the studies are grouped around\nthese. The lunchroom in connection with the school affords excellent opportunity for the girls desiring to specialize in institutional cookery. After having\nlearned the fundamental principles of cookery, the student may go into the\nkitchen of the lunchroom and prepare food in large quantities and also study\nthe management and plan of conducting such an institution. The aim in\ndomestic art is to give such training as will enable girls, as they grow to womanhood, to appreciate the practical, economic, and artistic value of various\nmaterials in their application to dress and home furnishings. The course\nincludes plain sewing, the making of outfits for use in the departments of domestic science and domestic art, undergarments, shirt-waist suits, simple summer\ndresses, and millinery. Principles of handwork in the way of rolled edges,\nsetting-in of lace, hand-run tucks, and elementary embroidery are introduced\nand applied to underwear. Original designs made by the pupils are used for\nthis work and in the decoration of the table linen for the dining-room of the\ndomestic-science department.\nThe course in spring and fall millinery is\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n765\n\nprovided for girls who have learned J>ome of the fundamental principles of\nsewing. Millinery affords the girls a broad expression of individuality and\naims to create an appreciation of artistic color combinations and appropriateness. The subject is closely connected with the courses in dressmaking and\napplied art and consists of talks on materials used in millinery, wiring hats,\nmaking buckram and straw hats, wire frames, facings, building bows and covering frames, renovation of old material, and trimming hats. Attention is\ngiven to economy, simplicity, suitability, and the cultivation of artistic taste\nin all lines of work. The work in applied arts correlates in very definite and\npractical ways with dressmaking, millinery, domestic science, and the mechanic\narts and crafts and with the many occasions in daily life in which an intelligent appreciation of fitness and beauty add greatly to vocational success or\nirsonal happiness. Complete courses in plain and hand sewing, machine\njwing, spring and fall millinery, and the applied arts are available to women\nevening classes. Plain cooking and whatever allied courses may be called\nfor by a sufficient number will also be within the scope of the night school.\nMINORITY\n\nREPORT\n\nAs a member of the Subcommittee on Industrial and Technical Education\nin Secondary Schools I have signed the foregoing report; but while I agree\nin the main with the other members of the committee, I find that my observation and experience constrain me to take exception to the definition of the\n\"technical high school\" as it appears in the main, report. In my opinion\ntechnical high schools should occupy the field just below that of the engineering\nschools or technical colleges without losing their naturally close relation to\nthem. To give them this relation is not necessarily to make them merely\npreparatory schools for such higher institutions. Rightly directed they may\ngive thoro training for industrial service in the lower sphere without losing\nsight of the possible engineering student. On the other hand, to deny them\nall preparatory-school functions is to specialize them to such an extent that\nthey cannot, in my opinion, become a large element in the secondary-school\nsystem of the country. In all cities where it is possible to organize highly\ndifferential types of secondary-school work in separate schools, designating\nthem so that they will assist parents and pupils in making a wise choice, the\nspecialized technical high school, as contemplated in the definition to which\nI would take exception, may be of great service; but my strong conviction\nis that the development of secondary technical schools in cities of moderate\nsize and in the country at large might receive a serious set-back if a broader\ndefinition of their function is not recognized. In fact, a few technical high\nschools are already successfully carried on under this broader definition.\nOwing to local conditions they could not have been organized under any\nother definition. They offer an encouraging example to other communities\nsimilarly situated.\nTheir existence should be made consistent with this\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "766\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nreport without necessarily compromising the point of view which recognizes\nthe value of a more highly specialized form of secondary technical education\nfor certain other communities. Furthermore, it is generally recognized that\nthe open-at-the-top policy is a natural characteristic of American education.\nI am not able to see in the existing educational situation any universal condition\nthat demands that all secondary technical schools should frankly abandon\npreparatory work for higher institutions and especially for higher technical\nschools or for engineering courses in college or university. I therefore offer\nthe following\nDEFINITION\n\nThe secondary technical school or the technical high school is a school of\nsecondary grade, the distinctive tho not sole purpose of which is to prepare\nits students for industrial leadership — i.e., for positions of great responsibility\nin industrial life, requiring technical knowledge, tho not so profound as that\nof the engineer, and a certain skill, tho not so highly specialized as that ot\nthe skilled mechanic. In such a school much of the instruction deals not only\nwith the important manual operations but also with those principles of science\nand mathematics and their direct applications in industrial work which will\nhelp to prepare a student for successfully mastering the more fundamental\nprocesses and problems of those groups of industries which the school is\ndesigned to reach. It assumes to be the finishing school for large numbers of\nboys and girls and therefore must contain in its curriculum the essentials of\nthose studies which give breadth of view and inspire to self -improvement.\nTo many of its students it may open up new prospects and reveal a capacity\nto realize them. If any considerable number of students in such a school\nwish to prepare for continuing their studies in higher institutions, special\nprovision should be made for them without interfering with the distinctive\naim of the school.\nCharles F. Warner\nA SELECTED\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nON\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nNOTE\n\nIn preparing this bibliography of the literature on Industrial Education\nto accompany the report on '*The Place of Industries in Public Education,\"\nthe principal aim has been to select the most serviceable books, reports, and\nperiodical contributions dealing with the various aspects of the subjects which\nare considered in the report.\nWhile but few of the writings listed deal exclusively with European Industrial education, many foreign references and illustrations occur in the literature\ndealing with the American phase of the problem.\nIn order to keep the lists within reasonable limits only books published\nsince 1892 and articles from periodicals and society proceedings since 1900\nhave been selected.\nThe list has been revised to July, 1909.\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\n767\n\nBOOKS\nAddams, Jane.\nDemocracy and Social Ethics.\nNew York: Macmillan, 1905\n281 pp.\nChap. vi.\nApprenticeship and Skilled Empbyment Association.\nTrades jar London Boys and How\nto Enter Them.\nLondon:\nLongmans,\n1908.\n170 pp.\nTrades for London Girls\nand How to Enter Them.\nLondon:\nLongman^ 1909.\n145 pp.\nCarlton, F. C.\nEducation and Industrial Evolution.\nNew York:\nMacmillan, 1908.\n320 pp.\nChamberlain, A.\nStandards in Education.\nNew York:\nAmerican Book Co., 1908.\n265 pp.\nCreasey, C. H.\nTechnical Education in Evening Schools.\nLondon:\nSonnenschein,\n1905. 309 pp.\nDewey, John.\nThe School and Society.\nChicago:\nThe University of Chicago Press,\n1900.\n129 pp.\nStates.\nThe Administration 0} Public Education in the United\nSnedden.\nand N\nIDuTTO\nation\nn,\nt\nNew York:\nMacmilla\n1908.\n601 pp.\nChap, xxii, \"The\nAdministr\nof\nI\nVocational Education\";\nChap, xxvii, \"The Administration of Evening and Con-\n\ntinuation Schools.\"\nI\nCordon, Mrs. Ogilvie.\n\nA\n\nHandbook\n\n0} Employments.\n\nAberdeen,\n\nScotland,\n\n1908.\n\n444 PPI\nHanus, Paul.\nBeginnings 0} Industrial Education.\nBoston:\nHoughton Mifflin Co.,\nI\n1908.\n199 PPHow.\\RD, E. D.\nThe Cause and Extent 0} the Recent Industrial Progress in Germany.\nBoston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1907.\n147 pp.\nMonroe, Paul.\nA Brief Course in the History of Education.\nNew York: Macmillan,\n1908.\nChap,\nxiii, pp. 393-397.\nPerson, H. S. Industrial Education.\nBoston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1907.\nSadler, M. E. Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere;\nTheir Place in the\nEducational System of an Industrial and Commercial State.\nManchester, England:\nSherret & Hughes.\nShad WELL, Arthur.\nIndustrial Efficiency.\nNew\nYork:\nLongmans,\n1906.\n2 vols.\n346 and 488 pp.\nChaps, xvi and xvii.\nTeachers College Record.\n\"The Elementary School Curriculum with a Course in Manual\nTraining.\"\nNew York: The Columbia University Press, 1908.\n526 pp.\nVanderlip, F. a.\nBusiness and Education.\nNew York: Duffield & Co., 1907.\n563 pp.\nWare\nFabian.\nEducation Foundations of Trade and Society.\nNew York: Appleton,\n1901.\n\nUNITED STATES GOVERNMENT\n\"Agriculture and Industrial Training.\"\nI, p. 125.\n\nREPORTS\n\nReport, Commissioner of Education, 1908.\n\n\"Apprenticeship System, The, in Its Relation to Industrial Education.\"\nD. Wright.\nBulletin No. 6, Bureau of Education, 1908.\n116 pp.\n\"Conditions of Entrance to the Principal Trades.\"\n1906. ibo pp.\n\nVol.\n\nBy Carroll\n\nBulletin No. 67, Bureau of Labor,\n\n\"Conference on Industrial Education by State Superintendents of Public Instruction.\"\nReport, Commissioner of Education, 1908.\nVol. I, pp. 11-14.\n\"Continuation School in the United States, The.\"\nBy Arthur J. Jones.\nBulletin\nNo. I, Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Education, 1907.\n157 pp.\n\"Elimination of Pupils from School, The.\"\nBy E. L. Thorndike.\nDept. of Interior, Bureau of Education, 1907.\n63 pp.\n\"Federal, Municipal, and State Aid for Industrial Education.\"\nof Education, 1908.\nVol. I, pp. 84-89.\n\nBulletin No. 4,\n\nReport, Commissioner\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "768\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\n\"French Technical and Industrial Schools.\" Report, Bureau 0} Education, 1907. Vol.\nI, pp. 165-67.\n\"German Views of American Education, with Particular Reference to Industrial Development.\" (From Reports of Royal Prussian Industrial Commission, 1904, collated\nby Wm. Kallmann. ) Bulletin No. 2, U.S. Bureau of Education, 1906.\n55 pp.\n\"Hand and Machine Labor.\"\n1,604 PP-\n\n13th Annual Bulletin, Bureau of Labor, 2 vols., iSgg.\n\n\"Industrial Education in Canada under the MacDonald\nEducation, 1907.\nVol. I, pp. 225-40.\n\nFund.\"\n\nReport, Bureau of\n\n\"Industrial Education in the City Schools.\" Report, Bureau of Education, 1907. Vol.\nI, pp.' 428-32.\n\"Industrial Education in Germany.\" Special Consular Reports, Dept. of Commerce\nand Labor, 1905.\nVol. XXXIII, 147 pp.\n\"Statistics of Manual and Industrial Training Schools.\" Report, Bureau of Education,\n1909.\nVol. II, chap, xxiii, pp. 1161-1201.\n\"Trade and Technical Education.\"\nlyth Annual Bulletin, Bureau of Labor, 1902.\n1,333 PP\"Wages and Hours of Labor, 1890-1905.\"\nSTATE\n\"Apprentices, School for.\"\n\nAND\n\nChicago:\n\npp. 1 16-17.\n\"Apprenticeship\nSystem, The.\"\n86 pp.\n\nBulletin No. 65, Bureau of Labor, 1906.\nCITY\n\nREPORTS\n\n50th Annual Report, Board of Education, 1904,.\n\nReport, Massachussetts Bureau Statistical Labor, 1906.\n\n\"Discussion on How to Fit Industrial Education into our Course of Study.\"\nNew York\nState Education Dept., Albany, igo6.\n43d University Convocation, pp. 59-67.\n\"Industrial Training.\"\nBy C. R. Richards.\nSpecial Report, Dept. of Labor, New\nYork State, 1909.\n500 pp.\n\"Manual Training Course of Study for Elementary Schools.\"\nReport of Chicago Board\nof Education, 1906-7, pp. 921-23.\n\"Manual Training Course of Study for High Schools.\"\nIbid., pp. 655-79.\nMassachusetts Commission on Industrial and Technical Education, Report of, Boston,\n1906.\n196 pp.\n(Reprinted by Teachers College, New York.)\nMassachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, Report of, Boston, 1907.\n71 pp.\nMassachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, Report of, Boston, 1908.\n682 pp.\nNew Jersey Commission for the Purpose of Investigating and Promoting Industrial Education, Report of, Trenton, N.J., 1909.\n177 pp.\nNew\n\nYork State Education Dept., Division of Trade Schools.\n1908-9.\nCirculars on\nGeneral Indiistrial and Trade Schools, October i, 1908; Discrimination between Trade,\nTechnical, Industrial, and Manual Training Schools, October 22, 1908; Evening\nIndustrial and Improvement Schools, Bibliography of literature and list of schools,\nJanuary i, 1909.\n\n\"Our Children, Our Schools, and Our Industries.\"\nYork State Education Department, Albany, 1908.\n\nBy A. S. Draper.\n\nReport of New\n\n\"Principles and Methods to be pursued in Organizing Trade Schools.\"\nBy A. D. Dean.\nLabor Bulletin, No. 43, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 1906, pp. 313-22.\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nOF SOCIETIES\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATIONS\n\nASSOCTATION\n\n1901 — Warner, C. F. \"Education for Trades in America,\" pp. 665-74.\n1903 — Balliet, T. M. \"Manual, Trade and Technical Education,\" pp. 65-71; \"The\nOrganization of Trade Schools; From the Point of View of a Superintendent,\"\npp. 609-12.\n\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\n769\n\nHiGGiNS, M. P. \"Education for the Trades; From the Point of View of the\nManufacturer,\" pp. 597-602.\nChamberlain, Arthur, H. \"The Demand for Trade Schools; From the Educator's Point of View,\" pp. 603-7.\nWiLLiSTON, A. L.\n\"The Organization of Trade Schools;\nFrom the Point of\nView of a Trade School Director,\" pp. 612-17.\n1905 — TiLDSLEY, J. L. \"The Study of Local Industry and Trade,\" pp. 682-88.\nVanderlip, F. a.\n\"The Economic Importance of Trade Schools,\" pp. 141-45.\nWalker, J. B.\n\"What Should Be the Education of a Business Man ?\" pp. 674-78.\nWarner, C. F. \"Industrial Training in Public Evening Schools,\" pp. 570-76.\n1906 — \"Titles of Papers and Discussions in the Department of Industrial and Manual\nTraining, 1875-1906,\" pp. 604-7.\n\"Bibliography of Topics on Industrial Education,\" 1863-1906, pp. 695-96.\n\"Bibliography of Topics on Manual Training,\" 1869-1906, pp. 700-3.\n\"Bibliography of Topics on Technical Education,\" 1874-1905, pp. 728-29.\n1907 — Lyttle, E. W.\n\"Relation of High School to Industrial Life,\" pp. 698-700.\nHarvey-Dyer, \"Is There Need for Industrial Schools for the Elementary\nGrades?\" pp. 310-15.\nBrown, J. S. \"Meaning and Function of Manual Training,\" pp. 701-5.\nAhrens, Dressler Keyes. \"Development of a Course of Study in Manual\nTraining,\" pp. 760-78.\nLeavitt, Johnson Burks. \"Relation of Industrial Education to Public Instruction,\" pp. 778-96.\nAlexander, M. W. \"Industrial Training as Viewed by a Manufacturer,\" pp.\n796-804.\n\"Department of Technical Education, Report,\" pp. 1,031-55.\n1908 — Schaeffer, N. C.\n\"Education for Avocation,\" pp. 56-57.\nBrereton, C. H. B. \"The Problem of Vocational Training in London,\" pp.\n58-65.\nDraper, A. S. \"The Adaptation of the Schools to Industry and Efl&ciency,\"\npp. 65-78.\nDepartment of Superintendence, Symposium;\nRussell, Elliott, McElroy,\nLangley, Morse, Martin, Hayes, Harvey, Discussions, pp. 155-94.\n1908 — Harvey, L. D.\n\"Report of Committee on Industrial Education for Schools in\nRural Communities,\" pp. 385-95.\nSeerley, H. H.\n\"Industrial Arts in The Normal Schools,\" pp. 710-15.\nSnedden, D. S. \"Differences among Varying Groups of Children,\" pp. 752-57.\nDepartment of Manual Training, Addresses on the Social Aspect, Importance\nand Function of Manual Training, pp. 757-98.\nROWE, H. M.\n\"Commercial and Industrial Education in the Grammar School\nCourse,\"\npp. 888-91.\n1909 — Department of Superintendence:\nAddresses: Brov^^n, E. E, \"Industrial Education as a National Interest\"; Butterfield, Kenyon L., \"The Dignity of Vocation as a Fundamental Idea in\nIndustrial Education\"; Cooley, E. G., \"Continuation Schools\"; Davenport, Eugene, \"Shall Industrial Education be Treated as a Phase of General\nEducation?\"\nRound Table Discussions:\n\"Industrial Training.\"\nWhat is Feasible in Cities\nof Fifteen Thousand to Sixty Thousand Population and of What Kinds ?\n(a) Grammar Schools; (6) High Schools; (c) Vocational Schools.\nnational society for the promotion of industrial education\nBulletins of the Society:\nNo. I. Proceedings oj the Organization Meetings. (Out of print.)\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "770\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nNo. 2. Selected Bibliography on Industrial Education, annotated. By C. R. Richards.\nJuly, 1907.\nNo. 3. A Symposium by Employers and Employees in Regard to Industrial Education.\nPrepared by James P. Haney.'\nSeptember, 1907.\nNo. 4. Industrial Training for Women.\nBy Florence Marshall.\nOctober, 1907.\nNo. 5. Proceedings 0} First Annual Meeting. Chicago, 1908. Part I. Addresses by\nChas. W. Eliot, J. W. Van Cleave, H. S. Pritchett, C. D. Wright, W. R. Warner,\nW. B. Prescott, J. F, Deems, L. W. Miller, A. L. Williston, C. W. Cross,\nH. Schisteider, M. P. Higgins, Anthony Ittner.\nApril, 1908.\nNo. 6. Proceedings oj First Annual Meeting. Part II. Addresses by C. F. Perry,\nM. P. Higgins, Graham Taylor, Florence M. Marshall, C. S. Howe, Henry\nWallace, O. M. Becker, Mrs. A. G. Spencer, C. W. Ames, Luke Grant, E. G,\nHirsch, L. D. Harvey, S, B. Donnely, C. H. Morse, Jane Addams, T. S. Moseby,\nPaul Kreuzpointer.\nMay, 1908.\nNo. 7. Circular of Information. \"Officers, Members Purposes of the Society, Constitution.\" November, 1908.\nNo. 8. Education of Workers in the Shoe Industry.\nBy A. D. Dean.\nDecember, 1908.\nNo. 9. Proceedings of the Second Annual Meeting, Atlanta, Ga., 1908.\nNo. 10. Proceedings of the Third Annual Meeting, Milwaukee, Wis., 1909.\ncouncil of supervisors of the manual\n\narts\n\nYear Book, 1903.\nHaney, J. P. \"Supervision of the Manual Arts,\" pp. 13-45.\nPierce, L.\n\"Bibliography, including Articles on Manual and Industrial Education,\"\npp. 117-33Year Book, 1904.\nHaney, J. P. \"The Course of Study in the Arts,\" pp. 13-36.\nCremins, Julia C.\n\"Constructive Work in the Primary Grade,\" pp. 47-64.\nGriswold, E. D.\n\"Woodwork in the Elementary Grades,\" pp. 78-87.\nMoHR, W. M.\n\"Working Drawing in Elementary Schools,\" pp. 88-97.\nBailey, H. T.\n\"The Professional Schools of Paris,\" pp. 129-51.\nDavis, S. P. \"The Manual Arts in Extension Schools,\" pp. 152-69.\nPierce, Louisa.\n\"Bibliography of the Manual Arts,\" p. 177.\nYear Book, 1905.\nDavis, S. P. \"PubHc Evening Courses in the Manual Arts,\" pp. 182-205.\nPierce, Louisa.\n\"Bibliography of the Manual Arts,\" p. 227.\nYear Book, 1906.\nMurray, M. W.\n\"The Manual-Training Room and Its Equipment,\" pp. 69-86.\nMathewson,\nF. E. \"First- Year Drawing in the Technical High School,\" PP87-97.\nShinn, y. I\n\"Educational Aspects of the Manual Arts,\" pp. 165-80.\nPierce, Louisa.\n\"Bibliography of the Manual Arts,\" p. 203.\nYear Book, 1907.\nSOPER, Mabel B. \"Constructive Work in Town\nment,\" pp. 13-19.\n\nSchools without Special Equip-\n\nBoone, C. L. \"Centers of Interest in Handwork,\" pp. 20-26.\nBennett, C. A. \"The Relationship between Drawing and the other Manual Arts,\"\npp. 27-31.\nMurray, M. W.\n\"Woodworking for Elementary Schools,\" pp. 51-57.\nDearborn, Pierce.\n\"Bibliography of the Manual Arts,\" p. 139.\neastern art and manual training association\nProceedings, 1906.\nDewey, J. F.\n\n\"Culture and Industrial Education,\" pp. 21-30.\n\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nBIBLIOCjRAPHY\n\n77 1\n\nWahlstrom, L. W.\n\"The Place of Typical Industries in the Elementary School,\"\npp. 89-107.\nBalliet, T. M.\n\" Shall the Manual-Training School become the Technical School ?\"\npp. 166-72.\nProceedings, 1908.\nPark, J. C.\n\"Fundamental Principles in Manual Training,\" pp. 15-21.\nSenson, T. D.\n\"Industrial Education as applied to the Needs of Rural Schools,\"\n\nPP- 55-61.\nMorse, J. H.\n\"The Time and Place for Industrial Education,\" pp. 62-65.\nWESTERN\n\nDRAWING\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nProceedings, 1906.\n^LSON, W. H.\n\"The Place of Arts in the High-School Course,\" pp. 20-28.\nLangley, Euphrosyne E.\n\"Report of the Committee on Handicraft in the Public\nSchools,\" pp. 69-87.\nProceedings, 1908.\nThompson, W. O.\n\"The Place of Manual Arts in the School,\" PP- 28-33.\nBarker, J. T.\n\"Manual Training in High Schools,\" pp. 58-61.\nJOINT\n\nProceedings\n\nmeeting,\n\neastern\n\nAND\n\nWESTERN\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nASSOCIATIONS\n\n1907.\n\nRichards, C. R.\n\n\"Relation of Manual Training to Industrial Education,\" pp. 77-85.\nMISCELLANEOUS\n\nAmerican Academy 0} Political Science, Annals of, 1909.\n\"Industrial Education.\"\nTwenty-three valuable contributions on\nIndustrial Education.\nVol. XXXIII, No. i, pp. 187.\nAmerican Society for the Advancement of Science, 1906.\n\nthe subject of\n\n\"The Correspondence School — Its Relation to Technical Education and Some of\nits Results.\"\nReprinted in Science,\nVol. XXIV,\nSeptember\n14, 1906, pp.\n327-34.\nAmerican Institute of Electrical Engineers, Proceedings of, 1909.\n\nI\n\nSchneider, H.\n\"Fundamental Principles of Industrial Education,\" pp. 307-29.\nAmerican Society of Mechanical Engineers, Proceedings of.\nAlexander,\n\nM. W.\n\n\"Plan to Provide Skilled Workmen,\"\n\nVol. XXVIII, No. 2,\n\npp. 487-502.\nRussell, W. B.\n\"Industrial Education,\"\nVol. XXIX, pp. 11 21-43.\nNational Child Labor Committee, Fifth Annual Conference, 1909.\n\" Childworkers of the Nation,\" p. 255.\nNational Consumers League, 1907.\n\"Child Labor Legislation.\"\nEdited by J. C. Goldmark.\nSociety for the Promotion of Engineering Education, Proceedings\n\n1909.\n\n\"Report of Committee on Industrial Education,\" pp. 363-405.\nperiodicals\nAlexander, M. W.\n\"An Experiment in Industrial Training,\" Machinery, Vol. XIII,\npp. 1-8, September, 1906.\nBain, A. VV.\n\"Preparation in the Elementary School for Industrial and Domestic Life,\"\nElementary School Teacher, Vol. IX, pp. idy-yj, December, 1908.\nBarker, J. F. \"The New Technical High School at Cleveland,\" Manual Training\nMagazine, pp. 51-58, October, 1908.\nBatchelder,\nE. a.\n\"Advance in Industrial\nEducation Abroad,\"\nThe Craftsman,\nVol. XV, No. 2, pp. 34-42, October, 1908.\nBurks, J. D.\n130-42.\n\n\"Democracy\n\nin Education,\" Elementary School Teacher, Vol. VIII, pp.\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "772\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\n. \"Getting Our Bearings on Industrial Education,\" Elementary School Teacher,\nVol. IX, pp. 445-54, May, 1909.\nButler,\nN. M.\n\"Training for Vocation and Avocation,\" Educational Review, Vol.\nXXXVI, No. 5, pp. 471-74, December, 1908.\nCusHMAN,\nL. S. \"Government\nCo-operation in Industrial Education,\"\nElementary\nSchool Teacher, Vol. VIII, pp. 603-7, June, 1908.\n—\n. \"A Broader Interpretation of Technical Training,\" Elementary School Teacher,\nVol. IX, pp. 269-70, June, 1909.\nDean, A. D.\n\"Vital Needs of Evening Schools for Industrial Work,\" Machinery, Vol.\nXIII. pp. 244-46, January, 1907.\nDeG ARMO, C. \" Relation of Industrial to General Education,\" School Review, Vol. XVII,\npp. 145-53. March, 1909.\nDraper, A. S. \"From Manual Training to Technical and Trade Schools,\" Educational\nReview, Vol. XXXV, pp. 405-11, April, 1908.\nElson, W. H.\n\"Cleveland Public Schools,\" Elementary School Teacher, Vol. VIII,\npp. 568-75, June, 1908.\nEmerson, H.\n\"Efficiency as a Basis for Operations and Wages,\" Engineering Magazine,\nVol. XXXV, p. 529, July-October, 1908.\nHanus, Paul H.\n\"The Technical Continuation Schools of Munich,\" School Review,\nVol. XIII, pp. 678-83, November, 1905.\nHerrick, C. a.\n\"The Place of Applied Education,\" Educational Review, Vol. XXXI,\nFebruary, 1906.\nHoward, — . \"Helpless Youths and Useless Men,\"\nAmerican Machinist, Vol. LXVII,\npp. 51-56, November, 1908.\nHubbard, C. W.\n\"Industrial Education,\" School Review, Vol. XV, pp. 391-99, May,\n1907.\nJevons, H. S. \"The Causes of Unemployment, Defects in Elementary Education,\nIndustrial Education as a Remedy,\" Contemporary Review, No. 521, pp. 548-65,\nMay, 1909.\nJohnston, C. H.\n\"The Social Significance of Various Movements for Industrial Education,\" Educational Review, Vol. XXXVII, No. 2, pp. 160-80, February, 1909.\nJones, E. D.\n\"Education and Industry,\" Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LXIV, pp.\n431-44.\nKent, E. B. \"The Elementary School and Industrial Occupations,\" Elementary School\nTeacher, Vol. IX, pp. 177-85, December, 1908.\nLangley, E. E.\n\"Constructive Activities in the Elementary School,\" Elementary School\nTeacher, Vol. IX, pp. 32-7, September, 1908.\nLarsson, G.\n\"Manufacturers' Opinions as to the Qualities Needed in Boys Whom\nThey Wish to Employ,\" Manual Training Magazine, Vol. X, pp. 393-401, June,\n1909.\nLeavitt, F. M.\n\"Industrial Education in Elementary Schools,\"\nMagazine, Vol. IX, pp. 377-84, June, 1908.\n\nManual\n\nTraining\n\nMacDonald, M. I. \"What It Would Mean to Have Vocational Subjects Added to\nthe Public-School System,\" The Craftsman, Vol. XV, pp. 466-71, January, 1909.\nMacGregor, D. H.\n\"Ethical Aspect of Industrialism,\" International Journal of Ethics,\nVol. XIX, pp. 284-96, April, 1909.\nMann, C. R.\n\"Industrial and Technical Training in Secondary Schools,\" School Review,\nVol. XVI, pp. 425-38, September, 1908.\nManny, F. A.\n\"German Contribution to Education for Vocation and Citizenship,\"\nSchool Review, Vol. XVI, pp. 154-61, March, 1908.\nMcAndrew, W.\n\"Industrial Education from a Public-School Man's Point of View,\"\nEducational Review, Vol. XXXV, pp. 109-28, February, 1908.\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\n773\n\nMead, G. H.\n\"Industrial Education, the Workman and the School,\" Elementary School\nTeacher, Vol. IX, pp. 369-83, March, 1909,\nMelville, G. W.\n\"The American Boy and the American Mechanic,\" North American\nReview, Vol. CLXXXIX, No. 6, pp. 864-68, June, 1909.\nMerriam, J. L.\n\"Fundamentals in the Elementary-School Curriculum,\" Educational\nReview, Vol. XXXVII, No. 4, pp. 390-98. April, 1909.\nMore, L. T,\n\"A New Scheme for Engineering Education,\" Educational Review, Vol.\nXXXVI, No. 3, pp. 255-62, October, 1908.\nMorrison, H. C.\n\"Vocational Training and Industrial Education,\" Educational Review,\nVol. XXXVI, No. 3, pp. 242-54, October, 1908.\nOrr, W.\n\"Vocational Training in Large Cities,\" School Review, Vol. XVII, No. 6,\npp. 417-28, June, 1909.\nPerson, H. S. \"The Ideal Organization of a System for Secondary Schools to Provide\nVocational Training,\" School Review, Vol. XVII, No. 6, pp. 404-16, June, 1909.\nPritchett, H. S. \"Industrial and Technical Training in Popular Education,\" Educational Review, Vol. XXIII, pp. 281-303, March, 1902.\nRichards, C. R.\n\"The Problem of Industrial Education,\" Manual Training Magazine,\nVol. VIII, pp. 125-32, April, 1907.\nRussell, H. E.\n\"The Trend in American Education,\" Educational Review, Vol. XXXII,\npp. 28-41, June, 1906.\n. \"The School and Industrial Life,\" Educational Review, Vol. XXXVIII, pp.\n433-5o> December, 1909.\nSchneider, H.\n\"Co-operative System of Technical Education,\" Engineering Magazine,\nVol. XXXIV, p. 354, November, 1907.\n. \"Co-operative Course in Cinncinnati,\" Engineering Magazine, Vol. XXXV,\np. 929, September, 1908.\nSelvidge, R. W.\n\"A Study of Some Manual-Training High Schools with Suggestions\nfor an Intermediate Industrial School,\" Manual Training Magazine, Vol. X, pp.\n373-87. June, 1909.\nSiepert, a. F. \"Engineering and Industrial Problems as Factors in Seventh and Eighth\nGrade Manual Training,\" Manual Training Magazine, Vol. X, pp. 193-99, February,\n1909.\nSnedden, D.\n\"The Combination of Liberal and Vocational Education,\" Educational\nReview, Vol. XXXVII, No. 3, pp. 231-42, March, 1909.\nSNOVi^DEN, Albert.\n\"Industrial Improvement Schools of Wuertemberg.\"\nSpillman, W. J. \"Education and the Trades,\" Science, Vol. XXIX, pp. 255-56, February,\n1909.\nStebbins, H. W,\n\"Industrial Education as a Social Force,\" Educational Review, Vol.\nXXIII, pp. 462-67, May, 1902.\nStratton, G. F.\nJune, 1908.\n\n\"Problems of Industrial Education,\" Gassier, Vol. XXXIV,\n\nThurber,\n1907.\n\n\"Industrial Education,\" School Review, Vol. XV, pp. 375-81, May,\n\nC. W.\n\npp. 99-104,\n\nVanderlip, F. a.\n\"The Urgent Need of Trade Schools,\" World's Work, Vol. XII,\npp. 7619-24, June, 1906.\nWoolman, Mary S. \"The Manhattan Trade School for Girls,\" Educational Review,\nVol. XXX, pp. 178-88, September, 1905.\n. \"Trade Schools — an Educational and Industrial Necessity,\" Social Education\nQuarterly, Vol. I, pp. 74'-79, March, 1907.\n. \"Trade Schools and Culture,\" Educational Review, Vol. XXXVII, No. 2, pp.\n181-87, February, 1909.\nYalden, E. G.\n\"Industrial Education in Public Schools,\" American Machinist, Vol.\nXXX, pp. 575, April 18, 1907.\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "774\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe following are papers and discussions presented before the National\nCouncil at Boston on the\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\nON THE\nPLACE\nIN PUBLIC EDUCATION\nA.\n\nCHARLES\n\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nR. RICHARDS,\n\nDIRECTOR,\n\nCOOPER\n\nOF INDUSTRIES\n\nADDRESS\nUNION,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe report upon the Place of Industries in Education submitted to the\nCouncil is confessedly, in one respect at least, not comprehensive. It is\nwritten by school men and deals solely with schools. This means that it\nrepresents, almost inevitably, a common weakness of such studies in that\nit discusses a part of a whole process without setting forth the nature of the\nconditions, limitations, and results that obtain in the other part.\nIn other words, the present-day problem of industrial education is one\nthat cannot be adequately dealt with by the school alone. It is an affair\nin which the largest element is the training, experiences, and development\nobtained in commercial practice, in which the office of the school is either\nsupplementary or preparatory.\nTo make the school an effective instrument in industrial education we\nneed to place it in intimate co-operation with the industrial situation. To\ndo this wisely and successfully we need to know as school men much more\nabout industrial conditions. We need to know more about the exact conditions under which boys and girls enter the industries, the nature of the\neducational influences that surround them in the learning period, and the\nlimitations of these influences.\nThe data that we need are not a matter of generalization, for in an\nexact sense there is no general problem of industrial education, but a thousand specific problems. To meet the situation intelligently and successfully\nwe need to know the exact conditions that the learner faces in all the\nimportant industries of the country.\nWe need to know the degree of speciaHzation or division of labor represented in each trade; the proportion of unskilled, low-grade skilled, and\nhigh-grade skilled workers and the nature of the tasks performed in each\ngrade; the wages of workers in each group; whether the trade is localized\nor general in its distribution. We need to know the qualities demanded in\nworkers, such as strength, endurance, intelligence, accuracy, quickness, and\nartistic feeling; and most particularly we need to know the conditions\nunder which beginners enter the various trades and the influences that\nsurround them; whether they are confined to a narrow range of operations\nleading only to low-grade and low-pay positions or whether they have\nopportunities for a broader range of experiences and the chance to develop\ninto high-grade work; whether the tendency is to reduce them to a cog in a\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON PLACE\n\nOF INDUSTRIES\n\n775\n\nmachine or whether the influences are such as to stimulate intellectual\ngrowth and ambition.\nSuch data are not at the present time available. They exist only in\npiecemeal. For their development we must rely either upon comprehensive\ninvestigations undertaken by state or national government or upon local\nstudies of particular situations. The need of such data is vital in the present\nsituation. We still talk of industrial education in purely general terms,\nbut until the school provisions of a locality shall bear an exact and intimate\nrelation to the needs of its particular industrial community we shall not\nhave industrial education in any true sense.\nWe have heard much of late years concerning the schools of Germany, but\nwe have not yet had in any full sense an exposition of the German scheme\nof industrial training. The fundamental fact, and the fact that constitutes\nthe essential strength of the German system of industrial education, is that\nit is primarily an adjustment of school instruction to the conditions of the\nshop and factory. Not until we know the facts as to the training of the\nyoung worker in the industries, and the way the school dovetails into this\ntraining, shall we have the full story of German industrial education. Not\nuntil we appreciate the work that the German government has done to\nrestore and to sustain the influence of the old guilds, and thru them to protect, advance, and safeguard the apprenticeship system and other methods\nof industrial training shall we understand rightly the German attitude\ntoward industrial education. Industrial education in Germany is never\na generaHzed affair. It is always a studied attempt to supplement arwl\nround out the training obtained in some specific trade in accordance with\nthe needs of advanced modern industrial practice.\nFurthermore, and a very significant fact for us, a very large number of\nthe industrial schools of Germany are directed and largely supported by\ntrade guilds or associations, and when this is not the case, such associations\noften have a great influence in their control.\nWhile we have this great principle of co-ordination to learn from Germany, itis very true that conditions in this country differ so materially from\nthose in the older nations that our specific institutions for industrial education must necessarily take on different forms and methods.\nIn Europe, particularly in continental countries, a boy's career is virtually fixed by family traditions and family resources. At fourteen\nyears of age the son of a craftsman or mechanic almost inevitably enters\nupon a trade similar to that of his father and the problem of industrial\neducation for the boy after this point is, consequently, a problem of supplementary education thru the continuation school.\nIn our country these conditions do not obtain. All the influences that\nbear upon the boy in school and out of school life tend to confuse rather\nthan settle his ideas as to a career and arouse a spirit of restlessness and\ndisinclination for industrial work. To bring a neutralizing element into\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthis situation and to influence boys well fitted for industrial work toward\nthe industries, we need first of all varied, stimulating courses of manual\ntraining in the elementary schools. Not manual training that is merely\nbusy- work with tools or the making of decorated knick-knacks, but wellorganized constructive work that will give at each step some knowledge\nand experience in real industrial processes and that will have for its total\nresult added insight into industrial methods and added interest in the doing\nof real industrial work.\nSuch a provision we would do well, it seems to me, to consider as a\npeculiarly American need. Altho suggestions for such work have in the\npast come to us from Europe, and altho extensive systems of manual training exist in many of the older countries, it is apparent that the tendency\ntoward congestion in our large cities, the almost complete l^ick of constructive manual experiences by the youth of these cities, and the disturbing\ncharacter of our social ideals as they bear upon boys and girls, make such\nwork for us a peculiarly important and necessary foundation for an effective\nsystem of industrial education.\nIt is apparent, on the other hand, that the vocational school for boys\nand girls from fourteen to sixteen is an institution demanded peculiarly by\nAmerican conditions. The practices and prejudices obtaining in our industries shut out, to a large extent, the boy and girl below sixteen from opportunities leading to skilled or high-grade positions; the character of our\nlabor laws adds to these restrictions, and the terms of our educational\nstatutes show clearly that it is more and more the tendency to hold American youth within the sphere of educational influences until sixteen years\nof age. We have, because of these facts, a situation essentially American in\nwhich the social, industrial, and educational elements all clearly demand\nfurther provision for industrial education for boys and girls between fourteen and sixteen years of age.\nThe high school, again, presents a problem in this field that is particularly\nour own. We have what might be called a great high-school population in\nthis country. The high school is the educational ideal of the middle-class\nhomes thruout the length and breadth of the land, and sacrifices are constantly made to allow boys and girls to attend such schools that are comparable to the efforts made in these same homes to send boys to college.\nThese schools exercise a tremendously fine and steadying influence in\nour national life, but viewed from the standpoint of the practical world\nthey come clearly within the field of vocational education, and it would\nseem as if specific provisions in this direction cannot much longer be postponed. We are beginning to have high schools of commerce, and by all\nindications we need equally high schools of industry — schools that shall be\nfrankly recognized as vocational and that shall devote themselves to intensive technical preparation for industrial life.\nSuch schools should be sharply differentiated from trade schools and\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON PLACE\n\nOF INDUSTRIES\n\n777\n\nfrom intermediate industrial schools. Their students will come necessarily\nfrom homes with somewhat larger resources and somewhat different ideals,\nand their function should be to afford educational advantages that in the\nlong run will count toward superior industrial opportunities.\nIn the matter of the continuation school, which so far with us is almost\nsolely an evening school, we come to a more general proposition — a supplementary school for those already entered in the trades. In this field our\nneeds and our conditions are very similar to those of the old countries.\nSuch schools constitute the corner-stone of the German system of industrial education and are by far the largest factor in that system. They are\nalso the largest and the most important element in such development of\nindustrial education as we already have in this country. Much has already\nbeen accomplished in this direction by private foundations but in the public schools we are hardly at the beginning. The admirable work of the\nSpringfield evening school of trades in this state presents many suggestions\nfor the organizations of such schools. Progress in this field would seem to\ndemand greater and greater differentiation of courses toward the needs\nof actual industrial workers in place of the amateurish and indefinite type\nthat sometimes constitutes the patronage of so-called evening technical\nschools.\nIn connection with the subject of continuation schools it is perhaps a\nfact that our committee would have done well to emphasize the need for a\nspecial type of continuation schools for boys and girls between fourteen\nand sixteen years of age. Such schools would not properly be evening\nschools but classes providing instruction especially adapted to the vocational needs of boys and girls of this age during the daytime, or at least\nbefore the hour of 7:00 p.m.\nTrade schools are not included in the affirmative proposition of the\nreport because in the judgment of the committee the need for such schools\nis limited to a comparatively few industries where the conditions are such\nas to render training in commercial practice difficult or inadequate, and\nto special communities representing exceptional industrial concentration.\nThe question of general public support of such schools is, in the judgment\nof the committee, one that must be further tested and worked out by the\nexperiments of the next few years.\nThese are the phases of industrial education that have seemed to your\ncommittee to represent the largest possibilities before the public schools of\nthis country, whether considered from the side of practical results or the\npossibilities of public support. Taken singly your committee feels that\neach division represents an element of far-reaching importance, and in their\nentirety it submits them to you as an attempt in the light of today to outline a comprehensive program of public industrial education.\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "778\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nB.\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN\n\nMANUAL\nJESSE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTHE\n\n(Manual Training\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nD. BURKS, DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU\nOF\nRESEARCH,\nPHILADELPHIA,\nPA.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMUNICIPAL\n\nFor thirty-five years educational leaders have had much to say concerning the need for manual activities in elementary education. During the\nlatter part of this period the number of schools having manual training in\ntheir curricula has rapidly increased, until now one-half of the thirteen\nhundred organized local school systems in the United States have this\nsubject in one or more of their elementary grades. In only one hundred\nand fifty of these cases, however, does handwork extend thru all of the\ngrades of the elementary schools, and of the six hundred school systems\nhaving manual training, three hundred give less than an hour a week to the\nsubject, and only thirty-seven as much as half an hour a day.\nThese facts justify the statement that the country at large has not taken\nseriously the manual-training propaganda. Vastly more has been said than\ndone and, with a few notable and gratifying exceptions, manual training\nremains in the main an isolated, abstract, and unprofitable fad, attached to,\nrather than incorporated in, the curriculum of the elementary school.\nThis means, of course, that, notwithstanding the notable advance in a\nfew communities, the country as a whole has lost a magnificent opportunity\nfor educational achievement. Enough time, money, and energy have been\nexpended upon manual training in elementary schools during the past\ntwenty-five years to have demonstrated the claims of its advocates; to have\nconvinced the entire country that manual activities are not only desirable,\nbut indispensable, in elementary education. Taxpayers have waited for\nfacts while educational leaders have furnished opinions.\nAn inquiry was recently made among one hundred and fifty superintendents ofschools, in cities having elementary manual training, as to the\navailable evidence concerning the value of manual training. These superintendents were asked to indicate what records they had of work done and\nresults obtained that would show the effect of manual training upon :\na) Regularity of attendance;\nh) Continuance of pupils in school (elimination) ;\nc) Rate of progress of pupils (retardation) ;\nd) Progress of pupils in other school subjects;\ne) Physical welfare of pupils; and\n/) Success in vocations.\n\nThey were asked also as to the available evidence concerning:\ng) The most profitable time-allowance;\nh) The value of manual training as an index of specific mental and physical traits;\ni) Specific abilities developed by various types of handwork;\nj) The relative importance of native abilities and special training in determining\nsuccess in various types of school work and vocations.\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMANUAL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n779\n\nIt is extremely significant that 67 per cent, of these superintendents\nstated that they had no data whatever upon these points, and that only 15\nper cent, stated that they had evidence on as many as five out of the ten\npoints in the list. In the absence of concrete evidence, school boards and\ntaxpayers quite naturally and quite properly have maintained a skeptical\nattitude toward manual training. If there were no other reason this would\nbe sufficient to explain the weak grip that manual training now has on the\neducational practice of the country. But there is another important\nexplanation of the failure of manual training to win its way. The very\nterm \"manual training\" suggests the now discredited \"faculty psychology\"\nwith its will-o' the-wisp of general discipline.\nIn the general movement toward social aims and social motives in\neducation, manual training has to a very large extent lagged behind. Possibly itis no farther behind than other subjects in the curriculum; but by\nreason of its early promise much more was expected of this subject than of\nothers in support of a social program for the elementary schools. It is this\ndemand for a more concrete and more distinctly social program that explains\nthe extraordinary transformation of manual training that is now in progress.\nThe remarkable interest in industrial education, which is now probably\nthe most dominant factor in the educational thought of the country, has all\nbut eclipsed the interest in elementary manual training. It is significant\nthat the program of the Manual Training Department at the present session\nof the National Education Association is given over almost entirely to the\nconsideration of industrial education, and this has been true of the programs\nof this department for the last three or four years.\nOther evidences of the rising tide of interest in the industrial as opposed\nto mere manual activities in the school are of course familiar. Laymen\nand professional leaders of education alike have deplored the social injustice\nof a school system which provides directly for the special needs of the 25\nper cent, of children who ultimately enter the commercial and professional\npursuits, but ignores the requirements of the 75 per cent, who enter industrial pursuits. National and state teachers' associations have devoted a\nlarge part of their programs to the discussion of this urgent issue; a newdepartment of the National Education Association has been established for\nthe study and promotion of technical education; state legislatures, special\ncommissions, a national society for the promotion of industrial education,\nmanufacturers' associations, the United States Commissioner of Education,\nthe governors of many states, the President of the United States, the American Federation of Labor, and numerous other bodies and individuals have\nadded the weight of many preambles and resolutions to the nation-wide\ndemand that the schools draw nearer to human needs and equip our boys\nand girls for the struggle of modern industrial life. The educational and\ngeneral press have given the subject a degree of publicity that is rarely\naccorded any similar matter. The whole country has repeatedly been\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "ySo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nastounded by the statement that, according to the report of the State\nCommission on Industrial Education, twenty-five thousand children in\nMassachusetts between the ages of fourteen and sixteen were either idle or\nat work.\nDuring these years, elementary manual training, with only a distant\nrelationship to vocational pursuits, like Cinderella has remained demurely\nin the background, waiting for some fairy godmother to change her tattered\nrags into silken robes.\nMore important than these reasons for the failure of manual training\nto hold its own in the struggle for recognition and support, however, is the\nfact that educational leaders themselves have not yet found a consistent\nand defensible basis upon which to develop a orogram of handwork in the\nelementary school.\nOne of the most significant features of the report on the place of industries in public education is the fact that it definitely recognizes the place of\nindustries in elementary education, and presents a program which it is\nhoped will hasten the metamorphosis of manual training. The report was\noriginally projected \"for the purpose of collecting data concerning the\nmanual-training work done thruout the country,\" and to suggest \"courses\nadaptable to various conditions.\"\nWhile the report in its general scope is somewhat larger and possibly\nsomewhat diflterent from that originally proposed, the committee believes\nthat, in view of current tendencies in thought and practice, it has properly\ninterpreted the spirit of the resolution under which it has carried on its work.\nThe report of the Subcommittee on Industries in the Elementary\nSchool attempts to sum up and put into coherent and concise form the\nresults of the best thought and practice of recent years. If this service has\nbeen acceptably rendered the reports should furnish at least a provisional\nstarting-point for a more intelligent program of manual activities in the\nelementary school than has heretofore been attempted. That such a platform issorely needed is evidenced by the striking lack of agreement among\neducational leaders as to the significance of manual activities in the elementary school.\nIn the inquiry before referred to, the superintendents were asked to\nindicate the importance which they attached to each of eight suggested\nvalues of manual training in elementary school. These eight suggested\nvalues were as follows:\na) General mental training — e.g., accuracy, honesty;\nh) General manual skill — e.g., precision, dexterity;\nc) Industrial intelligence — e.g., ability to learn a trade quickly;\nd) Specific abilities — e.g., skill in a particular process;\ne) Vital motive for school work otherwise uninteresting;\n/) Makes stronger and more lasting the results of instruction;\ng) Intelligent appreciation of industrial life;\nh) Culture — enrichment of intellectual and social experience.\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMANUAL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n781\n\nIn order to summarize these estimates of value, I have counted the\nnumber of cases in which a superintendent placed each of the suggested\nvalues in the upper half of his own list, that is, first, second, third, or fourth\nin order of importance.\nRated in this way, the list stands as follows:\nGeneral mental training, 65;\nIndustrial intelligence, 57;\nGeneral manual skill, 55;\nVital motive for school work, 50;\nIntelligent appreciation of industrial life, 45;\nStrengthening the result of instruction, 40;\nCulture, 40;\nDevelopment of specific abilities, 20;\nGeneral training is given first rank by 29; culture by 20; and general manual skill\nby 17.\n\nIt is instructive to note that while the great majority of the superintendents were perfectly frank in admitting the lack of concrete evidence as to\nthe effect of manual training upon the mental and physical development of\nchildren, they had no hesitation whatever in making a definite rating of\neach of the suggested values for manual training.\nOne of the superintendents frankly states that he has not studied the\nquestion, and gives no answers. One states that his estimates are guesswork; one feels much uncertainty beyond the first two or three; and one\nstates that in his judgment the importance varies with the pupils. The\nothers give definite estimates, in almost all cases assigning weight to each\nof the eight suggested values.\nThese answers make it evident that there is no general agreement among\nour active leaders in education as to the place of manual training in the\nelementary school. Unless there can be a more widespread agreement,\ntentatively at least, upon the place of industries in the elementary school,\nwe cannot expect results during the coming decade to be more favorable\nthan those of the past decade.\nIf the conclusions of the committee's report can command the confidence of educational leaders, and can be accepted as a point of departure,\na tremendous step in advance will have been taken. In addition to this\nthere should be a concerted effort to avoid one of the most serious mistakes\nof the past, by providing for definite records of work undertaken and results\naccomplished, that will enable teachers, superintendents, members of\nboards of education, and citizens everywhere to read the story of\nachievement for any school or system of schools that has such a story\nto tell.\nWhen educational leaders are in position to support their arguments by\nadequate records of work done and results accomplished, they will get not\nmerely the uninformed and passive approval, but the active and intelligent\nco-operation of the communities whose educational interests they serve.\nWith such co-operation, under informed leadership, in every community,\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "782\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwe shall approach the time when sham and inefficiency will be eliminated\nfrom our system of education and 100 per cent, of our children will get 100\nper cent, of the value that school training should represent.\nC.\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nDAVID SNEDDEN, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nSCHOOLS\nFOR MASSACHUSETTS\n\nDiscussion and experimentation in vocational education have proceeded\nto that point where we begin to get more detailed and particular problems\nbefore us. This movement toward plans and specifications will have to\ncontinue much farther before we shall be on secure ground in this new field\nof education. We are beginning to make surveys of the special situations\nbefore us and to examine the problems which they suggest. It is the purpose\nof this part of the report of the Committee on Place of Industries in Public\nEducation to examine a limited field — limited as to the age and attainments\nof children concerned, as to the vocational field considered, and as to a\nparticular type of education.\nSeveral assumptions underlie the discussion of this chapter; these are\nabsolutely necessary to the argument. It must be remembered that we are\nin a region where little experience is available. These assumptions themselves may legitimately be made the basis for discussion and for difference\nof opinion; but that some kind of assumptions must be made, is evident.\n1. Vocational education which shall be of significance to the rank and file of workers\nmust, under present conditions, find its beginnings at or about the age of fourteen. We\nmay make school attendance compulsory for whole or part time to the age of sixteen, or\nlater, in the course of time; but it is repugnant to all students of education that the\nschooling of all boys and girls between fourteen and sixteen should remain abstract and\nbookish.\n2. It is agreed that for the majority of children in the industries the economic value\nof their work, between fourteen and sixteen, is not often profitable and the educational\nvalue of this work is only seldom so.\n3. Genuine vocational education must involve considerable work under actual conditions ofproduction with a usable and valuable product resulting; but the production\nof usable output must be subordinated to the educational necessities of the pupil.\n4. The academic, technical, and book studies must grow out of, and relate closely\nto, the practical (that is, shop or field) work. The great danger of present industrial\neducation is its tendency to have the practical work and the academic on planes so widely\napart thut they do not reinforce each other.\n5. Only occasionally will it prove practicable to teach specialized trades in the\nstages from fourteen to sixteen. We must discover the general foundations for groups\nof related industries and from these derive the productive practice and technical studies\nthat will give a broad foundation and at the same time make possible specialization\neither in factory or trade school after the age of sixteen.\n6. It is po'ssJble to divide industries now representing many hundreds of special\nsubdivisions into a score or more of fundamental groups, each one of which possesses\nmany common characteristics in materials used, tools employed, and technical studies\nbasal thereto.\nIn other words, we must discover those industries which possess a large\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n783\n\nnumber of common elements and from them derive suitable material for vocational\neducation.\n7. It is also assumed that industries are sufficiently specialized or localized in a\ngeographical sense that schools may be erected which shall minister in a fairly full measure\nto given communities.\n\nOn the basis of these assumptions the report is erected. It is not necessary here to review the positions taken or the conclusions reached. The\nreport should speak for itself.\nIt seems to the writer that the chief defect of the report is its failure to\nutiUze more fully the experience of existing schools. This experience should\nbe gone into and its successes and its failures pointed out in considerable\ndetail. The report should also present a more detailed analysis of other\nsituations which may be reached by industrial education corresponding to\nthose in which some results have already been achieved.\nOn the whole, however, it would appear that the most conspicuous\ndefect is the failure of the report to discuss the possibilities of the so-called\npart-time solution of vocational education. It should be obvious that the\nkind of vocational education described in the report must prove very expensive ifthe schools are obliged to reproduce so many of the conditions of an\nactual industrial plant. On the other hand, where factories and shops are\nfound themselves, the opportunities for practical work should surely be\nabundant. Theoretically, it would appear that the most probable solution\nof the problem of intermediate vocational education is to be found in the\nco-operation of school and industrial plant, the former to give the technical training and the latter the practical concrete experience. In this way,\ntoo, the maximum of productivity could be realized from the labor of the\nyouth. The solution of the problem along these lines will involve a degree\nof co-operation between employer, and skilled laborer, and school, such as\nwe know little about at present; but undoubtedly it is a solution of which\nthe American spirit is capable. This solution would require that some one\nauthority should have final control of the entire educational program of\nthe pupil, but subject to these limitations the work of the pupil in any\ndepartment should be for the benefit of the department.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn G. Thompson, principal, State Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass. — The American elementary public school with its education derived almost entirely from books has\nbuilt up in the minds of its pupils an erroneous idea of the world in which they are to live\nand has developed a wrong attitude toward industrial life. The school has taught —\nperhaps not intentionally — that education enables a man to earn his living without work,\nand that one of the prime objects in attending school is to avoid the necessity of laboring\nwith the hands.\nWe are beginning to realize our mistake, and to see that the school should introduce\nits pupils to the industrial side of human activity as well as to the literary. In attempting to do this we are, it seems to me, facing a grave danger in the possibility, perhaps the\nlikelihood, that thru differentiated courses in the elementary schools the future industrial\nworker will come to be looked down upon by those fitting for literary and professional\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\npursuits. The course of the future industrial worker must finally diverge in the secondary schools from that of the future literary or professional man, but we must in the\nelementary school so present manual labor and human industry that every pupil, rich\nand poor alike, will come to look upon them as being always as worthy and often as more\ninteresting than mental labor. To assure this, it is absolutely necessary that every child\nin the elementary school, without regard to his probable future, shall work with his\nhands — not in the dilettante, emasculated manual training too common today — but in\ndoing a part of the world's work — doing something that needs to be done — doing it under\ncompetent direction, in a workman-like manner, and with proper dispatch. When this\nphase of elementary education is recognized as of as much importance as the study of\nbooks and is required of everyone, the desired reform will have been effected without\nmaking the American school an agency for creating or for emphasizing class distinctions.\nH. B. Brown, president, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Ind. — ^That new subjects should be injected into the already overcrowded curriculum of the public schools\nsimply because there is a seeming demand for them, is not wise. In the large majority\nof these cases the new classes are fads and are shortlived, and have no educational value.\nReally, what is most needed in all our schools is that a lot of the rubbish which has from\ntime to time found its way into the curriculum should be culled out. Even if no additional work were placed in its stead the course of study would be stronger and the pupil\nwould more intelligently comprehend what he does study. The result would be a sounder\npreparation for the vocation which the child might choose to follow.\nWhether industrial education shall become a part of the public-school system or not\nscarcely admits of question. It is only necessary to consider the trend of progress in the\nindustries in order to find the answer. Time was when the boys and girls received at\nhome sufl&cient training in this direction to make them strong, vigorous workers in any\noccupation, but that time has gone by and now the training of these young people must\ncome firom the schools or from the factories. The schools deferred it until the necessity\nof the factories became so great that they were compelled to organize training schools\nfor their needs. This in almost every case, however, has been found unsatisfactory\nsimply because the education thus afforded was one-sided.\nThe preparation of young people for the duties of life cannot be delegated to any\nactivity outside the school. Formerly it was only necessary to prepare students for the\nprofessions, because they had already been equipped by home training for farm, shop ,\nand factory work, but on account of the meagerness of the necessity for the use of tools\nno thought whatever was given to training in this direction. This was proper considering\nthe conditions then existing.\nThe going away from home to school was the equivalent of bidding farewell to farm\nand trades. Nothing but some one of the professions was in view. The false notion was\nentertained that by means of an education followed by one of the professions the young\nman would become prominent in the affairs of the world and wealth would flow into his\nhands. To such an extent did this idea prevail that no small part of the encouragement\ngiven by parents to children to attend school was that they might make a Hving without\nworking so hard, and no sacrifice was too great on the part of parents that the children\nmight complete a course of study. This idea prevailed to such an extent that the changing conditions in the industrial world were overlooked. The introduction of machinery,\nthe settling of the great prairies, the establishing of great factories — all called for the very\nbest element of rural as well as of city life. Opportunities were offered to all who were\nwilling to make the effort for rapid and remunerative advancement. Marvelous inventions and almost incredible discoveries were made in the various industrial departments.\nStill the schools kept on educating for the professions. The only wonder is that existing\nconditions are as satisfactory as they are.\nIndustrial training is manual training, mechanic arts, agriculture, and trade school\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n785\n\nall combined. This discussion, however, relates to that embracing manufacturing and\nmechanic arts, referring to the needs of the child from fourteen to sixteen years of age.\nThese questions confront us: (i) How shall industrial training be introduced? (2) When\nshall it be introduced? (3) What shall be the character of the work? Of course in the\nthree minutes which are allotted to me for presenting this subject statements only can\nbe given, but not reasons.\nI have stated above how industrial training t,hall be introduced — by omitting nones entials inthe curriculum and placing essentials in their stead. This brings us to the\nsecond question, \"When shall industrial training be introduced?\" We all will agree,\nperhaps, that it should be in the early education of the child. What is most needed is a\nthoro systematic course of training in the essentials of an industrial education. Then\nwhen the child has completed his elementary education he will have enough of his latent\npower developed to cause him to see the value of a literary education reinforced by the\nindustrial, thus bridging over the chasm between the elementary course and the high\nschool. This would obviate the necessity for any special work for the child from fourteen\nto sixteen years of age, thus preparing him for all classes of work. We do not teach\ngeometry for the sake of geometry but as it may be an aid in engineering, physics, chemistry, etc.. So should industrial training be considered. It must be such an education\nas can be used in all of the industries.\nAs to the character of the work, if it be a part of the curriculmn the demand of the\nindustries will indicate. Judging from this it would be necessary to have elementary\nmanual training, benchwork, woodwork, pattern-making, mechanical drawing; of coursefollowed in the high school by lathe, forge, and metal work. The course of study must\nbe of such a character that its mastery will compel the child to think in the work of industrial training, not about it. This awakens his inventive faculty and enables him to see\ninto the future. It teaches exactness and completeness and his habits are formed along\nthese lines, so that when he undertakes anything he finishes it. This will prove a great\nfactor toward encouraging him to take a higher course of study.\nIf, however, industrial training is not a part of the course of study, then there should\nbe a course occupying two years at least which would be open to the student who cannot\ncontinue his literary work beyond the elementary stage. This course should consist of\nbench, wood, metal, forgework, pattern-making, descriptive geometry, and drawing, and\nshould occupy such time as may be found most practical for preparing the student for\nthe duties which he must meet. These subjects can be taught in all the schools without\nany great expense. Full equipments need not be placed in any excepting town, township,\nand city schools, as these will place the real work within the reach of everyone.\nJames M. Green, principal, State Normal School, Trenton, N.J. — The statement\nhas been made that the attitude of organized labor toward the apprenticeship system is\nsuch as to make it practically necessary that our schools give industrial education if our\npeople are to be skilled in industries suflSciently to compete successfully with other nations.\nThis statement suggests the wisdom of ascertaining exactly what the attitude of labor\norganizations is, that we may consider whether it offers a sufficient reason for the modification ofthe school system and to what extent.\nIt is quite possible that discussion and education might modify the attitude of labor.\nWe must assume that laboring men, at least as parents, will be reasonable.\nThe real educator cannot escape any part of responsibility. He must consider what\nwill be for the best interests of the people as well out of the schools as in them, and plan\nhis curriculum accordingly.\nAgain, we are puzzled to know exactly what was the apprenticeship system we are\nto substitute, and what constitutes a trade. As I understand it, this problem is simplified\nfor the German by the fact that the industrial school is very often practically a part of a\nfactory and is chiefly supported by that factory, as for instance in the case of some of the\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "786\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ngreat hosiery mills, where the town is practically given over to the one occupation and\nwhere the subjects in the school are applied to that occupation, as the chemistfy of dyeing, etc. We do not know so well what our pupils are to do.\nI was asked to refer especially to the paper read by Commissioner Snedden. This\npaper seems to me very clear and sound. He calls attention among other things to the\nfact that there is no trade awaiting the boys from the age of fourteen to sixteen, and that\nas we cannot anticipate exactly what they are to do we should give industrial education\nthat would apply to groups of subjects. For example, \"There is no inherent reason why\na school for woodworking should not receive boys at fourteen and in the course of two\nor three years give them a wide amount of practical experience with productive work\nand the related technical studies, the outcome of which would be youths prepared for\nfurther specialized training, or for the subdivided factory processes.\" I should like to\nemphasize this statement and to say there is no necessary discord between it and a definition of manual training.\nArthur D. Dean, chief of Division of Trades Schools of the New York State Education Department, Albany, N.Y. — ^The Subcommittee on Industrial and Technical\nEducation in the Secondary Field discovered some interesting facts in collecting its data.\nSome of these are enumerated:\n1. A difference of opinion was evident as to whether the manual-training high\nschool was to continue along its present lines. Nearly every correspondent expressed\nhis belief in trade education. A few stated that such education should be given apart\nfrom the manual-training high school. More implied that the latter institution could,\nwith some adjustment, take care of the problem of fitting for the trades. A very few\nseemed indifferent to any phase of secondary education beyond the confines of the particular school which they administered.\n2. There was a very general feeling that more time should be given to handwork,\nbut no one seemed to see his way clear to bring this about, as the college-entrance requirements appeared already to be crowding the handworking courses into a few hours per\nweek. In fact, some school principals said they were obliged to neglect the fourth year\nshopwork altogether in the case of individual pupils who were preparing for higher institutions.\n3. A very general satisfaction was expressed with regard to the kind of shopwork\nwhich the manual-training schools were doing. In many instances this complacence is\nunwarranted, for the drawing courses do not approach the methods pursued in the best\ncommercial and drawing-room practice. Much of the shopwork is out of touch with\npresent methods of production in high-grade shops. In these shops there has been introduced within a few years the molding machine, screw machine, individually driven\nmachinery, steam hammers, drop-forging equipment, jig and fixture making, and a hundred and one devices for producing more accurately and economically the products, yet\nthe schools have shop methods and equipments twenty-five years behind the times.\n4. When the question came up regarding the close correlation of book work with\nshopwork, no school, with one or two possible exceptions, gave satisfactory answers.\nThe committee inferred that the academic work was determined by college requirements,\nthat the textbooks were similar to those of other secondary schools of dissimilar purpose\nand scope, and that the teachers were comparable with other high-school teachers so far\nas training and experience were concerned, without any reference to practical technical\nexperience.\nIt is evident that the manual-training high school is missing a large opportunity in\nthat it fails to relate the shopwork with the ordinary high-school studies. The leading\npurpose of such institutions — the preparing of boys for higher positions in industrial\nlife — offers a magnificent opportunity to vitalize the two lines of work.\n5. Few courses of study in the manual-training high schools havQ connected them-\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n787\n\nselves with the leading industries of the community. These courses have been made like\nsome other school in some other section of the country. It even appeared as tho courses\nof study had been compiled by striking an average from the data furnished from courses\nof other schools.\n6. The last point brings us to the question of how a secondary technical school should\nbe planned. Undoubtedly it is best developed when it is related to the local field; when\nits building is adapted to the needs of the local situation; when its equipment is in accordance with best modern shop practice; when its courses of study are developed after consultation with leading industrial experts of the local community. This is not the usual\nprocedure. Courses of study, plans of buildings, and lists of equipment are sought from\nall sections of the country. The local school is built in accordance with other schools after\nthe local architect has done what he can to add to the beauty of the outside by destroying\nthe effective workings of the inside. It is well to know what other places are doing but\nit is also an excellent idea to know the local industrial problem and the ways to meet it.\n7. Ignoring the question of evening trade work for those already employed in the\nindustries is a grave matter in the manual-training high-school situation. There is an\nurgent need for evening trade and technical classes for bettering the opportunities of men\nand women employed in industrial vocations during the day. Existing day schools which\nhave well-equipped shops and drawing-rooms can render no more important service than\nto offer such facilities to the industrial workers.\n8. The minority report of this subcommittee, as signed by one member, expresses\nthe belief of those who would have the technical high school meet all the industrial and\neducational requirements of the community. It ignores the fact that the report of the\ncommittee was so worded that it impUed that there was a high school of another type in\nthe community in which the high-school pupils could prepare for higher institutions.\nThe main business of the subcommittee was to bring before the Association the question\nof industrial and technical education in secondary schools, and it was not primarily concerned with the question of college preparation. However, there is no need for any difference ofopinion, for undoubtedly the technical high school may contain three lines of\nactivity: (a) The preparation of boys and girls for industrial careers. This is its primary\npurpose. (6) It may serve as a finishing school for a large number who will not go beyond\nit. (c) It may prepare for higher technical colleges.\nSuch a plan involves three distinct courses or departments, with three distinct lines\nof academic work as well as an amount and kind of shopwork varying with the purpose of\neach course. Otherwise this plan of a cosmopolitan technical high school (if I may use\nthis term) will fail of its true purpose. Unless care is used in organizing the various\ncourses the school will merely contain a number of classrooms, a series of shops with\njumbled courses of study, indefinite in their aims, illogical in their workings, and unsatisfactory to every group of students. The course which prepares for the technical college\nis definitely laid out by the requirements for entrance to the college. May not the course\nfor preparing for industrial careers be laid out as definitely ? There need be no argument\nover the name plate on the door of the school. The main point is to see to it that a class\nof pupils, now unprovided for, receive the industrial education they need.\nZ. X. Snyder, State Normal School, Greeley, Colo. —\nI. The curriculum of the public schools should contain manual training all along\nthe line.\nII. The material for any subject so far as possible should grow out of the immediate\nlife of the child. This should take into consideration: (i) The stage of development of\nthe child; (2) his community; (3) his taste, tendencies, and powers.\nIII. This industrial training should, as it moves along, reveal the child's tastes,\npowers, and aptitudes, and become vocational so that he may have, or be near, his earning power if he has at any time to drop out of the schools, or when he finishes his course.\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Manual Training\n\n788\n\nIV. The industrial and vocational work should be organized in a rich curriculum\nthat is vital in its nature, embracing history, civics, mathematics, nature study, art, and\nsuch subjects as the child's stage of development may warrant, (i) Everything should\nbe real. (2) It should be co-ordinated. (3) It should meet the necessities of his life. (4)\nIt should be cultural in the sense that it grows out of his life and back into it to enrich it.\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Charles I. Rice, director of music, Public Schools\nVice-President — Miss Elsie M. Shawe, director of music. Public Schools\nSecretary — Miss Birdie Alexander, supervisor of music. Public Schools\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday\n\nWorcester, Mass.\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nDallas, Texas.\n\nMorning, July 5, 1910\n\nThe Department of Music Education met at the New England Conservatory ot\nMusic. The meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m., the president, Charles L Rice,\npresiding.\nThe program opened with an address by the president, Charles I. Rice, director of\nmusic, Worcester, Mass., on \"Boston, the Cradle of Public-School Music in America.\"\nThe topic, \"Phases of Music Education in High Schools,\" was treated in the following papers:\na) \"The Study of Music Appreciation in the High School of Springfield,\" by Miss\nMary L. Regal, West Springfield, Mass. This was followed by a discussion in which Miss\nElsie M. Shawe, director of music, St. Paul, Minn., Mr. Timothy L. Roberts, supervisor\nof music, pubUc schools, Utica, N.Y., MissM. Teresa Finn, supervisor of music, St. Louis,\nMo., Philip C. Hayden, director of music, Keokuk, Iowa, and others participated.\nh) \"The Automatic Player in Schools,\" by John G. Thompson, principal of State\nNormal School, Fitchburg, Mass. John B. Shirley, supervisor of music, Lansingburg,\nTroy, N.Y., Edward B. Birge, director of music, Indianapolis, Ind., and others spoke on\nthe subject.\nc) \"Harmony Courses in High Schools,\" by Osbourne McConathy, supervisor of\nmusic. Public Schools, Chelsea, Mass.\nd) \"School Orchestras,\" by Edward Bailey Birge, director of music. Public Schools,\nIndianapoHs, Ind., followed by a general discussion.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the president:\nC. H. Farnsworth, Teachers College, New York City, N.Y.\nMiss Maude L. Davis, Worcester, Mass.\nTimothy L. Roberts, Utica, N.Y.\nMrs. Constance Barlow-Smith, in charge of pubhc-school music, University of\nIllinois, Urbana, 111., read a paper on \"The Educational Value of the Folk-Song.\" Illustrations of German, English, Russian, Scotch, Swedish, Irish, and Welsh folk-songs were\ngiven by ninth-grade pupils from the Maiden, Mass., pubhc schools, under the direction of\nMelville E. Chase, director of music, Maiden, Mass., and by the following adults: Miss\nMiriam J. Rice, sopi ano, Mr. Herbert E. Gather, baritone.\nThe selections were as follows:\n( \"Little Dustman\"\nGerman\n\nEnglish\n\n....\n\n....\n\nP\n.\nRussian\n....\n\n] \" Must I Then Go ? \"\n(\" How Can I Leave Thee ? \"\n\nPupils\nPupils\n. Mr. Gather\n\n.....\n\n( \"With My Flocks\"\n]\" Under the Greenwood Tree \"\n( \"Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes\".\n( \"The Three in Hand\" (Troika)\n^ a-pjjgQj^Qj^^n\n789\n\n.\n\nPupils\nPupils\n. Mr. Gather\nMiss Rice\nMiss Rice\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "790\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n„ ^,\n< \"Scots WhaHa'ewi' Wallace Bled\"\n^^^^^°^ ....\ni \"The Campbells are Comin'\"\nc, J. ,\n( \"Now Far, Far Eastward\"\nSwedish ....\nj \"Like Crystal\"\n,.,\n< \"When Love Is Kind\"\n^\"^^\n} \"The Harp That Once thro' Tara's Halls\"\nWelsh\n\"All thru the Night\"\nThe department adjourned to meet the following morning.\n\n.\n\n[Music\n\nPupils\nPupils\nPupils\nPupils\nMiss Rice\n. Mr. Cather\nPupils\n\nSECOND SESSION, ROUND TABLE.— Wednesday Morning, July 6, 19 lo\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 9:30 a.m.\nThe greater part of the morning was devoted to a musical program as follows:\nThe Tel-electric Piano Player in Solo and Accompaniment\ninstrumental program\nArtists\nMr. Frederick Blair\nMr. Thomas Moore Cornell\n\nCellist\nPlayer Accompanist\n\nPiano: Scotch Dances (Op. 41)\nDvorak\nIntermezzo, Scherzoso (Op. 21, No. 9, D Flat)\nVon Billow\nCello: Vito (Op. 54, No. 5)\nPopper\nSpanish Serenade (Op. 54, No. 1)\nFriml\nPiano: Hungarian Dance (No. 6) ...\n*\nBrahms\nFire-Flies (Op. 15, No. 4)\nMrs. H. H. A. Beach\nLecture Recital by Mr. and Mrs. Arnold Dolmetsch on the music and instruments\nof the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.\nPROGRAM\n\n1. \"John, Come Kiss Me,\" with Divisions\nFor the Spinet and Octavina\nAnonymous English, c. 1600\n2. \"Heart's Ease\"\nFor the Viola da Gamba\nAnonymous English, c. 1560\n3. Fantasie for Treble and Bass Viol:\n\"La Caccia\"\nThomas Morley,i5gg\n4. Two Pieces for the Harpsichord:\na) Toccata\nHenry Purcell, c. 1670\nh) \" Soeur Monique \"\nFranqois Couperin, 1700\n5. Two Pieces for the Viola da Gamba, ace. by the Harpsichord:\na) La Plainte\nMarin Marais, c. lyoo\nh) Les Vendengeuses de Montguichet\n....\nDe Caix d^Hervelois, 17 31\n6. Harpsichord Pieces:\na) Sonata in D Major\nDomenico Scarlatti, 171 5\nh) \"Le Rappel des Oiseaux\"\nJ. P. Rameau, 1721\nc) Musette en Rondeau\nJ. P. Rameau, 1721\nd) Tambourin\nJ. P. Rameau, 17 21\n7. Sonata for the Viola d'Amore, accompanied by the Harpsichord . Attilio Ariosti, 1715.\n8. Harpsichord Pieces:\na) Introduction, Gavotte et Musette from English Suite in D Minor\nh) Toccata in G Major\nJ.S. Bach\n9. a) Prelude and Fugue in C Major\nh) Prelude in F Minor\nc) Prelude in B Flat\nFor the Clavichord (from \" Das wohltemporirte Klavier \") . . . J.S.Bach\nThe Pianola in Solo and Accompaniment\nPROGRAM\n\nI.\n\nConcerto, Op. 59\nModerato\nAllegro Animate\n\nMoszkowski\nMr. Earl Willla.m Smith\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nII.\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nThe Daisy Chain\n\n791\n\nLiza Lehman\nSoloists\n\nMiss Annie E. Hollis\nMiss Adelaide J. Griggs\nMr. Charles F. Hackett\n\nSoprano\nContralto\nTenor\n\nMr. Leverett B. Merrill\n'\nBass\nMr. Earl William Smith, Accompanist with the aid of the Pianola\nThe Daisy Chain\na song cycle\nI.\n\nForeign Children\n\nWords by R. L. Stevenson\nQuartette\n\nII.\n\n\"Fairies\"\n\nIII. Keepsake Mill\n\nAnonymous\n\nContralto\n\nWords by R. L. Stevenson\n\nBaritone\n\nIV. If No One Ever Marries Me\n\nWords by Laurence Alma Tadema\nSoprano\n\nV.\n\n\"Stars\" (Escape at Bedtime)\n\nVI.\n\n\"Seeing the World\"\n\nVII.\n\nQuartette\n\"The Ship That Sailed into the Sun\"\n.\nContralto\n\nVIII.\n\nFrom \"Little Men and Women\"\n\n\"The Swing\"\nMustard and Cress\n\nX.\n\nThe Moon\n\nXI.\n\n\"Thank You Very Much Indeed\"\n\"Blind Man's Buff\"\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nWords by W. B. Rands\nWoidshy R. L. Stevenson\n\nSoprano\n\nIX.\n\nXII.\n\n\"^^OT^s.hy R. L. Stevenson\n\nTenor\n\nBaritone\nTenor\n\nWords by Norman Gale\nWords by R. L. Stevenson\nWords hy Norman Gale\n\nQuartette\n\nQuartette\nA. J. Gantvoort, Director of College of Music, Cincinnati, O., chairman of the Committee on National Songs, submitted the report of the committee concerning the best\nversion to be standardized of \"America,\" \"Star Spangled Banner,\" \"Hail, Columbia,\"\nand \"0 Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean.\" Since only a part of the report of the\nCommittee was considered by the department it was deemed unnecessary to print the\nentire report.\nOn motion of Leo R. Lewis it was voted to consider the melodies only as presented in .\nthis report.\nA lively general discussion followed this report and at i :$o the department adjourned\nto 3 P.M.\nWednesday, July 6, 3 p.m.\nThe meeting was called to order at 3 p.m. and discussion on the report of the Committee on National Songs was resumed.\nThe following arrangements of the melodies of \"America\" and of \"The Star Spangled\nBanner\" were finally agreed upon as the versions which the Department of Music Education recommends as the standard:\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Music\n\n792\n\nTHE STAR-SPANGLED\n\nBANNER\n\nDr. Samuel Arnold, 1740-1802\n\nFrancis Scott Key, 1779-1843\nAs reported by the Committee\n\n-^\n\nU\n\n1. Oh!\nsay, can you\nsee,\nby the dawn's ear-ly\nAs adopted by the Department of Music Education\n\nlight. What so\n\n^\n1. Oh!\n\nsay, can\n\nyou\n\n2S=S:\n\nm\n\n2. On the shore dim - ly\n\n^'=i-\n\nW~A-4.*-Oh!\n\ni\n\nthus\n\nbe\n\nit\n\nsee,\n\nby the dawn's ear-ly\n\n^\n\nd^i\n\n^^^B^^\n\n^\n\n^ i\n\nseen\n\nthro' the mist\n\nev - er\n\nwhen\n\nof\n\nthe deep. Where the\n\nfree-men shall stand\n\nBe\n\nd-s*-\n\n^^we\n^\n\nhailed\n\nat\n\nthe\n\ntwi-light's last gleaming, Whose broad\n\nwe\n\nhailed\n\nat\n\nthe\n\ntwi-light's last gleaming, Whose broad\n\nproud-ly\n\nWEi\nfoe's\n\nlight. What so\n\n-75*-\n\n:fc*\n\nproud-ly\n\n^\n\nhaughty host\n\ne^P\n\nm\n\n£^\n\nin dread si - lence\n\nre - pos - es, What is\n\nfc=i\n\ntween their loved homes and the war's des - o\n\n- la - tion; Blest with\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n793\n\nMINUTES\n\nThe Star-Spangled Banner\n\n-iSE^\ns^^-\n\nm\n\nI\n\nstripes and bright stars,\n\nthro' the per\n\n^si\n- il - ous\n\nfight,\n\nthat which the\n\nbreeze,\n\nthro' the per\n\n- il - ous\n\nv=t:\n\n^=^4\n\no'er the tow - er - ing\n\nfight,\n\nO'er\n\n-^-\n\n;^\n\nsteep,\n\nAs\n\n^^\nand\n\npeace,\n\nfcs:\n\nmay the heav'n-rescued\n\n^m\n\nband\n\nW ram-parts\n-^ \\ wex-^\nwatched, were so gal - lant - ly streaming?\nfci=\n\nW^,\n«\n\na:^::^\n\n:tn=F\n\n^^=^\n\nram - parts we watched, were so\n\n'-— ^— ^--=g\nfit - ful - ly\n\nA\n\nthe\n\ni=g\n\nPraise the\n\nAnd the\n\nf=^\n\nJ=d=\ngal - lant - ly\n\nstreaming?i\n\n\\-\n\nrnH — y\n\nVV — the\nAnd\n-V —\n\nV-\n\nit\n\nblows,\n\nhalf con-ceals, half dis - clos - es?\n\nNow\n\nPow'r that hath made\n\n5Et\na :F na - tion.\n\nThen\n\ni5=E\n\nand pre-served us\n\nit\n\n-*i^—\n— jv\n*— I\n\n^y- — r\nvie - fry\n\nthe\n\ntnZZfL\natz=^\n\nW\n\nm\n\nO'er\n\n^\nstripes and bright stars,\n\nIP\n\n:^-— ?r\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n794\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n-^\n\n[Music\n\nThe Star-Spangled Banner\nvz±it\n\nrock-ets'\n\nkY\n\nred\n\nglare,\n\nred\n\nglare,\n\nthe bombs burst -ing\n\nfe-.— H*-\n\ni=i=E\n\ng\n\ncon - quer\n\nwe\n\ne^\n\ni^\n\ngleam\n\nmust,\n\nthe morn-ing's\n\n^\n\nS\n# E^\n\nwhen our\n\n:6=5:\nglo\n\n:e=*^\n\ncause\nV^\n\nair,\n\nGave\n\n5^\n\n?^\n\nfirst\n\nbeam,\n\nIn full\n\nis\n\njust.\n\nAnd\n\n1=d:\n\nnight\n\nthat\n\nour\n\nflag\n\nwas\n\nnight\n\nthat\n\nour\n\nflag\n\nwas\n\nstill\n\nthere.\n\nstill\n\nthere.\n\nshines\n\non\n\nthe\n\nstream.\n1=1:\n\nGod\n\nist=3:\nour\n\ntrust.\n\n1=^J\nthro'\n\nthe\n\n^^\n- ry\n\nre - fleet\n\n- ed,\n\nnow\n\ni^\nthis\n\nit\n\ni^^ tcpJ:\n\nproof thro' the\n\nproof\n\nGave\n\n-(^\n\nof\n\nrz^^E^F\n\n$\n\nin\n\nI^tZ^\nthe\n\n:^=i=\n\nV — u^-\n\nair,\n\nti-^-i-F — v^=^=^\n\nrock - ets'\n\ncatch -es\n\nI\n\nin\n\n:p=i:\n\nfci=HE\n\nI\n\nthe bombs burst -ing\n\nbe\n\nour\n\nmot - to\n\nIn\n\nS=\n\n-^5^-\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "SECRETARY'S\n\nDepartment]\n\n795\n\nMINUTES\n\nThe Star-Spangled Banner\nRefrain or Chorus\n\n^^^^:\n\n'JZZXL\n\nOh!\n\nsay, does\n\nthat star - span-gled\n\n^^^m\n\nOh!\n\n-^—0-\n\nsay, does\n\nban - ner\n\nthe\n\nstar - span-gled\n\nban - ner\n\nI\n\nban -ner,\n\n-N\nNUtl^Ml\nO'er the land\n\n$\n\ni\n\nlong\n\nmay\n\nof\n\n*: — #-\n\nit\n\nwave\n\n^ta.\n\nI\n\n^— # ^\n\nAnd the star-span - gled\n\nf^\n\noh!\n\nifZZit\n\n1N — ^- -\n\nwave\n\n=p=i\"\n\n'Tis the star-span - gled\nI\n\nyet\n\nSi\n\njt=Jt\n\n1\n\nwave\n\n3^^:^\n\n^^^\n\n1^=:^\n\nyet\n\nban - ner\n\n^r=HS=\n\n^\n\nthe\n\nfree\n\nand\n\nin\n\n<^\n\n:Q=\n\n^\n\ntri - umph shall\n\nwave\n\nthe\n\nhome\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nbrave?\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nbrave ?\n\nthe\n\nbrave.\n\n^\n\n^\n\n-V — ^\n\nO'er the\n\nland\n\nof\n\nthe free\n\nand the home\n\n-^\n\n^\n\n■#—\n\nO'er the\n\nland\n\nof\n\nthe free\n\nand the home\n\nof\n\n!5=ltE\n■*—\n3^\n\n-V —\n\n\\^\n\nO'er the\n\nof\n\nthe free\n\nand\nthe home\n-\\/—V-\n\nV — h-of the brave.\n\nland\n\ni^tEtt\n•— ^:\n\nfc:^\n\ni^\"E\n\n]]\n\nAmerica\nAs reported by the Committee\n\nI\n\nAs adopted bv the Department\nof Music Education\n\nt=^^^ US\n\nThe department adjourned at 5 : 20 p.m. to meet again the following morning.\n\n^]\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "796\n\nNATIONAL\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nSESSION.— Thursday Forenoon, July 7, iqio\n\nThe meeting opened at 9 : 30, the president in the chair.\nThe department expressed itself in sympathy with the ideas of the High School\nTeachers Association of New York City, viz. : That the requirements for college admission\nbe enlarged so as to include subjects not now on the specified list, thus enabling pupils\nwho decide during the latter part of their high-school course to enter college, to present\nsufficient credits for admission.\nThe first paper of the morning, \"Some of the Effects of Music Education,\" was presented by John W. Cook, president of Northern Illinois State Normal School, DeKalb,\n111. A general discussion followed.\nThe following resolution was submitted by the Committee on National Songs to be\npresented to the Committee on Resolutions of the National Education Association:\nWhereas, The manner of singing our national songs \"America\" and \"Star Spangled\nBanner\" differs widely in various cities and even in different schools of the same city; and\nWhereas, There is therefore a great need of some agreement upon a uniform rendition\nof these songs;\nBe It Resolved, That the National Education Association heartily indorses the forms\nagreed upon by the Music Section during the present meeting, and recognizes the use of\nthese forms in all the public schools.\nOn motion of Miss Elsie M. Shawe, of St. Paul, Minn., seconded by Miss M. Teresa\nFinn, of St. Louis, Mo., it was voted that the above resolution be adopted by the Department of Music, Education and presented to the general body as the recommendation of\nthis department.\nAs it was too late for this resolution to be submitted to the Committee on Resolutions,\nit was ordered on motion that the president of the Department of Music Education submit\nthe resolution at the annual meeting of active members if possible,\n\"Success in Public-School Music\" was the subject of a paper by Leonard B. Marshall,\nassistant director of music, Public Schools, Boston, Mass. Grant Drake, assistant\ndirector of music in the Boston public schools, led the discussion.\nOn motion of John B. Shirley, of Troy, N.Y,, duly seconded, it was voted that the\npresent Committee on National Songs be continued for another year. The committee is\nas follows:\nA. J. Gantvoort, Chairman, director. College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nMiss Elsie M. Shawe, director of music, St. Paul, Minn.\nOsbourne McConathy, supervisor of music, Chelsea, Mass.\nR. G. Cole, Madison, Wis.\nThomas Tapper, lecturer, New York University, New York City, N.Y.\nMrs. Jessie L. Gaynor, St. Joseph, Mo.\nEdward B. Birge, director of music, Indianapolis, Ind.\nMrs. C. B. Kelsey, Grand Rapids, Mich.\nC. H. Farnsworth, adjunct professor. Teachers College, New York, N.Y.\nMrs. Frances E. Clark, supervisor of music, Milwaukee, Wis.\nOn motion of C. H. Farnsworth, of New York, duly seconded, it was voted that the\nCommittee on Terminology be relieved from reporting this year, and that the present\ncommittee be continued for another year. The committee is as follows:\nCharles I. Rice, Chairman, director of music, Worcester, Mass.\nMrs. Constance Barlow-Smith, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\nLeo R. Lewis, professor of music, Tufts College, Mass.\nWilliam B. Kinnear, supervisor of music, Minneapolis, Kans.\nPhilip C. Hayden, director of music, Keokuk, Iowa.\nThe nominating committee then submitted its report, which was as follows:\nFor President — Miss Elsie M. Shawe, director of music, St. Paul, Minn.\nFor Vice-President — C. A. Fullerton, professor of music. State Normal School, Cedar\nFalls, Iowa.\nFor Secretary — Miss Estelle Carpenter, supervisor of music, San Francisco, Cal.\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n797\n\nA motion duly made and seconded was carried that the report of the nominating\ncommittee be accepted and that the secretary be empowered to cast the ballot for the\nelection of these officers for the ensuing year.\nWilliam L. Tomlins, lecturer on music, New York City, N.Y,, gave a lesson talk,\ndealing largely with the moral influence of music.\nIn order to carry out the instructions of the department to present to the active members in session the action of the department concerning the two national songs, the\npresident left the hall before the time of adjournment and at the close of Mr. Tomlins'\ndemonstration (the vice-president presiding) Mr, Farnsworth's motion, in so far as it\nrelieved the Committee on Terminology from making report at this meeting, was reconsidered, and the department adjourned to meet for the consideration of the report of\nthe Committee on Terminology at 2:30 p.m.\nThursday, July 7, 2 : 30 p.m.\nIn the absence of the president, the vice-president, Miss Elsie M. Shawe, opened the\nmeeting.\nLeo R. Lewis, professor of music. Tufts College, reported for the Committee on Terminology, stating that the committee felt that there was great need of more unification\nin musical notation.\nPresident Rice here took the chair. He reported that he had Ijeen unable to bring\nthe resolution prepared by the Committee on National Songs, before the annual meeting.\nThe resolution would, therefore, have to hold over till another year.\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nTERMINOLOGY\n\n.\n\nI will read an extract from the report prepared for use at the Denver meeting, and\nrelate a little history.\n\" While the following is not, strictly speaking, connected with terminology reform, it\nis the opinion of the committee that some plan ought to be devised by which the many\nunnecessary irregularities and duplications in the notation of rhythm may be avoided.\nThe remedy for this evil seems to lie in the uniform use of the quarter-note as the beatunit in all forms of so-called simple measure (2-4, 3-4, 4-4) and in slow movements of\n6-4, 9-4, and 12-4 measures.\n\"In rapid movements where the 6, 9, and 12 beats are compounded into 2, 3, and 4\nbeats, each beat divisible on a basis of three, it is suggested that the numerals 2, 3, 4, be\nused as measure-signs with a dotted quarter-note below them. The note-groups are\nfamihar, being precisely like those of 2-4, 3-4, and 4-4 measures with triplets. This idea\nwill shortly have a wide circulation in an article by Mr. vSamuel W. Cole.\"\nPrior to presenting the report I was told by several men from the Middle West that\nthey had seen printed music which employed the idea embodied in the proposition to use\na note instead of a numeral as the lower member of the measure-sign.\nBelieving that there might be something in the story I withheld this part of the report,\npreferring to wait and see whether Mr. Cole had innocently rediscovered something which\nhad been mislaid and forgotten. After a correspondence which covered three months\nand extended into most of the states of the Middle West, I received a letter on December i\nwhich cleared up the matter.\nIn 1877 Mr. S. W. Straub, now deceased, published a book called Convention and\nChoir, in which the measure-sign consisted of a numeral above, and a note below, the\nthird hne of the staff.\nI have tried to obtain a copy of this book in order to see what was said concerning the\ninnovation at its birth, but the best I have been able to do is here in the shape of a copy of\nSplendor, published in Chicago in 1888, which the preface says is the tenth book published\nby Mr. Straub.\nMr. Cole's newly published I ntervallia hocks will show you the appearance of the\nprinted music.\nThe proposition that the quarter-note genus shall always represent the beat in printed\nmusic seems to me undebatable. It is in the nature of simpHfication without loss. By\nfollowing this plan only one set of proportions needs to be learned. The quarter-note,\neither plain or dotted, always means : sing once in the time of one beat. The group of two\neighths always means: sing two tones of equal length in the time of one beat. The group\nof three eighths, with or without the triplet sign, always means: sing three tones of equal\nlength in the time of one beat, etc., etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nThe last report of the committee recommends as the best form in speaking of the\nmeaning of the measure-signs: two-quarter measure, three-quarter measure, etc., in place\nof two-four time, three-four time, etc. Thus: \" 'Yankee Doodle' is written in twoquarter\n'America'\nthree-quarter\nthe\nnote measure;\nas the lower\nmemberis written\nwould in\nmake\nit easier tomeasure.\"\nconform toThethatmeasure-sign\nstandard. with\nMr.\nStraub seems, then, to have made, thirty-three years ago, the simplification we are discussing today. The plates from which his many books were printed were destroyed by\nfire, so that the records of the idea have disappeared almost as completely as if the idea\nhad never been.\nRespectfully submitted,\nCharles I. Rice, Chairman\nAfter considerable discussion, on motion of Dr. Rix, of New York City N.Y., seconded\nby Mr. Kelsey, it was voted : that the quarter-note or dotted quarter-note be recommended\nas the beat-unit in all printed music.\nOn motion of Miss Shawe, seconded by Dr. Rix, it was voted that this department\napproves the adoption of a measure-sign which shall consist of a numeral above and a\nquarter-note or a dotted quarter-note below.\nOn motion of Professor Lewis, duly seconded, it was voted that the matter of actual\nterminology to cover these innovations be referred to the Committee on Terminology, to\nreport next year.\nOn motion of Mr. Hayden, of Keokuk, Towa., duly seconded, it was voted that sections *^ 2)'^\" and \"3<i\"' of the \"Report of the Committee on Terminology as voted upon and\nadopted at the Denver meeting, 1909,\" be referred back to the Committee on Terminology\nfor revision, to be presented next year. The following are the sections referred to:\n3c) The double-sharp is a character which causes a staff degree to represent a pitch\ntwo chromatic half-steps higher.\n^d) The double-flat is a character which causes a staff degree to represent a pitch\ntwo chromatic half-steps lower.\nOn motion of Miss Finn, of St. Louis, duly seconded, it was voted that the matter\nof terminology as to use of words \"pulse,\" \"beat,\" \"after-beat,\" and \"half-beat\" be\nreferred to the Committee on Terminology.\nAfter a rising vote of thanks to the president of the Department of Music Education,\nthe meeting adjourned.\nMabel B. Dowse, Acting Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nBOSTON,\nCHARLES\n\nTHE\n\nCRADLE\n\nI. RICE, DIRECTOR\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\nAMERICA\n\nOF MUSIC, PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nMUSIC\nWORCESTER,\n\nIN\nMASS.\n\nBirthplaces of great men; fields where great issues, national or international, have been settled; the planting-places of great humanitarian influences from whence the good seed has spread and filled the land— all\nthese are shrines which every right-thinking person welcomes an opportunity tovisit. It must be, then, with a special anticipation that strangers\nto the East have journeyed to that particular group of states on the Atlantic seaboard called New England; to the bright and shining member of\nthat group, the old Bay State; and to its capital, Boston.\nWe are abnost in sight of the beginnings at Plymouth and Duxbury; .\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCRADLE\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n799\n\nSalem is a stone's throw to the north; and, in truth, every battlefield of\nthe Revolution is within easier call than the opposite boundaries of several\nwestern states. The house of Paul Revere, silversmith and bell-founder, still\nstands, and the first bell, and the four hundred and ninety-eighth, which\nwas the last one cast at the Revere Foundry, both continue to speak for\nthat doughty midnight rider, on Sundays and patriotic occasions.\nBut it is to a historical theme of more recent date and one that should\nbe near to the heart of every director of school music, that I call your\nattention this morning.\nHere in Boston in the year 1836, seventy-four years ago, the first\nattempt to introduce the teaching of music into the public schools was\nlade. Many different influences had been at work in the commimity,\n)reparing the way for this move.\nThe Handel and Haydn Society, which is yet very much alive, organsed its first Board of Government on April 20, 181 5, and at its seventeenth concert, December 25, 181 8, gave its first complete performance\n)f an oratorio, The Messiah. To it also belongs the credit of the first\nimerican performance of the Creation, February, 1819, and I hold here\ncopy of that work published by the Handel and Haydn Society in 1827.\nWhen the time was ripe an institution called the Boston Academy of\nMusic sprang into being, and to this institution in a general way and to\nthree men in particular who were associated in its management, Boston\nowes its pre-eminence as the birthplace of our public-school music. The\nname of Lowell Mason at once comes to mind; a few of you have heard of\nGeorge J. Webb, but I venture to express the belief that not a dozen persons\nhere can name the third man, and as you have lived thus long without this\nknowledge I am going to defer your enlightenment for a little. Sufiice it\nfor the present that the Boston Academy of Music thru its of&cers and\nteachers was the agency which united all the tributary musical interests\nin one grand reservoir, and, loosing their combined power upon the school\ncommittee in the shape of memorials and petitions, secured early action.\nLet me take you back for a moment to the Boston of 1836. Six years\nbefore, it had celebrated by a splendid jubilee the two-hundredth anniversary of its founding in 1630. At the close of these two hundred years\nthe census returns gave its population as 61,392.\nHere are a few extracts concerning Boston from a gazetteer of this\nperiod published in Philadelphia:\nThe finest hotel in the United States, called the Tremont House, contains nearly 200\napartments\nThe periodicals of the city are more than 60, including 31 newspapers, of\n7 which are daily. The public schools are not equaled in any other city in the\nworld.\n\nLet me say here that any city supporting a periodical for each one thousand\npopulation would be exceptional today, and a record of seven daily newspapers for a city of 61,000 is certainly above the average. I quote again:\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nThere are more stage coaches running to and from this city than any other in America.\nThe number of daily arrivals and departures is about 250.\n\nRailroading was as new then as flying is now. The western hemisphere\nhad 841 miles of track, and Boston led the van with no miles radiating\nto Worcester, Providence, and Lowell.\nLeaving this brief survey of the Boston of 1836, let us take up the main\nthread of our theme.\nThe Boston Academy of Music was founded in 1833 at the suggestion\nof Mr. William Woodbridge, editor of Annals of Education, with the practical aid of Messrs. Lowell Mason and George J. Webb. (That the year\nis often given as 1832 may be accounted for if we remember that the preliminary steps for an opening in January, 1833, must have been taken in\nthe latter part of the preceding year.)\nMr. Mason had been identified with the musical life of Boston since\n1827, and in June, 1834, a little volume of 236 pages called Manual of the\nBoston Academy of Music prepared by him was published by the Academy.\nThese two men. Mason and Webb, started young people's and children's\nsinging classes, which met with such success that the proposal of publicschool instruction in music came as a natural sequence.\nIt is probable that Lowell Mason had seen the vision of music taught\nin the schools before the formation of the Boston Academy, and this institution went on record in the preface of the Manual I have just spoken of\nwith the expressed hope that music \"will, at no distant day, take rank\namong the branches of common-school education.\"\nI will now give you the name of the man of whom I spoke a few minutes\nago. Mr. Samuel A. Eliot, Harvard University, 181 7, was president of\nthe Boston Academy of Music during its entire career from 1 833-1 847.\nIn 1835 Mr. EHot published in the North American Review an article on\nmusic, designed to interest the reading public in the history and cultivation of that art, and in 1840 in the same Review there appeared a survey\nby him of the influence and aims of the Boston Academy of Music.\nIn 1836 a memorial was presented to the School Committee by this\ninstitution, urging the propriety of making music a public-school study.\nMr. Eliot, who had been a member of the School Committee, enthusiastically supported the proposition and while he was mayor of Boston, and\nthus chairman ex-oflficio of the board for the three years 1837, 1838, 1839,\nyou may readily see that the cause of music did not lack an influential\nchampion at a time when strong backing was most needed.\nPsalm-books and song-books of various kinds were rapidly published\nby Messrs. Mason and Webb, and in 1837 Mr. Eliot translated Schiller's\n\"Song of the Bell,\" adapted to music by Romberg.\nAltho this is another story I cannot refrain from noticing that in 1841\nthe Boston Academy of Music introduced orchestral works into its concerts. The first concert of that year produced Beethoven's Fifth Symphony,\nsoon followed by the First, and by other classical compositions.\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCRADLE\n\nOF\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nAMERICA\n\n80 1\n\nThis institution, then, during its brief span of fourteen years, is to be\ncredited with two great achievements: the introduction of music teaching\ninto the Boston schools, and the introduction of a symphony orchestra to\na Boston audience. Which of these is its crowning glory depends on the\npoint of view.\nThe first memorial bore no visible fruit, and in April, 1837, Mr. Mason\nwent to Europe, returning in October of the same year. On the choice\nof a new board of school committee in 1837 the subject was again brought\nforward by the Academy, this time reinforced by two petitions signed by\n\"sundry respectable citizens,\" and the following committee was appointed\nto examine and report concerning the matter: T. Kemper Davis, Samuel\nK. Lothrop, and Justin Field.\nAt a meeting of the Boston School Committee held August 24, 1837,\nthis committee presented its report in a very remarkable and prophetic\ndocument which would be useful and convincing under similar circumstances today.\nThe report begins as follows :\nThe committee have given to the subject that attention which its importance required.\nThey have afforded the memorialists a hearing and availed themselves of such means of\ninformation as it was in their power to obtain. After mature deliberation and a careful\nscrutiny of arguments and evidence, the committee are unanimously of opinion that it is\nexpedient to comply with the request of the petitioners.\n\nAfter testing vocal music by these three standards: \"Is it intellectual\n— is it moral — is it physical ?\" the report goes on:\nJudged then by this triple standard — intellectually, morally, and physically — vocal\nmusic seems to have a natural place in every system of instruction which aspires, as should\nevery system, to develop man's whole nature\nThe daily sounding of the consonant\nand vowel sounds deliberately, distinctly, and by themselves, as the committee have heard\nthem sounded in the musical lessons .... would, in their opinion, be as good an exercise\nas could be imagined\nAn alternation is needed in our schools, which without being\nidleness shall yet give rest. Vocal music seems exactly fitted to afford that alternation.\nA recreation, yet not a dissipation of the mind — a respite, yet not a relaxation — its office\nwould thus be, to restore the jaded energies, and send back the scholars with invigorated\npowers to other more laborious duties.\n\nEvery objection was impartially considered by this committee, for,\nsays the report: \"Nothing in the end is gained by misrepresenting or\nobscuring an opponent's argument.\"\nHere are some selected statements:\nThe ear discriminates sounds as the eye colors. They may both be educated. Early\nimpressions can create an ear for music. It is with learning to sing as with acquiring the\npronunciation of a foreign language. Instruction, to be available, must be given while\nthe organs have the flexibility of youth.\nTo learn late in life is, generally, to learn not at\nall\nAs many probably would be found to excel in music, as in arithmetic, writing,\nor any of the required studies, and no more. All cannot be orators, nor all poets; but\nshall we not therefore teach the elements of grammar, which orators and poets in common\nwith all others use ? It should never be forgotten that the power of understanding and\nappreciating music may be acquired, where the power of excelling in it is found wanting.\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nBut the most general objection to the introduction of vocal music into our public\nschools is this. It will, we are told, impair discipline\n\"Where music is not, the\nDevil enters,\" is a familiar German proverb in regard to schools; and after witnessing the\nlessons in music .... the committee do not hesitate to say that, if any want of discipline\nfollow the introduction of vocal music into a school, the fault must be with the master of\nthat school — it is not with the system\nNow the defect of our present system ....\nis this, that it aims to develop the intellectual part of man's nature solely, when for all the\ntrue purposes of life it is of more importance, a hundred fold, to feel rightly, than to think\nprofoundly\nThere will be recreation when the toils of the day are ended.\nWhat\nshall that recreation be ? .... If it [music] enhven prosperity or soothe sorrow, if it\nquicken the pulse of social happiness, if it can fill the vacancy of an hour that would\notherwise be hstlessly or unprofitably spent, if it gild with a mild delight the chequered\nscenes of daily existence, why then limit its benign and blessed influence ?\n\nA Mr. Wyse, M.P., who had been agitating the subject of music in\nEngland, was quoted:\n\"The idea of introducing it is not dreamt of\nNo effort is made in any of our\nschools, and then we complain that there is no music among scholars. It would be\njust as reasonable to exclude grammar, and then complain that we have no grammarians.\"\nWith these sentiments your committee heartily concur. Let us then show this apathy\nno longer. Let us begin. Prussia may grant instruction to her people as a boon of royal\ncondescension.\nThe people of America demand it as their right\nFrom this place\nfirst went out the great principle, that the property of all should be taxed for the education\nof all. From this place, also, may the example in this country first go forth, of that\neducation rendered more complete, by the introduction, by public authority, of vocal\nmusic into our system of popular instruction\nRome grew to greatness by adopting\nwhatever she found useful among the nations whom she conquered. The true policy of\nthe American legislator on the subject of education is to gather whatever of good, or bright,\nor fair can be found from all countries, and all times, and wield the whole for the buildingup and adorning of the free institutions of our own country. ....\nBefore closing this report the committee must be pardoned one allusion. They hail\nit, as a star of good omen to this cause, that the president of the Boston Academy of Music\nis this year chairman of this board also. May its auspicious influence continue to be shed\nin both these spheres!\n\nHere, I think, is the place to establish in your minds, the position of\nthis president of the Boston Academy of Music, this mayor of Boston, and\nchairman of its school board.\nYou recall how Abraham Mendelssohn, who stood midway between\nMoses, a great philosopher, and Felix, a great composer, described his\nown position in Hfe by saying: \"Formerly I was the son of my father;\nnow I am the father of my son,\" and I feel that I can give no more complete and full identification of the Hon. Samuel A. Eliot than by telling\nyou that he was the father of his revered and illustrious son, the president\nemeritus of Harvard University, Charles W. Eliot.\nNotwithstanding the convincing nature of the report and the strong\npopular sentiment in its favor, the school board hesitated to ask an appropriation. Something more was needed, and on his return from Europe\nin October, 1837, Mr. Mason consented to give instruction gratis for a year\nin the Hawes School, South Boston.\nA current publication says: \"The\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\nOF MUSIC\n\n803\n\nbeautiful success of Mr. Mason's experiment dispelled all doubts and\nremoved all hesitation.\" All obstacles seem to have been overcome, and\non August 28, 1838, the final vote was passed, officially indorsing the experiment instituted the year before.\nMusical Tract No. i, published by the Boston Academy of Music, an\nevangelizing document which contained the full report of the Select Committee and an account of the steps leading to the introduction of school\nmusic in Boston, ends thus: \"May it speedily be introduced as a branch\nof school instruction into every town and village in the land.\"\nHow well the good seed the fathers sowed has spread, taken root, and\nfilled the land you all know, and I will close this historical sketch by a final\nquotation from the remarkable report of that remarkable committee of\nthree:\nIn its innermost circle, it embraceth a school; in its outermost circumference, it\ncompasseth round a nation.\n\nThese were prophetic words. Today we of the National Education\nAssociation — the \"outermost circumference,\" gathered here at Boston, the\n\"innermost circle\" — are a living testimony of the prophecy fulfilled: \"It\ncompasseth round a nation.\"\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\nOF THE APPRECIATION\nOF\nHIGH SCHOOL OF SPRINGFIELD,\n\nMARY\n\nL. REGAL,\n\nMUSIC\nMASS.\n\nTEACHER OE MUSIC APPRECIATION AND HARMONY,\nHIGH SCHOOL, SPRINGFIELD, MASS.\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCENTRAL\n\nIn 1896, during the superintendency of Dr. Thomas M. Balliet, the\nhigh school of Springfield, Mass., introduced a course designed to assist\nthe pupils in understanding and enjojdng good music, in other words, a\ncourse in the appreciation of music. Five years later, at the request of\nsome of the students, the study of harmony was included in the curriculum.\nEach of these studies has two recitation periods weekly, but music appreciation requires no preparation outside of the classroom, while harmony\nstudents must give as much time to the preparation of this subject as of\nany other, and for this they receive due credit. Either or both may be\nelected by members of any of the four classes.\nThe course in harmony was based upon the idea that too much of the\nteaching of this subject has been done as if the students were Hkely to\nbecome composers and too Uttle attention has been given to those who\nmerely wish an aid in comprehending the works of genius. In our classes\nemphasis has been laid from the first upon hearing the chords and progressions used. Another point which has been insisted upon and which has\nproved of interest to the students is finding in the .works of the masters\nexamples of the subjects studied.\nWhen the course in the appreciation of music was adopted, no other\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nhigh school in the country, so far as I know, had a similar study, so there\nwas no precedent to follow in planning the work. Its introduction was due\nto the advanced ideas of the supervisor of music, Miss Elizabeth Stearns,\nand the co-operation of the high-school principal and the superintendent.\nThis course is especially designed for those who have not and never expect\nto have any technical proficiency. Its purpose is to cultivate such a love\nand knowledge of music as would enrich the mental and emotional nature\njust as a love and knowledge of Hterature or painting or any other of the\nfine arts does.\nThe object always in mind is to give the pupils a fanuliar acquaintance\nwith some of the masterpieces of music. As in other arts, so in music,\nconstant association with the best that has been thought and said and\ndone is the only means of acquiring culture. This modest high-school\ncourse is based on the assumption that two periods a week for forty weeks,\ndevoted to careful listening, with occasional needed explanations and\nplenty of repetitions, will do something toward supplying this association\nwith good music. There is no reason why a student of high-school age\nshould not wander with delight in the paths of the Unfinished Symphony\nas well as in those of the Forest of Arden; be moved as much by the mighty\nconflict expressed in the Overture to Tannhduser as by the Last Judgment;\nor learn as easily to perceive the exquisite purity of outhne of a Haydn\nquartet as the perfect proportions of the Parthenon; and feel the world\nlament of the Tschaikowsky Trio as deeply as the sorrow for Adonais.\nAt the outset it was assumed that the study of the appreciation of music\nshould involve two divisions, one dealing with facts about music, the\nother with music itself. No hard-and-fast line can be drawn between the\ndivisions. For instance, the component parts of a chord or some rhythmical pattern may not be music when taken alone, but since all music depends\nfor a large part of its effect upon its harmonic basis and its characteristic\nrhythm, it is impossible to conceive of any intelligent study which should\nignore such fundamental elements. A few minutes, therefore, of nearly\nevery recitation are devoted to training the pupils to recognize the most\nimportant intervals, chords, progressions, and rhythms. Sometimes they\nare required to write a motive after it has been played for them one or two\nor three times. Occasionally they copy an important theme from the\nblackboard.\nA considerable amount of general information about musical matters,\nmuch of it having no direct aesthetic bearing, may appropriately claim a\nplace as a part of the stock of knowledge which a well-informed person\nshould have. Elementary musical information is as suitable for general\ndissemination as the facts of physics, history, or belles lettres. The history\nof music and the biographies of composers are merely incidental in this\nscheme. When the allowance of time is so small the attention must be\ncentered on the essential thing, which is music.\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\nOF MUSIC\n\n805\n\nAll other things are regarded as subordinate to the study of the masterpieces of music, which constitutes the main part of the course. An unremitting effort is made to teach the pupil to listen, which is not so simple\na matter as may be supposed. There is perhaps no better training in concentration ofmind than following a complex musical work in all its details\nfrom beginning to end. An instant's flagging of the attention and the\nthread is lost. There is no recovering it as one may recover a lost paragraph by re-reading it. The stream of tone flows steadily on.\nThe power of active attention is an accomplishment so valuable and\nso difficult of attainment that no pains should be spared to acquire it. The\nadvantage which the classroom offers in training students to Hsten may be\nseen in the opportunity given for repeating parts which are difficult to\ngrasp by reason of complexity of harmony or rhythm. After frequent\nrepetitions, some of them in a slower tempo, perhaps, that the untrained\near may hear more easily, the difficult passage becomes clear and intelligible. Even if no more were achieved than the ability to perceive clearly\nwith the ear, the time would perhaps not be misspent; but when to this is\nadded the comprehension of that intellectual and emotional content in\ngreat compositions which makes them works of art, two periods a week can\nhardly be better employed.\nThe larger part of the recitation period is spent in listening to musical\ncompositions performed by the teacher. The student's attention is called\nto essential features, such as structure, key and mode, repetitions, and\ncontrasts. An effort is made to find out what the student has himself\nperceived and he is encouraged to form his own judgment as to the worth\nand beauty of what he hears.\nIn selecting from the vast store of music two points are to be remembered: first, the music must be worth Hstening to; second, it must give\npleasure to the pupils, or the very object of bringing it to their attention\nwill be defeated. It must be remembered that the pupils are young and\nimmature and of varying ability and attainments, and that some things\nwhich will appeal to them later in life fall on a deaf ear at the high-school\nage. Training both of the mind and the ear is necessary for the utmost\nenjoyment of much of the best music. The full meaning of many a work\nof art is reserved for riper years. To arouse the pupils to a perception\nthat listening involves some effort on their part and to lead them really to\nhear is perhaps the most difficult task laid upon the teacher.\nAs many tj^es of music as possible are selected. Of course only pianoforte music can be adequately rendered on the pianoforte, but much may\nbe done in the way of orchestral and choral works, quartets, and songs.\nAll these types have had a hearing in our classroom. For instance, among\nthe works studied wholly or in part during one representative year (and\nthis means usually several presentations of the same work) were arrangements of the Fifth Symphony by Beethoven, the Symphony in B minor\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nby Schubert, the Fourth Symphony by Tschaikowsky, the Overture to the\nMidsummer Night's Dream by Mendelssohn, the Overture to Tannhduser\nby Wagner, and the Variations from the D minor Quartet by Schubert.\nAmong the pianoforte compositions played were two Preludes and Fugues\nby Bach, four Beethoven Sonatas, tjie Carnival, Papillons, and many other\nnumbers by Schumann, besides representative works by Handel, Haydn,\nMozart, Weber, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, Tschaikowsky,\nGrieg, MacDowell, and others.\nIn the first year a general notion is given of the various kinds of music,\nthe main types of musical form being taken as working outline. This\ngives sufficient elasticity, admitting any kind of illustrations desired. The\nsecond year's work is more specialized, being devoted to piano and song\nliterature.\nThe students are urged to make known their favorite works, and\nrequests for the performance of certain things are always received with\nrespect and as far as practicable granted. A spontaneous delight in a work\nof art is a precious thing, to be carefully cherished and nurtured. Occasional y, itmust be admitted, admiration for the right work is based upon\nthe wrong reason.\nAt the beginning of the school year a simple theme is played first, the\nAustrian Hymn by Haydn, the theme of the B flat Impromptu by Schubert,\nor some other theme of similar style. First it is played thru, that the\nclass may notice where its natural divisions occur. This they do without\nany trouble. Then they are asked to perceive the repetition of any part\nand anything which is a distinct contrast and to observe the order in which\nthe parts are placed, and their attention is directed to the cadences. Several\nsimilar examples are played, then some which vary slightly. Thus a\nbeginning is made of the study of form thru the song-form and its subdivisions ofperiods. From this we go on to the study of the dance-form,\nthe fugue, the sonata, and the variants of these. The general principles\nwhich underlie musical form are looked for and allowance is made for\nvariation from the regular type. If the pupil can be brought to perceive\nrepetition and contrast, rhythm and modulation, he has a sufficient basis\nto enable him to listen intelligently.\nWhile form is taken as the thread upon which our examples are strung,\nit is by no means the only quality of music to which attention is called.\nThe \"content\" of music is, however, so inextricably bound up in its form that\nthere is no considering it apart from its expression. Music can be expressed\nonly by musical means. Sometimes words can suggest its meaning more or\nless, but the elaborate verbal interpretations by which the unmusical expect\nthe inner meaning of music to be revealed to them have Httle value. The\nobject of this course is to help pupils to appreciate music directly.\nThe pupils are supplied with notebooks and music paper and keep a\nrecord of what is said to them in class and a list of all the compositions played\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\nOF MUSIC\n\n807\n\nto them, together with the names of their composers.\nTwo forty-fiveminute periods are given to the subject weekly.\nThe second-year class studies pianoforte works and songs. A large\nnumber of important works are performed several times each, and many\nof the themes are copied by the pupils. The attention of the class is called\nto the structure and harmony of the works,; their beauties are dwelt upon ;\ncharacteristic features are noted; comparisons are made between different\ncompositions and between different composers; and, most important of\nall, the works are played often enough to enable the pupils really to know\nthem.\nThe members of the class are encouraged to express their opinions and\nask questions, to tell what they like or do not like, and why, if they can.\nNow and then I am rewarded by some original criticism which strikes at\nthe root of things, sometimes discouraged by a lack of appreciation of some\nbeauty.\nTo give further opportunity of hearing the best music adequately\nrendered a course of concerts under the direction of the high school was\nestabHshed. Three or four concerts, planned to represent as far as possible the different departments of chamber music, were given each year.\nFor instance, the list for one year might comprise a string-quartet concert,\na trio concert, a piano recital, and a song recital. The quality of the programs and of their performance may be inferred from the fact that the\nKneisel Quartet gave the opening concert each year, while other organizations heard were the Dannreuther Quartet and the Adamowski Trio in\naddition to such solo performers as Edward MacDowell, Leopold Godowsky,\nHarold Bauer, Leo Schulz, Gertrude May Stein, Marguerite Hall, Corinne\nMoore Lawson, Evan Williams, and others. The low price of tickets and ,\na fluctuating attendance made the financial success of each concert a separate problem, altho no money was lost on the course as a whole. After\nsix years the course was suspended, partly because its success had induced\nother ventures in the same field so that the original need was in some degree\nmet. A few free concerts under the same auspices have been given by\nsome of the local musicians who were sufficiently interested to give their\nservice or accept a merely nominal fee.\nThe music appreciation classes studied with some thoroness the most\nimportant compositions given at the high-school concerts as well as at\nother noteworthy performances. This feature of our study has remained\na valuable feature of the work, but it could be undertaken with more\nenthusiasm if the attendance of the whole class at the concerts could be\ninsured. This is difficult for various reasons. Another difficulty, not\neasily overcome, is the great vogue of cheap and vulgar vaudeville performances. As long as they take the time and money of young people\nweek after week, it is hard to train them to a love of what is high and noble\nin art.\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Music\n\nThe results of the work attempted in the high school are, from their\nnature, difficult to estimate. It is easy, of course, to find out whether a\nstudent knows the date of Bach's birth or what composers' names are\nassociated with the sonata form or what a suspension is, but just how much\nhe feels the content of the music heard, how much it becomes really a\npart of him, is something that requires more delicate tests than examination\nquestions. And this is the really valuable part of the result sought.\nEvery year a few are graduated whose whole attitude toward music\nseems to have been influenced by these classes, some to a large extent. This\nleads me to hope that the work is of service in helping to raise the musical\nunderstanding and taste of the young, in which lies the main hope of the\nfuture of music in this country.\nTHE\nJOHN\n\nG. THOMPSON,\n\nAUTOMATIC\nPRINCIPAL\n\nPLAYER\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nIN SCHOOLS\nSCHOOL,\n\nFITCHBURG,\n\nMASS.\n\nEvery pupil before he leaves the public schools should become famihar\nwith the works of the great composers. He should learn why these works\nare great and beautiful and should hear them often enough so that he\nmay come to love them. Similar statements have long been accepted as\ntrue when applied to the masterpieces of literature and painting. Poor\nindeed is the school that does not bring to its pupils the gems of Enghsh\nprose and poetry, and that does not open their eyes and hearts to the\nbeauties of Raphael, Millet, and other great artists.\nFrom almost the beginning, Hterature has played an important part in\neducation. In the early days its message and its beauty coming from the\nlips of the story-teller and the bard were received and appreciated by the\near, and many are the recorded criticisms of the foolishness of those who\nthought to find the soul of a Hterary masterpiece thru the silent reading\nof the eye. The refining influence of the study of architecture, sculpture,\nand painting upon the developing mind has almost never been doubted.\nUntil the last century, however, such study was possible only by travel\nand therefore was for the wealthy alone. Many a critic has pointed out\nhow impossible it is for a photograph to reproduce the soul of Raphael's\n\"Sistine Madonna\" or Millet's \"Reapers.\" Yet today there is hardly an\nAmerican home without its five-foot shelf of books chiefly for silent reading,\nand its half-dozen photographic reproductions of great paintings.\nShakespeare wrote his Merchant of Venice for the stage. I saw it once,\nwith excellent scenery and splendid costumes, given by Irving and Terry.\nProbably it has never been presented better. But for many years before\nthat memorable night, I had been reading the Merchant of Venice, studying\nit, loving it, as I shall hope to do for many years to come. I enjoyed it as\ngiven by Irving and Terry a thousand times better because of that reading\nand study.\nI saw in this city recently an exhibition of the paintings of\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nAUTOMATIC\n\nPLAYER\n\n809\n\nSorolla. I enjoyed and appreciated those paintings with their vivid color\nand flooding sunshine much more because I had previously studied them\nas reproduced by the camera.\nI would have every high school study the plays of Shakespeare. Were\nit possible and practicable to have them presented by Irvings and Terrys\nand Booths and Salvinis, I would not wish them to accept less. That the\nstudents should become familiar with them and should understand and\nappreciate them is however the essential. If a simple reading and study\nis all that can be had, that is vastly better than ignorance. I would have\nevery pupil in our public schools feel the refining, uplifting influence of\ngreat souls and minds, expressing themselves thru sculpture and painting.\nCould the originals in the great galleries of Europe be brought to every\nAmerican school I would not ask them to accept less. That the pupil\nshould know and love these expressions of human genius is, however, allimportant and we must put them before him in the best available form\nrather than leave him wholly ignorant.\nThis is equally true of music. I would as soon see a pupil leave the\nhigh school without a knowledge of the plays of Shakespeare and the\npoetry of Burns as to graduate ignorant of the symphonies of Beethoven\nand the songs of Schubert. Were it possible and practicable for every\nhigh school to have at its command a Boston Symphony Orchestra and a\nGadski or a Wiilner, I would not wish them to accept less. That their\nstudents should be familiar with the works of the great composers, should\nunderstand them and love them, however, is the important point. As\nonce with literature and for a much longer time with sculpture and painting,\nuntil very recently this has been practically impossible with music. The\nautomatic player which is being so rapidly improved makes it possible,\nhowever, today to familiarize public-school pupils with the works of the\ngreat masters of music, to make the study of these works a part of their\ndaily living, so to fill their minds and hearts with them that they will be\nstimulated and inspired to hear them at every possible opportunity and\nto desire to have them produced in the most perfect manner. As the\nreading of the Merchant of Venice led me to see it presented by Irving and\nTerry and as the photographs of great paintings have led many a traveler\nto the galleries of Europe, the knowledge gained by means of the automatic\nplayer will lead many an American boy and girl away from the cheap theater\nto the great pianist, the string quartet, the opera, and the symphony concert.\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Edith C. Westcott, principal, Western High School, Washington, D.C. — We\nhave used a piano player for the last five years in the Western High School in Washington\nwith very great advantage simply as a recreation, after school. We have a library of very\ncarefully selected rolls. The instrument is open to any student during any recreation\nperiod, that is, during the noon intermission or after the close of school, and the last thing\nI do at night is to turn someone (generally a boy) away from the piano player, about\nfive o'clock in the evening.\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "8io\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nYou may be tortured with hearing the Moonlight Sonata at too fast a tempo, or other\nof your favorites being crucified, but the time comes, if you let the boy or girl alone and\nput your feelings aside, when, having gotten rid of all self-consciousness in the use of the\ninstrument, you gently introduce him to the proper tempo, so that he hears the artist\nperform the number that he has grown familiar with. He begins to standardize the others,\nso that at the end of five years it is very rare not to hear the instrument very well played.\nIn this school of six hundred I doubt if there are one hundred who do not know from actual\nexperience how to use the piano player.\nAs to the phonograph, we have guarded most sacredly its use. We have not permitted\nanyone to manipulate the phonograph except an expert. It is used with classes in the\ngymnasium to supply the proper musical rhythms. Once in a great while we use it to\nstandardize the singing of a great song. On patriotic occasions we have used the\nVictrola to lead \"The Star Spangled Banner.\" But our experience has been totally different from that with the piano player.\nMr. George H. Howard, teacher of music, Boston, Mass. — I want to make a suggestion along another line, as the National Education Association is concerned undoubtedly in all forms of education. I heartily approve the use of the player in the schools,\nbut I wish also to express my hearty appreciation of it in education in the home and my\nbelief and conviction in the importance of it in every form of musical education. For the\nprivate teacher of music, for the music school or conservatory, I believe it has a particular\nand vital use. I believe that the automatic player is a convenience and a thing of value\nin these other directions as well as in the public schools. I rejoice in the grand use that is\nbeing made of this and the progress which it indicates in all forms of musical education.\nMr. John B. Shirley, supervisor of music, Troy, N.Y. — I have been delighted with\nthe discussion this morning regarding these instruments, and yet is it not possible that this\nmusic is carried too far, just because of the delight and enjoyment that it may bring to\nthose who are listening ? Is it not possible that we may neglect to do something else that\nmight be just as important — even more important ? We have, of course, a good deal\nof hard work to do with the children, which is absolutely necessary, and we want to make\nthat grind just as pleasant and enjoyable as possible. Therefore, I think the use of these\nmachines is exceedingly valuable just for that purpose\nBut I speak this word of\nwarning because I think there is great danger in the over-use of these instruments.\nEdward B. Birge, director of music, Public Schools, Indianapolis, Ind. — I have\ngiven a great deal of thought and observation to these mechanical players, especially the\nplayer piano, and it is my opinion — and I think it will be the opinion of more people in\nthe near future — that the high school is not the place to begin this work. The place for\nthe player piano is down in the primary schools first and then along in the grammar grades,\nwhen the children are more impressionable. Children ought not to be told: \"This is a\nBeethoven Symphony. Now listen to it.\" They ought to hear music that they do not\nknow anything about and drink it in like the air\nOf course, as we have been situated in education, the best we have been able to do is\nto have the music in the high school in this way; but is it not possible that the time will\nsoon come when the automatic player will be placed where it belongs, so that the children\nfrom the time they first come to school will have the advantage of listening to these great\nworks ? Their musical education will then cover not four years, but twelve or fourteen\nyears, or even more than that.\nMiss Rockwell, New Haven, Conn. — I wish to ask if any of these mechanical\nplayers have been introduced into the grammar schools as well as the high school. I also\nwish to ask of those who have so introduced them if they have experienced any difficulties\nin persuading their boards of education to purchase these instruments.\nI fancy that\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHARMONY\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n8ii\n\nwould be quite a diflBculty in som ? cases and insurmountable in others. How shall we\nsurmount these difficulties if we wii h to introduce players into our schools ?\nMr. Birge. — We have about fourteen of these instruments in Indianapolis, all in the\nlower schools. None were purchased by the board of education. I think that would be\nimpossible. Boards of education regard them as objects of amusement. Entertainments\nhave been given in the various schools and every sort of way of raising money has been\nresorted to. The children have brought all the'r old magazines to the schools to sell for\nold paper.\nThe probability is that by the end of next year we shall have twenty-four of these\ninstruments. If three or four progressive schools do a certain thing, every other school\nhas to do the same thing.\n\nHARMONY\nOSBOURNE\n\nMCCONATH^,\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSUPERVISOR OF MUSIC\nCHELSEA, MASS.\n\nSCHOOLS\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThose of us who are interested in extending the study of Harmony in\nthe high school will find it necessary to direct our energies along three\nlines. In the first place, we must undertake an educational campaign\namong school authorities, school superintendents, and high-school principals\nin order to show that the study of Harmony rightfully belongs among the\nhigh-school subjects, that it meets a well-defined need, and that it may be\nmade to fit naturally into the scheme of high-school instruction. In the\nsecond place, we must endeavor so to direct the trend of opinion among\nteachers of music in the high schools that instruction in Harmony will not\nbe a perfunctory or mechanical process in dealing with written notes,\nbut will be a real training in tone-thinking. In the third place, the relationship between the high-school and college music courses must be more\nclearly defined, and an understanding established which would give to the\nhigh school a better opportunity to enroll in its music courses the students\nwho are preparing for college.\nAmong the many excellent arguments for the introduction of Harmony\ncourses into our high schools, I should like to mention a few which appeal to\nme with particular force. In the first place, there is already a strong and\ngeneral demand for such courses. Wherever they have been started the\nresponse has been prompt. Music teachers gladly urge their pupils to\ntake Harmony, and parents of musical taste appreciate the opportunities\nfor higher culture offered by this study.\nThree classes of high-school students are interested in the study of\nHarmony. First, that large group of students, mainly girls, who enter\nthe high school for its cultural influence, without thought of preparing for\nany special vocation. To them a trained appreciation of the arts is of the\ngreatest value, and the study of Harmony is directly in line with their\nneeds. Second, those students who are preparing for college and who\nexpect to take the college music courses. For these students, Harmony\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nin the high school not only will be a preparation for college entrance, but\nwill be the means for more rapid progress in the college music courses.\nThird, those students who are planning a musical career, for whom Harmony\nis distinctly a professional preparation.\nThose of us who have taught classes in Harmony are familiar with a\nfourth group, namely, the students who think the subject an easy one and\nwho take it in order to avoid work. The sooner such students are enlightened as to the real nature of the study, the better for all concerned.\nWhile I wish to emphasize my conviction that the chief aim of all\nmusic instruction in the public schools should be the development of a higher\nappreciation and enjoyment of good music, and that the study of Harmony,\nby gi\\dng us a clearer insight into the structural nature of music, is directly\nconducive to this end, these views are not inconsistent with a proper regard\nfor the rights of those looking forward to a professional musical career.\nBefore the introduction of music courses in the high school, these prospective musicians were confronted with a serious problem. They were obliged\nto add the heavy work of music study to a full high-school course, eliminating practically all chance for recreation or diversion, a certain amount of\nwhich is necessary for the proper physical and intellectual development of\nyouth. Most of those who attempted this double work found the task too\ndifficult and became superficial in either their high-school work, or their\nmusic study, or both. Many students preferred to give up the high-school\ncourse, altho it is a broadening preparation for life-work which no one\nshould be compelled to lose. Others postponed their musical education,\nthe real study of their lives, until they had completed the high-school\ncourse, thereby losing the advantage of working in their specialty during\nthe period of their lives most favorable for the building of musical concepts. To the students preparing to become musicians, the high school\nshould offer every opportunity for a well-rounded development, both\nmusically and generally. This is due them not for their sakes alone, altho\nthere is no reason, except that their numbers are fewer, why their specialty\nshould not be included in the high-school course as well as the specialties\nof other students. It is due them on the higher ground that they are to\nbecome molders of public taste, an educational force in the community,\nand it is the right of the community to expect their influence to be of the\nbest and highest. We are only too well acquainted with many able musicians who, having confined their studies to their specialty, are of limited\nservice to themselves and to their community.\nThe study of Harmony as a means for mental development ranks in\nevery respect as high as that of the other high-school subjects. For students with musical natures it may be a much more powerful means of\nawakening a mental response than other subjects where the appeal is not\nso direct or sympathetic. Moreover, the student who loves music will\nalways keep more or less closely in touch with it, and the powers of appre-\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHARMONY\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN HIGH SCHOOLS\n\n813\n\nciation and discrimination developed thru the study of Harmony will be\na never-failing source of pleasure thruout his life.\nThe attitude of the high school toward music study must strongly\ninfluence the whole community. Where the high school seriously favors\nthe study of music, a strong impetus is given to the upbuilding of a musicloving community. By including Harmony in its course of study, the high\nschool takes a stand directly with the forces working toward the advancement of culture and refinement in the life of the people.\nI wish to say a few words on the subject of methods of teaching Harmony in the high school. High-school classes in Harmony are very different from other groups of students pursuing the study of this subject. In\na conservatory of music, for instance, almost all the students look upon the\nstudy of Harmony from a vocational viewpoint, as do most classes of\nstudents who study Harmony under private teachers. The college class\nin Harmony consists of students of more mature minds than those in the\nhigh school, most of whom are specializing in the subject. The high-school\nstudents, on the other hand, are immature, ranging in age from thirteen\nto eighteen years. Only a few have any intention of making music a profession, very few are ready to specialize along any line, and comparatively\nfew realize or appreciate the purpose and ends of the course. To undertake with these pupils a highly specialized training in technical Harmony\nwould be a great mistake. Neither would it be right to exclude from the\nclass all but the exceptionally gifted students. We cannot pursue such a\nplan in other subjects, why in music ? The thing to do is to welcome all\nstudents who love music and wish to know more about it, and to develop\nand encourage that love and desire thru bringing the students in constant\ntouch with beautiful music and directing their attention to the elements\nwhich constitute its beauties. This cannot be accomplished without much\nserious, technical training, and the training should aim to develop the\npower to think tones in their correct relationship, and not be a mere juggling\nof notes according to certain formulas. That this mere mathematical\nmanipulation of notes under the name of Harmony study is still widely\nprevalent we all know only too well. In a recent work on musical education the author has this to say on the subject:\nTake the study of Harmony. There is hardly anyone who is not sensitive to its\neffects, yet it would be safe to hazard that not one in a hundred of those who write out the\nexercises of an average Harmony book is able to make any practical connection between\nthe knowledge and skill he has gained and his musical experience.\n\nIn the high school this superficial type of instruction should have no\nplace. In my own school I have used the designation, course in Theoretical\nMusic, rather than Harmony, to separate more clearly the type of instruction we are trying to give from such instruction as I have just described\nand also from that type of exhaustive study such as is given in conservatories and colleges.\nUnder the heading \"theoretical music\" may be\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nincluded not only a study of intervals, chords, and chord connections, but\nalso theory, ear training, dictation, analysis, melody writing, and other\ntypes of music study which aim rather to develop a good taste for music\nthru an understanding of its technical elements than a specialized training\nin composition.\nI think the type of instruction in Harmony may well follow the lines\nof the teaching in the Science Department. The science teacher has no\nexpectation of turning out finished scientists. Only a very few of the\nstudents who take science expect to become professional geologists, chemists, and so forth. Thru the study of these subjects the teacher aims to\ndevelop in his pupils the power to think scientifically and to observe the\nnature about them in its true relations. Those who intend to enter\nscientific pursuits must go from the high school to some technical institution to learn their profession. Likewise the high-school music teacher\nshould not aim to graduate finished musicians but should endeavor to\ndevelop in his pupils the power to think musically, to hear tones in their\ncorrect relationship. His pupils should leave the school better qualified,\nthru their study of music, to appreciate and understand the music that they\nmeet in after life. Those who intend to take up music as a profession must\ngo to institutions or to teachers who will give them the special training\nwhich their calhng demands.\nA discussion of the relationship between the high-school and college\nmusic departments must involve the consideration of two matters which\nseriously affect the enrollment in the high-school music course and the\ntype of music instruction given in the high school.\nThe first of these is the general articulation of the high school and\ncollege, which affects the whole curriculum of the high school. This\nrelationship between the secondary schools and colleges is at present a\nsubject of wide discussion and acute interest, and in this discussion music\nmust take its part and present its claims for a readjustment of the collegeentrance requirements.\nIt is true, music is included among the subjects with entrance credit in\nan ever-increasing number of colleges, but with the long list of specified\nsubjects and the meager number of electives, the college-entrance requirements make it difficult for the high-school student to plan a satisfactory\ncourse which includes music. In my opinion, the high schools would be\nbetter enabled to plan courses in which students preparing for college could\ntake music, if the college-entrance requirements were more liberal in demanding fewer specified subjects and allowing greater freedom in electives.\nThe second matter for consideration which affects the relations of the\nhigh-school and college music courses, is the character of the examinations\nin music for college entrance. I refer particufarly to the questions in music\nof the College Entrance Examination Board. For instance, the requirement to analyze in detail a given fragment of a pianoforte composition by\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nI\nr\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nORCHESTRAS\n\n815\n\none of the masters is a task beyond what should be expected of graduates\nof a harmony course in the high school. To answer such a question requires\nconsiderable experience in applying the higher laws of Harmony and a\nmaturity of judgment which should not be expected in high-school students.\nTo be sure, it may be possible to train high-school pupils in the mechanics\nof musical analysis until they can do some of this work, but such a process\nof analysis would indicate rather a mathematical than a musical judgment.\nI warmly advocate a considerable amount of analytical study of the compositions ofthe masters, but it should be in the classroom under the guidance\nof an experienced musician who, at the piano, could show the beauties of\nthe composition while explaining the technical means by which these\nbeauties were effected. A good course along these lines would acquaint\nthe student with the aesthetic purpose of the rules and laws of harmony.\nWhy would it not be practicable for the college to examine the student upon\nhis recognition of chord successions, modulations, cadences, and other\nevidences of a tonal appreciation which would indicate his preparation to\nundertake the more formal study of higher technical Harmony ? Success\nin such an examination would evidence as much preparation in music as\nsuccess in the present examinations, altho differing in kind. By emphasizing the study of tone-thinking in the high school not only is the ultimate\nprogress of the prospective college student not retarded, but, in my opinion,\nis advanced because based on a more musical foundation. Were the\n\ncolleges to take this view I believe the high-school music course would\nenroll a larger number of students who are preparing for college. Perhaps\nmany others, finding on graduating that they had met the college-entrance\nrequirements, would decide to continue their education.\nIn offering these thoughts on the subject of Harmony in the high school,\nI have endeavored to consider the duty of the high school toward all its\npupils. In my opinion the kind of instruction in theoretical music which I\nam here advocating is equally serviceable to each of the three classes of\nstudents previously described and discussed. To the students who expect\nto become professional musicians, and to those who intend to continue their\ninstruction thru college, this course provides a broad foundation on which\nto build their professional or special training, while to the average boy or\ngirl of musical instincts this course offers an ever-stimulating influence to a\nhigher type of musical appreciation and enjoyment.\nHIGH .SCHOOL\nEDWARD\n\nB. BIRGE, DIRECTOR\n\nORCHESTRAS\n\nOF MUSIC, PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nINDIANAPOLIS,\n\nIND.\n\nWhat I shall say about high-school orchestras will be addressed\nprimarily to those who have not as yet ventured into this field, but who\nwould like to do so with a serious purpose of making an orchestra a permanency inthe high school. I urge upon all such persons seriousness of\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\npurpose and a determination to succeed, for it is easy to start an orchestra\nand equally easy to give it up after the first enthusiasm has spent itself.\nPupils will take up the idea of an orchestra with zest and spirit as a novelty,\njust as they will take up any new thing, but they are liable soon to tire of\nthe regular practice and the element of humdrum which enters into success\nin any undertaking and ensemble playing in particular.\nHowever, high-school orchestras in America are well past the experimental stage, there being perhaps a hundred cities and towns where an orchestra is as well-established an institution as the chorus and glee club, and, the\nexperience of these cities illustrates clearly the mission of the orchestra.\nBy playing at regular intervals before the assembled students it becomes\na unifying element \\n. the school, in much the same way as the other school\norganizations. Specifically, a good orchestra has the effect of toning up the\nmusical atmosphere, of raising the standard of appreciation of the student\nbody, and of enlarging their musical horizon. Over and above the mere\npleasure of listening to ensemble performances of instrumental music there\nis a vast opportunity for art culture along this line which vocal ensemble\nmusic necessarily cannot give.\nAnd it must be manifest to all that the benefit to the individual players\nfrom the orchestral practice is incalculable. As an illustration of the benefit in one direction only — that of playing in time and cultivating a steady\nbeat — it may be safely stated that no instrumentalist who has not had\norchestral training knows what strict time really is. This is a strong statement but I wish to let it stand. My experience is, that of the great numbers\nof capable pianists who apply for membership in the orchestras not one in\ntwenty can be relied upon to play in time with the other players and far less\ncan they play with a sympathetic understanding of their part in the ensemble,\ntho they can play a solo acceptably; and this is more or less true of the\nplayers of all instruments. A year's practice with the orchestra makes\nevery one of these young people more truly a musician and a valuable asset\nto the community along musical lines.\nBut still another field for orchestral work lies in the chorus and orchestra possibilities of cantatas and oratorios rendered by high-school forces.\nThe trend of the times seems to indicate that during the next ten or fifteen\nyears the most significant development in public-school music will be along\nthese lines. It would be difficult to overestimate the value to the community of establishing the high standards of attainment necessary to such\nsuccessful achievement thus early in the lives of the young people.\nI would like to add parenthetically right here that as a foundation for\ngood chorus work in the high school there must be plenty of good singing\nin the lower schools. The foundations of their musical taste must be laid\nthere.\nLet no one be deterred from starting an orchestra merely because orchestral players are not numerous.\n\"Rome was not built in a day\" — the\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nORCHESTRAS\n\n8i 7\n\ndevelopment of an orchestra is a matter of years of continuous endeavor,\nand the solving of many problems. It would be sound advice to many a\nsupervisor of music who has developed vocal music as far as he can but who\nhas no orchestra, to obtain the sanction and co-operation of the high-school\nprincipal, and then plunge in.\nBegin with violins and piano, if no other instruments are in sight, then\nadd flutes, clarionets, cornets, trombones, drums, 'celli, violas, string basses,\nFrench horn, etc., as these instruments gradually become available; and\nwhether they do become available will depend very largely upon the success of the director, not only in inspiring enthusiasm and interest, but in his\npersuasive powers upon individual pupils, inducing them to take up the\nstudy of an orchestral instrument. As previously stated, this is a matter\nof years and not days, but every endeavor rightly directed tells, and success sometimes comes with astonishing swiftness.\nA good start is the main thing, followed by a successful appearance\nbefore the assembled school. Select at first music well within the technic\nof the players; one or two good marches, one or two easy overtures, and some\neasy arrangements of the great composers will make a beginning.\nGood orchestra music is very accessible. The Oliver Ditson Company,\nthe John Church Company, Carl Fischer of New York, and other publishers,\nhave immense libraries of orchestral material embracing not only original\ncompositions, but arrangements of every well-known excerpt from the\noperas, oratorios, simplified arrangements of classical overtures and symphonies, etc., and these arrangements are so made as to sound well with\nevery combination of instruments from violin and piano to full orchestra.\nLet me remark in passing the necessity of including only orchestral\ninstruments in your orchestra. The tinkling mandolin and the strumming\nbanjo and guitar must be excluded, good as they are in their place, nor\nshould the rougher band instruments, like the saxophone, be tolerated. If\na boy can play the saxophone, get him to learn the clarionet or oboe or\nbassoon. If there are too many cornets persuade some of them to learn the\nFrench horn or trombone. Tempt some large-handed boy violinist to\nlearn the viola, which he can do in a short time owing to its similarity to the\nviolin.\nOne of the greatest handicaps to developing the wind sections of the\norchestra is the expense of the instruments — which in a large number of\ncases is prohibitive, owing to lack of means on the part of parents, or of\ninterest in such instruments, owing to ignorance of their value in musical\ntraining. This situation has been successfully met in several high schools\nby the school itself purchasing such expensive instruments as clarionets,\nFrench horn, trombones, etc., and loaning them to such pupils as will agree\nto keep them in good condition and practice faithfully upon them. In\nthese cases the parents must be responsible for the care of the instruments\nand sign a statement to that effect. Let a school begin by buying a trom-\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nbone or a set of clarionets, with the policy in mind of adding each year one\nnecessary instrument.\nI have tried to suggest to your minds the value of high-school orchestras\nand to urge their further organization in the high schools. In speaking of\nthe cultural value of this work I have said nothing regarding the reciprocal\neffect upon the director of his labors in this field. Needless to say, it does\neven more for him than for the pupils — making him study ways and means\nand musical material and effectually keeping him from settling down into\na rut. It will also bring him closer to the community. Let any supervisor\nwho is perfectly content with his work take up orchestra work in the high\nschool — it will keep his hands full and it will do him good.\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE\n\nFOLK-SONG\n\nCONSTANCE BARLOW-SMITH, IN CHARGE OF DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC\nMUSIC METHODS,\nUNIVERSITY\nOF ILLINOIS, URBANA,\nILL.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nListen carefully to all folk-songs; they are a storehouse of most beautiful melody and\nunfold to the mind the inner character of the different peoples, — Robert Schumann.\n\nWe are told that melody started in inflectional language, rhythm in barbaric dances. In the combination of the two we have our beginnings of\nmusic.\nNo other agency has been as effective in preserving records of historic\nvalue as have the songs of the people, for it has ever been an instinct with\nthe human family to record in song political and social conditions, as well as\nin religious and pagan practices.\nA true folk-melody was inspired by nature, born in a moment, contains\nthe germs of truth and beauty, and has been sung by thousands of people,\noften with slight alterations, until it has become a composite wild flower\n(that reflects atmosphere and physical conditions) ; thus does a folk-melody\nreflect the spirit of the race which gave it birth. Folk-songs are based upon\nlegends, and have their origin in the emotions of a people.\nThey are divisible into three groups: Lamentation, Triumphal, and\nNature (or Bridal) songs.\nThe oldest song on record is a Lament, first sung by the Phoenicians as\na funeral dirge on the death of Adonis, who represented short-lived youth.\nWherever this song exists it is found to be a Lament. The Egyptian version\n\"Return, 0, Return ! God Panu, Return !\" is very dramatic. The musicians\nof ancient Egypt were compelled to live apart, and the transmission of\nmusical knowledge from father to son was obligatory. For lack of a system\nof musical notation the world has lost much of the music of the ancients,\nbut it seems reasonable to suppose that fragments of their melodies must be\nin existence because of this law and others of a similar character. Thus we\nfind that ancient Hebrew melodies are reflected in modern Asiatic music.\nThe \"Song of Miriam\" belongs to the Triumphal group and was evidently a\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE\n\nFOLK-SONG\n\n819\n\nwell-known folk-song; the \"Song of Solomon\" is an excellent example of\nthe third, or Bridal, group.\nIn the synagogical songs of the Jews, in the chants of the Mohammedans,\nin the music performed by the Buddhists and Brahmins, as well as in the\nsacred songs of all religious organizations, we find examples of folk-songs\nof greater or less antiquity. The Nomads have preserved the best specimens of Arabic music — Moslem melodies are to be found in Oberon (von\nWeber's opera), Beethoven's Ruins of Athens, Cherubini's AH Baba, Boieldieu's Caliph of Bagdad, and many other masterpieces.\nAmong Chinese folk-songs we find hymns in praise of the dead, and\nsecular tunes of great antiquity.\nVon Weber has used one of the latter in an overture to TurandoL The\nomission of the B and E in these melodies proves their longevity. Tradition says that many of them have remained unaltered for hundreds of years.\nThe chief characteristics of the English folk-songs may be noted in her\npopular songs of today. \" Drink to Me only with Thine Eyes \" is one of the\noldest and most beautiful. \"With My Flocks\" (dating from 1580) belongs\nto the same school as \"O Willow, Willow,\" and other Elizabethan music.\n\"For He's a Jolly Good Fellow,\" or \"We Won't Go Home until Morning\"\n(as it is sung in America) is said to have originated in Palestine. One historian says, \"It began in the Holy Land as a song in praise of a French\nCrusader who lost his life near Jerusalem.\" The tradition and song are\nsaid to exist in Egypt and Arabia at the present day. Beethoven has used\nit in The Battle of Vittoria.\nIt has always been a practice with writers of operas to introduce favorite\nsongs of the day into their works, perhaps with a view to popularizing them.\nThis has been especially so with the composers of English operas. Under\nthe head of \" English Opera\" (Vol. I, p. 489) Grove gives a list of forty operas\nentirely set to current popular airs and produced between 1728 and 1745.\nThe old song-dances, the Morris dance-tunes, and traditional songs of\nRobin Hood and his band of followers, have been preserved by the peasantry in the rural districts of England where May Day is still celebrated.\nThe world owes a debt of gratitude to the church musicians of all nations\n\nt\n\nand ages for the preservation of her people's melodies. Over two hundred\nmasses were produced during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the\nchief theme (or Canto fermo) of each being based upon the same folk-melody\nthought by some to be the original \"Song of Roland.\"\nHindu folk-songs were adapted to sacred poetry and translated into\nHindu by John Parsons in 1861. Marot, a translator of the Psalms, set the\nfirst thirty to secular airs in the time of Francis I. A volume of the psalms\nin Dutch contains no settings other than folk-melodies.\nPoland, too, has preserved many melodies of secular origin in her ancient\nhymns. In the noble old choral and in the student songs of Germany\nwe find types of her beloved Volkslied: \"Old Hundredth\" and \"O\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nTannenbaum\" (\"Maryland, My Maryland!\") are examples of each;\n\"The Little Dustman,\" arranged by Brahms, \"How Can I Leave Thee?\"\nand \"Must I Then\" are melodies that owe their origin to the German\nVolkslied.\nMartin Luther, as well as other great religious reformers, depended upon\nthe people's songs for the success of his work. At the time of the Reformation secular folk-tunes were not only made use of by Luther for the Psalms,\nbut they served as a basis for the more elaborate music, counterpoint.\nLuther's Bible contains references to the tunes he wished used for the Psalms.\n\"The Handsome Youth\" was the tune designated for Psalm IX, \"Hunting\nthe Hind\" for Psalm XXII, etc.\nThe old choral, \"A Mighty Fortress is Our God,\" is a folk-melody\nadapted to sacred words by Luther, and made famous by events of the\nReformation. It was called the \" War Cry \" of the Protestants, and it must\nhave afforded great consolation to the martyrs. This theme alone has been\ntreated by Mendelssohn in the Reformation Symphony, and by Wagner in\nhis Kaiser Marsch and 'Meyerbeer in the Huguenots. The German Volkslied has inspired the greatest musical works on record. Schubert in his\nsongs, chamber music, and in the A Flat Major Symphony proves his estimate of their beauty. Wagner, the faithful historian who has based his\ngreat music-dramas upon legends, has used the oldest traditional folk-themes\nas motives. Handel and Mozart have both used the motive of an old\nGerman dirge, one in his \"Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline\" and the\nother in his own \" Requiem.\" Many of the old Irish folk-songs originate in\nthe scales of the ancient bagpipe and Irish harp. The pentatonic mode is\nfound in some of the best. \"The Harp that Once Thru Tara's Halls,\"\n\"The Jolly Plough Boy\" (or \"The Low Backed Chair\"), \"The Girl I Left\nBehind Me,\" \"The Minstrel Boy,\" \"Wearing of the Green,\" and \"The\nLast Rose of Summer\" are all Irish folk-songs with typical melodies and\nrhythms.\nThe folk-songs of the Scottish clans exhibit great emotional power.\nThey show traces of early Chinese and Javanese music in the old modes.\nThe chief rhythmic characteristic is a sixteenth note followed by a dotted\neighth, known as the \"Scotch snap.\" \"Scots, wha hae wi' Wallace bled!\"\nis written in the mode of the fifth (ends on the fifth). Some historians\nclaim it to be the original March of Robert Bruce to Bannockburn in 13 14.\n\"John Anderson My Jo\" dates very far back in Scottish history. It is in\nthe mode of the second (old church mode called Gregorian first tone).\n\"Loch Lomond\" is an old Scotch air in which the seventh note is missing.\nThis fact classes it among those that are written in the old hexachordal or\nsix-noted scale. \"The Campbells are Coming\" was originally in the pentatonic mode, which proves its longevity. \" Auld Lang Syne \" is built upon\nthe scale of five tones, which is equivalent to the modern major scale with\nthe fourth and seventh omitted.\nThe first verse was written prior to the\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFOLK-SONG\n\n821\n\ntime of Burns. Beethoven has arranged a series of Scotch folk-songs and\nMendelssohn has used others in his Scotch Symphony. Many composers\nof note have borrowed inspiration from Scotch folk-music. Folk-song was\nthe universal channel of thought for all nations in ancient times. The dancesongs (processionals) and \"ballets\" (round dances) anterior to the time of\nthe troubadours and minnesingers, were distinctly folk-songs. Bach and\nHandel have made use of many old dance-tunes and rhythms in their\nfamous suites. The saga or ballad of the ancients was used as a means of\nfostering and preserving traditions.\nThru the agencies of strolling musicians of all times, bards, gleemen,\nminstrels, minnesingers, and meistersingers, it has been possible to encircle\nthe earth with a lyric chain of sympathy, every link of which pulsates with\nhistory, and human interest. The Welsh cling to traditions and ancient\ncustoms in music as in all things. Their old folk-songs date back to and\nbefore the invasion of the Romans. One very beautiful old Welsh folk-tune\nis sung on every continent. It is now most often sung to the words '^AU\nThru the Night.\" Frederick Cowan has written a Welsh Symphony which is\ndistinctly national in character, as it is founded upon traditional Welsh\nmelodies.\nMost of the Scandinavian folk-songs are tinged with melancholy or they\nexpress the very extreme of joyful abandonment. Those of Norway show\nintensity, at times are tragic. The songs of Finland reflect calm, while\nthose of Sweden are plaintive and tender. Their oldest traditional folksongs are in the modes of the ancients. Sibelius, Grieg, and Gade have introduced many of them in their larger works.\nThe folk-songs of the Russians are apt to have a characteristic halting\nrhythm, supposed to indicate fear, because of the difficulty of singing their\nsongs even in seclusion, during the years when they were entirely forbidden.\n\"The Red Sarafan,\" \"The Three in Hand\" (or \"Troika\") and \"Little\nKaren\" are typical Russian folk-songs. Beethoven has led in the classic\nuse of Russian melodies. The charming barcarolle \"Santa Lucia\" that was\nsung by the Venetian boatman during the St. Louis World's Fair, is an Italian folk-song of melodic and rhythmic beauty. It is sung in honor of the\npatron saint of Naples. America has already developed two racial types\nof folk-tunes, namely, Indian and African. MacDowell has used Indian\nthemes in his suites, and Chadwick and Dvorak have used plantation\nmelodies in their symphonies. Hundreds of popular songs are being sung\nin America today, they are being played upon mechanical instruments and\nsung in the people's theaters (vaudeville and moving-picture shows). The\nresult of a certain investigation carried on by the writer shows that many of\nthem are very melodious. Are we developing a representative type ? Who\nknows but that some of these so-called popular songs of today may contain\nthe vital germs of truth and beauty that will cause them to live ? Perhaps\nfuture generations may talk of American folk-songs as typical of a noble race.\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nThe greatest world-musicians have drawn inspiration from folk-melodies.\nMany examples of idealized and immortalized folk-tunes are to be found\nin the masterpieces of Bach, Handel, von Weber, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, and the great composers of later times.\nWe have inherited a wealth of folk-music from all nations; it is our\nprivilege and duty to preserve and foster it, so that our legacy to prosperity\nmay be of priceless value.\nIf the American child can learn the best folk-songs, as nearly as possible\nin the original forms, he will gain not only sentiment and sympathy but\nknowledge of people, place, and the elements of musical construction. The\nfamous suites of Bach and Beethoven, so full of folk-melodies, will claim\nhis interest. The symphonies of Beethoven, the greatest of musical works,\nwhich contain ideaKzed folk-songs in nearly all of the \"Andantes\" will\ninspire him to gain knowledge of thematic development.\nAs folk-songs have been the fruitful sources of art-inspiration, their\neducational value is inestimable.\nRobert Franz once wrote to Louis C. Elson, who is an authority upon\nfolk-music, \"I believe that our modern art began with the lyric forms, and\nthat it will end with them.\"\nCertain it is that the old has become the essence of the new.\nSOME\nJOHN\n\nW.\n\nOF THE\nCOOK,\n\nEFFECTS OF MUSIC INSTRUCTION\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nNORTHERN\nDE KALB,\n\nILLINOIS\nILL.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nIN\nSCHOOL,\n\nAs a first word I desire to say that I approach the subject that I am to\ndiscuss with that delightful spirit of fairness which one enjoys who reviews\na book that he has not read. I have no scheme of instruction to exploit,\nno system to criticize, no publication to condemn or commend. I need not\nsay that I am not a specialist in music, altho I have always been something\nof a singer and have done a deal of a very crude sort of chorus-leading. I\nhave, in a way, been in a musical atmosphere about the w^hole of my life.\nStrongly susceptible to its appeals, I gladly confess my very great indebtedness to this rare art for large contributions of a kind of pleasure that from\nmy angle of experience has been free from alloy. Moreover, in a long service as a school teacher I Jiave had a good opportunity to study the effects\nof music instruction and have certain impressions as to what should be\naccomplished in the way of by-products, to say nothing of the immediate\nresults at which the teacher of the art directly aims. I have been thus personal in my references for the purpose of offering an apology for accepting\nthe invitation of the makers of the program to say a word. While I confess myself a lay intruder into the temple of the divine muse and come with\nnone of the credentials of the priesthood, I may perform in a humble way\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n823\n\nthe part of the Greek chorus in expressing a sentiment or two entertained\nby the more musical portion of the public at large.\nOne of the most difficult of attainment of the results to be realized by\nthe school is the free expressiveness of the pupil. Many a pupil would\nbe barely less able to give some outward manifestation of what goes on\nin his mind if he were tied and gagged. • I am not able to declare them\nunfettered on the playground because they have not been under exhaustive\nobservation; that they are stiff and formal and unexpressive in the school\nis conceded. Unhappily this tendency to behavior, or, rather, this absence\nof behavior, goes forward with them and clings to them as a physical and\nmental habit thru life. Nothing is more common than to find these repressed and rigid personalities in the normal school where, if incurable,\nthey are as completely out of place as a marble statue in our national game.\nOften there may be a congenital handicap that makes the free yielding to an\nimpulse almost an act of violence to one's nature. There may be an over\nself-consciousness to which the school itself may have contributed that\nexplains the clam-like retirement, the cloistral retreat of so many whose\nlimbs move on sharp angles when they move at all. The physical-culture\nclasses of the gymnasium and the dramatic representations of the good\nreading classes are common prescriptions for the relief of these seemingly\ncase-hardened instances and they are good medicine for those who are thus\nafflicted. Especially is this true of the former of the two, for one commits\nhimself to nothing in the way of personal attitude toward this or that view\nof the world when he swings his arms in a set way along with his fellows.\nThe latter is an ideal cure when it may be made to work, but it requires such\nlong and persistent and individual treatment that it is barely practicable in\nthe great majority of cases. Of course the playground, and especially the\ncompetitive game, elicit enthusiastic response, for if they do not the player\nis put upon the retired list in short order, but what we are seeking is voluntary, generous, free co-operation in the relations of ordinary social life.\nIt is my contention that singing offers one of the most easily available\nas well as one of the most effective instrumentalities for the development\nof this most desirable element in the life of the young. Barring an occasional pitch-deaf unfortunate, everyone can sing. Songs have an ascending scale of difficulties that parallel mathematics from twice two to the\ndifferential calculus, hence there is a boundless field for the development\nof the highest art as well as a place for the humblest performer. Singing\nis one of the social arts and furnishes a rallying-center for the many and its\neffects are enhanced in proportion to the parts represented and the number\nparticipating. It is not peculiar to any people or race and is therefore a\nuniversal method of emotional expression. It lends itself thru the employment of language to the celebration of any occasion or event. Nothing else\ncan so quickly unify a multitude as to set them all to the singing of the\nsame song.\nIt furnishes a vehicle for the expression of every aspect of life,\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nand an art vehicle, too, that is, a method whose employment furnishes\ndelight in the mere using regardless of what it may convey of a specific\ncharacter. And there is an impersonality about singing that furnishes a\ncover for the utterance of the deepest emotions of the human heart without\ncommitting one to them. One may sing love songs without the suspicion\nof having surrendered to the supreme passion. One may sing religious\nsongs even tho he may be shy about confessing a faith. There is no other\nway that compares with it in proud acknowledgment of loyalty to an\ninstitution. Who can measure the tremendous influence of the familiar\ncollege songs ? Who can write the biography of \"Dixie\" or of \"America\"\nor of \"John Brown's Body Lies Moldering in the Grave\"? These and\nsuch as these are the \"operas\" of the people and they sing them for\nthemselves.\nAs I have suggested, the appeal is so universal that there are few who\nare insensible to its fascinations. There is a play element in it that catches\nthe young and the middle-aged and the old and sets them all a-going again\nand yet they are not ashamed. And so it is that the singing teacher who\nsees large opportunities in his art will look for the progressive liberation of\nthe tongue-tied and the reticent and the suppressed and the under-emotional\nand the unsocial and the timid and all the rest of the large brood of those\nwho are solitary in the midst of the world.\nThere is little space for the discussion of the pedagogical import of my\ncontention. If you wish to deal with one you must do so while he is in\naction. Get a pupil going in any direction and you have your chance. Get\nhim going with his fellows in an art expression that calls out the happy play\nof his powers and you have him going in an ideal direction. Do the Delsarte people still talk about devitalizing rigid limbs so that they can get\nat them with their liberating art ? Music is a supreme devitalizer of selfconsciousness and formalism and rigidity and all the other blights of free\nand happy expressiveness.\nIt may be but another approach to the same thought to urge the importance ofhaving in every educational scheme some element of liberality, some\nfeature from which the ordinary conception of the practical is substantially\nfiltered out. As man cannot live by bread alone, that is an inadequate\neducation which prepares him for nothing but earning bread. I admit the\nnecessity of the practical in our scheme and can only smile at the roundabout\nway in which it finally got in. The old-fashioned schooling that lay upon\nthe mind as a sort of surplusage, with which one hardly knew what to do\nwhen he was compelled to make himself of some use to somebody, found a\nplace to serve in the fulness of tim.e, but when one had so much to learn\nbefore he could use it it seemed to have come wrong end first. Now that\nwe are disposed to regard with fine disdain the liberalizing cultures — perhaps\nI should say the so-called liberalizing cultures, in deference to the contention\nof Herbert Spencer — it is worth asking whether we may not be running too\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n825\n\nfar from our old position. As no race can come to much if the fine arts, or\none or two of the best of them at least, are not hospitably received by their\ncivilization, so no man will ever be near his possible best in whom the art\nspirit has been allowed to die for lack of exercise. I assume some sort of\nart endowment in every normally constituted individual. The very simplest manifestation of playfulness on the part of a child is his certificate of\nits presence. Beauty is as essential to real living as bread. I admit the\nsuperiority of the latter for purely vegetative purposes, but even the good\nbaker makes his bread beautiful as well as nutritive. Our national game\nof baseball is a sort of protest against the elimination of art from the common\nlife. Now, in art there are two attitudes that are clearly recognizable: the\nLtical or appreciative spirit and the artistic or creative spirit. Music\n'affords an opportunity to enter in a simple way into each of these and thus\nit becomes the ideal art for the masses. The teacher should have a clear\nconsciousness that it is one of the fine arts with which he is dealing and\n[.should therefore cultivate an art-sense, a feeling that one is doing a thing for\nfits own sake and not for an ulterior purpose, and that there are things that\nare worth doing for their own sake, and for the joy of it and the beauty of\nit and the play there is in it for the free spirit.\nI have an old-fashioned notion that people should have a habit of\ndoing some thinking when they sing. One of the foes of an intellectual life\nis common routine. He who can maintain a rational existence in the presence of his innumerable habits is a marked man. If the ordinary singer\nshould suddenly be asked about the meaning of what he has just sung, and\nas to the fitness of the music to express the thought and the sentiment of the\nsong, and as to whether there is any attempt at thought-expression in pitch\nor rhythm or tempo, and as to the feeling of the pulse of the movement and\nall the varied elements that make in their fine entirety the real character of\nthe selection, what do you think would be his reply ? I have tried the experiment many times with the chapel worshipers at the morning devotions and\nhave had some eye-opening, perhaps I should say ear-opening, revelations.\nSinging is a method of reading words in addition to all that it contributes\nin the way of delightful harmonies of sound. Indeed, are not these harmonies employed for the more effective reading of the sentiment of the song ?\nWe do not sing the multiplication table altho that was not an unusual exercise in some of the schools of my childhood. The table of the fives made a\nrollicking sort of a refrain in which all of us could join without let or hindrance and I am not sure that he was not a wise teacher who clothed the\nunattractive lesson with some element of pleasure. We manage to get\nalong with a very small stock of words in many of our anthems, and possibly\nthe reason for their frequent repetition is found in our determination to let\nthe congregation into the secret of what we are singing about before we\nare thru with them. But whatever they are they should be studied with\nmuch of the same purpose that inspires the elocutionist when he tries several\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\npossible forms of expression upon them before he settles upon a final rendering. And there should be a process of thought-quickening before the\nbeginning of the song if there is any haunting fear that it is needed. As the\npreacher, if a wise man, will read the hymn as well as his rhetorical powers\nwill permit before asking that it be read the other way and by all in one fine\nconcourse of expression, so in the singing classes of the school the words\nshould.be called well to the front of the thought and then they should be\nsung with the spirit and also with the understanding. '\nIt is my fortune to belong to a city club whose membership is substantially confined to university men. Because of the unity of sentiment\nregarding matters of import, it is not difficult to gather a group of three or\nfour hundred for a dinner. You know before I tell you what the main\nfeature of the occasion will be. It will not be the speaking; it will be the\nsinging. The songs of student days are among the strongest bonds that\nhold men fast in their allegiance to the good mother that gave them their\ndisciplines and their memories and sent them out into the world to do something worth while. As the gray-haired boys are twenty again because of\nthe songs they sing, the old idealism is reawakened, the old enthusiasms are\nrekindled, and into the competing struggle for primacy, into the merciless\nbattle for the richest prize, comes the haunting echo of the old fraternity\ndays. May we not find some way to make the songs of the school in a similar fashion a permanent possession and thus a great contributor to the\nwelfare of the institution that ought to stand close to the heart of the people,\nas it puts their children on the highway that leads to a fine citizenship in\nthe land we love ?\n\nSUCCESS\nLEONARD\n\nB. MARSHALL,\n\nIN PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF MUSIC\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe degree of proficiency attained in music in the schools of this country\ncalls for the most glowing optimism in the treatment of my subject. It is\nsafe to say that there is no subject which finds a place in school which is\nmore thoroly enjoyed or in which the pupils, considering the limited amount\nof time given to it, make more substantial progress than in music.\nEvery onward movement, every reform, every discovery or invention,\nevery conquest which is intended to better the condition of mankind\ndemands a leader, a promoter, a pioneer; one who has the requisite skill\nand knowledge to initiate the work and to so foster every endeavor that the\nthing in view shall at length be achieved. How would the discovery of\nAmerica ever have been brought about had it not been for the mental reasoning, the faith, the hope, the dauntless courage of Columbus, backed by the\nliberality and support of the Queen of Spain? When a means of communication was desired which should span the great ocean and connect in\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nSUCCESS\n\nIN PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\n827\n\nclose and instant relation the peoples of two continents, behold, a Morse\narises and from out his American studio emanates the scheme which provides the Atlantic cable.\nWhen it was deemed important to discover a means by which messages\nmight be transmitted thru the air and reach in safety a distant point, a\nMarconi comes forth and gives to the wopM his wonderful and matchless\nsystem. When we would annihilate space and distance in our communica'tion one with another, to whom should we look except to a Bell for the\ninvention of the telephone ? When we* would take to ourselves wings and\n,fly thru the almost forbidden regions of upper air, we find the men of mar[velous invention ready at hand to provide the requisite means of aviation :\n^Zeppelin, Wright, and many others have interested themselves in the solu;tion of this problem.\nIs it desired to make a short cut from Europe to Asia and Africa, or to\n[bring into closer communication the Eastern and Western coasts of North\niAmerica and by so doing to aid the commerce of the whole world, we find a\nFrenchman, De Lesseps by name, who possesses the engineering skill to give\nIto the world the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal. Do the American people\n[find themselves heavily involved in internecine strife and is there a problem\n;of liberty entering into that conflict and are they looking for a deliverer, an\nemancipator, that man of wonderful foresight, Abraham Lincoln, looms\nforth as the light of his time and emancipation is realized. Have we vast\nareas of arid lands which have proven only waste territory for many years\nand do we wish to reclaim these lands and make them productive for the\ngood of the people, we have in our midst that man of large brain, of broad\nsympathies, of rare experience, of indomitable will, of keen insight to develop\na grand scheme of irrigation, of storing in vast reservoirs nature's waters.\nYou all know to whom I refer, our ex-president, Theodore Roosevelt.\nFortunate it was that when the time was ripe for the introduction of\nmusic into our public schools the cause was championed by a man in every\nway equipped for the work. In Lowell Mason the people of America had\nan able advocate for the furtherance of their musical interests. Of good\nNew England lineage, well educated, with strong musical tendencies, with\npower of command, of excellent teaching ability, having had the advantage\nof extensive European travel, he was of all men the best fitted to undertake\nthis work. Much of the success of music in our schools is attributable to\nthe grand work which he performed in those early days.\nThe success in the teaching of music may be viewed from many standpoints.\nIn the first place I would mention the awakening which comes to the\nchild thru hearing and singing beautiful songs. His young mind becomes\ninterested and his child nature is aroused by the impressions which are made\nupon him thru his sensibilities. He incidentally also learns much concerning the things in nature.\nThe birds, the plants, the flowers, the animals, the\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nsun, the moon, the stars; in fact, all the phenomena of the natural world\nare brought to his attention and very early become a part of his knowledge\nthru the union of poetry and music. Were the success in music measured\nby this alone it would be worth the while to put forth the endeavor to\nsecure it. The inspiration, the stimulation, the life, the joy of being surrounded continually by a musical atmosphere brings untold benefits to the\npupil in the days of childhood.\nAnother important thing which contributes to the value of the study of\nmusic and which must be counted in summing up the success of the work is\nthe training of the memory. You and I know the dehghts which are continually ours as we recall the musical gems we learned in our early life.\nI was much pleased to read in our daily papers a short time ago an account of what occurred during -the visit of ex-President Roosevelt to Holland. It was during a social gathering where the utmost of informaHty\nprevailed that he chose to sing for the people assembled a song. It was a\nsimple Dutch lullaby. He learned it as a young lad from his mother's lips.\nI was strongly impressed with the scene as I pictured it in my mind of this\nman of letters, of remarkable education, of splendid achievements entertaining those people, the inhabitants of the land from which his ancestors\ncame, by the rendition of this simple strain.\nNext to the beauty of music itself and the instilling of its wonderful\neffects into the minds and hearts of children is the importance of securing\nthe rapid reading of music. We may well count this as one of the great\nachievements of the past three decades in the schools of our country. The\nmost heroic efforts have been made by the teachers in our schools for the\nrealization of this end. Not only the professional supervisors but the regular teachers also have borne a large part in the furtherance of this work.\nI feel that this is the time and this the place to give the most hearty\nrecognition of the valuable assistance which the regular teachers have rendered in the prosecution of the musical work in our schools.\nTo learn to read music gives us the key which unlocks all the beauties\nof the works of the great composers. How could one sing intelligently a\npart-song or a chorus of Mendelssohn, of Haydn, of Mozart, of Beethoven,\nor any other fine composer, without being able to interpret the things portrayed on the printed page ?\nWhile the reading of music is not the principal thing to be attained,\nstill it is the all-important means for giving one a well-rounded idea of\nmusic and its correct performance. It has been demonstrated conclusively\nthat children take great pride in reading music at sight after the ability so\nto do has been acquired.\nI do not think that anybody will challenge the statement that the teaching of music has succeeded wonderfully in emphasizing the thoughts\ncontained in literature. The melodic and rhythmic elements in music,\nwith the attendant accentuation, most certainly do enforce the writings -\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUCCESS\n\nIN PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\n829\n\nof literary authors. Music considered in this sense is a most valuable\nadjunct to the training of the pupil.\nAnother way in which music has been extremely successful lies in the\nfact, which is recognized by all music teachers and by all educators, that it\nis a means of inspiring the pupils and interesting them in their school life.\nHow often does it come into the experience of every interested teacher\nof music that upon entering the classroom a pleasing smile lights up the\nface of every child as a manifestation of their pleasure.\nAs a means of mental discipline and for producing mental concentration\n[the use of music has proven to be of great value.\nThe imagination is greatly quickened and most favorably acted upon in\nIthe pursuit of music.\nNot the least to be considered in the study of music is the training of the\n[voice and the best use of the organs of speech. Enunciation and vocalization are thereby promoted. In Tremont Temple for four years past on\n[Memorial Day a chorus of one thousand children from the public schools of\nJoston has sung patriotic songs at the exercises which have been held there.\n;'he features of their singing which have been remarked upon with favor\nfhave been the distinctness with which they have enunciated the words, the\nbeautiful tone of voice used, and the spirit and ardor evinced in the rendering ofthese songs.\nIn France about ninety years ago a commission was appointed by the\ngovernment to visit the cities and villages to ascertain what proportion of\nthe people were musical by nature. This commission finally reported that\n97 per cent, of the people were thus gifted. As a result music has been\nassiduously cultivated thruout France during all the years which have\nsucceeded. In the city of Paris more time is allowed for the study of music\nin the schools than in any other place in the world. The amount of time\nallotted is from three to ten hours per week. When we consider that in\nmost of the cities and towns in this country only an hour a week is allowed\nwe see only too plainly at what a disadvantage we are placed compared\nwith this most favored city. And yet the cheering intelligence is brought\nto us by homebound travelers that with the exception of the schools of\nParis better sight-reading obtains in the schools of our country than in\nthose of any section of Europe.\nThis is surely very encouraging.\nWithin the past forty years a great change has come over the teaching\nof music in our public schools. Instead of rote-singing, with the exception\nof the work of the kindergarten and the first year of school, note-singing\nhas taken its place. This has proven a revolution and a revelation. The\nresult is intelligence and independence of thought — self-reliance in doing\nthe work in music. The teacher now acts as an instructor, a guide, an\nillustrator. This change of plan has proven most beneficial ; it is coimted as\none of the chief reasons for the grand success of the present time.\nWithin the past decade there has been presented to music teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Music\n\nsomething in the way of method in the giving of instruction and of developing music with the young which is very different from what obtained in\nformer years. It is to utilize all the impressions which the child has received\nfrom the time of its earliest taking cognizance of things and which form a\npart of the young child's experience.\nThe plan is to have the child recall these impressions and gradually to\nassociate them with the printed signs which are used to represent them.\nThis recalling process and the reproduction thru written work form a\nspecies of music analysis.\nTo speak more definitely about it one might say that the method consists in teaching in the most thoro and beautiful manner an attractive song.\nWhen this is well known the teacher leads the child to discover the things\ncontained in the song — to recall the various tonal and rhythmical effects and\nelements ; to reproduce the same in writing and so at length to gain a mastery of all the things contained in the song.\nThis method is in contrast to the singing by note of carefully graded\nsongs and exercises which contain in progressive order the things of music\nwhich are desired to be known.\nThe stage of experimentation has not altogether passed. Undoubtedly\na measure of good has accrued by the introduction of this method. It is\nintended, as I understand it, for use in the early stage of musical development, and is to be succeeded by the more direct, or note-reading process,\nas soon as the pupils have covered this early stage of their experience and\nare able to do independent work following the lines of note-reading.\nPerhaps it is a little too early to decide upon the full merits of the newer\nplan and also to know to a certainty just where to draw the line between\nthe newer process and the older.\nFrom what I have observed and from the thought which I have given to\nit I am inclined to the opinion that eventually a compromise between the\ntwo plans will be effected and all that is desirable and worthy in both will\nform a common basis of instruction.\nIn some schools where special attention is given to music, surprising\nresults have been secured in the recognition of musical phrases — in the\nreproduction of the same in the staff notation and in leading the pupils to\ndeal with melodic invention. This work not only seems remarkable but\nit affords genuine pleasure to the pupils. It is thoroly educational and\nbrings into play the genius and individuaHty of the pupil.\nAs a result of the progressive study of music thru the different grades\nthe pupils upon arriving at the higher classes in the elementary schools and\nin the high schools find themselves well trained in the principles of music.\nThey are able to read new music with ease and to maintain four parts in\nsinging. Their ideas of taste, of style in rendering, and of musical expression have been enlarged and brought up to a fine state of musical apprecia'tion.\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUCCESS\n\nIN PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\n831\n\nThe success along all these lines has led up to the performance in public\nof some of the great works of the most eminent composers. To cite some\nof these, we may mention The Creation, The Messiah, Elijah, and St. Paul.\nIn Cincinnati and New York choruses of pupils havt assisted in the production ofThe Children's Crusade.\nTo the study of music in our schools may rightly be ascribed the providing of a vocation for many a child naturally endowed with fine musical\ngifts. The inspiration, the guidance, the instruction, the practice, and the\nresulting intelligence awaken and prepare him for further study on the\ncompletion of his course in school.\nIn our little state of Massachusetts, in our good old city of Boston, we\nwould never think of doing without music in our scheme of education.\nIf Lowell Mason could return to this world and witness the great progress which has been made in his chosen art and enjoy the beautiful songs\nwhich the children sing today, and note their attainments, how gratified\nwould he be and how thankful that he had been instrumental in initiating\nthe glorious work.\nI am sure that among the many interesting and valuable things taught\nin our schools at the present time the people thruout our broad land, from\nocean to ocean, and from the lakes to the gulf, will accord to music a meed\nof praise as being among the best things we have to offer our young people.\nDISCUSSION\nGrant Drake, assistant director of music, Public Schools, Boston, Mass. — When I\nwas asked by our worthy president to lead in the discussion of this subject, \"Success in\nPublic School Music,\" it was with the distinct understanding that I keep to the text, or\nrather the elucidation of the text, as found in the interesting paper of my esteemed friend\nand colleague, Mr. Marshall, to whom you have listened with such pleasure.\nI am inclined to think he put me in here, expecting that I would say, \"Them's my\nsentiments, too,\" and then sit down; and in view of the brief time, and the good things to\ncome, I do not know that I could do much better.\nI have worked so long and happily with my good brother in this big city of ours, which\ncontains, I assure you, as many varied and difl5cult problems as can be found anywhere,\nthat it has become second nature for me to applaud his noble sentiments and wellrounded periods. But in spite of this professional intimacy, to say nothing of a friendship\nwhich has grown stronger and sweeter each day, I have not yet caught that glowing\noptimism which radiates from his charming personality, and permeates every line of his\ninteresting paper — that optimism which sees the silver lining in every cloud, which remembers that \"behind the clouds the sun is still shining\"; a spirit that never recognizes defeat\nbut can See victory in what I might consider a Waterloo.\nMy good friend can speak from his own experience, when he tells of the \"lighting up\"\nof children's faces, when the interested and cheerful supervisor makes his rounds.\nI say I have not, as yet, caught that spirit of optimism, and in fact, I am beginning\nto fear I am immune to that particular microbe, having been so long exposed to it.\nI am not, however, of that pessimistic nature which only sees the \"hole in the doughnut,\" but you all know there are two sides to the shield, so perhaps no harm will be done\nif I concern myself for these few moments with the other side. Being of the cloth, I trust\nI can do this without striking any discordant note.\nMr. Marshall has spoken of the surprise and gratification of Lowell Mason, were he\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "832\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Music\n\nto return from that celestial abode where all good musicians, particularly the public-school\nvariety, go, and see the culmination — no, that is not the word — the present success of the\nwork, the foundations of which he laid so well.\nI can see the good man's eyes stick out when he listens to and views the automatic\npiano-players, phonographs, all these music-reproducing machines; when he hears of\nelaborate courses in harmony, counterpoint, musical analysis, musical appreciation, and\nthe like, laid out, at least on paper, in many of our high schools.\n,\nUndoubtedly the style and quality of much of the music we use would prove a revelation to him, the splendid part-singing, the universality of the subject, practically every\ncity, town, and hamlet having its supervisor of music.\nCertainly this would look like success. But, in his tour of observation and perusal of\ncourses of study, I wonder if he might not think we were attempting to do many things\nin our meager hour a week, which are manifestly impossible of fulfillment ? I trust, by\nthe way, that he would be duly indignant at that hour a week, which is the one thing that\nhas not expanded since his own day.\nEmerson says, \"Hitch your wagon to a star,\" but there is another less classic saying,\n\"Don't crowd the mourners.\"\nIt is necessary to have ideals and ambitions, but work, however important, which\ncannot be done, should not be laid out. It either discourages, or brings your plans into\ndisrepute. Elaborate courses of study do not spell success. Again, I doubt if he would\nbe greatly overwhelmed by our rapid sight-singing, tho way ahead of his day, and, in some\ncases, of a very high standard.\nWhat is sight-singing ? What is your idea or mine ? Can the ability to sol-fa a little\neight, twelve, or six teen-measure exercise or song be considered indisputable proof of the\nsame ? Say what you will, and trot out your finest classes in sight-singing, and we still\nfall far short of the mark of our high calling.\nTo my mind orchestral training, or work in some such instrumental form, is a necessary adjunct to this end.\nI have had a large and varied experience with singers in general, as has every choir man,\nand frankly, it is appalling, this inability to comprehend readily the printed page. My\nbrother has mentioned the classics of Beethoven, Mozart, and others. Why, my dear man,\nJ have had many and many a candidate for first-class choir positions, of great vocal promise, who could not interpret the pages of a hymnal. Verily, we are not all readers yet.\nMr. Marshall has said, \" While the reading of music is not the principal thing to be attained\nstill it is the all-important means for giving one a well-rounded idea of music and its correct performance.\" Very true. Now, do our scholars readily comprehend the printed\npage, and with reasonable accuracy, interpret it ? If so, we are on the high road to success,\nfor such technique is absolutely essential. Of course our ideas and ideals are constantly\nchanging. The rote-singing of years ago \"looked good\" to those of that generation.\nMuch on which we pride ourselves today, and call success, may change as greatly in another\ndecade or two. Is success ever attained, or rather arc we not always striving for it ?\nI sometimes fear we confound talking about success with the thing itself. They are\nquite different.\nWe hear much of the appreciation of music, and I most heartily approve of all that\nis being done along that line. Anything and everything which brings the best of music\nand its proper interpretation to our pupils, cannot fail to be an uplift, and help along this\nsuccess. Much is continually being said of the value of the song element, the cultural\nside of the work. All true enough, but do say a word in favor of, shall I say, that\nnecessary evil, good technique, without which we are helpless. So, in closing, even at the\nrisk of talking platitudes, or mentioning the obvious, may I not emphasize the necessity\nfor good old-fashioned or new-fashioned drill on the essentials of our music work; the\nvarious rhythmic and tonal problems which must be drilled and drilled, with the same\npertinacity we pursue in number work and the like, if we are to have what I call success in\npublic-school music.\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nBUSINESS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nJVIINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^James S. Cxtrry, High School of Commerce . ,\nVice-President — Harry C. Spillman, South Division High School\nSecretary — W. N. Clifford, Southern High School\n\nCleveland, Ohio.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July s, 1910\nThe meeting was called to order in the First Baptist Church by President James\nS. Curry.\nRev. Joseph S. Swain, editor of the Watchman, invoked Divine guidance. Mrs.\nFlorence Wilbur sang a solo.\nThe program was then taken up as arranged.\nThe President's Address, ''The Past, Present, and Future of Commercial Education,\" was given by James S. Curry, head of Shorthand Department, High School of\nCommerce, Cleveland, Ohio.\nA paper on \"How to Make Commercial Courses More Efficient,\" by Frank E.\nLakey, EngUsh High School, Boston, Mass., was followed by discussion led by E. E.\nGaylord, head of Commercial Department, High School, Beverly, Mass.\nThen followed a paper on \"The Education and Professional Training of Commercial\nTeachers,\" by J. Asbury Pitman, Principal State Normal School, Salem, Mass. Discussion was led by Frank V. Thompson, High School of Commerce, Boston, Mass.\nThe President appointed as Committee on Resolutions:\nCarlos B. Ellis, Springfield, Mass.\nMarion D. Fulton, New York City, N.Y.\nF. H. Read, Providence, R.I.\nand as Committee on Nominations:\nFrank O. Carpenter, Head, Commercial Department, English High School, Boston,\nA. T. Swift, Providence, R.I.\nF. G. Nichols, Albany, N.Y.\nAn invitation from the Boston City Club to attend a meeting Tuesday, July 5, at\n3 P.M. devoted to Vocational Education, was read.\nE. E. Gaylord, head of Commercial Department, High School, Beverly, Mass.,\nmoved that a committee be appointed to attend the meeting of the Executive Committee and urge the maintenance of this department. The President appointed as\nsuch committee:\nDurand W. Springer, director of Business Department, Cass High School, Detroit,\nMich.\nHarry C. Spillman, head of Department of Commerce, South Division High School,\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nFrank E. Lakey, English High School, Boston, Mass.\nSECOND SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 7, 19 10\nThe meeting was called to order at 9 : 30833a.m. by President Curry.\nThe first paper was on \"What Business Men Demand of Our Graduates,\"\nby\nHorace G. Healey, High School of Commerce, New York City, N.Y., and the discussion\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "834\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nof the topic was led by W. A. Hawkins, superintendent of Jordan Marsh Co., Boston,\nMass.\n\"Commercial Education as a Branch of Vocational Training\" was the subject of\na paper by Cheesman A. Herrick, president, Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa., and the\ndiscussion was led by Arthur J. Meredith, Director of the Commercial Department,\nState Normal School, Salem, Mass.\nThe program closed with a paper on \"The Attitude of Academic High-School\nTeachers Toward Students of Commercial Departments\" by James M. Green, principal.\nNew Jersey State Normal and Model Schools, Trenton, N.J., the discussion of which was\nled by Frank O. Carpenter, head, Commercial Department, English High School, Boston,\nMass.\nTHIRD SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 1910\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. President Curry introduced Mr.\nBates Torrey, a noted teacher and reporter of Boston, as leader of the Round Table.\nDavid H. O'Keefe, New York City High School, New York, N.Y., read a paper\non \"The History of Touch Typewriting.\"\nFrank O. Carpenter presented the report of the nominating committee, as follows:\nFor President — Frank E. Lakey, English High School, Boston, Mass.\nFor Vice-President — Winfield S. McKinney, Englewood High School, Chicago, 111.\nFor Secretary — Sherwin W. Cody, Educational Author, Chicago, 111.\nDurand W. Springer of Detroit reported for the Committee which was appointed to\ngo before the Board of Directors to protest against the dropping of the Department of\nBusiness Education, that the proposition had been withdrawn.\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions was read by Mr. Read, of Providence,\nR.I., and was accepted with exception of Article 3:\nWhereas, This department has always been one of the first to take action tending to\nencourage increased efficiency in the teaching and practice of the commercial branches; and\nWhereas, We all know that the passage by the New York Legislature fourteen years\nago of the Certified Public Accountants' Act did much to bring accountancy to the dignified position it now occupies in the schools and colleges, as well as in the business world\nand in the public estimation; and\nWhereas, It has come to the notice of this committee that the New York State\nStenographers' Association acting in harmony with the teaching organizations of that\nstate proposes during the coming winter to urge the passage of an act granting to those\nregarded by the Regents of the University of the State of New York to be worthy, the\ndegree of C.S.R. (Chartered Stenographic Reporter), which act is identical in terms\nwith the original Certified Public Accountants' law, only such changes having been made\nas were necessary to make it apply to reporters instead of accountants; and\nWhereas, This bill has met with the approval of all the leading organizations of\nreporters in America, notably the New York State Stenographers' Association, The\nPennsylvania Shorthand Reporters, The Chartered Stenographic Reporters' Association\nof Canada; and\nWhereas, This Bill has been so drawn as to conform to the ideas of a committee\nof the executives of all the Associations in the State of New York interested in the teaching and practice of shorthand, such as The New York State Commercial Teachers' Association, The New York City High School Teachers' Association, Department of Stenography, The Schoolmen's Club of the City of New York, The New York Division of the\nNational Association of Isaac Pitman Shorthand Teachers and Writers, The Stenographers'\nUnion, The American Federation of Labor, and The American Commercial Schools' Institution; beit therefore,\nResolved, That the Department of Business Education of the National Education\nAssociation in Convention assembled at Boston this eighth day of July, 1910, most\nheartily indorses the bill drafted by the New York State Stenographers' Association for\nadoption by the Legislature at Albany during the coming winter establishing the degree\nof C.S.R. (Chartered Stenographic Reporter) and placing the same under the control of\nthe Regents of the University of the State of New York; and furthermore be it\nResolved, That this department desires to go on record as of the opinion that the\nadministration of this C.S.R. law by the University of the State of New York will result\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeatl\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n835\n\nin higher standards of efficiency in the teaching and practice of shorthand in the state of\nNew York and ultimately in the whole United States.\nWhereas, Many college graduates enter active business life and nearly every college\ngraduate requires some knowledge of business practice and theory; and\nWhereas, Our high schools are now offering good courses in business and the graduates of business courses in the high school would often be encouraged to enter\ncollege if the work already done werie recognized by college-entrance credits; and\nWhereas, Commercial efficiency would be increased and a right conception of business as a public service would be more readily inculcated in our youth if commercial\ncourses were given the recognition to which they are justly entitled; therefore be it\nResolved, By the Business Section of the National Education Association, That\ncolleges be and hereby are urged, in the interests both of our boys and girls, and of higher\nstandards of business efficiency and integrity, to grant college-entrance credit to business\ncourses and that the entrance requirements in foreign languages be reduced.\nResolved, That the Business Section of the National Education Association thoroly\nappreciates the stand already taken by many of the more progressive colleges which have\nopened their doors to the high-school graduate, regardless of what course he has pursued.\nMr. Butler of Newfoundland made a very vigorous plea for a degree to be granted\nto those completing a commercial course and desiring to teach. He was informed that\nmany institutions already grant such degrees.\nMr. Dexter asked for concrete illustrations in teaching touch typewriting. He was\nanswered by Edward H. Eldridge, director of School of Secretarial Studies, Simmons\nCollege, Boston, Mass.\nDurand W. Springer, of Detroit, Mich., read a paper on \"Are the Best Results\nSecured from Formal or Informal Instruction in Book-keeping?\"\nFrederick H. Read, Acting Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nPAST, PRESENT,\nJAMES\n\nAND\n\nS. CURRY,\n\nHIGH\n\nAND\n\nFUTURE\nSCHOOL\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nOF COMMERCIAL\nOF\n\nCOMMERCE,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nOHIO\n\nCommercial education in the public high school, considered from the\nviewpoint of an interested public, is first of all the kind of educational\ntraining which develops and broadens the intellect. But it does not stop\nwith this important step; it prepares the boy and the girl for immediate\nusefulness; it prepares them for entry into the avenues of business careers,\nand it does this with reasonable assurance of success.\nCommercial education is supposed to have had its origin in Florence in\nthe fifteenth century. It was at Florence that the earliest known textbooks on commercial subjects were written, and it was there that doubleentry bookkeeping is supposed to have been given its first practical test\nin the counting-house. It is interesting to follow the slow development of\ncommercial education from this early period down to the time of the establishing of Dolbear's Commercial College in New York in 1835, probably\nthe first institution in this country devoted exclusively to the teaching of\ncommercial subjects.\nFrom the early advent of the private school to the time of the establishing of commercial courses in high schools, the task of training young people\nalong avocational lines devolved upon the private institutions of learning.\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThese courses in the private school, altho limited to a brief period of three,\nsix, or nine months, accomplished a great good. They did not, however,\nsuccessfully fulfill all the requirements of our comprehensive definition of\ncommercial education.\nThe importance of commercial education in the public schools of this\ncountry seems first to have been favorably considered in Boston in the\nearly fifties, at which time many teachers of the Boston public schools\nfamiliarized themselves with shorthand and bookkeeping. Soon after\nshorthand was taught in a limited way in the New York Free Academy.\nIt was made a part of the course of study in Central High School, Philadelphia, and in the St. Louis High School in 1863. The introduction of\nshorthand into these schools, together with bookkeeping, is supposed to\nhave marked the real beginning of commercial education in public high\nschools. This proved valuable, and about twenty years ago it began to\ndawn upon the minds of many progressive business men and liberal-minded\neducators that a broader line of educational training should be offered to\nthe young people of our nation. Among leading organizations to discuss\nthe subject of commercial education was the American Bankers' Association. This organization went so far as to send a representative to Europe\nto investigate the educational systems there. . It was found that in respect\nto commercial training, this country was far less progressive than Germany\nand other European countries. Reports of these investigations were widely\ncirculated in the United States and did much to encourage the introduction\nof commercial courses into academic high schools.\nThe commercial department of the academic high school, the commercial\nhigh school, and the high school of commerce, are the outgrowth of the\ncountry's as well as the student's need. This need became more selfevident to the careful thinker as the result of comparisons made between\nthe wages paid graduates of academic high schools and graduates of commercial departments and private institutions of learning. It is estimated\nthat fully 65 per cent, of the graduates of our high schools seek employment in the business oflice, some as stenographers, some as bookkeepers,\nand some behind the counter as clerks. The salaries usually paid the\ncapable office stenographer range from $8.00 to $15.00 per week, while\nthe clerk must be content with the $3 . 00 to $6 . 00 per week usually paid.\nIn 1899 my attention was directed to a certain high school which graduated twenty students from the academic departments and nineteen from the\ncommercial. Fifteen of the former obtained positions as clerks at salaries\nranging from $3 . 00 to $5 . 00 per week. Eighteen of the commercial graduates obtained positions in business offices as stenographers or bookkeepers\nat salaries ranging from $7.00 to $12.00 per week, their average weekly\nsalary practically doubling that of the non-commercial students.\nThis difference in compensation for services rendered is apparent today\nas in former years, and the relative difference in the earning power of the\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n837\n\ntwo classes of students is the same in all sections of the country. This\nimportant fact has played no small part in building up a sentiment favorable to commercial education. It is not surprising that steps toward the\nadvancement of commercial education have been gigantic strides. The\ncommercial course in the public school is now being regarded as important\nas the academic. Pupils are no longer Hmited to the slow thinkers, and the\ntendency is to a full four years' course. Good reasons for this are found\n, in the fact that business men are filling important places in the world,\nand from the ranks of business men come some of our keenest expansionists. Business men, in addition to all this, are taking an emphatic stand\non the educational requirements of people in their employ. No longer\nwill bad spelling, poor penmanship, or incoherent sentences be tolerated.\nIn this age of competitive activity a greater amount of skilled office assistance is demanded. Due to this combination of reasons interest in commercial education has been steadily growing for a number of years until\nnow more than seven hundred high schools of the United States offer a\ncomplete or partial course.\nOur commercial courses today are as highly cultural and educative as\nare those offered in academic departments, and they at the same time\nprepare young men and young women for lives of usefulness in the office or\nin business, as well as in the home or as a citizen.\nThe establishment of commercial high schools and high schools of\ncommerce in Boston, New York, Washington, Philadelphia, Pittsburg,\nDetroit, Cleveland, and other large cities, is an evidence of the growing\npopularity of commercial education. In some of these cities there is already\ntalk of the advisability of establishing a second and even a third school of\nthis class. This growth, in the face of much opposition, is indicative of\nwhat the future holds in store for practical vocational education, both from\nthe standpoint of number of schools and the quality of the work that shall\nbe done.\nThe future of commercial education depends largely upon the following:\n(i) Our standard of efficiency as teachers and the quality of the work we shall do;\n(2) Practicality of our courses of study; (3) The attitude of educators and Boards of\nEducation; (4) Favorable recognition from higher institutions of learning.\n\nI. I will not dwell upon the necessary educational qualifications of\nthe commercial teacher inasmuch as Professor Pitman will discuss the\ntopic, \"Education and Professional Training of Commercial Teachers,\"\ncovering these essentials.\nThe teacher whose highest ambition is to draw his salary will seldom\nreach renown in his chosen profession. He who teaches because of his love\nfor the work and the good he may render to others, will attain the goal\nhe merits. The work of the former is but drudgery; that of the latter, a\npleasant occupation.\nThe teacher of tomorrow must do a little better work than he is able to\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ndo today. Next year's work must be more successful than the last one\nhas been. The teacher must be alert to every need of the work in hand.\nHe must know the subject he is to teach and the mental weakness and\nstrength of every student. He must be acquainted with the demands\nmade upon the employee in the office, either thru the channels of actual\noffice experience or close personal observation, that he may best aid the\nstudent in preparing to meet the practical problems before him squarely\nand successfully. If we w^ould have our students work for higher attainments, we must do a Httle climbing ourselves. There are too many real\nstudents seeking an education to justify the tolerance of shams. It behooves\nus, therefore, to pause and reflect. If commercial education is to gain the\nheights toward which it is aimed, we as teachers must serve our purpose\nwell. May it be said of us, \"Well done.\"\n2. Every commercial department, commercial high school, or high\nschool of commerce, should provide a full four years' course that should\nbe both educative and practical. The following are some of the subjects\nthat should be offered: English, including business correspondence, legal\nand commercial forms, debating, extemporaneous speaking, dictation, and\nspeUing, four years (every teacher in the school, even tho outside of the\nEnglish department, should indirectly be a teacher of English); shorthand and typewriting, two full years to each, or enough time to thoroly\nqualify the student for the quality and quantity of office work demanded ;\nbookkeeping, including banking and penmanship, at least three years;\ncommercial arithmetic, commercial law, civil government, American history, and history of commerce; languages, French, German, or Spanish,\nelective; and such other subjects as the conditions of a locality demand.\n3. As the result of the establishment of a two or three years' commercial course in some sections, and for a time the prevaiHng impression that\ncommercial subjects were less difficult to acquire than were academic\nstudies, many of the poorer class of students found their way into commercial departments. It has been said that in some instances less talented\nstudents were advised to pursue commercial studies while the more favored\nones intellectually were advised against such a course. These, with the\ntoo frequent hostile attitude of the academic-high-school teacher toward\nstudents of commercial departments, have done much to lower the educational standard and to retard the growth of commercial education. Prominent educators especially favorable to academic training now occupy\nground more nearly neutral than formerly — happily, the jealousy that\nonce prevailed seems to be disappearing.\n4. Our academic courses of study are practically what the heads of our\nhigher institutions of learning would have them. So far no influence from\nthis quarter has been brought to bear upon the formation of the courses of\nstudy in the commercial school. The popular trend toward commercial\neducation in European countries has resulted in the establishment of many\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nCOURSES\n\n839\n\nhigher institutions of commercial education. As in Europe, so it will be\nin this country. The colleges will follow the lead of the public commercial\nschool. Already a good beginning has been made. The Wharton School\nseems to have first entered the field. The University of Chicago and the\nUniversity of CaHfornia have each a college of commerce. Other institutions are planning to follow their example. Such schools will undoubtedly\nbe largely patronized and will wield a tremendous influence in promoting\nthe interests, not only of commercial education in the public high school,\nbut of commerce itself. And here again the financial problem is to wield a\nstimulating influence. Many college graduates who prefer the commercial\nfield to that of the professional, like the graduate of th^ academic high\nschool, are required to start at the bottom of the financial ladder.\nFrom a rude beginning in Colonial days there has come into being in\nthis country an educational system second to none. We are proud of our\nuniversities and colleges, of our normal and professional institutions, of our\nindustrial and technical schools, of our military and naval academies, and\nwe are proud of our great public-school system. Who today questions the\nneed of any one of these educational institutions ? Not one, for each in its\nplace has a work to accomplish. To complete our educational system there\nis a demand for a wider recognition of the importance of commercial education both in the secondary and higher institutions of learning.\nPubhc sentiment when thoroly aroused is almost as irresistible as the\nocean tide. Public sentiment seems to say that for the future public\ncommercial schools must be maintained in proportion to their actual need.\nThe commercial high school and the high school of commerce of the future\nwill be the educational institutions for the masses.\n\nHOW\n\nTO MAKE\nFRANK\n\nE.\n\nCOMMERCIAL\nLAKEY,\n\nENGLISH\n\nCOURSES\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nMORE\n\nEFFICIENT\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nTo say that commercial courses ma)/ be made more efiicient is not a\nconfession of weakness, but a frank statement of conditions. When we\nconsider that the high-school population of the country has increased\n400 per cent, in the past ten years, and when we know that the major part\nof the pupils in many of the most prominent high schools take commercial\ncourses, the need of efficiency is evident. One head of the commercial\ndepartment in a large high school in this city told me that 80 per cent, of\nthe pupils in that school were commercial. May I state at the outset that\nthis paper is a symposium of the views of the heads of the commercial\ndepartments of the several high schools in this city, of experienced teachers\nin other large cities, and of my observations during a period of eleven years\nas a commercial-high-school teacher? Some statements are self-evident,\nas that more pay is necessary if we want better teachers.\nOther state-\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "840\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nments are, I believe, absolutely true, even tho neither popular nor widely\nadmitted.\nAmong these are:\n1. The course should be four years. Providence, R.I., has recently\nabolished a very popular two-year course. Pittsburg has also extended\nits commercial course to four years. Business men want helpful clerks with\ncommon-sense, maturity, and general information. These traits are not\npossessed by boys and girls a year out of the grammar school.\n2. The classes should be small — not over thirty pupils. I have had\neighty-five in one class in penmanship.\n3. The day schedule should be from nine to twelve and from one to\nfour o'clock. More time is needed for study, for practice, and for freedom\nfrom outside engagements. The dinner hour should not be a quick lunch\ngenerator of dyspepsia and nerve trouble. Germany has tried longer\nhours with excellent results.'\nOur courses should be planned by men with commercial training.\nThink of a teacher being obliged to beg for time for penmanship and addition. The majority of our courses are laid out by college- trained men who\nlabor under the restrictions of college-preparatory ideas. Since surely\nthe larger part of all high-school pupils enter later the \"college of bread and\nbutter\" the injustice is evident. Is not a large part of the 94 per cent,\nfailures of business men due to the lack of real business training for the very\nreal conditions of the business world ? A training in business may be given\nin the high schools which will be as cultural and as respectable as any\ncourse. This \"preparation for life\" is the rational function of a tax-supported high school.\nBefore entering the high school, emphasis should be put much more\nstrongly than at present on two subjects:\n1. Penmanship. — From the start only muscular movement should be\nallowed. The forms used in the seventh and eighth grades and in the high\nschool should be the same — plain, clear, practical, business forms. This\nmeans supervision of penmanship in the grades by a competent man.\n2. Arithmetic. — Pupils should be grounded well in the fundamentals,\nand be able to add accurately and with some speed.\nThe high-school program we will consider by subjects. The utmost\nneed exists for better\nPENMANSHIP\n\nTo secure efl&ciency I suggest:\n1. That no teacher be employed who cannot write a plain business hand\non the blackboard.\n2. All WTitten work in all subjects must be in a good business hand.\n3. Marks in penmanship should be taken from other subjects at indefinite periods.\n4. Instruction should cover four years — 5— 3 — 2 — 3 hours.\n5. Penmanship should be a diploma subject for all commercial pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF COMMERCIAL\n\nCOURSES\n\n841\n\nWe all know the wonderful revolution in the teaching of English within\nthe last fifteen years. The demand for reform is more urgent in penmanship and equally radical improvements can be obtained. Penmanship\nneeds enthusiastic teaching, not incidental notice. It can be applied in\nmaking all business vouchers, sales sheets, time sheets, and so forth. If\nyou ask why so much emphasis is placed on penmanship, my answer is:\n80 per cent, and more of written applications for positions \"in own handwriting\" are rejected because of poor penmanship. The use of the typewriter iscreating a demand for neatness.\nARITHMETIC\n\nThe emphasis first, last, and always must be on accuracy. The study\nshould be intensive in the first year and should cover the fundamental\noperations, simple fractions and decimals, common tables in general use,\nestimates, percentage and its applications, interest, and bank discount.\nPupils should especially be taught to prove their work. Hence the need\nof a textbook with practical problems, where the subjects little used are\nomitted. In a four-year course space should be found for algebra and\ngeometry. Since between thirty and forty per cent, leave at the end of the\nfirst year, arithmetic and penmanship should be placed in the Freshman\nyear.\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\nThis subject could be made more efficient if the first year were commonly\ndevoted to penmanship and business arithmetic and ten or twelve hours\ndistributed over the three remaining years. I believe that best results\nare obtained from the study of theory, then business practice, and then\nmore theory without vouchers. The last year should include actual business-office practice. The safeguard system, card ledger, loose-leaf ledger,\netc., should be familiar.\nA practical and useful device I have found to be the pasting of actual\nbusiness papers on cardboard for exhibition and reference. The pupils\nare kept alert and the business world is always glad to help. Thus my\npupils have gathered deposit slips, counter checks, voucher checks, cancelled checks, bonding company's blanks, no protest slips, Bradstreet's\nand Dun's circulars, monthly statements, bills of lading, etc. This list\nincludes dozens more. Talks on business usages and events are extremely\nvaluable. A knowledge of bookkeeping and a good supply of brains usually\nopen the door to managerial positions or to membership in the firm. Bookkeeping some years ago meant only the formal study of the books of record.\nThe pupil learned nothing of outside business. Modern bookkeeping is so\ndifferent from the old that it would seem at first to be a different study.\nBusiness men demand of course, as formerly, a knowledge of formal bookkeeping, but they also demand with an increasing persistence that the\nboy shall know something of business usages and customs, with which he\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "842\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ndaily comes in contact, even if he is a bookkeeper. Therefore all the best\nteachers of bookkeeping in the country today teach, as an essential part of\ntheir bookkeeping courses, the important facts of business daily life.\nSHORTHAND\n\nA pupil must pass in Freshman English. Then comes in the third year\na three-period study of the theory and in the last year six or eight hours of\nintensive study. The dictation should be by different teachers and by\nbusiness men, who are glad to aid occasionally. Good practice is obtained\nby taking letters of teachers in shorthand and then typewriting them.\nThese approach office conditions. This feature is for the benefit of the\npupil and not a marked favor bestowed upon the teacher.\nOne enthusiastic teacher has formed a shorthand society of seniors and\ngraduates.\nThe results have been\na) Speed is kept up,\nh) Problems of business are discussed,\nc) Aid is given in securing positions.\n\nAgain, an employment bureau avoids dangers for girl graduates and\nsecures\n1. Higher grade of work,\n2. Schools back reliable pupils,\n3. Helps graduates to better-paid positions,\n4. Gives work to graduates who are available for part time.\nTYPEWRITING\n\nTypewriting, the twin sister of shorthand, should have a separate course\nfor pupils not taking shorthand. Such a course will be offered next fall\nin Boston schools. This intensive study secures the habit of concentration.\nAgain, the ability to take dictation directly on the machine is very valuable.\nOf course, all high-grade typists are touch writers. Lessons in shorthand\nshould be written out on the machine in duplicate. At this point it may be\nwell to state that the result of a canvass of over four hundred schools by\nour energetic president, showed that the average time in over four hundred\nhigh schools was two school years of 5 . 2 periods per week for shorthand\nand 5.3 periods for typewriting. The large majority of the schools put\nthe subjects chiefly in the second year and in the third year. A similar\nquestionnaire for the other high-school commercial subjects would be\nvaluable.\nENGLISH\n\nThe present emphasis on the study of EngHsh is proper and just. It\nneeds, however, the addition of practical Business English. The abihty\nto appreciate Addison and Shakespeare by no means includes the ability\nto write business letters that sell goods, secure positions, and get results.\nHence a three-hour course in the third and fourth year devoted to business\nEngHsh is a necessity. The ability to write a clear, neat, well-spelled\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF COMMERCIAL\n\nCOURSES\n\n843\n\nbusiness letter or statement about some position is more valuable than the\nability to write literary essays. Spelling should be as easy as breathing —\ndrill, drill, drill is the key.\nHISTORY\n\nThe viewpoint should not be that of great men but the development of\ngreat periods of commerce. Every important event in the history of a\npeople has been influenced largely by the commercial aspect. Again\npupils should be compelled to study the history of their own country and\nalso the fascinating history of commerce.\nLAW\n\nFor clear, concise statement, for cultivation of the reasoning faculties,\nthe study of law exceeds the study of geometry. Both boys and girls need\nto apply themselves. Life is not ideal and real Hfe is found in the cases\nstudied. In the past the whole emphasis has been placed on preparation\nfor college, and on theory. Today the emphasis is rapidly being placed on\nHfe, business, and practice. I say this carefully as a college graduate.\nAmong the means to make the study real are:\n1. Use of cancelled checks,\n2. Bring insurance policies into class. Often the parent does not know the conditions of his policy.\n3. Scrap book of clippings,\n4. Newspaper clippings discussed,\n5. Topical outlines.\nCOMMERCIAL\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nThis subject seems to be misnamed. Economic geography, or better\nstill, commerce and industry, would be a more exact title. No subject is\nmore fascinating or lends itself more readily to practical applications. Girls\nlose all its value by resorting to sheer memory work. Among useful\nmethods and devices may be mentioned:\na) Laboratory methods,\nh) Collecting by pupils for the museum,\nc) Visiting factories and places of business, and making written reports,\nd) Use of reflectoscope,\ne) Window box to germinate seeds,\n/) Photographs,\ng) Book clippings, owned by pupil, with comments on opposite page. This teaches\nobservation.\nh) Making practical applications of knowledge acquired. Thus, we lose the trade\nof South America thru lack of direct lines of vessels and knowledge of business methods\nof our neighbors.\nThis leads us to note the importance of\nFOREIGN\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nEvery commercial pupil should be obliged to take one foreign language\nand to follow it until he can use it in everyday life as a consul must do.\nSpanish, German, and French are placed in their commercial value order.\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nMACHINES\n\nAmong the most valuable means of adding efl&ciency are the knowledge\nof the use and operation of mechanical aids. Only the more important\ncan be mentioned. Thrice happy is the teacher who has them all. In the\nbookkeeping class,\nFiling devices,\nProtectograph,\nCard systems,\nLetter copying:\nWet letter press,\nCarbon copies.\nRoller copies — sheets or book.\nNumbering machines, paper cutters, eyelet press, etc.\n\nIn penmanship,\nThe use of metronome.\n\nIn the shorthand class,\nPhonograph and tubes,\nColumbia recording graphophone,\nColumbia reproducing machine,\nComptometer,\nBilling machine,\nNeostyle, etc.\n\nAnother most valuable kind of aids are talks by business men. It is\nwonderful how ready these busy men always are to give helpful and suggestive talks. Their criticism of our output would promote efficiency.\nOne of the strongest illustrations of the value of this suggestion is to\nbe found in the replies received by Mr. F. V. Thompson, head master of\nthe High School of Commerce of this city, and by Mr. Rynearson, director\nof high schools, of Pittsburg. Both gentlemen sent questions to business\nhouses asking for suggestions for making the course more useful. In\nPittsburg, 55 per cent, suggested lectures or talks to pupils by representatives of the various industrial and mercantile houses. Other suggestions\nwere:\n1. Discussion of daily newspapers.\n2. Faculty visit business houses and observe methods.\n3. Teachers have several years of business experience.\n4. Get in touch with the Chamber of Commerce.\n5. Give pupil a sound foundation, not special training.\n6. The development of common-sense and good judgment in all studies is more\nvaluable than all the technical education that can be given young people.\n7. The most essential of all requisites — good deportment and personal tidiness.\n\nOne way to make commercial courses more efficient is to secure credit\non college entrance for commercial subjects. True, not many commercial\npupils desire to go to a higher institution, yet every facility should be\noffered by both high school and college. The western state universities\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF COMMERCIAL\n\nCOURSES\n\n845\n\nare today allowing credit for commercial work. The High School Teachers' Association of New York City is seeking for a credit of six units for\ncommercial branches. I strongly believe that the college authorities will\nsee the justice of such a course and grant the credit. Any subject worthy\nof two years' serious study in a high school deserves credit toward college\nentrance.\nFinally, efficiency is gained by co-operation between graduates and the\nhigh school. This may be shown in many ways — by sending suggestions,\nby sending business vouchers, by giving talks, etc. Ninety per cent, of\nall high-school pupils for a longer or shorter time are in business. Hence\nthe urgent need for the utmost efficiency. Experience plus training will\nlead to an independent, successful, honorable business career.\nMy last word is the caution that our graduates are not full-fledged\nbusiness men. Technical and trade schools graduate not journeymen, but\napprentices. Medical graduates need hospital training. So our pupils\nneed experience and maturity. Some day we may have the half-time system extended to embrace our commercial students. Meanwhile we are\ncoming rapidly into our own. The golden day is near at hand. Our\ncourses are becoming more efficient and so more useful.\nDISCUSSION\nE. E. Gaylord, High School, Beverly, Mass. — ^The commercial course is a vocational\ncourse, and, to achieve success in the fullest measure, it must have the conditions that\nmake success possible in vocations themselves. Using the factory as an illustration,\nthere must be these five conditions:\n1. A practical operating plan, with faith in its efiiciency and pride in its relative\nworth.\n2. A modern plant with up-to-date equipment.\n3. An intelligent, well-trained operating force.\n4. First-class raw material.\n5. An available market for the prompt and satisfactory disposal of the product, at\ngood prices.\nThe commercial course will never be efficient where it is looked down on and treated\nas a hospital for high-school defectives; where it is referred to apologetically by those\nin authority; where it is made easier and accorded less time than the other courses; or\nwhere the scientific or classical teachers are encouraged or permitted to proselyte freely\namong the brighter pupils of the younger classes in commercial subjects.\nIt should be said, promptly, frankly, and gladly, that the course is primarily vocational, and only incidentally cultural, altho, to those inchned to argue, it might readily\nbe shown that the commercial course is almost, if not quite, as truly cultural as others\nmore freely alleged so to be. The course should be made really what it is nominally.\nThe stream should flow in a channel relatively narrow and deep, rather than broad and\nshallow. For the purely technical subjects not less time should be provided than the\nactual number of recitation hours allowed by the best private business school in the\nvicinity. Briefly, then, there should be a practical plan, or policy, with faith in its efficiency and pride in its relative worth.\nI agree with most of what Mr, Lakey has said about the subjects to be included in\nthe course, and particularly regarding penmanship, arithmetic (including rapid calculation drills), and business English.\nI should add spelling as one of the indispensables.\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nIn the high school at Beverly, Mass., we teach spelling in every year of our five-year course,\nand are by no means sure of our product even then. Except in our largest city schools,\nI consider the study of a modern language unessential, especially where the high school\nis a finishing, as well as a preparatory, school.\nIn this modern educational factory, besides the usual fundamentals of heat and\nventilation, there should be the maximum volume of natural light, for not even in the\nchemical and physical laboratories is good light more important. In no other course\nis there so much writing as in the commercial course, and no other school work imposes\non the pupil more eye-strain than does the writing and transcribing of shorthand notes.\nFor efficient work in bookkeeping, there should be flat-topped desks, thirty to thirtyone inches high, twenty-seven inches wide, and not less than forty-two inches long, with\nat least one bank of drawers. For each desk there should be two movable safety inkwells.\nPaper, pens, ink, rulers, and all other supplies should be uniform and of good quality.\n\"A workman is known by his tools,\" and good tools have much to do with the production\nof good work.\nExcept in the largest schools, it is hardly feasible to attempt much work in office\npractice, altho this phase of a well-rounded course is invaluable, when the work can be\ncarried on under proper conditions. Provision may well be made, however, in any high\nschool sustaining a commercial course, for offices very simply equipped to afiford practice\nin wholesaling and banking.\nModern textbooks should be used. In adopting a shorthand system special care\nshould be taken to put in a standard system, so that efficient teachers of the system may\nbe obtained in emergency, and so that pupils may, if necessary, complete quickly in\nsome near-by school the course begun in the high school.\nIt is a capital error to equip a tj^pewriting department with a few each of all the\nbetter-known kinds of typewriters. Such a plan promotes friction among pupils, and\nvery seriously interferes with unity in the teacher's work, which at best is, in this subject,\nnot at all easy. By the way, it may be said that to attempt to teach typewriting without a teacher present in the schoolroom to supervise and direct the practice is little short\nof foolishness.\nNot because of any inherent defect or lack of excellence in the one widely-known\ndouble-keyboard machine, but solely in the interest of standardization, it is better to use\nsingle-keyboard machines; and for regular work the ideal equipment would contain only\none style of typewriter for regular practice, with such single examples of other widely-used\nmachines as would enable the pupils to become somewhat acquainted with the method of\noperating them. To expect, however, that any normal pupil, in the ordinary school course\nshould be able to operate, at a salable speed, two typewriters so dissimilar as the Smith\nPremier and the Remington, is to expect the impossible.\nI agree with what Mr. Lakey says in other respects regarding the use of modern\noffice devices in the schoolroom.\nThe teacher makes the school, and our school plant for turning out commercial pupils\nas a product needs a better-paid, more carefully trained operating force than is now available to supply the tremendous demand. It is of the highest importance that the officials\nof our state normal schools recognize the need of really first-class commercial departments\nin their institutions where advanced work in the subject-matter and thoro training in\nthese branches can be obtained. Higher salaries are an important desideratum, but\nthey do not directly add to the supply of properly-trained teachers when there are, as now,\nalmost no professional training schools for commercial teachers.\nYou cannot take good flour from the mill unless you put good wheat into the hopper.\nMr. Lakey does not too strongly emphasize the fundamental importance of thoro work\nin the grammar grades on what we have always known as \"the common branches.\"\nOur school \"factory\" cannot turn out a marketable product unless we have good \"raw\nmaterial.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n'\n\n847\n\nNo factory can pay dividends or command the support of its stockholders unless it\ncan market its product profitably. Close co-operation with local and near-by business\nmen, with the employment departments of the typewriter companies, and with former\npupils of the school will tend to create, in time, a feeling of confidence among the undergraduates and their parents that it is worth while to take the commercial course, because\nwhen it is creditably completed the graduate does not need a \"pull\" to \"get a job.\"\nIn Beverly, pupils in good standing at the -mid-year exams are permitted to take,\nat any time thereafter, positions acceptable to the director of the Commercial Department and to graduate with their class. The theory is that they will learn as much in the\noffice in the interim as if they had stayed in school, and it allows a wider margin of time to\nplace our pupils in the right kind of positions.\nM. D. Fulton, New York City, N.Y. — Advertising is the name applied in the business world to publicity schemes. The public are their patrons. It is right, it is good\nbusiness, it is necessary that our wares are laid before the public.\nvSchools are dealing in a merchandise — ideas, powers, skill. The public are their\npatrons. They need to know, they want to know the nature, kind, and methods of distribution ofthese wares. If there is anything more conspicuous than anything else in\nthe make-up of the speaker upon the topic — Mr. Lakey — it is his concrete illustrations.\nThey are specific and to the point. He has referred to the two-session plan of the German\nschools, to the aid of penmanship in actual business, and to the use of ;.ctual papers.\nI wish Mr. William McAndrew, principal of the Washington Irving High School in\nNew York City, were here to speak upon this point himself. Certainly the growth of this\nsystem from three hundred to more than three thousand girls within a few years was due\nin large measure at least to an organized scheme of publicity.\n\nTHE\nJ. ASBURY\n\nEDUCATION AND PROFESSIONAL\nCOMMERCIAL TEACHERS\n\nTRAINING\n\nPITMAN,\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF THE STATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nOF\n\nSALEM, MASS.\n\nWe are in the midst of a marvelous industrial development. The\n\nI\n\nmarkets of the world are open to us as never before. There is a steadilyincreasing demand for men who have been trained to appreciate our industrial and commercial opportunities and to supply, in these particulars, our\nnational needs — men who shall concern themselves with the great questions\nof production and distribution instead of those who are content to deal\nmerely with the records of the business transactions of others, or to fill\nother positions of minor importance. Many of our large manufacturers\nand merchants will be trained in the higher schools of technology, commerce,\nand business administration, but the public high school, too, must offer,\nfor the benefit of those students who are denied the privileges of the\nhigher institutions and yet who hope to occupy in the world of business\npositions of large responsibility and who are ambitious to become successful business men, practical vocational courses which are also broad and\ncultural.\nThe duties of any business fall naturally into two general divisions:\nthose of initiation and those of administration. The latter, of course,\ninclude the routine of office work.\nImportant as this is in bringing to a\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Business\n\nsuccessful issue the activities of \"the man higher up\" in the exercise of\ninitiative and the larger administrative functions, it is not enough, either\nfrom the standpoint of the individual or the state, that the commercial\ndepartment of the secondary school shall limit its field to the training of\nyoung men and women for the performance of these duties of ofi&ce routine\nwith fidelity, intelligence, accuracy, and rapidity. The training for the\nresponsible and unselfish duties of citizenship, which depends upon the\neducation of the heart as well as the education of the head and the hand,\nmust forever constitute an integral part of public-school education; and\nunder no other condition is education of any sort a just charge upon the\npublic treasury. From the standpoint of public support, the object of the\ncourse must not be primarily \"to make money,\" but \"to make men.\"\nThe crying need of the world of business, today, is less of self and more of\nservice.\nThat certain of the commercial subjects possess a distinct disciplinary\nvalue has long since ceased to be a debatable question. It is conceded by\nall that the power of self-control that finds expression in close application\nand concentration is developed in a high degree by many of the commercial\nstudies, if properly taught. This is an invaluable kind of mental discipUne,\nbut the power of initiative and self-direction is greater; and more important\nstill is the ability successfully to meet the vicissitudes of life because of the\ninvaluable possession of a thoro and well-rounded general education.\nCertain general conclusiohs concerning commercial education in the\nsecondary school have been reached and widely accepted. It is agreed that\nthe course shall be not less than four years in length, and that it shall be\nfully equal in educational value to any other course offered. It is also\ngenerally admitted that it is not inconsistent with the idea of industrial\nefiiciency to make the chief end of technical education the development of\ncharacter, intelligence, and general power. Commercial education must\naim to develop intelligent and useful citizens before it trains them to\nbecome efiicient clerks or accountants. The office boy who possesses the\ncapacity for growth may soon become the employer of the bookkeeper\nwhose training was limited to the technical work in which he is engaged.\nIt is also acknowledged that altho accuracy and rapidity of execution in\nsuch subjects as shorthand, typewriting, and bookkeeping are absolutely\nessential, we should not sacrifice the greater ends of education to secure\nthem. We must train the student to see things in the large and with clear\nvision — to deal with large interests with originality and with force. To\nbe more specific, commercial courses must deal with problems of production\nand distribution, with questions of finance and business administration,\nas well as with the subject-matter and the necessary practice which shall\nprepare students for the duties of various clerical positions.\nOur teachers in this department of the high school must have a thoro\neducation in such fundamental branches as make for culture and general\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n849\n\nintelligence and afford a necessary foundation for the technical subjects of the\ncurriculum; they must have a practical, working knowledge of the strictly\ncommercial subjects; and they must have a thoro training in the principles\nof education, in special methods, and in school and class management.\nIn no other department of the secondary school is there a more attractive field than that open to teachers of the commercial subjects; and\namong no other class of educators has the demand for adequate professional\ntraining been stronger than among these teachers themselves. The discussion ofthis question has occupied a large share of the attention of this\ndepartment for many years. In 1905 the National Education Association adopted this resolution; \"We look upon the preparation of teachers\nof commercial schools and departments as a pressing problem of commercial education, and we commend this question to our higher schools of\ncommerce and university schools of education, to our normal schools, and\nto further consideration by this body.\" Similar resolutions have been\npassed by educational associations and particularly by associations of commercial teachers in all parts of the country. In Massachusetts similar\nexpressions of this need led to the establishment, at the State Normal\nSchool at Salem, of a department for the professional training of teachers\nfor this line of work; and colleges, other normal schools, and private schools\nhave also been stimulated to respond to this demand. The dictum of the\nCommittee of Fifteen that \"the degree of scholarship required for secondary teachers is by common consent fixed at a collegiate education. That\nno one — with rare exceptions — should be employed to teach in a high\nschool who has not this fundamental preparation\" has been generally\naccepted. The Committee of Seventeen goes farther and demands definite study of a large group of professional subjects, and opportunity for\nobservation and practice teaching with secondary pupils. Many states\nnow require, as a preparation for teaching in the elementary schools, four\nyears of high-school study and at least two years of professional study in a\nnormal school. For high schools, the four years of college work should be\nsupplemented by professional training, which shall be as thoro and complete as that insisted upon for the elementary teacher. These requirements\ncan be met in full only by an independent professional school or by the\ndepartment of education in a large university.\nUntil recently the chief source of supply of commercial teachers has\nbeen the private commercial schools. They have received many graduates\nof colleges and normal schools to whom they have imparted the necessary\ntechnical knowledge and skill, but few, if any, of these private schools have\nsuitable facilities for the professional training of teachers. This is not\ntheir function. Moreover, altho they do not excessively emphasize the\nelement of drill, it is given at the expense of instruction, and they\ndevelop in many of the teachers whom they train a point of view, not to\nsay a spirit, which makes their instruction narrowly technical.\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "850\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nFew of the colleges have given their attention to business education,\nbut should the commercial subjects be introduced into the college curriculum they are likely to be taught by professors whose attitude is naturally and necessarily academic. It is their business to teach subject-matter\nrather than method. No college course in the commercial branches can\nproperly train teachers unless it is conducted as a branch of a department\nof education or unless attention is given to special methods of instruction\nexempHiied and practiced in suitable secondary schools. The higher\nschools of commerce and business administration are training a limited\nnumber of men for the more responsible positions in independent high\nschools of commerce and for the more important places in the commercial\ndepartments of large high schools, but a large proportion of these students\nhave secured their pedagogical training elsewhere.\nThe growing demand for trained teachers of the commercial branches\nand the limited opportunity for adequate preparation afforded by other\neducational institutions leaves an attractive field for the normal school.\nIn the East, however, perhaps to a greater extent than in the West, there\nstill exists a prejudice against any attempt to train teachers for any department of the secondary school in these institutions designed primarily for\ntraining teachers of the elementary grades. Nor is this attitude wholly\ntraditional. The normal school has its limitations, and it is conscious of\nthem. But the question that is of interest to us is not whether the normal\nschool should undertake to prepare teachers for all departments of the high\nschool but whether it can successfully train teachers for the commercial\ncourses. The normal school cannot claim to be a substitute for the college,\nbut it should be able to offer technical instruction which shall be equal to\nthat of the best private commercial schools, and it has facilities for pedagogical instruction which should command the respect of graduates of\ncolleges ; moreover, it may be expected to possess ample facilities for observation and practice; and, in a course of four years, it should find it possible\nto give a substantial general education.\nWhether the course is three or four years in length, no student should\nbe admitted unless he has the full equivalent of a high-school education,\nnor unless he possesses, in an appreciable degree, some of the essential natural qualifications for teaching. The course may be sufficiently flexible\nto make it possible to receive students from both commercial and classical\ncourses. Elective courses of one, two, or three years may be offered to\nmeet the needs of graduates of colleges, normal schools, and private commercial schools, and of other advanced students who have had experience\nin business or in teaching. This liberal provision for the admission of\nstudents complicates the question of administration, but it will be the\nmeans of attracting to the institution many of its strongest students.\nOn the side of general education, the training should be as broad and\nas thoro as time and the claims of technical and professional education\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n851\n\nwill allow, its aim being to develop all the powers of the individual — physical,\nintellectual, and moral.\nIn English the aim of the course should be both cultural and structural.\nIt should aim to give an appreciation of literature from the modern social\nand economic point of view, and it should give especial attention to modern\nbusiness Hterature. The writing of themes setting forth the results of\nextended study on topics connected with trade and industry should be made\na prominent part of the work.\nIn addition to its cultural value, the aim of the courses in history\nshould be the comprehension of present economic and political conditions\nas revealed thru a study of their development. There should be a close\nconnection between this and the related subjects of economics and industrial and commercial geography.\nPhysiography should be made the broad basis for the understanding of\ncommercial geography, and a careful study of the biological sciences and\nof physics and chemistry in their appUcations to commercial and industrial\noperations should acquaint the students with the raw materials of commerce and manufacture and with industrial processes. So far as may be\npracticable, the laboratories of these courses should be local industrial and\ncommercial establishments. Courses in general and economic geography\nshould follow the work in physiography, and an advanced course in industrial geography, founded on the study of local industries and leading to an\nintensive study of the resources, markets, and transportation in the United\nStates and to the industrial personality of nations, should be of great value\nto prospective teachers.\nThe usual subjects of business technique should be taught in a thoro\nand comprehensive manner, and the students should be expected to attain\nas high a degree of skill as if it were their purpose to enter business offices.\nAll of the technical commercial subjects should be taught with reference\nto method, and the students should be made familiar with the literature\nof each.\nAs an important part of the technical training students should have\nat least a limited amount of business experience. Many will doubtless\nhave some practical knowledge of the conditions and needs of the business\noffice when they enter the school; others will do well to accept positions\nas substitutes during the vacations of regular employees or for longer\nperiods before attempting to teach the theories of business practice. In\na course of sufficient length it might not be unprofitable for the school to\nmake arrangements with local business houses whereby students might be\nmade acquainted with the atmosphere of the business office and with the\ncommon problems of business and the practical methods employed in solving\nthem.\nProfessional training consists of two clearly defined, but not distinct,\nUnes of work — the science of education and the art of teaching.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "852\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nformer should include the definite study of physiology, with special attention to personal and school hygiene; educational psychology; the purpose\nand principles of education, including educational values and general and\nspecial methods of teaching; school organization and school management;\nand the history of education, in which suitable emphasis shall be placed on\nthe evolution of the secondary school. A study of the mere facts of the\nhistory of education and the contributions of leading educational reformers\nis not sufficient, but the course should lead to a comprehensive knowledge\nof the great educational movements and their relation to social and industrial progress.\nA course for training teachers of the commercial branches, or, indeed,\nof any high-school subject, is incomplete without adequate opportunity\nfor observation and practice in a school of secondary grade, modeled after\nthe schools connected with all successful normal schools engaged in training\nteachers for the elementary grades. The normal school should have, at\nleast, general supervision over the observation and practice teaching.\nThis should include frequent inspection of the students' work and the consideration ofreports made by the regular teachers. Observation in a classroom with a view to assuming charge of the class differs materially from\ngeneral observation. It will be to the mutual advantage of both student\nand class if generally practiced before any teaching is permitted. In order\nto secure the best results, the students should be made responsible for the\ninstruction in a single subject for a considerable period of time. Work\nwith groups of students or with individuals is of unquestionable value, as\nis also experience in the capacity of a general assistant to the regular teacher.\nSo far as conditions will permit, the teaching should be done under the actual\nclassroom conditions, and the work should be of such a character that it\nshall be to the distinct advantage of the public or private school with which\nthe normal school is affiliated.\nProfitable school work presupposes efficient instruction. It is not\nenough that the teacher should be an exemplary individual or that he\nshould possess a broad academic education and a thoro knowledge of what\nhe is to teach. He must know how to impart instruction. The commercial course is second to none in importance, and it demands teachers who\nare the peers of any in culture, breadth of information, technical knowledge\nand skill, and teaching power.\nDISCUSSION\nF. V. Thompson, headmaster, High School of Commerce, Boston, Mass. — Mr. Pitman's paper is a sound and practical discussion of a highly important pedagogical problem.\nThe demand for commercial teachers is in excess of the supply. This is a typically\nAmerican condition, whether it be of battleships, or of vocational schools. Pedagogical\nideas crystallize into successful experiments and immediately the whole country is alive •\nand each city wishes to establish a school like that of the other city, ofttimes a commercial rival. Schools are never delayed because there is a lack of trained men.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n853\n\npretentious school building goes up with the name cut in stone over the door, whether\nor not there be trained men to conduct the work. This is the reason why so many good\nideas fail. Let us hope that public commercial education will not be developed too far\nin advance of properly trained teachers.\nJust at present we are viewing commercial education like the blind men who are\nreputed to have examined the elephant. Some claim that business technique or clerical\ntraining is the all-important thing. Some pin their faith to shorthand, handwriting,\naccuracy in figuring, and some emphasize in undue proportion the newer commercial\narts, such as salesmanship and advertising. We know that business as conducted today\nis many-sided and specialized to a high degree. What the emphasis should be, depends\nupon what department of business you are aiming at; If the boy is going into the competitive side of business he will lose his time studying shorthand. It is likewise futile to\ngive a wholly general commercial training with a smattering of the elements of all the\ndepartments of business. This method will turn out a \"jack of all trades, and a master\nof none.\" Boys and girls should be educated in different schools or, if this is not possible,\nat least in separate classes. Commercial schools train for the commercial world where\nstill the custom is that the boy goes into the directive and the girl into the directed part\nof business. The boy shows his best power in the competitive side of business, and the\ngirl excels in the clerical arts.\nShow me a high school where the commercial course is largely clerical and I will\nwager that two or three girls will be found for every boy. On the other hand, in the\nwestern schools of commerce, schools of college grade where the work consists mainly in\ntraining for the administrative side of business, you will scarcely find a girl. We need\nprincipals of commercial schools who recognize the facts, and teachers who are either\nspecialists in one branch or another, or else good general men who can see the proper\nproportion of subjects. Too many commercial teachers are like the doctor who could\ncure fits.\nIn our city high schools of commerce, teachers of varied training are sought. For\nmen to teach economics we must look to the university with its higher school of commerce.\nFor men to teach business technique we have drawn largely upon the business colleges\nand with much success. For men to teach general subjects, teachers are taken from the\nelective high schools. A young man in the growing stage makes over very successfully\nfor the vocational commercial school. A high school of commerce in a large city can be\norganized effectively after the model of a business house, with departments and specialists.\nAll must be harmonized, of course, to suit the business of the school, which, as Mr. Pitman\nhas pointed out, is not only to train young people but to educate them. We must all\nstand firm upon the principle that the province of secondary education must not be\nlimited to training for specific skill. Vocational education can be, and must be, as cultural as any other kind of education.\nI can cheerfully commend Mr. Pitman's plan for the training of commercial teachers.\nHe is training not specialists, perhaps, but teachers with a proper knowledge of proportion of the different elements of commercial education. He is doing the work for which\nthere is the strongest need, for where there is one high school of commerce, there are\nhundreds of high schools with commercial courses.\nIn the special high school of commerce there is a noticeable need of men with economic training. The demand is not at all met by the supply. We are looking to the\nnewer schools of commerce in connection with our universities to fill the pressing need.\nThe European commercial universities have supplied the men to conduct the secondary\nschools, and the excellence of these latter schools is sufficient proof of the efficacy of the\nplan.\nFinally, I believe that the most important part of the training of commercial teachers\ncomes after actually beginning teaching.\nCommercial teachers should spend parts of\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "854\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nsummers in business houses, should associate with business men, and, in general, should\nbe en courant with business thought and with the business world,\nCheesman a. Herrick, president, Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa. — I am pleased\nto be present and to hear the interesting account given by Principal Pitman of his work at\nthe Salem Normal School. It has also been my orivilege to visit Salem and to see the work\nactually going on. It is my belief that the Salem work is the most interesting and promising of any yet undertaken by any Normal School in this country, looking directly and\nspecifically to the training of commercial teachers. Mr. Thompson has well emphasized\nthe importance of training those who are to give instruction in the commercial schools.\nIt is a pleasure for me to be present also and to observe the recognition which is\ngiven this morning to the work of this department, the report of its Committee of Nine\nmade at Boston seven years ago and later in the discussions of the question of providing\ncommercial teachers. I have followed the meetings of this department for years and I\nam firm in the opinion that the department has done a good work in the past, and I feel\nthat there is still a work for it to do in the future. I trust that those who are here present\nwill see to it that the Department of Business Education is not abolished or transferred\nas one of the departments of the National Education Association.\n\nWHAT\nHORACE\n\nBUSINESS MEN DEMAND OF GRADUATES\nCOMMERCIAL SCHOOLS\nG. HEALEY,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF COMMERCE,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nOF\n\nCITY, N.Y.\n\nBusiness men want young men who are mature, ring true, weigh sixteen ounces to the pound, have had thoro training in the common branches,\nand possess sufficient knowledge of business customs to constitute a satisfactory foundation upon which to build the superstructure of their own\nmethods. They desire primarily those who know how to transact business,\nto get it; secondarily, those who know how to record it.\nIn the two great departments of business — getting it and caring for it\n— the greatest need is for workers in the former.\nTo secure information on this line, I wrote personal letters to five leading houses in each of seventy-nine different lines of business, and was fortunate in securing a large percentage of replies. I feel that the purpose of\nthis occasion could be far better served by simply reading these letters, but\nI shall take advantage of the opportunity to interpolate a few of my own\nobservations.\nThe articulation between the business school and the business world\ndiffers from that of the academic high school and the college in that the\nshaping must be done from one end. The academic high school has the\nassistance of the college in arranging its curriculum, but the business school\ndoes not have the active co-operation of business men.\nThe teacher in the business school, if he is in the least sensitive, cannot\nhelp feeling discouraged when he comes to know how little his work is\nunderstood or appreciated by the business community. It is safe to say\nthat 50 per cent, of those employing our pupils know nothing about our\ncourses.\nWhen asked for their opinion as to the essentials of a course of\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEMANDS\n\nUPON\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nGRADUATES\n\n855\n\nstudy in business training schools they will almost invariably confine themselves to the three R's.\nBusiness men want first of all those who are willing to obey orders;\nsecond, those who can understand and interpret instructions. If our teaching, no matter what the subject may be, fails in developing these characteristics, we have missed the mark entirely. It is the timber, the stock —\nthe raw material, if you please — that carries the greatest weight with the\npresent-day employer. If this passes muster, the accessories and accomplishments are next considered. The applicant is given a rating, and it is\na difficult matter for any employer to overcome the first estimate.\nFailures do not come because of lack of qualification in the special\nbranches. Business men are not finding fault because our pupils cannot\nwrite shorthand fast enough, or because they do not know how to post a\nledger. The difficulty is much nearer home than that. Too many pupils\nbelieve that the ability to write one hundred words a minute, or to draw\noff a trial balance, covers a multitude of deficiencies, personal and educational. It is difficult to make the beginner understand that he is not\nworth anything at first. He is paid a small wage so that the employer can\nkeep him until he can find out whether he is worth anything or not.\nThe business w^orld is very charitable toward our product. In fact,\nthey ask more from the home than from the school.\nWhat are the criticisms business men make of our students? The\nalmost universal ones are :\nFirst, the lack of a sense of responsibility.\nSecond, the lack of a desire to work — pupils having but a single idea, and that being\n\"To get a position.\" (I have been informed that ninety-nine times out of a hundred the\napplicant's first question is, \"What are the hours?\")\nThird, the lack of ability to comprehend and follow instructions.\n\nYou will see that all come under the personal equation, and that the\ncorrection of these shortcomings is or should be the chief function of the\nschool.\nWeaknesses in the school and classroom which foster or create these\nfaults, and for which the student must pay dearly when he enters the\nbusiness world are: over-praise of pupils' work; willingness on the part of\nthe teacher to answer foolish and unnecessary questions; a tendency to\nmake school work too pleasant; minimizing effort and magnifying interest;\nfailure on part of teacher to see that each student does everything required\nof him at the time and in the manner assigned.\nSome observations on our work. — Inasmuch as it is absolutely necessary\nfor the office assistant to serve an apprenticeship, no matter what his school\ntraining has been, could not our courses be arranged so that 25 per cent,\nof the time might be devoted to actual office work ? For this the pupil\nmight receive a nominal wage. Beginning at the age of sixteen, his third\nyear in the high school, or his first in the business school, he might devote\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "856\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\none-half of each day to office work, alternating with a student in another\nclass. The law student has his moot court, the theological student his\nassistant pastorate, the physician and the dentist their clinics. Can and\nshould not the business student, in addition to his seminar, have his office\nexperience in the down-town sky-scraper?\nA plan of this kind possesses manifold advantages. It would not only\nsupply that chief of all requirements — actual experience — but it would\nenable the student to view his work from a broader angle, and bring him\ninto closer and more sympathetic relationship with the school and his\ninstructors.\nIt may not be practicable, but if it were, it would be a wise plan for\nschool principals to classify their students, putting those who are manifestly qualified for routine work only in one class, and those who have\nimagination and capacity in another. The sooner we can fit the routine\nworker to his niche in the business world and get him on the salary-list the\nbetter. It is criminal to sidetrack a young man of capacity by making a\nmere stenographer or bookkeeper of him.\nWhat is needed is an education that will fit the student, not only to\nmake a start, but to readjust himself again and again, if necessary. To this\nend, the greatest problem is to keep the pupil in school until he is mature.\nThis can be done in many cases by securing the co-operation of the parents,\nby showing the student that each day's work in school is an investment\nwhich will bring big returns from the savings-bank of life, and by giving\ncourses that cannot be completed in a short time.\n' WHAT\n\nOUR\n\nCAPTAINS\n\nEXTRACTS\n\nFROM\n\nLETTERS\n\nOF INDUSTRY\nRECEIVED,\n\nHAVE\n\nEACH\nONE\nBUSINESS\n\nTO\n\nSAY UPON\n\nREPRESENTING\n\nA\n\nTHIS\n\nSUBJECT\n\nDIFFERENT\n\nLINE\n\nOF\n\nFrom a large wholesale establishment:\nThe working of every business involves a large amount of technical detail and special\nmachinery, with which newcomers must be thoroly acquainted. In systems, customs,\nmethods, each house probably differs from almost every other. However brilliant a\nman may be, it will take him some time to grasp any given system; and his short experience necessarily limits him to a very partial knowledge of that system's contingencies.\nSo that for the first months, at least, of his business career, a young man, so far from\nbeing an asset to his firm, is invariably much more nearly a loss. His time must be spent\nin learning. His firm invests in him on the prospect of that learning's future results.\nBut they cannot be expected to pay him from the start, for the privilege of teaching him.\nThe value of a school commercial training is that it helps a man to learn quickly. It\ngives him some lines of theory to combine with his first practice. But both are equally\nindispensable.\nAs regards qualifications necessary for business success, it is, of course, impossible to\ngeneralize. Many men succeed thru the predominance of a single trait, in spite of counteracting handicaps. It would be almost a truism to mention rigid honesty, patience, and\nwill, and capacity for genuine hard work. Courteous manners are one of the expressions\nof education, and in our opinion, modern business life every day demands that the latter\nshall be increasingly broad.\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] DEMANDS\n\nUPON\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nGRADUATES\n\n857\n\nFrom an institution employing many thousands:\nWe expect a young man who is worth $15 a week to his employer to be above all\nthings honest, truthful, and faithful. What he can do is not of so much value as what\nhe is, for the man who is something can learn to do what he is told to do. So far as intellectual fitness is concerned, he ought to be a tool polished and prepared for work. In\nother words, he should have that mental training which fits him to think clearly, to act\nquickly, and to do what he is told, accurately. Coming down to details, it would not be\ntoo much to insist that he knows how to spell correctly, to write legibly, and to read so\nthat he can be understood. These requirements, of course, are primary, but they are\nmost essential, and are often lacking in our so-called educated young men. A young\nman should be a gentleman, that is, considerate of the feelings and rights of others, and\nwiUing to consider himself but one of many. If he thinks he is \"it,\" he is going to have\na hard time.\n\nFrom a large coal company:\nI would say right here that we employ no young men as clerks, stenographers, etc.,\nfor the reason that we are unable to get young men who are satisfactory. In fact, we find\nthat women are more satisfactory, for the reason that they are more painstaking and\nindustrious about their work. My experience has been that with young men their minds\nare almost anywhere else than on their business; that they are fairly honest as far as\ntaking anything which does not belong to them, except as regards their employer's time,\nwhich they think nothing of wasting.\nIt is my belief that there is plenty of room for young men with fair educations who\ncan begin in some capacity as stenographers, bookkeepers, or system men at $15 per week\nand are capable of doing §0. The crying need of employers for industrious and honest\nclerks is such that they can always obtain positions and will get all they can earn. The\ntrouble now is that in most cases they want more than they can earn.\n\nFrom a large manufacturing establishment:\nFor a young man's services to be worth $15 per week as a beginner, we should expect\nhim to be neat in appearance, over eighteen years of age, capable of speaking the English\nlanguage not only correctly, but with a sense of the fitness of words, with a fairly broad\nvocabulary, to have working knowledge of double-entry bookkeeping and business forms,\nto be possessed of the conviction that young men's chances today are greater than they\never were, to be ambitious to make his services so valuable to us that he will be almost\nindispensable; in other words, to become, thru diligence, industry, and reliability, an\nimportant integral part of our business unit, and finally to have the true sense that thru\nhim should be reflected the personality of the executive of the company.\nThe importance of the feeling that he is a part of his employer's business family\ncannot be too strongly urged. A bright young mind fails of its destiny because of the\nfear that someone else is getting the benefit of its activity. \"Standing in with\" the office\nforce, irrespective of the business interests of the employer, is the very common error of\na beginner and a most natural one, since he wants to make his surroundings as comfortable as possible, and unconsciously becomes a part of wearing and worn machinery, only\nto have his own ideas and initiative completely deadened.\nAs to manners, it is very hard to make a general statement. So long as one is polite,\ncourteous, and considerate, his manners are good, but I have often found that people\nwith intense natures are apt to create false impression as to their manners by reason of\ntheir anxieties or ambitions. There are two classes of young men who are at a disadvantage— those who are satisfied with their positions and those who want to own the\nbusiness in about the second week of their employment; but the man who hits off to attain\nsomething in between, and possessing the above attributes which I feel he should have in\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "858\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\norder to qualify as a beginner for a position at $15 per week, is as certain of making his\nmark as earthly affairs can be.\n\nFrom one of the largest trusts in the world:\nBusiness as conducted today is not run on the system of taking in young men from\nschool and paying fancy salaries while they are being developed. Young men graduating from schools are worth commercially about $6 a week, and any other idea instilled\ninto the young man's mind does him a great injustice, since it brings his first serious\ndefeat and great disappointment in life at the very outset, and oftentimes works to the\nyoung man's disadvantage.\n\nFrom the largest bank in America:\nWhen engaging young men for service in this bank, our aim is to select men who are\nclearheaded and of good appearance. They must write a legible hand, and be able to\nadd a column of figures correctly. Good manners are essential and, of course, a young\nman cannot progress very far unless he displays industry and reliability. If he has\nthese qualifications, we could train him into positions that would pay him more than\n$15 per week.\n\nFrom a large accounting and auditing firm :\n\nm\n\n^\n\nA young man to be successful must be industrious and unless he is a member of the\ntrades union, whose requirements prevent it, he should remember that there is a clock\nin the morning, and forget that there is one during the day and at its close.\nMany young men are taught bookkeeping in the different business schools by certain\nforms which they do not seem to be able to get away from when they leave school, and if\nthey do not find the same conditions in actual business, they are often at a loss to know\nhow to grasp conditions. I think this is often due to the fact that they are not taught\nthat it is principles which govern in all cases.\n\nFrom a large building and contracting firm:\nI find that many boys are inefficient in arithmetic, probably caused by the methods\nof teaching at the present time, where the original rudimentary work is admixed with\nabstract examples too early, and when boys are given examples in business form, they\noften apply the wrong method to solve the problem.\nThe correct writing and spelling and the proper subdivision of words are often\nfound deficient in high-school boys, probably caused by their association with the foreign\nelement, but should be inexcusable in young men.\nMany boys take the point, that, having spent considerable time in school or college\nand having passed these requirements, they are superior to the world, and, therefore, do\nnot pay the attention to their work that a country boy would.\nIt is necessary for any young man, no matter what his training in school may have\nbeen, to continue learning when he takes up a position in any business, and as most business now is specialized, it is impossible for you as a teacher to give him every advantage;\ntherefore, a boy must on accepting a position feel that it will depend on his mastery of\nthe ways and means and his individual self, as to his advance.\nNo one expects a young man to know his master's work before he has spent some time\nin mastering it, but you can help the boys by bringing to their attention such commercial\nforms as are used in various business concerns, such as letters, invoices, and departmental\nnotices, contracts, etc., which you can glean from many sources; every manufacturing\nconcern would be glad to give you assistance and copies of their regular forms, which,\ncompiled into a book, would be of eminent value to you as a teacher.\nBoys are too prone to shirk work at about the age they leave school, and you, as their\n\n|\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEMANDS\n\nUPON\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nGRADUATES\n\n859\n\npreceptor, should know from the inclination of the pupil what his adaptability is, and,\nif pushed in that line, he may be developed into a young man of capability.\nBut you cannot force a butcher to be an engineer; therefore, many boys fail to meet\nthe requirements of efficient service. By industry some of the young men that I have\nhad have become clever experts by appealing to their imagination. Of course, in my\nbusiness a young man should have industrial integrity, and an appealing instinct toward\nmechanical as well as business lines. Industry and reliability are really the same, because\nif industrious and ambitious, reliability will be a natural sequence.\nDISCUSSION\nW. A. Hawkins, superintendent, Jordan Marsh Co., Boston, Mass. — It is really\nsurprising, when you stop to think of it, how little the business man requires of the school\ngraduate in the way of book learning — so little, in fact, that it does seem as tho every boy\nand girl ought to leave school thoroly equipped with at least these things.\nThe child's prayer to the teacher should be: Give us that which will help us to earn\nour daily bread; and this is the answer to that prayer: Teach the boy to write a good\nplain hand and to express himself in the English language with precision and brevity;\nteach him to spell correctly; teach him to do examples in common arithmetic, such as\naddition, subtraction, extension, discount, and percentage; inculcate honesty, truthfulness, courtesy, accuracy, initiative, persistency, and a love of hard work into that boy,\nand you have answered his prayer. Teach him these things by all means, if it takes every\nmonth and every year of his school life and causes the neglect of everything else. Take\nthe time and neglect the other things, for a boy or girl who enters a business house with\nthis equipment* pi us average ability will succeed.\nBut what surprises the business man is the deficiency in these very things that he\nfinds in the boy or girl who comes to him from the schools. The work in the ofiice of\nthe average business house is exceedingly simple and the ordinary forms of arithmetic\nare about all that are needed; but the trouble, worry, and expense caused the merchant\nand customer on account of poor work of employees of this sort is hard to estimate.\nPerhaps there is no one thing that brings us more complaints and causes us more trouble\nand unnecessary expense than the poor writing of our salespeople.\nFor example, we have many hundreds of salespeople in our store, and on account of\nthe poor writing of many of them, our charge customers are constantly complaining of\nmerchandise charged them of which they know nothing; and then the trouble and expense\nfor us begins.\nNow let us take requirement number two, which is that the graduate shall be able to\nexpress himself with precision and brevity in the English language. If you only knew\nhow often the long-drawn-out letter applying for work finds its way to the waste-basket,\nbecause the business man thinks that if it takes that boy as long to do everything else as\nit does to write for a job, he doesn't want him!\nThere are men and women in the employ of every business house that the business\nman hates to see coming toward him, and that going about his place of business he avoids\nmeeting, for fear ten minutes of his time will be taken, listening to some bit of information\nthat it ought not to take more than ten seconds to give. Don't you see what a handicap\nthat must be to even a man or a woman of ability ?\nUpon bad spelling I shall not dwell long. Like the poor, \"we always have it with\nus.\" You don't need to ask the business man to learn the necessity of more attention to\nthis study.\nThe principal of a well-known seminary told me only a few days ago about a college\ngirl who persisted in spelling \"professor\" with two \"f's.\"\nNow let us pass on to that immensely important study, arithmetic. Remember\nwhat I said, that the work in the office of the average business house is exceedingly simple,\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "86o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nand that the ordinary forms of arithmetic are all that are needed. But how lacking in\neven this many boys and girls are, perhaps only the business man knows.\nOur head cashier, a woman who has been with us many years and who is accountable\nfor all the money that is taken over our counters, and under whose authority are the\nmany cashiers in our employ, tells me that the girls we hire today are not nearly as well\ngrounded in arithmetic as those we used to hire ten years ago. Why is it? I don't\nbelieve it is the teachers' fault. I am inclined to believe that the fault lies with the system,\nwith those who have the selection of the studies that must be taken up by the pupil, and\nthat the tim'e of the boy and girl is taken up with the less essential studies at the expense\nof the absolutely essential.\nWe have a salesmanship school in our store, to which we send our own salespeople\neach day. One study to which we have to give much attention is arithmetic. Seems\ntoo bad that we should have to do this, doesn't it ? At the class graduation a few days\nago, I asked several young women who were grammar-school graduates what studies they\nfelt they had not been given enough instruction in, in the public schools, and the unanimous opinion concerned the very studies I have been talking about. One girl said she\nthought the schools should teach the care of the health. I believe that is the first thing\nthat ought to be taught in the school. That is one of the things our saleswomen are\ntaught, by a professional nurse.\nTeach a boy that an act of dishonesty will dog his footsteps all thru life. Teach him\nthat courtesy is the little golden key that will open the great heavy door of opportunity.\nTeach him the value of accuracy in everything that he does. Teach him that persistency will get him a job and that hard work will hold it. Once again I say, teach him\nthese things, and you have helped him to earn his daily bread, and to lead a useful,\n•\nhonorable life.\nNow I am going to make a suggestion and then stop, lest you accuse me of lacking\nthat precision and brevity about which I have been preaching.\nWhen you go to your homes, I don't care in how small a village or how large a town\nyou may live, use your strongest influence to have formed an advisory board, made up of\nlive business men of your own community, not \"old fogies,\" mind you, but men of affairs,\nthat your boys and girls will look up to. Have them talk to your scholars the first and\nlast days of every term. Get together with them and your school committee once each\nmonth, and try to give your boys and girls what they need, and all they need of it when\nthey go out into the world to make their own living.\nSome may say, \"What does the average business man know about education?\" I\ntell you, he knows a whole lot about the bread-and-butter kind, and that is what we are\ntalking about today. To know how successful this business men's advisory board can\nbe, I need only to refer you to the Boston High School of Commerce, where it has been in\nvogue for some time. But why not in every school? For every school is or should be\na school of commerce.\nIn closing, I'll tell you of those who can help you solve this problem perhaps better\nthan the business man or anybody else : the graduates of your schools who have gone out\ninto the business world. I would suggest that you select fifty or a hundred boys and\ngirls who left your schools two or three years ago, and write asking them earnestly to tell\nyou frankly how you may have erred as teachers, the important studies upon which you\ndid not dwell long enough, and the less necessary which you would better have sacrificed\nfor the good of the absolutely necessary.\nWe invite the boys and girls in our employ to make suggestions whereby we can\nimprove our business, and for all suggestions accepted, we pay a premium.\nWe find the idea successful in business; you might find it so in education.\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\nCHEESMAN\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nEDUCATION AS A BRANCH\nTRAINING\n\nA. HERRICK,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF GIRARD\n\n86l\n\nOF VOCATIONAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nPHILADELPHIA.,\n\nPA.\n\nThe recent unprecedented interest in industrial education threatens\nto cast commercial education into the background or to eclipse it altogether. Commissions report and societies conduct their deliberations as\ntho training for industry included all the vocational education which it is\nnecessary to offer. Some may be quite conscious of the significance of what\nthey say. Thus, a few years ago, I remember to have heard one prominently connected with a state university suggest that the best higher commercial education is an engineering education, with what was termed a\n\"commercial finish.\" Similarly many manual-training schools seek to\ndo away with the necessity for separate commercial schools and courses by\nintroducing commercial branches into their own scheme of studies. And\n;again, those at present most active in the attempt to readapt the elementary\nschool seem to make industrial education include training for both agriculture and commercial life. Then there are those who hold that individual\nwelfare and national policy will be best promoted by training people to\nproduce, and that selling or exchanging will come naturally without special\nforms of education. This opinion I have heard expressed in the statement that if goods are produced good enough and cheap enough they will\nsell themselves.\nBut I take it that the recent trend of our educational discussion with an\nignoring of the commercial element is in the main unconscious, and that it\nresults from the enthusiasm with which a new idea is taken up. Certain\nit is that just now there is the need of stating anew the place and meaning\nof commercial education, both as a part of our system of general education,\nand as a separate branch of instruction.\nSpecialized forms of training in such a country as ours should be along\nthree lines, or to prepare for three branches of work, namely: agriculture,\nindustry, and commerce. For all three I would make the statement that\nthey should have recognition as parts of our general education and in\nseparate schools. But I want more particularly to make the claim for\ncommercial education.\nIn the first place it should be noted that there are more than two million\npersons in this country of ours employed in the specialized forms of commercial activity, in addition to which several million more are in\noccupations which are in a large part commercial, and practically the\nwhole population must engage in commercial activities to a considerable\nextent. It ought not to require more than a statement to win assent to\nthe proposition that these millions who are in callings wholly or very\nlargely commercial are entitled to an education equipment which will result\nin their understanding their work and doing it efficiently. I regard it as a\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "862\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nmatter of public welfare that the function and the opportunity of the business man should have due recognition in our education. Business needs\na new standard of commercial ethics and new ideals of success. We\nshould make clear by our training that the business man should have a\nvastly higher mission in his business than making money, and that the\ncommercial callings when properly understood and rightly followed are\njust as truly a means of serving humanity as are the other occupations\ninto which men may go. Business will be less sordid when such ideals as\nthese are implanted in those engaged in it, and these ideals can be given\nonly thru schools which are speciaHzed and professional. The influence\nof professional commercial schools is much wider than upon those who\nattend them, for their standards and ideals will reach to other schools.\nTo a considerable extent the lives and activities of all classes are commercial. The expenditure of an income so that a surplus may be secured\nand the wise investment of such a surplus; the supervision over a personal\nor family exchequer so as not to be bankrupt; the vision of the more remote\nfuture so that there may be a proper balance of present necessity and future\nneed — these and many other personal considerations are such as to demand\nthat individuals be trained along commercial lines if they are to live successful and useful lives. It is of great importance to those who are in\nbusiness and of tremendous social significance that business men be inducted\ninto and made satisfied with their callings. Business men should be\ntrained to understand this economic era in which they are to live and work,\nand of which they should be a vital part, A business man should not go\ninto his calling feeling that it is of low order, and that he would rather\nhave done something else. In the years that I had the direction of\ntraining young men for commercial lives the moment of supremest satisfaction was in the brief testimony of a merchant of large experience who\nserved on the Second Mosely Commission. He had asked a group of boys\nwho had been nearly four years in the school and were about ready to go\nout why they chose the particular school course they did, and why they\nlooked forward to business as an occupation. The answers of these young\nrecruits just going into action, to the veteran of long experience, were so\nclear-cut and definite, and they evidenced such ideals that the man of\nexperience was deeply affected, and with suffused voice he said, \"I find here\nmany things over which I rejoice, but most of all, I rejoice at the state of\nmind which these young men have toward their future commercial callings.\" This state of mind was the result of their education. In a word, if\nwe are to have high ideals in commercial life and ennoble business, we must\nteach business as a worthy and liberal calling, and such a teaching can\nbest be given in commercial schools and courses.\nCommercial training as a branch of vocational education presents a\ncomprehensive topic for discussion in a brief paper. According to my\nthinking, an important phase of this topic is the better adaptation of edu-\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n863\n\ncation in general to the needs of the present. In a much larger measure\nthan it now is all education should become commercial education. This\nis simply in recognition of the fact that education is to take into account\nthe character of the age, and to train those being educated worthily to\nmeet the demands which the age places upon them. The heritage of our\neducational tradition gives a sort of sacred place to the humanities, and\nthe practical affairs of the work-a-day world are too little recognized in our\ngeneral education. I would have these practical affairs surrounded with\nthe influence of culture, and so organized and presented that they may\nbecome the instruments of disciplinary education. If so, our general education will be strengthened, and in addition an incalculable service will* be\nrendered to those who are to do practical work and to society in general.\nThus all our education should be vocational, and in all our education,\nwhether general or special, the commercial element should have recognition,\nfor all classes, whether in the liberal professions, agriculture, industry, or\nother calling, must to a degree be engaged in business. The housewife,\nfor example, has constantly important duties of account-keeping, making\nof purchases, division and husbanding of income — all of which are commercial, and upon her discharge of these duties will depend in large measure\nthe felicity of the home. May we not say of education in general that it\nhas had its face turned too much to the past, and too largely it has reflected\ninherited tradition? To the conventional reading, writing, and arithmetic, which may be termed the tests of literacy, of knowledge, there\nshould be added the modern test of efficiency, the capacity to do work.\nThe question now is, not what knowledge is of most worth? but what skill\nhas one for doing the work which the world asks of him ? In other words, the\ntimes demand that knowledge must be translated into action. And in\nmeeting the demands which such a standard sets, the commercial element\nshould have a much larger place than it has yet been accorded in our general\neducation.\nNow let us pass to a brief consideration of the specialized forms of education for business. Within recent years, both the needs and the opportunity for such specialized instruction have increased, and at present the\nforms of commercial schools and teaching which should exist are both\nnumerous and diverse. First, I am coming to feel that the upper years of\nour grammar schools should recognize commercial education, not only as\nsuggested in the last paragraph, i.e., as a part of general education, but\nalso in the use of special commercial studies. Second, there is an unmistakable need for forms of commercial continuation schools to add to the\ntraining and efficiency of those at work who withdraw from school with no\ntraining beyond that of the elementary schools. Third, there should be\nspecialized commercial schools, of secondary grade. Fourth, there should\nbe also the various forms of higher commercial schools. Let us note each\nof these in turn.\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nI feel that there will be general agreement to a late declaration of the\nSpecial Committee of Ten of the National Society for the Promotion of\nIndustrial Education, that grammar schools ought in some way to lead into\nvocational schools if grammar schools are to serve the great body of pupils\nwho are in them. Quite 70 per cent, of those attending grammar schools\nnever go beyond these schools, and clearly there is an obligation to do something for this large proportion, so that as they go out they may more easily\nfind their places, and better do the work which is to be theirs. Already\nsomething is done to this end for industrial education thru the introduction\nof manual training and various forms of handwork, but little recognition\nhas been given to commercial training in grammar schools. The grammar\nschool's teaching of composition, geography, arithmetic, and nature study\ncan be profitably changed by giving more conscious regard to the commercial era to which its pupils will go. Our grammar school textbooks and\nmethods of instruction are too largely conventionalized. They represent\nnot the present era but are brought forward from an earlier time. In addition to the change just suggested, I feel that grammar schools would be\ngainers thru the introduction of one or more new subjects. For a dozen\nyears there have been charges against the eight-year elementary-school\ncourse that it wastes time, and this waste is most obvious during the last\ntwo years which are so largely given over to reviews and repetitions. We\nteach arithmetic, for example, so long, and by such formal methods, that\nit almost ceases to be an instrument of education. I feel sure that half a\nyear or a year of the grammar school given to bookkeeping as a form of\napplied mathematics would be more effective than the present arrangement of arithmetic teaching as a means of education, in addition to which it\nwould be of great practical value. The same statement can with equal\ntruth be made of commercial English (and perhaps shorthand, too) in\nrelation to the composition and English teaching of the grammar school.\nSuch a modification of the grammar school as is here suggested would\nafford a better education to those who are compelled to begin work at fourteen or fifteen. It would also give some little insight into the callings of\nlife, so that fife's occupation could be chosen more intelhgently, and I feel\nalso that such a grammar-school education as is here outHned would be\nthe basis for further education to those who leave the grammar schools to\ngo to work.\nThe continuation commercial school is a famihar institution abroad,\nand there it may fairly be said to be a part of the systems of education; in\nsome countries and under certain conditions attendance on these schools\nis compulsory. Some of them are more narrowly technical after the order\nof our business colleges, while others are more liberal in character, after\nthe order of the American secondary commercial schools. The important\nthing in them is that those who are compelled to withdraw from the regular\nday schools are recognized as having some rights for further education.\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n865\n\nIn the main our experience with evening schools has not been satisfactory.\nThe reasons are not far to seek. Young workers after long hours are not\nable to keep up with the requirements of these schools, and they either drop\nout, or are found unsatisfactory as students. The solution for this form\nof instruction will likely be found in some form of part-time school, or in\nallowing young helpers free time from their employments as a means of\nbettering their equipment, and if so there would be a gain to all concerned.\nThose who are at work in commercial callings from fourteen to eighteen\nshould have the opportunity for, and I believe also that they should have\nlaid upon them the necessity of, further education, an education which can\nbe given in the commercial continuation school.\nNext, attention is called to the technical day and secondary schools of\nbusiness studies. It appears to me that we have, and shall for a long\ntime continue to have, a place for the technical school, and when this\nschool does not represent itself as other than it is, and when it does its\nwork honestly, we have the highest respect for it. It is to be regretted\nthat so many of these schools have for temporary profit misrepresented\ntheir function and led young people in going to them to think that they are\ngoing to get what such schools cannot give. They have served to cheapen\nand discredit commercial education. But the standard of the technical\ncommercial school has been raised in recent years, and many of these are\nnow admirable institutions which are meeting the demands of the present\nbusiness conditions.\nOf the necessity for secondary commercial schools and courses there can\nbe little question. Such schools should, in my judgment, be established\nas separate institutions in the large cities where there are a sufficient number\nof pupils for whom this special training is to be furnished. I would regard\nas next most desirable commercial courses to be provided in the larger high\nschools, where the separate school cannot be had. The least desirable\narrangement, tho one of value, is the introduction of independent and unrelated commercial studies as electives.\nIt is not possible to formulate any general rule for the establishment of\nsecondary commercial instruction. The needs of each community, and\nthe educational conditions of each locality will determine. In general we\nwould say that commercial schools and courses should be of sound educational worth, and also of practical value. Many of the old subjects should\nbe retained, and I believe that there would be a gain thru giving them a new\ninterpretation and application. The grave danger to secondary commercial education is, however, that it will be too academic, too bookish.\nBy pretty general agreement it is held that the secondary commercial\nschool should be four years in duration, and I feel that from 60 to 75 per\ncent, of its time should be given to the general subjects, thus leaving from\n25 to 40 per cent, of the time to go on to the specialized forms of study.\nThis arrangement provides for the means of education and for an educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ntion that leads to desirable practical results. A large introduction of schools\nand courses of this sort would increase the number of those who attend\nhigh schools, would promote sound secondary education, and would send\ninto business those with more intelligence and better standards.\nThere yet remains for me to mention the place of the higher commercial schools. The need for these schools is so obvious that it is not necessary to dwell upon it. Such schools of widely diversified forms already exist\nand should be continued and multipHed. At one extreme of the higher\ncommercial schools stands Harvard requiring a full college course and a\ndegree for admission, and the other extreme is the Wharton School of the\nUniversity of Pennsylvania, which admits Freshmen into speciahzed forms\nof commercial study and continues them in these studies thruout all their\nundergraduate course. Between these two is wide variation, but the largest\npractice seems to be to make the first two years general or largely so, and\nthe last two years specialized or largely so.\nSeveral of the higher institutions are now establishing a useful kind of\nwork in the form of highly specialized evening courses for those who are\nemployed during the day. Various forms of accounting, and several branches of applied economics lend themselves to the higher evening schools,\nand such schools give promise of filling a useful place in the future.\nIn conclusion I can only express anew my belief in the value of commercial education both to business narrowly considered, and to society in\ngeneral. If those who are directing our educational policies shall accord\nto commercial education its true place, they will not only render the justice\ndue to our important interest in the community, but they will strengthen\nand build up our education in general. The time has come when we can\nsubscribe to the educational creed that our schools are to fit our people to\nlive, and in the practical application of this creed commercial schools have\nan important function to discharge.\nDISCUSSION\nArthur J. Meredith, director, Commercial Department, State Normal School,\nSalem, Mass. — ^There was once a happy time, so we hear, when it was generally understood that educators knew how to educate and the self-satisfied dominie ran his school\nwithout criticism from either parents or public. In those days, all boys intellectually\ninclined presented themselves to a teacher who, after dealing out generous portions of\nLatin, Greek, and mathematics, sent his pupils away to become honored and envied,\nin their turn, as pedagogs and preachers. All other boys, having no aptitude for learning,\nbecame apprentices and followed their masters into business or trade. No parents complained that their sons had talents undeveloped, no public wondered why the school did\nnot teach growing boys to do something practical, and no mills and factories called for\ntrained workers.\nSince those days, things have greatly changed. We still have two classes of boys;\nand one still pursues the old education, but the apprentice boy has become ambitious\nfor the honor and position hitherto accorded only to his brother and therefore demands\neducation, tho he despises the Latin and Greek. His parents, too, have discovered\ntalents that, if cultivated, might fit him for useful citizenship. The public, looking with\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n867\n\nanxiety at the ever-increasing number of business houses, wonders what will become of\nthe industries if the boys are not trained to fill the many empty places. Thus the onetime apprentice boy becomes the problem of vocational training.\nIn the few minutes at my disposal I shall discuss but one aspect of vocational training. In the enthusiasm concerning new types of vocational schools, there seems to be\ndanger that one of the oldest and most useful be pushed into the background. I speak\nof the business or commercial high school.\nOf late the business high school has been mistnderstood. Because it is not a trade\nschool, in the narrow sense, there is an idea abroad that it is a makeshift institution without definite program. This is not true. The business high school is as truly a vocational\nschool as a medical, law, theological, or normal school. We send a boy to medical school\nto study medical science in general. Because of his immaturity and lack of general\nmedical knowledge, it is not desirable for him to choose a specialty at first. Later, he\nmay become what he likes and has aptitude for, a nerve or fever specialist, perchance.\nThe same thing, in another way, happens in the business high school. Because of immaturity and lack of general knowledge it is not desirable that our pupils become specialists\nat once, but it is desirable that all branches taught point eventually to a specialty or\nvocation, perhaps typewriting, stenography, bookkeeping, or what not. Such is the\nproblem of the business high school.\nIt is the purpose of a business high school to train boys for business pursuits. Any\ncourse planned on a narrow technical line will prove disappointing both to the boy and\nto his employer. A boy comes to the business high school a child. To make him worth\na good living to his employer, he must be given broad knowledge and accurate training.\nHe usually has time for this and does not resent so-called cultural subjects if they are\npresented from the vocational or business point of view. It is justice to him that they\nshould be so taught. Thus the arithmetic of the academic high school should become\ncommercial arithmetic to the commercial pupil; geography, commercial geography;\nEnglish, commercial English; letter- writing, commercial correspondence; German, commercial German, and so on. Economics, commercial law, finance, and other subjects\nof this nature complete the course, giving the pupil a real cultural education and also\nthe means of becoming a useful and intelligent citizen. The second part of his education isdesigned to make him a skillful worker. Penmanship, bookkeeping, stenography,\nand typewriting put into his hands a means of livelihood by technical skill. This part\nof the course is purely vocational.\nIt should never be forgotten that the aim of an ideal business high school is to train\nboys for business and not necessarily to turn out bookkeepers, stenographers, and typewriters. Many pupils, however, leave the business high school with a vocation. They\ngo into banks as bookkeepers, into ofi&ces as tj^ewriters and stenographers, and never\nchange their way of life. Many others start in the same way, for the commercial course\nmakes that possible for each one, but the second boy soon finds himself fitted for better\nthings and leaves for other forms of business. That the boy is no longer a stenographer\ndoes not mean that his business high-school course was wasted time. The ideal business\nhigh school aims to fit a boy for practical, general business and by means of some technical skill'puts his foot on the first rung of the ladder.\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nATTITUDE\nOF ACADEMIC\nHIGH-SCHOOL\nTEACHERS\nTOWARD STUDENTS OF COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENTS\nJAMES\n\nM. GREEN,\n\nPRINCIPAL, NEW JERSEY\nTRENTON, N.J.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe complaint has been made that the teachers in the academic departments have shown more or less disrespect for pupils in the commercial\ndepartments. It is self-evident that there can be no statistics on this\nsubject. How much or how little one class of people respects another\ncannot be tabulated by the census-taker. All one can really do is to record\nthe impressions he has received from hearing people talk and from what\nhe has read.\nThe writer has spent very much of his life in schools, meeting constantly pupils, teachers, and parents when they were commenting on one\nor another phase of education.\nSumming up the impressions I have received, I should say there has\nbeen considerable disrespect felt toward the so-called commercial departments and that this disrespect has reflected on the pupils of these departments in a general way.\nI am not of the opinion that the academic teachers are snobbish. They\nhave seemed to me to determine their respect largely by two elements,\nnamely, personal merits and intellectual responsibility.\nFor instance, these academic teachers have seemed to me to respect\nvery highly a good janitor, even tho they would not want to take his place\nunless perchance in some instances they became ambitious for money.\nThey have seemed to respect him, not because of the work he was doing,\nnecessary as it was, but because of his faithfulness and efl5ciency in his\nwork.\nAgain, they have seemed to respect highly one who has assumed intellectual responsibility: the member of a school board who has stood for a\nwell-defined educational system, even at the expense of temporary unpopularity; the man who has made some notable discovery, Edison or Pasteur;\nor written an able book, Guyot, Kipling, Holmes; the clergyman or lawyer\nor statesman who has done something worth while. I happen never to\nhave heard my educational neighbors say anything but praise for Phillips\nBrooks, or Choate, and they are simply crazy over Roosevelt.\nTurning again to the commercial departments, it has seemed to me that\nthe criticisms on them have been pretty true to this bifocal standard.\nThis is always somewhat due to tradition and heritage. Poetry,\nalchemy, philosophy are names that suggest a family tree long enough\nand honorable enough to give at least temporary standing even to the\nfamed \"spring poet,\" but tradition and heritage must eventually yield to\nthe test of intelligent, practical experience.\nThere has been much said by commercial men and much taught in com-\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATTITUDE\n\nTOWARD\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n869\n\nmercial departments that would command respect simply on grounds of\npersonal integrity. The man who copied the manuscript of the Old Masters commands our respect for the legibleness and beauty in form of his\nletters and his faithfulness to the manuscript, but we never confuse him\nwith the author when we are grading our esteem.\nIt has been common for commercial men to decry the high schools and\nsay that if a boy was going into business what he needed was to acquire\nan accurate knowledge of the practical subjects, namely, the most essential\nparts of the ''three R's,\" and then to get behind the counter. Many of\nthe commercial-school teachers have accepted this proposition and have\ngoverned themselves accordingly. They have been willing to say to a boy\nthat if he would come to them for a very short time, three months or so, or\na year, they could give him a course of study that would make of him a successful business man, and they have gone on to point to their graduates who\nwere getting fifty, seventy-five, or eighty dollars a month. This statement has in many instances caused the boy to turn from the usual academic\nschool and take the proffered short road to what seemed to his inexperienced eye certain success.\nThe real observer of life, the true teacher, knows the fallacy of the\nabove teachings, and regards them accordingly. Be it observed, the error\nis not in the short courses, but in giving one the impression that the short\ncourses will do what they will not do.\nPenmanship is a useful art, but it will not make a scholar, it will not\nsolve a problem in mechanics, compose a poem, or build a city. Stenography is a very useful accomplishment and is very valuable in recording\nsayings, but it will never teach one to utter those sayings.\nThe lawyers of our section attach a great deal of importance to having\na court stenographer, but we have no instance of the court stenographer\ntaking the place of the court in its absence.\nTypewriting is one of the very most valuable acquisitions to an office,\nand one who is skilled in this art can be of great service to the business\nmanager or the composer, but there are no records of this art's substituting\nthe business manager or the composer.\nBookkeeping is the regular and systematic record of business transactions. Itis very important as a record, but it is not the business.\nFacility in certain rules in arithmetic is very important. To be able\nto add a long column of figures quickly and correctly is a valuable accomplishment for a bank clerk, especially where they do not own an adding\nmachine, but this accomplishment will not make a banker. The lightning\ncalculator may excite our wonder, but he has no record as a successful\nbusiness man or even as a mathematician in any fundamefital sense.\nThe above branches may be said to lie within the mechanical belt.\nThey are essential and the person who is skilled in them and is unpretentious\nwill be respected to just that extent, and the school that teaches them\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "Syo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nthoroly and is unpretentious will be respected to just that extent. It is only\nwhen pupil or school pretends more than is true that it falls in our esteem.\nIt is unfortunate that many of the schools that are confining themselves\nto this grade of work should call themselves business colleges. To use the\nname college seems like trying to clothe themselves in a livery that is\nentirely too large and hence does not look well. The old business slogan,\n\"Honesty is the best policy,\" is a good one, and may be applied as well to\nthe business school as to business.\nWhat, then, is the open sesame to higher respect for the business school\nand the student of the commercial course ? The answer is to be found in\nthe second part of our couplet, namely, intellectual responsibility.\nThe commercial school must in no sense be a rival to other schools any\nmore than other schools must rival the commercial school. The commercial school is a special school designed to give certain branches that are not\ngiven in the general school. It may give certain general branches that the\ncommercial student must have, but it should be careful to define these\nbranches as general.\nWhat are the branches that directly concern the higher phases of commercial life ? Perhaps an illustration may prove suggestive. There is in\nour section of the country a large department store. There are, in this\nstore, rug, carpet, lamp, china, ofiice furniture, parlor furniture, silk, muslin, lace, jewelry, library, and many other departments.\nThe proprietor of this store has a general knowledge of his business and\nhe supplements his general knowledge by employing heads of departments\nwho are technically well informed. One could not guarantee to state all\nthat proprietor and his assistants would need of the knowledge of the\nhigher order, but the following are some of the lines on which they would\nwant to be informed:\nCommercial law, sufficiently to know the general features of a valid contract, both\nin our own country and in the foreign countries with which they were dealing; political\neconomy, so far at least as it relates to tarifif laws, interstate commerce, etc. ; banking rules\naffecting money exchange, and clearing-house regulations; conditions of labor so far as\nthey affect the prices of the different commodities; something of the general standards\nof valuing goods.\n\nThese branches require a high degree of intellectual accomplishment\nand one that compares favorably with that of other lines. Indeed these\nbranches are found in many of the academic general courses.\nThe history of an oriental rug would be quite largely an illustration of\nthe essentials in the history of labor. It involves some general knowledge\nof art and how that knowledge is made common, the value of fabrics, something ofthe processes of dyeing, the cost and character of living, the security\nof transportation, the various tax-rates, and the natural explanatory\nconditions.\nAny intelligent appreciation of a banking system requires good thought.\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nALTITUDE\n\nTOWARD\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n871\n\nThe ethics of a good banking system might well engage the attention of our\nleading pulpits. What does it mean to a country when one may accept\nthe note of a bank three thousand miles away as readily as that of a bank\nat his own door ? He who can answer this question must see the loom of\ndestiny as it weaves the warp and woof of confidence and economy into\nnational strength.\n■\n^\nInterstate and international commerce are subjects that are vital to the\nhfe of a people. Our avenues of interstate exchange are the very arteries\nthru which the red blood of the nation must flow. Check or congest these\narteries by unnatural restraints in the form of tariffs, taxes, rates, tedious\ninspections, etc., and you as surely produce fever or paralysis in the state\nor nation as you would produce these diseases in the human body by the\nintroduction of unnatural or indigestible matter into the arteries.\nStability of government and its relations to commerce form a most\ninteresting phase of the general relations of government to commerce.\nThe so-called revolutionary governments are not inviting to commerce.\nThe payments are too uncertain.\nIt might be invidious to mention names in this presence, but one can\nreadily recall having heard a number of commercial men say within the\nlast two or three years of one nation that its people had no sense of moral\nresponsibility, no appreciation of sacredness of contract, that if they paid\nit was due to a sense of expediency rather than honesty; of another country\nthat it was not safe to ship goods there, for if you shipped them in times of\npeace they might arrive in the midst of revolution.\nOne readily recalls the effect upon commerce of the unsettled conditions\nof labor during the past few years when men have been afraid to contract\nfor any large amount of supplies lest thru disturbances of some kind prices\nwould so change as to reverse profits.\nI am willing to accept the charge that the academic teachers have not\nalways been as respectful as they should be, but I cannot take the matter\nvery seriously. That which has been the fate of the commercial departments has been the common fate of all departments. Each department\nhas its mechanical phases and all departments if rightly conducted reach\nup into the higher phases of thought, the realm of the ethical.\nWhat the various departments need for the promotion of mutual respect\nis to get better acquainted with each other and with themselves.\nWe are all prone to view education too much from the personal point of\nview. Educational values are not determined by individuals or communities. They are determined by races and nations. The voyager who\nleans over the forward rail of the ship and looks down into the waters sees\ndeep green, purple, silver, or opalescent, all the colors of the rainbow.\nIt is when he looks away over the broad expanse of the ocean that he sees\nonly blue. The great blue of life's ocean is the ethical. The clergyman,\nthe statesman, the jurist, and the scholar have the same ultimate purposes.\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "872\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe law of life is the \"philosopher's stone\" they are seeking. There are\nmany means to their ends, many branches that must serve their purposes.\nThe greatest surgeon is dependent on the man who can best sharpen an\ninstrument.\nWhat we need more and more, and what the future must bring us more\nand more, as the result of our continued studies, is the power better to\ndefine our specific work and better to see things in their right relations.\nDISCUSSION\nFrank O. Carpenter, head of Department of Commerce, English High School,\nBoston, Mass. — The attitude of the \"old-line\" teachers is still distinctly hostile and\nantagonistic, as all who have had experience well know, whenever they come into comparison with the newer commercial studies and their teachers and students. This is due\nto several causes, which in the few minutes at my disposal I can mention only briefly:\nFirst, the dislike of most people to a new and unknown thing.\nSecond, what may be called the pride of ancestry, or the feeling that the old is necessarily ofhigher grade than the new, and so the new must be looked down upon.\nThird, the fact that with the rapid increase in the number of pupils in commercial\nbranches, the divisions in the \"old-line\" studies grow fewer and those teachers must learn\nto teach new subjects or lose their places. The dread of this real danger arouses opposition.\nFourth, the absolute ignorance of what the newer subjects teach because the teachers\nwill not try to find out what they mean. A head of a department in a great high school\nsaid commercial geography could be learned in a few hours' reading out of school.\nAs to the ways in which the hostility shows itself, they are many:\na) The principals arrange the programs so as to make the taking of commercial subjects difficult for those who seek them.\nh) The teachers and pupils are frequently spoken of in a slurring way or openly told\nthat they are not equal in importance to the others.\nc) Supplies given to other courses are denied to commercial ones. Equipment with\nup-to-date apparatus is refused. Teachers must buy specimens at their own expense\nor go without. When bought they are refused proper places needed for protection or\ndisplay.\nd) Diploma credit given to classical or \"old-line\" studies is often twice that allowed\nto the new courses.\nIn spite of all this hostile feeling, the commercial courses grow larger every year,\nthe colleges begin to accept some for college entrance, the old-liners are forced at times\nto defend their right to be called superior.\nBut the end is not yet near at hand. The fight is still bitter. Commercial teachers\nmust for years yet bear the \"slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,\" and the discouragement that makes the heart sick. They must work as they do so often for the consciousness of doing practical things of value to the pupil in real life, and the sympathetic greeting\nof their fellows in the work, which is one of the helpful things we find in teachers' meetings\nlike this.\nThe day is dark, and sad, and long;\nFight on, strike hard — tomorrow comes the song.\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nSTUDY\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^Wiix Grant Chambers, dean, School of Education, Univ. of Pittsburgh. .Pittsburgh, Pa.\nVice-President — A. H. Yoder, superintendent of schools\nTacoma, Wash.\nSecretary — C. B. Robertson, superintendent of training, State Normal School\nCortland, N.Y.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Forenoon, July 5, 1910\nThe first session met in the New Old South Church, Boston, at 9 :30 a.m.\nThe meeting was called to order by President Chambers, who welcomed the members\nof the Kindergarten and Elementary Departments to this joint session, expressed appreciation at the large attendance, and thanked the second-year class of the Mechanic Arts\nHigh School for the beautiful gavel which they made and presented to the president of\nthe section.\nThe topic of the meeting was \"The Special Child.\" The first paper was \"The Detection of Danger-Signals in the Development of the Young Child,\" by Maximilian P. E.\nGroszmann, of Plainfield, N.J., discussed by F. G. Bruner, assistant director. Department\nof Child Study and Pedagogic Investigation, Public Schools, Chicago, 111.\nThis was followed by addresses on \"Exceptional Children in the Elementary Schools,\"\nby Robert J. Aley, state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind., and\n\"The Influence of Environment and Education upon the Development of the Atypical\nChild Beginning with the Kindergarten Years,\" by Dr. S. Philip Goodhart, of New York\nCity, N.Y.\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Forenoon, July 7, 19 10\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 9:30 a.m.\nThe subject for this session was \"The Child-Welfare Conference,\" and the papers\nwere \"The National Child- Welfare Conference: Its Work and Its Relation to Child\nStudy,\" by G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., and \"How\nEvery School May Be a Child-Welfare Conference,\" by William H. Allen, director,\nBureau of Municipal Research, New York City, N.Y.\nThe attendance was so large that an adjourned meeting of the section was held in\nthe Boston Public Library to give all who wished an oppor tunity to hear Dr. G. Stanley\nHall. Several hundred came.\nThe president appointed as the Committee on Nominations:\nJ, George Becht, principal, State Normal School, Clarion, Pa.\nG. W. Twitmyer, superintendent of schools, Wilmington, Del.\nC. B. Robertson, Cortland Normal School, Cortland, N.Y.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nTHIRD SESSION.— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 19 10\nThe meeting was called to order by the president, who introduced the speakers of the\nfollowing program:\n873\nTopic: Some Newer Applications\nof Child Study\nI. \"The Hygiene of Instruction\" — William H. Burnham, Department of Pedagogy,\nClark University, Worcester, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Child-Study\n\n2. \"Child Study and School Organization and Administration\" — F. E. Spaulding,\nsuperintendent of public schools, Newton, Mass.\nDiscussion led by Joseph B. Richey, superintendent of public schools, McKeesport, Pa.\n3. \"What Should the Public School do for the Welfare of the Subnormal Child\" —\nHenry H. Goddard, director of psychological research, Training School for Feeble Minded\nBoys and Girls, Vineland, N.J.\nDiscussion led by George W. Twitmyer, superintendent of schools, Wilmington, Del.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported, recommending:\nFor President — Will Grant Chambers, dean. School of Education, University of\nPittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nFor Vice-President — Louis M. Terman, professor of education, Leland Stanford\nJr. University, Palo Alto, Cal.\nFor Secretary — C. B. Robertson, State Normal School, Cortland, N.Y.\nThe report was accepted and the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the\ndepartment for the several nominees.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nC. B. Robertson, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDANGER-SIGNALS\nMAXIMILIAN P. E.\nASSOCIATION\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nIN YOUNG\n\nCHILDREN\n\nGROSZMANN, EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR\nOF THE NATIONAL\nFOR THE STUDY AND EDUCATION\nOF EXCEPTIONAL\nCHILDREN,\n\nPLAINFIELD,\n\nNJ.\n\nIt is one of the wholesome results of child study that teachers and parents\nare becoming aware of the necessity of observing symptoms of exceptional\ndevelopment in their children so as to adjust educational measures to\nindividual conditions. We are gradually, altho still very slowly, outgrowing the conception of a child as a being which can be handled and molded\nat will.\nWe are beginning to imderstand that manifestations which may be displeasing to us are not necessarily expressions of a child's evil genius. The\nentire idea of discipline and punishment is undergoing a change. We are\nlearning that many of the so-called naughtinesses of children may be merely\ndanger-signals indicating disturbance somewhere. Apparent disinclination\nto obey may be due to imperfect hearing; aversion to reading and writing,\nto imperfect vision. Ugliness and irritability may be caused by astigmatism\nwhich in its turn produces eye-strain and persistent headaches. Laziness\nmay be a symptom of anemia or neurasthenia, or it may be caused by malnutrition, overexertion at home, lack of sleep, or of ventilation in the child's\nsleeping-chamber. Fretfulness may have its cause in a great number of\nvarious conditions, notably indigestion. Educators are oftentimes inclined\nto feel very much vexed when a child makes grimaces, is inclined to giggle\nand babble, and to disturb the artificial discipline of the schoolroom by\nwhispering. And yet these manifestations, as well as others, like sniffing,\ncoughing, restlessness, and inattention, may be, and almost always are,\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDANGER-SIGNALS\n\nIN YOUNG\n\nCHILDREN\n\n875\n\nsymptoms of nervous disease. They may be enumerated among the socalled habit tics or habit spasms, like twitching, shrugging, shuffling, grinning, sighing, yawning, echolalia (the repetition of words spoken by another,\nas for instance repeating a question before answering it), uttering curious\nsounds such as chirping, etc. Again, momentary inattention and absentmindedness may be due to a mild form of petit mal, i.e., epilepsy. Sudden\nattacks of excitement, outbreaks of temper, destructiveness, hitting other\nchildren, and the like, suggest the presence of psychic epilepsy. Then there\nare the manifold movements characteristic of chorea; and while true hysteria isa disease which does not develop before the adolescent age, there are\nquite a number of conditions in children which may be counted among\nhysterical symptoms. An emotional temperament is one of them, and the\ninstability of will and irresponsibiHty, another. These symptoms are very\noften found in young girls who seem to be predestined to develop true\nhysteria unless preventive measures are taken at the right time. It has\nbeen observed by many that an exaggerated imagination and selfishness,\nor rather self-centeredness, go with these symptoms; and that deviations\nfrom the truth and often surprising fabrications are characteristic of\nthis condition. Children's Ues are a chapter in themselves. Books have\nbeen written on the child as a witness, showing how unreliable are the statements of children, even of those who are usually considered truthful. Stubbornness and disobedience, quaHties which are usually judged in the sense\nof disciplinary conditions, may reveal themselves to the careful observer as\ndanger-signals indicating disease of some kind\nFor the sake of completeness of statement it is necessary to add that the\nconduct of children exhibits, in too many cases, conditions which are dangersignals not so much in the development of the child himself as in the manner\nof his education. The wisdom and judgment of the educator are in question\nwhen all is told. Very few of us have as yet a clear knowledge of the physical and psychical life of the child, and a faulty reaction on the part of the\nchild may simply mean that we have handled him incorrectly. In normal\nschools and college courses, teachers are now receiving a better preparation\nfor the management of these budding souls. But parents are, as a rule,\nsadly deficient in the wisdom and training required for the education of\ntheir children. I say this in spite of the fact that we have now mothers'\nclubs in all cities of this broad land; for mothers come together in this way\nonly after they have made their fundamental mistakes in regard to their\nown children. And fathers' clubs there are none. What is needed is to\nput false modesty aside and to consider no man or woman fit to marry who\ncannot give evidence of a training in parental functions. There are laws\nwhich prevent persons to marry who are physically unfit. The next step\nis to prevent those who are educationally unfit.\nTo make a more detailed study of danger-signals, we must first develop\nthe observational attitude of the diagnostician, and train ourselves to con-\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "876\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nsider as a symptom everything which we cannot readily explain. And for\nevery symptom we must train ourselves to look for a cause. Proper\nobservation implies a careful distinction between the facts observed and\nthe explanation we may give them. It is a very common error to substitute\nour interpretation of a fact for the fact itself, and thus records of children\nare often vitiated. And only one who can inspire a child with confidence,\nand who puts the subject under observation absolutely at its ease, will\ngather reliable data.\nThe list of symptoms enumerated before will put many parents and\nteachers on their guard and point the way toward a better understanding of\na child's real condition.\nBut some more specific suggestions may be made.\nA normal type may be conceived as representing all functions in proper\npoise, all potentials of complete personality being present and unimpaired\nin growth and development. On this basis, we may say that any perversion\nof function which shows a tendency to persist is a danger signal, be it in the\nprovince of the physical or the mental life of the individual. Occasional\nindigestion, an isolated error of judgment, or an outbreak of anger or something like that means nothing; but as soon as any of these perversions\nbecome persistent, they will destroy the equilibrium of the personality and\nmust be studied as to cause and relief.\nPoise is established by having the different aspects of himian personality well related. Human life is determined by principles of growth and\ndevelopment: growth as to size and weight, and development as to organization, differentiation, and function. There is first the size and weight\nof the body as a whole; then there is the evolution of the bony skeleton,\nof the muscles and organs, of the central and peripheral nervous system,\nnot to forget the so-called sympathetic system which regulates the functions\nof the viscera. Upon the growth and development of the nervous system\ndepends the development of the functions of the intellect and will. Abnormalities ofgrowth and development are distinct danger-signals.\nIn determining growth periods there has recently been made the very\nhelpful distinction between the chronological, anatomical, physiological,\nand psychological age of children. A boy of twelve in years is not necessarily aboy of twelve in development. Even if his anatomical growth be\nnormal for his age, his physiological function or his psychological evolution\nmay lag behind, so that he is actually only nine or ten years old. Or it may\nbe the other way: he may be mentally normal or even precocious, and\nbackward in weight and size. Any such discrepancy will cause a tension\nfraught with danger.\nOur first care must be therefore to discover whether or not the anatomical structure and the physiological function in a child correspond to the age\nstandard. This will imply body measurements and a number of tests and\nobservations, some of which may be made in the home and in the schoolroom\nwhile others require the co-operation of a physician.\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDANGER-SIGNALS\n\nIN YOUNG\n\nCHILDREN\n\n877\n\nChild study, it will be remembered, implies the strictest co-operation\nof educator and physician.\nIn the matter of body measurements, it is more important that the\nfigures for height and weight should correspond than that a child be average\nin these measurements. In other words, a child may represent a smaller\n(or larger) ty^t without danger to his development. -But if he should weigh\nless than the average boy of his age, and his height be average or even above\nthe average, or vice-versa, there is reaspn to investigate. Excessive or\ndistinctly stunted growth are of course also abnormal.\nX-ray pictures of the developmental state of the small bones of the\nwrist, according to the method of Professor Thomas N. Rotch, of Harvard,\npromise to become a scientific test for the anatomic age.\nFurther observation can be made in the various provinces of physiological functions. Facts of respiration and heart action, of appetite and of\ndigestion, of headaches and dizziness, of muscular strength and grip, enter\ninto this group of observations. It has been found, for instance, that the\ngrip of the hand is a good index of intellectual development. Feeble-minded\nchildren, even those who exhibit much muscular strength under excitement,\nhave a much lower grip figure than normal children. The element of\ncontrol enters here, and it is seen that some of these tests, which appear to\nbe simply physical, have a psychic element.\nFrequent urination is an important symptom. It means either a distinct disease, or lack of volitional control, in other words a psychic defect.\nIt suggests itself therefore that regular examinations of the urine of children\nbe made for disease of kidneys, diabetes insipidus, intestinal intoxication,\netc. There might also be examination of the blood for anemia, leukemia,\nparasites, i.e., malaria, inflammatory states, etc.; also of the feces, for\nability to digest various foods, intestinal parasites, etc.\nThe so-called growing pains in children are a rather suspicious element.\nThey are often rheumatic in nature and require special attention. Rheumatism of childhood is dangerous for the reason of its insidious onset and\nnever very active acute manifestations.\nIt might seem needless to say that any weakness of the special senses\nmust be considered a danger-signal. Yet even defects of vision and hearing\nare often overlooked, and what is caused by inability to see and hear distinctly is ascribed to inattention and unwillingness. The acuteness of\nthese two most important senses should be determined by the ordinary\ntests which are so simple that they can be employed anywhere. As has been\nsaid before, eye-strain is very frequently accompanied by headaches;\nchronic headache is therefore a danger-signal. The other special senses —\ntaste, smell, and touch — not to speak of the muscular sense, rarely receive\nthe attention they deserve. Yet we often find curious defects which may\nbe considered as indicative of incomplete potentials and consequently of\nincomplete sensation. If we remember that under certain circumstances we\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "878\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nmay have to fall back upon one or more of these neglected senses, as in the\ncase of Helen Keller, we may well be reminded of their importance. Speaking of sense tests, it must not be omitted to state that certain illusions of\nsense are characteristic of the normal mind, and their absence consequently\nis an indication of abnormality. Let us be reminded of the various optical\nillusions, and of the well-known wdght tests. There are, however, illusions,\nand, further, what have been called hallucinations, which are distinctly\npathological.\nThey may be observed even in young children.\nDefective teeth are invariably a danger-signal. They may prove the\nexistence of various functional diseases, hereditary or acquired, which prevent their proper formation and growth; or they may point to malnutrition\nand other temporary causes. In every instance, defective teeth interfere\nwith the proper mastication and digestion of food; with the protection of\nthe nasal-pharyngeal cavity; and with proper articulation.\nIt has often been suggested that left-handedness is a danger-signal.\nIt certainly indicates a deviation from typical conditions. Right handedness is a very ancient characteristic of the human race and even primitive\npeoples are practically right-handed. Left-handedness is therefore not to\nbe considered in the light of a primitive trait. As a matter of fact, lefthanded individuals are found among the very intelligent and skillful; lefthandedness is, then, not in itself a danger-signal unless it is coupled with\nother defects. It has been shown that the usual right-handedness may have\none cause in the arrangement of the blood supply from the heart which\nfavors the right arm; left-handedness would, therefore, mean a reversion\nof this arrangement.\nAnother cause of the right-handedness of a great majority of men,\nhowever, is the stronger development of the left hemisphere of the brain.\nWhen, therefore, left-handedness is connected with speech-defects, as it\noften is, it would reinforce a diagnosis of defective central condition; for\nspeech-defects, unless caused by anatomical defects in the organs of speech,\ncan be explained only by underdevelopment or lesion in the speech-centers\nof the left hemisphere. Speech defects are most pronouncedly dangersignals.\nHere we come to the large number of danger-signals in the development\nof the nervous system. And this is at the same time the province of psychological disorders. It must, however, again be stated that there is a\nconstant interaction between bodily and psychic conditions, and that it is\nimpossible to separate absolutely the psychical from the physical. Bodily\nsymptoms will indicate psychic defects, and psychic symptoms will indicate\ndisturbance of physiologic functions. Some of the danger-signals in this\nprovince are changes in temperament (crying or laughing readily) and unwarranted attacks of temper; rapid fatiguing and disinclination for effort;\ndrowsiness; excitability; insomnia. Of the habit spasms I have already\nspoken.\nThen there are defects of memory and judgment as well as lack of\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nDANGER-SIGNALS\n\nIN YOUNG\n\nCHILDREN\n\n879\n\ndetermination and decision. A mechanical memory alone is not a sign of\nintelligence, and is found in remarkable development even among imbeciles.\nPrecocity is another sign of eventual nervous strain and derangement.\nSome very complete measuring scales for intelligence have been recently\nsuggested by such men as Dr. Sante de Sanctis, of the University of Rome,\nItaly, and the famous French psychologist, Dr. Binet. They combine\nmotor, sense, and intellect tests, so graded that we may determine the\npsychological age of a child by applying them systematically. As they\nhave been tried with a great many children they may be considered fit to\ngive truthful results. If, for instance, a child of nine years cannot respond\nproperly to all the tests suggested for children of this age, but only to those\nprescribed for children of eight or even seven, we have a grave dangersignal in the matter of intellectual development.\nIn the sphere of will we must consider signs of weakness and indecision,\nof wavering and changeability; and any perversion of will and moral\ndefects, like persistent lying and stealing, are plain indications of pathological development.\nA complete system of observations and tests would embrace all the\nelements touched upon in this paper. Experiments along these lines have\nalready been made in certain school systems, and in psychological laboratories and clinics. But the number of children so tested is small and most\nof them had already been found distinctly deficient.\nTo make the status of the child still more evident, it will be necessary to\ninclude data from the earliest history of the child; and as much of the family\nhistory as can be ascertained. Only a complete tabulation of all these data\nwill show all the danger-signals which we ought to know about, in their\nperspective so that we may neither underestimate nor overestimate. It is\nevident that any single fact may mean little or nothing unless it is taken in\nconnection with other facts. And a consensus of various observers will\neliminate the element of personal error or emotional bias.\nAltho I may say that I have in my own practical experience proved its\nfeasibility to a large extent, a complete system such as it has been my\nprivilege to suggest may not be very readily introduced anywhere. Nevertheles , itis to be hoped that these suggestions will open the eyes of many\nteachers and parents to what should be observed and what the educator\nmust be on the lookout for. We may hope for a more universal realization\nwhen the time comes that the family physician will be the hygienic adviser\nof parents rather than the unwillingly called-in healer of diseases; and when\nevery school will be a pedagogical clinic with the co-operation of the medical,\npsychological, and pedagogical expert. My suggestions of today will at\nleast affect, I hope, the disciplinary attitude of educators, so that teachers\nand parents will learn to consider themselves students of child nature and\nof the individual children under their care, rather than their tamers and\ndrill-masters. And the time may come when each child will be as carefully\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "88o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nobserved as the breeder of horses or chickens observes his brood ; when there\nwill be a science of education, a science of parenthood, a science of teaching;\nwhen it will not be considered stupendous and preposterous to give each\nchild such minute care and study as will establish his full status.\nSome day the beautiful words of Froebel : Lasst uns unseren Kindern leben!\n(Let us live with our children !) will become a reality, and we shall learn to\nappreciate the full significance of the ancient Roman proverb: Principiis\nohsta! Resist the beginnings!\nDISCUSSION\nFrank G. Bruner, Department of Child Study and Educational Research, Public\nSchools, Chicago, 111. — I am in sympathy with what Dr. Groszmann has said and for the\nmost part am ready to indorse every sentiment. He certainly has presented an array of\nmarks or signs of danger, so that he who runs may read, and not go astray. Let me assure\nthose of you who have before now concluded that the task of detecting danger-signals\namong your children is hopeless, inasmuch as most of us may find a sufficient number of\nthese on our own persons to make out a clear-cut case of degeneracy, that, after all, there\nare some individuals who bear all of the marks of irregularity that have been cataloged\nby our speaker, and are still living. As a matter of fact it is not the presence of one or\ntwo or a dozen of these danger-signals that causes the careful diagnostician to characterize\nan individual as exceptional, but the degree of each and the kinds of defects that are found\nto be present together.\nDr. Groszmann has spoken in favor of a clearing-house to which children possesssing\ndanger-signs might be taken, given careful psychological and physical examinations, and\nas a result disposed of pedagogically in accordance therewith. He did not tell you that\njust such a clearing-house, or laboratory, has been in operation in Chicago for more than\ntwelve years and that therein are passed upon between thirty-five hundred and four\nthousand children each year. I am glad to have the honor to represent that laboratory\nhere today and to be able to tell you in a word of the kind of work that we are trying to\ncarry on. To this laboratory are brought not only the abnormals, the blind, deaf, crippled,\ntruant, incorrigible, epileptic, nervous, and the anemic, but also the precocious, those\nperfectly normal so far as school reactions are concerned, but whose parents are seeking\nadvice as to the best future course to pursue in their schooling, and in aiding them to\nchoose their life-calling.\nAll the exceptionals, for whom the Board of Education has provided special school\nadvantages, are, before being enrolled in the several special centers, given careful mental\nand physical examinations and their right to admission passed upon. If recommended for\nadmittance, there is sent to the teacher who will have the child a detailed report of the\nfindings and the educational program which will be most effective in his particular case.\nLet me just add that the department has been effective in securing results, such that\nonly a fraction of the demand made upon it can be met because of the inadequacy of the\nexamining corps. Such a department ought to be a part, at least, of every large school\nsystem, inasmuch as the net benefit to childhood is simply immeasurable.\nLuELLA A. Palmer, Public School No. 63, New York City, N.Y, — I wish to tell you\nof the growing interest of kindergartners in the exceptional child. We have an excellent\nopportunity to discover them, as our classes are small and we can come in closer touch\nwith each child than is possible in the higher grades. It is important to diagnose the\nspecial cases early in order that the treatment given may not emphasize rather than cure\nany abnormality. The physical signs that indicate lack of mental balance should be\nstudied in more of our training schools than at present.\nBesides this study we need a\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCARE\n\nOF EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n88i\n\nchild specialist who can be consulted by each kindergartner to prescribe the proper treatment. Ihope that the agitation for the consideration of each child as an individual will\nresult in (i) the establishment of a consulting child specialist; (2) the doing away with\nthe peremptory age condition for the entrance and promotion of children in the kindergarten— at four a child may be too young for entrance, and he is sometimes ready for the\ngrades at five and a half, while others should wait until seven years; and (3) I hope some\nmethod will be adopted by which knowledge of a child's mental as well as physical peculiarities may be passed on to the next teacher.\nW, N. Hailmann, Cleveland, Ohio. — I approve highly the danger-signal message\nof Dr. Groszmann, but hope that equal scholarship will devote itself to the task of listing\nthe danger-signals in the work of the school to which so often arrested development can\nbe traced. A few of these are: the excessive length of periods of recitation, the use of\nformal gymnastics for supposed rest, herd-teaching, constrained positions for the sake of\nso-called order, oversupervision of the teacher's work, the prevalence of criticism with\ncorresponding neglect of encouragement, the parsimony of love, the absence of social work\nin which individual power can assert itself, etc.\nI sound a warning against excessive regard for heredities, the progeny of environment,\n\nI\n\nand the will to live; \"the way of progress lies invariably thru environment.\" The most\ndangerous form of heredity is in tradition, a species of social heredity, rendered the more\ndangerous by the proud consciousness of achievements in the past.\n\nCARE\n\nOF EXCEPTIONAL\n\nROBERT\n\nJ. ALEY, STATE\n\nCHILDREN\n\nLN THE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC\nINDIANAPOLIS,\nIND.\n\nGRADES\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nExceptional school children may be divided into a number of classes.\nA very convenient classification is, those who are subnormal, those who are\nretarded because of neglect, those who are behind in one or more subjects,\nand those who are so gifted as to be above the normal type.\nFew subjects have received more attention in recent years than the care\nof the subnormal child. Nearly everywhere provision is made for his care\nand for the training that will lift him as nearly to the normal as possible.\nThis work has made such headway and has been discussed so frequently\nthat we shall pass it by with a mere word of commendation.\nIn every community there are children who are undeveloped physically,\nmentally, and morally. Because of early neglect they have not had the\nattention that would preserve their health and they have been forced to\nlive under conditions that have stunted both their moral and mental growth.\nThese children need special attention. In many cases they need the services of a skilled physician. Societies and school officials in many of our\neducational centers are giving to these unfortunates the attention that will\nsoon remove many of their shortcomings. This is an important field of\nwork already well occupied. It should be extended to provide for the care\nof every child belonging to this class.\nIn every system of schools there are numbers of children who make\nnormal progress in all their subjects of study except one or two. These\ntroublesome subjects are sometimes made the excuse for holding the pupil\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "882\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nback in all his work. ^ When this is done discouragement usually follows\nand the child is frequently driven from school. Many schools are meeting\nthis difficulty by arranging for special instruction in the branches that give\ntrouble or by placing pupils of this sort in ungraded schools. This class\nof exceptional children is large and deserves the thoughtful consideration\nof school officials everywhere. When these children are treated in a thoughtful, sane manner, they soon step out of the class they have been in and join\nthe normal group.\nThe fourth group of exceptional children has not received so much\nattention as the other groups. The unfortunate child naturally elicits\nmore sympathy than the gifted one. Many teachers w^ho recognize the\nproblem relating to the children below the normal type have never realized\nthat a problem of equal importance confronts them in the children who are\nabove the normal type. It is a common practice to hold these gifted\nchildren back with their less gifted fellows. When this is done they become\ndiscouraged and often leave school.\nIn the emphasis given to the care of exceptional children who are below\nnormal, there has been a tendency to deplete the ranks of the regular force\nof the very best teachers. This should not be. The gifted child needs the\ndirection of the best teachers. For him the best is not even good enough.\nIn no place outside of the school do we find the best talent devoting its\ntime to low-grade material. School work has been too long under the\npartial domination of the sentimentalist.\nThe farmer who applies the principles of science to his work knows that\nif he would grow high-grade corn, he must give attention to the selection\nof seed, and be sure that it is above the average quality. In the cultivation\nof the crop he does not surround the most promising stalks with those that\nare stunted and retarded in growth. , Both science and experience have\ntaught him that if the promising plants are to yield superior grain they must\nbe given a chance to do so by encouraging them to do their utmost, and by\nremoving from them the weakening competition of unpromising plants. He\ngives to the best plant the best soil, the best cultivation, and the best\nthought. The analogy between the growing of corn and the growing of men\nmay not be complete, but it is certainly significant.\nThe history of civilization shows two things with great clearness: First,\nthe progress made by a people is always closely related to their general\nintelligence. In no state where the percentage of illiteracy is high has\ngreat progress been made. Second, in every case where the advance has\nbeen notable, it has been led by men of superior power. All great forward\nmovements have been in the hands of leaders. Where the whole body\nof people are intelligent, well educated, progress may be noticeable, but it\nwill be slow unless there are those who are superior to their fellows that step\nforward and lure their fellows on. These two facts make it important that\ncivilization, for its own preservation, make ample provision for the care of\n\nf\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCARE\n\nOF EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n883\n\nall the people, those that are below the normal type itself, and those who\nare above it.\nIn every group of children there will be found one or more who are\nsuperior to their fellows. They are the leaders. When th^ gang instinct\nis at its height, it is the child of this type that leads the gang. Every school\nhas one, two, or half a dozen boys and girls of this character. They have\nintellects that are keen and strong. They possess qualities that the world\nneeds. Frequently it happens that the school lacks sympathy with these\ntraits. The child with the power to get his tasks in an incredibly short\ntime is too often the bane of the teacher. She does not understand him\nbecause he does not agree with the normal type. Teacher and pupil become\nantagonistic and the result, all too often, is that the most promising child\nis eliminated from the school.\nA catalog of the superior men and women of the last century, those who\nhave achieved the position of leadership in some form of human work, would\nshow a surprisingly large number who have found the school irksome and\nunsuited to their needs. Many of them left the school at an early age and\ngot the education that gave them their power outside of school walls. It\nis an unpleasant commentary upon our schools that so many of the strongest\nmen and women have been unable to find in the school that which woxild\nsatisfy them. The school ought to be the place where genius of the highest\norder could receive the encouragement that it needs and the training that\n:will make it most effective.\nIt happens every year that our colleges vie with each other in conferring\nhonorary degrees upon men who did not succeed in school. They are\neminently worthy of the degrees they receive. Their success has proven\nthem to have ability of unusual quahty. They \"had to make good before the\nschool discovered them. The school should have found them when they\nwere in the grades. Had it done so they would have come into their own\nmuch earlier in life.\nThe first step necessary in bringing about a more appreciative consideration ofthe gifted child is a popular awakening to the importance of\nthis subject. School officials need to tjiink more upon the problem, give\nmore time to its discussion in their meetings, and speak oftener in public\nupon the necessity of finding a proper solution. Judging from the popular\ninterest in the other classes of exceptional children, it is believed that equal\ninterest may be aroused in the gifted child, if we give attention to the subject. This association should start a movement which will give much\npublicity to the value of leadership and to the desire of the school to meet\nthe needs of those who are specially gifted for this sort of work.\nThe school will never accomplish what it should with a child of unusual\nabiHty until the number of children per teacher is greatly reduced. We\nhave already found by experience that in handling children belonging to\nany of the other exceptional classes we must do it individually or in small\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chfld-Study\n\ngroups. So long as the children are of normal, uniform type, one teacher\nmay care for thirty or forty. But to meet the needs of those who vary from\nthe type, smaller groups are absolutely essential. These varying types must\nbe reached individually. They must be understood, all their peculiarities\nnoted and taken into account. Before the needs of all these exceptional\nclasses are met the cost of the school will need to be doubled. This, however, will be money well spent if it succeeds in making it possible for the\nchild of superior power to come easily and quickly into its heritage.\nIn large systems of schools it is feasible and desirable that gifted children be thrown together in groups. Where there are enough children of\nthis type to form a special school the problem of meeting their needs is\neasily solved. Of course, in a school of this sort teachers of the very highest\nabihty are needed. They must be skilled in all the arts of their profession;\nthey must possess warm sympathies. They should be able to understand\nthe child's point of view, and young enough to enter with enthusiasm into\nthe childish attainments.\nIn most of our schools the gifted child, for a time at least, will have to be\ncared for by the regular teacher. The care under these conditions cannot\nbe all that is desirable. It can, however, be of great value if the teacher\nmakes it a matter of thoughtful consideration. Sympathy and understanding are the two great essentials in treating the superior child. The\nfact that the child is superior takes him at once out of the ordinary class\nand makes him more difficult to understand. Patience, interest, and sympathy are needed. Indeed, these qualities are indispensable in the solution\nof any problem whose answer is valuable. The power of the teacher may\nbe illustrated by the stories of two boys, both exceptional and both above\nthe normal type.\nMore than a generation ago in a southern Indiana town, there lived a boy\nwith a consuming desire to draw pictures. In school, his attempts met\nwith frowns, rebukes, and punishments. He was finally driven from school.\nHis home joined in the attempt to thwart his genius. He was forced out\nto fight his way to success without the help of either home or school. He\nwon fame as an artist, but went to an untimely grave because of the unnecessary hardships forced upon him by those who should have understood him. No old teacher of Samuel Richards, as he stands entranced\nbefore his immortal conception of Evangeline, can have the joy of saying,\n*'I understood him as a boy and helped to make possible his greatness. \"\nSome years ago a friend handed to James Whitcomb Riley a copy of a\nbook of poems by Lee O. Harris. The friend remarked, \"Here is a volume\nby your rival.\"\nMr. Riley glanced at the title page and replied, \"My rival! He was my\nteacher. I am glad that justice has been done and his poems are now in\nThen as he turned carefully thru the volume he told this story:\nprint.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCARE\n\nOF EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n885\n\nI did not get along very well in school for most of the requirements were irksome to\nme. The school did not make an appeal to me. The subjects were dull and uninteresting.\nIndeed, in many of them I could find nothing that I understood. I liked to draw pictures,\nbut this in the old school of my boyhood was forbidden. It was a crime punishable with\na whipping, and a whipping at school meant another one on reaching home. One Friday\nafternoon when the tasks bore more heavily than usual upon me, I became interested in\nwatching my teacher as he was attempting to lead -a class of unruly boys and girls into\nthe fields of knowledge. His attitude and that of the class appealed to me. I seized\nmy slate and pencil and went to work to reproduce the impression. I became lost in what\nI was doing. I drew the master with uplifted arm and an expression of intense earnestness, before him the class, listless, inattentive, half-rebellious. As I touched the picture\nhere and there to better express the ideas that were in me, I was suddenly brought back\nto the school by the presence of the master standing by my side. I made a hasty effort\nto put the slate beneath my desk and erase the evidence of my crime. The master seized\nmy arm and said, \"Don't erase it, Jim. It is good.\" I have stood before many great\naudiences, I have received the Chautauqua salute and the repeated cheers of those who\nhave listened to my work. All these have been sweet music, but none of them compare\nto the thrill that went up and 'down my little spine when the master said, \"Don't erase\nit, Jim, it's good.\" He asked me to stay after school. I knew that I had failed many\ntimes on my tasks during the week. I knew that the rule of the school was that three failures were followed by punishment on Friday evening. But somehow the master's commendation had put about me an atmosphere and into my soul a peace that caused me to\nlook forward to the staying after school with pleasure rather than with pain. When school\nwas dismissed and the pupils had gone, and the master and I were all alone, he said, \"Jim\nstep to the front door, look up and down the road and see if anyone is coming.\" I did\nso and reported that no one was in sight. He told me to lock the door. I obeyed. Then\nhe had me look out the windows on both sides of the schoolhouse to see if anyone was in\nsight. No one could be seen. He then called me to his side and he said, \"Jim that was\na fine picture you drew this afternoon. You caught my characteristic attitude. You\nshowed the pupils just as they were. It was good.\" And again that thrill went up and\ndown my spinal cord. Then he said again, \"Go to the windows, and see if anyone is in\nsight.\" I hurried to the windows, looked out on both sides, but saw no one. I went\nback to his side and he said, \"Cross your heart, tell me truly that you will never tell.\" I\ndid so^. He opened his desk and from somewhere in its depths he brought out a book and\nread a chapter to me. I sat there enraptured. It was a chapter from Ivanhoe. Then\nhe said to me, \"Jim, if you are sure that you won't tell and that you can keep this book\nfrom the observation of everyone, you may take it home with you and keep it until Monday.\" He handed me the book. I concealed it under my coat, went home with a heart\nthat was beating fast, approached the barn by a circuitous path from the rear and secreted\nthe book in the haymow. Saturday morning early I was in the haymow and there on my\nstomach, thru the long forenoon I read. Immediately after dinner I was back again.\nI read Sunday forenoon and afternoon and late Sunday evening I had finished the book.\nThe romance of it had gone into my soul. The commendation of my picture and the\nreading of Ivanhoe, both made possible by the old master, marked the turning-point in\nmy life. I verily believe that had these two things not occurred I would today be a tramp\nand an outcast. The thrill and romantic joy of the great story gave me a new impulse\nand an interest in life. Whatever I have accomplished, I owe to my old teacher, Lee 0,\nHarris.\"\n\nWithout doubt, there are hundreds of embryo geniuses discouraged and\ndown-hearted who would enjoy newness of life if some teacher would touch\nthem as Captain Harris touched James Whitcomb Riley.\nThe teacher who\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "SS6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nis willing to study the child, get into sympathy with him, gain his point of\nview, find out his interests, has the opportunity to do just what the old\nmaster did for Riley. It is a great thing to be the teacher of any child, but\nit is worth a whole life of sacrifice to receive the tribute that came to the\nold master from the great Hoosier poet.\n\nTHE\n\nEXCEPTIONAL CHILD; THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT AND EDUCATION\nUPON HIS DEVELOPMENT\nBEGINNING WITH THE KINDERGARTEN YEARS\n\nS. PHILIP GOODHART, M.D., CONSULTING PHYSICIAN TO THE NATIONAL\nCIATION rOR THE STUDY OF ATYPICAL CHILDREN, CHIEF CLINIC\nFOR NERVOUS DISEASES, MT. SINAI HOSPITAL\nDISPENSARY, NEW YORK CITY\n\nASSO-\n\nAmong the questions of great import for the progress of the human race,\none of the foremost concerns the future of the atypical, so-called nervous\nchild. He differs mentally from the ordinary, the accepted standard of the\nso-called average child.\nThe exceptional child represents a class by himself, tho in his variations\nhe presents widely divergent characteristics. He is not the defective child as\nwe understand the term, nor can we consider him abnormal. He does not\nshow recognized mental enfeeblement and could not be classified with\nsuch types as the dullard or imbecile. The latter class, comprising\nas it does a vast host of humanity, much of it almost totally lost,\nbut with which our educators have to deal and which in the last few years\nis being provided for by special education, is of vastly less importance in\nso far as their contribution to human progress is concerned, than the class\nwhich I am here bringing to your attention. Whatever opinion one holds\nas to the worthiness of the defective class to special education, we must all\nadmit that the nervous child, atypical tho he be, is often endowed with\nsuperior qualities of mind and is well worth our best efforts to develop the\ndormant qualities within him.\nThe early recognition of these children is of paramount importance.\nTheir deviations from the normal may be already recognized in the kindergarten years. With proper training, education and environment, there\ncan be developed in very many of them quahties of intellectual superiority.\nIndeed, some of our best minds — those that have contributed to the world's\nwork along artistic and even more constructive lines, have shown early\nmental deviation. Among these children we find many of the so-called\n\"misunderstood.\" As educators it is of the highest importance that we\nlearn their individual peculiarities; that we ourselves endeavor to understand them. These children are often highly imaginative; sometimes their\nimagination being in no sense constructive. In others, however, we see the\nimaginative form that leads to true constructive work; they are frequently,\nin a general sense, neurotic; are given to day dreaming; are sometimes the\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILD\n\n887\n\nvictims of that form of \"castle-building\" known as \"the continuous story.\"\nThis is a form of fanciful imagination in which the individual lives in a representative life, the events going on from day to day and, in his leisure moments, he takes up the thread of the fanciful existence. This form of day\ndreaming is not infrequent in neurotic children and leads to perverted\nmethods of thought and lack of concentrative power in the ordinary things\nof life. The nervous child is likely to lack power of concentration. He is\nhighly emotional; hypersensitive; is often not well poised; tho lacking in\ncertain elementary faculties of understanding and simple judgment, the\nsame child may show at times remarkable powers of argumentation, with\nflights of understanding and original thought. Most significant in these\ncases is the variabihty of the mood and mental content. The atypical\nchild is not Hkely to be a good comrade, social and easy with his playmates.\nHe often does not fit well with children of his own years. This frequently\nmakes his younger years difficult and tends to intensify a high degree of\nemotional sensitivity. Many of these children cling with an abnormal\naffection to the mother; the feeling is not pure, unselfish love, but in its\nvery intensity is tinged with an indefinite fear of other associates. There\nare certain physical features, too, that distinguish some of these children.\nThey are often of delicate mold; there is a certain indefinable sadness upon\nthem. Their lack of concentration as well as the uncertainty and instability\nof will can often be observed in their actions and in their delayed response\nand understanding. The two latter defects are really only part of the same\npsychological deflection that is at the bottom of the general condition.\nThere is usually a perceptible degree of anaemia, of rapid exhaustion usually\nmanifested by a rapid relaxation of the muscles about the eye, giving the\nappearance of dark circles. There is Kkely to be some evidence of want of\nstrong character in the anatomical outlines. The features of a rapid\nbrain exhaustion as seen upon slight efforts at concentration are observed\ndaily by every teacher. This is due in some instances to a true anaemia\nof the cerebral centers and in others to the fact that many atypical children\nreally do not think properly, do not know how to reach conclusions; perception and particularly apperception are affected. The teacher and parent\nmust appreciate that the child may be mentally astigmatic, so to speak,\nand as a consequence has not the manner of mentally getting at things. In\nmany cases certain centers within the brain are abnormally developed while\nothers are retarded; again, the retardation or defect may be in the development of the association centers of the brain. Thus the child gets his percepts and particularly his concepts at an improper angle and the normal,\nclear, psychological attitude is upset. The importance of an understanding of this is manifest. These children often really work harder, spend\nunnecessary energy in small mental tasks and thus become easily depleted.\nIf this condition is permitted to continue a foundation is laid for more\nserious mental disturbance and, in some cases, has really been the basis for\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "888\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nfinal mental dethronement. I have observed among this class of children\nspecial endowments in the arts, in music, and in histrionic ability, tho a\nmanifest lack of efiiciency in small, practical things. Perhaps the \"idiosavants\"are in this class. I have in mind a case of a young woman who\nholds the chair of literature in a well-known university, yet who is absolutely and entirely lacking in ability to do the simplest sums; further than that,\nher conception of mathematics and numbers is entirely lacking. Her deficiency in this respect approaches, psychologically speaking, a state of\nidiocy. To have attempted to make a mathematician of her would have\nbeen waste of effort and have marred her life and destroyed her usefulness.\nIt seems as tho the unusual talents of some children, at times approaching genius, are developed both psychologically and with reference to the\ncerebral representation, at the expense of other simple processes of brain\naction. The importance of an appreciation of this is of vast import in relation to the pedagogic, social, and environmental conditions of the atypical\nchild. Because of the biological variations in the development of the\nhigher cerebral centers, causing divergent variations in the development\nof these children, we have the very widest range of defects and must consider the individual as such. Thus the teacher will be more guarded in\njudging which are the so-called bright children in contradistinction to those\nthat appear dull ones. Again, do not forget that the development of\ncertain brain centers or associative tracts of nerve fibers connecting these\ncenters may be retarded; that in some children, in later years, may come\nthe psychological development. In these cases proper teaching is important. Itoften requires the expert to recognize these cases.\nWe are indebted to Dr. M. P. E. Groszmann, educational director of the\nNational Association for the Study of Exceptional Children, for excellent\nobservations and study of various types of atypical children. Dr. Groszmann emphasizes the importance of differentiation between the child with\narrested cerebral growth and the one with retarded cerebral development.\nMy clinical observation confirms the importance of this differentiation.\nRetardation of the development of mental power may be due either to a\ngeneral anaemia, that is, faulty nutrition of the entire body structure, or,\nagain, to a retarded biological growth of the brain. In the case of arrest of\ndevelopment the limit of developmental possibilities is reached and comparatively little can be accomplished. These children of arrested development often show recognized brain lesions; perhaps some form of paralysis,\nsome evidence of defective physical growth, some congenital anomaly of\nstructure due to cranial injury or defect; as a result of this congenital or\nacquired lesion of the central nervous system, the higher cerebral centers\nhave also suffered. The manner of education in the two classes is so different that early differentiation is most important. It is essential that the\nphysician, the teacher, and the parents understand the biological foundation\nfor the difference between the child that is atypical in the sense that I have\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILD\n\n889\n\nendeavored to describe, who needs mental training and development along\nspecial lines, and the child whose cerebral development is retarded and,\nagain, the child whose mental development has reached its final stage.\nThus, we really have three classes. Environment and education will do\nmuch for the first two; the third will often require strictly institutional care.\nIn considering the importance of environment and education upon the\nhuman being, particularly in his earliest years, there looms large and ominous before us the specter of heredity. The relative importance of heredity\nand environment has been a source of contention among thoughtful minds\nfor centuries. We have the extremist on the two sides of the question and\nthose who take the middle view. Far be it from me to minimize the influence of ancestral forces, the inherent impulses that are handed down from\none to another; to deny absolutely the influence of heredity is to refuse to\naccept what has been proved to be a biological fact. The transmission of\nphysical features is, of course, conceded, and I am one of those who are\nstrongly inclined to accept the transmission of mental characteristics. On\nthe other hand, I concede to education and environment powerful influence\nin directing and changing inherent tendencies. I am a believer in the reforming influence of the human will. Upon the question of the relative\nimport of heredity and of education and environment rests the structure of\nour educational methods affecting particularly the atypical child. Bernard\nShaw's statement — \"The vilest abortionist is he who attempts to mold the\ncharacter of a child\" is open to challenge. I believe that human life can\nreally be built up from without; that it is possible, by means of proper\nenvironment and education, to form the character and direct the life-activity\nof the individual . I beheve that the individual does not bring into the world,\nas in a mold, his character, his interests, his entire disposition, but that\nthese, in the plastic years of developmental life may be brought out, changed,\nand directed if we can but obtain the co-operation of the subject's will. I\nconcede much to the raw material, but I maintain that character and intellect are fostered by home environment, by good schools, and, where necessary, by well-equipped institutions. As Ritchie says: \"Civilization is the\nsum of those contrivances which enable the human being to advance independently ofheredity in the biological sense.\" And again, as has been\nsomewhere said by another, \"The progress which mankind is making is\ndue to the lessons of life and not to the mysterious potencies of primordial\ngerms.\" Even Darwin, the greatest exponent of natural selection, concedes that the moral qualities are developed finally rather thru reasoning\npower, religious feelings, etc., than thru hereditary factors as determined by\nnatural selection. Indeed, \"The mental and moral faculties of man,\" as\nWundt says, \"know no law of conservation, becoming more and more\ncomplicated and augmented without limitation.\" These are encouraging\nthoughts for educators.\nI am so firmly a believer in the potential energy of hereditary forces that\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "890\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nI would restrict indiscriminate union because of its influence upon progeny,\nand I firmly believe in the enactment of laws restricting the union of the\nunfit. I feel there is no stronger plank in the foundation of human happiness than that which would prevent sexual union of those who are mentally\nor physically manifestly abnormal. However, we are dealing with conditions as they are, not as we wish them; until science and education shall\nhave demonstrated fundamental laws of heredity we must combat ignorance\nby the forces of environment and education operating upon the offspring.\nDefective and improper environment in early life; particularly when\nadded to hereditary predisposition so often present in the case of atypical\nchildren, is a primary cause of neurasthenia and nervous breakdown; in\nthe case of impressionable, unstable children, it develops irregularities of\ncharacter that disturb and retard the moral, intellectual, and physical\nenergies. In the plastic years of hfe the home and school teaching should\nbe along lines that by example and theory develop firm will and clear\nthought — ^positive action without vacillation. The importance of surroundings upon the ethical side of the atypical, the impressionable, the\nunstable child, is emphasized by a study of social life in its relation to\njuvenile delinquents. The inherent tendency to sexual perversion and\ngeneral moral deflection that characterizes certain forms of highly neurotic\nchildren is common observation. There is in some moral astigmatism,\nrather than intellectual defect, and upon proper training and precept will\ntheir future depend. The moral pervert is the type of atypical child that\noften requires most skillful treatment. Intellectually endowed tho he be,\nmoral imbecile or moral anomaly as he often is, he represents in early days\nthe man who in later life attains temporary honor socially and financially,\nsooner or later startling the community as a fallen idol, the victim of inherent\nmoral obliquity. Here again the watchful teacher and parent should\nrecognize in early life the warning signs that demand the exercise of judgment and firmness; the bending twig must be straightened and set in the\nline of proper growth before it becomes a branch unyielding in its textural\nfirmness.\nA study of the history of juvenile delinquents, especially in this country\nand in England, leads to the conclusion that the juvenile delinquent is\nreally somewhat intellectually inferior to boys of his own age, but that the\nactual number of feeble-minded among them is small, that mental inferiority\nis apparent rather than real, and that this inferiority is not congenital, but\nacquired by lack of training and by vicious environment. Further, a very\nmarked improvement has been observed in the young delinquents while\nunder the regime of reformatory discipline and in active industrial or shop\nwork. A large percentage have shown a high average of artistic ability.\nDoubtless in each case a proper psychological analysis would show the\nabsence of some quaHty necessary for successful pursuit; and I am certain\nthis defect could be largely influenced by training.\nThe absence of\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILD\n\n891\n\nphysical defect in a large percentage of juvenile delinquents speaks for\nacquired rather than hereditary forces. The teacher of atypical children\nespecially must be familiar with individual psychological defects and for\nthis the normal mental processes must be understood. In the case of the\natypical child, not in the quantity of mental material forced upon it, but\nrather in the quality and method of thought imposed upon the child, will\nwe find the success of effort. For the at5^ical child especially I disapprove\nof the so-called \"central ethical\" idea method, that is, the grouping of all\nsubjects for a period of time about a nucleus or idea. This HerbartZeller method is far inferior to that advocated by Dr. M. P. E. Groszmann.\nGroszmann's work on Elementary Education, soon to appear, succinctly\nconveys the psychological procedure. Thru primitive percepts and concepts, the association and assimilation of these a,s interpreted thru apperception by what the child has already properly learned, is the method by which\nit must add to its mental storehouse. The new percept and concept must\nmean a consciousness of more than that which the object itself gives; the child\nmust be taught that new impressions must be associated and seen in the\nlight of similar ideas already present. As Groszmann says, it is evident\nthat the logical relation of the details of the subject-matter will enable us\nto make application of a general rule; in this way we may establish an\ninstructional interrelation of topics, introducing new ones by establishing\napperceptive associations with those which existed before. In order to\nestablish this effectually, teachers will be obHged to ascertain the mental\nstatus of children intrusted to their care, the extent and character of the\nconcepts already forming their intellectual possessions and determining\ntheir emotional attitude. There are other factors to be observed, such as\nthe reaction time, power of inhibition, fatigue limit, etc., of each individual\nchild. Groszmann has thus a far wider and more truly psychological\nmethod than that of correlation simply, as expressed by the Herbart school.\nIt is just in cases of atypical children that we see the want of proper association ofco-ordinate mental activity. I can even go farther and see the\ndevelopment of certain forms of mental derangement in later juvenile life\nin improper methods of thought and learning. Children must learn to relate\ndetails to common groups so as to enable them to establish a conceptual\norder in the wilderness and embarrassing multitude of details and thus to\nrecognize \"old friends in new setting.\" Unless this be done he may have\nto learn anew about the same geometrical form in the workshop which had\nbecome familiar to him as an element of his mathematical study or he will\nnot recognize in the construction of a stove an application of the same law\nwhich he had studied in his physical laboratory as governing radiation and\ndistribution of heat. I believe that in a simple way these psychological\nlaws can already be applied in the kindergarten. It is a question whether\ninstead of teaching the nervous child with his basic psychological defects\nsmall basket and weaving work, it would not be better to give him work\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "892\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nmore mental in character. Further, I beheve these fine movements,\ndemanding fine adjustment of the eye muscles as well as the extremities,\ntend to develop spasmodic, chorea-form movements.\nIn conclusion, I have only to emphasize the vital importance of physical\nhygiene, especially upon neurotic children; the desirabiUty of suburban\nlife, regular hours, instructive games and outdoor sports that interest but\ndo not excite the unstable mind. The body, like the mind of nervous\nchildren, becomes more easily fatigued; neurotic children, like nervous\nadults, find a restful invigoration and a feeling of calm in the quiet of suburban life. It is important that the hygiene of the nervous child be such as\nto secure the highest physical nutrition for this includes nourishment\nfor the intricate centers of activity within the brain. Nervous children\nreact especially to emotional stimuli such as music, sensational drama,\nand romantic literature, and all these should be guarded against. Children\nwho have plenty of fresh air and an abundance of exercise and physical\nand mental freedom, become better poised and are less likely to succumb\nto inherent perverse moral and sexual instincts.\nMany phases of the social question, the struggle of woman and her place\nin social, economic life, her position in the home, the great stress which\nthe parent is obliged to undergo for existence in the large cities — these questions have a direct bearing upon the environment of the child. The general\nmoral and intellectual atmosphere of the home has an important influence\nupon the nervous child, especially since those of the neurotic type are\nkeenly sensitive to unhappy home conditions. Overpowering obsessions,\nmorbid fears, sexual perversions, frequently find origin in the atmosphere\nof a home with unhealthy moral, physical, and social hygiene. Self-control\non the part of the parents, with an intelHgent display of affection and\njudicious sympathy, together with high ethical ideals in daily life, are examples that stand out in rehef in representative education. Remember that\nthe nervous child is already predisposed to such disorders as St. Vitus dance,\nspeech-defects, nervous twitchings, habit spasms, and these may find their\norigin in a sudden emotional disturbance caused by fright, fear, or any\nform of mental shock. We must endeavor to reduce to a minimum the\ninherent tendencies that tend to destroy the proper mental balance and\nendeavor in every way to bring the child's supply of nerve force to the\nhighest plane of resistance. Develop his will and, when necessary, raise\nthe child's estimate of himself.\nTime and space limit me to a mere outline in a plea for special attention\nto the exceptional child; remember he does not belong to the defectives.\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHILD\n\nWELFARE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n893\n\nNATIONAL CHILD WELFARE CONFERENCE:\nITS WORK\nAND ITS RELATIONS TO CHILD STUDY\n\nG. STANLEY\n\nHALL, PRESIDENT\n\nOF CLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nChild study has now so many departments — medical, hygienic, criminological, legal, religious, pedagogic, linguistic, social, and the rest — its literature isso vast, and the academic chairs and journals and sciences devoted to\nit are so numerous, that no one can master all its fields. Specialization in it\nis already well advanced. It has a great and growing influence upon education and the list of reforms in method, matter, buildings, hour-plans, textbooks, and ideals that now stands to its credit, is a long and noble one.\nIndeed, it is not too much today to say that in every educational problem\nhe who tells us authoritatively what the nature of the child requires speaks\nthe final word. Nothing in the history of education has contributed so\nmuch to make teaching professional and scientific. Profound as all this\ninfluence has been, it has been from the start silent and spontaneous. Now,\nhowever, we are organizing a more active and aggressive campaign to extend\nthe application of its results and its influence outside the school proper to the\nthousands of child-welfare institutions which Dr. Theodate L. Smith, of\nClark University, has tried to classify into eighty or ninety species, of\nwhich the following ten are the genera, viz., institutions for defectives,\ndeUnquents, dependents, those that deal with health and disease, morals\nand religion, protection, recreation, sex, motherhood and eugenics, and\ngeneral. Our Child Welfare Conference which held its second annual fiveday meeting last week aims to unite all these into a national organization\nin order to secure the same advantages of co-operation, avoidance of\nduplication, the closing of gaps, enhanced efficiency, etc., that the Associated Charities have gained by co-ordinating local relief work. Our\nprogram is first local, to bring all child-welfare agencies outside the school\nin each city together so that they may know each other's work, catch\neach other's spirit, profit by each other's experience, and impress the\ncommunity more strongly. We wish then to effect state, and last of\nall, a national organization of organizations with perhaps a head or a\ncentral bureau at Washington, for the conservation of American Childhood,\nwhich is the most precious of all our national resources and indeed of all\nearthly treasures. This federal bureau ought ultimately to be represented\nin the President's cabinet and rank with the departments of state, agriculture, the navy and the rest, and should eventually include education as\nwell as all the agencies connected with child labor, hygiene, relief, delinquency, juvenile courts, and all the other above-mentioned scores of organized interests of the rising generation, always including eugenics. The\npractical ends aimed at are the following:\nI. All social workers and all heads of institutions caring for dependent\nor delinquent children and their helpers should have special training for\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "894\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\ntheir work. Child philanthropists, too, need to know children better and\ndraw upon all this fund of paidology. The work of all these institutions\ncould be better done and every dollar contributed by patrons would have\nenhanced value by training of this sort. There are no more devoted friends\nof children than they, but to the high virtue that prompts their work they\nshould now add science for the sake of the children, not to mention their\nown interests. Slogan I. No worker for exceptional children untrained for\nhis or her work.\n\nII. From I to 3 per cent, of the children of the land, hundreds of thousands in number, who are defective, dependent, or delinquent should be\nstudied. We now spend nearly $100,000,000 yearly upon classes of the\npopulation, old and young, that are a fearful drag upon the advancement\nof civilization. If a new pestilence were to break out that did damage of\nthis magnitude, we should turn every available agency to the work of\ninvestigating causes and cures and should not be content with merely\nameliorating present conditions. This last field of observation is now very\ninadequately utilized for the permanent lightening of this heavy national\nburden. Experts in every such institution should work together systematically todraw lessons from this field, so ripe in harvest, and where the\nscientific wastage is too incalculable. The end should be prevention even\nmore than cure. Every child publicly cared for should be systematically\ntested, his hereditary and personal history laid under tribute for the good\nof others and for that of science. This work, too, is already well begun in\ncertain favored localities. Slogan II. No exceptional child unstudied — each\nmust teach us all the lessons in it.\nIII. In every institution for the training of teachers, some special course\nshould be given in order that they may get and keep in touch with every\nchild-welfare agency outside the school in their community. We urge, too,\nthat all upper-grade pupils be informed of the work for dependent, delinquent, and defective classes in their vicinity as part of their education for\ncitizenship and also that every teacher of child study and every pedagogical\ndepartment in normal schools, colleges, and universities conduct extension\nwork in this field and make systematic surveys of all child-helping agencies\nabout them with the double purpose of learning and helping. We have found\nit profitable to assign topics in this field for thesis work and also to organize\na series of committees of citizens to advance local playgrounds, promote\nbetter probation work, improve the milk supply for babies during the fatal\nhot months, to promote school gardens, vocational training to help dependents and the neglected school hygiene, theaters, festivals, recreations, etc.\nIt is to this great and new task to which we students of children feel called\nand are now applying ourselves that we invite your good will and if possible,\nyour active co-operation in your several fields of labor. We believe the\ntime has come to unite on the one hand all experts in paidology and practical\nagencies, to put what we know to work and to utilize children in institutions\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHILD\n\nWELFARE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n895\n\nin every way for our science, which now has so much to say not only on\njuvenile vice and crime and pediatrics, on nursing, feeding, and dress of\ninfants and children, their contagious diseases, games, habituation, vocations, social activities, adolescence, the psychology of poverty, criminal\nlegislation, the child's relation to nature and to the city, on arrested development, truancy, gymnasia, bathing, prostittition, story-telling, but even has\nsomething new and great to tell concerning wedlock and race suicide. So\nour third slogan is: Teach this applied child study everywhere from the\nhigh grammar grades up, put it to work for the charities, as college and\nuniversity extension work.\nLet me now tab off a few of the specific contributions which the larger\nchild study has made toward better knowledge and treatment of some of\nthese classes, altho each of the following points needs a chapter or an hour:\n1. No one is qualified to deal with boys in groups who does not know\nand has not pondered the studies of the gang which constitutes a unique and\nintegral part of genetic social psychology. This the judge of the juvenile\ncourt, the probation and truant officers, heads of boys' clubs, or adult\nimproved or controlled organizations of boys for religious, moral, and other\nends, and those interested in school self-government should know by heart.\nA large fraction of all juvenile delinquencies are due to the gang spirit which\nis of course that of the savage tribe. The reformer here has succeeded in\nproportion as he knows enough to become a true member and leader of the\ngang, for even members of such organizations as the Junior Endeavorers,\nKnights of King Arthur, etc., are in boy language members of God's gang,\nor of the church gang. Gang psychology is the master key to juvenile\ncrime.\n2. Purity workers of all kinds must know the genetic psychology of sex\nor they can never cope with the gigantic evil of vice of which this is the key.\nWould that I had time to point out the positive injury done by well-meaning\nignorance here, the harm done by those who strive to help. Nowhere have\nour ideas undergone such sudden enlargement and transformation in recent\nyears as in this domain concerning the age of greatest danger, the predisposing and active causes, the modes of cure, the nature and consequences of\nerror, etc. We can now detect several of the roots of sex aberration in the\ninfant in arms and a group of others in the child before school age. We\nknow, thanks to the Freud School, the peculiar and hitherto unsuspected\nvulnerability of the years from eight to ten. We can appreciate the great\nsignificance of physiological age. We know from special studies something\nof the magnitude of this generally hidden evil in school and college and our\nideas of self-abuse and of gonorrhea have undergone great change, while the\neffects of the social evil and the methods of moral prophylaxis are now\nrevealed in a new light. Here lie the roots of nearly all the psychoses of\nlater life and of many of the elements that Emmanuelists and mind-curists\nhave reached.\nThe time is at hand when these topics and eugenics will be\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "896\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\ntaught in the schools, but here, if anywhere, every worker must have special\ntraining and should earn a certificate before being permitted to enter this\nfield.\n3. The nature of the transforming era of adolescence, as it is now understood, ischanging our ideas and methods of education at this age in home,\nschool, and church and in all special and private institutions for exceptional\nyouth. Over the door of every such institution should be written, \"Let\nnot him or her who knows not the laws and facts of adolescence enter here.\"\nIt is in many respects the most plastic and vulnerable of all ages, easiest\nhelped by those who know it and easiest harmed by those who know it not.\nHo,w harmful the moral or physical trainer, or the Sunday-school teacher of\nyouth who does not understand it, and what a blessing are those true\nshepherds who can penetrate to the secret soul of the budding girl or the\nboy in the awkward age!\n4. At least I per cent., or some one hundred and seventy thousand\nAmerican children of school age, are subnormal or in some way arrested,\naltho only a small percentage of these come into institutions. I need only\nrefer to the clinical work for this class lately done by Witmer at Philadelphia, Goddard at Vineland, Healey and Macmillan at Chicago, Chase\nand O'Connor at Clark, and others in this country. Their achievements\nconstitute one of the most brilliant chapters of psychology applied with the\nmost beneficent practical results. Here we have an almost ideal relation.\nThese children are being studied more thoroly than any other class ever\nwere and they are adding much to our knowledge so that they are at the same\ntime material for research and are being helped themselves by being segregated in special classes or schools and given the special individual care they\nneed. Standards of ability, physical and mental, are being established\nfor each age, on which we can grade subnormality, and a wealth of data for\nheredity is also being slowly accumulated. Thus, it is no longer sufiicient\nto herd and care for these unfortunates. Each such child is a class by himself and must be specifically studied by the expert methods now being\nevolved; and nowhere has pedagogic genius and inventiveness accomplished\nbetter results.\n5. Again, take playgrounds, games, and toys. How grossly ignorant\nand negligent we were a few years ago until various studies of childhood\nshowed that in play children both practice and train themselves for future\nvocations and what is still more important, are rehearsing many, if not\nmost, of the practical activities and vocations of the race thru its ancient\nphyletic history! So, in right play-teaching we are working in the very\ndepths and not in the shallows of the soul. Thus we woke up to the fact\nthat many city children did not know half a dozen of the scores or hundreds\nof plays and games they should and had no place to play in. We realized\nthat if the boy without a playground did not make the man without the job,\nhe was at any rate dwarfed and distorted, if not a half-evolved being. The\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHILD\n\nWELFARE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n897\n\npresent magnificent playground movement is a direct product of the better\nknowledge of the nature and needs of the child. With what we are now\nlearning of the psychology of toys, it is easy to predict a new dispensation\nimpending in this field too, when play material shall come to its rights.\n6. The work of the Story-Tellers' League, Hbrary and other storytelling represent a contemporary revival of tiie antique method of education\nwhich was universal, for once all education was story- telling. Here pedagogic psychology has much to teach that would render this work more\neffective and intelligent concerning not only the history of the art from the\nHomeridas down, the nature of tradition, the advantages of oral-ear over\nthe later long-circuited tract of the eye that reads and the hand that\nwrites, but its best and surest teachings concern the nature of the story\nmaterial and the kind of tale that knits up the very brain itself into a betterorganized unity. Concerning the most vital point of matter, the modern\nstory-teller is usually singularly and pathetically astray. While children\ndo not want a tale with a too direct or obvious moral, every story should\nbear essentially upon conduct and form sentiment. It should be an instrument and every story-teller should be able to stand and answer as to what he\nexpects to do and to accomplish with each tale. The school canon of stories\nshould include only the best classics, standard works which introduce the\nchild into the very best things in Greek, mediaeval, and other material which\nhave shaped the masterpieces of literature, the tales of Troy, of the Greek\ndramatists, of Reynard the Fox and animal legends, the Niebelungen and\nArthuriad groups, the wandering Jew, Bible, some of Shakespeare, etc.\nStory-tellers are too prone to strive for entertainment only and be content\nto amuse, to have little idea of real edification or even what it means; and\nhere the natural corrective lies in the history of their art and in the better\nknowledge of the nature of childhood. Until this reform is effected, storytelling will never take the place it deserves in our educational system.\n7. The big-brother movement is in great need of pedagogic psychogenetic explication. Its history and its motivation date back to Plato who\nheld that it was a shame to any boy not to have an older mentor, hero,\ninspirer, and that it was a disgrace to a young man not to make himself a\nspecial ideal or spiritual father of a younger boy. This principle has a long\nhistory from the apprenticeship to the fatherland to apprenticeship to a\ntrade. It has other outcrops in a system of the personal advisers lately in\nuse in many high schools and colleges of this country, in the ancient method\nof fagging, or initiation, of the control and hazing of freshmen and all the\nmanifold monitorial care of younger by older children and youth. Indeed,\nthis is one of the ideal types of friendship and prompts the mentor to always\nbe at his best as a pattern-setter to his ward. As a godfather or guardian,\nor quasi- or supplementary parent to boys or girls, older youth are themselves given great and new reinforcements to mental and moral progress.\n8. At the opposite extreme, we have the psychology of orphans which\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "898\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nshows what fatherhood and motherhood mean by their loss, and here belong\nsad lessons of parental cruelty and abuse, the effects of disharmony between\nthe parents and divorce, also the effects of institutionalization compared\nwith the placing-out system. Defective parenthood has many outcrops\nfrom inabihty and unwillingness to nurse, which is absolutely necessary to\ncomplete motherhood and the failure to do which always involves other\nparental defects, to the problem of the duties of unwed mothers toward\ntheir children and the problem of foundUng asylums with their fearful\nmortality. Shall we rehabilitate these unfortunate mothers at the eixpense\nof their children, or shall we teach them to face the shame, retain their\nchildren, and develop them and themselves? Shall our agency content\nitself with trying to secure marriage or support from the fathers ? Upon all\nthese problems genetic psychology has distinct new light to shed which will\nmake every agency here more effective.\nThis hst of things genetic psychology is now able and wilKng to do for\nchild workers might be greatly extended were there time, and this survey is\nof course extremely inadequate.\nBut let me in closing touch more briefly a few of the challenging questions now put up to the psychologist by the practical workers in fields where\nwe have more to learn from them than to teach them, to some of which\nproblems we are still, tho not to our credit, rather dumb. Here it behooves\nus to listen, ponder, go to work and feel ourselves put on our mettle and more\nor less at fault till we can say some authoritative word. For instance, how\nshall we treat young girls in reformatories who have gone wrong and are\nso prone to relapse to vice as soon as they get out ? Our present methods\nare inadequate and radical reconstructions are now needed for this very\nunique class to whose nature and needs we cannot reason from another class.\nWe want to make these studies and to send our experts to these institutions. Again, how shall we balance up the pros and cons between those\nwho would raise the age of consent and those who deem it already in many\nplaces too high ? Once more, child labor has its advantages as well as its\nabuses. How shall we foot up this account for different industries, ages,\ncommunities, social classes, etc. Again, what shall w^e do for high-grade\nidiot girls who can just support themselves outside institutions but are prone\nto be the victims of scoundrels and mothers of human spawn of degenerates ?\nShall we keep them always sequestered or tubo-ligature them and let them\nloose, or what ? And the same in modified terms for young male imbeciles\nof this grade. Again, how can we reconstruct the juvenile court, the success of which as at present organized seems now hanging in the balance,\nfor it is in most places too much Kke an adult tribunal with sworn witnesses,\npublicity, jury, habeas corpus, appeal, when it should be based on pure\nequity principles and so organized that it can work well as a system and without being so dependent on the personaHty of the judge, who of course ought ^\nto be an ideal father for all the delinquent boys in his bailiwick, altho this •\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nWELFARE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n899\n\nrequires a supply of genius which we cannot rely upon ? Again, how can we\neliminate the evils of the placing-out system which has spread so fast and\nfar that, altho statistical data concerning its success are lacking, we are\nbeginning to hear serious reports of its evils in the way of spreading moral\ninfection ^nd of manifold bad relations between adopted and natural children ? What are the facts about the appal' ing mortahty and morbidity of\nfoundling asylums and how can both be reduced ? How can we extend the\neducative influence of moving pictures which have greater pedagogic possibihties than any invention since printing and how can we reduce their\npresent dangers to eyes and morals? But such questions are legion and\nI must close. Here child psychology has a vast and to a great extent newly\nopened field for applying what it knows and for learning more, and here all\nchild helpers can greatly increase the intelHgence and the efl&cacy of their\nwork by coming in contact with the rich store of facts and principles for\nwhich this section stands and which we in a sense hold in trust as its custodians. Here we must have a new and vital bond between knowing and doing,\nfor the two in many fields are yet sadly isolated. The National Child\nWelfare Conference is a forum where genetic psychologists work for the\nexceptional child, get together and put mutual questions, report results\nand pool their knowledge for mutual benefit. Our motto always is that\nthe cause of the child is the most precious of all the world's causes because itcontrols the future.\nHOW\nWILLIAM\n\nEVERY\n\nSCHOOL MAY BE A\nCONFERENCE\n\nCHILD\n\nWELFARE\n\nH. ALLEN, DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF MUNICIPAL\n261 BROADWAY,\nNEW YORK\nCITY\n\nRESEARCH,\n\n{Synopsis)\nOut-of-school conferences on child welfare can be successful only as they\neffect conferences on child welfare within the school and between school\nteachers and parents.\nBecause the majority of our twenty million school children are in small\ncities and rural districts, they are certain not to be fundamentally benefited\nby any conference that does not center in the schools. The same energy\nwhich an outside agency will spend in getting data for one thousand children, will interest one thousand principals in securing more complete data\nfor five hundred thousand children.\nThe teacher whose pupils present to her one hundred and ninety days\neach year the best index of how thirty to fifty families live, can accompKsh\nmore than an out-of-school conference where one hundred and ninety people listen to a lecture and adjourn to meet again another day.\nIn New York City there are two hundred and thirty members of local\nschool boards charged with the duty to learn about school progress, sanitary\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "poo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nconditions, and teaching efficiency of schools which are supposed to minister\nto nearly eight hundred thousand children. Systematically for years effort\nhas been made to prevent these local board members from knowing the\nessential facts about school progress and school problems. Snubbed and\nalmost reviled, this asset has been lost to New York City, tho potentially\nmore valuable than any national conference. As a consequence no one can\ntell the parents of New York why two hundred thousand children have\nfailed of promotion this school year, why there is a difference of one hundred\nthousand between net enrollment and average register, whether the parttime day, which New York City is spending milHons to abolish, is better\nfor the child than the full-time day, or why public imagination and sense\nof duty are focused upon giving out-of-door fresh air to a handful of children\nwhile neglecting to consider physical and mental breakdown, due to lack\nof out-of-door fresh air for huncjreds of thousands.\nTo make every school a child- welfare conference, the supreme need at\nthe present time is a demand on the part of the national and state bureaus\nof education for essential information as to the welfare of each teacher's\npupils.\nTHE\nWILLIAM\n\nH.\n\nHYGIENE\n\nBURNHAM,\n\nOF INSTRUCTION\n\nPROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY,\nWORCESTER,\nMASS.\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nTo most people school hygiene means the technique of heating, lighting,\nand ventilation, statistics in regard to children's defects and school diseases,\nand dry details in regard to seats, desks, and the like. School hygiene does\nhave to do with all this, but with much more besides. In recent years a\nnew field called the hygiene of instruction has been developed. It is based\nupon child psychology and mental hygiene. From this newer point of view\nschool hygiene is positive rather than negative, and every subject of\ninstruction, every educational principle, and every method of teaching is\nstudied with regard to its effect upon physical and mental health.\nWe often hear it said among teachers that the great aim of education is\nto teach children to think, and in pedagogical literature we are beset with\nexhortations to make our pupils think. But how is it possible to keep them\nfrom thinking ? Try your best and you cannot do it, except perhaps by\none method, namely, by trying to make them think. The really important\nquestion is how pupils think and what they think about. The aim of\neducation is to train pupils to think clearly, to think with ordinary associations, and to develop permanent interests and habits of attention. The\naim of hygiene is much the same, and the hygiene of instruction maintains\nthat the development of such habits is of vital importance to health.\nAll this has been strongly emphasized in recent years by the studies of\npsychiatry. In our hospitals and sanitariums there are multitudes of\npatients suffering from hysteria, neurasthenia, and like disorders, which\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF INSTRUCTION\n\n901\n\noften can be cured only by a process of education. The modem alienist,\nthe expert in such disorders, resorts to re-education as the best method of\ntreatment. He develops habits of attention, permanent interests in healthful activities, self-control, habits of orderly association and of normal\nreaction to feeling, and the like; and the degree of his success is measured\nby the degree in which he succeeds in this mental and moral education.\nNow a moment's reflection reminds us that most of these sufferers from\nnervous and mental disorder were a few years ago pupils in our schools, and\nprecisely these habits of attention and the rest are quite as important for\npreventing mental disorder as in the cure of such disorder. A better\nhygiene of instruction in the schools would have saved large numbers of\nthese patients from the sanitarium and the hospital for the insane.\nThe aim of the hygiene of instruction in a single word, then, is to develop\nbalance, control, normal expression of feeling, healthful interests, which are\nthe means of self-control, attention and orderly association and freedom\nfrom confusion, interference of association, confhct and repression of normal\nreactions, and straightforward thinking and acting which are the safeguard\nand guaranty of mental health.\nNow all this is delightfully vague. These are platitudes, you will say.\nVery true! But they contain the gold of wisdom tried a thousand times.\nLet us see if we can apply these principles concretely. In the ordinary\nschool work there is a good deal of inattention, lack of control, mental confusion, worry. But if we observe the play-activities of children we find it is\ndifferent. The children are attentive; they think clearly; and usually,\nexcept when in a highly organized group game they get rattled, they exhibit\nself-control. In a word we find in the child's spontaneous play a splendid\nillustration of normal mental activity. The same is true of the child's\nspontaneous motor activity in general. The attention, too, in a class in\nmanual training as compared with the inattention in the ordinary scholastic\nclass was long ago noted.\nIt is not for hygiene to say what subjects should be taught in the school;\nbut when in any subject it is impossible to get that attention, and control,\nand orderly association of ideas that is possible in play and the various\nforms of manual and industrial education, then hygiene maintains that\nsomething is wrong ; for bad habits of mental activity are being formed.\nAgain, the hygiene of instruction already has something to say about\nthe method and content of instruction. Its teaching is based on experimental studies of memory. Many psychological investigations in regard\nto the associations of children have now been made. These are important\nbecause an association experiment is really a short question under laboratory\nconditions; and the answers give such a picture of the contents of an individual's mind that such experiments have already been used to diagnose\nmental disease and to detect crime. The method is familiar. A word is\npronounced by the experimenter. The subject mentions immediately the\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "902\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nfirst word he thinks of; and the time from stimulus word to reaction is\nmeasured. The results of such experiments by Meumann and others show\ncertain noteworthy differences between children and adults.\nThe first important difference between the reproductions of the child\nand those of the adult is that in the case of the child the association reaction\ntime is much longer than in the case of the adult. This difference is so\nastonishing, says Meumann, that the experimenter often thinks that the\nreproduction is not taking its normal course, especially when difficult tasks\nare presented by the experimenter, but after a time the experimenter\nbecomes convinced that these long reproduction times are typical of the\nchild mind. In the case of the adult a free reproduction to a stimulus word\noccurs on an average in about four-tenths of a second if the association is a\nvery fluent one, and from one to two seconds when it is a difficult one. In\nthe case of children, on the other hand, the reproduction time is not infrequently from five to ten seconds.^ And further, the shorter the reaction\ntime, the less valuable is likely to be the associated word or the answer.\nThe practical inference is obvious. The questions that teachers ask are\nassociation experiments altho without controlled conditions. The prevailing custom of teachers to require pupils to answer as quickly as possible\nis in large degree a demand for what is impossible for children. So far as\nit is possible, it is likely to defeat the very end of instruction; for the\nanswer is likely to be worthless. From the point of view of hygiene it may\nresult in confusion.\nAgain according to the investigations of Ziehen and Meumann, there is\na striking difference between the kind of ideas that the child reproduces and\nthose which the adult reproduces. The child thinks more in individual,\nconcrete ideas than the adult. In the case of the latter, individual ideas\nare seldom reproduced. Meumann in many thousand reproduction experiments with adults has found very few such, often only 5 to 6 per cent, in\nthe case of a subject. The adult understands the stimulus word as a rule as\na universal and abstract word and he passes over to universal or abstract\nword meanings. It is quite different with the child. He understands the\nstimulus v/ord as a concrete individual idea.\nIt is a striking fact also that in the case of the more talented children at\nthe age of six to twelve or thirteen there is a greater preponderance of the\nindividual ideas than there is in the case of children of the same age of weak\nabihty. If in a school class there are both intelHgent and dull children,\nand they are tested by the reproduction method, the uninteUigent children,\nthe dull children, show more abstract associations than the bright. This\nresult seems to emphasize the danger of premature development of the adult\ntype. Such maturity is usually connected with intellectual inferiority. Thus\nMeumann concludes. As Meumann sums up the results, the whole ideation\nof the child is totally different from that of the adult in this respect, that it is\n'Meumann, Vol. I, p. 228.\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF INSTRUCTION\n\n903\n\nwell established physiologically and pedagogically that a child should\nremain as long as possible in the stage of concrete individual ideas. He by\nthis means acquires a great store of concrete perceptual ideas on which later\nhe can build his abstractions; and the greater the store of concrete ideas,\nthe more accurately and more securely the ideas presented are assimilated,\nthe better and sharper will be the abstract word-meaning later.^\nThe child's exasperating memory for concrete and often apparently\nunessential facts is usually normal. The teacher's emphasis upon abstract\nrelations is often wrong. Thus hygiene reviews all the methods and means\nof instruction with a view to avoiding premature or arrested development,\nmental confusion, and bad habitual thought.\nHygiene has made extended study of fatigue. It is a long story that I\nmust not try to tell here; but, while recent studies indicate that within\ncertain limits the power to resist fatigue can be increased, that even an\nactive immunity to the toxic products of fatigue can perhaps be acquired,\nwhen fatigue produces bad thinking, something is wrong with the work, or\nthe air, or the temperature, or with the teacher, or the pupil, or the surroundings, and if inattention is unavoidable it may be well to stop work altogether.\nThis has been recognized in a degree by practical pedagogy, even to the\nextent of school closure. Take, for example, the spring vacation. Why\nshould we have a vacation in the spring ? Well, first of all, certain investigations byLobsien indicate that the physical energy is at low ebb in March\nand April, and that there is a depression in the curve of psychic energy\nin April. One of our best neurologists has suggested that this may be the\nresult of an old biological rhythm; but pedagogy knows very little about\nbiological rhythms. The school was closed in the spring probably rather\nbecause of church festivals and interruption of school work, and the\nunavoidable mental confusion, or mind wandering, if you please, at this\nseason. There are, as every teacher knows, many distractions at this\nperiod — some physical, some psychic, and others ecclesiastical, industrial,\nsocial, and amatory.\nModern studies show that there are certain more common but less\nobvious evils liable to occur in school instruction. There are certain\nsecondary effects of instruction, certain by-products, to use the language of\nindustry, which are often important. Pedagogy gives special attention to\nthe primary results of instruction ; hygiene studies also the secondary effects.\nIn arithmetic, for example, we have many illustrations of these secondary effects of instruction. There are the tricks of thought, the mental\nautomatisms, which may result from the premature or undue use of certain\nmethods and devices. Dr. Triplett has studied these among normal-school\nstudents.\nAmong cases reported are the following:\nOne girl who was taught to add and subtract by the aid of an abacus says: \"For\nseveral years it was impossible for me to get away from those red and green balls, and to\nthis day I scarcely add a column without recalling them unconsciously.\"\n• Meumann, Vol. I, pp. 225-26.\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "904\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nAnother learned the digits by fitting together sliced birds and now always sees them\nin the old connection. Some write at one side the figure to be carried or make the corresponding number of marks. The \"borrow and pay back\" method of subtraction often\npersists thru the years. One student in adding counts on to the number the prongs of\nthe three or four. When paying close attention to a subject another finds herself running\nup the scale of numbers by twos, threes, or tens. Another writes one, two, three, four\ncontinually. Another writes dollar signs by the hundreds. Instead of the diflferent\ndigits some visualize corresponding groups of dots. One says, \"I always see the picture\nof the number on my fingers. When recalling a number, as 352, for example, I see the\nfirst three fingers, then the whole hand, and then the first two.\" Some see the problem\nbeing worked out on a mental blackboard. Others note the set of mind given them by\nyears of working for the answer, also the effect of using a rule not understood. Students\nwho learned the multiplication table in concert report being compelled to start at the\nbeginning and go to the combination desired.\nThe apperceptive bent given the mental reactions by continued drill in a subject is\nwell illustrated in the case of a six-year-old child [mentioned by Dr. Triplett] who was\nbeing pushed in his number work by a teacher desiring his promotion. \"Mamma,\" he\nremarked one day, \"I am getting so that when I ride or walk in the street I see the combinations inthe windows of the houses we pass.\"\n\nSuch automatisms represent often not only so much mental ballast, but\noften also interference of association and sometimes the germs of pathological neuroses.\nAgain the teacher is apt to desire above all things speed and accuracy\nin arithmetical work. Hygiene notes the secondary results of the drill\nin speed and accuracy. These results are sometimes seriously unfortunate.\nThe following concrete illustration is instructive:\nI remember [writes Miss Bradford, a teacher] a primary class that was once brought\ninto a meeting of the teachers of a certain Wisconsin city. The superintendent's purpose\nwas to illustrate the wonderful perfection in \"speed and accuracy\" to which the teacher\nhad brought her class. Long examples in addition were dictated to the children, written\non the blackboard, and computed. There was one boy who attracted particular attention.\nHe showed the high pitch of strain to which he was raised by not being still a moment —\na sort of jig being performed while the process of reckoning was going on. He usually\ncame out ahead of the others and excelled in accuracy. I was a high-school teacher long\nenough there to have this boy come into my classes for his higher mathematics. I found\nhim incapable of thinking in those subjects. My subsequent reading of child-study\ninvestigations leads me to believe that that boy was a striking illustration of arrested\ndevelopment, coming from overstimulus, and overtraining in one direction. ^\n\nHygiene always looks with grave suspicion upon such cases of arrested\ndevelopment. The attitude of sound pedagogy toward such embodiments\nof speed and accuracy was expressed by Oliver Wendell Holmes in his\nAutocrat of the Breakfast Table. Commenting on Babbage's calculating\nmachine he wrote:\nWhat a satire, by the way, is that machine on the mere mathematician! A Frankenstein monster, a thing without brains and without heart, too stupid to make a blunder;\nthat turns out results like a corn-sheller, and never grows any wiser or better, tho it grind\na thousand bushels of com.\n\nHere are speed and accuracy!\n* Mary D. Bradford, \" Reasoning in Arithmetic,\" The School Century, Vol. V, No. s, January igio,\n\np. 219.\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF INSTRUCTION\n\n905\n\nIt is the province of pedagogy to decide what shall be the content of\nthe course in arithmetic and what methods and devices shall be employed,\nas well as what results in this subject may be reasonably expected. But\npractically the whole attention of teachers seems to be directed to the\nprimary results. They consider solely the methods, the ground covered,\nthe total results in speed and accuracy. The secondary results — the habits\nof thinking formed, the mental automatisms acquired, the possible arrests\nof development, and the Hke — they do not attend to and they cannot see;\nand often they are innocently and profoundly ignorant of the possibilities\nof their existence.\nSchool hygiene has no quarrel with arithmetic. It does not object to\ndrill nor to the devotion of a reasonable amount of time to the subject;\nbut it does insist that the obvious dangers to health connected with this\nstudy in the case of some children should be duly regarded, and it insists\nthat in all cases the secondary results of the instruction should not be\nignored.\nThus in general hygiene looks with grave suspicion upon premature\nmental development of any kind before there is a sufficient basis of concrete experience.\nThe hygiene of instruction insists that the aim of school education\nshould be the development of healthful habits of mental activity. It takes\nup the doctrine long ago taught by ethics and just as the older moralists\ninsisted that in youth are developed those habits which determine character\nin adult life, so hygiene maintains that in the early years are developed\nthose habits which insure health or ill-health in adult life. And while the\nhabits of healthful physical activity must largely be determined by the\nhome, the healthful habits of mental activity should be determined and\nmay be determined in large part by the school.\nAmong the concrete suggestions of the hygiene pf instruction, then, are\nthe following:\n1. The ideal of mental activity in the schools is that illustrated by children in their\nplay and spontaneous motor activity.\n2. The association reaction time of children is much longer than that of adults. Do\nnot strive for the quickest possible answer.\nIt is very likely to be worthless.\n3. A child's concrete individual memory is usually normal; a memory for abstract\nterms seems likely to be a mark of premature development and of intellectual inferiority.\n4. Hygiene teaches that within certain limits immunity to fatigue can be acquired;\nbut when in the school inattention and interference of association become unavoidable,\nit advises the teacher to stop and find out the cause.\n5. While pedagogy weighs the primary results of instruction, hygiene demands that\nthe secondary results, which are often of grave significance for health, should not be ignored.\nDISCUSSION\nDr. G. Stanley Hall, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. — The average teacher\nis not able to add anything to our knowledge of the child because she is so bound by other\nduties and routine.\nNow and then a teacher breaks away and does good things, but the\nproblem is largely one for experts.\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChOd-Study\n\nMiss Pearl Boggs, professor-elect of education, Nankin, China. — My interest in\nchild welfare arose very largely from the questions which parents and social workers with\nchildren were constantly asking in regard to practical matters concerning children for\nwhich no Answers were to be found in the textbooks of psychology. We need a broader\nstudy of all problems relating to childhood, such as the Child Welfare Conference brought\ntogether. And let me beg that teachers shall not take school too seriously. After all, the\nhome has the most vital influence because it has the child before the age of six, the most\nimportant period from the standpoint of morals and health. The teacher would find\nhalf her problems solved if only home conditions were right. Our greatest problem, then,\nis how to reach the home. In New York instruction is being given to girls in the upper\ngrades of the public schools in the hygiene of the home life. Not all of us teachers, however, are qualified to give such instruction, nor indeed instruction in school hygiene so\nthat singling out this one problem of hygiene from the many welfare problems, let us try\nto answer the question of how we shall carry out some of the wonderful suggestions received\nat such meetings as these. I therefore bespeak your hearty co-operation and support\nfor the projected plan of introducing into our normal schools and colleges of education a\nwider study of hygiene and better methods in its teaching. I think of three great organizations now working for this end and there are doubtless others.\n\nCHILD\nF.\n\nSTUDY\nE.\n\nAND\n\nSPAULDING,\n\nSCHOOL ORGANIZATION\nTRATION\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nAND\nNEWTON,\n\nADMINISMASS.\n\nThe study of the child — from whatever standpoint and with whatever\npurpose — always raises this one fundamental issue: the needs, the rights,\nthe welfare of the child, in opposition to all and every antagonistic interest\nand tendency. In the subject before us, this universal issue formulates\nitself in this question: Which shall dominate and which shall serve, the\ntradition and routine, the machinery of school organization and administration, or the highest welfare of the child — not the mythical, abstract,\naverage child, distinguished merely as one €hild-unit, but the real, concrete,\nindividual child ?\nUp to the present time, for the most part, that machinery has run on\nwith slight interruption and with but little adjustment to that real individual child's welfare. Child study has influenced the organization and\nadministration of schools much less than it has the attitude and the work of\nthe teacher. This condition is perhaps due mainly to two closely related\ncauses: first, the irresponsiveness of school administrators who are necessarily occupied largely with general problems and principles, and who come\nlittle into sympathetic contact with individual children; and second, the\nlack of much practical aid from the expert, professional students of the child.\nThe pedagogic lessons of most of the many invaluable studies of children\nare apparently for the teacher — and are urged upon the teacher — rather\nthan on the school administrator. The latter, it is true, is subject to much\nnot wholly just criticism because of the administrative obstacles which he\nis supposed to place — thoughtlessly, if not even mahciously — in the path\nof the teacher enthusiastic in pursuit of the ideal.\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n907\n\nBoth the professional student of children and the teacher animated\nwith the spirit and practicing the lessons of child study are inclined to\nregard the organization and administration of schools as necessary evils.\nNecessary they certainly are and always will be; evil they often are and\nwill continue to be, until we learn to make the influences of organization\nand administration minister positively to the welfare of the individual child.\nTo learn how to do this, we must study the child from the standpoint and\nin the light of the problems of the school administrator as we have thus far\nstudied the child mainly from the standpoint and in the light of the problems of the teacher.\nWhile, on the whole, the school administrator has lagged far behind the\nbest teachers in making the influences of his work contribute much and\npositively to the welfare of the individual child, yet there are increasingly\nmany and hopeful signs that this condition is not to continue indefinitely.\nHere and there, one phase or another of school administration and organization isbeing subordinated and adapted to the real needs of real children,\nin ways and with results that inspire confidence that ultimately our schools\nmay be completely organized and administered, as well as taught, in the\nhighest interest of every pupil. It is the purpose of this paper to irect\nattention briefly to a few of the most important factors of school administration and organization, as seen from the standpoint of the superintendent,\nto show their relations to the needs of children as individuals, and to indicate at least the direction of development and adjustment necessary to\nmake these contribute positively and directly to the highest welfare of all\nchildren coming under their influence.\nAll the lessons and the whole spirit of child study demand of the school\nadministrator that he establish clearly and consciously as the fundamental\npurpose and aim of the great educational enterprise which he directs the\nfullest possible development of every child in the community, each according to his capacity and need; that he so organize and administer the schools\nthat every child — the normal and the abnormal, the subnormal and supernormal, the active and the passive, the quick and the slow — may be given\nthe opportunity and the inspiration, that every child may be compelled,\nif need be, to make the most of the powers with which he was endowed by\nnature, to the end that he may develop the largest capacity for service to\nsociety and to himself. This purpose and aim of public education is radically different from the routine, traditional idea of teaching the elements\nof a few subjects to all children aHke; the one is living, growing, adaptable,\nstimulating to thought, investigation, and ever more efficient practice;\nthe other is fixed, dead, discouraging of thought and observation, repressive\nof all change.\nTaken as a practical guide, the fundamental purpose of making the most\nof every child, according to his capacity, has a most profound, often a revolutionizing effect, on every phase of the organization and administration\nof schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nThis purpose establishes a rational and progressive standard by which\nto determine the amount of financial support to be given to education.\nIn the light of this standard, the taxpayer is called upon to answer such\nquestions as these : How much money is needed to provide for the adequate\ndevelopment of every child in this community ? How much can be profitably invested in this development? What portion of the resources of\nthis community can be wisely devoted to this purpose ? These questions\nare very different from the far more familiar ones. What is the tax-rate ?\nWhat was the appropriation last year ? What is the expenditure per pupil\ncompared with that of ten or twenty-five years ago ? What is this, that,\nor the other city expending per pupil ? How does the appropriation for\nschools compare with that for the maintenance of other departments of the\nmunicipal government ? The former questions tend to establish the educational enterprise on the solid foundation of a progressive, productive,\nprofitable industry, carried on according to sound business principles of\ninvestment and development; the latter questions suggest merely the cost\nand the burden of a compulsory undertaking to be discharged with the\nsmallest expenditure.\nThe functioning purpose of making the most of every child inspires and\njustifies the differentiation of schools, which is now taking place rather\nrapidly and hopefully in the most progressive communities. Intelligent\nregard for the diversified needs of all children and youth of a community\nis at once impressed with the utter insufiiciency of the typical elementary\nand high school. To these must be added a whole graded series of industrial, trade, commercial, and technical schools; schools of all the applied\narts; special schools for backward, subnormal, abnormal, and diseased\nchildren; schools for the blind, the deaf, the halt; home schools for waifs\nand outcasts; schools for immigrants; evening, vacation, part-time, and\ncontinuation schools; and undoubtedly schools whose purpose and characteristics have not yet been even ghmpsed, whose need has not yet been\nsuspected.\nConsistent and courageous pursuit of this administrative purpose of\nproviding adequately for the best development of every child will prove\nno less quickening when directed toward the functions and relations of all\nthese differentiated schools — toward their relations to each other, to the\nchildren, and to the interests of the community. It will see to it that both\nthe spirit and the practice of co-operation prevail thruout the system of\nschools, that they may form really a living school organism. It will tolerate no antagonistic rivalries between the classical, technical, vocational,\nor other members of this organism. It will ever insist that the function\nand sole justification of each member is to serve the development of certain\nchildren, under certain conditions, never, from selfish motives, to usurp the\nfunctions or to lure the children of another member — such usurpation and\nlurement is always at a sacrifice of the children's welfare.\nIt will insist,\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentI\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF THE\n\nCHILD\n\n909\n\nfurther, that the function of every member of this school organism is the\nservice of the children for whose benefit it is maintained, not the service of\nmechanical, irrational, and outgrown standards, rules, and regulations. To\nbe more specific, by way of illustration, it will insist that the high school\nwelcome and serve every boy and girl of the age and capacity to profit by\nhigh-school instruction and associations; that it will welcome and serve\nthe earnest pupil who can pursue but one subject as well as those who take\na \"regular\" course.\nThe unremitting pursuit of this purpose of adequate individual service\nwill insure that no child be rejected from any part of the school system\nexcept on the ground that some other part can serve that child better; that\nthe child rejected in this part be immediately accepted in that. From the\nschool system as a whole there must be no discards.\nFor the sake of the child, the schools, in their organization and administration, must be in constant living touch with the interests and needs of\nthe community and the homes. Even the wants, the demands, of the\ncommunity and of the individual parent, mistaken tho they be, must be\nconsidered, must often be allowed, even graciously allowed, to shape somewhat the administrative policy of the schools. For, be it ever remembered\nby the school administrator, the only sure foundation on which can be done\nany permanently progressive work for the children is the appreciative\nsentiment of the people of the community.\nAn intimate understanding of the individual child, of his characteristics, natural capacity and inclination, and of the needs of service which\nthat child, by education, may become capable of rendering, is the basis\non which must be determined the studies, the instruction and training which\nthat child should have. So, an intimate knowledge of the characteristics\nand needs of all the children of a community, and of the services which those\nchildren, by education, may become fitted to render to that community\nand to society at large, is the sound basis on which to construct the curriculum of the school system. That curriculum must be sufficiently broad,\nvaried, and extensive to afford to every child in the school system just the\nopportunity which that child needs; more than this, and even more important, that curriculum must be so administered that every child actually gets\nthe largest benefit. We are making doubtful progress when we enlarge and\ndiversify our curricula far beyond the capacity of any one child to master,\nif we do not at the same time enlarge our sympathies and intensify our\ninsight into the diversity of individual children's needs, and shape the\nadministration of our curricula accordingly. A rich, modern curriculum,\nadministered in the spirit that fittingly accompanied the ancient curriculum\nuniformly prescribed in toto for every child, is fraught with serious danger.\nJust how far the curriculum should be uniform for all children, just where\ndiversity should begin, whether at the end of the eighth, of the sixth, or of\nany other year is a matter to be determined by the unbiased study of the\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "9to\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nneeds of the children concerned and of local conditions. Present interest\nand experiments in the matter are encouraging. It is quite safe to predict\nthat this point of diversification, whether expressed in years or in subjectmatter, will not be found everywhere the same; it is even safer to predict\nthat wherever this point is found in any school system, the needs of many\nindividual pupils will be best served by ignoring it. There is this important lesson from child study which we school administrators have yet\nlargely to learn and to put into practice — that the age, maturity, economic\nand social conditions of a given child are more important in determining\nthe next step in that child's education than are the school grades which he\nhas passed.\nIn closest alliance with the enrichment and diversification of curricula\nand their adaptation to individual needs, is the work suggested by the\nterm \"vocational direction,\" which has come recently to receive so much\nattention. Here is a great new problem, a problem for the school administrator, the teacher, and the citizen, the largest and most promising new\nproblem now appearing above the educational horizon. To many, vocational direction means only aiding the boy and girl, at the last moment,\nin \"getting a job,\" limited, for the most part, to the poor boy and girl leaving\nschool as soon as the law allows. Such aid is important, and should be\nrendered most generously; but this aid is quite superficial in comparison\nwith the rich, practical possibilities that ought to be suggested by this idea\nof vocational direction. To the school administrator, vocational direction\nmust become as large an idea as that for which the whole educational enterprise ismaintained. Vocational direction is one aspect of the great purpose of making the most of every child. Vocational direction must begin\nyears before any particular occupation can be wisely anticipated for a\ngiven child. It must begin with an intimate, sympathetic study of the\nchild's characteristics, inclinations, and possibilities; it must be continued\nthru instruction and training best adapted to the development of that\nparticular child; it must open up to the child, as he becomes capable of\nunderstanding, the rich opportunities of service which the world offers;\nit must teach the child to appreciate his own capacity, his own possibiKties\nof rendering service; it must inspire the child with an intelligent desire to\nmake himself capable of the highest service; it must finally, when the\ntime comes for the child to end, or to interrupt his schooling, co-operate\nwith the child in securing that service for which he is best fitted, that\nservice whose conditions and influences will best prepare for ever higher\nservice; it must then follow the child, indefinitely, with tactful, enlightening, and inspiring counsel.\nThe limits of this paper, which are almost reached, make it impossible\nto do more than suggest the determining influence of child study on a few\nmore of the scores of perpetual problems of administration and organization\nno less important than those already discussed. Enlightened regard for the\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF THE\n\nCHILD\n\n9II\n\nchildren's health and physical well-being is a factor of rapidly growing\ninfluence. Evidences of this are seen not merely in the direct measures\nthat are taken to estabHsh, maintain, and improve the health of the child,\nsuch as periodical, thoro examination of every child by a physician, daily\nmedical inspection, the work of the school nurse in school and in home,\nthe examination and care of eyes, ears, throat, nose, and teeth, individually\nprescribed exercises to correct physical defects and to make strong the\nweak, the feeding of the starved, open-air schools for the tuberculous, but\nequally in the form and modifications of almost every feature of the organization and administration of schools. Hygienic considerations are rightly\ncoming more and more to dictate not merely the location, size, shape, and\nconstruction of school buildings, their heating, lighting, ventilation, seating,\nand equipment, but the curriculum, the daily program, the number and\nlength of daily sessions, terms, and vacations.\nIt may be of interest to note here a plan of daily sessions in the elementary schools of the city of Newton which was worked out thru several\nyears' study and experiment — a plan which is unusual, possibly unique.\nThe sessions are as follows in the grammar grades: eight-thirty to twelve\non every school day, and one-thirty to three-thirty on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. In the primary grades the morning session closes at\neleven-forty-five; otherwise the hours are the same as for the grammar\ngrades. Tuesday and Thursday afternoons are free from all regular school\nwork. The daily program is constructed with regard to the working\ncapacity of pupils at these hours. This plan has been in operation in all\nof the Newton schools for two years, in a few of them for a longer period.\nI have no time to tell of its advantages, hygienic and otherwise. I will\nonly say that it meets with the almost universal approval of teachers,\nparents, and pupils, which means much to one familiar with the constant,\nand more or less justified, criticism of both the one-session, and the twosession plans which had previously obtained.\nThe ultimate test of every scheme of grading and promoting is its effect\non every individual child concerned. So, too, the size and organization of\nclasses, the merits and defects of class and departmental work, are matters\nto be studied and determined from the standpoint of the children rather\nthan that of the smooth-running machinery of organization, whose ideal is\nthe handling of large masses at a minimum of expenditure of money,\neffort, and pains.\nThe few phases only of the many-sided, complex work of school administration and organization, which I have been able to touch in this brief\npaper, are typical of all the rest in this respect, that intelligent, patient,\nsympathetic, unremitting child study is everywhere the condition of wise\naction. And today, after twenty years of the splendid, enthusiastic, practically fruitful study of children thruout the land, which has done more for\neducational progress during this time than all other movements combined.\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "912\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nthe school organizer and administrator still needs, above all else, to catch\nthe spirit, to get the point of view, to do some of the work, and to apply\nthe results of child study. It is popular to censure and deplore the thoughtless, routine, mechanical work of the \"average\" classroom teacher; but I\ncan tell you from my experience, that thoughtlessness, routine, and mechanism are quite as common in the organization and administration of our\nschools, and far more to be deplored, because it conditions in large measure\nthe work and spirit of every classroom in the school system.\nIt is of the utmost importance that professional students of children\ndo for the school administrator what they have long been doing for the\nteacher, that they make clear to him the effects on the child of the various\nplans and measures of organization, that they inspire him to master and use\nfor the positive benefit of every child the necessary machinery of organization and administration. I appeal for this outside aid to the school administrator, because he is rarely strong enough alone to break the bonds of servitude to routine, which the thoughtless sentiment and the inertia of the\nwhole community, teachers included, almost universally support.\nWHAT\nHENRY\n\nH.\n\nCAN\n\nTHE\n\nGODDARD,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPUBLIC SCHOOL\nCHILDREN?\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF\n\nFOR FEEBLE-MINDED\n\nDO FOR SUBNORMAL\n\nPSYCHOLOGICAL\nBOYS\n\nAND\n\nRESEARCH,\n\nGIRLS, VINELAND,\n\nTRAINING\nN.J.\n\nIn this paper we shall make no attempt at a logical classification or\ndefinition of normal and subnormal children. It is sufficient for the\npresent purpose if we understand by a subnormal child one who is unable\nto do school work at the usual rate, or any child who is behind his grade.\nWe shall then subdivide these into the temporarily subnormal, or retarded,\nand the permanently subnormal, or arrested.\nThe temporarily subnormal children are those whose backwardness is\ndue to sickness, physical impairment, or unfavorable environment. When\nthe cause is removed the child progresses at a normal rate.\nThe permanently subnormal children, if not at once totally arrested,\nare at least permanently retarded so that while not absolutely standing still\nthey yet progress but slowly and become increasingly below the normal\nchild of corresponding age, finally becoming completely arrested. These\nare the feeble-minded.\nThe feeble-minded may be divided into: (i) Those who are totally\narrested before the age of three so that they show the attainment of a twoyear-old child or less; these are the idiots. (2) Those so retarded that\nthey become permanently arrested between the ages of three and seven;\nthese are imbeciles. (3) Those so retarded that they become arrested\nbetween the ages of seven and twelve; these were formerly called feebleminded, the same term that is applied to the whole group.\nWe are now\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF SUBNORMAL\n\nCHILD\n\n913\n\nproposing to call them morons, this word being the Greek for \"fool.\"\nThe English word \"fool\" as formerly used describes exactly this grade of\nchild — one who is deficient in judgment or sense.\nWe are considering, therefore, in this paper, three of these groups:\n(i) the temporarily subnormal; (2) the morons; and (3) the imbeciles.\nThe idiots never get into the public schools. They are too low-grade.\nThe truant, incorrigible, and dullard may belong to any one of these three\ngrades. The truant is usually temporarily subnormal, sometimes a moron.\nThe incorrigible and dullard are sometimes temporarily subnormal, but\nmore often are morons, or imbeciles.\nSo much for our terminology.\nIt would seem to be self-evident that the public schools should give\nspecial attention to every child that is a year or more behind grade. Generally a sufl&cient reason can be found for this backwardness. If it is defective sight or hearing, we send him to a specialist. If the reason lies in\nprevious sickness or in the environment, irregularity of attendance or\nchange from one city system to another, the knowledge of the cause is\nsufficient explanation and the child is not considered to need the special\ncare.\nIf no cause such as these can be discovered, then we must conclude that\nthe child is either a moron or an imbecile. Such children will always be\nbehind and will finally stop development completely some time before they\nare twelve years of age. The resulting grade of the child depends, as will\nbe seen from our classification, upon the period at which complete arrest\nof development takes place. If he becomes arrested at six he is an imbecile. Ifhe keeps on developing until somewhere between seven and twelve,\nhe becomes a moron or high-grade feeble-minded child who can be trained\nto do a great many things, but can never be made normal and competent\nto take care of himself, without direction.\nStatistics make it very evident that from i to 2 per cent, of all school\nchildren belong to this type of feeble-minded. This fact we have been very\nslow to realize. We know many children do not get on but we excuse\nthem.\nEveryone who has had even a modicum of experience either in the\npublic or private schools knows that there are children for whom the routine\nwork of the public-school system is not adapted, to whom it does not appeal,\nand does not bring out any latent powers that they may have. This has\nalways been recognized and the explanation has frequently been sought\neither in the deficient teacher who has been unable to make her subject\ninteresting, or in a bad system which does not adapt itself to the children,\nor in fact in anything, as a rule, except the child itself. Very seldom have\nwe considered that the reason for the child's not progressing normally may\nbe that the child himself has a subnormal capacity.\nThe writer has been studying this problem for four years, having lived\nduring that time in intimate association with children that have been proved\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "914\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nfeeble-minded. As the result of this ^tudy certain things have been discovered. We have accumulated a mass of facts and many evidences that\nthese children are distinctly and emphatically different from normal children, altho in many ways they look and act like them.\nI shall refer only briefly to some of the studies which have given us this\nconviction. We have collected measurements of weight and height of\nnearly ten thousand feeble-minded children. These we have divided into\nthe idiot class, the imbeciles, and the morons. We have plotted the curves\nof growth for each of these groups. We shall consider here only the highgrade group that so closely resembles the slow children that we have in\nour public schools. It is therefore of special significance if we discover\nthat these children show deviations from the normal, when they are examined in groups sufficiently large to bring out their characteristics. In the\ncase of growth they do show this very decidedly. The curves indicate\nthat these children are more variable in their growth; but more significant\nis the fact that they cease growing from two to three years earlier than the\nnormal children. Thus they are subnormal in the matter of growth altho\nit does not show during school age. I am speaking of the morons only.\nThe lower grades are much more below normal.\nWe have also tested their will-power as manifested in their abihty to\nsqueeze the dynamometer. Here again we find that our very best children\nhave a capacity of from 20 to 30 per cent, of that of normal children.\nAnother line of work in which we are getting facts that are of interest\nand importance in more ways than that now under consideration is the\nheredity of these children. This can be shown to be vastly inferior to that\nof the majority of normal children, and the condition is transmissible.\nTime forbids me to mention other tests whereby we have demonstrated\nthat these children are different from normal children and require special\ncare.\nWHAT\n\nCAN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nDO FOR\n\nTHESE\n\nCHILDREN\n\n?\n\nFirst, they must be removed from the regular classes. One of these\nchildren will easily take as much time of the teacher as four normal children\nwhile he may cause her as much disturbance and mental fatigue as all of the\nrest of the school. Indeed, I have never found a teacher who was not willing to take five normal bright children in place of one of these backward\nor defective ones.\nThese children must be taken out of the regular grades, grouped together\nand given a special instructor who has been trained to understand them and\ndeal with them in accordance with their natures.\nNo school system of five hunderd children can afford not to have its\nspecial class. There may be only five children, and it will be necessary\nto employ a special teacher for these, but the gain not only to them but\nto the normal children will be so great that it will more than repay any\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF SUBNORMAL\n\nCHILD\n\n915\n\nseeming excess of expense. Any superintendent who thinks he does not\nhave any such children in his school is sadly mistaken. From i to 2 per\ncent, of the children of every school are mentally defective.\nHOW\n\nSHALL\n\nA\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASS\n\nBE\n\nFORMED?\n\nThe first objection that is usually met with from superintendents and\nschool boards is the difiiculty of getting parents to accede to the plan.\nThey fear that it will be called the \"fool-class,\" and will bring them or\ntheir associates into disrepute, or will, as they say, put a stigma on the\nchild for life. This is wholly a matter of procedure; badly done it will\nmean all of this and more; rightly done it will mean none of this, but\nactually its opposite. The parents will approve and be gratified and\ndelighted at the results.\nYou will recall that when the Greek poet was asked to write an ode to\nthe mule, and was offered an unjustly small compensation, he began his\npoem, \"Hail, to the half-asses.\" When later his dissatisfied employers\ndecided to give him an adequate compensation he appeared with a beautiful poem beginning, \"To the daughters of the fleet-footed steed.\"\nMake the special class Hke the regular class in everything but rate of\nprogress and you- emphasize the dullness of the pupils. Make it so thoroly\ndifferent in outward appearance as well as inward plan — a class where the\nchildren are happy because they succeed — and you emphasize the pleasant\nside.\nWHO\n\nSHALL\n\nBE\n\nPUT\n\nINTO\n\nTHESE\n\nCLASSES?\n\nThose who ought to be put into them are all that are not profiting by\nthe instruction given in the regular class. As a matter of practical execution, however, it usually happens that these classes are formed a few at a\ntime. And when we cannot take all of the backward or defective children\nthe question arises, which ones should be selected first. In most places the\nworst cases are taken first. This is the wise plan.\nHOW\n\nSHALL THE CLASS BE CONDUCTED ? WHAT\nSTUDY ?\n\nSHALL BE THE COURSE OE\n\nThis is too large a question to be discussed elaborately, but I may make\na few suggestions. The question of whether the parents approve of this\nclass, or whether the children approve of it, whether they call it the \"fool\nclass\" or not, whether the teacher enjoys it or becomes discouraged, is largely\na question of what is done in the special class. As long as the motto of the\nspecial class is, \"as nearly like the regular class as possible,\" everybody will\nbe dissastisfied and discouraged. To attempt to give these children the\nsame thing that they were being given in the normal class, allowing only\nthat they should take a longer time for doing it, is a mistake. They cannot\ndo these things. They must be given something that they can do. Were\nthere time I could give my demonstrations; as it is I can only tell you that\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "91 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nwe have found that the reading, writing, and number work of these children,\nwhile it sometimes looks good, is really mostly rote work and of no permanent value to them.\nWe have tested this carefully.\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nThe last topic that I shall consider is first in importance — the teacher.\nNo grade in the entire system requires such perfection in the teacher as the\nspecial class. The teacher of the normal child finds her greatest help in\nthe fact that she herself has been a child; that she has been educated in a\nschool system that is as good as we have been able to evolve.\nNow the teacher of the special child has none of this to fall back on.\nIn fact the conditions are exactly opposite. She is teaching a child, the\nlike of which she has hardly ever seen, a child whose nature she cannot\nunderstand from her own experience. She has to deal with a child that has\nnot developed up to that point where he learns from his environment.\nHe has not the same instincts and tendencies as the normal child. He is not\nappealed to in the usual way. He has a few years for growth and development in which, if wisely handled, he may learn many things that shall\nmake his after-life somewhat more happy and comparatively useful. If\nthis time is wasted and he does not learn these things then not only he loses\nbut society also loses.\nAgain, the task of this teacher is two-fold. She must know first the\nnormal child in order to have a standard, but she must also know the\nfeeble-minded child in order to know the character of the child before her.\nNo one can be thoroly successful with a special class who does not know\nintimately all the gradations and degrees and pecuharities of subnormal\nchildren. These must be known by actual experience and observation.\nSecondly, she must know the mental processes of such children. She must\nknow at what points they would be expected to differ from normals. She\nmust be able to recognize in the expressions and activities of these children,\nthe characteristic forms of the various mental processes as they appear\nin defectives.\nIt goes without saying that she must have large patience, great love for\nthe child, and a high purpose, an appreciation of the great moral and social\nproblems involved, of the relation of such children to society in general,\nand to the other problems which society is attempting to solve.\nHOW\n\nSHALL\n\nWE\n\nOBTAIN\n\nSUCH\n\nTEACHERS?\n\nWe have normal schools for the training of teachers, and we have university departments of pedagogy for training superintendents, principals,\nand teachers, but almost nowhere in the world is there an opportunity for\nteachers to learn to understand the defective and feeble-minded child, and\nhow to train him. Normal schools might give some attention to the sub- ject. A very few do attempt it. But the normal school must have its\nmodel school, and where is the model school for the teachers of mental\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\nI\n\nDepartment)\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nSUBNORMAL\n\nCHILD\n\n917\n\ndefectives? Nowhere except in the institutions for the feeble-minded.\nThere is only one place in the country where teachers are being trained for\nthis work, with a model school to work in. The situation seems almost\nhopeless, but we have over thirty institutions for the feeble-minded in the\nUnited States. Every one of these might become a model school for observation byprospective teachers.\nMost of all, teachers must feel that there is a demand for this sort of\nwork.\nThis leads us to a consideration of the compensation. It goes without\nsaying that great attainments must be highly compensated. We cannot\nexpect a teacher to go into these special classes after having devoted her\ntime to this very special training, and work for the same salary that can\nbe obtained by the teacher who has done nothing in the way of special\neducation beyond the normal school.\nThe wisest thing that boards of education can do is to make the\nsalary of the special teacher distinctly higher than that of the normal\nteacher, and thus offer an adequate inducement to good people to prepare\nthemselves for this work. It should be at least 25 per cent, higher than\nfor regular grade work.\nBut what can be done at once ? What can be done before the provision\ncan be made for this special training of the teacher of the special class?\nI would make this suggestion. There should be selected the most successful teachers from the grades who have worked with normal children from\nthe first to the fourth grade — teachers, of course, who love children and\nhave all the heart-qualities. If these teachers can then spend even a little\ntime in an institution for the feeble-minded, so much the better. If they\nare ambitious and in earnest they can secure direction as to what to read\nand in this way fit themselves fairly well for the work. Such a teacher\nwill then be placed in charge of the class with the opportunity to study the\nclass, study the individuals, and work out her own problem. But if this\nplan is to be successful, such a teacher must be placed in absolute charge\nof the class, and become her own manager. She must be regarded as an\nexpert and her judgment must be accepted, unless, indeed, her superior\nofficers have had the experience, which we have outlined as the ideal one,\nand really do know more about the problem than she.\nThe one thing that spoils the whole work, is for the principal or supervisor to require of this teacher that which cannot be accomplished with\nsuch children.\nThis is, in my judgment, the explanation of the failure of the special\nclasses in those schools where they seem not to have been successful. The\nteachers of those children were, either consciously or unconsciously, held\nup to a standard of work which could not be accomplished. Such a class\nmust be turned over to the teacher absolutely. With the rightly trained\nteacher this is safe. It will not happen that she will simply amuse and\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "91 8\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nentertain the class all day long. Results will be accomplished, altho perhaps not the result that the ordinary teacher or superintendent usually\nexpects. For example, it might be like this: the mother of one of our\nchildren visited the child some six months after his admission to the institution. Her comment of the child's progress during the time is suggestive.\nShe said, \"Nobody knows better than I that mine was the worst child that\nyou could possibly have in the institution. I find him now less able to\nread and write but able to do many things that I did not expect he would\never be able to do. Six months ago he was a little animal, he is now a little\nboy.\"\nThere is one other question of a good deal of importance. \"How long\nshall these children be kept in the special class?\" \"When shall they be\nturned out of the public school ?\" The answer to this question cannot be\ngiven until we recall the fact that these children as a rule can never take\ncare of themselves. They can never be self-supporting except under direction. If left to themselves, if compelled to guide their own lives, they\nmake shipwreck. They become our paupers and criminals. What, under\nthese conditions, can we do ? We must not let go of these children until\nwe know that they are reasonably safe, even if we have to keep them in the\npublic school as long as they live. It is vastly better for society to do this\nthan turn them out and later have to take care of them in almshouses or\njails.\nLet me now resume briefly the points that I would like to make in this\npaper:\nFirst, the public school can do a service to society second to none by\ntaking care of this group of children who would otherwise be uncared for\nand would become a burden.\nThese children are the dullards and backward children that are found\nin the public-school system, and are being ruined by our present system of\ntrying to make them normal.\nContrary to the understanding and belief of most people a very large\npercentage of these children are absolutely feeble-minded. They can never\nbe brought up to a point where they can compete with normal people in the\nstruggle for existence. They must, therefore, be provided for by special\nmethods and special training.\nThe special-class teacher should be given not more than twelve such\nchildren.\nThis class should be housed in a large, light, airy room, equipped with\nbenches and tables and all necessary material for all kinds of manual work.\nThis teacher or the expert supervisor should be the sole judge of the\ncurriculum and of the results.\nIf all of the backward children cannot be provided for at once the worst\ncases should be taken first in order to relieve the public-school system of\nits most hampering element.\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nSUBNORMAL\n\nCHILD\n\n919\n\nIf all are taken at once, or as they come into the system, they may be\ngraded somewhat according to mental ability. This gradation can be\ndetermined by the use of some of the tests now used for measuring intelligence, notably the Binet tests published in 1908.\nThere should be no age-limit when these children are to be turned out\ninto the world. They should be kept in the public school until those who\nunderstand the case can feel perfectly certain that it is reasonably safe to put\nthe child into the care of the parents or of someone who will employ him and\ngive him careful oversight and attention to see that he does not go astray.\nOnly thus can society be safe from the dangers that arise from mental\nincompetency.\nDISCUSSION\nGeorge W. Twitmyer, superintendent of schools, Wilmington, Del. — We have no\ngenerally accepted standard of normality and subnormahty by which we may readily\nrecognize what constitutes the normal or the subnormal child, and we have no accepted,\nstandardized universal tests of mental ability or mental efficiency by which any and every\nchild may be classed definitely or surely as normal or subnormal. It is true that Binet\nin France and Lay and Meumann in Germany have done something toward establishing\ncertain norms, but the results of their experiments are not yet available or generally usable\nin everyday school work. The terms normal and subnormal, except in the highly gifted\nor in the markedly defective and feeble-minded, are still largely relative terms. There\nis not much difficulty in classifying children who are fortunate or unfortunate enough to\nfind themselves at one or the other extreme of the arc, not much difficulty in determining\nwhat to do with them, but what of the great number between these two extremes ?\nIf we keep clearly in mind what the public school should do for all children, then we\nshall be able to derive some basic principle that will serve us in determining our prodecure.\nIt is the function of the public school to put the child in possession of himself — of his\npowers — so that he may know the means and seize the opportunity for the care of his\nbody, for the development of his mind, and the enlargement of his moral nature.\nThe paramount problem of the school today is that of prevention and cure. It is\nthe problem of recognizing physical, mental, moral, or social defect in its early stages,\nof alleviating it, of curing it if possible; or if it is not curable, the problem is that of segregation. The imperative duty of the public school today is to diagnose, that is, to recognize and identify bodily defects, deformities, and illness and deviations from normal\ndevelopment which may produce mental, moral, or social disturbances. Physical defects,\nmental defects, and moral delinquencies are nearly always correlative. The teacher must\nlearn to recognize physical defects, the physical stigmata which are indicative of certain\nmental conditions and attitudes, fixed tastes, and abnormal habits; he must be able to\nrecognize the handicaps of the dull, the stupid, the unresponsive, and the hopeless. These\nare at once the teacher's despair and opportunity — despair because of the magnitude of\nthe problem, what to do with the unfortunates; and at the same time a marvelous opportunity ofremoving in some degree the causes that are shutting out light and life and surely\ndragging them down hopelessly into a sort of human rubbish pile from which there is no\nescape.\nNow what can the teacher do? Having diagnosed, thru intelligent, sympathetic\nstudy and careful tests all of the physical defects in the class, she must have a personal\ninterview with the parents and, if possible, persuade them to procure medical, surgical,\nmechanical, or other aid for the several defects of the children. Diagnosis must be followed\nby remedial measures. All of this work will require large intelligence, courage, time,\nenergy, a personal sacrifice of comfort, and a most sacred devotion to the welfare of the\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "920\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nchildren. Not all parents will think kindly of the teacher's suggestions; they will sometimes regard them as an intrusion into affairs that concern the home only, but the more\nintelligent of the parents will generally be quite ready to do what they can to help their\nchildren into better mental life thru the bettering of physical conditions. This the school\nmust do as the first step, and all schools so disposed can by intelligent, persistent, and\ndetermined effort bring about wonderful results in the improved mental life in the schools.\nWe have done some things in our city toward caring for our subnormal children; we\nhave just made a beginning and what we have done can easily be done by other cities or\nschool systems. We began eight years ago by reducing the number of pupils per teacher\nfrom fifty-five and sixty to forty- two; our average last year was thirty- two. This made\nit possible for the teacher to get into closer touch with each child and to diagnose each\none's abnormalities or deviations accurately enough to be able to determine individual\nneeds and how best to supply them. A system of card records has been installed in which\na record of each child, normal and abnormal, is kept from the day he enters school until\nthe day he leaves it; these cards contain a complete summary of the child's physical and\nmental condition, progress thru the schools, special tendencies, degree and causes of retardation, any marked peculiarities or deviations, etc. All data are carefully noted and this\nrecord follows the child from school to school, so that it is possible to locate a pupil as to\nhis physical and mental conditions, rate of progress thru the grades, and to follow him up\nwith the application of needed remedial measures.\nWe have done something toward breaking down the barriers of educational tradition,\nthe awakening and enlightening of public opinion, and preparing for the organization of\nspecial schools in which we shall be able to apply the latest and best thought and practice\nachieved in scientific paidology.\nWe have only made a beginning.\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Clark W. Hetherington, head of Dept. of Phys. Ed., Univ. of Missouri. .Columbia, Mo.\nVice-President — Robert J. Aley, state superintendent of public instruction\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nSecretary — Miss Amy M. Homans, Dept. of Phys. Ed., Wellesley College\nWellesley, Mass.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 5, 1910\nThe meeting was called to order in Huntington Hall, Massachusetts Institute of\nTechnology, Boston, at 9:^0 a.m., by President Clark W. Hetherington. During the\nsession President Hetherington was obliged to leave the meeting, and called Thomas F.\nHarrington, director of the School of Hygiene, Boston, Mass., to the chair.\nThe first paper was \"The Deeper Significance of the School-Hygiene Movement,\"\nby Richard C. Cabot, of Boston, Mass. This paper was discussed by William H. Burnham, professor of pedagogy, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nThen followed a paper on \"Psychological Aspects of Physical Education,\" by G.\nStanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., discussed by Thomas M.\nBalliet, dean of School of Pedagogy, New York University, New York City, N.Y., G. W.\nA. Luckey, head of department of education. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.,\nWilliam Orr, Deputy State Commissioner of Education, Boston, Mass., and Ernst\nHermann, director of physical education, Cambridge, Mass.\nThe chairman then appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nG. W. A. Luckey, head of department of education. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\nWilbur P. Bowen, professor of physical education, State Normal College, Ypsilanti,\nMich.\nMiss Laura S. Plummer, director of physical training, Boston City Normal School,\nBoston, Mass.\nSECOND\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 7, 1910\nThe meeting was called to order by President Clark W. Hetherington.\nThe general topic of the session was the \"Physical Education of Girls.'* The first\npaper was \"Physical Education of Girls during Childhood and Pubescent Period, or UpperGrade and Lower-High-School Age,\" by Miss Rebecca Stoneroad, director of physical\ntraining. Public Schools, Washington, D.C.\nThe discussion was led by Miss Laura S. Plummer, director of physical training,\nBoston City Normal School, Boston, Mass.\nThe second paper, \"Physical Education of Girls during Post-Pubescent Period, or\nUpper-High- School and College Age,\" was given by Miss Elizabeth Wright, director of\nphysical training, Radcliffe College, Cambridge, Mass., and was discussed by Miss\nLillian M. Towne, assistant supervisor of substitutes. Public Schools, Boston, Mass.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\nFor President— Cla-rk W. Hetherington, head of department of physical education,\nUniversity of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Amy M. Homans, department of physical education,\nWellesley College, Wellesley, Mass.\nFor Secretary — Miss Clara G. Baer, Sophie Newcomb College, New Orleans, La.\nThe report was accepted and adopted and the nominees were declared elected.\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "92 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFRroAY Afternoon,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nJuly 8, igio\n\nA lecture on \"Mouth Hygiene in the Public Schools\" was given by William H.\nPotter, D.M.D., president, Massachusetts Dental Hygiene Council, Boston, Mass.\nAmy M. Homans, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nDEEPER\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nSIGNIFICANCE\nOF\nTHE\nMOVEMENT\nRICHARD\n\nC.\n\nCABOT, M.D., BOSTON,\n\nSCHOOL-HYGIENE\nMASS.\n\nI am not here to speak of the practical details of hygiene among which\nI work from week to week. This is my holiday, or at any rate my holyhour in which I am privileged (thru the welcome invitation of your\nchairman) to concentrate my thoughts on that background of deeper significance which gives school hygiene its claim upon the attention of educated people.\nI.\n\nINDIVIDUALITY\n\nAND\n\nHYGIENE\n\nIt is one of the glories of modern education — in theory if not always in\npractice — that it recognizes in each scholar a unique creation, not quite\nlike any other ever fashioned by its Creator. The elective system and the\ntutorial system for collegiate students, the vocational trend in high-school\nand grammar-school work, have come to stay because they appeal to and\nnourish individual initiative in each boy and ultimately, we hope, in each\ngirl — tho we usually forget her. But school hygiene also leads us — somewhat to our surprise — in the same direction. The differences in children's\neyes, ears, and teeth, the differences in their weight and height at a given\nage are recognized thru closer study of their individuality. These physical\nindividualities we attack; we hope to wipe them out, and even them up.\nWe shall succeed in a measure, but only as a result of a more individual study\nof each child, a study which is at the basis of our reforming effort. And\nin the end there will remain, after reform has done its best to expunge these\nphysical differences, a group of characteristics deep as temperament itself.\nThe astigmatic eye, even when corrected by glasses, looks upon the world\ndifferently from the near-sighted or the normal eye. The over-corpulent\nyouth will forever taste in his experiences certain flavors which the nervous\nhigh-strung boy will miss, even when school hygiene has done its best to\naverage him up. For physical differences are as fundamental and as permanent as any in our nature, tho we are just beginning to realize them.\nTo each must be fitted, by instinct or by study, the hygiene that brings out\nthe best of him. There is no single hygiene for all. Each must find or\nchoose his own in the physical realm, as in politics, in marriage, and in\nreligion.\nThe study of school hygiene is beginning to wake up as to this.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nII.\n\nCOMPULSORY\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL-HYGIENE\n\nILL-HEALTH — THE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nOUTCOME\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\n923\n\nATTENDANCE\n\nThen, as we sit up and rub our eyes, we begin to realize that another\nnew responsibility has been dumped upon our moral shoulders by WiUiam\nH. Allen, Luther H. Gulick, and others who have knocked at our doors.\nWe, the public — we who make and support compulsory school laws —\nnever dreamed that in those laws were invoK ed compulsory ill-health due to\ncompulsory overcrowding, such as we blame the landlord for in the tenement-house districts. The air of many schoolrooms is more vitiated, more\nunhealthy, than that of the average tenement, for the tenement windows\nusually leak splendidly and fresh air creeps in, but the schoolrooms are often\nhermetically sealed, so that nothing can get in or out except the baked and\ndesiccated air which artificial ventilation supplies. Tenement-house conditions and tenement-house congestion are not compulsory. If the affront\nto health and morals is serious enough, people can move out toward the\ncountry. But schoolroom congestion, with the contagion, the desiccation,\nthe eye-strain and the nerve-strain which it entails, is compulsory. Those\nother compulsory institutions, the jails, are probably worse hygienically\nthan the schools; but then we must remember that we don't all of us have\nto go to jail. Into the schoolrooms we all are herded, whether we are guilty\nor not guilty, found out or still undiscovered in our sins. Compulsory illhealth, compulsory exposure both to disease at close range and to the conditions which tend to weaken our resistance to disease, is to be encountered\nso far as I know only in our schools.\nBut the remedy is close at hand. To our rescue comes rushing that\nstrangest of aUies, that most terrible of avengers — tuberculosis. Thru\nour experience with tuberculosis, we learn that outdoor schools, or outdoor\nrooms in schools, are life-savers for consumptive children. Next we learn\nthat the outdoor room does wonders for the weak, puny, \"pre- tuberculous,\"\nor \" threatened \" child — wonders for his brain as well as for his lungs. Soon\nwe shall extend the privilege of un vitiated air even to those not yet sickened\nby the overheated and overdried gases which pour out of our expensive\nventilating systems. Schools will be remodeled and teachers will have to\nshiver or become peripatetic in outdoor rooms.\nThe taunt of paternalism, the reproach of doing too much for our people,\nwill be thrown at you from time to time as the school-hygiene movement\nmakes itself expensive. Answer your opponent with the question: \"Who\nhas a right to force upon children, thru a compulsory school law, conditions\nthat make the amount of scarlet fever and diphtheria double as soon as the\nschools open ? Who has this right unless he does all he can to minimize\nthese and similar evils by reforms such as we propose ?\"\nIII.\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATOR — THE\n\nCOURT\n\nOF\n\nFINAL\n\nAPPEAL\n\nOf the value of all reforms in school hygiene, the educator must be the\njudge.\nIt is not from the medical but from the educational standpoint,\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "924\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nfrom the standpoint of that maximal development of character in each individual which is always the educator's purpose, that we can judge hygiene\nproposals most sanely. You teachers know the end for which health is a\nuseful means. We doctors are too prone to think of health as an end in\nitself, to push it into the foreground, instead of keeping it and all that concerns itin the background where they belong. It is for the educator to\njudge whether dental hygiene, when it comes, is worth all it will cost or\nwhether it may not be better to enter into the kingdom of heaven without\nteeth than to lose our souls in the pursuit of dental perfection. I do not\nprejudge the issue. No one but you educators can decide it.\nSo it is with all our hygienic enthusiasms. The educator must weigh\nthem fairly in his well-worn scales. Good health is no substitute for\neducation, or for the performance of any of our world-old tasks. Good\nhealth and the concern for it may be a magnificent ally in the battle which\nyou are waging against ignorance, selfishness, and sloth. But at any\nmoment good health and the concern for it may become your enemy, may\nhave to be sacrificed for greater ends. Three of the very best things in\nlife, three tasks toward which you want your pupils to aspire, are bad\nfor health: heroism, creative work, and child-bearing. To risk one's life\nis rarely conducive to good hygiene, even if the life is not lost. Heroism\nburns up the stored resources of body and brain; it is for such generous\nexpenditure that our strength is stored. And when we grant this, as we\nmust, shall we not also perceive that the boy who is trained to save up his\nstrength for the heroic until he has accumulated a safe and sane capital of\nhealth in maturity, won't begin to spend himself at that ripe age!\nAll creative work, all invention, artistic or scientific discovery, and all\nchild-bearing, entail a wear and tear that leaves our tissues sadder tho\nwiser than before. We must not shun such fiery trials — they are the very\nbest of life — but they leave their mark.\nI am not urging that we should neglect health and search for the heroic\nor creative battles which kill or wound it; but I do urge upon you as educators that you shall exercise in relation to this school-hygiene movement\nyour full and noble prerogative as the guardians of the child's ultimate\nwelfare.\nThere is one standard for conduct, not two; health is always a means,\nnever an end. Hygiene must not crowd the mature standards of educational\njudgment into a defensive or apologetic position as if they were out of date.\nLet the architects, the engineers, the doctors, and the nurses present their\nschemes to you. Give them a fair trial but don't be hypnotized by them.\nMost of them are special pleaders. They know the mechanics and physiology of the situation very well, but as a rule they don't really care what\na child learns or does so long as his eyes, his teeth, and his adenoids are\nlooked after. Most enthusiasts on school hygiene are bored when you begin\nto discuss educational problems.\nHow to train judgment, how to train\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartmentl\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL-HYGIENE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\n925\n\nsympathy, imagination, accurate observation, spiritual discernment —\nthese problems and their solution will be shoved on one side, crowded into a\ncorner if you let the school-hygiene movement go its own way. Physical\nproblems are so much simpler than educational problems proper, so attractive to us when we are tired or discouraged with the subtler and more important complicated tasks of the teachers' art, that we find them seductive\nand restful.\nI am an enthusiast for school hygiene. I shall continue to press its\nclaims as hard as I can- upon you educators. But I am the lawyer for my\nspecial interest; you are the jury. There is much to be said on the other\nside.\nIV.\n\nU\n\nDANGERS\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL-HYGIENE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nThis, for example: Unmitigated hygiene enthusiasm is apt to lead us\n\ninto what Chesterton calls \"Tospy Turvy Land^' where everything is\npside down. A minister of religion, deeply impressed with the claims of\nhygiene, recently wrote to ask me whether I thought religion was good for\nthe health. Think of that! He asked me whether the highest fruition of\nhuman life, the end to which all creation moves, was good for, was a serviceable means toward, an unimpaired digestion!\nIs it good for my nerves to jump overboard and save a drowning child ?\nWill it benefit my complexion if I ride into the Arizona desert after a lost\ncomrade ? Will it strengthen my lungs if I go thru the smoke and flame\nof a burning house to find my wife ? This is in effect the question which\nmy ministerial friend asked me with all the terrible humility of one who\nentered Topsy Turvy Land.\nHygiene is a splendid servant but a wretched master. It is perfectly\n\nVh\n\nright to do the healthy thing provided there's nothing better to do, but\nhygienic perfection does not always mean righteousness or even conduce\ntoward it. I have seen many a man hygienically and physically perfect\nwho was a monster of sexual immorality. Good sexual hygiene is perfectly compatible with sexual vileness.\nOr take it on the mental side — the Christian Scientists are perfectly\nright to suppress so far as they can the thought of disease. That's the\ndoctor's business, not the layman's. But it is just as necessary to suppress\nthe consciousness of health. To be acutely conscious of physical health\nis to be spiritually diseased, self-centered, morbid. A man should be thinking of his job, of his friends, of his God — not of his body or his soul. Physical education and mental education are bad phrases — both. It is the person's interests, his hopes, his work-power, and his play-power that we\nwant to develop thru indoor and outdoor activities which use, blend, and\nsubordinate both body and soul to a hot pursuit in which life is lost and\ntherefore found.\nIf gymnastics makes us think of our bodies, it is bad. If philosophy\nmakes us think of our souls, it is equally bad. But I know that in athletics\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "926\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIPhysical\n\nand in philosophy a man may wholly forget himself in devotion to his aim.\nThen things are as they should be.\nFull life, life more abundant, makes us act, think, and enjoy without\ndistinct consciousness of body or of soul, of hygiene or of psychology, as\nwe were meant to do. Test every innovation of the physician or of the psychologist with Christ's great touchstone: Does it make life more abundant,\nself less obtrusive ? Does it help the pupil to lose his life and so to find it ?\nIt is for you to judge.\nSUMMARY\n\n1. I congratulate you on the incorporation of better ideals of school\nhygiene into the body of your educational theory. These ideals call for a\nmore intimate knowledge of each child's individuality viewed from the\nphysical side. They will therefore increase your understanding of each\npupil.\n2. School hygiene is founded on the startled recognition that compulsory school laws mean compulsory disease unless we shape them so as to\ncompel health.\n3. School hygiene is still in the experimental stage. It is the business\nof the hygienist to push and plead for his schemes with all his might. It is\nthe duty of the educator to bring each innovation to the final test: Has it\ncome that we may have life and have \"it more abundantly\" ?\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam H. Burnham, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. — Dr. Cabot has emphasized the wider significance of the movement for school hygiene none too strongly. The\nmost that I can do is to corroborate what has been said, and to add perhaps two or three\nillustrations. No matter where we begin in the study of this subject, if we pursue our\ninvestigations very far we are sure to see its deeper significance. The movement bids\nfair profoundly to modify if not to revolutionize our views of education.\nFor example, if we study the teeth of school children we find that 80 per cent, of all\nschool children are likely to have decaying teeth, i.e., there are some twelve million children\nwith decaying teeth in this country. This is a serious menace to health and to school\nwork. These defects require immediate attention. Suppose we try to remedy the evil.\nBetter still, suppose that some specialist, some hygienic crank, if you please, like myself,\nhad the money and the power to estabhsh dental clinics everywhere in connection with\nthe schools, and the much-needed work of caring for the teeth of the children were immediately begun. The older dentists are busy; we must depend largely on the younger\nmen. If every young dentist who this year receives his registration certificate were\nemployed in the work, it would probably take many years before the teeth of the twelve\nmillion children could be properly treated and filled; and then they would only\nbe patched. Obviously we must go farther back, and some more fundamental remedy\nmust be employed. What is the cause of all these defective teeth ? It is malnutrition,\nand unsanitary surroundings, and lack of hygienic care of the teeth. All these must\nreceive attention. Thus from our concrete problem of dental inspection and dental care\nof school children we are led to the deeper and more fundamental problems of nutrition\nand hygienic surroundings in general.\nAgain, as regards the eyes of school children, recent studies of the vision of school\nchildren by Steiger and Miss Barrington and Karl Pearson seem pretty clearly to demon- '\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n927\n\nI\n\nstrate that acuity of vision and errors of refraction are in large degree inherited. And\nthus our study of the hygiene of vision in the school leads us into the wider field of\neugenics.\nAgain, take another illustration. It was estimated a few years ago that some five\nthousand children in the Boston schools were suffering from tuberculosis. To care for\nthese children and at the same time to cure if possible this disease, we have opened outdoor\nschools. But the result of this movement has been to call attention to the fact that there\nare many other poorly nourished and anemic children — candidates for this disease, or\nvery likely already harboring the germs of tuberculosis, altho at present latent, and that\nthese children also need the outdoor life. And again, the work in these schools has been\nso satisfactory that distinct pedagogical advantages are suggested, and the query now is\nwhy normal children should not have the benefit of outdoor oxygen as well as those who\nare diseased. Already the thesis may plausibly be maintained that the worst thing that\never happened both to education and hygiene was the building of schoolhouses, and that\ntrue pedagogy as well as true hygiene is the pedagogy of out-of-doors.\nAgain, modern psychiatry teaches us that in many cases of nervous and mental disorder the most important means of cure is re-education — the development of healthful\ninterests and healthful activity, of attention, of control, of orderly habits of association.\nNow, a moment's reflection reminds us that most of these patients were a few years ago\npupils in the public schools, and that the development of wholesome habits of activity,\nof attention, control, and orderly association, are quite as important for the preventing of\nft\nnervous disorder as for its cure. Thus all methods and principles of pedagogy are now\nstudied from the point of view of hygiene.\nThe significance of motor and physical training, so emphatically shown by the\npresident of this department, is still another illustration of the deeper significance of this\nmovement; but that I must leave to Professor Hetherington to present.\nThere is, as everybody knows, a great gap between our knowledge of hygiene and our\npractice. The school doctor sends home a child just coming down with the measles;\nthe mother lets him out to play on the streeet. The medical inspector discovers an\nadenoid; the family physician may object to an operation and recommend a gargle.\nThe teacher reports that a child is nearsighted; the thrifty parent provides glasses from\nthe five and ten cent store. Obviously the parent should be trained in hygiene. If\nwe ask when this training of parents should begin, the answer is, at least by the tirne they\nare eight years of age. Thus we are brought back again to the great problems of school\neducation.\nThus, as I say, the modern movement for school hygiene bids fair to revolutionize\nour educational aims. Hygiene is no longer merely negative; it aims not merely at the\nremoval of conditions injurious to health; but it is also positive; and it aims primarily\nat normal healthful development and the acquisition of habits of healthful activity, both\nphysical and mental.\n\nPSYCHOLOGICAL\nG.\n\nSTANLEY\n\nHALL,\n\nASPECTS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nEDUCATION\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe cultivation of mind and body belong together and the highest\ndevelopment of each involves that of the other. This the world since\nPlato has known by heart and I never heard or read of anyone, save ascetics,\nwho doubted it. Nevertheless, we now confront the new and grave danger\nof separating brain and brawn. Headworkers sit, ride in trams and autos,\nwhile the best-muscled class of men are the most unskilled, ignorant,\nwage-earning day laborers who lack all interest in their work because it\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "928\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nis for others. The boss does what thinking is necessary and they only obey\nlike dumb, driven oxen. Never was so much labor merely mechanical and\nsometimes so monotonous that a brainless automaton might do it and\nmachinery will soon do it. In the good old times headwork and handwork\nwent together; but now one class specializes in handwork and another in\nheadwork.\nWe see today, alas! the beginnings of this same division of labor in\nathletics. The manager hires the player, schedules him, has him sign rules,\nand he is fined or laid off if he does not obey. A captain, coach, or trainer\ndictates diet, sleep, regimen, and perhaps lays down the moral code, so\nthat the modern gladiator's part is not to reason why, but to do or die till\nhis heyday fades and he sinks from the brief glory of being the hero of the\nbleachers to the long evening twilight of a has-been, and it may be to grow\nfat and logy with only the consolation prize of his memories, perhaps allowing himself indulgences that were denied him in his days of servitude, for\nthe average athlete past his prime and out of the game under our system has\npeculiar temptations and weaknesses.\nAmong the Greek athletes the very best thing gained was the splendid\nspirit of freedom which is the most precious result which any and every\nkind of physical culture can give. These fashion-setters of our art-canons\nlearned self-control and did not have to work under the control of others.\nTheir body-training was only the preparation for the culture of philosophy\n(as in the case of Plato or Aristotle, whose lectures were given to those who\ncould keep up with him walking) or it was the introduction to the arts of the\nMuses. Milo acquired his strength because he had the wit to devise and\nthe vigor to carry out all by himself a unique original system of training.\nHercules waxed strong by performing great and useful public works for\nthe benefit of the community.\nNow, a brainy athlete will always best train himself by following an\ninner monitor which is always whispering to him \"More,\" \"Enough,\"\nor \"Too much,\" and guides his regimen like the still small voice of conscience. Now, it is precisely this inner oracle which is the \"holy spirit\"\nof physical training that the coach or trainer stifles. He robs the athlete\nof the very best lessons of his discipline, viz., bodily self -guidance, the\nattainment of a physiological majority which comes with competence to\ncare for one's bodily self. The supreme problem of the academic athlete\nis to solve his own personal hygienic problem which is always and for everyone an original investigation on which his success or failure in life will\nlargely depend. His problem is how to get the very most and best out of his\nown physique. To this end, he must carefully observe himself in rest, in\nfatigue, when full or hungry, when growing lean or fat, and learn the great\nlesson of being the steward of his own body, developing power to resist sloth\nand appetite or overtraining in himself. This alone can give him true selfknowledge and self-control. At the very most, he should be only allowed\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n929\n\naccess when in doubt to a medical adviser who might now and then help\nhim toward solving the problems that in the last analysis must always be his\nown. By this method, the physical improvement gained by training would\nnot be lost, for gain would be only a stimulus to a permanent higher plane\nof vitality and effectiveness. This would be a far harder but more acceptable offering to lay upon the great altar the world is now rearing to the sublime goddess Hygeia than mere beefiness, spurtiness, or a whole cabinet\nof trophies.\nMost of us habitually live at about 60, 70, or perhaps 80 per cent, of\nour maximal health and strength. The athlete should get up to and stay\nat 90 or 100 per cent, of his best possible condition. Some invalids carry\na handicap of weakness or perhaps chronic illness that would wear them\ndown to an early grave did they not develop a veritable genius for personal\nhygiene, experimenting with and observing themselves, profiting by and\ntreasuring every lesson of experience till they find their way to a code of\nregimen that would fit no one else, but does fit them so perfectly that they\nperhaps live on to a good old age Hke Kant and get an amazing quantity of\nwork out of perhaps rather frail bodies. At the age of fifty or sixty, every\nintelligent man is either the best and most philosophical physician to himself for all but acute diseases or accidents, or else he is an invalid. Now,\nthe ideal athlete does this same thing only higher up among the altitudes\non the scale of health. The studies of Irving Fisher seem to show that man\ncould live on the average about fifteen years longer than he does by conforming to all the know^n laws of individual and social hygiene. Just so,\nhe might live his life out 15 per cent, higher up on the scale of health and\nefficiency, but to do so, he must become an expert, a professor in the art of\nkeeping himself well. Others may suggest, inform, and help in emergencies, but everybody's health problem is at root and core essentially his own.\nHere he must make original investigations and profit by them. To make\na few weeks' excursion up into the higher levels of health by special training and then to lapse back to lower levels, or to fall from grace, and to\nrepeat this every athletic season for the college quadrennium is of very\ndoubtful value. The true athlete ought to be an aristocrat of health both\nborn and bred, and the best test of success at the end of his college course\nwould be not his records in field or track, his strength tests, his medals,\ncups, and pennants, but what he could put down as having learned about\nhow to keep to the very tip-top of his condition, and he ought to be able to\ndo this better than any other to the very end of his life.\nThus we may see that the average coach with his little kit of rules and\nhis brief authority is today the chief enemy of athletic intelligence, if not\nindeed its stultifier and debaucher. He is as far from being truly professional\nas a cyclone revivalist is from being a professor of theology, or as a churchdebt lifter is from an academic chair of finance.\nMy second point is that the college and high-school faculties and ath-\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "930\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nletic committees have been pedagogically both stupid and wasteful in their\nmethods of deahng with athletics. They have been absorbed in the efforts\nto regulate from without when they should have utilized this enthusiasm\nfor intellectual and moral culture. They have made no serious attempt to\nconnect this zest with the highest culture as the ancient Greeks and the\nmodern Turners did. The history of physical training and athletics is one\nof the most splendid in the annals of the race and is replete thruout with\nthe purest and noblest humanism. The very descriptions of the great\npan-Hellenic games where the victors received honors almost divine and\nwhom sculptors and poets like Praxiteles and Pindar devoted their lives to\nimmortalizing, the story of Jahn and the noble, political, patriotic enthusiasm for the fatherland which he and his followers developed — these bright\nhistorical pages abound in incidents that should glow again in the heart of\nevery athlete where they would tend to sublimate muscular into moral\npower. Toward present-day contests neither our psychologists, literary\nmen, physiologists, physicians, nor moralists have done their duty, for this\nis not discharged by joining the rooting throng. Not reporters, but academic professors devoted to feeding these interests, long circuiting them on\na higher plane, bringing to bear the vast and precious repertory of facts and\nlessons which could be absorbed — these are what are now needed. The\ngreat body of experimental data on the effects of practical training, use,\ndisuse, fatigue, rest, and every hygienic and dietary research in our laboratory that sheds light upon the muscle and nerve culture should be collated.\nOne single spark of pedagogic genius here just now to correlate all this\nmaterial, kindle it, and bring it into vital touch with the restless, aimless,\nsurging, athletic calentures would at once make a new situation everywhere in this field. What is there in this domain that these noble youth\nso eager for health and strength and victory must know and need to know ?\nHow shall we order it, condense it, put it to fit their quick and eager, if\nundiscursive and unscholastic and impatient minds ? This is the question\nthat now groans and travails for answer thru every gymnasium and in\nevery athletic field and it is not creditable to our faculties that it is still\nunsolved. The data are so copious, so meaty, so pragmatic, but alas, still\nso scattered and ineffective! Such a compend as I am demanding would\nbe a veritable bible for athletes. It would instill honor, temperance, the\nsimple life, the spirit of loyalty to larger wholes even than the alma mater.\nIt would at the same time make training a fine art resting on a good body\nof science behind it. Young men are perhaps more easily inspired by a\nhigh spirit of honor than by any other of the great uplifting sentiments, and\nmen in training are particularly susceptible to this education of the heart.\nAll this the trainer kills, teaching only to win at any price. The literature\nof war and of chivalry itself affords no more brilliant instances of selfdenial and self-sacrifice, of true heroism, of magnanimity to foes and the\nvanquished,\nof the gentlemanly great hearts of self-imposed, personal\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n93I\n\nvirtue and chastity for the greater glory of the larger group than can\nbe found here, so that ethics could find here florid and glowing illustrations for about every virtue it teaches.\nThe ideal academic athlete, as I conceive him, ought by every token of\npsycho-physical parallelism or interaction to be or to make himself just as\nmuch superior to the average in soul as he is in body, for otherwise he is\nmore or less lopsided and monstrous. Magnanimity belongs with size\nand grasp of intellect with strength, and mental with physical agility,\nendurance, grace, etc. The culture of each should keep pace with that of\nthe other. Christologists, reacting from the old ascetic ideals, are beginning to conceive of Jesus as a man of great size, strength, power of sustained endeavor, as majestic, magnetic, and virile in his personality, as\ndivine in his physique as in his psyche. They thus find belief in his mighty\nworks far easier than when he was deemed feminine or a weakling, or a man\nof insignificant size or ugly form. So my ideal college athletes should be fit\nfor artists' models, thoroughbred gentlemen, and should have what naturally\nbelongs with this, a higher code of honor. Perhaps the time is nearer than\nwe think when they will be indeed found as a new order of nobility with\nits own esprit de corps, its own noblesse oblige, etc. Who knows but in the\nnear future of eugenics they may be progenitors of a higher type of man\nthan the world has yet seen and take a unique and distinct step forward\ntoward the kingdom of the superman? If Galton's dream of endowed\nwedlock and pensioned children of all the fit ever be realized, men like these\nought to enter the contest for the first prize in this field, for those thus\nespecially endowed by nature and nurture, eminent by heredity and training, have special duties to posterity of whose interests they ought to be in a\npeculiar sense the guardians and promoters. To the strongest as to the\nbravest belong the fairest, by nature's great law of aflSnity. These men\nshould be nature's noblemen and their conduct ought to be ideal. They\nshould set fashions in bearing, in deportment, be the true aristocrats in a\nrepublic where personality, character, and merit should set copy for human\nbehavior.\nIt is up to our faculties thus to sublimate physical into psychic excellence,\nto transmute crude physiological ore into the gold of character, to see to it\nthat strength does not lapse to brutality, animality, or sensuality, to feel\nthemselves charged with the responsibility that fitness for physical conflicts\nis only a propadeutic for fitting them to be winners in moral battles later,\nto turn the courage and prowess won on the athletic field against sin, corruption, and ignorance, for the great victories of our age are won not by muscular\nbut by moral stalwartness and aggressiveness.\nThis is indeed the very central and quintessential thing in education, and\nto say that we cannot do this is to confess that we do not know truly how to\neducate. Let us rather say with the greatest of modern ethical teachers\nthat we can because we must, for duty is never impossible.\nIt is hard, yes,\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "932\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nbut let us professors take courage and catch inspiration from our young\nbarbarians at play and go into training for this great and difficult task.\nCould not this section of this meeting select a committee to gather the\nresources from all the above sources and work out a culture curriculum of\nthese things from the past to the present, from the broad fields of history,\nhygiene, ethics, eugenics, and the rest that athletic interests crave and\nneed to the end of giving to the word gymnasium more of the meaning it\nhad in Greece and Germany, and to reform athletics by beginning within\nthe heart and mind of the athletes themselves, thus striving to open up a\nhighway which nature intended to be always broad and well traveled, but\nwhich is now grown up and jungled — the way by which excellence of\nphysique passes into that of psyche ?\nDISCUSSION\nThomas M. Balliet, New York University, New York City. — I cannot speak as a\nspecialist in physical training; I must discuss the topic assigned me from the standpoint\nof a student of education in general.\nThe recognition of the psychological factor in physical training in our discussions is\ncomparatively recent. Ten years ago only a few leaders began to see its significance,\nand its meaning is not fully appreciated even today; but we are making rapid progress.\nThe playground movement which has made such enormous strides within the last few\nyears testifies to this fact.\nThe influence of physical exercise and bodily conditions on the mind is generally recognized today, but how this influence is produced, what kinds of exercise affect the mind\nfavorably, and what kinds unfavorably or less favorably, how the mental state affects the\nphysical results of the exercise — all these and others are still imperfectly understood\nquestions.\nWe may, however, point out a few principles which seem to be made out with a fair\ndegree of certainty.\n1. In the first place, physical exercise like any other sort of training must appeal to\nthe pupil's interest. Any subject in the curriculum which is thruout, or predominantly,\nuninteresting to the pupil is either presented at the wrong time or in the wrong way.\n2. Interest is rooted in the instincts. Therefore physical education must be based not\nonly on anatomy and physiology, but on the psychology and pedagogy of the instincts.\nWe must build on the great fundamental racial instincts; not on all of them, but on those\nwhich underlie muscular movements.\nThese instincts are the product of evolution.\n3. This is equivalent to saying that we must organize physical education in harmony\nwith the evolution of body and of mind. The human body and the mind mature, in a\ngeneral way, in the order in which they evolved in the animal series. All education must\nhave regard to this fact and place itself into harmony with it.\n4. This means that the movements which the race made for ages, thru which the body\ndeveloped, speaking generally (no matter what theory of heredity we may hold) are the\nmovements which must form the main part of the exercise we give to growing children.\n5. These ancestral movements are the play movements of children. Play has been\ndescribed as a rehearsal of ancestral work. What was the serious work of our remote\nprehistoric ancestors has been registered on the nervous system, is inherited, and manifests itself as play in the growing child.\n6. There is no evolution or heredity behind the artificial movements of our formal\ngymnastics. They are not intrinsically interesting. Children never practice them for\npleasure out of school as they do games taught them in school.\nThey do not have the\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n933\n\nsame reflex effect on the mind and especially the emotions as play; and, because of the\nabsence of this psychic factor, they do not have the same effect on the body. A walk\nfor one's health taken for conscience' sake has not the same effect on body or mind as a\ngame of golf, altho you may expend exactly the same number of footpounds of energy\nin both; in like manner, sawing wood does not produce the same effect as a game of tennis.\n7. We are coming to recognize that play must constitute the chief factor in physical\neducation and formal gymnastics take a wholly subordinate place. The latter should\nbe related to the former as medicine to food. Wild animals develop healthy bodies by\nplaying during their period of growth and doing useful work in the form of finding food\nand shelter during the rest of their lives. This would be possible in the case of children\nwere it not for the fact that they are sent to school and obliged to sit still for five hours a\nday, and that some of them are physically defective. It is here where formal gymnastics\nwill always be necessary to correct the effects of unnatural postures at the school desk\nand for medical purposes.\n8. But there is another psychological aspect of play as physical exercise. Mind\nhas evolved in the animal series in connection with movement. This is true of the emotions and the volitional nature as well as of the intellectual. As a means of survival\namong lower animals, movement toward food and away from danger was fundamental.\nFeeling, no doubt, developed to intensify movement, and thought developed to direct it.\nThe co-ordinations used by our remote ancestors in work which are now used in play (as\nalready explained), are the very co-ordinations in connection with which mind evolved\nin the race. These co-ordinations are therefore the movements which will tend to awake\nand develop mind, particularly the emotions, as artificial, formal gymnastic movements\ncannot.\n9. This process of reorganizing physical training on a basis of play is now going on,\nand the problems that grow out of it are the vital problems in physical education today.\n10. Dr. Cabot in his paper has emphasized a point which, I think, was first suggested\nby Dr. Gulick, of New York, namely, the point that good health is a means and not an\nend, and that not health but efficiency must be the ultimate aim of physical training.\nThis introduces into the problem an ethical factor, which as Dr. Cabot has shown, must\nbe a controlling one in your work.\nIt becomes every day clearer that physical training must be studied in the light of the\nentire curriculum. You are not dealing merely with problems of health, but also with\nproblems of psychology, ethics, and pedagogy in general.\nIndeed the playground movement is ultimately going to change the curriculum of our\nprimary schools and will more or less modify that of all public schools. It is likely that\nour elementary schools for the first three years will have a daily session of two and a half\nor three hours and a supervised playground will take the children in the afternoon. Three\nhours of mental work and sitting still per day is quite enough for children at that age.\nThis is not a radical but a conservative suggestion. The playground movement and the\nopen-air-school movement are likely to effect together more radical changes. The director of physical training in a system of public schools in the future must be not merely\na specialist in his subject, but must have a general knowledge of psychology, of pedagogy,\nand of school administration. We are already beginning to develop this type of leadership. While schools of physical education can train the rank and file of teachers of physical training, who are to work under leaders, the universities which have well- organized\nschools of education and of medicine must assume the training of the leaders. They\nalone are adequately equipped to do it.\nG. W. A. LuCKEY, head professor of education. University of Nebraska. — The difference between athletics as a means of physical and mental development with the initiative\nfrom within, and athletics as a means of habituation in conformity to an ideal from without\nhas been clearly pointed out in Dr. Hall's paper.\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nWhen athletics becomes an end in itself, its educational value is at a minimum, but\nwhen it becomes a means to the larger end of developing the best men and women, its\neducational value is at a maximum. I do not think that Dr. Hall means to do away with\nthe coach or trainer. Like the true physician, he becomes invaluable, not alone in diagnosing organic difficulties and aiding in their eradication, but in assisting the individual\nat the opportune moment to discover his higher self.\nTo the freedom, self-knowledge, self-control, which Dr. Hall mentioned as gained\nthru the physical education of the Greeks, I think we should add self-initiative. To\nunderstand is well; to execute is better. The educational process is a feeling, a perceiving, and a doing. Efficiency comes thru activity, but the highest eflSciency can come\nonly thru intensive activity. We waste vast amounts of nervous energy by too long\nperiods of low-grade or indifferent work. Shorten the hours of physical and mental\nactivities, but increase the intensity. It is intensive activity that causes the irrigating\ncanals of the body to overflow into other less used channels. We appreciate this in training the athlete, but not in training the student.\nAll physical education must be corrective, as well as creative. Hence, it must be\nindividualistic and the initiative must come from within.\nAnother mistake which we have made and are still making is too great specialization\nor one-sided development. Class spirit and college rivalry tend to perpetuate this difl&culty. Our ideals are wrong. We make physical education an end in itself, instead of the\nmeans to a much higher end — the best development of the human race. What we need\nas a race is balance — physical, intellectual, emotional, volitional. When we find a child\none-sided in development, we should not try to increase this abnormality, but to eradicate\nit by bringing other activities up to its level. The shot-put man should be taught to run\nnot for the sake of his college, but for the sake of posterity.\nThis is a great nation, but unless signs fail, it is soon to be a greater one. The individual who can take all of the forces that are now working for man's redemption and\ncorrelate them into an organic whole and give them true direction will become a perpetual\nhero. It seems to me the place to begin is to give all-around development or balance\nactivity to all the children, all the time.\nIn evolution natural selection tends to perpetuate the fittest. But this law does not\nhold in human evolution. There seems to be a higher spiritual law in which man steps\nin to modify natural selection. We protect the weak and cause them to survive; we\nkill off the strong thru college athletics, thru commercial greed and thru war, or thru onesided development destroy their posterity. The fittest in human civilization are those\nwho care for the weak, but because of this extra burden do not, as a rule, perpetuate their\nkind. To this class belong many of our teachers, college graduates, and brain workers\nof the highest and most altruistic type.\nWilliam Orr, Mass. State Board of Education, Boston, Mass. — It is a great satisfaction to see things actually brought to pass. Such accompHshment is the best test of\nthe value of any theory. Many of those before me rejoice because of that which they\nhave done in carrying out the principles of physical training of which we have heard this\nmorning; that positive results, not only in physical development, but in mental and moral\ngrowth, can be testified to by any competent, wise director of physical training. There\nis place for this phase of education in all grades of school work — primary, elementary,\nand secondary. In the later stage of instruction, when there is such a marvelous growth\nof the activities of the human soul, it is especially important that every influence should\nbe brought to bear, in order that these activities may be rightly directed to the best ends.\nSuch service, the physical director for boys, and the one who has this charge for the girls\nof the high school can render in full measure. For one thing, the director of sports and\ngames has it in his power to do away almost at once with the low device, trickery, cunning.\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n935\n\nand ungentleman-like conduct that too often characterize school contests when left to the\nboys themselves.\nBut there are positive values to be achieved in the promotion of physical vigor, in\nthe development of self-respect and the sense of power whereby many a boy, slow of mind,\nthru his success in field sports and games may be stimulated to better work in the classroom.\nFinally, there are values in morality to be secured. By the proper development of\nteam spirit, the individual may be taught in a most effective fashion to subordinate his\nselfish aims and purposes for the good of the organization. Herein may be found an\nimportant means whereby the school may influence directly the tone and tenor of national\npolitical life.\nAmbassador Bryce has noted the fact that often the current of a national thought\nand conduct, as expressed in its political activities, is influenced by causes that would at\nfirst sight seem to lie outside the domain of public life. He further stated that if the present\ninterest in athletics was to continue and to grow, the ideals dominating sports were likely\nto afifect very materially the attitude of citizens in respect to public duties. Fine and\nhigh ideals of manly, clean, vigorous sport may then do much in promoting a purer, finer,\nand more devoted citizenship — one of the greatest needs of this land.\nErnst Hermann, director of physical education, Cambridge, Mass. — It is indeed a\ngreat satisfaction to us physical educators to have these gentlemen make these sweeping\nstatements in favor of more motor training in our schools. For this is truly preventive\nmedicine, and the credit for this belongs to the teachings and the propaganda of the\nphysical education profession. It is preventive medicine on the one hand, and on the\nother hand our only hope for future intellectual capacity.\nFrom whatever side we look upon physical education, be it the hygienic or the educational, we must provide more and more motor opportunities for the growing child if our\neducation for service is to be a success. The more complex education becomes, and the\nmore the child lacks opportunities for motor experiences which formerly existed in the\nhome and the environment, the more important motor education becomes, if intellectual\nprogress is to be maintained.\nPhysical education has at least these three important school functions: the hygienic,\nthe general educational, and the physical training. The demands of hygiene are met if\nwe provide plenty of muscular activity, fresh air, and sunshine; the rest belongs to the\nmedical department. Physical training is necessary because counter-influences must\nconstantly be exerted in order to prevent crooked growth of the frame, which must result\nfrom one-sided sitting occupations.\nFrom a general educational point of view the need for more motor education is constantly growing, because there is less and less opportunity for acting out with the muscles\nthat which the senses perceive. Our children lack a well-developed motor area at the\ntime when we are attempting intellectual training. Without a well-developed motor area\nintellectual development is hmited. Attention, sustained effort, the characteristics of a\nstrong will, and the civic virtues, can better be developed thru properly organized playground activities than thru present-day school methods. With children the value of\nmotor training lies half in the hygienic field and half in the educational field. Later on\nin life the hygienic value predominates.\nI am dehghted to hear Mr. Balliet admit that reading and arithmetic might well be\nleft out during the first two or three years in the school. I should, however, go further and\nmake the playground under the direction of the school the only education until the child\nreaches the seventh or eighth year, and make it half playground and half school-education\nuntil he is about ten years of age.\nTo one statement of Mr. BaUiet I wish, however, to state my most decided objections,\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nand that is the one about the non-value of formal gymnastics, or as he calls them \"manmade exercises.\" I believe he contradicted himself in his remarks when he states, later on,\nthat skilled labor produces a higher intellectual capacity than unskilled labor.\nI do not want you people to leave with the idea that plays and games and dancing\nare all that is needed in physical education. These forms of motor activities have a high\ntherapeutic value and could meet possibly all the demands of hygiene, but in a school\nsystem of motor education they are by no means sufficient to meet our most important\nneeds of today. But in order that physical education may become more than only a\nmeasure of hygiene, in order that it may meet the motor-educational needs of the child,\nthe systematic training from simple to complex exercises is absolutely necessary.\nFormal gymnastics are our most powerful pedagogical aids; only thru these means\ncan we develop skill, self-reliance, attention, co-ordination, confidence, etc., which will\nenable the child to enter into all the physical activities of his fellows.\nNor must we forget the sad fact that, in our present-day school accomodations and in\nthe present-day life, the necessary room for most forms of established recreation is lacking.\n\"Man-made movements\" are today a most efficient solution of meeting the demands of\nhygiene. We must teach our people means and ways to take care of themselves in the\nenvironment and under the conditions under which most of them are forced to live. Most\npeople today would enjoy better health if they interrupted their work habitually by some\nform of formal gymnastics. It is high time that our educated men and women and\nespecially our teachers should appreciate the necessity of their taking up some such form\nof \"man-made exercises,\" as a matter of daily routine.\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPUBESCENT\nREBECCA\n\nSTONEROAD,\n\nOF GIRLS DURING\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nPERIOD, OR UPPER-GRAMMAR\nLOWER-HIGH-SCHOOL AGE\nDIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL TRAINING\nWASHINGTON,\nD.C.\n\nAND\n\nAND\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nMuch has been said and written concerning the physical education of\nboys during the periods of childhood and adolescence. What should be\ndone for giris has not received deserved consideration, probably owing to\nthe fact that investigators of the subject have been teachers of boys rather\nthan girls, so that fewer observations have been made and statistics collected\nconcerning this sex. The whole subject is a complex one demanding experience with and a thoro understanding and appreciation of the growing\ngirl.There is no doubt that as compared with boys, girls are in even greater\nneed of all the benefits which are to be derived from a wisely planned,\nthoroly executed, and complete course in physical education. It has been\nstated by an orthopedic surgeon in a hospital for children, that \"of the\nchildren who apply to the hospital in consequence of physical developmental defects, hardly more than 5 per cent, are boys.\" In other words,\nabout 95 per cent, are girls. Comparing the health of girls with that of\nboys, from statistics taken in Copenhagen and Lausanne, it was found that\nthe girls kept far ahead in percentage of sickhness, during all the years of\nchildhood and puberty.\nWhen we consider that the foundations of the health of women are\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nGIRLS\n\n937\n\nbeing laid, women who are to take as never before an active part in the\nworld's work, and that the strength of a later generation depends upon the\nvitality of the girl who is to become the future mother, it is to be regretted\nthat we have not greater knowledge of what constitutes the best physical\neducation for girls.\nWe know so little of the actual strength and resisting power of either\nthe boy or the girl during the different stages of development that it is\nimpossible to base a thoroly scientific system of physical training upon that\nknowledge. We do know, however, that following a period of preparation\nbeginning at about the age of nine or ten a gradual change comes into the\nlife of the girl. This whole epoch, the years of late childhood and puberty,\nmay be roughly estimated as being between the ages of ten and fifteen.\nI shall use the term pubescence to mean a period beginning about one year\nand a half before menstruation and ending about a year and a half after\nmenstruation, in all a period of about three years.\nThe age at which menstruation begins varies in different localities and\nis influenced by social conditions. From statistics collected in the Washington schools it was found that the average age was thirteen years and\nfour months, which was also the average age of girls in the seventh year\nof school life or two years before entering the high school. We must allow,\nhowever, for precociousness and realize that some girls begin their functional\nlife somewhat lower in the grammar grades, which fact must be taken into\nconsideration when planning work for these grades.\nLet us impress upon our minds three general requirements which are\nessential if we would have an adequate and scientific system of physical\neducation.\nThese may be briefly stated as follows:\nFirst: There should be an adaptation to the stage of physiological development.\nSecond: There should be an adaptation to the individual, taking into consideration\nhis physical and mental condition as well as his personal needs.\nThird: There should be an adaptation to the sex.\n\nFew realize how important in the life of the individual is the time of\nlate childhood; that the future will be influenced for good or bad, depending upon what is done in these frequently neglected years. The age of\nabout eight appears to be a critical time of least resistance to disease, the\ncurve of sickliness gradually decreasing, to rise again sharply at about the\nage of thirteen.\nWhen puberty beings, there is ushered in a period of great physiological\nchanges, rapid growth in height, followed a year later by marked increase\nin weight and girth with a corresponding increase in weight, structure, and\nfunctional power of the heart, lungs, and reproductive organs, continuing\nfor three or four years. Since growth in height begins in the bones, muscles\ndo not quickly adjust themselves to the new length of levers, causing\nawkwardness, and physical weakness. There is likely to be listlessness,\napathy, and a dislike for much physical activity.\nWhile there is great\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "938\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nmorbidity, as shown by frequent headache, anaemia, and loss of appetite,\nyet during these years the death-rate is suprisingly low. There also exists\nan unstable nervous condition of which stuttering and hysteria are manifestations. The period is indeed a critical one upon the successful passing\nof which will depend future health.\nAs compared with boys, the subject is to be studied from a somewhat\ndifferent viewpoint, bearing in mind that it is girls, with all the potentialities\nof future women, whose lives we are influencing. We should strive to know\nthe mind and soul of the girl, which requires rare discernment, great sympathy and appreciation. Her whole physical education may be summed\nup in what a girl at each stage of her development should be and what she\nought to know how to do.\nWhat then are the needs of girls in the upper-grammar and lower-highschool grades ?\nThe first demand is for health and vigor, for which reason, whenever\npossible, work should be taken out-of-doors with daily regularity and those\nexercises chosen which increase vitality and have to do with functional\nhealth as well as health of mind. These would include all the great motor\nactivities of walking, running, throwing, skipping, jumping, and whenever\npracticable, climbing and swimming. We will indeed have done a great\nwork if we instill in the minds and muscles of the young a love for the\npleasures of physical activity and have created a habit of exercise.\nSince the -muscles of the abdomen, waist, and back are those in which\nwomen are notably weak, probably due to inheritance and partly to custom, in the choice of exercises those which bear directly upon these parts,\nstrengthening them, are specially desirable.\nAbove all, there should be cultivated the hygienic habits of simple deep\nbreathing at all times, an erect carriage of the head with the thorax held\nat its greatest height permitting free play and proper functioning of internal\norgans.\nThe second great need is educational in character and consists in the\nformation of right habits of action by proper training of nerve centers.\nIt includes not only those things which count for present efficiency, but\nalso those which enhance the power to accomplish results later in hfe. It\nis really a training in skill and power to do, not only now, but in years to\ncome. It is this training for complete and successful living which makes\nall such work truly educational.\nSuch a training of the nervous system giving physical control is specially\ndesirable in girls whose emotional nature makes them liable to yield to\nweakness along this line, interfering with and preventing a well-balanced\nnature.\nOur girls should be taught how to perform the simple daily activities\nof life with ease and grace, ^nd in a manner conducive to health. These\ninclude a good carriage of the body at all times, going up and down stairs\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nI\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nGIRLS\n\n939\n\nwith lightness and an erect carriage, walking with a free swing of the leg,\ngraceful rising and sitting, and good posture while sitting.\nThe third need is for recreative exercises. These offset the mental strain\nof prolonged school work, which is the rock upon which many a young life\nhas been shattered thru injudicious teachers and ambitious parents, the\nhealthy and normal course of development being hindered by long hours\nof sitting and poring over books.\nThe fourth need is for corrective gymnastics given for the purpose of\novercoming certain postural defects which can frequently be traced to the\nschool. Such exercises by reason of their purpose will of necessity be specialized and technical. It would seem that the earlier pre-pubescent years\nare those in which we can most effectively work to change bad posture.\nThe question arises as to what kind of exercises are best suited to girls.\nThe ideal exercise gives rise to pleasurable feelings which, thru nerve\nstimulation, have a reflex effect upon the body. Besides the psychic effect,\nthere is the favorable one upon the entire organism, influencing the whole\ngroup of organic functions, increasing the circulation and causing exhilaration. As a general rule, movements which are natural and which follow the\nlead of personal interest will be most successfully performed and have the\nbest effect hygienically and mentally. This psychological fact is acknowledged to be true in all teaching. The element of interest in the thing done,\nthe pleasure and joy of doing it, make for the successful doing. For this\nreason a cross-country walk under favorable conditions, and with opportunity for social intercourse, is ideal in many ways as an out-of-door exercise.\nIf there can be added to it a purpose, an end to be reached, the walk is\nincreased in value on account of the effect of the mind upon the body. It\nis in answer to the demand for purposeful joyful exercise that folk dancing\nhas come into vogue as a delightful form of physical exercise.\nSpirit and interest in execution of any exercise are most essential, which\nfact should guide us when choosing suitable exercises. There must be\nsome appeal to the individual to make the work seem worth while. It is\npossible to interest a girl in a good carriage of the body, if she is appealed\nto on the side of her pride, her aesthetic sense, or her desire to be beautiful.\nMany teachers of girls fail to take advantage of the recreative possibilities of exercises and strive for too much discipline. The expression of the\nface of the pupil is an index of the inner feeling, which ought to be one of\ncontent and delight in work well done. In no other way will physical exercise during school hours give that relief from the high nervous tension of the\nclassroom which is one of its greatest opportunities for good and one of the\nreasons for which it has rightly been co-ordinated with other lines of school\nwork.\nExercises to develop great strength are not necessary. Moreover,\nsigns of fatigue should be carefully noted as designating the time to change\nwork.\nThis period of accelerated growth lessens the power to resist fatigue.\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Physical\n\nIt is in the first year of functional life that great harm can be done, even\nmore than in the earlier or later periods. Movements may be done\nrapidly, but not to an extreme degree, nor for too long a time. It is\ngenerally agreed that girls should be excused from strenuous physical exercises at certain times during the month. In all the work, however, precision in execution can be obtained from girls as well as from boys. We\ncan and should demand the best of which she is capable and not fall into the\nway of coddling and being over-sympathetic.\nIn the upper grammar grades I would have more games than are generally given, and even encourage the girls to play those which are generally\nconsidered boys' games. It is surprising to find how many at this age\ndehght in the modified game of baseball. This has been shown upon the\nplayground, and would tend to prove that custom has much to do with the\nnotion that certain games should be played by boys only. In the strenuous and more violent games, the sexes should be separated, the girls\nindulging in lighter forms of practically the same games.\nIn the early high-school course, certain athletic pastimes, or what are\nreferred to as outdoor sports, can well afford to have a prominent place.\nIt has been claimed that to a certain degree girls lack sociability, a sense\nof fairness and justice toward each other, do not work together, do not\norganize, and finally that they lack loyalty. These social qualities necessary for the civic good can best be cultivated by means of team games.\nBut not until girls have reached maturity should they be permitted to\nengage in feats or contests that demand extraordinary strength or endurance.\nThese cannot be done at this earlier period without grave danger of taxing\nthe heart, possibly resulting in a condition of heart-strain later in Hfe. Track\nand field events demanding great muscular effort in short periods of time,\nsuch as long-distance runs, would better be omitted. The standing broad\njump is also undesirable for fear of displacing internal organs.\nSince there is danger resulting from overwork in athletics and team\ngames, let us stop to consider how far we dare let girls enter into competitions which give rise to exhaustion. A few general propositions seem to\nme wise if we are to safeguard our girls from the physical evils which may\nresult:\nFirst, all girls entering into competition should be examined by a physician and a\ncertificate given stating the condition of heart, lungs, nerves, and general health at that\ntime, to the end that only those physically able may participate.\nSecond, close supervision on the part of a woman instructor who knows the physical\ncondition of the girl and will prevent her from participating in competition at times of\ntemporary disability.\nThird, actual observation of the reaction occurring after a normal period of rest\nfollowing unusual exertion.\nFourth, another physical examination by the physician made after a number of months\nof strenuous work to note what body-changes may have resulted from the athletics\nindulged in.\nFifth, personal instruction concerning the danger of excessive fatigue.\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nGIRLS\n\n941\n\nThe foregoing propositions refer to the physical care of the individual\ngirl who wishes to enter certain competitions likely to cause exhaustion on\nher part, for we know that this condition may depend upon the girl herself\nrather than upon the event.\nIf a record were kept, it would go far as a matter of statistics toward\nsolving the problem as to what competitions are safe and sane for girls of a\ncertain age. By closer study of the effect upon large numbers of girls we\nmay be able in time to agree upon certain standard games.\nIt is true that any athletic sport carried to excess may result in exhaustion. But in strong competition the desire to win keeps the girl keyed up\nto the highest possible nervous tension, making her willing to go to the\npoint of extreme fatigue all unkAown to the instructor. Specially strong\nis the temptation if admiring friends are present to view her failure or\nsuccess.\nThere are certain methods by which the probability of exhaustion may\nbe lessened.\nAmong these may be mentioned,\n1. A longer period of rest between rounds.\n2. A shortening of the length of time for exertion.\n3. Increasing the age and weight limit of the contestants.\n4. Various methods of relays.\n5. Making the events group events, instead of individual events.\n6. Lessening the degree of effort necessary to score.\n7. Private competition rather than public.\n\nBy such methods it is possible to have all the fun, the pleasure in activity,\nthe joy in effort, and success itself, before the arrival of a condition of\nexhaustion.\nDISCUSSION\nLaura S. Plummer, head of department of Physical Education, Boston Normal\nSchool, Boston, Mass. — Girls entering the high school where physical education is a part\nof the curriculum are expected to spend from one-fifteenth to one-twelfth of their time in\nthe gymnasium. What are the returns ? For the purpose of getting the required information, eighteen physical-training teachers, one hundred and fifty-four high-school\nstudents, and forty-six mothers of high-school students have been asked to answer questions relating to carriage, breathing, strength, headaches, backaches, colds, the menstrual\nperiod, self-control, out-of-door exercise, and favorite forms of gymnasium work.\nTeachers, students, and mothers agree that as a result of gymnasium work the girls\nare more erect, have greater breathing capacity and self-control, and fewer headaches and\ncolds. The testimony from the three groups is strong that gymnasium work has led to\noutdoor activity. If girls by reason of the vigor obtained by formal gymnastics care more\nfor walking, the outdoor activity most accessible to the majority, it cannot be said that\nformal gymnastics have no place in physical training. A majority of the physical-training\nteachers believe that gymnasium work improves the condition at the menstrual period.\nOnly a very small percentage of girls is conscious of improvement at that time. About\none-half of the mothers failed to answer this question. If mothers would note the effects\nof physical training on this function, and place the results of their observation at the disposal of teachers, physical training during the pubescent period would be placed on a basis\nwhich would lead to the development not only of strong women, but, what is of more importance to the race, strong mothers.\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nMany girls are glad to have had gymnasium work because it was \" fun.\" Some think\nthey study better on account of the work, and others that it relieves them after sitting all\nday. One girl says: \"That is about all the exercise I get in winter, and I think it does\nme good.\" A mother writes: \"As for winter, I think it would be a good deal better if\nmore time were taken for exercise as girls of this age get in the habit of staying indoors in\ncold weather.\" Health seems to be a secondary consideration, as is to be expected from\nthe young and vigorous. An erect carriage is desired because it looks better. Short girls\nhope that gymnasium work will make them taller, stout ones that it will improve their\nfigures. This interest in appearance could be profitably worked by showing that a healthy\ngirl is usually a charming one.\nAs mothers and girls give apparatus work as the most interesting form of gymnasium\nwork, we might call this \"the age of apparatus work for girls.\" We should seize upon\nthis interest, giving it a fair chance and using it to stimulate pleasure in other forms of\nexercise.\nDo the answers returned give us light on the effect of gymnasium work on girls of the\nlower-high-school age, and do they point to any means for making this work more effective ?\nIn many cases the answers of the girls and their mothers may not be of scientific value.\nThey are too few, too brief, perhaps too acquiescent. They do, however, represent impressions, and impressions lead to popular opinion. The questions sent to those most\nconcerned, high-school girls and their mothers, must have made them realize that gymnasium work is not for fun, merely, altho that is extremely desirable. It calls their attention to the fact that physical-training teachers are earnestly endeavoring to produce\ndefinite improvement in the health of their pupils. Could not the attention of students\nbe brought to the same focus by lessons in hygiene closely connected with their gymnasium\nlessons ? Students need to learn how to recognize the signs of health, and how to maintain\nhealth at the highest standard. If they can be made to see that health must be maintained not by gymnasium work alone, but by that plus hygienic living, a great step forward has been taken.\nFour means are suggested for changing these favorable impressions into intelligent\njudgments:\n1 . Increase the weekly lessons in physical training from two to five.\n2. Reinforce the gymnasium work with the formation of right habits of eating, sleeping, and outdoor life.\n3. Require for promotion a better physical condition as shown by a better carriage,\nclearer skin, better breathing, and greater self-control.\n4. Secure the presence of mothers in the gymnasium and have conferences with them.\nAn interchange of experiences between teachers and mothers would be of very great value\nin the training of high-school girls.\nIt has been said that \"Hving is our business.\" Let the gymnasium work be so\nstrengthened and improved that it will help the high-school girl to the most efficient living.\n\nTHE\nELIZABETH\n\nPHYSICAL\nA.\n\nWRIGHT,\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF POST-ADOLESCENT\n\nDIRECTOR\nOF\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nRADCLIEFE\nMASS.\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nGIRLS\nGYMNASIUM,\n\nIf the emphasis in the training of girls were put upon the formation of\ncorrect physical habits during childhood, when these habits are most easily\nestablished, and if mothers and teachers were more generally alive to the\nimportance of wise guidance during nascent periods, the problems connected with the physical training of post-adolescent girls would be comparatively simple of solution. Habits formed early in life are tenacious\nand for good or evil are bound to influence profoundly the conduct of later\nyears.\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nGIRLS\n\n943\n\nA healthful effort toward the establishment of these habits on a good\nbasis is manifest in the encouraging and progressive features of our modern\neducational and philanthropic activities — in the public milk stations, the\nplaygrounds, the work of boards of health, college settlements, and socialservice organizations. The connection between individual and social\nhealth and individual and social efficiency is becoming more and more patent\nto people generally. We realize that we cannot allow our young girls to\ngrow up to womanhood ill-informed about themselves, indifferent or ignorant as to individual or public health, and insensible to the need of preparing\nthemselves adequately for the responsibilities which await them.\nWhen they have so grown up physical training must do what it can to\nmake up for lost time; it must provide not only opportunity for development but stimulus and guidance as well.\nThe average high-school and college girl possesses a fair physical equipment, and if she has applied a moderate degree of common-sense to her\ndaily conduct not infrequently completes her course in a better condition\nthan when she began it. There is need, however, that she should have not\nonly enough vitality to keep her afloat, but a superabundance that shall\nlaunch her into a career, high-hearted on the crest of the wave, abounding\nin life, energy, courage, and devotion. How far a lack of physical training\nin the past or a present indifference to its demands accounts for the fact\nthat this is too infrequently the case, it is hard to say; but the prevalence\nof preventable physical defects that make against abundant vigor indicates that these factors are to some extent responsible.\nWe encounter every day weak hearts, poorly developed lungs, disorders\nof nutrition, crooked backs, and stooping shoulders, which too often indicate that something went wrong during the period of body-building when all\nother activities should have been subservient to this great physiological process. Imperfection is apparent not only in those obvious motor reactions\nexpressed in posture, gait, and deftness, but the misuse of the voice, slovenly\narticulation, and lack of proper power of inhibition, often give evidence of\na want of training in those motor mechanisms which are the instruments\nfor the expression of the emotions and the guardians of self-control.\nWhen none of these conditions is present, physical training is largely\na matter of prophylaxis, but otherwise it provides for girls of this age a last\nopportunity to repair the effects of the ignorance or misdirected effort of\nformer years; to substitute good motor habits for bad ones, and develop\nthose organs which during their nascent periods got cheated of a fair show.\nIf the harm already done be irreparable it further suggests possibilities for\nmaking the best use of a defective body.\nTho the content of a course in physical training must vary according to\nthe strength and temperament of the individual, and environment influences\nmust always be taken into consideration, there are certain aspects of such\na course that apply to all and that are fundamental in character.\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThere is need that all girls who are mature enough to think intelligently\nabout their relations with their fellow-men . should be given a basis for\nreasoning grounded on biological law. If they are made to see that as a part\nof organic nature they are subject to the same laws that operate and control\nall other parts of organic nature; that the forces of heredity and adaptation are for them also compelling factors in determining their place and\nfunction in the world — they will be in less danger of regarding their training, physical or otherwise, as an end in itself, but rather as a means toward\nthe great end of race development. Each girl who succeeds in perfecting\nthat adjustment to her surroundings which results in health is thereby\ncontributing to the welfare of the race, and has to this extent justified her\nexistence as a factor in the developmental scheme of the universe. To a\npeculiar degree this adjustment is important for women, since the schoolgirls of this generation are to be the mothers of the next generation. From\na biological point of view a training that does not prepare girls to meet\nintelligently the responsibilities which this fact implies is missing its p^oint.\nIn the increased number of opportunities which open out to a girl in\nher high-school and especially in her college years, and in the assumption\nof new duties and greater independence in directing her own activities, she\nmust consciously or unconsciously take a measure of her own limitations,\ndecide what she can most profitably do and what she would better leave\nundone — select, discriminate, test, and define to herself pretty clearly the\nconditions of her environment. In effecting the necessary adaptation to\nthese conditions, a process which is so potent in determining personal efficiency and racial progress, she needs guidance; and it is for this reason that\nthe study of hygiene may be of great value to her. I say, advisedly, however, that it may be of value to her, because, unless its principles are properly\npresented and actively applied to the conduct of everyday life, it may readily be quite ineffectual. It is essential that this subject should be presented\ntruthfully, with a discriminating recognition of personal variability and\npower of adjustment, and with a degree of tact that shall really stimulate\nto healthful living, not lead to morbid self-consciousness. Above all, the\npractical application should be insisted upon; if the girl is not guided to\napply the teachings of science to herself, and to the community of which\nshe forms a part, or if the conditions of home or school are such as to render\nit impossible for her so to apply them, nothing or next to nothing can be\naccomplished.\nWhen, however, suitable conditions are fulfilled, hygiene evidently\nforms the logical basis for physical education. While all the factors which\nmake for greater vitality and economy of force — rest, nutrition, mental\noutlook — come within the scope of such training, the emphasis which it is\ncustomary to put upon the training of the motor mechanism in this connection isjustified, since directly or indirectly muscular exercise bears a\nclose relation to all these factors of healthful living. Moreover, as thru\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF GIRLS\n\n945\n\nmuscular contraction the emotions and the will are expressed, as \"Character,\" according to Dr. Hall, ** might in a sense be defined as a plexus of\nmotor habits\" — the importance of this training as a preparation for a home,\nbusiness, or professional career is manifest. While the form which it should\ntake must depend largely upon the special need of the individual, and while\nphysiological rather than chronological age must be mainly considered, the\nstatus of growth and development which the post-adolescent girl has\nusually reached is suggestive in determining the limits within which we may\nsafely and beneficially employ strenuous exercise, and in indicating to what\nextent we may hope to influence conditions which are the result of faulty\ngrowth or incorrect motor habits.\nIn general, the heart having completed its growth in volume is now\ngetting stronger; the caliber of the arteries is small in relation to the heart,\nand blood pressure is high; the lungs during the early part of the period\nat least are still increasing in volume. Growth in height and weight is practically completed. The vital organs are less liable to strain than during\npuberty and should be capable of considerable endurance. If, therefore,\npremature demands upon their strength or inadequate nutrition have not\nweakened them, the vigorous sports and competitive games which are apt to\nappeal to a healthy girl at this time are not only appropriate,'but under proper\nconditions of selection and super\\dsion may even constitute a sufiicient motor training in themselves. In addition they are to be strongly recommended for the ethical qualities which they tend to develop, and for that\ndesirable objective character which robs training of self -consciousness by\nturning attention from the body itself to the aim to be accomplished.\nWhere there is weakness in vital capacity, altho the periods of accelerated\ngrowth during which development may be most easily influenced by external conditions has passed, play and sports of a milder nature, and dancing\nwhich demands continuous moderate exercise under favorable conditions\nfor free respiration — in short, exercises which stimulate without straining —\nare capable of effecting much. It is of the utmost importance that such\nremedial meaures be employed while there is still some degree of plasticity.\nIn this connection the peculiar advantages of formal gymnastics must not\nbe overlooked, as in the enthusiasm over the ethical and physical development which play presents there is some danger that they may be. Dr.\nGoldthwaite has most convincingly shown how close a relation posture bears\nto health, efficiency, and economy of force, and tho at the post-pubescent\nperiod when growth in height is practically over, less can be done to correct\nfaults of posture, and that at a greater expense of time and energy than\nduring periods of accelerated growth, the outlook for improvement is getting\nsteadily less hopeful. Persistent effort at this time is therefore of especial\nsignificance. Under these conditions a period of self-consciousness is essential. Attention, for a while at least, must be concentrated upon the body\nitself. The objective forms of exercise must be supplemented by the sub-\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "946\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\njective, the work element take precedence over the play element, until new\nnervous connections have become established and the tissues have accommodated themselves to changed conditions. Formal gymnastics are of\nundoubted value for supplying such corrective effects where faults of this\nsort are already present, as well as for combating the evil tendencies which\nsedentary occupation is likely to develop during student life. Therefore,\napart from the training in complex co-ordinative processes which they\ninvolve and the practical efficiency of their practice from a hygienic point of\nview, they form a very important part of any complete scheme for physical\neducation.\nPerhaps, however, the greatest problem in connection with this subject\nis how to make girls realize that this part of their education is a matter of\nreal moment to them. Too many of them at present are ignorant of, or\nindifferent to, the fundamental nature of the issues at stake. It is an\nobligation which we owe to society, as well as to the individual girls, to rouse\nthem from this attitude of indifference, and help them to a juster estimate\nof values in the apportionment of their time.\nThe position which schools and colleges take in regard to this part of\ntheir curriculum is perhaps the most potent factor in directing and controlling public opinion among the girls.\nUnless the work of physical training is dignified in their eyes by an\nofficial recognition on a par with that accorded to academic branches, it is\nhardly to be expected that they will grasp its significance.\nWhen, however, poor carriage, inarticulate speech, carelessness to the\ndemands of personal or community health, are considered as legitimate\ncauses for censure, and count as definitely against school standing as laziness or inefficiency in other departments of the curriculum, the way will\nbe cleared to make girls see that loyalty to school or college, no less than\nobligations to their fellow-beings and to generations yet to come, demand\nthat they should not only know how to live healthfully, but put their\nknowledge to the test, and so prepare for a stronger, saner, and wiser race.\nDISCUSSION\nLillian M. Towne, assistant supervisor of substitutes, Boston, Mass. — It has been\nsaid that \"problems connected with the physical training of post-adolescent girls would\nbe comparatively easy of solution, if correct physical habits could be formed in childhood.\"\nI believe this is partly true, and most heartily agree that habits of posture, of cleanhness,\nof breathing, and of room-ventilation should be grounded in the elementary school, and\ncontinued all along the hne.\nBut children and girls of high-school age are imitative. They do most readily, not\nwhat the instruction, but what the positive example of their teacher inspires them to do.\nTherefore, if habit reactions are to become automatic, easy, and certain in the postpubescent period, it follows, first, that each one who beheves in hygienic-habit formation\nis bound to see that in his schoolroom, the hygienic thing is done rather than talked\nabout; and second, that such formation of health habits shall constitute a vital asset in\na child's advancement.\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n.\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF GIRLS\n\n947\n\nIt is good that the four years of college training mean a steady advance in health\nand vitality for the college girl. But the subject for discussion as I read it i's \"Physical\nEducation of Girls during Upper-High-School as well as College Age.\" That is, it is\n'physical training, not simply for the highly educated girl, but for the girl. Thus, excluding the Girl's Latin, a canvass of the girl graduates from six Boston high schools, shows\nthat the majority are turning toward normal school or immediate work rather than\ncollege.\nSo the question becomes paramount, as to what shall be the aim of physical education\nfor the girl, who is not to be subjected to the regular routine and to the sane, pleasant\natmosphere of college hfe — both essential factors in advancing health and vitality; but\nwho, instead, is to be plunged into the stress of earning her livelihood before the years\nof college maturity are attained.\nFor these girls, physical education, in the upper high and normal school, should\ndo three things:\nFirst, it should reinforce health habits related to the girl's physical development;\nsecond, it should give staying power and nerve endurance, essential in every type of occupation; and third, it should create such an interest in some form of exercise, compatible\nwith the hours of a working day, that the girl will continue it after she has left the\nsupervision of the physical training teacher.\nThe Y. W. C. A. is doing this for many working girls. The folk-dancing classes will\ntouch others. But there is one line of exercise, namely, walking, that may form a part of\nevery day's program; and that is effective in making for nerve endurance, if, according\nto Dr. George L. Walton, the incentive applied has been strong enough so that it will\nfunction almost as a hobby, when the novelty has passed ofif.\nSo I believe, as suggested by the director of hygiene in Boston, that, in the upper\nhigh and normal school years, a vast amount of good could be accomplished for masses\nof girls going to work, if physical-training teachers would co-operate with the drawing\ndepartment in its outdoor study of architecture and of vistas, and with the biological\ndepartment in its study of gardens, birds, and trees. For we know how the enthusiasm\nof the nature-lover makes him note the season's changes in street or yard, takes him to\nthe common, to the park, to the fields, where, in the influence of sunlight and of fresh air,\nThe foolish fears of what may happen,\nI cast them all away.\nWhere ill thoughts die and good are born\nOut in the fields with God.\nAnd, because contact with nature makes for health and nerve endurance, I urge the\nmotivizing of walking as a part of the physical-education equipment for girls in upper\nhigh and normal schools. For is it not this lack of balance that makes the young worker,\nfilled with enthusiasm for her work alone, break where the older worker, with other lines\nof interest than her occupation, goes on to years of effective service?\nAnd, as indicated by the speaker, may not the lack of interest shown by many college\ngirls in sports and games, as well as in formal gymnastics, be due partly to the fact that\nthese older girls fail to see the value of these agencies as apphed in daily living ? For\nphysical education will help the masses of post-pubescent girls, not because it is a subject in the curriculum indorsed by the authorities; but because its practical application\nappeals to them in making for efficiency in the daily exigencies of life.\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "948\n\nNATIONAL\n\nMOUTH\nWILLIAM\n\nEDUCATION\n\nHYGIENE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\niPhyskal\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nH. POTTER, D.M.D., PROFESSOR\nOF OPERATIVE\nHARVARD\nUNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.\n\nDENTISTRY,\n\n{An Abstract)\nInterest in the mouth hygiene of school children earliest developed in\nGermany. In 1902 a school dental clinic was established in the city of Strassburg by Dr. Ernest Jessen. Interest in the work has developed in Germany until now there are about forty school dental clinics scattered thruout\nthe German empire.\nThe work has spread into Sweden, England, and France. The first\nschool clinic was established in Sweden in 1905.\nIn and about Boston the most systematic work has been done in the\ntown of Brookline. There in 1906 a systematic examination of the mouths\nof children in the primary and grammar grades was begun. All defects were\nrecorded and parents notified to take children for treatment to their family\npractitioner or to the infirmaries of the two dental schools. School nurses\nassisted in taking young children to the infirmaries and staying with them\nduring operations. A systematic line of instruction was begun to interest\nparents and children in such care of the teeth as would tend to prevent\nloss by decay.\nPictures of dilapidated, foul mouths were shown by Dr. Potter and the influence of\nsuch mouths upon the physical welfare of children was described. Methods of making\nexaminations and recording the results were shown in detail.\n\nThe establishment of the \"Forsyth Dental Infirmary\" for the care of\nthe teeth of school children in the city of Boston was spoken of as an event\nof which the city should be proud. This infirmary has at present $500,000\nas working capital, and will probably have more. It will be in practical\noperation in course of two years, and will be the greatest institution of its\nkind in the world.\nThe experiments of Dr. Lawrence W. Baker of the Harvard Dental School were\ndescribed and pictures shown in illustration. These experiments with young rabbits\nshowed that where there was a loss of teeth upon one side of the mouth during the first\nyear, there was much loss of development in the bones of the skull. It was pointed out\nthat probably there was a loss of development in the bones of the human skull if in their\nearly years children were deprived of the use of a considerable number of their first teeth\nthru decay.\n\nFinally, the work of the Dental Hygiene Council of Boston was described\nwhose purpose is as follows:\nThe purpose of this council shall be to educate the pubHc as to the necessity of keeping\nthe teeth and mouth in a healthy condition; to teach the doctrine that dental decay can,\nto a large extent, be prevented; to promote dental hygiene in schools; to assist in establishing dental clinics for the poor; to aid in control and prevention of tuberculosis and\nother infectious diseases.\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — B. M. Davis, professor of Agriculture, Miami Univeisity\nOxford, Ohio.\nVice-President — E. L. Brown, principal, North Side High School\nDenver, Colo.\nSecretary — George A. Cowen, Science Department, West Roxbury High School . . . Boston, Mass.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 6, 19 lo\n\nThe department was called to order by N. Henry Black, science master of the Roxbury Latin School, who had been appointed acting president by the Executive Committee\nof the National Education Association.\nThe subject under discussion was \"Science Instruction in the Small High School.\"\nThe first paper was read by H. L. Terry, state high-school inspector, Madison, Wis.\nThe next paper was read by H. G. Russell, superintendent of schools, Greenfield, 111.\nThe discussion of these papers was led by George R. Twiss, high-school visitor, Ohio\nState University, Columbus, Ohio. The other speakers were Charles S. Palmer, consulting chemist, Newtonville, Mass.; J.'W. Hutchins, Maiden, Mass.; Dr. Helen C. Putnam, Providence, R.I.; Franklin T. Jones, teacher of science. University School, Cleveland, Ohio; John C. Packard, vice-principal, High School, Brookline, Mass.; and Edwin H.\nHall, professor of physics. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\nDr. Helen C. Putnam introduced the following resolutions which were adopted:\nInasmuch as sanitation of school premises is a large factor in health and education\nof children, be it\nResolved, That the National Education Association recommends that training in the\nprinciples and methods of sanitary care of school premises be required of all janitors and\nsuperintendents of janitors; that provision be made for giving such instruction; and that\nwhere their appointments are thru civil-service examination it shall include examination\nin this subject.\nBe it also\nResolved, That a committee of five, to contain at least two specialists in sanitation, be\nappointed by the incoming president of the National Education Association to present\nat the next annual meeting of the Association outlines of courses for janitors and superintendents ofjanitors in principles and methods of sanitary care of school premises, and\nplans for instituting such instruction.\nIt was also voted that a committee be appointed to present the resolutions to the\nCommittee on Resolutions of the National Education Association.\nThe secretary was appointed as that committee.\nA report of the committee on the topic \"The United States Government Materials\nThat Are Usable in Secondary Education\" was made by Wesle)'' N. Clifford, head of commerce department, Southern High School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nThere was no discussion of the report.\nThe chairman appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nEdwin H. Hall, professor of physics. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\nJohn C. Packard, vice-principal, High School, Brookline, Mass.\nFrankUn T. Jones, teacher of science, University School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nThe department then adjourned.\n949\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "950\n\nNATIONAL\nSECOND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 1910\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nThe second meeting was called to order at 9 145 by acting president N. H. Black, who\nintroduced Mr. C. H. Robison, State Normal School, Montclair, N.J., who read a paper\nupon the subject, \"The Relation of Departments of Science to Teachers in Elementary\nSchools.\"\nThe paper was discussed by Ehzabeth V. Gaines, Adelphi College, New York, N.Y.;\nEdmund P. Churchill, head of science department, High School, Fresno, Cal.; Edwin H.\nHall, professor of physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. ; Florence J. Wordworth,\nEvanston, 111.; Fannie A. Stebbins, Springfield, Mass.; Gilbert Random, Sacramento, Cal.;\nEllsworth Bethel, Denver, Colo.; Fred H. Cowan, junior master. Girls' Latin School,\nBoston, Mass.\nThe second paper, upon the subject, \"Practical Aspects of Biologic Science in School\nAdministration,\" was read by Dr. Helen C. Putnam, chairman of Educational Section of\nAmerican Association for Study and Prevention of Infant MortaHty, Providence, R.I.\nThis paper was enthusiastically received and many questions were asked in regard to it.\nThe nominating committee made the following report:\nFor President — George A. Cowen, West Roxbury High School, Jamaica Plain,\nBoston, Mass.\nMass.For Vice-President — W. J. V. Osterhaut, professor. Harvard University, Cambridge,\nFor Secretary — Harry T. Clifton, Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, Cal.\nThe report was accepted and the chairman instructed to cast one ballot for the\nofficers named in the report, which was done.\nUpon a motion by Charles S. Palmer it was voted to express to the Local Committee\nthe appreciation of the Department of Science for the cordial reception it had received.\nIt was also voted to express to Professor B. M. Davis the sympathy of the Science\nDepartment because of the recent death of his wife.\nUpon a motion by Dr. Helen C. Putnam it was voted that a committee of three be\nappointed, with the privilege of inviting associates who are experts in sanitation, to report\nnext year on Efficiency in Janitor Service in School Buildings.\nThe following were appointed: Chairman, Dr. Helen C. Putnam, Providence, R.I.;\nFred H. Cowan, junior master, Girls' Latin School, Boston, Mass.; George R. Twiss,\nhigh school visitor, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.\nThe departmsi.t then adjourned.\nGeorge A. Cowen, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nSCIENCE\nH.\n\nL. TERRY,\n\nAND\n\nIN THE\n\nSTATE\n\nHIGH\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nSMALL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nINSPECTOR,\n\nMADISON,\n\nWIS.\n\nThe title of the topic for this discussion is a hopeful one, for it clearly\nindicates a consideration of the adaptation of instruction to the individual\nneeds and conditions of the school. Not that the work in a small school\nshould necessarily differ from that in the large because it is a small school,\nbut because its location is likely to be such that its environment, the experience of the pupils, and the educational values which will appeal to them\nare very different. If the large school has the same surroundings and interests the character of instruction should be the same.\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nI\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN THE\n\nSMALL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n951\n\nNeither should it be assumed for a moment that the pupils in the small\nschool, even tho it may be located in the backwoods, are inferior in ability\nto do science work to those who live in a large city. In fact, I am inclined\nto think that the difference will be found in favor of the country pupils.\nThe great mass of varied impressions and the unnatural distractions of all\nkinds which come to the inhabitants of the city must have an unfavorable\neffect in the formation of the habit of giving that careful consideration to\nexperiences which is necessary to store up a useful fund of information\nwhich will be available in study.\nOn the other hand in the case of the country boy or girl, the impressions,\nwhile just as vital, are fewer and are made over and over until they come\nto mean something; the round of daily duties, the contact with the favorite\nanimals and plants, the few books read and re-read, with time and opportunity for thought and investigation, stimulate the interest and curiosity,\nand are likely, if the mind is at all receptive, to develop an inclination and\ncapacity for study which will eventually lead to a high rank as a student.\nThe great mistake has been in the attempt to give alike to all, the city\nand the country students, the same instruction. The same texts, administered byteachers of practically the same training, are used in the high\nschools of Boston and New York, the forest regions of northern Wisconsin\nand Minnesota, and the prairies of Iowa and Nebraska. This no doubt\nhas come about mainly thru the control of high-school work by colleges exercised by means of practically uniform entrance requirements. Added to\nthis, the prejudice which has existed up to within a few years against science,\nand which still exists against any special study of its applications, such as\nagriculture, as a preparation for entrance to the literary courses, has\nstrengthened the tendency toward uniformity. It has been assumed that\nsuch study could not possibly rank with the formal studies in giving power\nto carry on college work especially in the college of letters and arts. As a\nresult of the prejudice there has come about the feeling, as strong in the\ncountry as in the city, that Latin and mathematics and history and literature constitute a sort of aristocracy of learning, and there is a corresponding\nunwillingness among very many of the very best pupils and parents to\naccept a course which is not allowed equal privileges with those courses made\nup of the old-line studies. I am sure this question of caste lies at the bottom\nof much of the disappointment in the work of science thus far. The constant effort to please the college authorities has had a detrimental effect\non the nature of the work. On the other hand, if a degree of independence isassumed, it will too often be found that the leaders among the\npatrons of even the smallest country schools want their children to be fitted\nfor what ranks highest, whether properly or not, in the college work; and\nas long as special subjects, even tho as important as agriculture, are not\nrecognized as giving ability to do genuine college work they will fail to\nsecure a strong foothold in the very schools best adapted to them.\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nIf entrance to college can be made to depend upon the power of the\nindividual to do the college work no matter thru what studies it has been\ngained, rather than as at present, upon the completion of a prescribed course,\nhigh-school authorities will feel free to teach science in a manner to suit the\nbest interests of the pupils, and the discredit which now attaches to some of\nthe most valuable work will disappear. In some way this must be brought\nabout, or we may expect a continuance of the present serious and just\ncriticisms of our high schools. I regard this question of preparation for\ncollege as one of the utmost importance in this discussion.\nIn the teaching itself there are three lines along which improvement\nmust come. These have all been stated so often and are so old that they\nseem trite and commonplace, but they have a world of meaning to school\ninspectors.\nThe most important of all is the necessity of a comprehension by the\ntextbook-maker, the teacher, and the pupil of a definite purpose in reaching\na value which shall appeal to the student. After years of groping and\nexperimentation we appear to be coming to a common belief that the great\naim of science teaching should be to bring the student into a knowledge and\nappreciation of the natural phenomena about him, and to give him the power\nto recognize and deal with these phenomena under new or unusual conditions\nin an intelligent manner. Many teachers profess this purpose, but a careful questioning will reveal a startling absence of a definite aim either for\nthe branch of study as a whole or for the different topics introduced under\nthe general head.\nFor instance, I have lately found many classes in botany analyzing\nplants, and I have taken occasion to ask what analysis is for or if it has any\nvalue. Almost invariably I have found that the only value in the minds of\nthe class, and apparently the only one thought of by the teacher as well, is\nmerely that of identification ; much as tho we were to study people by giving\nthe peculiarities of appearance, black eyes, prominent nose, low forehead,\netc., and end by saying this is John Jones, leaving the real John Jones with\nwhom we must live and do business untouched. I usually close the discussion byasking how I can get certain information about some plant, the\ndandelion for example, putting my questions into as practical a form as\npossible. What peculiarities has the plant which make it a noxious weed ?\nCan I get rid of it by preventing it from going to seed for a single year, or will\nthe root be alive the next year to produce seed ? Does it spread from the root ?\nHas it underground stems ? After all this questioning and broad hinting\nI have generally found it necessary to plainly state and illustrate the fact\nthat the plant can not only be identified by analysis, but that almost any\nother desired information can then be found in the manual; in other words,\nthat the purpose of the work is to be able to find out all about the plant.\nThe most discouraging fact is that the ideas of both teacher and author are\nlikely to appear as dim as to the wonderful value which may be developed\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSMALL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n953\n\nin this direction as those of the pupil. I do not wish to be understood as\nimplying that there is not a great amount of good instruction being given,\nbut that great impelling motives such as are found in manual training and\ncommercial work are too often absent. In physics a great amount of time\nis worse than frittered away in the manipulation of delicate or complicated\napparatus, in getting accurate measurements, or in working involved\nmathematical problems; in botany in attempting to use the compound\nmicroscope in a scientific way, or in memorizing meaningless technical terms\nand scientific classifications, a great part of which is merely diluted college\nwork unsuited to the needs and capacities of bright country boys and girls.\nHow different is the statement given by a successful Wisconsin teacher of\nwhat he thinks should be the purpose of botany, in his description of what his\nclass is doing.\nHe says:\nInstead of microscopic work and detailed drawings of minute parts of plants let the\npupils be taught how plants grow, what plant foods are, where they are, how they get there,\nhow the plants get them. Study the plants themselves so that the pupils know the'plants\nabout them, how they live, and their economic relation to man.\n\nI shall not soon forget my visit to a class in the heart of a farming district,\ntaught by a teacher able to make use of what the pupils knew or could\neasily find out, and who was using all out-of-doors as a part of her laboratory. They knew and could explain botanically why the farmers exercise\nso much care in separating the fields of different corn, why the strawberrygrower is careful to have plants of different species, and why plowing and\nharrowing tend to increase certain noxious plants. In short, they were\nbeing trained in ability to answer such questions as will come to them in\ntheir daily experiences at home as well as at school and they were becoming\nable to reach out beyond their immediate environments. They were in a\nquestioning attitude, alert, thoughtful, interested. The botany was being\nwell taught and power in many directions was being developed. \"Simple\nwork,\" you say! Yes, but work in which we find a woeful ignorance and\nfor the lack of which we are sure to receive severe criticism.\nNow, no textbook can supply the material or take the place of the teacher\nin making these applications of general principles to the immediate environment. It follows, therefore, that in order to do this work, which is being\nmore and more insistently demanded, teachers must have, not, perhaps, a\nmore rigid and extended, but a different training.\nIn order to be successful in teaching science in any school, and especially\nin a small high school in the country, the teacher must know his surroundings and must be alert, observant, and ready to apply the general law to the\nparticular case. Many a teacher of science (and of other subjects as well)\nwould be wonderfully strengthened if he would, for a time, throw away\nhis texts and reference books, and make a study of the reahties about him,\naiming to fit himself for the actual conditions in which he happens to be\nand for which he may be utterly unsuited by study, training, or experience.\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThose who train teachers must give more emphasis to the thought that\nadaptation of subject-matter to the interests and experiences of the pupils\nis absolutely essential.\nAnother direction in which there is great possible improvement is in the\nsequence of studies. There are many questions here. For instance, Is\nphysical geography a suitable study for the first year? Should physics\nbe required of all, or should it be an optional study? I am very much\ninterested in the experiment which is being so generally tried in Massachusetts of giving a year to elementary science, physics, and chemistry,\nin the first year and placing physiography as an option late in the course.\nI especially hope to hear a general expression of opinion in regard to this\nin this discussion.\nThe present strong tendency in small high schools toward the introduction ofcourses in agriculture is well worth encouragement in the interests\nof better science teaching. Agriculture including, as it does, direct applications ofbotany, physics, chemistry, biology, and geology, gives the incentives which I have indicated as now being so greatly needed; that is, it\nprovides values and makes use of common experiences and knowledge.\nOther lines of occupational training may be better suited to certain locahties, but the general educational principles involved are the same. From\nthese courses I look to see a reflex influence which will extend to all lines of\nschool work, literary as well as scientific. I remember a visit to a school\nin which the boys in the industrial course were plying the teacher with\npractical questions relating to their work in the shops to his evident discomfort. His training had not prepared him for such emergencies and he\nwas beginning to realize that something more was needed than what had\ncome to him in his school laboratory.\nIn order to secure the best results for science, however, such a course\nmust not be added wholly to the scientific subjects which we now have, but\nthese must be modified so as to allow the new work to become largely a part\nof them. Thus the botany becomes botany and agriculture, the zoology\nbecomes practical zoology and treats largely of the economic relationship\nof birds, insects, etc., the physics draws its illustrative material from the\nfarm and the farm home or wider connected interests. In short, the practical applications should be largely specialized and brought into line with the\nparticular interests which are being emphasized. In this way I am sure\nit is possible to put a vitality into the work much greater than has ever yet\nexisted, without either weakening it from the truly scientific standpoint\nor taking an undue amount of attention from the other lines — history,\nliterature, EngKsh, and mathematics — which are so essential to a liberal\nsecondary education.\nThe course which, in its essential features, has been adopted in some of\nthe high schools of Wisconsin and called a high-school course in agriculture, provides six out of the sixteen units of the whole course, or about one-\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSMALL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n955\n\nthird of the whole time, for science and agriculture, leaving ten for Enghsh,\nmathematics, and history. The six are divided thru the years as follows,\nbeginning with the first: elementary science, i unit; a preliminary study of\nsoils, seeds, plants, etc., J unit; botany and horticulture, i unit; physiology,\ni unit; practical zoology, J unit; soils and crops, i unit; animal and dairy\nhusbandry, | unit; farm economics, J unit; physics, i unit.\nOne danger which is already quite strongly in evidence in some quarters\nand which cannot be too strongly guarded against is that of pitching the\ngrade of the work far above the maturity and abihty of the pupils and thus\nbringing about a repetition of our experience with other high-school studies.\nWe are just now passing thru a period of change in the direction of adaptation and simplification simply because of the attempt to determine the highschool course thru adjustment with the speciaHzation of the college rather\nthan to allow it to grow naturally out of the work of grades and out of the\ninterests which will appeal to young people. Dilution of college work to\nobtain material for use in high schools has done mischief enough in the past\nto serve as a warning against a repetition of the mistakes in the introduction\nof these new and valuable additions to the high-school curriculum.\nSCIENCE\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nH. G. RUSSELL,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nIN THE\n\nSMALL\n\nOF CITY SCHOOLS,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBEARDSTOWN,\n\nILL.\n\nMan has invented many institutions to aid him in his progress and to\nhelp him to be a man. Chief among the institutions so invented is the\npublic-school system, or institution of universal enlightenment. In earlier\ndays life in America was simple, wants were few, and but Httle aid was\nrequired in matters educational, but as population increased and life became\nmore complex, a demand was made on the system which man had invented\nto aid him for greater efficiency in the performance of common service.\nIn answer to this demand the high school came into existence, and of its\npurposes and efficiency on the side of science I wish to speak.\nAs man's progress should be symmetrical and the pursuit of his ideals\nintelligent and consistent, the high school should lend itself to the solution\nof the problems with which man has to do. It is a significant fact that\nmen have come to consider education as a thing that will help them to\nbetter their condition and to live fuller lives. They naturally expect the\nschool to help them solve their problems, and as their important and most\nperplexing problems are largely material, the school must deal more accurately and efficiently with material things. The reasons for this are many\nand clear. This is a new, original, inventive, industrial age, intensely\nmaterial, and any system that is to aid man must deal with the things that\nmost interest him. In other words, they must stand primarily for these\nthings.\nI. Greater efficiency in the performance of common service. Service is the\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ntest of man's worth and the only badge of superiority. \"If a man can write\na better book, preach a better sermon, or build a better mouse-trap than\nhis neighbor, tho he build his home in the wilderness, the world will make\na beaten path to his door.\" Better service in ievery avenue of life is the\nslogan of the hour and better education is the passion of the age. The\ncontrolling purpose of a great civilization is to eradicate those conditions\nwhich propagate pauperism, and to achieve that purpose the masses must\nbe made more intelligent and efficient. If our progress is to be maintained\nin the face of increasing cost of living, it necessarily follows that man's\npower to earn and his capacity to make a living must be increased. As\nthe high school is the school of the masses, training in useful activities must\nbe pushed to the front in the high school as the only immediate means by\nwhich the efficiency of the masses may be increased.\nUniversal education is the first fundamental fact in a democracy and if it\nis to be maintained, educated girls must wash, sew, cook, scrub, and perform\nthe menial services which are now performed by the uneducated. Educated boys must dig ditches, plow corn, construct highways and do all sorts\nof hard labor. Hitherto inferior individuals or races have performed the\nmenial services; in the future the superior, forceful, educated people will\nperform these services by making the elements of nature, the material\nthings, bear the burdens, perform the drudgery, and lighten the way of the\ntoiler. Better acquaintance with the materials at man's hands will make\nhis way easier. The school system becomes the desired aid to man when\nit prepares him to perform his part of the world's work with efficiency and\nease, when it has trained him thoroly in some useful activity, and any\nactivity is useful when it promotes human well-being. Hence, training in\nuseful activity and for greater efficiency in common service is the fundamental fact of our high-school system.\n2. The more complete and practical development of the economical and\nsocial forces of the community, and a keener appreciation of the importance of\nthe same. A strictly first-class high school is training the masses, not only\nindustrially but for all the duties of life; it is vocational to a helpful degree\nand cultural to a degree equal to the best colleges of forty years ago. While\nthe dominant interest of the community may not be the fundamental fact\nupon which the high school should rest, the interest of the community,\ntogether with the drift of the race and its dominant interest, must form the\nbasis for the course of study, if the high school is to perform the service\nwhich is expected of it. That the drift of the race is material and that the\nideals are more largely conditions in life than formerly are apparent, and it\nnecessarily follows that more material instruction, with a view to advancing\nthe community in its dominant interest, must be given, and the logical place\nto give such instruction is the high school.\n3. A more practical and harmonious blending of industrial and cultural\neducation. There should be no antagonism between these two ideals in\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSMALL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n957\n\neducation; it takes both to make a complete system of education. No\nman has a right to be a ruffian, nor has he any right to be useless. Useful\nactivity and ethical culture are inseparable in the measure of a real man.\nWhether industrial or ethical, economical or aesthetical, while it is commendable to know, it is more commendable to do; while it is important that man\nshould pursue high ideals, it is likewise important that he should know how\nto maintain himself and not be a burden on organized society. Prosperity\nis a strong ingredient of a healthy civilization. No great nation was ever\nbuilt among an impoverished people. Material and remunerative vocations\nare as commendable and respectable as the imaginative and unprofitable\nones. Notwithstanding the fact that our civilization is material, it is the\nbest civilization the world has seen, and the whole people are busily engaged\nin reclaiming the soil, driving out disease, and beautifying their habitations.\nIn these activities we see a harmonious blending of these formerly antagonistic ideals in education. The high school is the common ground on which\nthese two ideals can be brought into a practical and harmonious working unit.\nScience is the gateway to man's material prosperity and progress, and\nthe modern high school should be equipped and able thru science to solve\nthe community problems and contribute to the community's growth and\ndevelopment. Science is as strictly vocational as cultural, and as strictly\ncultural as vocational, but it is the province of the high school to make it\nserve man, bear his burdens, and brighten his way, rather than simply fit\nhis sons and daughters for college. Let it be understood first of all that the\npurpose of the high school is to fit for life and not for college.\nNow the character of the science work in the high school must be\naccurate and thoro, and the equipment must be sufficient to cover the\nrealm of community interest. The laboratory must become the practical\nworkshop in which are performed experiments in lines of utility which will\nequip the youth for better service. Disconnected experiments have little\nvalue. Purpose must be back of all work planned, and must be so wrought\nout as to form in the end a concrete unit in so far as the knowledge gained\nwill be creative, productive, working knowledge.\nChemistry pursued by the lawyer or minister may be said to be purely\ncultural, but when pursued by the high-school teacher for the purpose of\ncreating greater efficiency, it may be said to be utilitarian or technical.\nThe chemical laboratory, like the physical, should be equipped with a\nsingle eye to the production of working, constructive knowledge, that those\nwho pursue chemical and physical subjects in the high school may apply\ntheir knowledge to the advancement of the community. The difficulties\nin the way of these ideal conditions are poor equipment and incapable\nteaching force. As the teachers have not been prepared in the higher\ninstitutions to give such instruction, they know not how to satisfy the\ncommunity on the science side. Hence severe criticisms have been directed,\nand justly too, against the efficiency of the modern high school. While\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "958\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Scien..^\n\nwe are not in sympathy with those who would criticize the graduates of\nour high schools because they cannot run a department store or build a\nrailroad immediately upon graduation, much of the criticism is just and\nsanely directed. The teaching force of our high schools should be equipped\nin the higher institutions with knowledge and skill in the sciences to be\ntaught that will bring the community and the schools into a closer relationship and show the community wherein the schools have failed and how\nin the future the school will serve them better by a more accurate and thoro\nknowledge of physics, the laws which govern the apphcation of force in\nmachinery, by analysis of the soil, and informing the community what\nthe soil needs to produce greater crops and increase prosperity ; by producing that knowledge which will enable man to take more from the soil and\nleave the soil better, to perform greater service with less effort and prolong\nlife with greater ease; by producing that knowledge which will diminish\nthe mistakes, the sins, and the ills of mankind.\nThe community is ripe for just such an institution, and not until such\ninstructions are given in the high schools will all the people feel that satisfaction with the schools which a free people ought to feel with the institutions\nwhich they have created to aid them. On the administrative side no\nobjections will be made to creating such an institution; the funds may be\nhad immediately upon convincing the public that such an institution will\nbe operated in the community.\nWhen the teaching force is made more efficient and the community is\nconvinced that better work will be done, buildings will arise, laboratories\nwill be equipped, and agencies set in motion which will revolutionize the\neducational sentiment of the American people. Now this does not mean\nthat our schools shall be converted into workshops, nor that the cultural\ndeal shall lose any of its educative value; but it does mean that our schools\nstand first of all for both industrial and cultural efficiency. They must\nbuild along humanistic as well as artistic lines. On the economical side\nthey must produce wealth and construct means for its equitable distribution. On the cultural side they must produce ideals and sound thought,\nand construct character and men.\nThey must reduce waste to the minimum and increase production to\nthe maximum; conserve the fertility of the soil, the wealth of mine and\nforest, and pass on to the generations the riches of Nature which are now\nheld in trust by us. Facts first, and tradition and opinion second. Science\ncontains the facts and is no part of tradition or opinion. With more accurate and thoro training in the sciences, longer time given to the subjects of\nphysics, chemistry, and biology, and greater emphasis placed upon the\npractical side, the modern high school will increase, first, its material service\nto the masses, and second, its cultural value to all the people by making\nthe way easier to high ideals. Thrift and prosperity, upright character and\ncoristructive men should be the output of a modern high school.\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN THE SMALL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n959\n\nDISCUSSION\nGeorge R. Twiss, high-school visitor, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. — The\npurpose of the high school in any community is to fit its boys and girls to know and interpret their environment, and themselves in relation to their environment, so that they may\nbe able to use all their powers to the best advantage to themselves and the community in\nwhich they live. The small high school is the country high school, and in accomplishing\nits purpose its problems are the problems of the farm community.\nSchool authorities all over the country are coming to realize that they must frame and\nadminister their courses with reference to the needs of the pupils, without regard to college\nrequirements, and the colleges must, and eventually will, adjust themselves to the new\nconditions.\nSuch an adjustment implies that every boy or girl who has successfully completed\na four years' course in a high school where the needs of the community are properly met,\nand where the teaching is vital and effective, can find a place in college where he can go on\nwith higher work in kindred lines.\nMany of the small high schools fail to meet the needs of rural communities, and therefore fail to obtain adequate financial support, because their courses are built in formal\nlines, designed primarily to meet specific and conventional college requirements. In\ntheir attempt at meeting the needs of the community, they put in electives for those not\naiming toward college, and thus so .overburden their scanty teaching force that little\nreally effective work can be done.\nThe most obvious remedy is to reverse the point of view and concentrate the course\non things that have vital significance in the activities of the home, the farm, and the industries of the country town. Such a course is tentatively suggested below. It provides for\nthe principles underlying industrial life and intelligent citizenship, with the greatest possible economy of teaching force. It provides a maximum of science, which should be\ntaught all thru with special reference to agriculture and the economic life of the community. Ifthe community is able and willing to employ another teacher for the four\nyears' work in foreign languages and an extra year of Enghsh, it would be able to fit its\nstudents for most of the colleges that insist on that minimum. These five units could be\nchosen instead of those numbered 4, 8, 9, 13, and 14. Teaching force may be economized\nby teaching the following in alternate years: 3 and 7, 9 and 13, 11 and 15. If Latin is\nadded, third, and fourth-year Latin may be alternated. Composition should be correlated with all the other subjects in the last two years, and practical and commercial\narithmetic with all mathematics. This plan leaves space for four years of the sciences\nwhich underlie the farm and country activities, agriculture, housekeeping, domestic and\npersonal hygiene. Illustrations of principles, practical applications and problems should\nbe drawn more from the apparatus and materials of the farm and home and less from those\nof the research laboratory. Materials of each science that have significance in the everyday life and activities of the country community are the ones that should be chosen, not\nsuch things as measuring coefficients of expansion, tensile strength of wires, temperatureresistance coefficient, seven different methods for specific gravity, and the like. The\nextent to which practical work in agricultural science should replace the formal study of\nthe various sciences must be worked out by the schools themselves.\nGroup\n\nI St Year\n\n2d Year\n\nEngUsh\n\nI. Rhetoric and\nComposition\n\n5. Classics and\nComposition\n\nMathematics\n\n2. Algebra and\nArithmetic\n\n6. Geometry\nand\nmeticArith-\n\n4th Year\n\n3d Year\n13. Economics\n9, and\nComm'l\nLaw\nand composition\nComposition\n10. Geometry\n14. Science of\nkeeping\ncounts Acand\nand bookfarm book-keeping, with\nCommercial\nArithmetic\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Science\n\nq6o\n\nGroup\n\nI St Year\n\n2d Year\n\nzoology\n3. Physical geog- 7 Botany and\nraphy, pheric\natmosand soil\n\nScience\n\nHistory\n\nphysics\n\nManual Arts\n\n11\n\n12\n\nChemistry\n3d Year\n\n4th Year\n\ntory\nand\nture agricul-\n\n15. Physics and\nagriculture\n\nGeneral his-\n\n16, American history and civics\n\nman4. Drawing, man- 8 Drawing,\nual training\nor\nual training or\ndomestic science domestic science\nand domestic\nand domestic\nart\nart\nThe greatest need is for teachers so trained that they can work out science courses\nthat will appeal to the community and will train the students to think, to feel, to do\nefficiently and wisely. Teachers who can do this will get from their communities the\nfinancial and moral support that is necessary. Higher-grade teachers and better equipment could be secured if two or three contiguous townships would suppress local\njealousies and combine in supporting one strong high school with well-trained, well-paid\nteachers, and in furnishing transportation to it, instead of maintaining a number of\nweak ones. Centralization and co-operation constitute the road to true efficiency.\nThe colleges and normal schools must give more attention to the training of teachers,\nboth prospective and in service, by co-operating with neighboring schools for practice\nteaching, by Saturday classes, by correspondence courses, by helping in the direction of\nteachers' institutes, and by issuing bulletins of information on the teaching of various\nsubjects.\n\nRELATION OF DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE IN SECONDARY\nSCHOOLS TO TEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\nC. H.\n\nROBISON,\n\nHEAD\nOF THE DEPARTMENT\nOF NATURE-STUDY\nAND\nRAPHY, STATE NORMAL\nSCHOOL, UPPER MONTCLAIR,\nN.J.\n\nGEOG-\n\nWith many of the five hundred thousand common-school teachers\nleaving the profession every year, it is evident that all of the graduates\neach year from the seventy- two thousand normal-school students, and from\nthe nine hundred and fifty-five thousand high-school students together\ncould scarcely supply the shortage in elementary teachers. When we\nremember that the number of high-school graduates varies from 5 to 15\nper cent, of the total enrollment, we can better reahze how true this is even\nif every high-school graduate became a teacher.\nAs most city grade teachers are graduates of high schools and often of\ntraining classes or normal schools as well, the plight of the country and\nvillage schools is much worse than an average that might be struck. Many\nof their teachers have had one or two years of high school, while some of the\ncountry teachers have not had this much preparation.\nLike most high-school-science problems, the one stated in the topic of\nthis discussion has two aspects, that of the city schools and that of the nonurban schools. In the large, their problems are not sharply marked off;\nin the detail, there are many important differences. City training schools\nand one- or two- year normal-school courses for high-school graduates have\nlittle enough time left, at best, for the facts of science or of nature-study,\nafter giving the time necessary for the fundamentals and professional sub-\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n961\n\njects. It is to illustrate the heavy burden resting on the training schools\nthat we give the results of a question asked of the entering class of a normal\nschool. The students were asked to spend about fifteen or twenty minutes\nin writing out lists of all the trees growing in this country they could think\nof and to check off those they thought they could recognize. They probably thought they knew many that they did not, as plum and pear trees\n\\vithout the fruit. About eighty students, mostly girls, comprising three of\nthe six sections of the entering class, took part. They were all graduates\nof approved four-year high schools. The surprising thing is the large number of confessions of what they could not recognize in the way of native\ntrees, and the small amount of discrimination between species. To be sure\na majority, perhaps, were city girls, but city shade trees fared no better than\nforest trees. The total number of trees mentioned was one thousand two\nhundred and forty-two. Of these four hundred and fifty, or 36 per cent.,\nwere marked as not recognizable. Of the trees mentioned fifty times or\noftener, 23 per cent, were not recognizable. These are as follows: 10 per\ncent, could not recognize apple, cherry, maple, or pine; 20 per cent, could\nnot recognize an oak or a chestnut (one of the commonest forest trees of our\nlocality) ; 25 per cent, could not recognize birch, also very common with us,\nnor 50 per cent, a hickory or a walnut, which was not so strange as the other\ncases. But worst of all was the fact that twenty-eight of the sixty-three\nwho mentioned elms would not know them at sight. Only eight of eightyfive mentioned particular maples. Two out of eighty mentioned oaks.\nScarcely any were more specific about conifers than to specify \"pine\" or\n\"spruce,\" while seven got no closer than merely to say \"evergreen.\"\nSo in both city and rural high schools, the responsibility for the subjectmatter of nature-study in its broadest sense — that of including elementary\nphysical science, elementary agriculture, and physiology— must rest largely\nwith the high-school sciences.\nIt may be objected that the high school cannot frame its whole course\nto suit the few who expect to teach any more than for the few who expect\nto attend a pharmacy school or an engineering school. But the reply may\nbe made that any fact of such general interest or importance as to be used\nin nature-study, surely deserves a place in the high-school science. Where\nnone of the members of the entering class of a normal school thinks of discriminating between the different kinds of maple used as shade trees, and\nonly a few between English and other sparrows, when many do not know\na maple from an elm, a robin from a catbird, it is evident that the highschool biology did not take account of these things or was not required of\nthe student.\nThese are centainly fit subjects in cities for both nature-study in the\ngrades and science in the high schools. Lilcewise the curative effects of\nfresh air, the germicidal effects of sunlight and heat are certainly pertinent\nto the conditions of city life.\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nWhere can the future grade teacher better get her knowledge than in\nthe high school ? And how can she get it even there, w^hen school precedents, classically trained principals, and social conventions all operate to\ndivert her from the sciences ? Not that the topics just mentioned are not\nimportant in rural schools, but their treatment would sometimes be different and other topics would claim a place of equal or greater importance.\nForest trees and fruit trees will overshadow ornamental trees as practical\ntopics. The economic aspect of robins and catbirds is rivalled by that of\nhawks and owls, birds unknown in cities. \"Boil the water\" yields to\n''Don't pollute the well.\"\nAgitation against dark hall-bedrooms gives way to as needful caution\nagainst stuffing the window cracks and banking up the front door in winter.\nUnder the disguise of agriculture, nature-study in the rural districts promises\nsoon to outstrip the work done in cities. While the city teachers possess\na much better general education and decidedly better professional preparation, the rural teachers are fast concentrating on this line of work in a way\nunequalled by those in the cities.\nThat it is not merely a belief born of hope, may be easily shown by the\nfollowing data: in 1907-8 agriculture was taught in about 250 high schools,\ncity and country training classes, and special agricultural schools. In\n1908-9, the number had risen to about 500, an increase of 100 per cent.\nIn 1909-10 agriculture was taught in 267 high schools in Nebraska alone.\nThe high schools teaching agriculture a year ago enrolled 15,243 pupils\nand served over half a million people. Over one-third of these students\nwere from farmhouses, and about one-fourth were studying agriculture.\nThe principals of 132 schools, enrolling 11,977 pupils, estimated that 1,722\nwould teach in the rural schools. We have here a definite measure of the\ngrowth of the movement. From it we may form some idea of the extent of\nthe reaction we may hope for on the rural-school work. The teaching of\nagriculture in rural schools is required in twelve states. The work of the\nnormal-school summer sessions is an important factor, but the countrydistrict-school teachers must get most of their help from the science instruction of the high school. From the administrative standpoint, this forms\none of the strongest reasons for the introduction of agriculture into the\ncountry high schools. To say the least, the teacher of science should give\nhigh-school pupils as thoro equipment for teaching this required subject as\nhe should give them for teaching the physiology required by law, or as the\nEnglish teachers give for the language work of the grades.\nA very novel manner in which the science teacher of the rural high\nschool has solved the problem in a few isolated, but successful, cases has\nbeen to do this grade teaching himself. When we think of a three-teacher\nhigh school carrying on a four-year course, this seems impossible. It was\nmade possible only by the interesting experiment of introducing the departmental system of instruction into the upper grades. We think of this\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n,\n\n963\n\nmethod as being possible only in larger systems where one teacher may\nteach arithmetic in four or five different classes of the eighth grade. We\nthink of it as impossible where there is but one seventh and eighth grade\nand they in the same room. The novelty was in the fact that the organization of the departmental teaching was vertical instead of horizontal. The\nteacher of the high-school mathematics was not too good for the arithmetic\nof the grammar grades, and so with the English work, and the science.\nThe trouble is that when the bright and capable young man gets such\nan experiment successfully started, some city system or normal school gets\nhim away and the experiment lags in other hands.\nAnother great problem is the question of what exercises and experiments\nshall be given in the elementary schools teaching agriculture or nature\nstudy, and what ones shall be reserved for the high-school courses in agriculture, or the applied phases of high-school science. This can only be\nworked out by a mutual understanding and division of labor between the\nscience teacher of the rural high school and the teachers of the elementary\nschools. There is danger that seed-testing will be repeated in the sixth,\nseventh, and eighth grades and in the high school, that lettuce and radishes\nwill be grown indiscriminately year after year, and that both grammar\ngrades and high school will wrestle with the same classic tomato-can and\npop-bottle experiments until the whole subject falls into disrepute among\nboth teachers and pupils, as has the kind of physiology insisted upon by\ncertain well-intentioned persons, and as I am assured nature study has in\nparts of New England. When \" high-school mathematics \" is mentioned, the\nsa me idea occurs to nearly everyone . When the term ' ' elementary science ' '\nis used, it may call up a variety of ideas, but all are agreed on a certain kind\nof physics and chemistry which elementary science is not. But no such\ndistinctions arise in the average teacher's mind when we speak of \"elementary agriculture.\" For the most part the textbooks give us no clue.\nFor the textbook reported most often, seventy-one times, by the 164 high\nschools whose texts I have been able to learn, is not at all of high-school\ngrade in the estimation of the leaders of this movement, whose opinions\nare worth considering. As against this seventy-one, the next three highest\ncombined amounted to eighty-one. But it is encouraging to know that\nmany of these schools were planning to relegate this text to its proper place\nin the grades, where its authors intended it to be used, just as fast as texts\nmore suitable for high-school work appear. I am not alone in believing\nthat the average rural high- and elementary-school teacher will remain at\nsea regarding the differentiation until a two- or three-book series appears,\nor unless the committee of the Department of Rural and Agricultural\nEducation clearly points out a proper dividing-line both in content and in\nmethod of treatment, something beyond the stereotyped \" do-the-samething-only-more-so \" kind of syllabus.\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "964\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\nASPECTS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF BIOLOGIC\nMINISTRATION: THE PROBLEM\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nSCIENCE IN SCHOOL ADOF JANITOR SERVICE\n\nDR. HELEN C. PUTNAM, PROVIDENCE, R.I., EX-PRESIDENT OP THE AMERICAN\nACADEMY OF MEDICINE AND CHAIRMAN OF THE SECTION ON EDUCATIONAL PREVENTION OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR STUDY\nAND PREVENTION\nOF INFANT MORTALITY\n\n{Author's Abstract)\nThe factor in environment most completely under control of school\nauthorities that most affects efl&ciency both in school and in later life is the\nschoolhouse air.\nThe official who has direct and continuous charge of the air is the janitor. Its details with which janitors have to deal are dust, effluvia from\nbodies, temperature, and humidity.\nDust is now recognized as so universal a cause of disease that the Bureau\nof the Census is introducing a new classification, ''occupational diseases,\"\none used by England for a century and by other foreign countries over\nfifty years. Dust injures more by its irritating qualities than by the\npathogenic organisms it contains. Inorganic dust, such as particles of\nmetal, or stone, by irritating the lining of nose, throat, bronchial tubes,\nand lungs, prepares these tissues for the pathologic action of micro-organisms but\n;\nmicro-organisms of communicable diseases are a form of deUcate\nplant life easily destroyed by sunHght and drying.\nThe death-rate from tuberculosis is highest among workers in metal,\nstone, pottery, and glass. It is lowest in the country, where one cubic inch\nof air is said to contain normally 2,000 dust particles, while in the city it\ncontains 3,000,000 made up of dried manure, sputum, house and shop\nsweepings, tobacco, ashes, smoke, iron, glass and stone particles, etc.\nDust is the commonest cause of colds in the head, sore throat, bronchitis.\nWind storms in cities are directly followed by increase of such practice\namong physicians; and the prevalence of catarrh, to some extent of sore\neyes and adenoid conditions, is directly traceable to dust in streets, pubHc\nconveyances and buildings. Pus microbes are practically always present\nis such dust.\nA nomenclature of dust diseases is growing. Pneumokoniosis is a disease of the lungs due to dust in general. Autopsies show that comparatively\nfew city dwellers are free from it. The lung tissue is dark in color, with\nfibrous thickening, and nodules where more or less active inflammatory\nchanges took place. In life this was manifest by susceptibility to \"colds,\"\nby debility and lessened resistance to tuberculosis and pneumonia. Siderosis is due to minute particles of iron; anthracosis to coal dust; silicosis\nto sand. House dust has more pathogenic organisms because closer to\ninvalids, and less open to fresh air and sunshine.\nThere is a disease specially prevalent among those connected with\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEM\n\nOF JANITOR\n\nSERVICE\n\n965\n\npublic schools. But we are reluctant to admit that education has an\noccupational disease.\nDr. Oldright, professor of hygiene at the University of Toronto, quotes\nstatistics indicating that tuberculosis is the cause of death more often among\nteachers than among workers in all other fields together, i.e., the deathrate of teachers from tuberculosis is considerably above the average deathrate from tuberculosis; it is higher than in any other profession. This is\nin spite of the fact that women continue in teaching on an average only\nsix years; men only nine; also that many resign before marked evidences\nof ill-health appear, and at the time of death may not be enumerated as\nteachers.\nReports in medical literature of the last fifteen years show that between\none- third and one-half of school children have tuberculosis, either active\nor liable to become so on sufiicient irritation of the air passages or depression\nof general health from any cause. Frequency of tuberculosis gradually\nsurpasses that of other diseases thru school and following years until in\nthe prime of life it is the commonest cause of death.\nThese data are based on many thousand autopsies where children died\nfrom diphtheria and other causes than tuberculosis (whose existence was\nnot suspected), on X-ray and other deUcate methods of examination, and on\nreaction to tuberculin tests. The fact that so many frail children improve\nin open-air schools is suggestive.\nSchool fatigue and dullness are recognized accompaniments of the educational process; also nervous disorders.\nThe best cure of all these ills is Ufe in the open. The chief factor in\nschool life that invites them is school sanitation. This we leave to ignorant\nand incompetent caretakers and supervisors; who make no pretense of\nfitting for sanitary inspection or sanitary duties; who do the best they\nknow with knowledge picked up.\nIt is certain that if in vocational or technical or continuation or trade\nschools were courses for Janitors and their superintendents, intelligent interest and efficiency would be secured and pubHc health improved. Every large\ncity has several hundred janitors of schools, apartment houses, office buildings, theaters; as well as Pullman porters, train and street-car conductors,\nhotel managers. We need to introduce educational and health standards\nin this important occupation. No good home-maker has the dirty floors\nand atmosphere with which we shut up children and instructors.\nThe Massachusetts Civil Service Commission examines appHcants for\njanitors' places in personal record and elementary education, with a few\nquestions on cleaning, heating, ventilating, and lighting. Engineers'\nlicenses are required for high-pressure engines except where ''policemen's\nsafety valves\" are used. The test is much less rigorous than that for other\noffices, the reason given being that few eligible men apply.\nIt is the custom to rely mainly on past service for promotion.\nThere-\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "966\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nfore the quality of a janitor's work depends much on the principal, as\nquality in domestic service has long depended on the mistress. The\ntwentieth century is learning, and finds it hard to do so, that principalships,\nparenthood, and janitorships do not carry with them innate capacity for\nthe duties; that men's and women's instincts as parents, principals, or\njanitors need twentieth-century scientific information for efficient care of\nchildren.\nThey need understanding of biologic laws and their underlying principles in physics and chemistry — subjects in which the great majority of\nparents, principals, and janitors are little interested, because in their\nschooling teachers of these sciences made them academic rather than vital,\nor they had no such teachers. This Department of Science Instruction\nholds the key to school sanitation as to other problems of pubHc health and\nmorals.\nA teacher of biology in the ninth grade, whose every detail is directed\nto stamping pupils' minds with biologic laws common to daily life, whether\nstudied in sea- weed or bird, and who has done it so wisely for eight years\nthat now results are coming in from former pupils justifying departure from\ncollegiate methods, said to me, \"All I adapted to everyday problems I\nhad to do myself. We do not get in our biology courses anything about\nhuman and social biology to fit these children for living.\"\nFortunately this instructor had enough initiative to adjust \"orthodox\"\ntraining to these important demands; but this resourcefulness is not found\nas often as needed. If principals and others high up show little appreciation of biologic law in school management, and allow little time and\nequipment for biologic teaching and the necessary physics and chemistry,\nprobably their experiences are like one of mine that is rather typical. After\nfifteen minutes in a classroom of thirty normal pupils vaguely discussing\ntrap-door spiders and other \"book animals,\" the principal justified the\ndecision to cut down zoology one-third and give the time to English by\nsaying, \"It doesn't seem to amount to anything.\" The room had scores\nof flies; the neighborhood mosquitoes, tuberculosis, malaria, and infant\nmortaHty; but these fascinatingly related topics in civic zoology are commonly neglected.\nSome instructors in science create great interest by studying the immediate environment; and janitors who find \"cultures\" being made of halls,\nrooms, and basements, temperatures charted day after day, and class discussions ofconditions, possibilities, and methods, have become interested.\nSome such janitors are devising methods of floor-cleaning, dusting, and\nventilating that are unique and of value. One instructor is contemplating\na class for janitors this winter.\nWe need school data concerning dust, carbon dioxid, temperature,\nhumidity, and other details. Science instructors are ideally situated to\nsecure them, and better work for educating pupils in sanitation could hardly\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEM\n\nOF\n\nJANITOR\n\nSERVICE\n\n967\n\nbe wished. We need to establish permissible limits which shall not be exceeded; to have practical methods for testing them; to have as definite\nstandards of sanitation as of bookwork; to train caretakers as we train\nengineers, nurses, librarians.\nWe have still lessons to learn from open-air schools; and much between\nthem and the elaborate, expensive systems at the other extreme, where\nair is sifted (the screens soon foul with dirt), washed (the washings a muddystream), heated, humidified, and sent at certain speed to rooms whose\nwindows must not be opened, and where out of thirty-two automatic heat\nregulators I found twenty-seven that \"didn't work.\" In about 600 schoolrooms in various cities I found 210 thermometers, one- third of them out\nof order, and barely twenty registering within one of 70 degrees, the others\nranging from 72 degrees to 85 degrees in winter months. Delicate children\nimprove in all respects in outdoor schools where the temperature is that of\neven winter. Tuberculosis is cured more rapidly in cold weather than in\nsummer. England requires the schoolroom to be 60 degrees. If this is\ntoo cold, it seems safer than ours in the seventies, with mortahty statistics\nas they are.\nHealth maxims cannot offset habits that educate popular Uking for overheating, and indifference to bad air and dust.\nIn a Cornell student's recent report on a prominent school the hygrometer determined humidity 24 per cent., normal being 60; the anemometer\nfound no currents in ventilating flues; the Pettersson-Palmqvist apparatus\nshowed carbon dioxid steadily increasing from 4 parts in 10,000 (normal)\nto 24 parts, i.e., the pupils breathed technically bad or very bad air thru\nthe day.^ The school, like all in that city, had printed rules for the janitor;\nbut absence of technical training (janitor), technical standards (school\nboard), technical supervision (instructors) made rules valueless.\nMethods of precision are as practicable and as necessary for caretakers\nof a school as for nurses in a hospital; their routine practice is entirely\npossible with reasonable instruction, less instruction than is given in schools\nfor nurses and for domestic science.\n' Quantitive determination of carbon dioxid indicates animal exhalations present that are injurious.\nThe dioxid is never in sufficient quantities to poison\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — J. J. Stoddart, president, School Board\nVice-President — ^J. S. Bowers, member, School Board\nSecretary — William George Bruce, editor, American School Board Journal\n\nColumbus, Ohio.\nMoberly, Mo.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 5, 1910\nThe first meeting was called to order at 9:30 o'clock in the Assembly Room of the\nNormal Art^ School, by President J. J. Stoddart, president of School Board, Columbus,\nOhio.\nPresident Stoddart then read a paper on \"The Outlook for Educational Administration.\"\nHe was followed by David Snedden, Commissioner of Education for the State of\nMassachusetts, who spoke on \"The Need for Better School Reports and Publicity.\"\nAfter a general discussion of the paper it was moved that a committee of five, headed\nby David Snedden, be appointed to express the sentiment of the Department for better\nschool reports and that the United States Commissioner of Education be urged to prepare\nand issue a handbook on school reports and accounting for the gviidance of school administrators.\nThe Chair named:\nDavid Snedden, Massachusetts State Board of Education, Boston, Mass.\nGeorge D. Strayer, adjunct professor of elementary education, Teachers College,\nNew York City, N.Y.\nFrank B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nR. G. Kinkead, assistant superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio.\nWillard S. Small, principal. Eastern High School, Washington, D.C.\nUpon motion, L. N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind., was\nunanimously elected vice-president to serve in the absence of Mr. J. S. Bowers.\nHenry R. M. Cook, auditor, Board of Education, New York City, N.Y., then read\na paper on \"The Standardization of School Statistics.\"\nThe Chair announced the Committee on Nommations to consist of:\nDavid Snedden, Massachusetts State Board of Education, Boston, Mass.\nGeorge H. Johnson, Cleveland, Ohio.\nSamuel P. Capen, professor of modern languages, Clark College, Worcester, Mass.\nThe meeting adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 6, 1910.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Stoddart at 9:30 o'clock. >\nR. Clipston Sturgis, formerly chairman of the Boston Schoolhouse Commission,\nBoston, Mass., spoke on \"Problems of Schoolhouse Planning.\"\nHe was followed by David A. EUis, chairman of the School Committee, Boston, with\na paper on \"A Decade of School Administration in Boston.\"\nBoth speakers were questioned by members of the department concerning the relations, status, and functions of the Boston Schoolhouse Commission and school committee.\nThe discussion brought out interesting facts concerning administrative policies in Boston\n969\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "970\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nrelative to the selection of architects, the employment of teachers, school finances, powers\nof the superintendent, etc.\nThe Chair announced the report of the committee upon nominations, which recommended the following officers for the ensuing year:\nD.C.\n\nFor President — Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawsfordsville, Ind.\nFor Vice-President — Willard S. Small, principal. Eastern High School, Washington,\nFor Secretary — William George Bruce, editor, American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis.\nUpon motion the secretary cast the ballot of the department for the persons nominated and the Chair declared them elected.\nAdjournment followed.\nWilliam C. Bruce, Secretary, pro tern.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nFOR EDUCATIONAL\n\nJ. J. STODDART, PRESIDENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\nBOARD, COLUMBUS,\n\nOHIO\n\nThe topic assigned to me is broad, and, as I take it, covers the whole\nfield of educational administration. In seeking to define this field and to\ndetermine the matters naturally coming within the purview of the subject,\nthe mind ultimately comes to the conclusion that educational administration touches upon substantially the whole field of education. To administer\nproperly all that which pertains to education means that persons having\nit in charge must consider what an education is— what subjects should be\ntaught in order to obtain the highest result from the educational system —\nthe demands of the times, the social conditions, the subjects of education\nthat fit the child for present conditions, and the object of the education\nof the children. To administer properly an educational system, those who\nadminister it must make a close study of the trend of the times, of the\nchanges in the life of the community and nation which call for a change in\nthe subject-matter of the education, and for enlargement in some directions\nand reduction in other directions.\nAdditional to these duties, there falls to the lot of those administering\nan educational system the duty of keeping up with the times in all matters\npertaining to school buildings, including the question of fireproof buildings, sanitation, the best heating, the best lighting, and the best seating.\nAll of these matters are of extreme importance to the children whose fives\nfrom the age of six to eighteen are to be spent within the buildings during\nmost of the school hours.\nConnected with the subject-matter last named come several other\nmatters which are being forced upon the attention of the school boards\nand in regard to which there is much discussion and great variety of opinion.\nI refer to tlie demand of certain societies and clubs that the school system\nshall have within itself a system of medical inspection, a system of dental\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nFOR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n971\n\ninspection, and shall have fresh-air rooms in every building, with facilities\nfor cooking, heating soapstones or other blocks, a nurse, heavy wraps and\nhoods, gloves and foot-wear for children, and all other things necessary to\na day hospital for tubercular children. It is demanded that the eyes, ears,\nand throat of each child shall be exanined and their lack in that direction\nprescribed for, and additionally that the schools shall supply many of the\nsanitary matters that are ordinarily considered as home duties, namely,\nbathing and the simpler matters of medical attention such as might be\ncalled ''first aid.\"\nThe limits of a twenty-five-hundred- word article will not permit even\na partial discussion of all of these topics and I shall confine myself largely\nto that which seems to me to be of the most vital importance in administe\ntering school affairs, namely, the first topic mentioned. Mr. Wolfe, of\n\nt\n~\n\nTexas, in an address before this Association raised the question, \"What\ns educationally best for that wonderfully complex entity we call society ?\"\nhis is an accurate statement of a great question in most expressive words.\nTo administer education properly we must see what is necessary to be done\nand what is educationally best for each community and for the nation at\nlarge, and in deliberating upon this, we must take into consideration the\ncomplexity of the social fabric of each community and of the nation at\nlarge, the latter, however, not being as important as the former. If each\ncommunity is cared for, then it is more than likely that the whole of which\neach community is a part will be properly cared for educationally. The\nsystem that answered so well during the earliest history of this nation has\nbeen entirely outgrown. More potent and epochal changes have taken\nplace within the life of the present generation, and are now taking place,\nthan have ever been recorded in the history of mankind. The whole system\nof business, communication, commerce, trades, professions, life, and ideas\nof the nation has changed. We are Uving in the age of the greatest awakening that the world has ever known. Never have such rapid mental, moral,\nand business changes been witnessed and never has mankind made such\nrapid advancement in all domains of human thought and activities. The\nmaster minds of the business and financial worlds have grasped the situation and are rapidly organizing the new forces and conditions; the educational and artisans' worlds have not been so quick to move but are responding in a measure to the new impulses. It is being fast realized that all the\nconditions of human endeavor are changing, that the lines of the new\neducation are set wider than preparation for professional life for the few\nwith a rudimentary education of the same nature for the many. The day\nof the strictly cultural education has passed. Deftness of hand and\naccuracy of eye — which means the training of the brain back of the hand\nand the eye — must be taught as part of the pubHc-school system. The\nold apprentice system has broken down in the onrush of modern progress,\nand quicker, more scientific, more accurate and direct training in a larger\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "972\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nway is absolutely necessary to keep the industries of our country on an\nequality with those of competing nations.\nIt must be the aim of the schools to provide first of all for the large\nbody of pupils who can never be enabled to make their living in the learned\nprofessions and who will never be able to take the so-called higher education. Those who expect to go to college should not be neglected, but they\nare the exception and form a decidedly small proportion of the pupils of\nthe schools. The schools should not be so largely administered for their\nfuture. The aim should be to train the masses to give to the nation the\nhighest productive results attainable from their life's energies. In the\nfinal analysis, it is the efforts of the masses that give to a nation its tangible, measurable, national production. It is not the money that a man\ngathers together, nor the bonds and stocks that he may have in his strong\nbox that truly measure what he has done for his community. It is largely\nthat which can be made to appear on the face of the earth by way of improvement that will more truly tell what a man has done for the community in which he lived and which contributes most to the visible, material\nwealth of the nation. To this phase of the world's wealth the masses contribute infinitely more than do the classes. That which will make the\nmasses more productive and leave more behind on the face of the earth\nbecause of their being there is what will most visibly increase the power\nand productiveness of the nation. I know that it may be said that the true\nobject of life is not amassing wealth for the nation, and I am in full sympathy with that ideal, but none of us is able to get away from the fact that\nprogress is mainly shown by additions to wealth and the means of enjoyment of life, and that to be able to obtain the best in life, there must have\nbeen gathered together a surplus of wealth, not large, but enough to enable\nits owner to have more than the bare necessities. Hence, materially\nspeaking, the object of education and the true administration of the means\nand methods of education in this country should be to enable the masses\nto enrich their lives by attaining the highest productiveness possible to\neach individual. True, the endeavor of the masses must be guided by\nskilled m^asters of industry, but the higher the efficiency of the soldiers of\nindustry, the greater the results of their endeavor. The general with the\nhighly trained soldiers will always win over the equal general with illtrained men. This is as fundamentally true of the industrial army and\nits leaders. The highest efficiency of the nation can only be attained by\ntraining its masses in childhood and youth in the direction and way that\nwill develop and utiHze the best that is in them. I reaHze that the logical\nresult of this plan may be special schools for the preparation of the small\nproportion of youth who will attend the scientific and so-called cultural\ncolleges and will thus minimize that which heretofore has been considered\nof the greatest importance, but I cannot avoid the conclusion that the\npressure of the present trend of society will leave no alternative, and the net\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nFOR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n973\n\nresult must be industrial schools training the masses and their co-ordination with the scientific schools, so that the research of the latter will be\nseized and adapted to the industrial processes and both go hand in hand\nfor the common good.\nI think it will be admitted that public opinion is rapidly forming around\nthe idea that the schools as at present administered do not fit the masses\nfor their Hfe-work, and therefore do not interest a large majority of the\npupils. Compulsory education forces many to school to waste their time\nand that of the teachers, and to be detrimental to other pupils. If a boy\nis compelled to attend school, his dislike for his studies is increased. He\nloses even any small Hking he would otherwise have for learning, and\ninstead of good results, there results positive injury. Such boys cannot\nand will not take a book education. Their bent is in other directions. For\nthem the training must be along active lines. To save them to the community and to obtain from them their proper and best contributions to the\nstate and to themselves, their activities must be directed toward and into\nthe active channels of industrial occupations.\nI realize the radical change that must be made in the book studies now\nprescribed in order to give the necessary time for pursuing effectively new\nlines of activities, but I have unbounded faith in the capacity of our people\nto solve the problem. I further realize that many of the school idols of the\npast must be parted with and placed among the antiques, just as the locomotive of thirty years ago is now on the scrap-heap or exhibited as a curiosity. We are going too fast to use anything longer than it continues to be\nthe best. The great railway systems still use locomotives, cars, and tracks,\nbut not such as formerly. The general plan and instruments are the same,\nbut the changed conditions, the increased demands are promptly met by\nmodern facilities and changed methods — the administration of their affairs\nmoves up promptly to meet each new demand. Similarly, the administration of the school system tnust acknowledge the changed conditions and\nrelentlessly consign to the scrap-heap or the museum whatever is not up to\nthe present demands in efficiency.\nI do not mean that changes should be sweeping. All modifications\nshould be rooted in past experience — evolution, not revolution. The types\nonly should be changed, just as the type of the locomotive, coach, and rail\nof the railway have been changed, the system and the basic plan always\nremaining the same.\nHow to meet these demands is the most difficult problem presented to\nthose now administering school affairs. It is something which, in the first\ninstance, does not wholly belong to the teaching force nor to the professors\nin the colleges, but it must be worked out largely by persons in close contact\nwith the busy world, knowing its demands and able to show to those in\ncharge of the schools what is necessary for the schools to do. I am\nquite positive that, while the fundamental position of the school system\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "974\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nmust remain the same, yet radical changes will have to be made in the\ncourses of study, and the patchwork of the past few years will have to be\nabandoned.\nThe simple course of study of the schools many years ago has been\nchanged by adding various things demanded by changed social conditions,\nbut very httle has been eUminated so as to give time for pursuing the former\nstudies and also the additions. In our city schools we have added elementary\nscience, music, drawing, penmanship, caHsthenics, manual training, domestic art, and now have added trade schools, and yet it must be all accompHshed within the five hours per day allowed /or the original subjects, consisting largely of the three \"R's,\" with the net result that the children do\nnot have any time to do independent thinking or independent work. In\nmany places our schools are very much after the fashion of the oriental\nschools where all pupils study aloud — most of the school hours being taken\nup in what might be termed concert work, resulting in too much rote work,\ntoo little independent work, too much done by the teacher, too little by the\npupils, too much reliance upon the teacher and almost none on self, and\nthe pupil is helpless when he faces the work of the world. He has no teacher\nat his shoulder to guide him, he does not have the hints that come from\nworking together with other pupils in classwork, and he has no proper selfreliance or mental fiber. I consider this to be the gravest evil in the\nadministration of our school system, and I feel that progress made by children after leaving school is largely in spite of school work and not by reason\nof it, as should be the case.\nThe conditions last mentioned are a net result of an attempt on the part\nof those administering the schools to teach that which is demanded by the\nsurrounding conditions, and a point has been reached where the pressure\nfor a school course that will take care of the masses will render it necessary to reconsider the course of study thru the schools, at least from the\nfourth and fifth grades thru the entire course of study in the schools and in\nthe colleges.\nA hasty perusal of the earnest discussions of this Association during the\npast two or three years shows that the members of this Association are fully\nawake to these matters, that the importance of existing conditions has been\npresent with them during the discussions, and that they were earnestly\nseeking to solve the problems, some presenting one thought, some another,\nbut all looking toward an ultimate solution of the difficulties.\nThe School Board of the City of Columbus, Ohio, has made a new division of the grades, conducting the first six grades as before and forming the\nseventh, eighth, and ninth grades into a new unit called the \"junior high\nschool,\" leaving the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth as a unit called the \"senior\nhigh school.\" It has long been a recognized fact that many of the highschool pupils leave school at the end of their first year, feehng that nothing\ndefinite has been accomplished and without having finished any exact\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nFOR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n975\n\ncourse of instruction, without having reached any definite goal. It has\nfurther been remarked that pupils in the seventh and eighth grades have\npassed from childhood to youth and should then receive a different and more\nmature instruction than in the lower grades ; should be segregated from the\nyounger children and the fact of their advancement emphasized and dignified; and the fact that so many leave school at this point should be recognized as an existing fact and a stopping-place fixed there, a definite course\ncreated that would end at that natural point, closing their school life with\na diploma that certifies that they have completed a school course and\nhonorably attained a definite educational aim.\nIt was further recognized that departmental work has a position in these\nthree grades, furnishing a better product and better results than could be\nattained by the old method. At this point in their school life, the boys and\ngirls should be thrown more upon their own resources and, by gathering\nthem into centers, they could take manual training, domestic art, and kindred subjects without losing the time that would naturally be lost in traveling from their schoolhouse to the centers established for those purposes.\nAfter completing their work in the junior high school, the pupils would then\nhave largely found themselves and would know in which direction they desired to go, whether they desired to prepare themselves for colleges and\nscientific schools, or to take the other current and enter the trade schools.\nIf the pupil is not able to spend further time in education, he is more fully\nequipped for life's work than he would be if he had gone only one year to\nhigh school and then dropped out without having had the benefit of the\nthree years of departmental work that will come to him in the junior high\nschool, and he will have been taken beyond the first year of the fatal two\nyears lying between fourteen and sixteen, when so many leave school\nunfitted for anything but the most unremunerative labor.\nIt is contended that the present conditions forecast a division of school\nlife into two currents, the first of which, and that by far the larger, will go\nin the direction of industrial pursuits, and the second in the direction of the\nlearned professions. If the schools properly perform their duties, and cause\nthis nation to keep in the vanguard of the nations of the earth, they will be\ncompelled to plan and further elaborate the courses of study which will best\nfit the masses for their life's duties, and will be compelled to arrange those\nstudies so that they will fit the masses for industrial pursuits. If there is\nin the school course a school to which the child who feels that he has no desire or has not the peculiar qualities to succeed in the professional high schools\nmay look forward, many more of our children will be interested in the grammar-school work and in all the work of the whole industrial school, because\nthey and their parents will know that the children are doing the work necessary to fit them for the work of their choice. It is well known that the boy\nwho enters unskilled labor reaches within four or five years the highest wages,\nand that the boy doing skilled labor makes more money in two or three\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "976\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Administration\n\nyears than the other boy does in five or six years. They will be thus kept\nlonger in school and in the end will command the higher wages; but with\nnothing before them except the professional high school, as is now the case,\nvery many do not and cannot stay in the schools any longer than it is possible for them under the law to get out, and the ranks of unskilled labor are\nfilled to overflowing, while the demand for those who can do high-grade\nwork is seldom filled.\nI realize that there must always be a large number of unskilled laborers\nand that the world needs them, but the best results of the highest civilization\nwill come when all persons are taught to do the best that is in them in the\npursuit which they may follow; in that way only can this nation compete\nwith other nations who recognize that fact.\nIn a democratic nation like the United States it sounds somewhat heretical to say that there are classes and that there should be classes, but such\nis the fact. There always has been a classification of people in each state\nand there always will be. The glory of this nation is that while there are\nclasses, each individual can or ought to pass from one class to another and\nto reach whatever class he is entitled to at the end. Neither birth nor\nblood nor family can permanently classify the people in this nation, and it is\nthe duty of our school system to further perfect this natural arrangement\nand give every child an opportunity to reach the position to which his\nhealth, strength, and intellectual powers entitle him. This cannot be done\nunless the present school system is revised and administered in such a way\nas to offer facilities along other lines than those heretofore developed. We\nhave fully developed the facihties for allowing the youth to follow the\nlearned pursuits, or to become men of science, and there we have ended,\nwhile the great masses are still unprovided for.\nThere has been a demand upon those administering school affairs to\nprovide for medical inspection for all pupils attending the schools, also to\nprovide for dental inspection. We all fully appreciate that all the children\nof the nation should be made strong, if possible. The school boards in many\ncities are taking action along those lines, but it seems to me that this is not\nthe true object and duty of the educational system. Such things belong\nmore nearly to the health department of the government. The natural\nresult of taking such duties within the scope of the school system cannot\nfail to end in sanitariums and hospitals becoming a part of the school\nsystem. The fine of demarkation between the duties of the health department of the government and the educational department is clearly defined\nand I most respectfully submit the opinion that those things naturally\nbelonging to the health department of the government should be retained\nby it, and not cast upon the school system. If I am correct, the same should\nbe said of the attempt to cast upon the school system the duty of taking care\nof the children afflicted with tuberculosis. The limits of this paper render\nit impossible for me to take further time upon this subject, but I hope\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nBETTER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nREPORTS\n\nAND\n\nPUBLICITY\n\nthat what has been said may elicit further discussion.\nbring out the following points:\n\n977\n\nI have tried to\n\n1. That it is the duty of school administration to provide schoolrooms, facilities,\nand courses of study that will meet the present demand for educating the masses in the\nmost productive lines.\n2. That this object is of more importance to the nation than to fit the youth for the\nprofessional colleges.\n3. That the classification of the schools will have to be broken into different units.\n4. That those administering school affairs must arrange the schools and studies so\nthat the two currents tending in the direction of the learned occupations and the industrial occupations may be provided for in the high-school work.\n5. That great care and thought should be exercised before the money raised for\neducational purposes is allowed to be expended for sanitarium and hospital purposes.\n\nTHE\n\nNEED\nDAVID\n\nFOR BETTER\n\nSNEDDEN,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nREPORTS\n\nAND\n\nCOMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION OF THE\nMASSACHUSETTS, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nPUBLICITY\nSTATE\n\nOF\n\nAn examination of the annual reports of the National Education\nAssociation will show that this is an old and to some extent a stale subject.\nFor many years now the superintendents of this country, city, and state, as\nwell as the Bureau of Education at Washington, have been striving to make\ntheir periodical reports more significant and more valuable. Little can be\nadded to the discussion at this time that is of value, but positions may be\nrestated and perhaps slightly different points of view indicated.\nAt the outset it seems that the following principles may be accepted as\nbasal :\n1. Both on the side of general description and of statistical presentation our city, state, and national educational reports are now in a great\nmany instances good not only as contrasted with those which precede them,\nin the earlier part of the nineteenth century, but as contrasted with even\npresentations found in other countries.\nThese reports contain a vast deal of information; on the statistical side they have\nmassed a great amount of material; they serve to indicate educational wants fairly well.\n\n2. The school or educational report is to be regarded primarily as a\ncommunication to the public — to s public which reads newspapers, which\nhas a fair interest in education, which develops here and there careful\ncritics, destructive or constructive, and in the last analysis is interested in\nboth efficiency and economy in education.\nIn communicating with this public, educators, thru their reports, aim to be truthful.\nIt is sometimes urged that it is injurious to present all the truth. In the long run it is\nbelieved that this position cannot be defended. There may be such a distribution of\nemphasis as to bring certain needs or exhibits out into relief but in a report that aims to\nbe truthful allusion will certainly be made to the fact that this relief is intended.\nSchool reports might be addressed to others than the public; for example: to sociological students, to educational experts, or to the teaching force. In any of these cases\nthe report would have its character determined to a large extent by the end for which it\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "978\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nis designed. Our published report should not be designed primarily for social students,\nfor people with unusual inquiries, for adminstrators, or even for teachers. The administrative ofi&cers should assemble and utilize as far as possible the kind of information\nthat would appeal to and be serviceable to these special needs, but the published report\nis a communication to the general public.\n\n3. The published report being primarily a communication to the public,\nit should aim to do these things:\na) To describe certain situations accurately.\nAccurate description involves a correct and effective terminology and generally\npracticable statistical methods. To a large extent statistics must be regarded as merely\na means of accurate description whether of special facts or general facts including relationships. Some of the situations to be described in education lend themselves to statistical treatment, as, for example: moneys expended, plant employed, teaching force,\nattendance and movements among pupils. Other special facts and relationships lend\nthemselves imperfectly to statistical treatment; for example: the quality of teachers, the\nresults of special lines of teaching, the attainments of pupils, behavior and health of\npupils, etc. A truthful report, however, would describe exactly by means of statistical\nmethods those things which could be so described and would clearly indicate the inability\nof its makers to describe other facts owing to the inaccessible data or lack of units of measurement and other statistical necessities.\n\nh) The report must also point the way and assist in the making of correct inferences.\nDescriptions are often valuable in themselves, but more often valuable as pointing\nthe way to action. It is of interest to the public to know how much money is spent on\nschools, but of more interest to know how this money can be better spent, or how more\nmoney could be wisely spent. It is of interest to know what has been the attendance,\nquality of work done, and attainment of pupils, but it is of more interest to know how\nthese things can be made better or modified. Use of description whether general or statistical as a means of making safe inferences is an art in itself. The securing of these ends\ninvolves primarily the presentation of definite problems and the logical arangement of\nthe material by which the problems are solved. In general our educators and school reports\nboth exhibit failures in setting definite problems. We fire too many shots at random.\nThe public which criticizes us is often unable to propose questions or problems of a definite sort.\n\nc) School reports should reach a large portion of the public and should\nkeep it well informed as to the significant things in educational development\nand need.\nConsequently the makers of all reports should study the art of true publicity. For\nexample: voluminous reports reach but a small portion of the pubhc; they seldom reach\nthe light thru the public press; they often serve to repel rather than attract any but a\nfew students. It would appear to be an obvious necessity that reports should be issued\nin small sections, each presenting a definite point and so arranged as to cause significant\nfacts to stand out in relief. These bulletins should be designed to -appeal to the press\nand its readers. Ultimately, these bulletins may be incorporated into a volume for\npreservation and used as a reference book by the few special students above alluded to.\n\nAmong the needs most urgent at the present time in the making of\nschool reports for true publicity, are the following:\nI. We need from the hands of the statistician some sort of a book\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBETTER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nREPORTS\n\nAND\n\nPUBLICITY\n\n979\n\nI\n\ndescribing for us the best methods of reporting various classes of facts. For\nexample: it should not be difficult to provide an adequate system conforming to the best standards of reporting the financial side of our educational work, because here we have satisfactory units of measurement and\nmethods of reporting which have proven successful in other departments of\ninstitutional activity. On the other hand, for what might be called pedagogical statistics, as opposed to financial, we still lack units of measurement\nand methods of statistical reporting, except as regards such comparatively\nunimportant matters as amount of school attendance, classification of\npupils, compensation and credentials of teachers, cubic contents and seating\ncapacity of school buildings, number of cases of adenoids, etc. The far\nmore important facts regarding the productive capacity of teachers, the\nresults of different methods of teaching, the actual attainments of children\nin school work, the causes of failure, etc., we seem yet incapable of measuring except in a very crude way. The school superintendent would be\ngrateful for a careful formulation of the ways and means of description in\nthe various fields wherein he is called to report.\n2. There is greatly needed an extensive formulation of the questions\nand problems which a school report should undertake to answer. Every\nlay inquirer constantly discovers new questions which are not answered by\nany available school reports. Many of these questions are significant and\nimportant while others are purely personal and of no general value. A\ncareful formulation of the questions which are of significance and which can\nbe answered by the data which should be at our disposal would be timely\nand valuable. It seems to the writer that these problems and questions\ncould easily be formulated and stated by a committee of the men who are\nengaged in making school reports. Each problem or question should have\nappended to it a statement of the ways and means by which it may be\nanswered with some indication of the degree of accuracy that might reasonably be expected. For example : it may be claimed that no statistical statement can be yet made regarding the effects of professional study on teaching\nability; the effects of the study of mathematics or manual training on the\nintellectual achievements of the high-school pupils; or the relationship\nbetween schoolroom ventilation and anemia. Those who wish to ask\nsuch questions should certainly be apprised of the extreme difficulty involved\nin answering them and urged to join in making a demand on speciahsts or\nexperts for an investigation of the means whereby in the future they may\nbe answered.\n3. The superintendent today needs not only some agreement as to\nmethods and problems but also with reference to the periods at the end of\nwhich public reporting is desirable; for example: there are certain types of\nstatements that might well be made annually or even more often; others\nfor which a quinquennial presentation should amply sufl&ce; and still\nothers that might have only decennial reporting.\nUndoubtedly our pub-\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "980\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nlished reports are encumbered with a large mass of material for which there\nis not the slightest excuse for annual for biennial' reporting. No superintendent feels at liberty in the absence of any general agreement on the situation to omit the presentation of tables which have already become a traditional feature of the report.\n4. The time has undoubtedly arrived when each state and city system\nshould recognize that the making of adequate reports is a work that involves\nthe specialist, especially the statistician. The superintendent in his general\ncapacity of administrator can hardly be expected to provide expert knowledge in this direction any more than in the field of bookkeeping or stenography. Statistical science is making rapid advances in these days, and\nnew and more complex, and therefore more valuable, methods are being\ndeveloped. The art of true publicity has developed its specialists notably\nin the field of advertising. The effective use of tabulations, charts, diagrams, and cartograms involves special knowledge and attainments. The\nsuperintendent should feel free to enlist these special services when he has\ndefined for himself a demand in this field.\n5. Finally, there is need for closer co-operation on the part of educators\nengaged in the utilization of statistical and other methods of description\nbetween them and the statistical workers in economic and social science.\nThese have even gone far beyond the educators in their applications of\nimproved methods to reporting and publicity.\nTHE\nHENRY\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nSTATISTICS\n\nR. M. COOK, C.P.A. AUDITOR OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION, NEW\nCITY, AND PRESIDENT OF THE NEW YORK STATE SOCIETY\nOF CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS\n\nYORK\n\nIn a practical sense, education represents a public investment, when\nadministered properly.\nDefective administration may so change the situation as to cause the\npublic mind to regard education as in the nature of an expense. In suggesting this thought, the reference is not confined merely to financial expense\nwhich is readily controlled as to volume, but there is a more important\nelement to be considered — expense of time; and defective administration\nis the common means of wasting time, thus working a hardship to the\neducational unit — the pupil.\nEducational results are not of an exact character, and cannot be measured in the same manner as the products of a business.\nPhysical conditions are rarely the same in school systems, and the\nplant which in one location is considered ample and sufiicient for its purposes might, in the case of buildings, be condemned as unsafe 3.nd unsuitable in another location.\nFinancial conditions vary greatly, and a school tax based upon the\nassessed valuations in one city might produce an abundance of money for\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSTATISTICS\n\n981\n\neducational purposes; but, if the same tax-rate were applied in another\nlocation, its product might be inadequate to maintain even a low standard\nof efficiency.\nThe factors used in computing the per-capita cost pf educational activities vary widely, so that comparative data are not only obscure, but frequently worthless; for instance, some school systems evince a desire to\nreduce apparent per-capita cost by using \"enrollment,\" or separate number\nof pupils taught during the year, as indicative of the service rendered;\nagain, others use \"average daily attendance\" as the factor; and, still\nagain, \"average register\" is employed as a kind of middle course or compromise.\nLooking at this problem from another standpoint, the groupings of the\nvarious kinds of school disbursements are radically different; for instance,\ncapital outlay, in extreme cases, has been known to enter into per-capita\nannual cost. It is by no means uncommon to include in the per-capita\nannual cost the expenses of maintenance and operation of the school plant,\nand to further complicate the situation, it is frequently the case that, in\ncommunities where evening and special activities are maintained, the day\nschool cost is made the scapegoat for all such items of expense.\nThe number of sessions in a school year varies in different communities, also the daily duration of the employment of the teachers; again,\nthe basis for the employment of teachers is not the same,- for it may be anywhere between thirty and sixty pupils per teacher, and yet each community may feel satisfied with the course it pursues. That which would\nbe considered as affording the best educational results in one place would\nbe regarded as extravagance in another.\nAnd so the complexity of the problem becomes more apparent, as\nschool systems grow larger proportionately with the increase in population, and the demand for better and enlarged educational facilities.\nProbably no greater service can be rendered to the cause of public\neducation than the adoption of standards of measurement of efficiency.\nThe collection and collation of educational facts of unequal weight\nand varying consistency produce a mystifying rather than a clarifying\neffect. Healthy competition and the stimulus to do better things is not\nencouraged by a display of unequal and inconsistent facts placed in\njuxtaposition.\nNo man possesses greater opportunity for the collection of standardized facts than does the United States Commissioner of Education, and\nit was with keen enthusiasm and genuine pleasure that a number of school\nofficials and others met in Washington last May, at the invitation of Dr.\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, for the purpose of formihg an organization to\naid him in securing standardized school facts, and, in thus aiding him, to\nfurther the interests of educational administration generally. Such an\norganization was formed under the name of the National Association of\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "982\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfAdministration\n\nSchool Accounting Officers. The object of this association, as set forth\nin its constitution, is \" the standardization of fiscal, physical, and educational\ndata of school systems for presentation in the form of public reports.\"\nThe broad scope of the objects of this organization may seem to require\nsome explanation and comment, and this occasion affords an excellent\nopportunity of setting forth some salient points\nIt is not to be inferred for one instant that the school accounting officer\nand statistician can evolve and produce, by himself and of himself, a report\nwhich will reflect and illuminate all branches of a school system, but it is\nsubmitted, as a thought, that where facts, of whatsoever nature, can be\nreduced to form and figures, the school accounting officer and statistician is\nbest able to perform such function, so as to combine, co-ordinate, and\narrange them, to the end that perfect harmony should exist from a statistical\npoint of view. This would leave to the educational head an opportunity\nto deal with conditions and facts governing the fundamental objects of the\nsystem, and the report, as a whole, would then fairly represent the system\nas a whole — its operations, needs, and condition.\nThe association is in its infancy, and while many things have been discussed, ithas not been possible, up to the present time, to do more than\ntouch lightly upon the many phases incidental to the important problem\nto be solved. However, it may be well, at this time, to suggest some items\nof a practical character, that may furnish food for thought.\nIn the determination of costs, it is obvious that the method of computing\n\"attendance\" should be uniform everywhere; otherwise, at the outset,\nresults would vary considerably. This point is of fundamental importance,\nand its relation to the statistical accounting of school systems cannot be\noverestimated.\nIn the beginning I made some reference to various methods of computing\nattendance, and their uses and abuses. What is needed, primarily, for statistical purposes, is the adoption of a scientific unit, and that all calculations of per-capita cost should be based upon such factor. It would seem\nfitting to consider the acceptance of the following formula: Compute the\naggregate days of attendance of each and every scholar attending during\nthe year, and divide same by the number of days the schools have been in\nsession. The result would be the average daily attendance during the period.\nThe rule may be applied in connection with each educational activity, and\nwould indicate, scientifically, the actual school service performed, for the\nunit of attendance so computed would represent the average service of each\nscholar in each specific activity. Such a method is employed in New York\nCity (and elsewhere), and is based upon the educational statutes of the\nstate of New York.\nBoth register and enrollment have been found to be somewhat inflated\nfactors for Use in connection with school statistics, especially in large cities\nwhere difficulty is always experienced in following the movement of the\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSTATISTICS\n\n983\n\nschool population. It is not uncommon to find the name of a scholar enrolled\nor registered in more than one school\nWhatever may be said of enrollment or register as a rough-and-readybasis for allotment of supplies, or making adequate provision in advance\nfor employment of a sufficient number of teachers to meet all approximate\nneeds, it is certain that average daily attendance is undoubtedly preferable\nfor computing per-capita cost, and its adoption universally would go far\nto make valuable the comparative per-capita costs of difi\"erent school\nsystems.\nThe analysis and classification of school disbursements is an interesting\nsubject, and the fixing of a proper resting place for each item of expense\nis one of the most important functions of the school accounting ofiicer and\nstatistician. A slight study of the individual reports of school systems\nindicates that there are nearly as many methods of compilation as there\nare school systems, and so it must follow that the massing of such reports\ninto consolidated form for the purpose of obtaining comparative data cannot\nbe very illuminative or conducive to education stimulus. Massive statistical tabulations may be thus compiled, and they appear well and imposing.\nSometimes, however, an inquiring mind seeks specific comparative data,\nand takes the trouble to ask questions on some point or points which exhibit\nmarked difference in cost as between two school systems of similar size,\nand operating under approximately the same conditions. It may be found\nfrequently, in such cases, that upon analysis the true difference in cost is\nnot of material importance, but the classification of the expenses of the\ntwo school systems is so radically different that the published statistics\nbut faintly indicate anything of value for the practical purposes of comparison.\nCan any factor in school administration be more important than the\nexistence of standardized and classified facts compiled scientifically and\nmethodically for the purposes of comparison ?\nIn the presentation of statistics, there are two common methods employed:\n1. By adhering strictly to an exposition of facts, classified under salient heads, in\ncondensed form, and exhibiting such continuity or sequence in time and event as to show\nclearly, and without embellishment, a result, the origin and authenticity of which is not\nsubject to doubt or surmise.\n2. A second method is frequently adopted by speculative statisticians who use as a\nbasis the accounts of a fiscal period, and, by process of extreme analysis, endeavor to\nbuild a statistical fabric with the object of proving or disproving certain theories.\n\nA plain relation and classified presentation of principal facts, as depicted\nin the first-mentioned plan, is immeasurably preferable, inasmuch as the\nplain truth thereof is sufficient for the mind of any average individual to\ngrasp, and adequate for the purposes of mental comparison and conclusion.\nThe second method, while based upon a foundation of fact, is, as a\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "984\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nrule, so colored or accentuated in many ways, and so burdened with unnecessary detail and abstruse analysis, as rather to mislead the open-minded\nobserver who is seeking facts only, and lead him to accept what may be\nerroneous or biased conclusions, thereby falling short of a comprehensive\ngrasp of salient facts and truths.\nIt is quite common for those unfamiliar with school administration\nto compare large school systems with large business corporations.\nIt is submitted that a school system cannot be compared equitably in\nany sense with a business corporation. A school system is not a capitalized\ncorporation, and therefore does not exist for the purpose of producing a\nprofit to stockholders, which is the object of a business corporation. On\nthe contrary, its sole object is one of education; and its assets are not\nsubject to depreciation or appreciation in the same sense as those of a business corporation. Its disbursements, aside from those for assets, are for\nthe maintenance and operation of its properties, expenses of administration,\nand for such purposes as may be distinctly applied to educational cost.\nIn other words, the business of a school system commences to diverge\nat the point where that of a private corporation or business really begins,\nviz., after the conversion of cash into another and more workable form of\nasset.\nStarting at this point, i.e., where the \"plant\" has been acquired, while\na manufacturer may be able, by judicious buying of raw material and\nby the economical working of the same, always to produce finished articles\nat a minimum of cost, it would be absurd in the school system to limit the\ncost of educating, for example, a foreign-born, non-English-speaking child\nto the per-capita rate which might be found to apply to a child of educated\nAmerican parents.\nTo attempt to measure accurately and compare the educational result,\nit would be necessary to consider relatively such factors as the education\nand instincts of parents, home life and opportunities of the children, their\nmental and physical condition, their comparative ages, the duration of\ntheir school hfe up to the point of comparison, and the education they\nmay have absorbed by contact, most of which elements are more nearly\nquestions of individual judgment than of fact.\nThe only medium of educational measure appears to be an examination\nin certain subjects acquired by rote, and it would be manifestly absurd\nto contend that because two children had passed the same ^examination —\nand the educational result thereby determined to be the same — the gross\nper-capita costs should, of necessity, be also the same. It would be likewise absurd to argue that equal per-capita expenditures had produced equal\neducational results.\nA practical knowledge of the foregoing conditions would seem to lead\nlogically to the preparation of statistics based only upon facts the sources\nand authenticity of which, as stated before, are. beyond question.\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nSTATISTICS\n\n985\n\nThere are certain facts and features which are common to all school\nystems, whether great or small, and when reduced to statistical form\nay be classified under a comparatively few heads, and yet, when placed\nin parallel, furnish a vast amount of information available for purposes\nof true comparison; for instance, the accounts of properties, which may\nbe indicated as follows:\n\n1. Showing the conversion of cash into a property asset — Purchase of sites.\n2. Showing the conversion of cash into another property asset — School buildings and\noriginal permanent equipment.\n3. Maintenance of such properties — Annual cost of disbursements for repairs, replacements, etc. This item should be regarded as a practical offset to depreciation, in the\nsense that it should represent approximately the annual cost of up-keep, sufficient for the\npurpose of maintaining the school plant in at least its original condition of efficiency.\n4. Operation of such properties — Including the various items incidental thereto,\nsuch as janitor services, sanitary supplies, machinery supplies, and fuel for heating the\nbuilding, etc.\n\nProperty items should be regarded as separate and distinct from the\ndirect cost of education, and should not be included in any per-capita\ncost, for the reason that, while such items of themselves are comparable\nto a degree as between school systems, any division of investment, maintenance or operating charges into per-capita costs, either by themselves or\nin combination with directly educational charges, leads to incongruous\nand misleading results. For instance, let us take conditions in a great\ncity and compare mentally the cost of a building and its site, in a strictly\nurban part thereof, with another in the suburbs with its more easily constructed building and less valuable site, but with similar seating capacity.\nAgain, compare the same buildings so far as relates to the physical and\neducational use of the same. One may have facilities for an elementary\nschool, lectures, playgrounds, cooking-rooms, laboratories, workshops,\nbaths, etc.; the other building, with same seating capacity, may merely\ncontain the requisites for conducting an elementary day and evening school.\nHow could the cost be practically, and not theoretically, segregated\ninto the several activities? And yet the proposition has been seriously\nadvanced, and has even found favor in spots, where quantity of statistics\nis considered more desirable than quality, and logical presentation of facts\nis subordinated to thoughtless desire to produce a mere arithmetical computation ofuseless character. It is quite possible to enter so largely into\nthe statistical field as almost to render the production of statistics superior\n■to or more important than the conditions or facts which give rise to them.\nTo a large extent the same principle applies to the maintenance and\noperation of the various school properties; such items should have no\nplace in combination with strictly educational expenses, but should be\ntreated separately — comparable in volume but not by unit. To emphasize\nthis point, compare mentally a school building, occupied to the extent of\nits normal capacity, with another such building which is overcrowded.\nIt\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "986\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nwould follow that the more congestion existed the lower would be thepercapita cost of maintenance and operation, and, from a statistical standpoint,\nthe school building with normal conditions would suffer by comparison.\nIn the foregoing example a single school plant has been taken as the unit for\nillustration, on the ground that the application of a false principle in one\ncase is sufficient to emphasize the error in the whole.\nHaving treated of the school plant and the maintenance and operating\nexpenses, the most important item of all comes into view, namely, the object\nfor which the community has invested its money — public education.\nWhat activities are maintained, and what are the items of tangible\nexpense or cost which can be directly charged to each without entering\ninto the realms of speculation or apportionment?\nThe main items of strictly educational cost comprise teachers' salaries,\nbooks, maps, stationery, suppKes, libraries, etc., and may be applied\ndirectly to every educational activity, and, if such group of expenses\nbecomes standardized, would be comparable as between all school systems\nthruout the land, from the smallest district to that of the largest city.\nReal, equal, and understandable elements would be brought together\nand the cost of educational activities could be compared function by function, without any mental reservation or feehng that incongruous factors\nentered into the figures.\nWith a fixed formula for the computation of attendance, and only\nstandard items of expense common to all school systems included, educational per-capita cost would cease to be illusive and would mean something.\nAdministrative cost comprises the compensation of all officers and\nemployees engaged in the control of the school system but not attached to\nany particular school activity. To this should be added the incidental\nexpenses of school control, such as printing, supplies, etc., of the administration\nitself.\ni\nThe expenses of administration may be classified as follows:\n1. Educational administration or professional control, such as salaries of superintendents, examiners, et at., and their expenses.\n2. Physical administration, covering the salaries of officers, clerks, and other employees and their expenses.\n\nAdministrative expenses are not distributable in a practical sense and\nare comparable only as to volume. Even this method of comparison may\nnot be quite as illuminating as might be wished for, because methods\nof control of school systems are widely divergent, which would seem to\nindicate, when preparing statistical reports, the desirabihty of adopting\nsome form of statistical statement, other than figures of cost, which will\nindicate the salient features of organization and control.\nIt has been stated before, in other words, that a school report would be\nincomplete if confined to just one of the component parts, which, when\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nepartment]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nIN\n\nBOSTON\n\n987\n\ncombined, form a perfect school organization, viz., the educational, the\nfiscal, and the physical. A statement showing the cost of a school plant\nwould fall short of its true purpose if there failed to be shown, in connection therewith, what the plant consisted of. A school building costing\n$200,000 or $300,000 would appeal to the citizen on the ground that it\nrepresented a large investment, and it may even occur to him that it is\ntoo large, in the absence of information as to its size, location, construction, appurtenances, equipment, and the various features which are to be\nfound in our best and most modern edifices. It seems proper then to\nfurnish the whole story, and place in close connection, or even in parallel\nwith the cost, such physical facts as are important and serve to justify\nand explain the object and nature of the expenditure.\nThe same prinapplies in connection with the maintenance and operation of school\ntiple\n)lants. If the various educational uses of a building are shown in com)ination with the figures of attendance of each activity, the reason for\nncreased or enlarged expenses under either or both heads becomes comprehensible.\nDr. Brown, the U.S. Commissioner of Education, has already won\nthe enthusiastic support of the principal school accounting officers in\nthe country, and if he can secure your interest and valuable assistance in\nthe great work of revision and standardization of school statistics, the\nsuccess of the proposition is assured.\nHe deserves our united support.\nThe association which I have the honor to represent is desirous of your\nco-operation and sympathy in this movement, and suggestions and ideas\nfrom you along constructive Hues would be appreciated. Much is heard\non the subject of '^ uniformity\" until that word has become abused. Practical school people know that uniformity in educational matters is impractical, and if, in a sense, such a condition were possible, it would be inexpedient and unnecessary. However, we can, with propriety, agree on\nstandard methods of accomplishing some things which will be to our\nmutual interests and help, and, after having so agreed, friendly competition as to how best to perform our respective tasks may prove of some\nvalue in the cause of public education.\nA DECADE\nDAVID\n\nA.\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nELLIS, CHAIRMAN,\n\nADMINISTRATION\nSCHOOL\n\nCOMMITTEE,\n\nIN BOSTON\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe great reform of the decade in Boston school administration was\nthe substitution on January i, 1906, of a school committee of five for one\nof twenty-four. This created an organization of great potency and led\nto numerous important reforms. I can hardly hope to sketch them\nbriefly, much less attempt their adequate relation, in the time allotted\nme.\nI will, with your permission, do what I can within the limits set.\nThe new school committee began its administration by the abolition\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "988\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nof subcommittees which were the agencies thru which the old board had\nlargely transacted its affairs. This not only resulted in the absolute publicity which now prevails as opposed to the older method of doing business\nbehind closed doors, but necessarily required enlarging the functions of the\nschool officials and strengthening their hands to a degree which meant a\nsubstantial reorganization of the whole system of school administration.\nThese officials in view of their increased importance were placed upon\ntenure and were charged to a very large degree with the duties of the subcom it e s ofthe old board.\nThe financial department of the school committee was at the outset\ncompletely reorganized. A board of apportionment was created to\ndivide properly the sums appropriated for supplies and incidentals, and\none official was appointed to buy upon proper requisitions, and another\nto audit the bills. Many effective systematic economies have been introduced. Coal is today bought at a price determined by chemical analysis,\nlight and gas charges are much lower than they used to be, all purchases\nare made upon open competition and many other minor economies are\nnow in effect. The main function of the business agent, an official created\nby the new school committee, is to classify expenditures and to act as its\nfinancial adviser. I invite your attention to his report which shows as\nthoro a financial diagnosis of the system as does the report of any expert\nrailroad accountant. The allotment with precision of the proper amount\nfor expenditure for each item in advance is now under careful study by\nhim and will soon be available. The school committee has not only\nattempted to handle well existing appropriations but has also secured\nincreased appropriations for the support of the schools.\nThe custody of schoolhouses and the supervision of the janitor force\nwas placed by the new school committee in the hands of the schoolhouse\ncustodian. The appointment of janitors must by law be made in conformity with civil-service rules. The promotion of janitors, which is not\nregulated by law, has been placed by the new school committee upon d.\nstrict merit basis and their compensation has also, in the last decade, been\nput upon an automatic scale. All pull has, in short, been aboHshed from\nthe field of appointment, promotion, compensation, and removal of janitors. invite\nI\nyour attention to a detailed examination of this system.\nVarious functions of subcommittees of the old board have been intrusted\nto the secretary. He now deals with all applications for the use of school\npremises under fair and uniform rules and has stimulated a widely extended\nuse of school buildings and school yards. He now enforces properly and\nuniformly the rules and regulations of the school committtee with the\nresult that a system which was notably decentralized because of historical\nand administrative lack of cohesion has been closely and harmoniously\nunified under just and uniform regulations.\nThe whole system has been symmetrically articulated.\n\nThe super-\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nIN\n\nBOSTON\n\n989\n\nintendent's term of office has been extended from two years to six years\nand his powers have in all respects been immensely enlarged. The supervisors have had their term of office extended and their name changed to\nassistant superintendent and their powers have been greatly increased.\nTo the superintendent and assistant superintendents have been transferred substantially all of the functions of the subcommittees of the old\nboard. Under the old regime the school system was administered by these\nsubcommittees in general and by the division committees in particular.\nToday the educational side of the pubhc schools of Boston is administered\nby the superintendent and the assistant superintendents. The powers\nof the principals have been enlarged. They have been invested with the\nright to pass such legislation dealing with their respective districts, not\ninconsistent with that of their official superiors, as they deem wise. The\npowers of teachers of all grades have been greatly increased and the teacher\ntoday thru the various teachers' councils and teachers' conferences exercises far more proper influence than ever before. The result is that the\nscheme of school administration has been made a harmonious whole.\nThe school committee has earnestly aimed to improve the teaching\nservice. It has in the last decade raised the standard for admission to the\nnormal school from which most of our elementary-school teachers come,\ncreated for the benefit of the pupils of that school a model observation\nand practice school, appointed a supervisor of practice to make this part\nof the work effective, and upbuilt in many other respects as well the\nstrength of this most important of all schools, the normal school. The\nschool committee has also appointed a supervisor of substitutes to observe\nand assist the normal-school pupils after graduation and before permanent\nappointment. It has, in short, created in this way an elaborate and well\narticulated system for the education, observation, and assistance of young\nteachers. The entrance to the service has also been carefully safe-guarded\nby the new school committee and all appointments of new instructors are\nnow made upon a civil-service basis. Comparative merit instead of pull\ndetermines appointment.' Promotion of instructors in the service depends\nupon relative efficiency, and increase in salary is now dependent upon the\npassing of various promotional examinations and not, as in the past, upon\nthe mere ability to live and fill a place. The new school committee has\ntaken other steps to stimulate efficiency in the service by creating a system\nof sabbatical year's absences on half-pay for the purpose of travel and\nstudy or rest, by arranging with neighboring colleges for the establishment of courses for the assistance of instructors in the public schools, and\nby the establishment of a maximum age for admission to the service as\ninstructor, of forty, and a maximum age of retirement from the service, of\nseventy. It has also secured a pension for teachers whose years of faithful service entitle them to consideration when waning efficiency compels\ntheir retirement.\nThe new school committee has, in short, endeavored to\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "990\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nguard the entrance to the service, to better the conditions and to stimulate\nthe eflficiency of those in the service, and to make possible the retirement of\nsuperannuated teachers under proper conditions.\nImportant changes have been made in the elementary schools. The\naverage number of pupils per teacher has been reduced from fifty- three,\nwhich it was a decade ago, to forty-four, and the course of study has been\nshortened from nine years to eight years. This latter reform involved the\nestablishment of a new and better curriculum and the division of each\nclass into groups progressing at different rates of speed. These have\nproved reforms of far-reaching significance.\nThe moral development of the children has been carefully considered\nand in the reorganization of the truant oJ05cers' force, in the creation of the\nsupervisor of licensed minors, in the establishment of the disciplinary\nclasses, in the creation of the juvenile court thru the initiative of the\nschool committee, and in other important respects progress has been made ^\nin this direction.\nNo subject has received greater attention from the school committee i\nof Boston in the last decade than has the health of the pupils. A depart- I\nment of school hygiene of broad scope has been established. Extensive\nplayground activities have been undertaken^ Systematic school athletics\nhave been organized. Advanced courses in physical education have been\nestablished. Nurses have been appointed to co-operate with the school\nphysicians. Systematic measuring and weighing of school children have\nbeen undertaken. Open-air rooms have been estabhshed in many districts and an open-air school has been located in a park outside the city.\nA careful study has been made by competent physicians of the health of\nthe children attending the first three grades and their recommendations\nfor bettering conditions are being carried into effect. A committee of\noculists and electricians was organized to study the effect of light in the\nschools upon the children and under their expert advice improvements have\nbeen made in this direction. A medical inspector of special classes has\nbeen appointed to examine children whose normal mentaUty is questioned.\nEach child in one large division of the city has been examined to see\nwhether it is a diphtheria carrier for the purpose of endeavoring to stamp\nout that disease, and finally with a view to emphasizing more forcibly\nupon pupils, teachers, and community ahke the value of good health, a\nhealth day has been established in the public schools of Boston. The new\nschool committee has realized thoroly the necessity of combating in the\npublic schools the unfortunate conditions which surround child life in a\ngreat congested city and has done and is doing all in its power to remedy\nthese conditions.\nThe necessity of further vocational training in the elementary schools\nhas not been overlooked in the last five years in Boston. Experiments\nare now being conducted in various parts[^of^the city in manual training,\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nIN\n\nBOSTON\n\n991\n\nshop arithmetic, working-drawing, design, shopwork, tool and metal work,\ntextile work, printing, bookbinding, shoe-repairing, furniture-making,\ncabinet-making, metal-working, sheet-metal working, silver-smithing,\nhand and machine sewing, cookery, housekeeping, and domestic science;\nand a committee on vocational advice has been estabhshed consisting of\ninstructors within the service and of citizens from the community at large\nto assist the children in shaping their future careers upon graduation from\nthe elementary schools. The foundations of progress along these lines\nare being rapidly laid and are Hkely to serve as the beginnings of great\nchanges in the direction of making the elementary-school curriculum prepare its pupils better for life in an industrial era.\nThe new school committee has, however, never failed while it has been\nreaching out in the direction of the health, the morals, and the vocational\ntraining of the children to emphasize those fundamental studies which have\nfor many decades served as the basis of the public-school system of a\ngreat country and which will always continue to constitute the bone\nstructure of school anatomy.\nIn the secondary schools also important changes have been made. Those\npupils who regarded the high schools merely as social centers are being\neliminated under carefully formulated rules. Earnest pupils who are\ndeficient in their studies are saved a year by atttendance at the summer\nhigh school. Uniformity of instruction and economy have been promoted\nby a better classification of the high-school teaching force. A number of\nthe ill-attended and therefore costly electives have been eHminated from\nthe high schools and new courses of study have been established. The\nspeaker believes that no part of the public-school system stands in greater\nneed of reorganization than do the high schools, not because of any deficiency on the part of the high-school masters, but because of the rapid\nchange in conditions in this country in the last decade. Each school of\nsecondary education ought, in my opinion, to be either cultural, commercial, or industrial, long-term or short-term, in order to attain singleness of\npurpose and consequent greater efficiency at less expense per pupil. Some\nprogress has been made in this direction. Purely cultural secondary\nschools we have always had. The high school of commerce to prepare\nboys for commercial life, the high school of practical arts to prepare girls\nfor home-making or for feminine occupations, have been established by\nthe new school committee, and the mechanic-arts high school, established\nseventeen years ago, has been devoted by the new school committee to\nthe single aim of preparing its pupils for industrial efficiency instead of\nfor higher institutions of learning as well. These are all long-term secondary schools. Short-term secondary schools have also been established,\ni.e., the trade school for girls, whose name explains its purpose, and the\nschool for bookbinding and printing, whose aim is equally obvious. A\nshort-term clerical high school was also established, but the lack of funds\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "99 5\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n[Administration\n\nhas resulted in its temporary suspension. The new committee has appreciated that the ideal of democracy is the extension to the individual of the\nbest possible opportunities and has endeavored in its five years of administration to approximate in the various respects outlined above this high\npurpose.\nThe continuation schools have also been approached by the new school\ncommittee with the same ideals as guides. In the evening elementary\nschools proper, in the evening elementary schools for non-English-speaking\npeople, in the evening elementary industrial-school classes, in the evening\nhigh schools proper, in the evening commercial high schools, in the evening\nindustrial schools, and in the part-time day continuation schools for the\nwholesale leather and dry-goods industries, a new departure in this country,\nthe new school committee has reorganized and extended its system of continuation schools into a well-rounded and effective whole. This, it is\nhoped, will constitute the basis for far greater extension along these important lines.\nThe establishment of the new school committee has, in brief, led to\nmany reforms whose effects have been far-reaching. The mere recital of\nthem has constituted this paper. While their just exposition in true relation to the systems of the past and of the present and to the ideals of the\nfuture would exceed greatly the limits fixed, yet the large effects of the\nwork may be pithily summarized. The whole system has been removed\nfrom the field of politics. The most helpful citizens in their particular Hues\nhave been drafted as advisers. The educational and financial administration of the schools has been made moral and efficient. The selection, promotion, and retirement of teachers, officers, and other employees of the\nschool committee have been placed upon the most liberal, progressive, and\nmeritorious lines. The welfare of the pupils from the point of view of their\nhealth and morals have been materially advanced. The educational\nopportunities afforded to pupils in the elementary schools, in the secondary schools, both long-term and short-term, in the evening schools of\nvarious types, and in the other continuation schools have been immensely\nenlarged, and in all branches — in the old studies which constitute the basis\nof all public-school education, in the higher cultural subjects, and in those\ncommercial and industrial fields which have become so important in this\nage, the public-school system of Boston has not only kept abreast of the\nbest school systems in the United States, but has, in some respects, it is\nhoped, helped to set the standard on this continent. The new school\ncommittee has, in short, purified and vitalized the pubHc-school system\nof Boston.\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Edwin White Gaillard, New York Public Library\nVice-President — Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools\nSecretary — Miss Mary Hanna Johnson, Public Library\n\nNew York, N.Y.\nDenver, Colo.\nNashville, Tenn.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 5, 1910\nThis department held all sessions in the lecture hall of the Boston Public Library.\nThe first meeting convened on July 5, 1910, at 9:30 a.m., with the president in the chair.\nThe program was opened by Mr. Horace G. Wadlin, librarian, Boston Public Library,\nBoston, Mass., with cordial words of welcome.\nThe president then presented the question of the proposed abandonment of the\ndepartment, and asked to be instructed as to the sentiment and wishes of the department\nin the matter. He was directed, by unanimous vote, to urge the Board of Directors to\ncontinue the department, if possible, in its present form.\nWilliam McAndrew, principal of the Washington Irving High School, New York,\nN.Y., presented the main topic of the day, the management and conduct of the highschool library, in a paper entitled \"The High-School Librarian.\" This was discussed by\nMiss Margaret Ashmun, of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; A. E. Peterson,\nMorris High School, New York, N.Y.; and Arthur I. Andrews, assistant professor of\nhistory, Simmons College, Boston, Mass.\nThe Chair appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nMiss Mary E. Hall, librarian, Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.; Miss Grace\nThompson, Miss Leah Lewinson, New York, N.Y.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION, July 7, 1910\n\nThis session was called to order with the vice-president in the chair. The subject\nfor the day's discussion was opened by James V. Sturges, principal of the Geneseo Normal\nSchool, Geneseo, N.Y., with a paper entitled \"The Training of Teachers in the Use of\nBooks and the Library and in a Knowledge of Children's Books.\" He was followed by\nMrs. Mary E. S. Root, children's librarian, Public Library, Providence, R.I.; Miss Mary\nC. Richardson, State Normal School, Castine, Me.; F. D. Boynton, superintendent of\nschools, Ithaca, N.Y.; Horace G. Wadlin, librarian of the Boston Public Library, Boston,\nMass.; and Dr. Robert H. Beggs, principal of Whittier School, Denver, Colo.\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted tl)e following names as ofiicers for the\nensuing year:\nFor President — Edwin White Gaillard, supervisor of work with schools, New York\nPublic Library, New York, N.Y.\nFor Vice-President — J.L. Gillis, librarian, California State Library, Sacramento, Cal.\nFor Secretary — Gilbert O. Ward, librarian, Technical High School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nThe report was accepted and the nominees declared elected.\nThe following resolution was presented and adopted:\nResolved, That the Library Section of the National Education Association send a\nprotest to the American Library Association against the present custom of holding its\n993\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "994\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nannual meetings on approximately the same dates as the National Education Association, thus making it very difficult for the Library Section to secure representative\nlibrarians as speakers, and impossible for its members to attend both meetings.\nOn motion the report was accepted and ordered filed.\n(Signed)\nROUND-TABLE,\n\nMary\n\nE. Hall, Secretary pro tern.\n\nJuly 8, 1910\n\nThe round-table was conducted entirely by Mrs. Adelaide Bowles Maltby, librarianin-charge of the Tompkins Square Branch of the New York Public Library, who both\nplanned and carried it into effect. The general subject was \"Elementary School Class\nReference Work in Public Libraries.\"\nAfter the round-table the formal meetings of the Library Section adjourned. There\nwas, however, an informal gathering for discussion, of a group of twenty-four librarians\nand teachers directly interested in high-school libraries.\n(Signed)\nEdwin W. Gaillard, President\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nWILLIAM\n\nMCANDREW,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\nPRINCIPAL\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\nWASHINGTON\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nIRVING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNEW\n\nI remember a bright lad in our town whose father secured him a place\nin an egg-crate factory. At the end of the week the proprietor returned\nhim to his father with the statement, \"Take him back, Tom. I'm too old\nto learn my business all over.\"\nThe boy was showing everyone how to run the factory.\nYou are, it seems, to have a similar experience now, I'm afraid. My\ncareer as a librarian totals up to two months, yet here I am launching\nout in an essay seeming to aim to teach you your own business.\nThe position of a modern Ubrarian in a high school seems to me like\nthat of a missionary in a heathen country.\nNo one but a librarian can\nrealize what an astounding amount of ignorance we high-school teachers\nexhibit regarding the purpose and operation of a library.\nThe number\nof college graduates devoid of the most elementary traces of the indexhabit is remarkable.\nTime and again in my library experience, I have\nobserved teachers searching thru reference books, who were too poorly\ntrained to look in the table of contents and too proud to ask for help.\nWhen I was almost a librarian I had questions asked by teachers which\nnecessitated my going to the card catalog and myself showing them what\nwe had on the subject they were interested in. There persists in this\nteaching occupation a foolish ignorance of practical things, accompanied\nby a pedantic laziness which it seems as tho some teachers hold on to as a\nmark of distinction.\nYou see it when the teacher goes to a bank or an\nexpress office or a tax department.\n\ni\n,\n%.\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTUB\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\n995\n\nThere is more or less of a popular belief that the school should teach\nthe use of books. The honest librarian is disposed to doubt the efficacy\nof the school's service in this regard because so many teachers do not\nthemselves know how to use books. What do you think of the scheme\nof getting teachers and students every term to assist the school librarian\nin making topical catalogs ? I remember with the liveliest pleasure the\nmeeting of a catalog club twenty-three years ago, one hour a week in the\nlibrary of the high school in which I was a teacher. The principal was the\nforeman. He sat at the desk with a stack of new books; we students and\nteachers sat at the tables with cards, pens, and blotters. He taught us\nto print a plain block letter with the pen. He assisted us to imagine the\nthings a searcher after knowledge might want to get out of the books.\nHe showed us how to determine the most likely catch-word that a reader\nwould expect to serve as the index-title of the cards we were writing, how\nto catalog the same idea under different words, how to make a pertinent\nabstract on the card. I remember that he tried a way of having the same\nbook gone thru independently by different catalogers and that he walked\nabout the room looking over our shoulders and advising us. I cannot\nrecall any high-school classes that were educated so well hour for hour as\nthis catalog club. You see why, do you not? In the first place, it was\nin reality a reading-class practicing that very sort of concentrated, purposeful book-searching which is the hope and the despair of those who\nurge the value of reading. In the second place, it wasn't like most of the\nstudy and recitations in high-school teaching, lacking in definite and\nnatural motive. We knew that the products of our study were real, we\nknew they were permanent, and lastly, there was an altruistic flavor to\nthe whole business, which our principal, by the way, did not fail to uphold.\n\"Just think,\" he would say, \"what a service you are doing for everybody\nin the school and for everybody who will come into it for years and years.\"\nBefore I left that institution, a dozen boys had made a beautiful cabinet\nof card drawers to contain the collection of indexes which had outgrown\nthe capacity of the original cabinet.\nPossibly you expert librarians will conclude that we overdid our cataloging. Maybe we did. But such was the practical knowledge gained\nby us who formed the catalog club that it seems to me that, were I in\ncharge of such a scheme, I would be justified in having hundreds of cards\nmade that I might afterward weed out. The big result of having students\nand teachers actually read, abstract, and catalog books is the power these\npeople gain in the use of literary tools.\nThat is one of the first pieces of missionary work a school librarian can\nperform at the beginning of every term. He can try to impress upon the\nmind of the principal of the school that a lesson during regular schedule\ntime given by the librarian to every section of the entering class will be a\nmeans of furthering exactly the results which the principal wants high-\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "096\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nschool education to secure. Ask that the class and its teacher be assigned\nto you for a forty-five-minute period at the beginning of the term; get\nthem into the library, explain the working of it. Demonstrate the catalog arrangement. Put two or three pupils thru the whole operation of finding, getting, and returning a book. Then in an interesting and illustrative\nmanner demonstrate the library's various uses, as an aid to study, as a reservoir for compositions, speeches, and debates. Show where the indexes\nto periodical literature are, the bound magazines, the scrap-book collections; use your experience as to what bound magazines are the richest in\npromise of help and then make a feature of the entertaining value of your\nlibrary. Tell about your funny papers, your illustrated magazines, your\nstory books, your splendid travel collections, your fascinating biographies,\nand the delights of reading famous books.\nIt is in the field of reading for entertainment, and for real culture, that\nthe library missionary is likely to find herself in heathen surroundings;\nfor the high-school atmosphere is not very highly charged with culture in\nthe sense of enlightenment, breadth, and human interest. The pubHc library\nhas grown and the librarian with it. Every library has felt the change.\nThe high school has dragged or stood still. Its culture has crystallized\naround minute points, some trivial and all of them too restricted. People\nare in high schools today concentrating attention upon the same small\nportions of three Latin authors that they studied a quarter of a century ago.\nThe operations of the Latin classes are stultifying, microscopic, and dull.\nAs literature, Latin and Greek are dead in high schools. One sees, year\nafter year, boys and girls made stupid by the attenuated courses in these\nsubjects. Time and again there is brought to one's attention in the schools\nin which a free choice exists, the inferior abjHty of the Latin students as\ncompared with those who have not elected that subject.\nThe teaching of English language and literature in the high schools has\ndried up from imitation of the Latin method. The amount of hterature\nstudied is so small and the movement of the classes so slow that only a\nmind benumbed by repetition of these methods over and over again could\nendure them. The books are dissected. The natural state associated\nwith dissection is death. The literature teachers are killing literature.\nYet the high-school literature teachers are the most conscientious, hardworking, well-intentioned murderers you can imagine. They are doing\nas they are told. They are faithful, loyal, hired assassins. They are\npart of a system which is planned to get results which are measurable.\nAs teachers, we have made a noble effort to rise from mere memory-drillers.\nMy high-school principal had a motto in the assembly hall, \"The purpose\nof the school is to teach you to think.\" Most of us have gone no farther\nthan that. It isn't far enough. It doesn't take us into the realm of fine\narts at all. It keeps us in the field of investigating, observing, comparing,\nreasoning, and concluding. It sends us to art galleries with a tape-measure.\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\n997\n\nDoes it seem to you that the qualities of music, painting, and literature,\nwhich classify these studies among the fine arts, are the same qualities\nthat give arithmetic, geometry, and spelling their educative value ? The\nliterature teachers are pondering with the secondary ingredients of literature as if art critics would analyze the chemical ingredients of the paint\nin the dance of the Nymphs. Analysis, definition, classification, memory\nwork, and drill are good for all of us, but what have they to do with literature as a fine art ?\nThe emotions are the parts of us that belong to the arts: beauty,\npathos, humor, vexation, interest — you can name them if you take the\ntrouble. But the English teacher is required to fix principles, to ground\nthe rules, to drill, to analyze, and to do other things that are intellectual,\nnot emotional. Not that Hterature isn't intellectual, dear no; but that\nit is so much more! Our organized education has made us afraid to let\ngo of the systematic, exact, dictatorial style. Our pedagogical phrase is,\n\"What's the answer ? \" It is impossible for us to realize that in art there's\nno the answer. I had a class of normal-school graduates not long since in\nwhat the catalog of the association called \"general literature.\" It seemed\nimpossible for a long time to get these girls to understand that we were\nreading various extracts for the fun of the thing. It seemed rather\nunworthy and sinful. They could not get away from a traditional obligation to fix a date to everything they said. They must imprison in their\nnotebook every fact that showed its head. It was a hard struggle to keep\nthese coming teachers from turning my intended culture class into an exercise in counting and sorting facts. This is the kind of girl our schools\nare educating to teach literature. The more exact she is, the better examination she passes, and so the exact person survives in larger numbers and\nmore effectively banishes human interest from the teaching of such subjects\nas genius created. The mark of high-school teaching is uniformity; the\nmark of genius is difference. The slogan of high-school teaching is drill,\nrepetition. The essential of literary enjoyment is surprise, novelty, movement. The natural stimulus of good reading is its creation of a desire to\nread the book thru. The school's method is to hold you in the book so\nlong that you are sick and tired of it. The test of a good book by ordinary\npersons is, \"Is it interesting?\" That is a reason for condemnation by\nmany a high-school teacher.\nIn the high school with which I was connected eight years ago, we held\na council and resolved to remove from the library and lock up in a cupboard the one hundred books which were most frequently taken out\nbecause we believed that the girls who were failing in their Addison were\nwasting their time on Hugh Wynne and Uncle Tom's Cabin. We expatiated convincingly on the need of reading the Essays of Elia only to have\nour feehngs hurt by accidentally hearing some girl whisper, \"Laura Jean\nLibby for mine !\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "99^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nWe are suffering from too perfect a system. It has fixed too rigidly its\nsubjects and its methods.\nOur society is growing away from it.\nIt is only after a long famiHarity with high-school procedure that I\nventure the opinion that its result is not culture, but formalism.\nThere is still an inherited hope among the public that youth may get\nculture from high school. Thousands apply for entrance. But the significant fact of high-school statistics is the refusal of thousands to attempt\nhigh school at all and the early withdrawal of thousands whom it fails to\nhold. One could hardly at this date claim that the high school is an institution of progress. However promising the prophesies of educators may\nbe here and there, the institution itself remains traditional.\nOn the other hand, there has not been a meeting of this Library Association without numerous allusions to the recognized fact that the modern\nlibrary has abandoned its chief traditions. The library is no longer a\nrepository of ancient practices. The librarian wants people to read. He\nwould prefer a girl who reads trash to one who reads nothing, for a trashreader has some taste which may be directed. He knows that the fundamental force which leads to culture is interest, and he seeks to make his\nmeans of culture as attractive as may be. The high-school librarian comes\nwith these notions into an unfriendly country. Its methods of bringing\nreaders and books together is that of compulsion. The time-honored\ndelight of browsing among books is abhorrent to the systematic high-school\nteacher. If the librarian succeeds in cultivating any frequenters of the\nreading-room, he must expect to get rumors of complaints by teachers\nwhose subjects they themselves cannot make sufficiently interesting to\ncompete with the miscellaneous books on the shelves. The high-school\nlibrarian must expect to have his commendable efforts to lure young persons to his collections discouraged by influential highbrows who hold that\nknowledge of the big things of current life are inferior to the number of\npiers in Caesar's bridge. He must expect to find his book-appropriation\nexhausted in the purchase of volumes wanted by the teachers who recommend books which will never be taken from the shelves; he must expect\nto find his reading-room at the very times when students have the most\nreading-time closed in order that the final examinations may be sorted on\nthe tables or the term marks may be recorded. He must expect to be\npaid a smaller salary than teachers who know less, work less, teach less,\nand discipline less than he; but for all that he has today the most promising missionary field there is. If he proceeds with tact, with gentleness,\nwith courage, with intelligence, and with good humor, just as a missionary\nin an old and highly organized heathen society must advance, he will\nfind himself each day securing just' the sort of benefits for mankind that it\nis the glory of the missionary and the librarian to achieve.\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\n999\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nMiss Margaret Ashmun, instructor in English, University of Wisconsin, Madison,\nWis. — What Mr. McAndrew has said is so convincing that it needs no comment from me\nto show its truth. What I shall have to say is merely in the nature of corroboration.\nI speak from the standpoint not of the librarian but of the teacher of English in the\nhigh school and the college. Naturally, what has interested me most in Mr. McAndrew's paper Is the matter of English teaching, which has, as you have noted, received\nsome rather severe comments. The justice of those remarks I am sorry to say I must\nadmit.\nIt is safe to say that two-thirds of the poor teaching in high-school English classes\nis due to the failure of teachers to realize that high-school pupils are boys and girls — not\nmen and women. The first- or second-year high-school students are children with the\nchild's love of a story, of action, of the lively, vigorous, pulsating facts of life. Why\nshould these young people be denied the wholesome things which their natures demand ?\nThey are hungering for the bread of reality and we give them the cold stone of abstraction.\nThis unwillingness on the part of the teacher to recognize the needs and desires of the\nyounger students extends from the classroom to the library. A while ago a man showed me\nwith pride a list of outside readings which were to be demanded of all of his high-school\nstudents. It was a very pretty hst. Dryden and Pope were conspicuous upon it, Chaucer, Milton, Shelley — all the great names were there: so many books for the first halfyear, so many for the second half — and all to be reported upon at much length in written\nbook reviews. The plan looked very impressive, laid off in squares in the high-school\nyearbook. But my heart ached for the poor children. What did they care about the\nqualities of style of Dryden or De Quincey ? They were craving something quite different— something which should stimulate and divert them, thrill them with tales of action\nand heroism, interpret for them the wonderful, puzzling world in which they had only\nlately discovered themselves to be. The man who devised that list made the mistake that\nhundreds of high-school teachers and librarians are making, and to which Mr. McAndrew\nhas referred — ^that of not allowing for the emotional, the human, the vivid, irrepressible love of reality that is one of the chief instincts of the high-school boy and girl.\nThat man simply could not understand that it was wise or safe to give the students\nanything that they enjoyed. \"The more suffering, the greater gain,\" seemed to be his\ntheory of pedagogy — and a fatal theory that is, when it is applied to the reading of books.\nIt is only by enjoying books that one can ever learn to love them. It is only by loving\nbooks that one can become in any sense a cultured sharer in the great literary benefactions ofthe ages.\nIt may be thought from what has been said hore that a low standard of taste is to\nbe set up, that mere sensationalism is to be allowed and recommended because some\ncrude youngster happen to like that sort of thing. I am sure that neither Mr. McAndrew nor anybody else wishes to be so understood. It is possible to lead young people\non by gradual stages from the most uncultivated taste to something creditable and\nworthy — but the stages must be gradual and the uncultivated taste must be frankly\nadmitted at the first. Cramming the Classics down the throats of reluctant young\npersons is a dismal and undignified work. How much better to set them before a full\ntable of less delicate fare and let them feed with the zest of healthy appetites, developing sooner or later a recognition of the flavor of what was caviar to them when they\nbegan!\nThe best use of the high-school library is accomplished when the English teachers\nand the librarian combine their forces, agreeing to make the most of every individual\nstudent, beginning at whatever stage of development he has reached. But most of all\nthe librarian must make of herself an inspiring force. She must never forget that she\nis trying above everything to develop in the students a real taste for good literature.\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "looo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nShe must be able to imagine herself a restless, action-loving, hero-worshipping boy, or\neven a vapid, sentimental, feather-brained girl. She must put herself in the place of\nthe student whose needs she is trying to supply, giving him not what she herself admires\nbut what his crude young appetite craves.\nShe must work with infinite patience, with a sincere love of the books that she is\nhandling, with a profound and personal interest in the young people of the school. Then,\nhowever satisfying the results — and they are bound to be satisfying — the high-schoo\nlibrary will be doing its best to make the high school a place of culture.\nA. E. Peterson, Department of History, Morris High School, New York, N.Y. —\nIn regard to library work in connection with their subject, history teachers may be\ndivided into three groups:\nFirst, those who hold that the use of the library is absolutely superfluous, who want\neverything within the covers of a single well-chosen textbook thoroly digested, and\nargue for the disciplinary value of this kind of instruction.\nA gentleman of this class expressed this view before the history section of the Association of the Middle States and Maryland last winter. The only thing he wanted the\npupils to use outside the textbook was a question book on the contents of said textbook,\nand he closed with the axiomatic statement that every boy who had mastered the thousand questions contained therein was invariably successful in passing the college examinations. You see it is certainly not safe to assume that all teachers believe in library\nwork.\nA second class consists of those who think the best textbooks too narrow, who believe\nin hbrary work, who recognize the value of getting different viewpoints, who think the\nchild should be interested as well as disciplined, but who find their good intentions\ncrushed beneath the upper millstone labelled ''Lack of time,\" and the nether one labelled\n\"Examinations.\"\nThe third class consists of those who generally recognize the necessity of examination, who feel tremendously the limitation of time, but refuse to be crushed by the grinding of these millstones. They will not be bound by present considerations only; they see\nin the children before them the men and women of tomorrow, whose duty it will be to\nbuild well and strongly upon foundations already laid; they want these children to become open-minded, broad-minded, fair-minded citizens of the nation; they see in the\nsubject of history the greatest possibility for training in this direction; they will risk\nmuch rather than have their pupils lose the opportunity for acquaintance with books,\nmany books, plenty of books.\nThere are in this class those extremists who go so far as to discard the textbook\nabsolutely and resort entirely to the library. Such a course seems to me inadvisable except\nunder unusual conditions: for instance, if a local committee permitted the use of some\nwretched textbook only.\nHowever, unless I am very much mistaken, what teachers need most to help them in\nthe use of the library for history are practical devices, ways and means. Most schools\nare without librarians, trained or untrained. In most schools the libraries are not cataloged. Many, indeed, are without any library room, and difficulties arise. The use of\nthe library is apt to be subversive of discipline in schools where there is no librarian.\nI found once on assuming the principalship of a high school that the library had been\nlocked up for a year.\nIn a school without a librarian it often works well to have branch libraries, as it\nwere, within the building, history books placed in the history classroom, science books\nin the science rooms or laboratories, etc. What we want is that pupils use the books, and\nthey will certainly use them more if they are near at hand.\nI think I never got better results in history teaching than when I had a large table\nand a case of history books in the corner of a room where the pupils both studied and\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nlOOI\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\nrecited. Certainly the less \"red tape\" the pupil has to follow in order to get at the\nlibrary book, the better.\nI would like to tell you of a device that I have employed this last year that seems\nto me adaptable to almost any conditions in a large or a small school. I had three divisions of second-year pupils studying the eastern nations and Greece, reciting three periods\nper week for a half year — not an extensive amount of time I think you will agree. I\norganized each, division with a chairman, secretary, and executive committee. I set\napart five periods during the term when special reports should be given, based on library\nreading, the program for each such meeting to be arranged and executed under the charge\nof the class officers.\nSome two weeks in advance of each meeting I gave into the hands of the class committee alist of topics like this:\nTOPICS\n\nSUGGESTED\n\nFOR\n\nHISTORY\n\nCONFERENCE\nI\n\nI.\n2.\n3.\n4.\n5.\n6.\n7.\n8.\n9.\n10.\n\n3\n\n3\n\nAn imaginary speech by Cimon before the Athenian Assembly\nadvocating sending aid to Sparta during the Revolt of the\nHelots.\nAn imaginary speech by Pericles in opposition.\nMore about the Athenian Assembly.\nGreek burial customs.\nGreek dress.\nHerodotus and his writings.\nGreek traitors.\nMedical practice among the ancient Greeks.\nFamous Greek Temples.\nSlavery in ancient Greece.\n\nA carbon copy of the same was placed in the hands of the librarian. From this list of\ntopics choices were made.\nIt was understood beforehand that the reports were not to be read from a paper, tho\nnotes might be used; also that the time limit was five minutes per pupil. The meetings\nwere conducted with due regard to parliamentary order, and discussion of the topics\npresented was encouraged in the minutes preceding adjournment.\nWhen we were discussing the Athenian Assembly one class was ambitious enough\nto present — and very effectively — a scene from Aristophanes' Acharnians. And one\nof my colleagues had a class in Roman history which had a Julius Caesar meeting.\nPapers were given on \"Caesar as a General,\" \"Caesar as a Writer,\" \"Caesar as a Statesman,\" and a scene was presented from Shakespeare's Julius CcBsar.\nI tried a similar experiment with three classes studying later English history, the\npupils in this case averaging two years older. The results were equally satisfactory.\nYou will see, of course, that in this device I was trying a little experiment in social education as well as furthering the use of the library.\nBefore closing, allow me to present this bit of testimony: library work ought not be\nabandoned or despaired of because of apparent lack of books. Teachers should make\ntheir wants known. I was once teaching in a Connecticut city whose public Hbrary was\nrich along certain lines. The librarian (newly appointed, by the way) demurred when\nI requested the loan of these books to supplement those in the school library, but an\nappeal to the trustees soon placed them at my disposal — an appeal, by the way, that\nwas far-reaching because it inaugurated in that city for the first time a system of co-operation between the public library and the public schools.\nAt another time, earlier in my experience and in a smaller community where few\nbooks were available either in the school library or the public library, an appeal to the\nstate board of education brought a case of just such books as I desired, loaned to the\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\nschool for the entire term.\nfirst one.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nAnother case for the next term followed the return of the\n\nYou see I have proof of the truth in the Good Old Book, where it says:\nSeek and ye shall find;\nKnock and it shall be opened unto you.\n\nArthur I. Andrews, assistant professor of history, Simmons College, Boston, Mass.,\nbriefly emphasized certain points already made by the previous speakers. In particular,\nhe called attention to the aid which the work in cataloging as suggested by Mr. McAndrew would be to the teachers of history in colleges. He stated that the students were\ngenerally found lacking in knowledge of how to get at information contained in books,\nand that any such knowledge of indexes, tables of contents, and other parts of a book,\nwould be exceedingly valuable when a student was confronted with courses of history\nin the colleges. Mr. Andrews denied knowing how time for this instruction could be\nsecured in the secondary schools, but desired to emphasize its value from the point of\nview of the college teacher.\nMr. Andrews commented upon the point made by Mr. Tripp as to leaving good\nliterature around where it would be handy, and he emphasized how much this would\naid in giving the right kind of book an equal opportunity for consideration. He thought\nlists of reading, such as of outside reading or of summer reading, would aid materially\nto give the better class of books this equal chance to be read. He felt that a student\nwas less likely to read bad books, or trash, if the better class of reading was made easily\navailable. He doubted whether there would be so much reading of Laura Jean Libby\nand her class of writing if the lists of Scott, Stevenson, Kipling, and the like, were placed\nbefore the student.\nMr. Andrews expressed the hope that the liking for Scott and the other writers mentioned was not entirely a thing of the past as far as small boys were concerned. He quoted\nhis own experience with a small boy of thirteen who had shown a great liking for Scott's\nnovels, an appreciative liking. He also told a story of the small boy who came to a\nlibrarian with a sheepish air and asked for something on the Book of Common Prayer.\nAs he was dressed in overalls, and showed clear signs of acquaintance with manual labor,\nthe librarian was amused to hear him go on and say that he was tired of \"them fictious\nbooks.\" She was also more surprised when the Book of Common Prayer was kept two\nweeks and then renewed.\nLater the same boy took out several books on church history.\nReverting to Scott, Mr. Andrews expressed the opinion that there was a Scott age for\nboys from about ten years to thirteen years of age, when the average boy could easily be\ninduced to wade thru the less interesting early chapters with a promise of exciting doings\nfurther on. He also expressed the thought that if a boy were thoroly inoculated with\nScott, he would care less for such things as Dare-Devil Dick, the Desperado, and would\nnever get away from \"sensible\" reading.\nAnother point that Mr. Andrews made was in regard to special topics, calling attention to the need of some supervision for such topics. He stated as his opinion that the\ntopics should have a limited number of references to each and that the bibliographies\nshould always be annotated with the student's opinion as to the value of each reference.\nHe also spoke of the way in which a boy or a girl was influenced by the binding.\nSome bindings have been known to make even Sunday-school books seem attractive,\nwhile a stern, stifi-looking binding would not attract, but would cause boys and girls\nto pass such books by in dismay.\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nOF BOOKS\n\nAND\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1003\n\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS IN THE USE OF BOOKS\nTHE LIBRARY AND IN A KNOWLEDGE OF\n\nAND\n\nCHILDREN'S\nJAMES\n\nV. STURGES,\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nSTATE\n\nTHE\n\nBOOKS\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nGENESEO,\n\nN.Y.\n\nWe assume it to be true that within the last twenty-five years radical\nchanges have taken place in the aims and methods of teaching and in the\nmeans employed for disseminating knowledge; that courses of study both\nfor the child and the. adolescent are ever making greater demands upon\nthe teacher, the equipment, the organization, and the resources of the\nschool; that the remarkable progress in the last decade — commercial,\nsocial, political, intellectual — has brought the library with its countless\nvolumes within easy reach of the humblest citizen of our commonwealth;\nand finally, that if the library, now that its work is standardized and bibliography isbecome a science, is to become a real power in human uplift,\nall must be taught how to use it.\nIf these assumptions are true, the schools for the training of teachers\nare brought face to face with a serious problem. Coincident with new\ncourses of study in the arts and the sciences are courses in the schools of\npedagogy to prepare teachers for these special departments. But not so\nwith the library in its relation to the whole pubhc-school question. For\nexample, the state of New York, exclusive of New York City, has fourteen\ncity training schools, ninety training classes, and eleven state normal schools.\nIt has approximately eight million volumes in its traveling and school\nlibraries, valued at about four million dollars. It has recently adopted\nan excellent syllabus for its elementary and secondary schools, one\nthat requires the finest preparation of teachers in language in Hterature.\nBut not 5 per cent, of these schools are giving instruction in the use of\nbooks and the library and in a knowledge of children's books. And New\nYork State is not an exception.\nIn 1907, a year after the publication by this Association of the Report\non Library Instruction in Normal Schools, three hundred letters were sent\nout to learn how many normal schools over the country were giving courses\nin library methods. The answers received showed that ten different\nnormal schools out of a total of two hundred and fifty-nine in the United\nStates were giving such courses. In 1908 investigation showed that over\nthirty normal schools over the country were giving library instruction,\nand during 1909 still other normals have introduced such courses.\nWhile these statistics, in the light of assumptions made, prove the\nexistence of a serious situation, they also clearly reveal the intention on the\npart of the normal schools all over the country to meet one of the vital\nneeds of the schools and the public.\nIs the need a vital one ? The following data will answer this question.\nIn June, 1908, a group of forty district school children applied to the\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "I004\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nprincipal of a union school in New York State for permission to take\nRegents' examinations in the preliminary subjects. All were admitted\nwith the following results: thirty-nine of the forty passed in all subjects\nexcept English; thirty-nine of the forty failed in English. The reason\nis obvious.\nIn September, 1909, of eighty-five students entering upon the two\nyears' course of professional study at the Geneseo State Normal School,\n63 had not read King of the Golden River\n50 had not read Arabian Nights\n57 had not read Treasure Island\n68 had not read A Child's Garden of Verses\n\nLast March a questionnaire was sent out to seventy-five principals of\ntraining classes in New York State, to which twenty-five replies were\nreceived. They are interesting because they show the situation not only\nin the semi-professional schools but also between the public library and\nthe pubHc school. Eighteen of the twenty-five report no lessons given to\nstudents in the use of books, three that lessons are given incidentally on\nthe use of the catalog, contents, etc., sixteen report no lessons given to\nstudents on the use of the Hbrary, three give the work incidentally with\nEnglish work, one school requires lessons on the use of the catalog of all who\nuse the library, but no credit is given for the work. The questionnaire\nfurther shows that children in the grades are not taught the use of\nbooks by the teacher, except incidentally. To the question \"How is the\noutside reading of the children directed?\" the following repUes are\ngiven:\nTwo say by the syllabus; one school sends printed lists of books to\nparents of children; a few use reading-lists; one school had one talk at\nchapel by a representative' of the State Library Department; in all other\ncases nothing is done. Twelve of the twenty-five say that no books are\nsent from the public library to the classroom; sixteen say that the librarian (four have no pubHc library) does not give talks on the use of books;\nand fifteen say that she does not give talks on the use of the Hbrary. Only\ntwo of the twenty-five say that the. pubHc librarian sends books to the\nclassroom and that the librarian gives talks to the school on the use of books\nand the library.\nOf thirty-five replies received to a questionnaire sent out to Geneseo\ngraduates, seventeen say that the Hbrarian does not give lessons on the\nuse of the library and fifteen have no pubHc library; twelve say that no\nbooks are sent to the classroom for use and thirteen say that the librarian\ndoes not give talks on the use of books. To the question, \"Who has charge\nof your library?\" thirty-two reply, \"In charge of principal, teacher, or no\none.\" The statements made in these questionnaires are amply verified\nby a trained librarian of wide and successful experience in school and public\nHbrary work][who says:\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nOF BOOKS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1005\n\nA few years ago I accepted a position in an experimental school in the West where\nthe textbook has been abandoned and the laboratory method of teaching was being tried.\nAs preparation for the course I had had both a college and a normal-school course. At\ncollege the doors of the library bookcases were locked and never had I been required to\ndo an original piece of research work. At the normal school we were given definite references to read, the-exact pages of the book being indicated always. In this position where\nthe library was made the supplement of the course of study, I was helpless. I wasted\nhours in misdirected effort in the library. I did not know the reference books or the\nsources of my own subject. I knew none of the tools useful to teachers and was helpless\nin putting myself in touch with other experimental work over the country. I did not\nknow what to read to children or what to suggest for their own reading. Nowhere in my\nentire school course had I been trained to help myself in using books or in looking up a\nsubject, and nowhere had I been required to investigate or read books for children.\n\nThe views of all were admirably reinforced by Mr. William H. Austen,\nreference librarian of Cornell University, at the state library meeting of\nNew York State held at Lake George last October:\nAs yet a large part of the work in training college students in using the library is\ntaken up with teaching them how to use a catalog, an index, a cyclopedia, and other\nsteps preliminary to doing anything more advanced. The great service that publicschool libraries can do for students preparing to go to college is to teach them these preliminary steps toward more advanced research problems, to give them drill in technique,\nwith little stress on the facts found, but all stress on the methods of finding them.\n\nIf, then, the need for library instruction in the schools for the training\nof teachers is real, the question arises, how shall the need be met ? The\nanswer is, make the library the center of the educational acti\\dties of the\nschool for the training of teachers. Make it the laboratory, the workshop\nof the grades, the high school, the professional school. Plan the work of\nthe whole school so that child, youth and adult may be trained to use\nlibrary tools accurately, skillfully, intelligently. For, as Sarah Louise\nArnold says.\nAbility to use books is not a gift — it is earned by thoughtful practice. The power\nto use reference books comes only through wisely using them. The art begins with the\nuse of the dictionary and the supplementary reader and here should the teacher first apply\nherself to teach the use of books of reference.\n\nThe late Dr. Canfield once said.\nThe difference between one who is trained to use the library and one who is not is\nthat the one who is trained can get more information from a copy of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary than the other can get from a library of a thousand volumes.\n\nIf this work is to be done in the schools for the training of teachers —\nand where else can it be done ?— what shall be the course in the professional\nschool? In my judgment there should be two courses, one general and\nrequired of every student; the other elective and open to a limited number\nwho by training, scholarship, and general culture are qualified to do the\nwork.\nLet me digress sufficiently at this point to say that there is little demand\nand no need for emphasizing the technical side of library instruction in\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nthe school. It is the function of the hbrary school to train hbrarians.\nIt is the function of the professional school to train teachers who can direct\nthe reading of children and lead them to an intelHgent use of books.\nThe general course, therefore, to be required of every student of the\nprofessional school will consist of at least ten lessons to the entering class\non the use of the catalog, periodical indexes, and reference books; and ten\nlessons to the graduating class on the study of children's books.\nThe aims of this course will be, not to train librarians, but first, to make\nthe entering class at home in the library and to teach them to use books\nas tools and find what they need without waste of time. Second, to prepare the seniors for selecting books for the grades, directing the outside\nreading of the children, and teaching children to use books and the library\nintelligently.\nThe entering class will be given practical problems to look up in the\nlibrary and will thus become famihar with library tools and indexes; the\nseniors will give practice lessons to the children of the model school on the\nuse of the dictionary, table of contents and index, and of the card catalog.\nThe seniors will also read several children's books and thus obtain a standard for selecting books for children.\nThe elective course should be a part of the professional course and\nshould consist of one lesson a day for two years in\n1. Administration of small school library: cataloging, classification, book-selection,\nreference work, mechanical processes, etc. — 150 periods.\n2. Children's literature: study of different classes of books for children, story- telling, etc. — 100 periods.\n3. Practice work: teaching of library lessons in grades and high school; practice\nin all library processes — 150 periods.\n\nThe aim of this course will be to prepare teachers to organize and administer a small school library, in addition to special teaching in English and\nhistory.\nThat such courses would be of inestimable benefit to the schools and\nthe general public is apparent from the following replies to a questionnaire\nrecently sent out to the principals of the training classes of New York\nState.\nThese are some of the questions with their answers:\n1. From your experience, what preparation in library work would be most helpful\nto students in normal schools? Replies: At least one recitation per week for school\nyear on (a) instruction in classifying and cataloging; (b) instruction in managing library;\n(c) preparation to teach children how to find and handle books.\n2. What is the greatest need of the training school libraries? Replies: (a) better\nand more intelligent management; (6) resourceful librarian in charge; (c) good reference\nbooks and knowledge of their use; {d) trained teachers who know books and how to use\nthem; (e) that books be cataloged.\n3. How can this need best be met? Replies: (a) by having teachers trained; (6) by\nrequiring teachers to pass examination in library methods; (c) by classifying books and\ncataloging them.\n4. Would it be a help if one of your high-school teachers had taken some practical\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nBOOKS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nIC07\n\nlibrary work in the normal school so that she could take charge of the school library in\naddition to some teaching? (a) Nearly all say Yes, emphatically; (b) some say: Most\nassuredly, undoubtedly, decidedly yes.\n\nThe value of such courses is also proven by the testimony of those\nnormal-school graduates of the past five years who have had such instruction. What these teachers themselves have to say is most convincing.\nWe have the testimony of recent graduates, about seventy-five in c.ll,\nrepresenting normal schools giving library instruction in Maine, Michigan, Wisconsin, Virginia, Kansas, Massachusetts, Illinois, North Dakota,\nand New York. With about five exceptions these graduates have taught\nthe children in their grades to use books and the library and have done\nsomething toward directing the outside reading of the children. This is\na typical answer to the question \"How has your hbrary work in the normal\nhelped you in using the pubhc library?\"\nMy library work in the normal has enabled me to feel at home in any public library\nbecause I know, first, how to look for a book; second, where to find it; and third, how to\nuse the book when found.\n\nAnd to the question, \"How has your Hbrary work in the normal helped\nyou in your classroom teachings ?\" this reply is typical:\nMy library experience was a most valuable, and I would almost say indispensable,\nadjunct to the work of the classroom. I could give my students definite assignments\nbecause of knowing what class of books to turn to, but what was better still, I could help\nthem to use the library intelligently.\n\nAnother student says.\nLibrary methods has been one of the very best and most helpful courses I have ever\ntaken in the Normal School.\n\nThis is what a teacher in a small lumbering town in Michigan says.\nIf you could have a photograph of our school library both before and after I took the\nlibrary work in the normal it would tell a very interesting story.\n\nAs a result of their work in library instruction, several teachers were\ninspired to establish and organize school libraries and at least two teachers\nwere instrumental in securing a public library for the town.\nOne teacher says he passed an examination for a high salaried position\nin the West, one of the five questions being on work required of him in\nlibrary methods.\nA teacher of library methods in a normal school in lUinois says:\nOur students upon attending a university have told me that they used the university hbrary more easily and to better advantage than the majority of their classmates.\nThe librarians of public libraries have told me that our graduates have co-operated with\nthem most satisfactorily; others of our students upon taking charge of schools have\norganized and improved the libraries that they found there, or have worked up an interest\nin the subject and established school libraries where there were none.\n\nA normal-school teacher of library methods in Kansas says.\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioo8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nI am confident that library training for teachers lies at the very root of both the\nlibrary and school question, especially as I hear enthusiastic reports of what the study\nhas done for teachers in the field.\n\nShe tells of one of her graduates who received the highest salary paid\nany normal-school teacher in the state because of her knowledge of books\nand how to use them. She also quotes from a city superintendent who\nS3.ys,\nI think every person who expects to teach should take Hbrary science. His value\nto a community would be unbounded.\n\nIn my judgment, and my conclusions are reached after careful investigation and wide experience in teaching, the building of large libraries,\nfilling them with costly books, employing trained librarians, will not of\nthemselves solve the library problem. The schools for the training of\nteachers must do the work. The teacher must be trained to use books\nand to know children's books.\nNot long ago a company skilled in the arts and crafts had the pleasure\nof examining a biplane. The were delighted with its simplicity of construction, strength of proportion, beauty of outline. It was a machine\nso skillfully constructed and carefully built as to reveal in a wondrous way\nthe marvelous inventive power of the human mind. It appeared to them\nto be a perfect, complete, mechanical product, a finely organized machine\nof wondrous possibilities, waiting for someone who understood to make it\ngo. And such is the school library of today, splendidly organized, admirably equipped, full of rich possibiHties to childhood, to youth, to adult,\nwaiting for the teacher to be trained to make it go.\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Mary E. S. Root, Children's Librarian, Providence, R.I. — Mr. Sturges\nhas stated that it is necessary to train normal students in the use of \"a catalog, indexes,\nand reference books.\" This seems a great pity, for such instruction should be given\nlong before normal school is reached. If you must teach it in normal school, you must\nteach it in college, and how about the boys or girls who never even reach a high school?\nAre they never to know how to use books properly ?\nAlso in regard to instruction in the technique of library science. Overemphasis\nshould not be laid on it unless a public library or a public-library commission fails to vitalize its work. School libraries, outside of those for primary schools, and perhaps a small\ncollection of reference books, have no excuse for existence if the public library or library\ncommission is attending to its business.\nThe one thing of supreme importance, however, suggested to me in Mr. Sturges'\npaper is the training of the normal-school student in the knowledge of children's books.\nThe normal school in Providence has no so-called \"library science\" course, but it\ndoes some very practical work. Early in the history of the junior class a visit is made\nto the public library. Guides are furnished and each department is visited, with special\nattention called to the aids in the Reference Library and the Children's Library which\nwould be helpful for these to-be teachers to know. Later the literature teacher discriminates between method in teaching English and a knowledge of children's books, with a\nheavy emphasis on the latter, which forces the students to use the children's library as\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nBOOKS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1009\n\na laboratory. In turn, stories which are folk-tales, fairy tales, myths, hero tales, symbolic\nand realistic tales are taken up by the pupils. Under folk-lore subdivisions are made as\nto sagas, drolls, cumulative stories, and marchen. The public library is forced to equip\na classroom with books which contain these stories, and to draw from its main collection,\nfolk-lore journals, etc., for the historic side. As the class progresses with each subject,\nnotice is sent ahead several days that material may be collected and ready for use. The\nstudents gain a valuable insight into children's literature, but the librarian notices that\nafter graduation the teacher who takes up the upper-grade work does not seem able to\nsuggest books for her pupils' reading. She knows well the fairy tales, a few hero stories,\nbut she has only a scrappy idea of the whole subject of children's literature. Were I a\nteacher of literature in a normal school, and knew of a librarian within traveling distance\nof my school who had made a study of children's literature, I would beguile her into coming before my class to give a talk on the history of children's literature, to cover the subject bro'kdly. Then I would announce to my class that a thesis would be due on a certain\ndistant date on this subject. That would force the public library to make a collection\nof books on the history of children's literature. In such a collection would be found\ncopies of a horn book, a battledore, a chap book, the New England Primer, and books\nsuch as Field's Forgotten Children's Books, and Moses' Children's Books and Reading (for\nits helpful chart), Edgeworth's books, some \"Sunday-school\" books, with a few of our\nbest and our worst modern children's books. If the student finds her subject other than\none full to the brim with interest, she had better abandon teaching. In this way a\nstandard of ideals is formed and the students know what characteristics in a book make\nfor a good or a poor book.\nThen I would have my class take up specific children's stories, folk-tales, hero tales,\netc., and the student will know where to place them.\nWe are trying to be eminently practical in our schools today. We admitted years\nago that what mattered was what a child loved when he finished school. We can teach\nhim to love certain studies, teach him to love to do the many little things that can be\ndone with the hands, teach him to love athletics, but all these things bear a small part\nin his after-life. The one thing which we can teach him which influences his whole life —\nwidens his vision and brings solace when sorrow, ill-health, and old age approach — is\nthe love of books. Teach your normal-school students to know children's books — it is\nof supreme importance.\nMary C. Richardson, teacher of physics and mathematics, State Normal School,\nCastine, Me. — Imagine two pictures: The first, a school with about two thousand books,\nunclassified, half of them scattered around in the assembly room, or on teachers' desks\nin recitation rooms; the other half, called the \"circulating library,\" locked up in cases\nand carefully protected by paper covers, open to the students twice a week, they getting\nno conception of what a real library means.\nThe second picture, the same library two years later; the two thousand books brought\ntogether in one room; a card catalog, open stacks, appropriate library furniture and\ndecorations; and most important of all, a room full of happy, quiet, industrious students.\nWhat has brought about this transformation ? I am glad to have the opportunity,\ntoday, of placing the credit where it belongs, and of showing how easily any ordinary\nteacher can do for her school what I have done for the Normal School of Castine, Me.\nThere must be inspiration, information, funds, and hard work. I, however, was only\nthe agent and instigator of the idea. The inspiration came from teaching a year in the\nGeneseo State Normal School with Miss Ida M. Mendenhall. She is devoted to the\nidea of instructing teachers in the use and knowledge of books, and has a sincere belief\nin the necessity for the work.\nThe information came from one hour's accidental, or shall I say providential, talk\nwith Mr. James I. Wyer, of the Albany Library School.\nA friend once said, \"AH that is\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nnecessary is a clear vision of what needs to be done, and a determination to do it.\" Mr.\nWyer gave me the clear vision, even to the exact number of cents needed. So clear and\ndefinite was it that, altho an hour before I had not conceived the idea of breaking away\nfrom old traditions for several years, I sat up till midnight that night composing the letter\nwhich brought within two weeks from the State Board of Trustees the ninety dollars\nneeded to organize our library. One thing more — a. month of honest, hard labor on my\npart with a trained librarian, for which I was paid in full by the pleasure and practical\nbenefit which I derived from it, and thus our library was organized.\nNaturally, now, students must be taught to use the card catalog intelligently. The\ncurriculum for Maine normal schools provides no such course. How then shall we meet\nthe problem?\nMy advanced algebra class, instead of reciting five periods a week, as has been customary, now does the same amount of work in four. The next question that arises is,\n\"If the class do the same amount of work in algebra, and spend time on their«library\nwork besides, aren't we taking time away from their other studies?\" What they learn\nin the library class saves them enough time in preparing their studies to more than compensate. The main trend of the ten lessons is learning to use library tools, including\nindexes, reference books, and bibliographies. This is important, but no more so than the\nincidental work carried on largely by suggestion. Spare moments at school are supposed\nto be used in getting a handhng knowledge of the best children's books. A few moments\nof each lesson are used in asking one or two students the following questions: \"What\nbook for children have you examined this week?\" \"Is it suitable for a boy or girl, or\nboth, and in what grade ? \" Another valuable result of this incidental work is the effect\non the general reading.\nThese ten lessons come at about the middle of the course, the third term, and this\nwould leave a weak point if it were not for co-operation. The value of a library course\nvaries directly with the square of the co-operation and inversely with the square root\nof the amount that is forced. At Castine nearly every department co-operates, and all\nis optional. For example, the reading teacher, about the first day, asks the entering\nclass to find what books of Holmes are in our library. When the lists come in the next\nday with gaps in them, the question comes up, \"How did you find out?\" Thus the\nacquaintance of card catalog is made. The teacher of agriculture has the class after\ntheir course in library methods is finished. One of the first lessons this spring was to\nfind all available material relative to horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, each student being\nassigned a special topic. The literature teacher, who has the graduating class, has made\nexcellent application of the course. While the classification of poetry was being studied,\nindividual problems were given which required the use of Granger's Index to Poetry.\nOne special topic assigned was, \"Find material in the library relating to Beowulf, including one magazine article referred to in Poole.\"\nIt is the function of the teacher to train the child, while the normal schools and colleges train the teacher. It is, then, the duty of every normal school and every college to\nsend its graduates out equipped with a knowledge of books and how to use them.\nF. D. BoYNTON, superintendent of schools, Ithaca, N.Y. — I wish to confine my\nremarks to a single phase of this problem. What can we, who are now in control of the\nchildren in our schools, do to direct intelligently their reading, while our successors are\nreceiving the excellent training so clearly outUned by Dr. Sturges and which we have\nnot had ?\nA large share of this responsibility of the immediate present rests with those who\nformulate courses of study. There was a time when reading consisted in training for a\ncertain mastery over words. While this mastery over words is absolutely essential\nand must be retained, the immediate use of the words mastered is of almost equal importance.\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE USE OF BOOKS\n\nAND\n\nTHE LIBRARY\n\nion\n\nA course of study in reading should consist of two parts: first, the getting of new\nwords, i.e., the enlargement of one's vocabulary; and second, the power to use these\nwords for the purpose of getting thought, or putting our vocabulary into immediate\nuse. By a course of well-selected supplementary readers, the child will have been brought\nwell into contact with the standard fairy tales, folk-lore, wonder stories, myths, hero tales,\netc., in addition to some of the best of general literature, by the time he finishes the sixth\nyear.\nLanguage work is but another form of reading in the elementary grades and should\nbe so used as to enrich the child's mind by the committing of choice memory gems and\nselections of permanent value, and by standard stories read or told to the class by both\nteachers and pupils. In this way, much may be done toward laying a strong foundation\nfor home reading in the grammar and high-school grades, and toward forming a correct\ntaste in the choice of things to be read.\nIn almost any locality, or in the near vicinity, it is possible to secure the services\nof someone interested and to a degree qualified to give the elementary instruction in the\nselection and use of books, which our present teachers have not had, as so clearly pointed\nout in the paper under discussion. Such help can be obtained without any material\nexpense by securing such persons to give a course of short lectures upon specific points,\nimmediately followed by laboratory exercises under the guidance of the speaker. While\nit may be admitted that such a course would necessarily be somewhat superficial, nevertheles itwould be along right lines and definite work of great value accomplished over a\nlimited field.\nThis done, the next step would be the actual selection of proper books for the child\nto read. The very greatest care is here needed. Splendid help can be had by writing\nto the Education Department of New York State asking for copies of the Elementary\nSyllabus and Handbook No. 25. The Boston, Pittsburg, and Buffalo public libraries\nissue catalogs containing children's books by grades. The Department of Education\nat Washington publishes a volume which may be had for the asking, and known as the\n\"A.L.A. Library.\" The New York State Library issues a circular of the five thousand\nbest books for a small library, and also an annual circular of the five hundred best books\nfor the year. Thus may we have for the asking the crystallized experience of ripe scholars\nand experts in the matter of the selection of proper books for children to read.\nWhere there are city or town public hbraries, much help can be obtained from these,\nand the problem is comparatively simple. Where there are no such facilities, funds for\nthe purchase of books and a proper case in which to keep them when not in use can be\nobtained by having pupils collect old papers, magazines, scrap iron, lead, rubber, etc.,\nand bring them to the school to be sold to junk dealers; by giving candy, ice-cream, and\npop-corn sales, school exhibitions, etc.; and interesting the parents in this particular\nphase of their children's education.\nIt is the nature of all young animals to act, and action is the first law of childhood.\nRestraint is the result of training. If a child is left to himself, he is bound to act. Nature\ncommands him to do so. If he has something interesting to do every hour he is awake,\nall his problems are solved. A child thus employed can easily enter the high school at\ntwelve years of age and graduate at sixteen, and still have plenty of time for all sorts of\nsports and games, for music and other forms of diversion and education without having\nspent an hour at home on school work before reaching the seventh year. I know this\ncan be done because I have worked such a program three separate times in my own\nfamily and it has worked in other families where the home can be led to co-operate with\nthe school. No child is naturally idle, and if left to himself may do much of what society\nhas decided to call evil, yet without the slightest trace of evil intent on his part. Our\ngreatest difficulty in dealing with children is that we judge them from the adult's plane\nof experience and read into the child's action what is not there. To illustrate: We\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": "I0I2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nteach a child to read, thus creating a new appetite, yet do not furnish him with the food\nto satisfy the new craving. In other words, he is left to his unguided fancy or to the\nsuggestions of his immature associates in the selection of material to meet this new\ndemand. Reading to the healthy mind is what food is to the strong body. All children\nread books outside of school hours. The all-important question is who is to select this\nmaterial.\nIt is clearly up to the teachers now in charge of our schools to furnish suitable reading\nfor our children to do outside of school hours, but I fully realize that the contract is a\nlarge one.\nHere is a partial list of the books read by one girl, fourteen years old, outside of her\nschool course:\nBetty Wales, Freshman, Warde.\nIn His Steps, Sheldon.\nDavid Harum, Wescott.\nSketch Book, Irving.\nLittle Men, Alcott.\nLittle Women, Alcott.\nJo's Boys, Alcott.\nUnder the Lilacs, Alcott.\nEight Cousins, Alcott.\nThe Last of the Mohicans, Cooper.\nThe Prairie, Cooper.\nThe Pathfinder, Cooper.\nRed Rover, Cooper.\nDeerslayer, Cooper.\nThe White Company, Doyle.\nConiston, Churchill.\nThe Crisis, Churchill.\nSeats of the Mighty, Parker.\nSelf Culture, Vol. I, Draper.\nRed Cap Adventures, Crockett.\nRed Cap Tales, Crockett.\nShiren and Her Friends, Stables.\nThe Heart of a Boy, Lee.\nTales from Shakespeare, Lamb.\nBa-Long-Long, Jenks.\nHomeric Stories, Hall.\nStories from Life, Marden.\nAdam Bede, Eliot.\nSilas Marner, Eliot\nDaniel Deronda, Ehot.\nThe Mill on the Floss, Eliot.\nTwice Told Tales, Hawthorne.\nHouse of the Seven Gables, Hawthorne.\nWonder Book, Hawthorne.\nDavid Copperfield, Dickens.\nOld Curiosity Shop, Dickens.\nPioneers\nMurray.of the Mississippi Valley, McOliver Twist, Dickens.\nPioneers on Land and Sea, McMurray.\nPickwick Papers, Dickens.\nTale of Two Cities, Dickens.\nWashington's Young Aids, Tomlinson.\nKenilworth, Scott.\nBoy Officers of 1812, Tomlinson.\nIvanhoe, Scott.\nIn the Wyoming Valley, Tomlinson.\nThe Pirate, Scott.\nThree Colonial Boys, Tomlinson.\nThree Young Continentals, Tomlinson.\nQuentin Diirward, Scott.\nTwo Young Patriots.\nFortunes of Nigel, Scott.\nThe Talisman, Scott.\nTwo Thousand Years Ago, Church.\nWoodstock, Scott.\nPaul Jones, Seawell.\nThe Toy Shop, Gerry.\nLady of the Lake, Scott.\nDaily Paper.\nMrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch, Hegan.\nLiterary Digest.\nStory of the New England Whalers, Spears.\nThe Fire Flies' Lovers, Griffis.\n, . Standard Monthly Magazines.\nTheChurch.\nFaery Queene for Boys and Girls, 'lim\n\nThe Bible, edition published by Century\nCo., read twice.\nAesop's Fables.\nArabian Nights.\nWonder Children, Welknap.\nAlice in Wonderland.\nAladdin and the Wonderful Lamp.\nThe Dog of Flanders.\nAndersen's Fairy Tales.\nThe King of the Golden River.\nLittle Colonel Stories, lo vols.\nLittle Pepper Series, 3 vols.\nHuckleberry Finn, Twain.\nThe Blue and the Gray, Oliver Optic. |\nHoosier School Boy, Edward Eggleston.\nSignal Boys, G. C. Eggleston.\nRobinson Crusoe.\nYoung Folks' Library, 19 vols., edited by\nThomas Bailey Aldrich.\nWild Animals I Have Known, Seton.\nLives of the Hunted, Seton.\nThe Tales of the Sand Hill Stag, Seton.\nThe Reveille, Van Dyke.\nThe Riding Passion, Van Dyke.\nThe Other Wise-Man, Van Dyke.\nThe Keeper of the Light, Van Dyke.\nThe Call of the Wild, London.\nWhite Fang, London.\nSeveral of the Henty Books.\nSeveral of the Alger books.\nTreasure Island, Stevenson.\nGreen Mountain Boys, Judge Thompson.\nThe Rangers, Judge Thompson.\nPioneers\nMurray. of the Rocky Mountains, Mc-\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nOF BOOKS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1013\n\nThe size of the task should not cause dismay. The opportunity is equally great.\nHelp for us in this work is at our doors awaiting our voice to speak it into life.\nRobert H. Beggs, principal pf Whittier School, Denver, Colo. — I heartily indorse\nall that has been said this morning of the value of books as tools. That teachers are\nentitled to a better t'raining in the use of these tools than they are now receiving admits of\nno question, and I am glad to learn that our normal schools are waking up to their responsibilities inthis direction. But before books can be used as tools to any great extent they\nare used, and largely used, as companions. The average grammar-school pupil reads\nmany books. They are his companions when he seems to be alone, and they are influencing his thoughts and feelings as do his companions on the playground or elsewhere.\nThat boy has not had \"a square deal\" who is allowed perfect freedom in his choice of his\nassociates. This we all concede, and must we not concede also that it is gross injustice\nto a boy to allow him to choose his own books ? Books furnish a large part of the child's\nintellectual and moral food; is it more wise to allow him to choose food for his mind\nthan food for his body? In the choice of food, appetite cannot be wholly ignored, nor\ncan taste be entirely disregarded in the choice of books. If we choose those beyond the\nchild's possible appreciation, he will choose for himself. We should select books that\nare a little better than he would choose for himself, but the standard should not be too\nhigh. His taste must be gradually improved, and it can be improved by giving him,\nnot the best, but the best he can appreciate.\nBut children of the same age differ widely in their literary tastes, hence a library for\nchildren must contain a wide range of books, and children should be guided in their\nchoice. This guidance is properly the work of the home, but when the home fails, as too\noften it does, it can best be done by the school. To do it effectively, the teacher must\nbe familiar with juvenile literature and with the special needs of each child in her class.\nThis means a heavy tax upon the teacher's time and energies, but if we mean what we\nsay when we reiterate that character-building is our chief purpose, our chief duty, we\nwill not shrink from the task because it is difficult.\nHorace G. Wadlin, Ubrarian of the Boston Public Library, Boston, Mass. — The\nknowledge of how to use books should be made of equal importance with the branches\nat present required in the schools, and training in imparting this knowledge should\nbe given in the normal schools. The work of Dr. Sturges in this direction is to be highly\ncommended, and it is encouraging that the example seeems hkely to be followed elsewhere. The printed book is today the chief source of knowledge and of inspiration,\nyet neither the method of using books as tools nor the love of literature as a source of\ninnocent enjoyment is imparted in the average school. The teachers do not regard\ninstruction of this kind as essential, since it is not required in the ordinary courses of\nstudy, nor is it demanded to fit pupils to pass an examination for promotion or for entrance\ninto the college, results to which, under present conditions, the energy of the teacher is\nmainly directed. There are individual teachers who love books and who know how much\ndepends upon the intelligent use of books by the pupil after he leaves the school. Such\nteachers exert incidentally a helpful influence. But the work now done is purely individual and without definite method. It must be put into the required curriculum by\nthose responsible for the courses of study, and not left to such incidental instruction as\na sympathetic teacher may here and there find time to give. This, it seems to me, lies\nat the root of the matter. Its importance must be recognized as an essential element\nin the enlargement of the pupil's life. Until this is done complete co-operation between\nthe schools and the libraries will not be possible; nor will those who come from the schools\nbe able to make the best use of the library collections now everywhere accessible.\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nROUND\nELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\nMRS.\n\nADELAIDE\n\nBOWLES\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTABLE\n\nCLASS REFERENCE\nMALTBY,\n\nNEW\n\n• [Library\n\nYORK\n\nWORK\nPUBLIC\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nNEW\n\nLIBRARIES\nYORK,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe idea of having classes go from schools to libraries, there to be taught how to\nuse books, is not a new one; nor is the object, since the object is simply education.\nWe are sometimes asked by teachers, \"What does the library get out of such work ? \"\nMr. A. E. Bostwick, of St. Louis, one of the foremost librarians of the country, describes\na modern public library as one which\nbelieves that it should find a reader for every book on its shelves and provide a book\nfor every reader in its community, and that it should in all cases bring book and reader\ntogether. .... Habitual use of a well-selected library before and during school education will reveal aptitudes in various directions and will enable the student, especially\nif he have good advisers, to control the amount and direction of his formal education\nwitH vastly more surety than otherwise.\nBriefly, the schools bear the burden of formal education, while libraries should lead\nin informal education. Schools are of necessity much given over to the mere acquisition of knowledge, but we all recognize the power which lies in enlightenment. If we\nbelieve what Plato tells us — that \"there is a resident power in children to assimilate the\npurest expression of truth,\"— we will co-operate heartily in the endeavor to give them\ncreations which are not subordinate to the lessons they are to convey — which combine\nthe artistic with the didactic. We will realize that it is essential to present facts in\npure literary form as well in history and science as in English.\nLiterature and especially imaginative literature is the exponent of the life of the\npeople and we must still go to it for our most intimate knowledge.\nI confess to an old-fashioned idea in classifying topics to be taught. Therefore I\nfeel at sea when a child of twelve years asks for a book on \"biology,\" until I discover\nhe wishes only to know about the growth of plant stems. Similarly — geography has\nalways been just geography to me, or travel — ^pleasant and informal — not science, but\nit gives me pleasure to introduce one who knows whereof he speaks, and that is, Dr.\nChadsey.\n___^_\nTHE USE OF THE PUBLIC\nCHARLES\n\nE.\n\nCHADSEY,\n\nLIBRARY FOR REFERENCE\nELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nPURPOSES\nDENVER,\n\nBY THE\n\nCOLO.\n\nThe steadily increasing interest on the part of librarians of the public libraries of our\ncountry in the public schools is highly encouraging to all public-school officials. Libraries\nare now striving in every way to make the public library as useful to the public schools as\npossible. No pains are being spared to develop an interest in the use of the library on the\npart of pupils. This is being secured thru the bringing of pupils to the libraries, the explaining to these visiting pupils of the library and its use, and in many cases the making of\narrangements between the Hbrarian and the schools by which branch libraries are established in the various school buildings, resulting in a greatly increased use of the hbrary.\nThe thought that a systematic use of the library for reference is practical, is of newer\napplication. Certain cities have already well-estabHshed systems of this sort. New York\nCity, for instance, has made arrangements by which at certain stated times, schools, as\nschools, visit the reference room of the library. The subject for investigation having\nbeen assigned some time before, the hbrarians have collected suitable matter, and the\npupils are put to work in an effort to- find in these books the desired material.\nAs the object of this work is to make the children famiHar with the use of the index,\nthe table of contents, and the other devices by which information can be easily obtained,\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUSE OF THE PUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\nIO15\n\nthe reference books are so arranged that not in all cases will the pupil immediately find\nthat which is desired. This difficulty immediately opens a way for the librarian in charge\nto assist the individual pupils, showing them the proper method of search.\nIt is reported that the results of this kind of work have been highly satisfactory.\nThe pupil learns the way to the library, learns how to use the library, and to a certain\nextent is acquiring the habit of using the library as a place for reference rather than\nmerely as a place from which story-books can be secured.\nIt is easy to see that the only limit to the usefulness of the library as a place of reference for elementary-school work is the capacity of the library itself and the time which\ncan be spared for this work by the teacher. I can see that both of these limits are real,\nbut before these limitations have been reached, there is great opportunity for effective\nwork. No private or school library can hope to have the material which can be secured\nin the library in such subjects as history, geography, English, and science. I can see\nan especially useful field for reference work in widening the usefulness of so-called nature\nstudy. There is now a well-defined protest against devoting much time to that nature\nstudy which has to do with the less important, and certainly, to the child, less interesting\nportions of the animal world. The stories of adventure, tales of travel which are found in\nall good libraries, furnish admirable opportunities for the child to become familiar with\nthe forms of life most interesting to him, but which he cannot hope to see at first hand.\nThe idea that all of our education must be attained at first hand has become exploded.\nThe library must always remain the great field for information concerning those things\nwhich at the present time are to the child unattainable. In a similar way reference\nlibraries can broaden and make more vitally interesting the work of the child in history,\ngeography, and English.\nUSES OF THE PUBLIC\nADELAIDE\n\nSTEELE\n\nLIBRARY IN THE TEACHING\nIN THE SCHOOLS\n\nBAYLOR,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOF HISTORY\nWABASH,\n\nIND.\n\nAt one time the library would have been of little use in the study of history, for\nthe latter was then regarded as the record of a mere succession of events in time, and\nthe textbook, with its chronological tables at the close of each chapter, was sufficient.\nBut since we have grown to appreciate that history means far more than mere events,\nthat it is life, and is teeming with people and their activities, the library is indispensable\nto a proper study of this subject. Aside from books on history itself, we find literature\nof every kind touching upon historical matters. Poetry, narrative, romance, drama,\nand a wealth of Hterary matter must be in constant use to make the study of history\nreal.\n, Indeed, the abundance of such materials is so vast that the real problem of the\n'history teacher is no longer where to find supplementary reading-matter, but how to\nsystematize and organize the great abundance at hand. And this systematizing, thus\nenabling the pupils to use selective judgment and know how, in a large library, to find\njust what is needed, will produce far more important results than the acquisition of the\nspecific information itself. For it is of much greater val\\ie to be able to locate needed\nmaterials, than to have stored away in memory a certain amount of information. Pupils\nknow too little about how to consult works of reference, and find materials that will\nclarify the history work.\nOne form of literature that is especially helpful in history study is that of letters\nand journals. These original materials bring the pupil close to the life of the past and\nlead him to picture social conditions, and to see events and questions from all sides,\nthereby making his patriotism one of understanding rather than imitation.\nThe librarian and teachers should be the best of friends. Outlines of the history\nwork for each grade should be in the hands of the librarian at the opening of the school\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioi6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nyear, that she may be ready to describe and recommend materials in the library to assist\nin the work.\nEach building may be furnished with lists of books that will supplement the history\nstudy, and give the teachers a basis from which to work in co-operation with the library.\nChildren may visit the Hbrary in groups, at stated times, for the purpose of instruction\nin consulting the books there, and the librarian may have stated times for talks in the\nschools to interest the pupils in available books and periodicals and give instruction\nas to the value of visiting the library and finding suitable material.\nOne great source for such work is that of biography, with which any ordinarily\nequipped hbrary would be plentifully supplied. The life and work of individuals appeal\nto children, who are naturally hero-worshippers, and about these they may cluster the\nimportant historical data.\nWith our enlarged school curriculum, the library is invaluable in all lines of work,\nbut especially in history does it need to be a constant resource, aiding both pupil and\nteacher to make vital the real and important things of this subject.\n\nI.\n\nMISS\n\nALICE\n\nM.\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nWITH\n\nJORDAN,\n\nLIBRARIAN,\nMASS.\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\nBOSTON\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nWhen,- as a grammar-school girl, I was studying what we vaguely called \"The Constitution,\" kind,\na\nwise relative presented me with the Manual of the General Court of\nMassachusetts, which proved to be a mine of information on many of the questions asked\nof an eighth-grade pupil in the study of civics. It was my first introduction to that species\nof invaluable reference books, an annual — an introduction which I have ever since been\nglad to make for other school children.\nNot in all homes is there the same possibility of obtaining ready reference books.\nThe public-school child of the present day must needs in many cases turn to the public\nlibrary, and to the school librarian for a clue to the sources of information.\nTo prove to ourselves that public libraries have already taken a place in the school\nlife of children, we need only observe the daily rush to the hbrary from schools which\nare in the neighborhood. If we stand near enough to the desk we may hear the varied\nappeals which greet the hbrarian. Note the many applications for a good piece to speak,\nfor material for a debate, for the countless well-worn topics, half a dozen children at a\ntime asking for something about cotton or coral, Christmas or George Washington.\nThese are the perennial requests which any assistant may dispose of in a few words.\nWhen the best-known books are in use she turns to her carefully prepared indexes or\nsends the child to do so.\n\"Where shall I find Chaucer's autograph?\" \"Please give me enough about 'The\nStar Spangled Banner' for a composition.\" \"Something about the girlhood of Queen\nWilhelmina.\" \"I want something on the debate 'Resolved: the pen is mightier than\nthe sword.' \" \"Where can I get a description of a baby in action?\" These, or similar\ndemands ranging as widely in scope, are usually in the day's work, of a school hbrarian\nwho has established her place in the community . In what way does she meet them ?\nIt is evident that the assistant who is required to keep in her mind the sources of information on widely diverse subjects is at a serious disadavantage unless she has both\nmethod and preparation. To systematize, then, the constantly recurring demands\nbecomes important for questioned and questioner alike.\nWith the aid of the printed course of study and constant commimication with the\nschools, as well as her own experience each year becoming richer, the library assistant\nis enabled to keep abreast of the more usual demands which come at regular seasons.\nBooks may be analyzed for material bearing upon school work, subject-indexes may be\nprepared and made accessible to teachers and pupils.\nNewspaper and magazine arti-\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUSE\n\nOF THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1017\n\ncles bearing upon those aspects of local history and government studied in the upper\ngrades should be preserved. When these clippings are mounted on manila sheets and\nfiled alphabetically they become a valuable addition to the reference collection and contain the latest in formation, usually unobtainable in book form. Schedules of the requirements of diflferent grades are often made, and successive years find the school librarian\nprepared to cope with the ordinary calls.\nEveryone who has had to do with children knows that when you are most sure of\nhaving made a point plain there is still danger of misunderstanding and failure to comprehend. To lessen as much as possible the confusion existing in a child's mind, the school\nlibrarian needs to have an understanding with the teacher. For an ideal scheme of\nco-operation the teacher will find it best to be herself familiar with what the library has\nto offer on recognized subjects, with the time-saving bibliographies and guides. Not\nonly for the lightening of her own tasks, but for the more intelligent guidance of her pupils\na teacher needs to handle books and not merely to know their names.\nFew school librarians can at a moment's notice provide material on the more complex and difficult topics which are occasionally given classes even in the elementary\nschools. Methods of reference work considered only by the librarian are at the best\none-sided and incomplete. The teacher who sends word either by telephone, postalcard, or note that the pupils are a week hence to discuss certain subjects which will require\ntheir consulting library books, earns the librarian's blessing. Ample notice is important\nif satisfactory work is to be done. The best books on some subjects are often far beyond\nthe comprehension of children. On other subjects the available material is unsuited to\ntheir reading. This is markedly true of subjects often chosen for debate, like that of\nChinese immigration, and the question: Resolved, that the negro has been better treate(5\nthan the Indian. If the child's gleanings at the library on these subjects are meager, does\nnot the fault lie in an unwise choice of question for debate ? At least, when after consideration itis still deemed wise to assign these problems, we may reasonably ask that the\nschool Hbrarian be given time for her preparation of books on reserve shelves.\nBut given the reference book, or shown its place on the shelf, the satisfactory result\nas an educational factor is by no means reached for many children. If you watch the\nsuccessful recipient of a book which will tell about cotton, you observe that he sits down\nand after looking over the contents, in the majority of cases, instead of the index, he\nstumbles upon his material by chance. Without reading this over, he immediately\nbegins to copy bhndly and laboriously, scarcely waiting to see how much material he has\nbefore him or separating important from unimportant statements. Here, then, is evidence of need of method in teaching children how to take notes on what they are reading,\nas well as how to find their proper material.\nAt the root of these library questions which a child is required to search out lies a\nwider-reaching, a more important object than the mere answer or the accumulation of\nfacts. The real end of all such work I take to be the teaching how to use books and the\nlibrary. Hence, tho it is so much quicker to find the book and show the page and indicate the material, it is incumbent upon us to do no such thing. Children are httle more\ninclined than other library users to depend upon a willing helper, and they are far easier\nto train in principles of self-dependence. A shelf of books may be indicated, titles may\nbe named, a pupil who has come to the library to \"look up\" a subject should be given\nevery facility to do so, but he should not have his work done for him. I think perhaps\nsome of our reference work with elementary schools has failed in the past for two reasons:\nfirst, that the bit of \"research,\" as it is sometimes called, was too difiicult for the child,\nand second, because the school librarian, forgetting the larger aim, has been too mindful\nof immediate results and the saving of present time. How to help himself, how to use\nan index, how to run down a subject and pick out the saUent points — what an amount of\ntime would ultimately be saved, how much desirable information gained, if a child could\nbut learn these things while still in the elementary school.\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioi8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nThe Boston Public Library has since 1902 given instruction to the elementary schools\non the use of the library. The grades selected for these lessons are the seventh and\neighth, which visit the Hbrary in groups of thirty or forty during school hours with their\nteacher. Instruction takes the form of a simple teaching exercise with questions by the\nchildren's hbrarian and answers by the pupils. It has been found that a lecture not\nenlivened by questions does not hold the attention of elementary-school children. A\nclass making its first visit is shown the arrangement and classification of books on the\nshelves and is then taught the significance of the parts of a book, the value of knowing\nwhat stands on a title-page — author, publisher, date — incidentally the meaning of the\ncopyright and the features of the book's make-up. The use of tables of contents and\ndififerent kinds of indexes, and the transition to the catalog as the index to the library\nfollows naturally. Catalog cards are distributed and the pupils learn that these contain\nthe information which is borne on a title-page, and hence that certain facts as to the age\nand scope of the book may be ascertained without seeing it.\nFor a first lesson this is quite as much as can be assimilated, and in my opinion it\nshould always be followed up by practice work assigned at school and intended to bring\nout the points discussed at the library.\nOn the second visit the class is instructed in the use of reference books, as this is the\nyear when grade children are given the most topical work for report at school. The\nsimpler reference books — the dictionary in its various parts, the International Encyclopedia, the Biographical Dictionary, and the gazetteer, the books of ready reference like\nLarned, and annuals hke the Statesman's Yearbook are among the usual examples discussed. Individual examination of the books follows, and pupils are asked to give their\n.method of procedure in looking up certain school topics, with the names of books they\nshould consult. After this, as after the first lesson, it is highly desirable that the class\nbe given definite practice work to fix the acquired information more firmly in mind.\nThere is one objection which has been made to such visits from schools — the danger\nthat children may look upon the library as a part of the school system and not as a place\nwhere they may find recreation. Such a danger is obviated if the school librarian makes\na point of relating a part of her instruction to the play interests or hobbies of the childrenI have found it feasible at the second lesson to ascertain from children their special interests and then to show them where they will find more about electricity or pigeons, or\neven baseball. Such a bait is suflacient to keep the boys, at least, from associating the\nlibrary with tasks alone.\nThis experience of using books, at first under supervision, afterward alone, makes\nall reference work done in the library a part of general education and develops in children an independence and resourcefulness of incalculable value in later study. That all\nthis is necessary at the library may imply a certain defect in the school system. But\nhowever that may be, the reference work which does not take into account the lasting\nvalue of acquaintance with books as tools, fails in its primary purpose.\nn.\n\nMRS. MARY\n\nE. S. ROOT, CHILDREN'S\n\nLIBRARIAN,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nPROVIDENCE,\n\nR.I.\n\nAt the IQ09 meeting of the American Library Association Mr. John Cotton Dana,\nin a statistical paper on \"Book-Using Skill in Higher Education,\" made the statement\n\"that pupils come to high school poor readers and ignorant of books.\" Mr. Sturges\nstated yesterday that normal school students did not know how to use a table of contents, which statements are food for thought, to a librarian who for years has been\nattempting to instruct grade pupils in the use of books.\nOur experience in Providence has been this. To the little child (and the primary\nschool child who knows the library at all, in a big city, is the one who lives near to\nit) a library represents just one thing — a place where he can find stories of fairies, princes,\nand princesses. He reaches the fourth or fifth grade, and as anniversaries occur, he is\nasked to go to the public hbrary for a book on Washington or Lincoln.\nThere begins\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nUSE OF THE PUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1019\n\nto dawn on his mind a new relationship which the library may bear to him. More and\nmore often, as his school life progresses, he has occasion to ask for books on definite subjects, but he cannot find that subject for himself. Some day, while still in his grammarschool life, he is a full-fledged young debater with a subject which demands the use of a\ngreat many different books. The attitude of the average child is this: If his subject is,\n\"Which is the Greater Man, Washington or Lincoln?\" and he has the Washington side,\nhe expects the library to supply him with one book, \" which has good points about Washington, and bad points about Lincoln,\" and if he is on the Lincoln side, a book with\n\"good points about Lincoln and bad points about Washington.\" The child has learned\nto turn to the library for help, but has utterly failed to develop his critical faculty in the\nchoice of his material, and leans in his use of books, with a sinking weight on the library\nattendant.\nMeanwhile, for its elementary-class reference work, the library is forced to create a\nsmall elementary reference library. With the changing of many books in the rush hours,\nfrom four to six, with teachers also needing much attention, the librarian, as the little\narmy of information-seekers swoops down on the library, is forced from the point of\neconomy of time, to find for a child, quickly, the subject desired — no time for explanation\nas to how to find it— and leaning on the Hbrary attendant is seemingly encouraged.\nYet, even if word has not been sent ahead by the teacher, the librarian quickly grasps\nthe fact that a class's topic is \"Rhode Island,\" and that the teacher has thoughtfully\ndivided the topic so that one group of children has the state's history; other groups,\nnative trees, minerals, etc.; others, famous Rhode Islanders; while Providence buildings, monuments, parks, streets, etc., are divided among the rest. She has the course\nof study; one year repeats another, and she must learn to handle children in masses, as\ndoes the teacher. So to her elementary-classroom collection, she adds for reference use\nonly, histories of Rhode Island, biographies of native Rhode Islanders, publications of\nthe educational department on the burning of the Gaspee, Roger Williams, Flag Day,\nArbor Day, park commission reports, newspaper clippings on city monuments, tablets,\nand streets. Old Home Week programs, together with photographs of the older city buildings, and photographic copies of the civil compact, and first charter. To these she refers the\nchildren.\nTo the problem of inducing eflaciency as to their use, the following method is\nadopted. Eight years ago each graduating class was invited to the library for a talk on\nthe use of reference books. After one year realizing that this talk was too precipitous,\ninvitations were sent to the seventh grade pupils to come, in class, for a talk on the makeup of a book. The next year the seventh grade was dropped and the sixth substituted\nbecause the Hbrary wished to get at the child earlier, and because the closing of the sixth\nyear meant the closing of school life for many. Now the practice for several years\nhas been that, as a part of the school curriculum, each sixth and eighth-grade class\nfrom every grammar school visits the library in turn, during school hours, accompanied\nby a teacher. To the sixth grade, the talk on the make-up of a book covers its process\nfrom the author's manuscript, down thru the hands of the pubhsher, printer, illustrator,\nand binder until it comes before the eyes — a book. Material to illustrate this talk\nis donated by printers and binders, and includes manuscripts, type in various points,\npaper of various kinds, including an 1865 newspaper and one a year old, four books in\nprocess of sewing and binding, — one being on a sewing bench made by a boy — bookcover cloth from the raw cotton to the finished product, and various samples of leather.\nA teacher commenting on the value of this talk says:\nA child's ideas about books in general are broadened, and respect for books as products of many kinds of technical skill is increased.\nThe first has a direct bearing on our subject, the second is a golden opportunity not\nto be neglected in this age of free textbooks where books as physical material receive scant\nconsideration.\nSo the librarian here kills three birds with one stone — shows the physi-\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 020\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Library\n\ncal make-up of a book, preaches without knowledge on the part of the child, on the text\n\"vandalism with books,\" and leads the child, thru the description of the illustrator's\nwork, to know some really worth-while story. \"How to make\" anything is appealing to\na child and the using of the Arabian Nights, illustrated by Maxfield Parrish, Robinson\nCrusoe and Pilgrim's Progress, illustrated by Rhead Brothers, Jeanne D'Arc, illustrated\nby Boutet de Monvel, or Swiss Family Robinson, illustrated by Arthur Rackham, has\nproved the story of how pictures are made, not only interests but kindles a desire on the\npart of the child to read the story. An explanation of the library card catalog is also\ngiven at this time.\nThe talk of reference books follows very much the same lines that Miss Jordan has\nexpFained, but illustrates the relation of these books, one to the other; one definite topic\nis carried down from book to book. When the subject of \"Aviation\" is introduced the\nclass is immediately alert. An encyclopaedia is turned to, with special emphasis made\nto the date on the title-page, for general information on the subject: the World Almanac\nfor the chronology of aviation up to igio; the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature,\nfor recent flights; and Who's Who in America for a brief description of the Wright brothers.\nIt is not unusual now as visits are made to the library by the normal-school students to hear the remark, \"I made my first visit to the library when I came with the\nclass in grammar school, for the talk on reference books.\" There has been a gap of five\nyears; was the talk worth while? Where the teacher is alive to the possibilities there\nare in using many books intelligently, \"Yes\"; where she is not, \"No,\" because the best\npart of the instruction, the daily using of the books, which should follow such a talk,\nmust be done with the teacher. A child, after a visit to the library with the class, writes\nquaintly to the children's librarian:\nWe thank you, dear Mrs. Blank,\nFor your interesting lecture;\nWhether sown on sterile or fertile mind,\nI cannot but conjecture.\nQuite unexpected precocity, yet the child has cut the Gordian knot. The fertility of\nthe soil is dependent on the gardener and the gardener is the teacher. The librarian can\noffer only the use of her land, and tools, and perhaps sow the seed. That is all. One\nof our teachers, a teacher with a vision, and there are many such, who fertilizes her soil\nwith Opportunity and tills it with Perseverance, writes as to what she sees in this instruction.\nI always notice a greater interest in information studies (geography and history)\nas a result of more intelligent use of reference books.\nThat is what we want to get at, a broadening of school study, so that a live throbbing interest is there, not mere rote to be learned.\nThe two weak points in our Providence work, seen from the librarian's side, seem to\nbe in the lower grades, and in the high schools. We need to bear in mind an earlier\nstatement that in Providence only those primary-school children who live near to it use\nthe library.\nLibraries should see that more books are available for primary-school use at the\nschools, for nursery rhymes and folk-tales are the heritage of every little child and in\nreading many he quickly masters the art of reading well. It would also be well if the\nprimary-school teacher could show each fourth-grade pupil the use of an index. Then\nwhen a child reaches the sixth grade, and makes his first visit to the librar>' with the\nclass, books are not strangers to him, and the librarian is given a background on which\nto work toward the highest efficiency possible in the use of elementary reference books.\nThe dang€r-line is reached at the high school. Our librarian visits each class in the\ngrammar grades just before graduation, to emphasize the wider service that the library\ncan be to a high-school student, and to try to guard against a falling-off in library inter-\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": null, "text": ")epartmeni]\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1 02 1\n\nests. The high-school life is so filled with new all-absorbing interests — track-meets, basket\nball, football, and baseball — that the whole scheme of life seems changed to the freshman\nin high school, and unless the teacher and hbrarian are very alert, the hbrary will drop\nmore and more into the background, and reading become almost an unknown quantity.\nThis is the time — instruction having been given— that the greatest skill in handling\nmany kinds of books, should be acquired.\nTo train a child so well in the elementary school, in the ability to find for himself\nwhat he needs in a book, to acquire skill in high school, that efficiency may be reached\nin the professional school so that leisure can be given for wider and wider reading, b\nthe ideal in training in book-using skill toward which this Hbrary is working.\nSeamus MtManus in one of his inimitable Irish folk-tales, \"Billy's Trip to the Moon,\"\nhas Billy traveling thru space, hanging to the leg of a goose. \"Now, Billy,\" says\ngoose, after he has induced Billy to entertain him with stories, \"you can let go.\"\n\" But I don't want to,\" says Billy, \" for Ireland is a long ways back, and sure I'll drop\nin the sea and be drowned-dead.\" \" Oh !\" says the goose, \" as\" you fall, Billy, just jump\na little bit to the left, and keep on jumping to the left, and maybe you'll strike Ireland.\"\nLet us not be geese and precipitate small Billies into reference rooms, trusting that they\nwill be at home there, for without perfect co-operation on the part of both librarian\nand teacher, and mental gymnastic work on the part of Billy, he will sure \"drop into\nthe sea and be drowned-dead.\"\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Maltby. — In New York it is not required by the schools that classes shall\nvisit the libraries as a part of their school work. In cases where visits have been made\nthey have been the outgrowth of the principal's desire and the hbrarian's wiUingness,\nor the librarian's desire and the principal's willingness. At the Tompkins Square Branch\nof the New York Public Library we have tried a \"method\" which seems to bring satisfactory results to all concerned. Topics for study are assigned and outlines made by\nteachers. These outlines, with a note as to grade, number in class, and whether boys or\ngirls, are sent to the librarian by the principal. If we find, after carefully considering\nour collection of books on the designated topics, that the subject-matter in books available is not suited to the intelligence of the class — is too difiicult or insuflScient — we confer with principal and teacher, reporting just what material we have and often by a\nmodification of topic or subdivision thereof we arrive at a practical solution. The points\nconsidered most important in this selection of books are that we have books that are\ninteresting to the children, well-written and authoritative. If masterpieces of literature\nbear on the topic, they are naturally used as foundation material.\nThe classes come with their teacher for an hour's study at eleven a.m. and at two\nP.M. Those hours are chosen as best from the school side for several reasons, especially\nbecause the children can be dismissed from the library, thus relieving the teacher of the\nresponsibility of more than once taking them thru the streets. From the library point\nof view, they are chosen mainly because during the regular after-school rush we could\nnot give the class the proper attention. Each class numbers from forty to fifty and\nfrequently we have two at once, the limit to the number being fixed by the size of our\nroom, the possible supply of good books, and the nmnber of our staff. We prepare for\none topic a week, but manage so that at least two and at most four classes shall use the\nmaterial thus gathered. If two or four grades in one school are not ready for the topic,\nclasses come from another school. The work is planned for the upper grades, mainly\nbecause the library cannot yet find time to serve all grades in all schools in its district.\nThe Children's Room at Tompkins Square is the fortunate possessor of a collection\nof dolls dressed in the characteristic costumes of fifteen different countries, and these\nmake live many otherwise dull topics. Let us take Holland as the geographical\ntopic to be studied.\nBefore the class arrives we arrange the books as attractively as may\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": null, "text": "I022\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nbe on the tables at which the children will sit, opening the books to any particularly\ninteresting or typical illustration. The Dutch dolls, a boy and a girl in peasant costume,\nof course with the sabots, are where they will pique curiosity. A costume, the holiday\nattire of a live girl, is also at hand, as well as Anita Leroy's pictures of Dutch fisher-folk.\nEach book has one place marked where desirable information may be found. This\nbecause we realize that given a school study-period we must show definite results. Very\nshortly after the class is settled at work, a child here and there shows plainly the need of\nhelp. That is the signal for the library assistants, who are already familiar with the\nbooks, to go to the child and show him how to solve the difficulty by using the index or\ntable of contents. The assistant may begin by showing only one child but if she is the\nright kind of assistant, long before she ends she will have the interest and attention of all\nat the table. So no child escapes being told — to be sure, informally, but results show\nnone the less effectively — how to use an index or, better yet, a book.\nSOME\n\nRESULTS\n\nOF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CLASS\nPUBLIC LIBRARIES\n\nREFERENCE\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nMartha B. Bayles, assistant principal. Public School 15, New York, N.Y. — To\nappreciate fully the results of co-operation of the school and the library on the lower\neast side of New York City you must know the children. They are chiefly Jews, either\nforeign-bom or of foreign parentage, familiar to all thru Myra Kelly's stories. In many\ncases little English is spoken at home and often we wish there were none, for the mistakes\nmade are hard to overcome. If you say, *'Izzy, why were you late?\" you will probably\nhear, \"I had what to eat,\" or \"I was by my aunt's last night and stood up too late\"; or\nwhen you inquire of a fourteen-year-old girl what she intends to do when she gets her\nemployment certificate, she may reply that she is going to work \"by collars and cuffs,\"\nor \"by shirt-waists.\" But when you hear from a neighboring tenement, \"Solly, Solly,\ncome to dinner quick! Mother's on the table and Father's half eat!\" you are almost in\ndespair. But as the children are eager to learn, the \"charm of the impossible\" lures\nboth teacher and pupils to high attainment. And one of the strongest factors in the work\nis the public library.\nWe are trying to carry out Dr. M Murry's ideas on how to study. Heretofore to\nthe majority of students studying and memorizing have been synonymous terms, but in\nhis new gospel of study, thinking is fundamental and power of initiative a necessary outcome. For instance, a pupil never goes to the library, under the teacher's guidance, without a specific aim. One of our readers contains an excerpt from The Dog of Flanders.\nWhat does happen to Petrasche ? How can we find out ? Why, get the whole story from\nthe library. Accordingly one girl is appointed to get the book, from which she reads\nselected portions the next day. When \"March Pranks\" was the subject of composition,\nseven volumes of poetry were brought to school by boys of eleven and twelve, all eager\nto read about the windy month. You will not be surprised to find that the members of\nour \"City History Club\" indulge in such books as The Spirit of yd, Life of Washington,\nAmerican Patriotism, and How the United States Became a Nation.\nI remember once telling a class that they could have a masquerade as a geography\nreview of Europe if they would find out what costumes should be worn by the different\ncharacters and what each should say. As there were no character dolls in those days,\nI suggested that they consult Carpenter's Europe. There was a raid on the library that\nafternoon, but alas! only one copy was to be had. However, twenty more were kindly\nborrowed by the librarian, my girls being the happy possessors of them all. No books\nwere ever more diligently conned and soon every spare minute in school and out was\nspent in making caps and bodices, kilt skirts and plain ones. Sewing was a secondary\nresult. Excitement ran high and all agreed they would never forget Europe. How\nwell the library dovetails with the school in training toward specific aims!\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUSE\n\nOF THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1023\n\nThen supplementing the text as a second point in hotv to study. After has a subject\nbeen discussed it is often found that it needs further illumination which only the library\ncan give. One class has been keeping a diary as if each were taking a trip abroad. Every\nbook on the subject that they can get they have referred to, the result being very realistic notes. To quote:\nApril 3, 1910, Rome: Last night we arrived at Rome. We were so tired that we\nwent straight to bed. This morning we could scarcely wait to eat our breakfast to see\nthe glories of Rome. While we were eating, the paper was brought to us and it said that\nColonel Roosevelt is here and that he arrived the same night as we did. The paper also\nstated that he is to give a reception to all the Americans in Rome. How glad we are that\nwe are here. Soon after breakfast we started out to see the city. This is a wonderful\nold city, this Rome built on the Tiber on seven hills, etc., etc.\n\nThis child has a feeling for the things she is seeing in imagination, which many a tourist\nfails to get. How did she get it ? The school plus the library.\nAs Mrs. Miltby has told you, once a term our upper classes go to the library while\nschool is in session. This is especially advantageous, because it arouses the interest of\nthe children who are not members. No work that we do is more thoughtfully planned.\nEach teacher selects her subject and sends an outline of it to the librarian to ascertain\nwhether suitable books are available. Her choice depends upon the needs of her class,\nit often being a summary of work done in school, as a review of South America, its productions, people, commerce, etc., or the study of an artist and his pictures, as Millet and\nhis masterpieces; but whatever it may be, success depends upon careful preparation\nbeforehand and much conversation afterward, all of which is crystallized in composition,\nA recent study of the peasants of Europe by means of the dolls at Tompkins Square\nLibrary has brought forth some very interesting results. The whole class went to the\nlibrary for an hour one morning. While there, some wrote descriptions, while others\nroughly sketched the dolls, filling in with color afterward. A week later these girls had\nan impromptu dramatization, each girl wearing something significant of the character\nshe represented, if only a Dutch cap or a black bodice, to suggest her nationality. To\nadd to her dress, several articles such as a Spanish lace scarf, an Irish lace collar, and a\nScotch plaid muffler were loaned to anyone who realized her need. Each in turn stood in\nthe front of the room and told her story without mentioning the country to which she\nbelonged. The others were to guess. One dark -haired child with large brown eyes, in\na bright yellow skirt, a black bolero trimmed with yellow, which she had made herself,\nand a pale blue veil, draped artistically over her head, rather puzzled the children by\nthe information she gave, so they questioned her. \"Are the people of your country well\neducated? Mention some of your products.\" Then, not quite certain yet, \"Did your\nking attend the funeral of King Edward ? Is his name Alfonso ? \" Descriptions of the\nvarious peasants were then written by all. But perhaps the last bit of work was the\nmost interesting. The Swedish girl being a favorite the pupils were taught that charming folk-dance, \"Reap the Flax.\" They then told how they danced it. This one hour\nat the library not only supplemented the geography but was productive of three kinds\nof ccynposition — dramatization, description, and exposition.\nNotice the effect upon the English. After appreciative study of Sidney Lanier's\n\"Song of the Chattahoochie\" in a 6-B grade, the subject chosen for reference work at\nthe library was the Rhine, its castles and legends, its great cities and charming villages,\nwith all its teeming life from the mountains to the sea, for the purpose of writing \"The\nSong of the Rhine.\" Keener appreciation of that river I have never seen. One boy\nwrote, \"Out of the hills of Switzerland, down the valleys of Germany, I hurry out of my\nrising-place to reach the swampy lands of Holland.\" Another, \"Oh! the odor of the\ngrapes seems to stop me.\"\nAnd a third,\nOnce there lived a cruel man called Bishop Hatto, who when there was a great famine\nin the country did this — he sent out word that all the people who would come he would\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": null, "text": "I024\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ngive them some grain, so the next day the people came and assembled in his large barn,\nbut not waiting to hear more I rush on to make up for lost time till I come to the flat\nlands where large boats full of vegetables and others full of beautiful flowers flow on my\nbosom and taking them into the ocean I leave them to get lost in the sea of water.\nBesides supplementing the textbooks, the best of which are but fragmentary, from\nthe books and pictures at the library the pupils have gained a lasting interest in the\nRhine River. It is more than a crooked line on the map. More than that the impression\nmade is so deep that expression is inevitable. When you remember that these children\nare foreigners, is not the English remarkable ?\nTo show you that this art of studying may be still further developed by the hearty\nco-operation of a clever teacher with a sympathetic Ubrarian, let me tell you what happened last year. At No, 15 we offered prizes for the best compositions on Lincoln. You\nmay be sure the library was well patronized. A Russian girl, not more than twelve,\nhaving been in the country but two and a half years, read three biographies, Lang's,\nChurch's, and Binn's, as well as The Perfect Tribute and The Toy Shop, and then wrote the\nfollowing. (Note her organization of material and her assimilation of ideas, two more\nstrong points in the art of study) :\n\"In God we trust,\" was apparently Lincoln's motto. The following story will show\nhow he put his trust in Almighty God and wished to be guided by Him.\nThe dark heavy curtains of the war seemed to be lifting, and peace and sunshine\nwere descending upon the land. It was just after the final battle, when the North had\nachieved her great victory, that a friend of the President's asked, \"What will you do\nif the South refuses to join the Union, after all the fighting, if she insists upon being a\nseparate country?\" \"My dear friend,\" said Lincoln, \"that reminds me of a story I\nheard when I was yet a young man. A clergyman, who was going into another town to\nperform funeral services, was informed that he had to cross the Fox River. 'It is very\ndangerous,' his devoted people warned him, 'and many are the people that have lost\ntheir lives there.' The clergyman replied cheerfully, 'My dear people, I am not near the\nFox River, and when I shall come there I shall trust in God and He will show me a way\nto cross.' \" And Lincoln added, \"I shall say the same to you, my friend. As yet the\nSouth has not said that she does not wish to come back to the Union, and if she should\nsay so, we would trust in God as the captain trusts the pilot, to show us the way out of\nthe trouble.\"\nIt is night. The President and his wife are sitting before the curtain in a theater.\nHe is evidently very much absorbed in the scene for he does not notice an unusual sound\nvery near to where he is sitting. Very slowly and cautiously a figure glides out of a recess\nand moves serpent-like toward the President. A pistol report is heard thru the room.\nA man jumps from the theater to the stage, and all becomes confusion. \"The President\nis shot! The President is shot!\" is heard everywhere, followed by crying, sobbing, running, and screaming. But that will not bring the President back to life and consciousness\nagain; he is dead! Shot by a villain's hand, but he died a noble deatK. He had crossed\nthe Fox River with its turbulent waters, crossed from the land of darkness into the land\nof peace and eternity. So end our lives, hopes, and ambitions. This man who loved\npeace had war all the time, and just when the dark curtains were withdrawn, he too was\nsnatched away.\nHow many of us would have thought of connecting the Fox River with the death of\nLincoln. This ability to select the most valuable thought from the printed page is illustrated by the following: In writing about \"Spring in the City,\" one pupil spoke of its\n\"subtle charm.\" As the phrase had not been used in class, the teacher asked where\nshe had gotten it. She replied that it had sort of dropped down when she was writing.\nUpon further inquiry it was found that she read many library books and always reread\nthe parts she liked best. Is here any doubt that this little girl is learning to discriminate\nbetween gold and dross?\nWhile illustrating this point still further, let me call your attention to the fact that\nthe library work benefits the teacher as well as the pupil. Our seventh-year classes were\nasked to write a description of the dawn. One good, but matter-of-fact instructor, acknowledging that she had never seen the sunrise, naturally thought the topic quite beyond the\npupils of the east side, and that \"Pushcarts\" would be a far more appropriate subject.\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nUSE OF THE PUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1025\n\nHowever, wishing to do her best, she recommended early rising and visits to'the library.\nThen she herself spent several hours at the Tompkins Square Branch looking up references. Such study of Guido Reni's \"Aurora\" and the beautiful myth which inspired\nthe artist! Such culling from Tennyson, Dryden, Keats, and Browning! And no one\nwas more surprised at the result than the teacher herself. One girl wrote,\nHave you ever seen dawn ? If not, very early in the morning open your window\ntoward the Orient and the dawn will rise from its ocean bed and peep in. [Notice her\nlast paragraph.] Dawn is far more beautiful than sunset. After sunset has gone we\nhave left behind us the dark night. But dawn to many means the turning over of a fresh\nleaf of the book of life. For those who had sorrow the day before, the dawn brings gladness. For those that were joyful their joy is reborn with the dawn.\n0 Promise new!\nO joy reborn!\nas the poet said. May I quote from one more ?\nTHE\n\nDAWN\n\nAnother day is winging\nOut from the nest of night,\nA soft light breeze wafts the mists of the night over the mountains, then sighing goes away.\nAurora, the beautiful goddess of dawn, peeps out and the clouds blush a rosy red when\nshe smiles on them. Then Aurora picks the most beautiful flowers and makes them into\nwreaths, and she calls her maidens and she, leading the way, throws open the golden gates\nof Apollo, the sun-god's palace in the far east, and followed by them she scatters broadcast\nwith a bountiful hand the fragrant blossoms on the path along which the sun-chariot\ntravels when it first starts on its long journey. The rosy-hued maiden trips along,\nleaving a trailing path of exhaUng perfume.\nThen comes Apollo in his stately chariot. As he passes through the gates, the clouds,\neager to do him homage, array themselves, some in rosy pink, some in soft pale gold,\nsome in pure white, while others in blue, pale blue — heaven's own blue. The birds then\nawake and welcome him with their matin songs which they trill forth into the early morning stillness. The httle brook sparkles when the great wheel of the chariot begins to roll,\nand sends up a gurgle of thanks to the sun. Then comes the wind sighing through the\ntrees and he seems to say in a low soft voice:\nDawn is here.\nMorn is coming!\nThe author of this description lives in a dirty little meat shop and her parents speak\nvery broken English. Truly the spiritual is growing up thru the common. History,\ngeography, composition — dull, uninteresting? Not a bit of it! The library has joined\nhands with the school and thus has made its benign influence felt among the lowest.\nEven the mental defectives have come under the spell. A girl of this type finding\na new picture on the wall as she entered the classroom one morning, exclaimed, \"O, Miss\nM\n, I saw that picture in the library! Only this is more beautiful.\nIt is bigger.\"\nAnd a boy of fourteen who was making vain attempts to master the primer used to bring\nvolumes of philosophy, history, and psychology to school insisting that his teacher read\naloud from each.\nOne child in answer to \"What did you enjoy most?\" in the hour spent by the class\nat the library and \"Why?\" replied, \"A beautiful picture of the people of Argentina\nbecause I thought I was there now.\" Another Uked the hospitality shown them. To\nquote, \"They told us everything we wanted to know and they gave us all the books they\ncould think of.\"\nMiss McCloskey, of Newark, tells of a serious mite of six who asked for a library\ncard. \" Why do you want it ? \" inquired the librarian. \"I want a book, \" was the laconic\nanswer. \"Well, what book ? \" \" The Ugly Lkickling. I want to see if it is like the one\nI read in school.\" The library is simply another and delightful school where our little\nfolks find in new form the fascinating tales they have learned to love in the classroom.\nTo teach children how to study, to make dry, juiceless facts alive with interest, so to\nnourish the mind with the best ovu: wonderful language affords that beautiful English\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "I026\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nfull of poetic ideas is the inevitable outcome — these are great results; but to create a love\nfor the library, not for its books alone, but for its pictures and its wholesome and refining\natmosphere — this is indeed worth while, and it can be done efiiciently onty when the\nschool co-operates heartily with the library.\n\nTHE\nCHARLES\n\nH. JUDD, HEAD\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY^\n\nOF DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION,\nOF CHICAGO,\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIt gives me great pleasure to appear before this gathering as the representative ofthe National Education Association. I do not know what\nqualifications are ordinarily sought in such a representative, but I judge\nthat two are at least permitted. First, one must be unable to attend the\nmeetings of the National Education Association itself, because it is so far\naway; and second, one must be supplied with a liberal lack of knowledge\nof library science. Whatever the qualifications of the representative it is\nan easy task to say to the Library Association that there is a close bond of\nconnection and sympathy between the two associations. We who teach\ncannot do the work of the schools without recognizing our dependence on\nthe work that is being done in the community by the library; and I venture\nto assume that you feel the reciprocal relations yourselves and recognize\nthe importance of a good school in a city where you conduct a good library.\nIf I make an effort to comment in any wise upon Ubrary matters I\nshall have to confine myself to those aspects of library work which have to\ndo directly with school organization. I am not competent to speak on\nyour larger problems of the library and the community. But certain it\nis that we are developing within the schools themselves more work of the\ntype in which you are interested.\nThere are two general lines of discussion and interest which it seems to\nme proper for one who is interested primarily in the school to present to those\nof you who are interested primarily in libraries. First, let me say that\nwe are coming to see that the study period in the school is more and more\nthe place where the kind of work that you do in the libraries can very\nproperly be introduced and enlarged. All of you know from your own\npersonal experiences as students if not from your experiences as teachers —\nand I am sure many of you have had this latter form of experience — that\nthe period when students are supposed to study has heretofore been a period\nwhen they have been separated from everything except a single textbook\nor possibly the small supply of books that they could have in their desks,\nand then they have been called upon to be extremely quiet while they studied.\nThey have been called upon to obey^the directions of someone in charge\nof the study room and the function of that person in charge of the study\nroom has been a rather trying function ; it has been the function of keeping\n'Address before the American Library Association, July 2, igio, at Mackinac Island, Mich., as official\nrepresentative of the Library Department of the National Education Association.\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1027\n\norder in the room, not the function of contributing in any lively way to the\nactual educational progress of the school. The study-room period has\nbeen a time when the teacher has been allowed to catch up with her reports\nor to catch up with some needed work and perhaps at times to catch up\nwith- her personal correspondence. At all events, it has been an occasion\nwhen the intellectual contact between the school and the children has been\nsomewhat curtailed and the school is not supposed to be wholly responsible\nfor anything except order. It has been a partial substitute for home\nstudy, the assumption being that the home study would not be done so\nvigorously because nobody at home would be delegated to watch with\nequal care over the reluctant studier. Today we are modifying all this and\nmany of us are interested in seeing it further modified. I am sure that\nit is appropriate for me to enUst if I can the sympathies of this association\nfor the modification of that sort of a study hour in the schools. I think\nthe ideal study hour is a study hour in a room filled with books exactly\nas any reference Hbrary is filled with books. I think the kind of order\nwhich should prevail in that room is the kind of order that prevails in any\nwell-organized library; the student should have the opportunity to leave\nhis individual desk and refer to the books which give him enlarged information; he ought indeed to be encouraged to leave his own desk with its meager\nsupply of books and he ought to go from shelf to shelf within any limits\nof reasonable attack upon the subject in hand. It seems to me there is\nthe finest kind of an opportunity for training of a type of study that is not\ncommon in the individual recitation room. As a matter of fact we are\ndoing more and more of this sort of thing in the individual recitation room;\nwe are asking children to bring into the elementary schools and we are\nasking the older students to bring into their high-school classes reports of\nwhat they have looked up in the libraries, and we are encouraging them\nto go in a larger way to the shelves ; but if we could give them definite training\nin how to do this, if we could have the teacher who goes about the study\nroom engaged not merely in keeping order but in helping the students to\nrefer to books, giving them a kind of training which we all of us recommend\nas important, giving them a kind of training for which heretofore no individual officer of the school has been set apart, — I say if we could make\nthese study periods genuine periods of training in the use of books, in the\nuse of a Ubrary, it seems to me we should add, without encumbering the\ncourse of study, a very important Hne of training. We should thus reduce\nwatching and keeping order to their proper place of minor importance\nand elevate to its proper place of major importance the function of using\nmany books. In other words, we should carry over, if you please, a portion\nof your domain into our domain. We should not only have the schools\nmade the depositories for the books from the public library, but we should\nhave the study period itself transformed into a period of library study or\ntraining in library methods.\n\n"}
{"page": 1044, "printed_page": null, "text": "I028\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nIf this transformation of the study period seems as important to you\nas it does to me, let me urge upon you the responsibility for contributing\nto this movement. We cannot work this out merely from the side of the\nschools; we must have the co-operation of the technical librarian who\ncomes into the school with an idea that is perhaps speciaHzed, perhaps\ndifferent from the ideas of the ordinary teacher who is acquainted with\nthe ordinary study period. We must have the contribution, from the\nside of the hbrarian, of enthusiasm for this kind of work. We have such\na study room as this in one of the schools with which I am connected. It\nwas suggested by our librarian and is being worked out with her co-operation, and we regard it as one of our most progressive lines of organization.\nPerhaps you cannot bring about the change suddenly, but you could\neasily begin to introduce it on a small scale, especially if you are situated\nnear the schools or if you have branches in any of the schools. You might\nvery properly encourage the school authorities themselves to delegate to\nyou the authority to conduct one of these study periods. I know you\nare busy like the rest of us, and just as soon as I make the proposition that\nyou take over this new task I have no doubt that my suggestion will be\nreceived with enthusiasm by school authorities and with corresponding\nreserve by librarians. My function, however, is to represent the school\nauthorities. I see, therefore, very clearly how you might make a beginning\nin some such fashion as this: you might make the proposition that you\nwould take care each day of ten such students for one or two periods.\nTen students, you know, are very simple to handle. Students get difficult\nto handle only when there are fifty of them together and then the accumulated momentum of fifty devices for making a disturbance is so great that\nyou have a disciplinary problem; but the accumulated momentum of ten\ndevices for making a disturbance is relatively very small and any ablebodied librarian, with sufficient self-assurance, can put a check to those\nten devices without great difficulty. I should say that it might be well\nfor you to get the school authorities to arrange the program. You can make\nyour period with them very attractive to the children. Suppose you get the\nschool authorities to make the program on a given afternoon that the children should be deliberately let out of a certain school to the number of ten\nand be allowed to go to the library. Of course children go to the libraries\nnow, but let us arrange this as a deliberate substitute for the old-fashioned\nstudy period and let us make this new study period an opportunity for\ntraining in the methods of the use of books. If we do this I feel sure we\nshall bring together our two institutions in a very productive fashion.\nThere is another line of interest which I am here to suggest to you. We\ncannot co-operate intelligently unless we recognize some differentiation of\nour functions. I do not think it is at all fair to say that the school and\nthe library are doing the same thing. We differ in the first place in the\nfact that you reach a very much larger community than we can reach in\n\n"}
{"page": 1045, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1029\n\nany given year;\" you reach an older and maturer reading constituency\nand thereby your function is differentiated from ours in the school. There\nis another way in which your function differs from ours. Perhaps you have\nthought this out more clearly than I, perhaps I am bringing coals to Newcastle in suggesting it— but it has always impressed me that you have\nthe advantage of us who teach in the schools in the fact that you use books\nas wholes and we use books in very small sections. Have you ever been\nimpressed with the fact that when a book is used by a class in a school it\ntakes a year or half a year to read it, and students get notions about the\ndifficulty of going thru a book which are altogether distorted ? They get\nthe idea that a book must be read in small doses; that when you have\nfinished up one reading you should set that particular reading entirely aside,\nput it out of your mind as soon as possible so as not to be impeded by any\nmemory which you many have accumulated out of that small section as\nyou pass on to the next. If we have bad habits of this kind in the schools\nyou who work in libraries see the opposite vice. You see people who\ncome in and read a book in fifteen or twenty minutes. Furthermore,\nyou have people among your readers who are mature enough and well\ntrained enough to make rapid reading of a book a virtue. They know how\nto select. They read the book at the important point and then decide\nwhether they should read the other parts of the book. The art of rapid\nuse of books is one of the arts which we have been learning in the schools\nvery gradually. We are just beginning to see that children can be\ntaught to deal with books as wholes, that they can take up books, not\nthose that we use merely as textbooks, not those that are marked off by\nheavy headlines so as to impede progress, but all books containing relevant\nmatter. Children should learn that some books are made for rapid use.\nMany books ought to be looked over and a large part of the contents, for\nthe moment at any rate, neglected or even discarded. That is, the use\nof a book as a whole for the purpose of extracting from it some information\nor for the purpose of getting a broad general view is just as legitimate as the\ndull grinding over a textbook. We can change the attitude of the next\ngeneration toward books, provided we can have some help, and the help\nwhich we ought to have, you are in a position to give us. If you would\nhelp these students when they come to you to pick out those portions of a\nbook which are of advantage and if you would make it your business, or\nif you would encourage the teachers in the schools with which you are\nconnected to make it the business of those schools in co-operation with you,\nto help children to learn the methods of using whole books and extracting the\nvaluable part from books, then we should have a very large addition to our\npedagogical machinery. You know what I mean . You ought to have special\ncard catalogs, it seems to me, prepared by teachers. and by yourselves which\nwill refer in detail to a number of different books citing chapter and verse,\nhelping out a faulty index, or supplementing a good table of contents.\n\n"}
{"page": 1046, "printed_page": null, "text": "I030\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nAgain, I realize that I am unloading on the Library Association a duty,\nwhich if your representative were speaking this morning before the National\nEducation Association, he would be unloading on the teacher. Such preaching of new duties is, however, the privilege of a prophet who is far away from\nhis home constituency and in the presence of others who have nothing to\ndo but spend their time on beautiful islands holding conventions. To\ncharge you with any remissness in your duties is certainly not my function\nthis morning, but think of the great catalogs that might have been made\nup this morning if this whole body had set itself about the business of telling\nwhere all of the information could be had about certain phases of fifthgrade geography or history! The trouble with the children when we turn\nthem loose in a general library is that they have not the machinery for the\nuse of that library; and then — frankly apologizing for that great body\nwhich I represent and which is absent today — many of us who teach have\nnot the machinery inside of ourselves, if we wanted to give it to the children.\nA library is very formidable to a newcomer. Even the material equipment\nimpedes one's progress. I have long wished for an opportunity to tell the\nmakers of card catalogs that they ought to invent an automatic device\nfor turning cards, expecially where there are one hundred and fifty on\nthe same subject. Your spiritual equipment I have never doubted, but\nyour material equipment is very difficult to handle and it gets more and\nmore difficult when you offer it to a child in the grades. When you see\nsomebody who is just four feet high confronting a bureau of information that\nis six feet high, with the top drawers of A's just out of reach, you can realize\nhow that saps the enthusiasm for the use of a library as a source of material\nrelated to fourth-grade geography. What we need is material worked over\nin such a way that pupils will be encouraged from the beginning to reahze\nthat the book which is given to them in the classroom is nothing more nor\nless than a sample and very frequently a meager sample, a sample that\nraises a great many questions and answers very few. He ought to learn\nthat if the questions thus raised are to be answered they must be answered\nin the larger book shelves accessible in the libraries. Our duty, and if I\nmay venture to preach, your duty, is to make that path, especially for the\nearly students, very much smoother than it is at the present moment.\nFor my own part I am not at all persuaded that the path hasn't got to be\nworked out in very much greater detail even for older students. Parents\ncome to us in our schools very frequently asking for lists of books that\nshould be read, lists of books that shall be specifically appropriate to the\nneeds of the boy and the girl in the sixth, seventh, and the eighth grade.\nThis kind of specific preparation of a library to introduce the student to\nwhole books without throwing the whole library at him; to give him the\nmachinery by which he. shall be able to extract certain portions of your\nshelved wisdom; to encourage him little by Uttle to expand upon the way\nin which we use the books in the school — that is someone's general problem.\n\n"}
{"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\n103 1\n\nI think we who teach have made the mistake, which I confess very frankly,\nof tying ourselves down too closely to the single book. We are breaking\naway from that somewhat. We are trying to get children to use books as\nwholes, and if >^ou would come at it from your end of the problem, where\nyou deal with the Hbrary as a whole, and if you will begin to narrow somewhat the total view, we shall meet each other half way. We shall get\nour pupils to raise a certain number of questions and then shall push\nthem out into the library to get their questions answered. Thus we shall\ndevelop the only kind of co-operation which is at all worth cultivation — that\nco-operation which permits of the differentiation of function. I do not\nbeUeve libraries are going to swallow up the schools, at least for some time,\nnor will the schools swallow up the growing institutions which you represent. The school is very hospitable to the movement of introducing into\nthe schools branch libraries; indeed, the school is eager for all possible\nreciprocity between our two great educational institutions. You reach a\nlarger constituency than we do ; you reach your constituency in a somewhat\ndifferent way. We are trying to prepare the future constituency for the\nuse of these storehouses of knowledge and art of which you are the custodians. Ifyou will give us a little help in working out some of the methods,\nof which I think we are relatively ignorant; if you will help the students\nwhom we send to you, then we shall be forgiven for meeting apart each\nyear and merely sending representatives back and forth.\nThe collection which your executive officers have helped to prepare\nfor the National Education Association is, I am sure, highly appreciated\nby those who are at the other meeting in Boston, and I have the message\nfrom the executive officers of the National Education Association extending\nto you their very hearty and cordial greetings and their hope for future\nco-operation of the type which has been possible in the past. Long may\nthere be the warmest sympathy between our two great branches of the\npublic educational system.\n\n"}
{"page": 1048, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1049, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident—EvwAViD M. Van Cleve, superintendent, Ohio State School for the Blind. .Columbus, Ohio.\nVice-President-F. C. Bruner, Child Study Department, Public Schools\nChicago, 111.\nSecretary— Miss Ella C. Jordan, asst. prin., Horace Mann School\nNewton Lower Falls, Mass.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenooi», July 6, 1910\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the First Baptist Church by the\npresident, Edward M. Van Cleve, superintendent, Ohio State School for the Blind,\nColumbus, Ohio,\nPrayer was offered by the Rev. Mr. Starr.\nEdmund A. Jones, former school commissioner of the State of Ohio, Columbus,\nOhio, gave an address upon \"The State's Obligation to Provide Educational Opportunities for All Children, Normal or Otherwise.\"\nThen followed a series of papers upon the special topic: \"Provisions for Education\nof Non-Normal Children — Their Efficiency and Cost.\"\nThe first paper was by Miss Mabel EUery Adams, Horace Mann School for the\nDeaf, Boston, Mass., (a) \"The Deaf Schools, Day and Institutional.\"\nThe second, (b) \"The Blind in Schools with the Seeing,\" by Frank G. Bruner, Child\nStudy Department, Board of Education, Chicago, 111.\nThe third, (c) \"Institutional Care and Training of the Blind,\" by John E. Ray,\nsuperintendent. North Carolina School for the Blind, Raleigh, N.C.\nMiss Elizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of ungraded classes. New York City, N.Y.,\nspoke on \"Schools for Backward Children.\"\nDiscussions limited to five minutes followed the reading of these papers. Persons\ntaking part in these discussions were Rev. E. Clayton Wyand, Boston, Mass.; Harris\nTaylor, superintendent of the Institution for the Improved Instruction of Deaf-Mutes,\nNew York City, N.Y.; Miss Johnson, New York Public School Association; Miss Elizabeth E. Farrell, supervisor of ungraded classes. New York City, N.Y.; Frank G. Bruner,\nChild Study Department, Board of Education, Chicago, 111.; Edward M. Van Cleve,\nsuperintendent of State School for the Blind, Columbus, Ohio; Maximilian P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J; Miss Emilie Poulsson, Boston, Mass.\nEdward E. Allen extended a cordial invitation to all interested in the work for the\nblind to visit the Perkins Institution, also the Kindergarten for the Blind.\nThe president announced the following Committee on Nominations:\nEdward E. Allen, Director, Perkins Institution, Boston, Mass.\nMaximilian P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J.\nMiss Sarah Fuller, principal, Horace Mann School for the Deaf, Boston, Mass.\nA commitee, consisting of M. P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J.; EUzabeth E.\nFarrell, supervisor of ungraded classes. New York City, N.Y.; Harris Taylor, superintendent of the Institution for the Improved Instruction of Deaf-Mutes, New York City,\nN.Y., was appointed to frame a resolution10 which would recommend the extension of\n33\nexisting compulsory-education laws.\nThe meetmg adjourned to Friday, July 8.\n\n"}
{"page": 1050, "printed_page": null, "text": "I034\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSECOND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 8, 19 lo\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the First Baptist Church by the\npresident, Edward M. Van Cleve.\nMr. Groszmann, in behalf of the committee, presented the following resolutions:\nBoston, July 8, 1910\nTo the Department of Special Education:\nYour committee appointed to frame a resolution which would recommend the extension of existing compulsory-education laws, respectfully submits the following:\nBe it\nResolved, That it is the sense of this meeting of the Department of Special Education\nof the National Education Association, that the compulsory-education laws of states\nand communities should be so amended, developed, and extended by suitable legislation\nthat.\nFirst, they embrace all children of school age, and provide for their training.\nSecond, they recognize the difference between the chronological age of a child and its\nmaturity and that the school-age limit of each individual child be determined by maturity\ntests only, no matter whether the child is, in years, above or below the age standard;\nin other words, that a child's actual age be determined by physio-psychological data\ncorresponding to the normal standard for the age limit required by law.\nThird, all children or persons failing to meet such a maturity test shall be permanently under public supervision and control.\nIt is further recommended by your committee that an elucidation of the principles\nset forth in these resolutions be placed on the program of next year's meeting.\nMaximilian P. E. Groszmann, Chairman\nElizabeth E. Farrell\nHarris Taylor\nJohn E. Ray, superintendent, North Carolina School for the Blind, Raleigh, N.C.,\nmoved the acceptance and adoption of these resolutions; seconded and carried.\nDr. F. Park Lewis, chairman. Committee on Ophthalmia Neonatorum, American\nMedical Association, Buffalo, N.Y., read a paper upon \"Conservation of Vision and the\nPrevention of Blindness.\"\nM. P. E. Groszmann moved that a committee be appointed to make psychologic\ninvestigation with regard to the subject of eye strain and the standardization of the\nschool room lighting, school book paper, type, etc., to co-operate with a committee of\nthe American M-idical Association already prosecuting inquiries of this nature, with the\nRussell Sage Foundation, and persons having a knowledge of the blind. This motion\nwas adopted and the president app6inted the following committee of five:\nDr. F. Park Lewis, chairman, Buffalo, New York.\nJ. A. Shawan, Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ohio.\nEdward N. Bristol, New York City.\nWilliam H. Burnham, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nE. Leavenwarth Elliott, New York City.\nCharles A. A. J. Miller, assistant superintendent Public Schools, Baltimore, Md., presented the paper, \"What Kind of QuaHfications and Training Should the Teacher of the\nSpecial Class Have?\" A discussion of the paper was led by Miss Alice Morrison\nNash, principal of School Department, New Jersey Training School for Feeble-Minded\nGirls and Boys, Vineland, N.J.\nThis was followed by a paper by Harris Taylor, superintendent of the Institution\nfor the Improved Instruction of Deaf-Mutes, New York City, N.Y., on \"Oralism in\nOral Schools.\" Mrs. Sarah Jordan Monro, Horace Mann School for the Deaf, Boston,\nMass., opened the discussion, which was continued by the following-named persons:\nRev. E. Clayton Wyand, Boston, Mass.; Harris Taylor, supeVintendent of the Institution for the Improved Instruction of Deaf-Mutes, New York City, N.Y.; Frank G.\nBruner, Child Study Department, Board of Education, Chicago, 111.; Edward Allen\nFay, professor, Gallaudet College, Washington, D.C.; Miss Sarah Fuller, principal,\nHorace Mann School for the Deaf, Boston, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 1051, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTATE'S\n\nOBLIGATION\n\nFOR\n\nALL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1035\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\nFor President— FrsLTik G. Bruner, Child Study Department, Public Schools, Chicago,\nFor Vice-President — Elizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of ungraded classes. New York\nCity, N.Y.\nFor Secretary — Edward Allen Fay, Gallaudet College, Washington, D.C.\nOn motion the report was adopted and the nominees declared elected.\nThe department then adjourned.\nElla C. Jordan, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nEDMUND\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nSTATE'S OBLIGATION TO PROVIDE EDUCATIONAL\nOPPORTUNITIES\nFOR ALL CHILDREN,\nNORMAL\nOR OTHERWISE\nA. JONES, FORMER\n\nSCHOOL COMMISSIONER\nCOLUMBUS,\nOHIO\n\nOF THE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF OHIO\n\nIt is a matter of great regret to you all, I am sure, that Superintendent\nDyer, of Cincinnati, who was to have given the opening address, and who,\nI know, had a special message for this department, was compelled to return\nto Ohio on account of the sudden death of a member of his family.\nWhen your president asked me to fill the gap I assured him I did not\nwish to come before a department of the National Education Association\nwithout a carefully prepared paper. ,At his urgent request, however, I\nfinally consented to give an informal talk upon the subject before you at\nthis time, which perhaps may open the way for the specially prepared\npapers which are to follow.\nThe general topic for this session is \"The State's Obligation to Provide\nEducational Opportunities for All Children, Normal or Otherwise.\" The\npermanence of a despotic government like Russia depends upon the ignorance of its subjects, but the very Hfe of a RepubHc that is \"of the people,\nby the people, and for the people,\" depends upon the intelligence and character of its citizenship. What happens in our country every November ?\nOn a certain day every voter is expected to enter the booth and there, alone,\nhe is called upon to register his choice for the highest officers in the state\nand nation; and, not only so, but he is frequently required to record his\njudgment upon questions of vital importance to the community. When\nthis is the case it is manifestly the duty of the state to make the amplest\npossible provision for the education of all its youth.\nI remember a selection in one of our old readers beginning \" We must\neducate! We must educate! or short will be our race from the cradle to\nthe grave.\" Our fathers understood this and no sooner had the Pilgrims\nat Plymouth and the Puritans at Boston provided shelter for themselves\nthan they built the meeting-house and in close proximity erected the schoolhouse.\nMassachusetts at a very early period made provision for both the\n\n"}
{"page": 1052, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 036\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Special\n\ncommon-school and higher education. While she as a state has always\nbeen limited in natural resources, yet there is no state that has had a\ngreater influence in the councils of the nation or made larger contributions\nto the great wealth of American literature. Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell,\nHolmes, Hawthorne, Emerson, and Edwards were all of them Massachusetts men. Whittier has truly said in speaking of Massachusetts:\nWell she keeps her ancient stock,\nThe stubborn strength of Plymouth Rock,\nAnd still maintains with milder laws,\nAnd clearer light, the good old cause.\nNor heeds the skeptic puny hands\nWhile near the school, the church spire stands;\nNor fears the blinded bigot's rule\nWhile near the church spire stands the school.\n\nThis same truth found expression in the famous ordinance of 1787, in\nthe words —\nReligion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall be forever encouraged.\n\nSo important has this matter become that most of our states have\nenacted laws with reference to compulsory attendance requiring all children\nbetween the ages of eight and fourteen years to attend school; and up to\nsixteen years, unless' the work of the fifth year has been completed, and\neven then unless regularly employed.\nDr. Roosevelt in a recent address said, speaking of the materialistic\ntendency of the present age, ''If the homely commonplace virtues die\nout, then the nation has lost what no material prosperity will offset.\"\nThere is much of truth in this statement, and the old-fashioned virtues\nof honesty, integrity, truthfulness, purity of speech and life, industry,\nperseverance, and thrift, so essential to the welfare of the nation, are largely\nimplanted in the minds of our youth thru the public schools supported\nby the state.\nSometimes we get a better and more lasting impression of a picture by\nlooking at it from different points of view; so we may get a clearer understanding ofthe value of education to a state if we consider what would\nhappen if ignorance, vice, and crime had full sway.\nI have recently re-read the story of \"The Jukes\" family as retold by\nDr. A. E. Winship and contrasted with the Jonathan Edwards family.\nThe word \"jukes\" means \"to roost\", and refers to the habit of fowls that\nprefer to roost in the trees rather than to occupy the comfortable places\nprovided for them. \"The Jukes\" is a name given to a large family of\ndegenerates. It is not the real name of any one family, but a general\nterm applied to forty-two different names borne by those in whose veins\nflowed the blood of one man. This man's name was styled Max. He was\nborn about 1720 and in 1730 built his shanty on the border of a beautiful\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1053, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTATE'S\n\nOBLIGATION\n\nFOR\n\nALL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1037\n\nlake in New York State. He would not attend school as a boy, because he\ndid not like to study and there was no authority in the home compelling\nhim to go, and at that time there was no law in reference to compulsory\nattendance. He would not work because he did not like work, but preferred to loaf around the village with his companions indulging in coarse\njokes and vulgar conversation. He preferred idleness to industry, ignorance to knowledge, and savagery to civilization. He gathered about him\nkindred spirits and his dwelling-place became a cradle of ignorance, vice,\nand crime.\nIn 1874 Mr. Richard L. Dugdale was employed by the New York\nPrison Commission to visit the prisons of the state, inspect them carefully,\nand report their condition with such recommendations as he might choose\nto make. While engaged in this work he was surprised to find criminals\nin six different prisons whose relatives were mostly criminals or paupers,\nand was more surprised to discover that these six criminals under four\ndifferent names were all descended from the same family. This fact led\nMr. Dugdale to study their relatives, living and dead. He examined\ncourt and prison records, reports of town poor-houses and obtained the\ntestimony of old neighbors and employers. In this w^ay he learned the\ndetails of five hundred and forty descendants of Max in five generations.\nHe also obtained the facts about one hundred and sixty-nine who married\ninto the family. He continued his investigation until he had included\ntwelve hundred persons of the family of \"The Jukes.\" As Dr. Winship\nputs it, the almost universal traits of the family in all these generations were\nidleness, ignorance, and vulgarity and these characteristics led to disease\nand disgrace, pauperism and crime.\nSummarizing the results obtained by Mr. Dugdale it was found that\nthree hundred and ten of the twelve hundred were professional paupers.\nThese were in poorhouses or its equivalent for twenty-three hundred\nyears. Three hundred, or one in four, died in infancy from lack of proper\ncare and suitable surroundings. There were fifty women who lived Hves\nof notorious debauchery. Four hundred men and women were physically\nwrecked early in hfe by their own wickedness. There were seven murderers.\nSixty were habitual thieves, who spent on the average of twelve years each\nin lawless depredation. There were one hundred and thirty criminals\nwho were convicted more or less often of crime.\nThis is a sad picture of the results of ignorance and the lack of proper\ntraining during the period of childhood and youth.\nThis notorious family thru all these generations made no contributions\nfor the prosperity and well-being of the state, but on the other hand,\naccording to Dr. Dugdale's estimate, it cost the state of New York\n$1,250,000 — an average of more than one thousand dollars apiece, including men, women, and children, for pauperism and crime.\nThis illustrates in a striking way the fact that it pays the state from an\n\n"}
{"page": 1054, "printed_page": null, "text": "1038\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\neconomical point of view to provide educational opportunities for all its\nchildren, normal and otherwise. We often hear it said that all men were\nborn equal and have an inalienable right to life, liberty, and the pursuit\nof happiness. While this is true in reference to the common rights of man,\nin another sense it is not true that all men are born equal. I do not know\nthe exact percentage, but a large number of our youth are born into this\nworld deficient in some of the natural powers; some are blind, others\ndeaf, and some are weak and feeble-minded. These are handicapped from\nthe very beginning and have an unequal strife with their fellows. The\nstate is under special obligation to provide suitable and adequate training\nfor these defective classes. They need teachers especially trained for the\npurpose under expert supervision. Justice to the normal children demands\nthat these be placed in special schools or special classes in the pubHc schools.\nMany of our states have made special provision for these defective\nclasses. Ohio has a most excellent school for the blind, under the skillful\nand successful direction of the president of this department. Ohio has\nalso fine schools for the deaf and the feeble-minded under the direction of\nexpert superintendents with teachers specially trained and with large experience in their particular line of work.\nThese schools were formerly called asylums for the deaf and for the\nblind. We now very properly speak of them as schools for the deaf, blind,\nand defective classes. I am glad the time has come when we recognize\nthe fact that they are simply a part of our public-school system. We have\nnow in Ohio a law which permits a board of education to establish a school\nfor the deaf when there are three or more deaf pupils that are three years\nof age or more. It provides that deaf pupils of other districts in the county\nmay be sent to said school and authorizes the payment by the county of\none hundred and fifty dollars per year to the board of education maintaining such school, for each pupil instructed in it. If no provision is made\nfor a school for the deaf in the county, deaf pupils may be sent to a school\nin another county, and the one hundred and fifty dollars may be paid to\nthe board of education maintaining such a school. The law interprets\ndeafness to mean when pupils are so defective in the matter of hearing that\nthey cannot be advantageously taught in the public school. The law specifies that the teacher of such a school shall have had normal training and\nshall have had a year's experience in the schools for the deaf.\nBoards of education establishing such schools are obliged to report to\nthe state commissioner of common schools and he is required to inspect\nthem twice a year. In this way the state is enabled to maintain oversight\nover them. So far as I know, such schools where they have been established\nhave been successful and satisfactory. They give to the children attending them the advantages of home influence and the opportunity of receiving instruction at the earliest possible age.\nWhatever difference of opinion we may have in reference to the neces-\n\n"}
{"page": 1055, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF NON-NORMAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1039\n\nsity of industrial training, continuation schools, and trade schools in connection with our pubHc-school system, there can be no question but that\nit is the duty of the state to give special prominence to certain lines of\nindustrial training in our schools for defective classes. Many avenues of\nwork that are open to the normal child are closed to the deaf and blind.\nIt is incuilibent upon the state to emphasize such forms of industrial training as will give those who are deficient in sight and hearing, but exceedingly\nbright in other ways, the best possible chance in professional arid industrial\nlife. It should be the aim of the state to give such special training that\nwhen these pupils take up the work of Ufe they will be able not only to\nbecome independent and self-supporting, but they will have the satisfaction of contributing something to the common good.\nI believe also that the state can do much in the way of preventing\nblindness and some of the other defects that constitute the difference\nbetween the normal and the abnormal child. This it can do by a wise\nand careful medical inspection of our common schools, by patient and thoro\ninvestigation, and by the publication and wide circulation of valuable\ninformation in reference to the cause of these troubles.\nIn closing let me say that I am in hearty sympathy with you in your\nspecial field of work. Much has been accomplished in the last decade.\nMay your plans for the future be more than realized. I trust that this\nBoston meeting will help in the solution of some of the problems that are\nnow confronting you.\nPROVISIONS\n\nTHE\nMABEL\n\nFOR EDUCATION OF NON-NORMAL\nTHEIR EFFICIENCY AND COST\nDEAF\n\nELLERY\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nADAMS,\n\nDAY\n\nAND\n\nCHILDREN—\n\nINSTITUTIONAL\n\nINSTRUCTOR IN THE HORACE\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nMANN\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nWith the approval of my department president I have narrowed my\nfield of discussion, restricting it to day schools and institutions which I have\nmyself visited recently in ten states, but as this territory contains 50 per\ncent, of the population of the United States, conditions therein may be\nconsidered fairly typical of all thickly settled districts.\nThe matter of cost presents itself in two relations: the comparative\ncost of educating the deaf and the hearing, and of educating the deaf in\nday-schools, and in boarding institutions.\nUpon the first comparison we have scant time to finger. It must be\nfreely admitted that the education of the deaf is necessarily more expensive\nthan the education of the hearing: the classes should be only one-fifth as\nlarge; the salaries of teachers tend to be higher; and the proportionate\ncost of maintenance of plant is always larger in small schools.\nExamples\n\n"}
{"page": 1056, "printed_page": null, "text": "I040\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nof this difference in two states may serve as types. In Massachusetts,\nwhich has one large day-school and sends pupils to several endowed institutions, the per-capita cost is $191.76 in the day school, and ranges from\n$243.77 to $400 in the institutions; while the cost of educating normal\nchildren thruout the state is about $31.50. In a typical north central\nstate, where all the deaf are educated in an institution, the per-capita cost\nis $247.55 for the deaf, and from $25 to $31.59 for normal children thruout\nthe state.\nThe second comparison — between day schools and institutions — is\nalready partly indicated. It is obvious that a boarding-school must cost\nmore than a day school, since in addition to all educational expenses, which\ntheoretically might be identical, the boarding-school must furnish board,\nservice, and supervision for out-of-school hours. The first cost of plant,\ntoo, is greater for the institution, owing to the greater complexity of needs\nin an establishment where pupils are to live as well as to learn.\nThis higher cost of education in institutions is of course necessary\nwherever a scattered population renders day schools impracticable; but\n\"impracticable\" is a word which has changed its connotation many times\nin the education of the deaf, and recent improved traveling facilities have\nnarrowed the territory from which the institutions must draw, while they\nhave correspondingly broadened that of the day schools, showing conclusively the feasibility of free transportation of deaf children considerable\ndistances daily, for their schooUng, while their parents continue to support\nthem in the ordinary way. As the cost of transportation usually does not\napproach the cost of maintenance in an institution, the future is likely to\nshow a lively demand for day schools from thrifty taxpayers unless the\ninstitutions can give convincing proof of their superior efficiency; and\nit is this question of the present relative efficiency of institutions and day\nschools which is my main theme today.\nTaken as a whole, when considered from the point of view of one accustomed to much visiting of public schools for normal pupils, both kinds of\nschools seemed to be doing highly efficient work on the academic side;\nbut — with two exceptions — I found no monopoly of good or bad in day\nschools or in institutions, or under oral or combined methods — no marked\npre-eminence of excellence, or depth of educational degradation, which\ncould fairly be attributed to institution or day school life, to \"combined\"\nor oral method. The two exceptions were these: first, the standard of\nattainment, grade for grade, was much higher in two oral institutions than\nit was anywhere else; and second, the lip-reading and the voluntary use\nof speech in the day schools were unmistakably better than in the combined\ninstitutions. This characteristic of the day schools was particularly\nmarked in the case of semi-mutes — pupils possessing normal language but\nno hearing: in the day schools I found many such pupils able to carry\non an extended conversation with a stranger and to do public-school grade\n\n"}
{"page": 1057, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF NON-NORMAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1041\n\nwork thru lip-reading, but in the combined institutions their hp-reading\nwas often inferior to that of the congenitally deaf, and they would speak\nonly when urged.\nAside from these exceptions, however, I could see no startling differences: there were some badly graded day classes struggling along under\nadverse circumstances and making small progress; but there were just as\nbadly graded classes, making every whit as little progress in institutions.\nI found a few brilliant pupils with an extraordinary use of language; and\nlarge numbers of \"medium-bright\" ones, plodding along the well-worn\nweary paths, in both kinds of schools; but the most careful comparison\nof their written work failed to bring out any remarkable difference in their\nmental achievements which might be attributed to their different kind of\nlife or the method employed. To be sure, in regions where relations are\nstill a little, strained, I heard a different story: day school and institution\nalike asserted the other's \"output\" to show a lamentable waste of years.\nYet in those very day schools and institutions I saw the average child\ndoing exceedingly creditable work along orthodox lines, with not much to\nchoose, except in the matter of lip-reading and volimtary speech, as already\nmentioned.\nOf course, the foregoing is not a comparison between the results of the\noral and the \"combined\" method; because the better half, or two-thirds,\nof the pupils in most \" combined \" institutions are taught by the oral method,\nat least in their early years, with a strictness that out-orals the oralists\nin the purity of its oralism, while the poorer portion, on the other hand, is\ntaught by manual methods, with little or no admixture of oraUsm. It is\nobvious that the only chance for comparison of methods is between these\nmanually taught pupils and a Hke proportion of the poorer pupils in the oral\nschools. This comparison I tried to make, a good deal handicapped,\nnaturally, by ignorance of signs and spelling. \"Combined\" teachers had\nassured me that results under manual methods were immeasurably better,\nthat slow pupils, unhampered by the difficulties of articulation and lipreading, could make vastly better progress than those so trammeled; and\nI honestly expected to prove- the truth of these assurances. I had always\nbeHeved that signs and the manual alphabet would be of great help with\nslow children, and I looked to find in those manual classes the reahzation\nof my dream — but I didn't! They failed to make good! Those just below\naverage were doing about as well as the same kind of orally-taught pupils,\nminus the lip-reading and speech, and the very poor ones were showing just\nas meager, discouraging, disheartening results as were their mental equals\nin the day schools. In both places, too, I saw the actually feeble-minded,\nwho have no rightful place among the \"normal\" deaf, and can be nothing\nbut an injury and a menace to them.\nAs for the standard of academic attainment, the day schools confine\nthemselves to the elementary curriculum of their locaHty; the course\n\n"}
{"page": 1058, "printed_page": null, "text": "I042\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nof study is usually somewhat higher in the institutions, sometimes decidedly\nhigher; but, on the other hand, the day schools tend to send more graduates\nto secondary schools for further education.\nBut while the course of study is more ambitious in the institutions, the\nmethods — and I now use the word method in the ordinary pedagogical\nsense — the methods employed in the day schools tend to conform more\nclosely to modern educational ideals, while in some of the institutions there\nis a clinging to curious mechanical devices and a reliance on verbal memorizing not in accord with modern educational canons, Grammatical feats,\nintricate to dizziness, and rather spiritless recitations of memorized extracts\nfrom textbooks seemed little calculated to rouse mental alertness or intellectual enthusiasm. It was not a matter of poor teaching — much of the\nteaching was admirable — but rather one of inheritance, it seemed to me.\nOur institutions were not only the offspring of the Enghsh charity schools,\nbut also the pioneers in teaching English to the deaf; from the charity\nschools they inherit the long monotonous days, filled with much indoor\nemployment and little physical training or out-of-door Hfe, the programs\nwhich send pupils to the schoolrooms tired with hours of manual labor, and\nthe tedious evening study-period in close ill-lighted rooms, when mind and\nbody are ahke fatigued; and from the pioneer days they come by the tendency to look upon language as a \"mystery\" attainable only thru initiation\nby symbols and formulas. The monotony of institution life became\napparent to me thru a study of the daily journals. I read them carefully\neverywhere, with a view to discovering how far they reflected the characteristics oftheir social environment: in the institutions I found that, with\na change of names, any journal might have belonged in any one of five\nstates; while in the poorest day school — and it was pretty poor — the\npoorest journal indicated the nature of the fruit-crop, the character of the\nleading industries, and the number of railroads in the place. And the\nmysterious character of some of the language teaching was brought home to\nme by my own difficulty in understanding some of the mechanical devices\nwith which fifth- and sixth-year children were struggling: too much knowledge of structure and too little expression of thought seemed to be the\ntrouble.\nBut if these legacies from the past are outgrown, our institutions possess\nanother of which they may well be proud, for it is from the same English\ncharity schools that they inherited their trade teaching which our pubHc\nschools are but just beginning to imitate. From the very first they have\nheld up to their pupils an ideal of self-support and dignified social service,\nand have sent them out trained to take their places in the industrial world\nand to earn a living without asking allowance for their defect. So far the\nday schools, except in isolated instances, have had nothing like this to\noffer; like the public schools with which they are affihated, they are still\nin the manual training stage.\nIn spite of this lack of specific vocational\n\n"}
{"page": 1059, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF NON-NORMAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1043\n\ntraining, nevertheless, the past pupils of the older and larger day schools\nshow no marked inferiority in economic efficiency, when contrasted either\nwith their hearing brothers and sisters of Hke education, or with the past\npupils of institutions, as a recent inquiry has shown. This fact does not\ndetract at all from the value of the vocational training of the institutions,\nit only means that in this day of rapid industrial change, manual facility\nand dexterity, however gained, are valuable and have a market value.\nIt is not alone in the industrial world that rapid changes are occurring;\nwe are in a transition stage socially and educationally as well ; old processes\nand methods are dropping out of sight and new ones are on trial. Argument about the past, or even the present, is of little worth — so instead of a\nformal summing up and balancing of what I have been saying in regard\nto day schools and institutions, I wish to bring this discussion to a close\nby a look forward in the direction toward which present movements seem\nto tend.\nIt is becoming increasingly difficult to earn a Hving; the deaf, as well\nas the hearing, must augment their efficiency in order to live at all; and\nthe very best gift which a public school can give its pupils is a definite\nvocational training. I look forward to a time when every deaf pupil, boy\nor girl, shall receive such a vocational training — a training more special\nthan the day schools and more general than the institutions now give —\na training which shall add to an early course in the use of tools and simple\nconstruction, a fundamental knowledge of one or more trade processes,\nand enough elementary science to enable the deaf to compete in many\nemployments now closed to them.\nI look forward, too, to a time when day schools shall be many, institutions smaller and broken up into family groups; when every large city\nshall do what Milwaukee alone now does — provide for the education of the\ndeaf to the door of the university; when every deaf child with natural\nlanguage shall be able to attend a day school near his own home; when\nimproved methods and programs in all schools shall make learning less\nfatiguing; when all deaf children shall be instructed thru language and\nmost of them thru speech; and above all, I look forward to a time when the\nlast faint echo of the strife of methods shall have died away and left a\npeace wherein teacher or pupil can make an explanatory gesture without\nreproach — a peace wherein the right of the deaf of mature years to communicate byany means they choose shall never be questioned.\n\n"}
{"page": 1060, "printed_page": null, "text": "I044\n\nTHE\nFRANK\n\nG.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nBLIND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\nBRUNER,\nDEPARTMENT\nRESEARCH,\nPUBLIC\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWITH\n\nOF\nCHILD\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\nCHICAGO,\n\n[Special\n\nSEEING\nAND\nILL.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIn this paper the discussion will be limited very largely to certain\nfeatures of the day schools for the blind, as they are conducted in Chicago.\nAnd it will perhaps not be presumptuous to refer to these as typical of\nwhat day schools can do for this class of unfortunates, inasmuch as it was\nin Chicago that the experiment of teaching the sightless in schools and\nclasses with seeing children was first made and the pioneer work along these\nlines was done.\nAs many of you know, the experiment came about in some such way\nas the following: About twelve years ago there came to be felt in the state\nof IlKnois a need for a second institution for the training of the blind, one\nespecially which would be more accessible to blind children from the city\nof Chicago, who found it difficult to get to the institution down state.\nIn connection with this agitation Mr. Frank Hall, then superintendent of\nthe Illinois State School for the BUnd, offered the suggestion that instead of\nbuilding a second institution, why would it not be better to secure such\nenabling legislation as would permit the larger municipalitites of the state\nto establish and maintain day classes for the blind. This suggestion\nreceived the indorsement of Chicago societies interested in promoting the\nwelfare of the bHnd, with the result that the necessary enabling legislation\nwas secured and steps immediately taken toward the organization of such\nclasses in the city of Chicago. This was in the fall of 1899. Mr. Curtis,\na teacher in the Illinois State School, himself bhnd, was, at the suggestion\nof Mr. Hall, selected to take hold of and organize the work, and he has been\nin continuous charge of it to the present.\nThe motives which led to the organization of day classes were two.\nIn the first place, it is the experience of those who look after the training\nof the bhnd that children get on faster, accomplish more and with less\nexpenditure of effort, if they can be gotten hold of while young, preferably\nduring kindergarten years. On the other hand, parents are loath and\noften unwilling to be separated from their children for such long periods\nas is required when they must attend an institution, and especially at an\nage when they need constant parental care. If, however, a day school\nwere available and the child might be conducted to and from school daily\nby an older brother, sister, or some trusted companion, the problem would\nbe solved. There' are, to be sure, many other considerations favorable to\nday schools for the blind, some of which will receive notice shortly.\nOwing to the geographical formation of the city, it seemed advisable\nto establish three centers; one on the south side (Felsenthal School), one\non the west side (Clarke School), and one on the north side (Adams School).\nThese centers were in connection with regular schools, in each of which\n\n"}
{"page": 1061, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBLIND\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nWITH\n\nTHE\n\nSEEING\n\n1045\n\nthere were enrolled from a thousand to fifteen hundred seeing children and\nthe schools were chosen with a view to their accessibility to street-car lines,\nsince a considerable number of the blind children would find it necessary\nto utihze this means of transportation in reaching the schools. The expense\nof street-car fare of the blind child, as well as that of the person who must\naccompany him, is provided for by the Board of Education of Chicago.\nIn organizing the first classes in Chicago, Mr. Curtis sought to formulate a school program for the blind, wherein it would be possible for them\nto participate in every practicable way in the school life of their seeing\ncompanions.\nIn plan of organization the classes have undergone little change since\nthey were first established, and just one additional center has been opened\n(Jahn School). The number in attendance at a single class varies, ranging\nfrom four to sixteen. In each school where a center is located, there is\nset apart a room for the use of the sightless children. Here those who are\nentering for the first time are taught to read and write in American Braille,\nand to this room those farther advanced in their studies repair for the preparation oftheir lessons, and receive such assistance from the teacher in\ncharge as may be required. So soon as a child has acquired a fair mastery\nof the processes in Braille, however, he is enrolled in one of the regular\nschool classes, and recites with his seeing mates, being given Httle more\nconsideration than they. It is, perhaps, worth while to remark in this\nconnection, that in the learning of Braille, the blind child experiences no\nmore difiiculty than does the seeing in learning to read ordinary English\nprint or script.\nTo make it possible for the blind to recite with the seeing, it was found\nnecessary to have the subject-matter of the school text books in use in\nChicago transposed into Braille nomenclature. Provision was made for\nthis by the Board of Education, a complete Braille printing plant being\nmaintained and operated, so that all of the textbooks in use in either the\nChicago elementary or high schools are available for the use of the blind\nin the raised Braille type.\nThe blind child thus studies the. same lesson as does the seeing, and he\nrecites with him in his class. When called upon to read he sits with his\nbook in raised print before him and reads as rapidly, with as good intonation,\nand as intelligently as any member of his class. Indeed, from the recitation\none would never guess that the child is living in absolute darkness.\nIn the preparation of lessons the younger children necessarily require\nconsiderable help, even with their reading and writing, but those more\nadvanced need to be assisted only in the interpretation of maps, in handwork, and the preparation of the lessons in arithmetic, in the latter of which\nespecially the child of darkness is very seriously handicapped. To overcome this Mr. Curtis has invented an aluminum arithmetical slate upon\nwhich there are rows of depressions into which may be placed number cubes.\n\n"}
{"page": 1062, "printed_page": null, "text": "I046\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nISpedal\n\nEach cube has upon its surfaces the six-point raised numerals, which are\nsuch that by simply altering its position, any one of the ten numerals may\nbe got from the single cube. Thus in working with numbers is avoided the\ntask of selecting the appropriate cube, which of course would be exceedingly\ndifficult without the aid of sight. Upon this arithmetical slate the blind\nchild works his problem in addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division,\nand goes thru the arithmetical process exactly as does the seeing child with\nhis problem on paper. This slate greatly simplifies arithmetical work for\nthese unfortunate children, but the process, notwithstanding, is very exacting inasmuch as in the absence of the whole sensory impression thru the\neye, the blind child must resort to feats of memory. It is not unusual,\ntherefore, for these afflicted children to hold ten or twelve numbers in the\nmind at once while performing some number process, altho the average\nseeing child from ten to fourteen possesses a memory span of only about\nseven or eight. Such memory work in connection with arithmetic causes\nthis subject to be very energy-consuming and exhausting.\nIn the Chicago day schools, it is the lot of the special teacher to present\nlargely what handwork and vocational training is required, whether it be\ngiven in the special room or in the regular center for such instruction. In\npresenting this hne of work to the bhnd child, it is necessary to manipulate\nhis hands and to perform the processes with him, instead of offering him a\npattern and the materials and requesting him to go to work, as is commonly\ndone with seeing children. Blind children in the day schools of Chicago,\nNew York, and Milwaukee, are thus taught raffia work, basketry, the\nweaving of spHnts and rugs, knitting, crocheting, carpentry, molding,\ntypewriting, piano-playing, and piano-tuning. It will be noted that this\nis quite an extensive line of vocational work. But because of their Hmited\nsense experiences, unless provided with a large amount of training in concrete work, bhnd children are apt to become self-centered and impractical.\nIt is extremely fortunate, therefore, that they experience little trouble in\ntaking hold of almost all kinds of handwork which are employed with the\nseeing child in the public schools. On the other hand, it is quite obvious\nthat so far as it is feasible the handwork for the blind child should be such\nthat it will contribute to his future utility and adaptability as a citizen and\nuseful member of society. Limited as to scope in the exercise of his choice\nof a vocation, because he must work in darkness, the sightless child's\nschool training should be so ordered that his advent into the untried. and,\nto him, little-known industrial world, be as easy as possible, and \"to bid\nhim in darkness select an occupation and to put to use his acquired powers,\"\nto quote Mr. Hall, \"is hollow mockery.\" It is clearly necessary to do\nmore than train the bhnd child mentally and physically. He should\nreceive definite vocational training. And in supplying this, institutions,\nno doubt, possess many striking advantages.\nMiss Gertrude C. Bingham, inspector of the classes for the blind in New\n\n"}
{"page": 1063, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentj\n\nBLIND\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\nWITH\n\nTHE\n\nSEEING\n\n1047\n\nYork City, is clearly of the opinion, however, that such vocational training\nas is required may be easily given by the blind child's special teacher in\nthe public schools if she has been carefully selected, and particularly is this\ntrue since the introduction of machinery into so many of the crafts has\nserved very materially to limit the vocational avenues into which those\nliving in darkness may enter, thus making it necessary to offer only such\nthings as require brain work largely. On this account music and pianotuning seem best adapted to the needs of the blind and, indeed, they have\nproven the most lucrative lines of work into which they have entered.\nClearly, too, if we could prevent labor from becoming joyless, it must\nbe made remunerative.\nDay classes for the blind have been in operation in Chicago for eleven\nyears. During nine of these years Chicago was the only city on the continent where a child so handicapped could attend school on the same\nfooting with his seeing brother and sister, recite with them in their classes,\nmingle with them in their plays, and partake of their whole social and\ncommunity life. Indeed, it is only two years ago that Milwaukee, following the lead of Chicago, opened three classes, and only a year ago that\nthe first two classes for the instruction of the bhnd were begun in Cleveland,\nand at the same time five opened in the city of New York. Day schools\nfor exceptional children, whatever the character of their deficiencies, have\nnow become the fashion, and indeed they require no defense, for their results\nspeak for themselves. In comparison with institutions, however, the\njustification of day schools for the blind must rest upon their ability to\nsatisfy two conditions: In them can children be trained as efiiciently\nin the same length of time, and at no greater per-capita cost? With\nreference to the first part of the condition, that of general efiiciency, the\nreport of a lay investigation committee is at least interesting. After a\ncareful study of the conditions of the blind in the several states, the New\nYork Commission of 1906 recommended as follows:\n•Your commission is of the opinion that in populous centers the plan of educating\nthe blind with the seeing is entirely feasible and in view of their subsequent necessity to\npursue their life's calling among sighted people, eminently practical and exceedingly\ndesirable.\n\nThe testimony of Miss Bingham, inspector of classes for the Wind in\nNew York City, is in the same vein.\nShe says:\nFor seventeen years I was connected with institutions for the blind and one of them\nwas as broad in its policy as any in the world, and yet I am convinced after seeing the\nresults of even a few months' trial with these children in the public schools, that the\nlatter are far better for the blind child. He need not go home a stranger to those in the\ncommunity in which he must make his living, a stranger even to his own family.\n\nMr. Maxwell also, in his last annual report, insists that the bhnd do\neverything in their classes as well as do the seeing and as easily. Similarly\nMr. Curtis, of our Chicago schools, assures me that blind children are\nvery little handicapped in their school work.\nOn the contrary, when they\n\n"}
{"page": 1064, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1048\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Special\n\n'it\n\nenjoy the assistance of the special teacher in their study period, they do\nevery whit as well as do the seeing.\nTo determine exactly what is the relative academic standing of the\nblind children in the Chicago day schools, I distributed them according\nto age and school rating. Many, and especially those whose parents were\nrecent immigrants, entered the classes later than the ISnormal age;17 parents\noften having been ignorant of the fact that any provision had been made\nfor the education of children so afflicted.\nOften, too, parents detain\n13\ntheir children at home, being fearful of having them\ntravel long distances\n14\nto school accompanied only by a brother, sister, or companion a few years\nolder than the blind child himself. The results of this distribution are\nas follows:\nIt\nit\nAges\n\n18\n\nGrades\n\nI\nII\nIll\nIV\nV\nVI\nVII\nVIII\n\n7\n\n8\n\nI\nI\n\n2\n2\n2\nI\n\n•Entered very late.\n\n9\n\n10\n\nII\n\n12\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\n16\n\nI\nI\n\n3\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\nI\n\nt Subnormal mentally.\n\nI\nI\n\nJ Absent on account of sickness.\nI*\nI* that so far\nit is quite clear\n\nVery irregular\n\nOn the basis of the foregoing,\nas academic\nproficiency goes, blind children are in no way handicapped in working in\nclasses with the seeing. In point of fact, taking account of those who\nentered school late, those of subnormal mentality, and those frequently\nabsent on account of sickness, the general school rating of the blind children\nis slightly better than a similar distribution shows for seeing children.\nIt is difficult to secure data relative to per-capita cost of educating\nblind children, especially in institutions, since in the statistics published\nno allowance is generally made for the rental value of buildings, and so\nforth. All of this ought to be reckoned in determining the relative\nper-capita cost of education. In the Chicago day schools the annual\nper-capita cost of educating the blind, including everything this past year\nwas $179.33. In Cleveland with one class the per-capita cost was about\n$210. In Milwaukee, where the classes are perhaps smaller, the total percapita cost is about $200, and from the data available it would seem that\nfor New York the figure is approximately the same as for Milwaukee.\nThe annual per-capita cost of administration, instruction, maintenance,\netc., in the Ilhnois State School for the BUnd for the present biennium is\nabout $266 (this does not include rental value of buildings and grounds) ;\nin the Wisconsin State School the figure is $300; Perkins Institute, Boston,\n$270; Pennsylvania State School about $360.\nThese figures are samples\n\n"}
{"page": 1065, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBLIND\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\nWITH\n\nTHE\n\nSEEING\n\n1049\n\nonly, but a perusal of the statistics given out from the various institutions\nwould indicate that the per-capita cost for instruction, etc., in institutions\nis from a third to a half higher than that of the day classes.\nIn the care for the bhnd we have happily gotten beyond the stage\nof sentimentality.. A bhnd person is no longer generally considered a\nhelpless object of charity and maudUn sympathy. Everywhere these\npeople of darkness, Hke other classes of defectives, are being trained with a\nview to preparing them for economic and social efficiency. We have\nsimply come to reahze that it is cheaper to educate these children for eight,\nten, or twelve years so that they will be self-helpful and independent, than to\nhouse them in eleemosynary institutions for the whole of their lives, as was\nthe practice one or two generations ago. It is conceded, too, that it is\nnot the absence of sight in itself and the consequent deprivation of that\nrich fund of sensory experience that comes thru the eye that is the chief\nhardship of the blind and that which causes them to be unhappy, so much\nas their utter sense of dependence on others and their inability to provide for themselves even the ordinary necessities of Hfe. If the state owes to\neach normal child the benefits of free schooHng, to a greater degree it owes\nto the blind child an education, and that in association with those with\nwhom he must afterward live, and with whom and for whom he must\nlater on work. And this brings us at once to a comparison of the relative\nmerits of day schools and institutions.\nIn day schools the periodicity of growth may be taken account of.\nFurthermore the education of these unfortunates should be such that\nsocial rather than purely psychological ends may be realized, and this is,\nobviously, possible of attainment only by co-ordinating the child's mental\ntraining with his home and social activities, with the things with which\nhe is going to be concerned after his school days are over. This latter,\ntoo, is pretty closely correlated with a necessarily unfortunate feati;ire\nof all institutional life, that of being segregated within more or less restricted\nquarters, separated from family and friends, and compelled for the most\npart to associate with those who are afflicted hke themselves. And this\nis wholly contrary to the sanest kind of psychological doctrine, which is to\nthe effect that to be made normal it is necessary for the abnormal individual\nto be associated with and to act as normal persons do.\nIt seems only just, therefore, in the case of all those handicapped by\ndeficiencies of sense or an inadequate mental endowment, to permit them,\nwhile receiving mental and physical training, to develop such social attitudes\nas are essential to industrial success; and it requires no argument to make\nit apparent that this is possible only by allowing them to come into intimate\ndaily contact with normal individuals, in the home, on the street, in the\nschoolroom, and in their recreative plays and games. In institutions children\nare necessarily shut off from participation in the throbbing Hfe of the world,\nisolated in an extremely artificial environment, and thus unfitted for the\n\n"}
{"page": 1066, "printed_page": null, "text": "1050\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nlife they will be called upon to take up on leaving its precincts and entering\nupon the world. Moreover they are depressed, saddened, and discouraged\nby the dreariness incident to their enforced isolation.\nWhen numbers sufficient to organize day classes can be congregated,\ntherefore, there seems to be no question but that the school training\nwhich permits the child to remain with his parents, and to enjoy the benefits\nof his home (if it is not altogether bad), in the cases of most children is to\nbe preferred to any form of institutional life.\nINSTITUTIONAL\nJOHN\n\nE. RAY,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nCARE\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\nFOR\nRALEIGH,\nN.C.\n\nTHE\n\nOF THE\nBLIND\n\nAND\n\nBLIND\nTHE\n\nDEAF,\n\nThe first institution established by the all-wise Maker of the universe\nwas the home. And this is the most important of all our institutions in the\n\"care and training\" of children. Other things being equal — and they are\nnot always equal — the more closely we can adhere to the original plan,\nthe better.\nThe blind are just like other people, except they cannot see. This is a\nmost important exception. Whatever is good, then, for the normal person\nis good for the blind, so far as conditions are similar. Whenever these\nconditions are favorable, the more we educate the child away from the home,\nthe worse for the child. There is nothing which can, or ought to, take the\nplace of parental love, care, and training; and the more closely we can\nkeep the child in touch with the right kind of parents, the better for the\nchild. This is theory and is ideal; but it is a condition and not a theory\nwhich confronts us, and so we must deal with the problem with all the possible lights before us, and make the best of the situation, considering every\nph^se presented.\nLet us, then, consider:\n1. The blind child is not normal and therefore requires special care and\nmuch individual training. Scientists tell us that a child receives from\n75 to 90 per cent, of its impressions thru the eye. Even the casual observer,\nthen, will see that the child whose chief avenue of information is closed\nneeds, requires, special attention of which the normal child does not know.\nAnd being deprived of that most valuable assistant to locomotion, sight,\nspecial care is to be exercised for its welfare and development, not to speak\nof its pleasure, its progress, its safety.\n2. With the deprivation adverted to above, one can readily see that\nspecially prepared teachers and caretakers should be employed in order to\nsecure the best results. Woe betide the bhnd child whose lot is cast among\nthose who think that \"anybody can care for and train the blind.\" Too\nmany of our institutions have suffered from this baneful error, and therefore many blind persons have attained maturity without being able to care\nfor themselves physically, or to make even a partial support.\n\n"}
{"page": 1067, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINSTITUTIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\n105]\n\nIt is the firm conviction of your speaker that the gentlest, the best\nqualified by nature and by culture, the best equipped men and women only\nshould ever be employed as teachers, or even as caretakers, of the blind.\nHandicapped in the uneven race of Hfe in the beginning, the least impediment inthe way, the slightest misstep, the smallest hindrance may prove\nto be a tragedy. The blind, as a class, are supersensitive and should, be\ndealt with most gently.\nHow they long for love and sympathy !\nWe must teach our blind citizens that they can make a living, and, what\nis far better, a life. To do this most successfully the best qualified teachers\npossible should be provided.\n3. And then special appliances are needed in the \"care and training\nof the blind.\" These appliances are necessarily expensive. Embossed\nmaps, globes, books, and apparatus of many kinds are required, in order\nthat the child may learn to read and think for itself, to enable it to work\nout the intricate problems in mathematics and to get a conception of the\nsize and shape of the commonest objects — those familiar to the normal\nchild before it has advanced mucji beyond its infancy. Too many blind\npersons are utterly void of independence of action and thought. Who has\nnot been pained by the shambling gait exemplified by so many ?\n4. And — shall I say it? — the homes from which some blind children\ncome (if we may dignify them with the title of home) are, to put it mildly,\nsimply deplorable. As is known possibly to many of those present, at\nleast one-fourth, or one-third, of the bhnd children of our country are\nblind because of the impure, and in some instances vicious, habits of those\nwho gave them birth. Since these things are so, does not every one see\nthe wisdom of separating these afflicted children from such surroundings\njust as soon as, and for as long a time as, possible? With poverty and\nignorance, not to say vice, on every side, the sooner the child is removed\ninto a more desirable atmosphere, the better. The most poorly equipped\ninstitution generally presents superior advantages for care and training\nto those of the average home from which many blind children come. The\ntraining of the blind is difficult enough under the most favorable conditions.\n5. And then, too, blind children are so apt to form habits which are\nobjectionable to their own loved ones, and are in some instances positively\nrepulsive to others. It is so important that these habits be corrected in\nchildhood; otherwise they will continue thru life, and such things at times\nhinder blind persons from securing employment, even tho they may be\never so intelligent and capable.\nWhy are so many blind persons unable to care for themselves ? Simply\nl)ecause they failed to receive proper training and care in childhood. And\nwhen a blind child is so fortunate as to come into a home of comfort, it is\ntoo often so much petted, pampered, and spoiled as to be rendered largely\nhelpless thru mistaken kindness. I have known grown bhnd young women\nwho were not able to fasten their garments upon themselves.\n\n"}
{"page": 1068, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 052\n\nNATION AL^EDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n6. And yet again, the blind child, of all children, needs care and training\nin proper deportment and table manners — how to eat, how to use a knife\nand fork and spoon. (The more's the pity that this is not confined to the\nblind.) But how can such training be expected from those who do not\nwell understand the delicate amenities of life ? How can the busy mother,\neven when she knows these things, with all the work of the household upon\nher, or the teacher in the public school, with from twenty-five to seventyfive other children to train, find the time for so much attention to the\none blind child, or two ?\nIn this connection should be mentioned the importance of regular\nhabits in eating, sleeping, exercise, and promptness in everything. These\nall conduce so much to the best success of the blind, and are supplied by\nall the best regulated institutions. Here then comes another item of\nexpense — prOkviding the blind child with such appliances as will induce\nit to take sufficient exercise to develop its too frequently anaemic Httle\nbody. How much better and cheaper to have all these appliances in one\nplace, where all such children may be congregated and thus save the expense\nof duplicating and multiplying in various places.\n7. In addition to the literary and musical training so important to\nthe blind, the well-equipped institution furnishes training in handicraft,\nwhich is supremely important to boys and girls alike. Many of the young\nwomen who have gone out from the North Carolina School for the Blind\nare making good at their needlework, fancy-work, and sewing. And the\nmen who are earning their bread and butter by plying the trades taught\nthem at the institution are legion. To those who are succeeding admirably\nas teachers in the public schools and academies of our state and others,\nand some as pianists, organists, and teachers of music, there are to be\nadded many more who are making good as tuners and repairers of musical\ninstruments, at cane-seating, broom-making, and mattress-making. And\nthere are others still who earn their bread at weaving, hammock-making,\nbasketry, brush-making, etc., etc., men and women.\nThe industrial phase of the work of the institutions and of blind citizens\ngenerally has so increased as to lead to the establishment in one of the\nlargest department stores in this country of a special department for handling the wares made and for sale by blind persons. And, as is well known,\nindustrial homes and workshops have been established in several of the\ncenters of population for the aid and employment of such persons as are\npartially self-supporting, thus showing the necessity of care and training\nof some adult blind. These workshops are multiplying annually, which\ngoes to show the increasing need of the institutional feature.\nLet me add in passing, that from the best information in hand, 85\nper cent, of the graduates of the North Carolina School for the Blind are\nself-supporting, self-respecting, and highly respected citizens of our commonwealth. Not a few of these are persons who have accumulated a\n\n"}
{"page": 1069, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINSTITUTIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEE\n\nBLIND\n\n1053\n\ncompetence and some of them are possessed of fine means, all rendered so\nby the training received at the institution. Most of these might have been\ndependents and some of them possibly paupers, but for the care and training\nfurnished at the school. Oh, yes; there are some who have never been\ntrained in institutions, and still they have succeeded well; but these are\nthe exceptions and only go to \"prove the rule.\"\nNow, for the foregoing reasons, and for others which might be multipHed\nalmost indefinitely but for fear of trespassing upon your time, is it not clear\nthat it is necessary from an economical, from an educational, from a moral\npoint of view that \"institutional care and training\" be provided? The\ncostly books and appliances necessary for the best results can hardly be\nsupplied in the ordinary public schools, especially in communities where\nthere are but few blind children; and this is the case in all rural neighborhoods and thruout the south. The expert teachers, too, cannot be\nsecured, except at too great cost. The teachers in the public schools\ncertainly have not the time to devote to children who require so much\nindividual attention.\nNo one is more painfully aware than your speaker that there are objections to be raised to institutional life. No human institution is without\nits weak points and defects. The family is too frequently void of the power\nto exercise sufiicient control to produce the best results. And even the\nchurch, established by the Saviour of mankind and fostered by his apostles,\nis sometimes criticized for its imperfections. We need not, then, expect\nthe best-conducted institutions to escape criticism. But, in my humble\njudgment, the institution for the care and training of the blind is the\nbest solution of the problem which confronts us, and it is with us to stay.\nNothing better has yet been devised, and I greatly fear nothing superior\nwill be found in our day. In Europe, where the education of the blind\nreceived attention long before similar schools were established in America,\nno better plan has been wrought out. It is my candid opinion that the\ncottage system of institutional life, separating the sexes and sizes as well\nas practicable, and thus furnishing more or less of the family feature,\nis the ideal plan and the best method for the care and training of the blind.\nI insist upon the separation of the sexes, for I believe that the marriage\nof two blind persons is nothing short of a calamity.\nThen let those in authority see to it that our institutions shall be as\nthoroly equipped as circumstances will permit for the delicate and arduous\ntasks set for them— the care and training of the blind.\n\n"}
{"page": 1070, "printed_page": null, "text": "I054\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSCHOOLS\nELIZABETH\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nE. EARRELL,\nNEW\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBACKWARD\nSUPERVISOR\nYORK CITY,\n\n[Special\n\nCHILDREN\n\nOF UNGRADED\nN.Y.\n\nCLASSES,\n\nWe hold that the instruction of backward children is most important.\nThe movement for day schools for such pupils began in New York ten\nyears ago with the odds and ends, taken from a class, itself made up of odds\nand ends. This class was housed in a building previously condemned\nby the Board of Health and closed when a new building was completed\nand occupied. The new schoolhouse soon became overcrowded and the\nprincipal took out from the classes those pupils not doing grade work, or\nin some way difficult to bring into line with the others. This class was\nplaced in the old building mentioned above, and the poorer part of this\nclass, consisting of twenty-eight or thirty boys, was considered an ungraded\nclass. It was thought almost useless to try to accomplish anything with\nthem. At last an entering wedge was found in manual training. Showed\nthat something was possible for these boys to learn and to do successfully.\nWith this incentive the boys came to school, were ready to come. Then\nthe question arose as to the reason why these boys, who were capable of\nbeing taught manual training, could not also be taught to read and write.\nIt was noticed that the boys were all undersized and, using Dr. Bowditch's\ntests, it was found that they were also under weight. Their brains were\nabnormal ; hence they were unequal to the tasks assigned.\nNow, there are over one hundred classes for backward children in\nNew York. Principals of schools thruout the city report at least twice\na year about children not doing regular grade work. Forty-two hundred\nsuch children were thus reported last year. They were examined by competent physicians. Some were sent to schools for tuberculous children which\nare held upon ferry-boats in many cases. Others were sent to classes for the\nblind, to schools for the deaf or to schools for crippled children. The lastestablished school of this nature is the out-of-door school for anaemic children.\nThere remain subnormal children from a mental standpoint. These children\nare sent to ungraded classes for backward children. Often they are past\nthe school age or attain that age before they have become sufiiciently\nadvanced to be able to support themselves. The question is pressing as\nto how to arrange for such to get a living: for instance, a boy of sixteen,\nstrong, whose mother is determined he shall leave school and begin to\nsupport himself and her. This he is unable to do, but if he goes out from\nschool, he will be a menace to society, and terrible results will follow if he\nmarries, as he undoubtedly will. His mother, however, will not have him\nsent to an institution for the feeble minded. In one town there are four\ngenerations of imbeciles, yet they are not sent to the institution for their\ncare.\nAn association in New York is following up^the children who leave-\n\n"}
{"page": 1071, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPREVENTION\n\nOF BLINDNESS\n\n1055\n\nungraded classes on account of age. It is hoped to get a commission to\ndecide on such children with authority to insist on the placing of such\nin institutions designed for their care. We hope the day is near when\nsuch a commission will be appointed.\nLet us help to bring it nearer.\n\nCONSERVATION\n\nOF\n\nVISION AND THE\nBLINDNESS\n\nPREVENTION\n\nOF\n\nF. PARK LEWIS, M.D., CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE\nPREVENTION\nOF BLINDNESS,\nOF THE AMERICAN\nMEDICAL ASSOCIATION,\nBUFFALO,\nN.Y.\n\nTwo words which have attained high importance in our vocabulary\nof today are \"conservation\" and ''co-operation.\" These are the guideposts that indicate the new spirit of progress that is actuating and dominating our modern life. They are not the outgrowth of a materialistic but\nof a spiritualized philosophy. Far from being utiHtarian, they are in the\nhighest degree idealistic. They have to do with the profoundest of human\nsentiments — and are based upon the duties and responsibilities of life itself.\nWhen we, as a people, have been so deeply stirred by a discussion as to\nthe disposition that shall be made of our material resources, it has not been\nwholly because of the intrinsic value of our mineral wealth, nor the desire\nto preserve our forests — it indicates rather the awakening of the national\nconscience and a realization such as we have not felt before, of the obligations which rest upon us, rightly to use the gifts which have been bestowed\nupon us.\nThe new thought, therefore, and the new inspiration — which is, indeed,\nmore than twenty centuries old — is nevertheless most disturbing to our\ncomplacency; for it fixes on each one of us, to the degree that we are given\nto see and to know, the responsibility for our part in the direction and use\nof the things and the forces that conduce to the betterment and the happiness of mankind.\nThe real wealth of a people is in its immaterial rather than in its actual\npossessions. It is not what we have, but what we do with what we have,\nthat counts. In its last analysis, the true values are found in the people\nthemselves, and just to that degree that their strength of body and of\ncharacter is increased, the productive efficiency of the nation is augmented.\nThe governing power of the nation of tomorrow is the schoolboy of today.\nThe efficiency of the man depends upon the direction of the training and\nthe completeness of the culture — physical, mental, and moral — of the child.\nIf, in the progress of training, we limit or destroy any important function\nwhich he possesses, we lessen his productive efficiency, and to that degree\nwe rob the nation of its potential wealth. It almost invariably happens\nthat if one wrong condition exists, it is associated with or dependent upon\nanother. In the consideration of the important subject which has been given\n\n"}
{"page": 1072, "printed_page": null, "text": "1056\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nto me to discuss today, I will assume that the members of this association are familiar with the revelations which medical examinations of our\nschool children have brought to our notice, because even the intelligent\nreader of current events knows of the psychological clinic and its discoveries.\nIn the limited time at my disposal,! will concern myself with the conclusions\nto which these observations seem to give warrant. I will endeavor to\nshow that the conditions which are slowly but steadily increasing the\nmyopia of our school children, thereby rendering them more vulnerable\nto subsequent disease of the eyes, are corrigible and preventable conditions;\nand because, as I have intimated above, of the relationship and interdependence between one wrong condition and another, I wish to ask you\nto consider with me whether it may not be possible to inaugurate some\nbasic changes which would allow a normal intellectual and physical development without at the same time sacrificing the integrity of the organism.\nFocal defects in some degree are practically universal. The mathematically perfect eye is an ideal never attained. While eyes that are\nasymmetrical even to a small extent are strained by close work, such as\nreading or writing, sometimes quite large discrepancies may occasion little\nor no annoyance, if the eyes are used only at long range. Sailors, soldiers,\nIndians, and woodmen, generally, whose lives are passed in the open, have\nrarely occasion to give heed to their eyes at all. It is, therefore, the enormous strain of close work continued for from six to ten hours a day, including the incidental reading and writing, with wrong position, insufficient\nlight, poor paper and badly printed books, that are responsible for the\ndestructive processes that are taking place in our children's eyes. There\nis also no doubt whatever that this strain is greatly modified and the\nchanges take place less rapidly if the extraneous conditions are made as\nnearly right as possible and the focal irregularities are corrected by suitable\nglasses. They do not cease, however. The glasses must be changed from\ntime to time as alterations occur in the shape. of the eyeball and as the\nimportance of correcting these smaller abnormalities becomes more and\nmore apparent. It is evident that we are rapidly becoming a bespectacled\nnation and that there is some justification for the dictum voiced by a\ndistinguished professor of pedagogy of a Western University who gravely\nsays that\nhe has observed that some of the students on the campus — of which perhaps there are a\nthousand or more — are not wearing glasses, and as it is inconceivable that their eyes are\noptically perfect, they should at once consult an oculist!\n\nIn the discussions which have taken place, altho it is evident that the\nchief source of the difficulty is overwork on the part of the plastic, vascular,\nsensitive eyeball, which is crushed out of shape by continuous muscular\ncontraction, no one seems to have recognized the simplest and most obvious\nmethod of prophylaxis, the only really safe and sane remedy — not in every\nlittle degree of defect to brace up the eye with focal crutches (necessary,\n\n"}
{"page": 1073, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPREVENTION\n\nOF BLINDNESS\n\neven imperative, as they are at certain times and under certain conditions)\nbut to lesson the hours of work in which the eyes are subjected to strain. The\nlabor unions have wisely limited the working day to eight hours for strong\nmen whose body tissues are developed and resistant, while we compel\nthe child at the formative period of his life to use his most vital and impressionable eye-structures as much as eight hours and permit him to use them\nin close taxing work for ten hours or more a day. His eyes will no more\ntolerate such unwarrantable abuse than will his muscles or his brain.\nSomething must in time give way and usually it is the retaining coat which\ngives form and stability to the globe.\nIt would seem to me that we are not getting at the root of the matter at\nall. We have reason to congratulate ourselves on the splendid advances\nthat have been made in pedagogic methods during the last few years.\nPractical work is being introduced in the school, such as printing, industrial\nand domestic science, but in the fundamentals we are still teaching largely\nthru the method of the printed page. We have made a fetish of books.\nWe have become a reading rather than a thinking people. We have come\nto believe that the most effective way in which knowledge can be communicated from one person to another is thru the medium of the printed page,\nwhile that is in fact an indirect route to the mind. A picture of a thing,\nand especially of a thing in action, becomes almost immediately a thought.\nThe printed word is not the thing itself. It is not even the symbol of the\nthing as is an Egyptian hieroglyph or the crude sketches of our aborigines.\nIt consists of a group of arbitrarily chosen forms which, placed in certain\ncombinations — more or less variable as we modify our spelling — represents\nthe symbol of the thing. Consider for a moment the number of mental\nprocesses that are required to enable a child to grasp the idea which the\nword is intended to convey. A distinct interval of time can be recognized\nwith each effort. When an action is to be expressed just so much greater\nmust this interval be as it takes words to describe it. It may be objected\nthat from the mouth to the ear is equally indirect, but it is not so. The\nbusiness of the world is carried on by human speech.\nThe printed sentence, \"A horse ran down the street\" is a fiat, colorless\nstatement. What might be termed the ambiceptors of the mind unconsciously reach out in twenty different directions to complete the imperfect\npicture which the words suggest: \"What was the color of the horse?\"\n''Why was he funning?\" \" Was he afraid ? \" \" To what was he attached ? \"\n\" Were the people in the street in danger ? \" These apparently unnecessary\nquestions of the child show the normal working of the human brain. That\nwhich requires a page of description is told in much less than half the time\nrequired to read it— and all of this and much more, if seen is comprehended\nat a glance. The expression of the face, the tone of the voice, the gesture,\nthe human interest conveyed are all interpretative. With a foreign language, still another additional mental process is exacted and we find our\n\n"}
{"page": 1074, "printed_page": null, "text": "1058\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nstudents after two, three, or four years devoted to the study of French\nor German disappointed and unhappy to find that it is to them a dead\nlanguage and that the result of their labor is a book knowledge only; while\na little gamin from Palermo or Buda Pesth will pick up a useful vernacular\nin the streets to which he will add a richness of slang — and thereby, of\nvitality — that we may envy but can never hope to attain.\nWe must realize that there is another and a more direct way of getting\nat the intelligence of the child than that which we commonly employ, thru\nthe printed page. I stop in amazement at my own temerity in daring to\nspeak thus frankly on a pedagogic subject, but I know that many wise\nteachers share my belief that we have too many books, too many studies,\nnot enough time for right athletics in the younger classes, not enough\nbrain training to develop mental agihty and logical thinking in any of the\nclasses.\nIf the boy is to learn business, why not teach him business by means of\nveritable commercial transactions? He must learn real values. He\nmust know actual commodities. He must be taught to think not only to a\npoint but to a purpose. Is there not a hiatus between the teaching of the\ntheory of mathematics and its application in manual training? Should\nnot our girls whose lives are to be spent as home-makers be instructed\nspecifically and definitely in the duties and the responsibilities of the direction of household affairs ? Should they not be shown how to buy economically and judiciously ? One of the most essential factors in the high cost\nof living is the prodigality of expenditure and the wastefulness in the use of\ndomestic supplies, because of the lack of domestic training on the part of\nthe average housewife. The school girl cannot know that which she has\nnot been taught. Might not a part, at least, of the book education which\nshe now receives be replaced by a training that would better fit her for the\nobligations of wifehood and motherhood? We cannot wonder that the\nexperiment of marriage so often proves to be a failure and that the divorce\ncourts are crowded with those seeking to remedy what has proven to them\nto be such an unhappy mistake.\nIf we would but simplify our teaching, make it more direct and personal,\nharmonize it, give to the pupil a little larger opportunity for original thinking, we would be amazed to see how rapidly the muscles of the mind w^ould\ngrow — and how immediate would be the influence upon every phase, not\nonly of our private but of our public life. What a difference would be made\nin the lives of our people if the buying power of a certain amount of money\nwere taught in our schools. Why should we not teach arithmetic more as a\nmental science and in the terms in which it forms part of our daily life ?\nWhy should we in adult life be obliged to take a pencil and paper for the\nsolving of every little problem that presents itself to us ? Why should hours\nbe spent daily in futile note-making, wasting energy and destroying eyes,\nboth in the writing and the reading when, a few basic ideas clearly put,\n\n"}
{"page": 1075, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nPREVENTION\n\nOF BLINDNESS\n\n1059\n\nto be thought about, would do more to strengthen the mentality and to\nfix the principle than the reading and the writing of many hours would\ndo? These are neither visionary nor theoretical ideas to which I am\ngiving expression. They are the outgrowth of the real philosophy of\nFroebel. They have found expression with marvelously satisfactory\nresults in our manual and industrial training schools. We have used them\nto some extent, tho not nearly enough, in our schools for the blind, but in\ntheir fullest development and most satisfactory results in the schools for\nthe mentally slow. I saw a chosen group of the laggards in a school in\nRochester, N.Y., in a gymnastic class following the rapidly given orders of\nthe instructor in the game \"Simon Says\" and then imitating the equally\nswift motions of the arms and legs, without a word of command. It was\nevident that the training in quick co-ordination, in mental alertness and in\nfixity of attention was vastly more effective than any corresponding amount\nof bookwork could possibly be. If this were true of those whose responses\nwere slow, how much better proportionately would it have been with\nchildren of active mentality ? Lest I may seem to be wandering from the\nsubject under discussion, let me say that the conclusions expressed are not\nonly relevant, but they are an essential part of my thesis. At the request\nof the Association of Women Principals of New York City, a number of\neminent oculists made a careful examination of existing conditions and\nformulated certain recommendations which they urged should be adopted.\nThese recommendations were referred by the Board of Superintendents to\na special committee of two whose judicious and thoughtful summary of\nthe whole matter is worthy of careful consideration.\nThe subject of the paper to be used in the school books, the type, the\nposition of the child, the lighting, are all considered, not only with the\njudgment of men of trained minds but with the practical knowledge of\nexperienced teachers. \"It is impossible,\" says this committee, \"to dispense with the teaching of reading and writing.\" It is impossible, undoubtedly, and also undesirable. But is it impracticable to limit very largely\nthe amount of reading and writing, in that way not only saving the eyes\nfrom unwarrantable use, but by limiting the hours of work, leaving some\ntime for the study of the fundamental things of life ?\nOne of the most important of these is the physiology of sex. Nearly,\npossibly fully, half of the existing blindness is a direct or indirect result of\none or the other form of social disease, and therefore absolutely preventable.\nA large proportion of the cases are innocent victims. In an equally large\nnumber of instances, these frightful conditions are ignorantly acquired.\nNo one can estimate how many are half blind or have lost one eye in consequence ofinfections of this character. The loss of sight is only one form\nof its destructive manifestations. It is filling our hospitals for the insane,\nour asylums for degenerates, our schools for the blind and the deaf. A\nMoloch of destruction: and yet our schools maintained at enormous\n\n"}
{"page": 1076, "printed_page": null, "text": "io6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n{Special\n\nexpense send out the young of both sexes with normal appetites and normal\nfunctions, but with no word of advice as to how these shall be governed\nor directed. Is not the time ripe for free and frank discussion in matters so\nvital and is not the judicious teacher, in conjunction with the parent and\nthe doctor, the one thru whom such instruction should be given ?\nSuch radical modifications of method, you may say, are impractical\nin a great educational system. But, in many vital ways ignorance must\noften pay the same penalty as crime. Pedagogy has, of late years, given\nevidence of being one of the most progressive of professions and if it is\npossible actively to interest the people in the schools, the reciprocal benefits\nwill be beyond estimate.\nMay we not join forces and together seek to solve the problems which\nare of such vital import to the men and women of tomorrow? In the\nreport of the superintendents which I have already mentioned, occur\nthese words:\nYour committee believes that this question cannot be settled by educators, publishers, or printers, but should be determined by oculists\nThe latter have never\nmade an extended investigation of the subject and hence can only give expert opinion\nwhich is not based on evidence. An investigation should determine the exact extent\nto which calendered paper is used, the effect of such paper on the eyes of the pupils, the\namount of time spent by pupils working continuously at books made of such paper—and how often a day they do so.\n\nBut to give the work of such a committee a practical value,- it should be\ncarried out by oculists in conjunction with educators, publishers, and\nprinters, and the recommendation of the committee — that a commission\nof five experts including oculists and one expert in lighting be requested\nto act as advisors to the Board of Educators in all matters pertaining to\nthe eyes, that they be requested to prescribe methods of testing the eyes\nand means of reducing eye-strain and that every facility be afforded them to\nconduct investigations for the purpose of securing evidence as to the means\nof removing or modifying the controllable causes of defective vision due to\nthe work in the schools — is the most effective method of arriving at right\nand wise conclusions. It is, moreover, in entire harmony with the plan to\npromote educational progress thru the United States Bureau of Education\nwhich is being urged by the Department of Child Hygiene of the Russell\nSage Foundation, except that the latter contemplates a staff of \"ten specialists\" to study, investigate, and consult with local schoolmen. The American Medical Association has appointed a committee on the Prevention of\nBlindness which is already co-operating with the committee on Prevention\nof Blindness of the New York Association for the Blind which is maintained by the Russell Sage Foundation. It is prepared and will gladly\ntake up in conjunction with the National Education Association a\nthoro and practical investigation of all of these questions, and from our\njoint efforts should it not be possible to devise measures whereby the eyes\nof our children may be preserved without in any degree lessening their\n\n"}
{"page": 1077, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nOF THE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASS\n\n1061\n\nmental efficiency ? And not only without adding to the period of school\nlife, but by limiting waste effort and making more direct the methods of\ninstruction, we will actually lessen the length of time which is now spent\nin preparation for the work of life.\n\nWHAT\n\nKIND OF QUALIFICATIONS AND TRAINING SHOULD\nTHE TEACHER OF THE SPECIAL CLASS HAVE?\n\nCHARLES\n\nA.\n\nA.\n\nJ. MILLER,\n\nASSISTANT\nSUPERINTENDENT,\nBALTIMORE,\nMD.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIn the good qualifications and training of the teacher is the strength\nand hope of a class, in particular the special class. When casting about\nfor a teacher to put in charge of a special class one should look for certain\nqualifications and training. For the purpose of simpUfying the task there\nought to be an examination in regard to:\nA. Innate qualifications:\n1. Physical.\n2. Mmual.\n3. Mental.\n4. Moral.\n5. Spiritual.\nB. Acquired qualifications:\n1. A rich personality.\n2. A pedagogic sense.\n3. An insight into the mysteries of child-nature.\n\n• A good physique, good eyes, good ears, a good throat, a good voice,\nand general good health are prime physical requisites. Most school systems now require of candidates for positions a medical examination. If\nthe physique is bad, or there is a marked defect in any one of the senses or\nin the vocal apparatus of the applicant, he is rejected. Modern progressive\nteaching requires above all things a good healthy frame, a sound body. The\nwider the scope of studies, the richer the curriculum for any given class,\nthe more the teacher's physical endurance wDl be taxed. Physical culture,\noutdoor games, manual work, especially that in wood and metal, call for\nstrength on the part oi the instructor.\nA quick sharp eye and an acute ear are indispensable to good discipline.\nOne look flashed to a pupil speaking in an undertone may nip a rising\ndisorder in its bud. Eyes and ears save the teacher's energy and thus\nincrease his power for work.\nA good throat and a good voice are necessary, because the special\nchild must have much oral instruction. Furthermore he must be spoken\nto softly; harsh and rasping tones will of a certainty repel normal pupils\nand much more so the abnormal.\nThe benefits accruing to a class from the fine physical characteristics\nof their teacher will be greatly reduced if he does not enjoy general good\n\n"}
{"page": 1078, "printed_page": null, "text": "io62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nhealth. Frequent headaches, oft-contracted .colds, recurring attacks of\ndyspepsia, causing short periods of absence, interfere with good results in a\nregular class; and infinitely more so in a special class. Progress, if not\ninterrupted, is at least at a stand-still; the average substitute can hardly\nbe expected to take up the thread where the skillful teacher left off.\nHand in hand with the physical goes the manual equipment. Deft\nfingers and steady hands are needed to sketch and plan, to cut, and saw,\nto match and measure, to chisel and hammer, to carve and file — in fine,\nto turn out patterns and models for articles in paper, wood, and metal to\nbe made by the pupils. Without this manual dexterity there can be no\ncommand of the graphic art, of the use of crayon and pencil, beneficent\nhandmaids of the teaching art.\nYet no matter how sound the body, how dexterous the members, one\nmust still ask. Is there a sound mind ? Is this mind original or imitative ?\nIs it sluggish or quick ? Is it shallow or deep ? Is it befogged or clear ?\nCan it stand storm and stress, or does it give out readily and quickly?\nThe special-class teacher must possess an original, quick, deep, clear, and\nstrong mind for aggressive, progressive, and successful work. With this\noriginality, quickness, depth, clearness, and strength of perception and\ninsight into things must go an abundance of that indescribable \"sound\ncommon-sense.\"\nPhysical, manual, and mental qualities will produce but limited results\nif they are not accompanied by certain moral requisites.\nFirst and foremost, the teacher must be just, he must respect the child's\nrights, must not be guilty of partiality while pupils are reciting, are working\nwith tools or at the bench, or are engaged in play. Every pupil must\nknow that his teacher stands for fair play, that he will give everyone his\ndesert without fear or favor. His justice must be tempered with kindness.\nLaw and gospel must always be combined. After justice has been meted\nout there must be no more reproaching and upbraiding, the scholar must\nget carte blanche once more and bygones must be bygones.\nRegularity and punctuality must be pronounced; they are ancillary\nto order and good habit-building.\nThen, too, the teacher must possess good judgment and taste. He\nmust determine the correctness of conduct, of questions and answers,\nof plans and measures, of all kinds of handwork, of positions taken in games\nor of decisions rendered by game-leaders. Good taste will be exhibited\nin dress and personal appearance both of self and pupils, in the arrangement of room-furniture and in the selection of wall-decorations, A judicious and tasteful teacher is apt to make a judicious and tasteful pupil.\nDignity, authority, self-assurance, and power of initiative are further\nrequisites of every well-qualified teacher. With respect for and control\nof self comes dignity, which always lends authority. Neither dignity\nnor authority can operate effectively without confidence in self and the\n\n"}
{"page": 1079, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEE\n\nTEACHER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASS\n\n1063\n\npower to initiate. Lack of dignity will soon cause loss of authority, which\nloss cannot be made good by self-assurance and initiative. Authority\nonce gone, a teacher might as well give up his class.\nFearlessness is another link in the chain of moral qualifications. When\nright, neither friend nor enemy is to be feared; one must have the courage\nof his convictions at all times, in the presence of parents, visitors, supervisors, and other officials.\nTo crown the moral qualities so far enumerated, persistence is essential.\nOccasional acts of justice and kindness, regularity and punctuality once\nin a while, good judgment and taste at times, self-assurance and initiative\nhere and there, fearlessness in presence of inferiors, will avail little or\nnothing; but if persistently exercised in season and out of season will\nwork wonders.\nThus far I have protrayed a physically and morally strong and an\nintellectual person into whom must yet be breathed a living soul. This\nsoul must be of the missionary type, with a bountiful supply of good humor,\namiability, affection, love, patience, enthusiasm, and optimism. Such\nsoul-qualities will bring the teacher down to the niveau of the child, will\nlead him duly to weigh his pupil's experiences, joys, sorrows, and disappointments, will engender sympathy with the weak and abnormal, and will\nbring sunshine into the lives of such as would be cut low by many so-called\nphilanthropists.\nThe innate qualifications spoken of will grow with practice and experience and will help to create and develop a rich personality, a pedagogic\nsense, and an understanding of the mysteries of child-nature. These latter\nqualifications I termed acquired, because they are largely derived from the\nteacher's education and training. It goes without saying that there are\nvery few born teachersj or teachers self-made as one speaks of self-made\nbusiness-men, teachers that have not gotten at least a secondary-school\neducation or its equivalent.\nA teacher's natural personality may be pleasing and winning, but it\ncan become rich only by culture and by contact with other personalities.\nThis culture, to be true, must be wide and deep and will come to a large\nextent from a thoro and continued study of the Bible and the great masters\nin literature. Of course music and fine art must not be neglected. Four\nyears' communion with earnest, enthusiastic teachers will leave a mighty\nimpress upon the mind and soul of a candidate for the teaching profession,\nand will make strong character an important trait of personality. Two\nor four years of college training would further enrich the candidate's personality. But in the present status of public-school administration this\ncan hardly be required before he enters upon his professional training. The\naim, however, should be in that direction; for the richer one's personality,\nthe greater one's self-control, the greater one's freedom from domineering,\n•the greater one's independence and the greater the independence of one's\ndependents.\n\n"}
{"page": 1080, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 064\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Special\n\nProfessional training should be general and special in order to establish\na pedagogic sense and an understanding of the mysteries of child nature.\nBy general professional training I mean that gotten in a good normal\nschool, or teachers' training school, or by hard study and many years of\nexperience in classroom work. A fair knowledge of the history of education,\nof methodology and psychology must be required. Empiricism must be\nsupplanted by scientific and artistic teaching. To obtain this, two years'\ntraining and five month's practice work are not sufficient, but there should\ncertainly be five years of approved experience in the grades under competent supervision. General practice should always precede special practice;\nand, generally, unless there is proficiency and efficiency in general practice,\ngreat success in special practice cannot be looked for. If this is true in\nmedicine, law, and other professions, it surely is true in teaching. If a\nteacher is not successful in the grades, he will hardly succeed in an ungraded\nor special class, where special difiiculties are daily to be solved.\nWhat special training then is necessary for the special class ?\nThis depends largely upon the kind of class. To teach successfully\nthe blind, the deaf and dumb, defectives in hearing or speech, the highly\nnervous and certain classes of feeble-minded children, many years of practice in first-class institutions for such defectives is required. Still better\nwork would be accomplished if, besides the practice, the teacher had graduated from some training school for the teaching of defectives. Wherever\nconditions are such as will warrant the appointment of the graduate from a\nspecial school, it ought to be done.\nThere are other special classes to be formed and taught. Many pupils\npronounced mentally defective are only children that are backward, due\nto irregular attendance, imperfections in the school, and other causes not to\nbe found in their mental or physical organization. With these are to be\nclassed truants, incorrigibles, those affiicted with chorea, and certain\nkinds of epileptics and feeble-minded children'. Public-school systems are\nforced to care for the education of these children. For the present public\nopinion is not sufficiently educated to demand specialists for educating\nthese elements in the schools. It therefore becomes necessary to gather\nthem into small classes and select teachers for them that have many — if\nnot all — of the qualifications enumerated. Boards employing such earnest,\ngenerally well-equipped and trained teachers to do special work, should\nsend them to special schools, like Vineland, Plainfield, or the Orthogenic\nSchool of the University of Pennsylvania. Special children will thus be\nwell provided for and not much additional expense incurred for the maintenance of the schools.\nHaving thus described what some may call an ideal special-class teacher,\nit remains for me to say how near to this ideal one can get when making a\nchoice. There is a positive degree, a comparative, and a superlative. It\nis almost needless to state that the superlative is very seldom reached in\n\n"}
{"page": 1081, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASS\n\n1065\n\nany of the professions, that of teaching not excepted. If innate qualifications are good in any one applicant and he possesses a rich personality,\nhe can safely be accepted for special work. If one or two of the natural\nquahties are only fair, but the acquired, fine, the candidate can well be\nchosen. If all the qualifications are but fair and the soul qualities of the\napplicant good, the chances are that he will succeed. In every case great\nstress is to be laid on what I have called the spiritual equipment of the\nspecial teacher; and generally a woman is to be preferred to a man.\nDISCUSSION\nAlice Morrison Nash, principal, Education Department, New Jersey Training\nSchool Vineland, N.J. — Dr. Miller has covered the ground very thoroly in his excellent\npaper. However, there are two points I would emphasize even more strongly than Dr.\nMiller. One, the necessity of the mother love toward the child; the other, the necessity\nof specific training for the teacher.\nWithout this mother spirit, it matters not what one's ability or training may be—\nshe cannot succeed with little children, and particularly with \"special class\" children.\nWhen I was in Europe a year or two ago, a letter came to me one day from one of\nmy co-workers. At the end of the letter was a postscript, which read something like this:\n\"By the way, I almost forgot to tell you about Brant. He is our latest acquisition, and\na terror. Do come home soon. We have all exhausted our resources — ^perhaps you\nhave learned a new recipe for calming a whirlwind or stopping a flood.\"\nWhen I returned, the first time Brant and I met, we didn't exactly meet — I couldn't\ncatch him. He ran in and out of the seats, wanted to \"speak a piece\" on the stage, did\nnot want to go to his class, but insisted upon \"speaking the piece\" just as the children\nwere leaving the sides of the stage to go thru the Christmas drill. He also wanted to\ngo to the laboratory, hospital, store, and his cottage. He wanted to go over and see the\nsuperintendent, didn't feel well, wanted his watch, wanted to write to his mother, and\ncould he have his dinner. This all took place in less time than most of oiu: children are\nable to have one want. With infinite patience he was finally calmed down. A few\nminutes later, however, he saw a pen-knife which he \"borrowed,\" and just as the world\nwas looking brighter to him, his hand gently fingering his new treasure, the teacher\narrived. She missed her knife, and remembering Brant's fondness for such things,\nthought she had better interview him before looking further. No sooner did she approach\nhim than panic ensued. Brant was determined that nothing on earth could coax, wheedle,\nor wrest the knife from him. Everyone in the hall wondered whether he had fallen\ndown stairs, tripped over all the chairs in the building, or was simply on one of his daily\n\"bouts.\"\nThis is a sample of many, many mornings that followed — the full day required\ninfinite tact and patience on the part of the teacher, but most of all, the exercise of the\nmother-spirit. Brant is much better now — he is quieter and more easily controlled.\nHis bad spells come only on occasions, and we smile as we look back to his diary.\nLet me pause a moment and say at this point, that very frequently children are supposed to be naughty and disturbing, and are indeed so, because we fail to recognize the\nfact that they want attention and if they cannot get it in good ways, they will get it by\nnotoriety, which to them means about the same thing.\nTake courage. We all have our problems, and the how to solve these problems\ndepends upon as many different things as does life itself. There can be no fixed rule.\n\"We must all work out our own salvation,\" ever keeping before us three thoughts:\n\"Happiness is the surest road to success\"; \"We\n\"Mercy must temper judgment\";\n\n"}
{"page": 1082, "printed_page": null, "text": "io66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nmust always aim for ea-pression, and not /-e-pression.\" The mother because of her\nmother -love realizes and calls for expression; the teacher too frequently thinks she must\nrepress, and gets a child looking for notoriety.\nOften I am asked, \"How can you let them touch you?\" These children are not\neven repulsive to those who know and understand them. Their looks, dispositions,\nhabits, are accepted as part of their defectiveness, altho we try as far as possible to correct\nthem. It is not for us to see and abhor, but for us to see and train. To do this, our\nfirst work is to gain the confidence of the child, and make him wish to do, not thru fear,\nbut thru love. Once we make him recognize the fact that we understand him and are\nworking for him, real progress can be made.\nOne other thing that the teacher of the special class must have for her work to be\neffective, and that is, special training. We do not believe because a teacher can sing\nsongs, that she can teach music, or because she went to a kindergarten as a child, that\nshe is competent to teach kindergarten. We do not expect any of the special lines of training from teachers who have not special qualifications for those lines, plus special training.\nWe are all slowly realizing that the little children need the best teachers, but we have\nnot yet come to a full realization of the fact that the special child has been the problem\nof the public schools for years, just because the regular grade teachers have not been\ntrained to understand him.\nYou all know of many cases of so-called incorrigibility, of truancy, of stubbornness,\nand of stupidity that have been set aright after the medical inspector has finished with\nthe child. While the work of sorting out is slowly progressing, there are still to be found,\nin many special classes, the blind and the deaf, the moron and the imbecile, the merely\nbackward child, and the so-called incorrigible. Any teacher who undertakes to train\nthis heterogeneous mass must have a pretty definite knowledge of the material with which\nshe is to work. She must know the training and methods in vogue in the best institutions of the country; she must know what mental deficiencies mean, how caused, bow\nthey may be overcome. She should know how to make simple tests of the special senses\nand how to train them to their higheet development. She should have had enough practical work in the study of individual children, to enable her to go about it in a way to get\nresults.\nThe period of years thru which training is possible with the mental defective is\nshorter than wuth the normal child, because the rate of development is slower. Therefore the child must not lose because the teacher has not learned her lesson. Slowly we\nare coming to realize how very little of the so-called \"mental training\" these children\nare capable of taking, and how much they advance in work that requires the use of the\nhand and the body.\nWith proper knowledge to back her, the teacher reaches the point where the backward child is no longer discouraging. She sees clearly his possibihties and feels her\nability to bring him out of himself, and her heretofore passive sympathy becomes active,\nand directed by a knowledge of the actual need she becomes indeed a power for good, to\nhelp society to rid itself of the mental defectives who are sapping its very foundations.\nTeaching and acting as one having authority, she can advise, direct, and accomplish real\nthings.\n\n"}
{"page": 1083, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nORALISM\n\nORALISM\nHARRIS\n\nTAYLOR,\n\nIN\n\nIN ORAL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nORAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF THE INSTITUTION\n\nOF DEAF-MUTES,\n\n1067\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nFOR THE\n\nIMPROVED\n\nCITY, N.Y.\n\nMethods of instructing the deaf may be broadly classified as oral,\nsilent, and mixed. The oral method employs speech and speech-reading\nas means of instruction, the silent method uses finger-spelling and the sign\nlanguage, and the mixed method appropriates, whatever it desires from\nthe oral and the silent method. Writing has a prominent place in each of\nthese methods. Schools for the deaf may be designated according to their\nmethods, as oral, silent, and mixed. Ignoring one small silent school, we\nmay say that approximately four-fifths of the deaf are educated in mixed\nschools and one-fifth in oral schools. In mixed schools fully one-half of\nthe pupils are taught wholly or chiefly by the oral method, and of the\nremainder, three-fourths are taught by the silent method.\nI have the honor to be at the head of the oldest oral school in America,\nand I am a year or two older than the school I represent. Today there\nare more than eighty oral schools in the United States, and the number is\nincreasing every year. In 1892 only 20 per cent, of the children in our\nschools for the deaf were taught by the oral method; today more than 60\nper cent, are taught orally. When the schools for the deaf reopen next\nfall most of the new pupils will be placed in oral classes.\nThese figures indicate a growing recognition of the superiority of the\noral method. Oral teachers in mixed schools have to contend against\nunfavorable conditions not found in schools where only the oral method\nexists. I have paved the way for announcing my belief that the best schools\nfor the deaf are oral schools, and now I wish to tell you wherein oral schools\nare not so good as they should be.\nA large number of pupils in oral schools are able to converse readily\nwith nearly every person they meet. A larger number who use speech\nand speech-making freely with their intimate acquaintances, find more or\nless difficulty in understanding strangers. Others, while materially benefited by oral instruction, are, in all kindness, very poor lip-readers.\nAn oral school should not be judged by the few graduates it sends to\nhigh schools and colleges, but by what it does for the rank and file of its\npupils. Candor compels me to say that many of our pupils fall sadly short\nof the desired proficiency in reading the lips. Children vary; as speechreaders some have ten talents and some five talents, but something is\nwrong when a child hides one talent in a napkin. Making very few exceptions on account of imbecility and partial or total blindness, I believe that\ninability to read the lips is due to inferior teaching or unfortunate conditions\nrather than to any inherent defect of the child.\nMany teachers in communicating with poor lip-readers resort to an unnecessary amount of writing. It very often happens that pupils who require\n\n"}
{"page": 1084, "printed_page": null, "text": "io68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nthe most practice in lip-reading are afforded the fewest opportunities for\nbecoming proficient. The less writing the teacher does, the less writing\nshe will find necessary. The cure for poor lip-reading is more lip-reading.\nThe attitude of the teacher often insures failure. If she shows that she\ndoes not expect pupils to understand, they will rarely disappoint her.\nPoor lip-reading is often due to lack of concentration. Some teachers\nrarely have to repeat, while other teachers have to tell nearly everything\ntwo or three times before all the pupils understand. The difference is in\nthe teachers rather than in the pupils. When the teacher commands strict\nattention, she has to repeat very little; when the teacher does not command\nstrict attention, everything has to be told over and over.\nThe teacher is constantly tempted to shield the pupil by shaping her\nlanguage in the way most easily understood. This gives a stereotyped\nphraseology which seriously retards the child's progress when thrown with\npersons who use the language of the hearing world. Governed by the\nsame motive, teachers occasionally seem afraid to give the child more than\na few words at a time. There should be less simple question and answer\nwork and more extended discourse on the part of both teachers and pupils.\nExaggerated motions of the lips, jaw, and facial muscles give the child\nan erroneous idea of the movements necessary to produce correct articulation. It is not desirable to speak so slowly that each consonant stands by\nitself and each vowel is resolved into a diphthong. Distinct speech, without\n\"mouthing,\" and as rapidly as in ordinary conversation is what the deaf\nchild should expect from the teacher. In addition to this, the child should\nhave all possible practice in reading the lips of those who speak with less\naccuracy.\nProfessor Giulio Ferreri says, \"Speech-reading is not to be taught, but\nonly to be practiced.\" Practice in speech-reading should begin as early as\npossible and the more practice the better; but under the most favorable\ncircumstances this practice does not meet the conditions of some, while\nothers labor under circumstances that are very unfavorable. Systematic\ndrill is often of material advantage, because it enables the pupil to obtain in\nthe most economical way the particular kind of practice he needs. This\ndrill should be very largely of syllabic combinations utilized in the formation of words, phrases, and sentences.\nPersons unfamiliar with the deaf cannot always understand the monotonous speech of children who have never heard. There are times when even\na teacher has difficulty in understanding pupils whom she has never taught.\nWhere there is no accent, no inflection, no emphasis, nothing except a dull,\nslow movement of syllables, the greatest accuracy of positions is likely to\nresult in a monotony far from pleasing. This same movement without\nsome accuracy of position is intelligible to a few teachers who can understand any noise produced by a deaf child, but it is not always intelligible\nto the rest of the world.\n\n"}
{"page": 1085, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORALISM\n\nIN\n\nORAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1069\n\nThese conditions are most likely to exist in schools where the element\nmethod is used, where the child learns to pronounce each sound, or element,\nseparately and later combines these sounds in a way that is not always\nmusical to the ear.\nThe condition is different where the word method is used. There we\nfind more continuity and greater flexibility. The flow of sounds is more\nrapid, more regular, and with larger freedom. The trouble is, we also find\na higher percentage of inaccuracies. Considering the worst cases, in the\n\"element\" school we hear most difficult EngHsh and in the \"word\" school\nwe hear what appears to be more fluent speech but in a foreign tongue.\nA few advocates of the word method take the position that the child\nwill speak more accurately as he grows older, just as the hearing child does.\nSome even go so far as to say, \"Treat the deaf child exactly as if he could\nhear.\" To a limited extent this is good advice; but we should never forget\na point of difference between the normal and deaf child — one can hear and\nthe other cannot. When a normal child's attention is called to his errors\nof articulation, his hearing will usually enable him to correct them; but\nthe deaf child who can be guided only by memory of position, is not going to\nimprove to the same extent. A few prominent positions he can correct\nfrom observing other persons, but many positions are partially hidden\nfrom view, and he will necessarily take these positions as he first learned\nthem or else make sounds at random.\nIn the beginning the deaf child should be given a course of vocal gymnastics to enable him to control his tongue, lips, and other vocal organs.\nWhen the desired control is obtained, the child is ready for the elements of\nspeech. Each of these should be made with the greatest possible accuracy.\nCombination of elements should begin immediately after the second\nelementary sound has been acquired. As soon as the first vowel is learned\nthe combinations should be of a syllabic nature. \"A few elementary sounds\ncan possibly be learned more readily in combination, but here the correct\nposition should be definitely fixed by varying the combinations until the\ndesired element is clearly differentiated.\nDr. Alexander Graham Bell has frequently told us that a single indefinite vowel is sufficient for intelligible speech, provided the consonants are\nformed*\ncorrectly.\nThus curructlu.\nus tru but unfurtunutlu ur pupuls du nut ulwus\nfurm thur\ncunsununts\nSir Morell Mackenzie says, \"'Take care of the vowels and the consonants will take care of themselves' is a maxim that is scarcely an exaggeration.\" Idith bewy dwoo dad koot vowels are ob imbordanth. If the\ndeaf always formed their consonants accurately we might ignore the vowels,\nif they used perfect vowels we could be lax with the consonants; but,\nsince neither is the case, the necessity for careful training in both consonants\nand the vowels is apparent to the teacher of articulation.\nAccent and emphasis do not receive deserved attention early enough to\n\n"}
{"page": 1086, "printed_page": null, "text": "loyo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nbe used to the greatest advantage. It is not desirable that all elements\nshould have equal force — some should be slurred — but it is desirable that\nthe important elements should be emphasized. It matters very little\nwhether I say desirable, desirable, dusirable, dlsirable, desirable, desirtble,\ndesirable or desiruble. The importance lies in making the i long and in\naccenting the proper syllable. With intelligent grouping of words in the\nsentence and with correct accent and emphasis, the speech of the deaf can\nbe improved many fold.\nThe teacher should endeavor to learn the normal pitch of each child's\nvoice. By doing this she is better prepared to take steps to prevent the\nchild from pitching his voice ruinously high or low.\nAbove all, we should strive to develop to the utmost the head resonances.\nHerein, I believe, lies the greatest improvement of the voice in the future.\nDeaf children frequently use unnecessary muscles while speaking. In\nmany cases, especially during the earlier years, the teacher should cultivate\nrepose in the child and show him that it is not necessary to speak with his\nwhole body. Much practice in easy familiar words or nonsensical combinations will often prove beneficial. The voices of many young children\nare very weak, and shouting, or loudness, is responsible for much of the\ndisastrous constriction of the muscles of the throat and back of the mouth.\nEvery oral teacher should strive to develop muscular sense in the vocal\norgans.\nIt is this muscular sense which, in the case of those of our pupils who have no speech\nwhen they come to us, guides the movements of their vocal apparatus while imitating\nthe sounds of speech, and as they depend upon it entirely and use it continually, it becomes\nvery acute in a very short time.\n(D. Greene.)\n\nWith this muscular sense, the teacher has only to imitate an incorrect\nsound in order to know in what way the articulation is faulty. Without\nthis muscular sense, the teacher will know that something is wrong, but\nshe may not have the faintest idea of the nature of the defect. When you\ndon't know what to do in articulation teaching, do nothing. We want\na watch to keep good time, but we are not likely to improve the condition of the watch by using a monkey-wrench to repair it in the dark.\nExperiments are necessary if we hope to progress ; but we may think\nwe are experimenting when we are only tinkering. Before experinienting\nwith a deaf child, we should know definitely what results we are trying to\nobtain and whether or not the child can be injured by the test. We cannot\nfollow the rule to \"try it first on the dog,\" but we can usually try it first on\nourselves.\nContempt for details is responsible for many faults of oral teaching.\nOther faults occasionally are due to lack of imagination. A certain teacher\nwas trained by So-and-So, So-and-So being a star of the first magnitude\nin the oral heavens. This teacher never questions the reason, but does\nexactly what So-and-So told her to do under certain circumstances.\nIf\n\n"}
{"page": 1087, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORALISM\n\nIN ORAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1 07 1\n\nsatisfactory, the results are a vindication of the expedient; if unsatisfactory,\nthe child is stupid and should be put in a lower class.\nWhile hard-working and conscientious, a number of teachers seem to\nthink they are accomplishing about all that can be expected in oral teaching.\nOralism is a blessing to the deaf, and these teachers deserve greater reward\nthan they shall ever receive on this earth; but after all they \"see thru a\nglass darkly.\" When every deaf child in America can understand what a\nperson says from his shadow on the wall and can be understood by every\nEnglish-speaking visitor, then, and not till then, may we fold our hands and\nwith complacency say we have done all that can be desired of an oral\nschool.\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Sarah Jordan Monro, special teacher of speech and voice-training, Horace\nMann School for the Deaf, Boston, Mass. — The first point considered by the writer of\nthe previous article is that of speech-reading.\nHe says:\nI believe that inability to read the Hps is due to inferior teaching or unfortunate\nconditions rather than to any inherent defect of the child.\nI agree fully with the writer that this is the case — inferior teaching or unfortunate\nconditions.\nA child of average ability, or even one somewhat below the normal, can become a\ngood speech-reader if he is taught by a good method, by a teacher who applies it intelligently, and is given unlimited practice.\n\"Many teachers,\" says the writer, \"resort to an unnecessary amount of writing.\"\nI would avoid everything that is unnecessary, for the time for work with the deaf children\nis all too short, but in class teaching the danger of conveying wrong impressions thru\nspeech, unaided by writing, is so serious that I would not advise less writing.\nI would require a pupil to try over and over again, and then let him see in writing that\nwhich he has failed to decipher from the lips.\nPupils dififer in their attitude toward speech-reading; some are too distrustful of\ntheir ability to know and, while understanding a part of what is said, will not venture to\nrepeat the remark. To such as these the teacher's writing gives confidence. It also\nshows them the slight differences that exist in the elements of speech,\n\"Practice in speech-reading should begin as early as possible,\" says the writer. It\ndoes begin with the first lesson in speech, for while the teacher is showing the child how\nto control and guide his tongue she is teaching the reading of speech.\nThe point that concentration is necessary is well taken. Concentration is at the\nfoundation of good speech-reading, for nothing in this or in any line of attainment can\nbe accomplished without fixing thought upon it.\nA skillful reader of speech gets the statement as a whole. It flashes out upon him\nfrom the face and mouth of the speaker much as the words of an electric sign flash out\nbefore our eyes. We see it suddenly and as a whole.\nRapidity on the part of the speaker is very desirable from the first, even if only one\nor two elements be spoken.\nThat which the writer says about exaggeration is excellent. Exaggeration is one\nevils in speech, for, as the word indicates, it takes us \"ex,\" away from, the\nthe\nof\nnormal greatest\nwhich it is our aim to reach.\nThe part of the paper which has the greatest interest for me is that in which the\nwriter refers to monotonous speech. Let us consider for a moment what constitutes\nagreeable speech in a hearing person.\n\n"}
{"page": 1088, "printed_page": null, "text": "I072\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nGood speech must have a clear, pure tone, not too high or too low in pitch, neither\ntoo loud nor yet too soft to be easily heard, distinct enunciation, proper accent, rhythmic\nfluency which includes phrasing and change of pitch, also expression which has to do with\ninflection and quality of tone. Behind all this there is the controlling power, an active\nmind, sitting, as it were, on its throne dominating all.\nHow does the speech of a deaf child differ from this I have described ?\nMost of all it lacks change of pitch and expression.\nThink of the change of pitch in the statement, \"It is raining.\"\nIf we are indifferent, we say, \"It is raining\"; if surprised, we say \"It is raining\";\nif disappointed we express it in still another way.\nThe difference in inflection comes from our mental attitude.\nThe best teachers of the deaf today are able to get distinct enunciation, an agreeable\nquality of tone, in most cases a good conversational pitch, proper accent, and a certain\nkind of fluency, but the question least studied is how to give to speech that variation\nwhich thought and emotion impart to the speech of hearing persons.\nPsychologists tell us that in the act of thinking the mind proceeds from idea to idea\nby a series of pulsations which are rhythmic. We rest upon one idea, then leap to another\naccording to the association of ideas, and this spontaneously causes a leap in the voice.\nIf these changes in pitch, together with tone-color, depend upon the way we think\nand the degree of vividness in thinking, why is hearing absolutely necessary to gain these\npoints ?\nIt is said by a teacher who trains the voices of hearing persons that the reason the\ndeaf do not vary the pitch is that they have been taught objectively, and the mind is in\na mechanical attitude. The making of tone with them is not the spontaneous expression\nof the action of their minds.\nJust think of the time and of the money spent by persons who hear, to improve the\nquality of their voices and to correct defects of speech!\nIt is not right for us as teachers to neglect to give to the deaf the very best training\nin this direction and a great deal of it.\n\n"}
{"page": 1089, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nPATRONS\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— Miss Laura Drake Gill, president Association of Collegiate Alumnae. .Boston, Mass.\nVice-President — Mrs. Hugo Rosenberg\nPittsburg, Pa.\nSecretary — Mrs. Orville T. Bright\n*\nChicago, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday Morning, July 6, 19 lo\nThe Department was called to order in Trinity Parish House by the president, Miss\nLaura Drake Gill, who stated the reasons for holding an informal conference in preference to presenting a formal program at this time. The appointment of a Committee\non Nominations was announced as the only business to come before the meeting. It\nwas moved, seconded, and carried that a nominating committee of five be appointed by\nthe President.\nAppointments were made as follows:\nMiss Dimmick, Alabama, Chairman (Southern Association of College Women).\nMrs. Goulston, Massachusetts (Council of Jewish Women).\nMrs. Barnum, New York (Association of Collegiate Alumnae).\nMrs. Rice (Congress of Mothers).\nMiss Carpenter, Tennessee (Federation of Women's Clubs).\nThe president then introduced Miss Dimmick, president of the Southern Association\nof College Women, who gave a greeting from the South and outlined briefly the work\nof her association in its effort to raise the standard of the southern colleges, and thru\nthe colleges, the preparatory schools.\nA resume of the work done by the various state committees of the department was\ngiven by the president and supplementary reports were made by Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum, of Los Angeles, Cal.; Miss Bernd, of Macon, Ga.; Mrs. W. L. Smith, of Massacljusetts; Mrs. N. C. Barnum, of New York; and Miss Carpenter, of Tennessee,\nMiss Adams, of Smith College, gave a brief address on \"Citizens' Co-operation,\" and\nMiss Ednah A. Rich, president of the State Normal School of Manual Arts and Home\nEconomics, Santa Barbara, Cal., outlined the work of that institution and advocated the\nlarger use of the school equipment as well as the extension of manual-training teaching\nto younger children.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— FRro AY Morning, July 8, 19 10\n\nThe department was called to order by the president.\nClark W. Hetherington, professor of physical education, Columbia, Mo., gave an\ninformal address on the value of playgrounds and the means of getting them, giving a\nbrief history of the work in Missouri, and setting forth as the two essentials of success\nthe co-operation of the mothers and the securing of properly qualified directors.\nMrs. O. Shepard Barnum, of Los Angeles,\n1073 Cal., was called upon to present points\nfor home co-operation as indicated in the outlines of future work given by the state committees.\n\n"}
{"page": 1090, "printed_page": null, "text": "I074\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nA discussion of the points presented for possible home co-operation in the program\nof the Department of Physical Education was given by Miss Lord, and Dr. Robbins, of\nNew York.\nMiss Carpenter, Dr. Robbins, and Mrs. Goulston reported upon suggestions for\nhome co-operation gathered in the meetings of the Child Study Department.\nMrs. 0. Shepard Barnum reported upon the meetings of the National Council of\nEducation as follows:\nThe ofl&cial recommendations of the National Education Association in 1908 and\n1909 favored industrial training, attention to exceptional children, moral education,\nphysical education, and the use of school plants as social centers. In accordance with\nthis progressive policy the Council this year seems to have devoted its attention almost\nexclusively to these great problems. All the papers and discussions involve matters in\nwhich the community and the home should help. All the papers would be valuable to\nus for practical suggestions. It is impossibly to go into detail here. Suffice it to say\nthat the approval of this great body of expert educators would indicate that we should\nbegin this year and not stop until industrial training is introduced and adequately supported everywhere in the particular form desired by local school authorities; until exceptional children are everywhere scientifically handled; until medical inspection and\nsupervision are universal; until moral training, in whatever form the schools approve, has\ncome to prevail.\nThe possibilities of community and home helpfulness thru the \"Economic Use of\nEducation Plants\" was especially apparent. The plan presented for using the school\nbuildings for \"the greatest good for the greatest number,\" for using them day and evening, ummer and winter, for study and work and play, seemed little short of ideal. Indoor\nplay space, roof playgrounds, rooms that could be thrown together, equipped with adjustable tables and desks, room provided with one entire side that could be opened to the\nair — all at the disposal of the children, the young people, and the adults of the neighborhood, yet all carefully supervised, presented an alluring picture of community gain from\nthe schools which we should strive to reproduce everywhere.\nThe report of the nominating committee was called for and the committee presented\nthe name of Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum, of Los Angeles, Cal., for president; the remaining\nofficers of the department holding over for another year. The report was accepted and\nMrs. Barnum was unanimously elected. The following resolution was read and on\nmotion adopted:\nResolved, That the department authorize the administration of its affairs for the\ncoming year by an Executive Committee composed of the three department officers and\nfive other members to be appointed respectively by the national presidents of the General\nFederation of Women's Clubs, the National Congress of Mothers, the Council of Jewish Women, the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, and the Southern Association of\nCollege Women.\nA motion that each president of a national organization represented in the department be instructed to name and report a member for each state committee on or before\nOctober i for the year 19 10, and on or before June i for succeeding years was made and\ncarried.\nIt was moved and seconded that an acting vice-president be named to serve during\nthe extended absence of the vice-president.\nCarried.\nMrs. Caesar Misch was nominated and unanimously elected acting vice-president.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nMrs. Orville T. Bright, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 1091, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nPATRONS\n\n1075\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1909-1910\nLAURA DRAKE GILL, PRESIDENT, ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGIATE\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nPATRONS\nALUMNAE\n\nTo reduce the great duplication of addresses at our annual convention\na formal program by this department has been waived for this year, in the\nconviction that our members may find in the programs of the Council, and\nof the Departments of School Administration, Child Study, and Physical\nEducation, such valuable suggestions as we should seek for any independent\nprogram.\nThis has left us our full allotment of time for informal discussion of what\nwe have already done, and of the best ways of doing yet more in the coming\nyear.\nSeveral state committees have failed to render formal reports of work\nwhich the officers personally know to have been successfully done. In\nspite of this personal knowledge it seems wise to refrain from reporting\nthis work, and to confine this statement strictly to such matter as the\ncommittees have presented in official shape. We must, however, record\nour regret at these known, and other probable unknown, omissions of\nactual achievement.\nInstead of a formal presidential address I beg to offer the following\nabstract of our year's accomplishment as gleaned from the reports of the\nchairmen of the various state committees:\nArkansas. — Committee has published bi-monthly articles on subjects connected\nwith the educational needs of the state. These have been sent to three hundred newspapers and have been printed by an average of about one hundred. It also worked for\nthe attendance of people, who should be interested in education, at the meeting at Little\nRock of the Conference on Education in the South.\nCalifornia. — (i) As a result of the Health and Development Supervision law which\nthe committee helped to secure last year, the work has been introduced this year into\nthe schools of Redlands, Pomona, San Jose, Santa Rosa, Berkeley, Oakland, Claremont,\nand Monrovia under the t)oards of education; in San Franciso and Fresno under the\nboards of health. It is now planned for Chico and Sacramento. Previous to the passage\nof the law it had been undertaken in Los Angeles, Pasadena, and Santa Monica. (2) Two\nmeasures have been placed under discussion, after consultation with the school authorities, in readiness for the session of the legislature next year: (o) Teachers' pensions;\n(b) A changed basis for county superintendents from general election to some strictly\nprofessional selection by the school board. (3) Letters and telegrams have been sent\nin advocacy of a Federal Children's Bureau and a Bureau of Health. (4) Fourteen\nChild Labor Scholarships have been supported, averaging $3.00 a week for a year, usually\ngiven to children between twelve and fourteen years of age to keep them from premature\nwork and to continue school advantages; sixty-nine investigations made; help given in\nvarious ways.\n(5) School bond issues have been successfully aided in some localities.\n\n"}
{"page": 1092, "printed_page": null, "text": "1076\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\n(6) Some investigation has been begun of the California statistics concerning school\nattendance, truancy, child labor, and relative number of children in the various grades.\nIndustrial and agricultural education advocated and especially moral training. Taken\nby towns the special work is:\nLos Angeles. — (i) Valuable co-operation by the parent-teachers' associations, with a\nday nursery. The school board furnished ground and building, the women gave the\nequipment and nurse. (2) An \"emergency committee\" has co-operated with the Associated Charities in furnishing clothing, books, and medical care to school children. (3)\nEquipment now furnished (not all done this year, however) for one hundred and six\nelementary-school playgrounds, and many buildings ornamented and grounds improved.\n(4) Influence brought to buy additional ground for schools of the old (factory) type.\n(5) A continuous and remarkable decrease in the number of suspensions and cases of\ncorporal punishment, attributed to the special schools and the influence of mothers.\n(6) Penny lunches in several schools.\nSan Francisco. — (i) Public kindergarten established. (2) Obtained police prohibition of immoral dances in cafes. (3) Is working for reduction of price for children at\nLurline Swimming Baths. (4) Obtained authorization for special school for twentyfour backward children. (5) Protested against repeal of nickel-in-the-slot machine prohibition. (6)Worked for Bureau of Health and Federal Children's Bureau. (7) Ordinance carried against the sale and use of mixed confetti. (8) Obtained reduction of price\nof Golden Gate Playground Concession for Children to three rides for a nickel. (9) Carried bond issue for Polytechnic High School. (10) Caused passed, and have generally\nissued copies of, the ordinance regulating moving-picture shows. (11) Have caused\nintroduced into Board of Education budget a request for $10,000 for an open-air school.\n(12) Shower bath installed at the Parental School. (13) Suggested and obtained column\nin school-census blank reporting children gainfully employed.\nGeorgia. — Has issued a leaflet, outhning the legislative work for which support is\nneeded, and the special points upon which a definite pubHc opinion is called for.\nIowa. — (i) Introduced some industrial work in twenty-four schools; medical inspection in two schools; two school gardens. (2) Organized parents' associations jind seven\nschool libraries. (3) Served as truant officers in two towns. (4) Did regular work in\nschool visiting in two towns.\nKentucky. — (i) Has continued last year's policy of working for consolidation and\ngrading of country schools, wherever practicable. (2) Gave active support to goodroads movement as a preliminary measure to consolidation. (3) Since high schools\nwere made obligatory in every county two years ago, the committee has worked for a\nstandard of tabulating and supplying leaflets to every country club and to school officers\nupon the various college requirements. (4) The extension of women's organizations to\nnew towns, in order to have active bodies definitely founded for educational work.\nMaryland. — Studying the school attendance laws and conditions in the various\ncounties.\nMassachusetts. — ^No organized work, but each organization has been working\neffectively.\nNearly one hundred parents' associations have been formed.\nMichigan. — Is co-operating with a Schoolmasters' Committee and the Michigan\nState Grange to carry a fundamental revision of school laws thru the state legislature of\nigii. The aims are removal of city schools from politics, centralization of rural schools\nand medical inspection. Four bills are now being considered by the various organizations\nand are arousing public interest and discussion.\nMinnesota. — Have worked with several bodies and secured advance in: (i) Establishment of supervised playgrounds; (2) children's gardening and tree planting; (3)\nmore hygienic schoolrooms, including (a) medical inspection, {h) banishment of common\ndrinking-cup. (Plan for next year is a direct social pledge for help to children, on recom-\n\n"}
{"page": 1093, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPATRONS\n\n1077\n\nmendation of teachers, at critical age of deciding about life's plans and continuation in\nschool.)\nNew Jersey.— (i) Petition for introduction of instruction in home economics and\nhousehold arts in state normal schools. (2) Wide-spread study of legislative conditions\non all education, child labor, and children's court procedures.\nNew Mexico.— Decided to work for better primary education, even tho it means\ntemporary curtaihnent of expenses for higher education. Resolutions sent to every\nnewspaper in the territory and to all women's clubs, urging better ventilation of schoolrooms and regular physical exercises.\nNew York. — Carefully chosen advisory committee of laymen, believing it better\nto keep it a laymen's movement.\nNorth Carolina.— Continued work for child-labor legislation, emphasizing more\ndefinite and effective form. Correspondence with clubs in regard to extending medical\ninspection. Chairman prepared a series of leaflets on hygiene to be printed by the State\nDepartment of Instruction for distribution among school children. At a later meeting\na report was given of correspondence with the clubs, and medical inspection was decided\nupon for next year's work.\nOregon. — Studied returns of last year's questions to every school about sanitary\nconditions. Direct relations of helpfulness have been established with about one-half\nof the thirty-three county superintendents. Committee drew up circular letter to all\nmembers of schools boards suggesting sanitary points to be considered in putting up new\nbuildings or remodeling old ones; also suggesting rules for sanitarj- care of the buildings\nand grounds.\nTennessee. — (i) Is co-operating with the Southern Conference of Women and\nChild Labor; also (2) with the school improvement work which is organized under the\nState Board of Education; (3) worked for the birth-registration bill, which was passed;\nand (4) are now working for a proposed general-medical-inspection bill.\nUtah. — (i) Attention drawn to fact that no woman was on either Board of Education of Salt Lake, or on Board of Regents of the University of Utah, while it is legal.\nThere are, however, women on the boards of the Utah Institute, Agricultural College,\nand institutions and Commission for Blind. (2) Study made of age and reasons for\nearly leaving of school and its relation to the curriculum. (3) Report on fire and sanitary\nconditions and care of the seventeen grade-school buildings in Salt Lake City. The report\non structural defects is not yet ready.\nVermont. — (i) Established two scholarships at the State Normal School. (2) Advocated medical inspection. (3) Urged laws for regulating the tenure of office and a minimum wage for teachers.\nWest Virginia. — ^Worked for enforcement of an existing law requiring the state\nand county medical socieites to inform teachers of cases of infectious or contagious diseases.\nWisconsin. — (i) Worked for investigation and centralization of rural schools.\n(2) Organized general study of teachers'-pension bill. (3) Working for minimum wage\nfor teachers and for women on school boards.\n\nThis shows eighteen active state committees, five of whom formed their\norganization during the year.\nOrganized, but not reported. — Alabama, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware,\nDistrict of Columbia, lUinois, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and Virginia\nhave been reported as organized, but have sent in no report.\nNot organized. — Arizona, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Maine,\nNorth Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South\nCaroKna, South Dakota, Texas, Washington, and Wyoming have not reported any organization for the year.\n\n"}
{"page": 1094, "printed_page": null, "text": "1078\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\nMRS.\n\nO.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE\n\nSHEPARD\n\nBARNUM,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCOMING\nLOS\n\n[School Patrons\n\nYEAR\n\nANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nThe wisdom of the proverb \"Well begun is half-done\" is of comforting\nsignificance for us today. Our able and distinguished president, Miss\nGill, has laid solid foundations, and laid them wide and deep. Under her\nexpert leadership this new Department of School Patrons has found a\nplace of sympathy and esteem in the National Education Association\nfamily. A policy of prudence has been established, of seeking and following scholarly standards, of regard for constituted authorities, of impersonal\nstriving for results. Notable among her wise provisions is her plan of\ndepartment work during this convention, in accordance with which our\nmembers have attended various general and department meetings, and\nhave brought to our Round-Table Conferences reports of instruction given\nby National Education Association speakers concerning matters especially\nneeding home and community co-operation. These reports will afford\nus systematically the means of carrying out our one fixed policy, the one\narticle of our creed, which is to advocate and aid only such educational\nundertakings as are desired by the school authorities themselves.\nFrequently, in this convention, we have heard it said: \"All educational\nreforms have begun at the top and worked downward.\" From what we\nhave heard \" at the top \" it would seem that the educational millenium would\nindeed be at hand if we could get done everywhere all the good things that\nare advocated and reported as successfully done somewhere.\nUnfortunately we hear also many expressions of concern because the\nmovement \"from the top downward\" seems painfully slow.\nFor instance, a high officer of the National Education Association said\nlast year (p. 412 of the volume of Proceedings, 1909):\n. In theory the school system has changed so as to meet these conditions, in part at\nleast. In point of fact there is no one of our human institutions but has undergone a\ngreater and more far-reaching change than has the school. It is true that certain schools\nhave struck an entirely \"new gait.\" .... For the most part, however, and among\nthe rank and file the country over, the practices of today are quite similar to those in\nvogue in the times of our fathers.\n\nRepeatedly this week we have heard the wish that teachers had more\ntime and strength so that they might arouse increased public interest in\nsome vitally needed work. It is just here that we should help. The\nDepartment of School Patrons, working thru strong existing organizations\nin every community in the country, can arouse widespread public interest\nand support for these noble and urgently needed educational undertakings.\nThey can greatly increase the speed with which the progressive movement\npasses from the National Education Association mountain-top to the\nvalley and the plains.\n\n"}
{"page": 1095, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMING\n\nYEAR\n\n1079\n\nThere are, then, for the coming year, these big, progressive measures\nthat require the enlistment of public interest and support.\nThere is also urgent need of a simple remedy that will relieve a great\nmany difficulties. It is the sympathetic, systematic bringing together of\nthe parents and teachers of each group of school children. Then the medical supervisors and nurses can teach the mothers up-to-date methods in\nthe care of their homes and their children, from cleaning teeth to breathing fresh air. Then the requirements of mental and moral hygiene can be\nexplained. Wrong customs in matters of amusements, companionship,\ndress, idleness, extravagance, manners, can be changed quite readily when\nall the elders in a school and neighborhood group combine and quietly\nexert concerted influence. The source of weakness at present is the gap\nbetween the jurisdiction of parents and teachers due to undefined boundaries— a gap thru which the children fall or mischievously wriggle. Some\nmothers are to blame but most are genuinely perplexed. In this day of\nspecialization the entire direction of the young has been confidently handed\nover to the teacher as the educational specialist. From kindergarten to\ncollege this deference is expected and given. Now, a new division of labor\nmust be arranged on this basis, a division in which the teacher specialist\ndirects, and the home applies.\nThe function of the state conference committees in all this co-operative\nwork seems comparable to that of the famous Committees of Correspondence of Revolutionary times — tho, of course, at a respectful distance.\nSimple and unimpressive in numbers they nevertheless make known the\nneeds of the cause — general, state, local. They ascertain from local school\nauthorities the desired work; they refer this to the volunteer organization\nwhich in that locality is strongest or best adapted to the particular project.\nThus they are of great service in unifying, in preventing ill-advised action,\nin saving duplication of effort.\nWe are told that the same chemical forces produce damaging rust if too\nslow, dangerous explosion if too fast, bright useful flame if properly controlled. So community feeling toward the school is in many places sluggish\nto the point of apathy or corroding criticism. In very many other places\nit has become so suddenly and violently ardent as to be in instant danger\nof explosion. By ha stening or holding back, by pla cing under the direction\nof professional educational policies, we hope to do away with both rust\nand explosion and have everywhere a steady, useful flame of enthusiasm\nand co-operation with the public school.\n\n"}
{"page": 1096, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1097, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— KEHYOti L. Butterfield, president Massachusetts Agricultural College. . .Amherst, Mass.\nVice-President— CuARXEs A. Lory, president Colorado Agricultural College\nFort Collins, Colo.\nSecretary— E. E. Balcomb, State Normal School\nProvidence, R.I.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 5, 19 10\nThe meeting was called to order in Jacob Sleeper Hall, Boston University, Boston,\nMass. President Kenyon L. Butterfield opened the meeting by some appropriate remarks.\nThe regular program was then taken up as follows:\nTopic:\n\"The Problem of Field Laboratory Work, to Accompany Courses in 'Agriculture and Horticulture.\"\n1. \"Field\nWork Accompanying\nCollege\nprofessor\nof horticulture,\nState College,\nPa. Courses in Horticulture\" — Ralph L. Watts,\n\n2. \" Field Laboratory Work\" — K. C. Davis, professor of soils and agronomy, Rutgers\nCollege, New Brunswick,\nN.J.\n3. \"Laboratory and Field Work in the Agricultural High School\" — B. H. Crocberon,\nprincipal Agricultural High School, Baltimore county, Philopolis, Md.\nReport of National Committee on Agricultural Education.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 6, 19 10\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Jacob Sleeper Hall by President Kenyon L.\nButterfield.\nThe regular program was taken up as follows:\n1. \"The Place of Agriculture in the Public High School\" — George F. Warren, professor offarm management and farm crops, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.\n2. \"The Place of the Agricultural High School in the System of Public Education\"\n— Dick J. Crosby, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.\nThe Report of the Committee on the Course of Study in Agriculture was made by\nE. C. Bishop, state superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Nebr,\nHe explained that the committee had been working hard since the Denver meeting\nbut that, owing to the amount of work to be accompHshed and the difficulties in the way,\nit was impossible to present a complete report. He submitted a preliminary report and\nasked that the number on the committee be increased, and the committee gave them until\nnext year to complete their report.\nPresident Butterfield suggested that the Committee on Nominations should add\ntwo more names to this committee, making a committee of five. The Committee on\nNominations reported as follows:\nFor President — ^James A. Barr, superintendent of schools, Stockton, Cal,\nFor Vice-President — B. M. Davis, professor of natural history, Miami University,\nOxford, Ohio.\nFor Secretary — E. E. Balcomb, State Normal School, Providence, R.L\nA motion was made that the report of the committee be adopted. The motion was\ncarried and the appointees were declared elected.\nThe committee also recommended Professor F. W. Howe, of the United States Department of Agriculture, and B. M. Davis, professor of natural history, Miami University,\n1081\n\n"}
{"page": 1098, "printed_page": null, "text": "io82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Agricultural\n\nOxford, Ohio, as additional members of the committee on \"The Course of Study in Agriculture.\"\nOn motion, duly seconded, the recommendation was adopted.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Thursday\n\nForenoon, July 7, 19 10\n\nThe meeting Thursday morning was a joint session with the Departments of Secondary Education and Science Instruction. The report of this meeting will be found\nincluded in the minutes of this joint meeting as reported by the secretary of the Department of Secondary Education.\nE. E. Balcomb, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nFIELD\nRALPH\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nLABORATORY\nWORK\nACCOMPANYING\nCOURSES IN HORTICULTURE\nL. WATTS,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF HORTICULTURE,\n\nSTATE\n\nCOLLEGE\nCOLLEGE,\n\nPA.\n\nThe function of our college courses in agriculture and horticulture is to\ntrain teachers, investigators, demonstrators, farmers, farm managers,\norchardists, and gardeners. Each of these vocations requires technical\nas well as practical training. A purely technical man may impart information by pen or lecture but he can never be a great industrial teacher. If\nhe seeks employment as a field investigator, practical knowledge and\nexperience are required to conceive, plan, and carry out his experiments.\nIt is absurd to think of a man entering any of the other vocations named\nwithout practical training.\nIt may be argued here that the majority of our college students pursuing courses in agriculture and horticulture have had practical farm\nexperience before entering college. While this is true and there is no\nquestion about the value of such experience, the purpose of college field\nlaboratory work is to go far beyond the practice and methods of most\nfarms. Moreover, we must not lose sight of the fact that the percentage\nof city students pursuing such courses is increasing rapidly and that in most\ncases these students have had no practical farm experience whatever before\nentering college.\nField laboratory work, tho, is a means to an end and not the end. It is\npart of the process by which we should obtain definite, positive, educational results. It is an essential factor in the training of experts in agriculture and horticulture.\nLaboratory work goes beyond and supplements classroom work. In the\nclassroom the instructor imparts information by lecturing, demonstrating,\nor drilling. In the field the knowledge is acquired more perfectly by the\nstudent in observing or actually doing the work discussed in the classroom.\nField work makes questions clear which may not be understood in the\nclassroom. Time and again students have told me that various practicum\nexercises had given them a much better understanding of the whole subject. -\n\nr\n\n"}
{"page": 1099, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPI ELD\n\nLABORATORY\n\nWORK\n\n1083\n\nStudents should know the best methods. It is often difficult to teach\ncorrect methods in the classroom, while it is a simple problem in the field\nlaboratory.\nWhen a fact is stated in the classroom it should make an impression on\nthe student's mind but there is no assurance that it will be remembered.\nIf this knowledge is appUed in the field laboratory, it is fixed in the student's\nmind and becomes a part of him.\nIn field laboratory work the student develops confidence in his own\nabihty. Without such confidence, he is not prepared to engage in work\nrequiring the appHcation of knowledge obtained in the various courses.\nLast winter, a student from Philadelphia took a course in greenhouse\nvegetable forcing. It was his first experience in growing crops under\nglass. He had the full responsibihty of caring for a plat of lettuce and\nradishes and this necessitated a visit to the greenhouse every day. An\nexperienced greenhouse grower could scarcely have done better. At the\nend of the semester, the student told his instructor that he thought he could\nrun a greenhouse. Confidence was one of the rewards of this experience,\nand yet mistakes would doubtless occur should our young friend become a\ngreenhouse grower. Two other young men told me this spring that they\nwere seriously considering renting a farm and engaging in market gardening. Confidence in their ability which had been inspired by the experience\ngained in planning, planting, and cultivating a small vegetable garden\non the college farm led to this consideration.\nField laboratory work, when properly directed, develops originaUty.\nIn many lines the instructions for field w^ork should not be too definite.\nThe student should not be restricted more than necessary, but he should be\nencouraged to find new or improved methods. Several unique methods of\nintercropping have been developed by the students in market gardening\nat the Pennsylvania State College.\nField work when properly handled develops enthusiasm. Students\nmay tire of classroom methods but real work in the field puts life into the\ncourse and enthusiasm is bound to grow. This spring two girls, juniors in\nhome vegetable gardening, were engaged in their second field practicum.\nThe work was transplanting cabbage, lettuce, and Swiss chard in their\nown assigned plats. The day was not at all pleasant and it was the first\nexperience for both girls in field transplanting. Their hands and skirts\nsoon showed the effects of the soil in which they were working and it is not\nsurprising, therefore, that one of the girls said in a whisper, audible, but\nnot intended for her instructor, \"I don't Hke this work one bit, do you?\"\nHer classmate answered with an emphatic \"No.\" Both girls, however,\nbecame enthusiastic gardeners. A number of times they arose very early\nin the morning in order to find time to give their plats the necessary care.\nAll but one member of this class, a non-resident, requested the privilege\nof caring for their own gardens during the summer vacation. Nothing\n\n"}
{"page": 1100, "printed_page": null, "text": "io84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nwill contribute to the enthusiasm of the student more than properly directed\npracticum work.\nField laboratory work has many other values. It presents problems\nfor solution which require foresight, reasoning, and the best judgment.\nNeatness and exactness are essential to high-class grades and the student\nis so informed when field work begins. Satisfactory grades in some Hnes\nof work cannot be secured without almost daily attention, and this is a most\nvaluable factor in the training of many students.\nFrom what has been said it will be readily seen that field laboratory\nwork is a test or an examination. By it tte instructor is able to judge\nquite accurately as to the student's ability. He finds out whether the\nstudent has caught the essential points in the lectures delivered ; whether\nhe is quick, neat, accurate, prompt, industrious, and faithful, and whether\nhe knows how to apply principles to practice.\nField practicums accompanying college courses in horticulture may be\nclassified in the following manner:\nI. Resident work:\na) Craft work.\nb) Observation work.\nc) Vocational work.\nI.\n\nRESIDENT\n\n2. Non-resident work:\na) Farm experience.\nb) Inspection trips.\nc) Survey work.\nWORK\n\nTo make this work most valuable there must be no lack of facilities or\nequipment. There must be land, manures, fertilizers, horses, tools, greenhouses, hotbeds, cold frames, orchards, vineyards, market gardens, small\nfruit plantations, nurseries, flower gardens, and campus materials. The\ninstructors must be the best. They must have thoro technical as well as\npractical training. Don't suppose for a moment that you must have highsalaried lecturers for the classroom and cheap men for the field laboratory.\nIf second-rate instructors must be employed put them in the classroom and\nthe better-paid men in the field. If possible, however, have the same\ninstructor in charge of both recitation and field work.\na). Craft Work\nThis is the most common form of field laboratory work in horticulture\nand its importance cannot be emphasized too much. It consists of such\noperations as sowing seeds, transplanting, grafting, budding, pruning, spraying, thinning, grading, packing, laying out fruit plantations, and a large\nnumber of other exercises of importance in the training of horticulturists.\nb). Observation Work\nThere is a broad field for this line of work. The student may or may not\nbe accompanied by the instructor. Orchards on the college farm or in the\nvicinity may be visited with definite purposes. An outline furnished each\nstudent of points to be observed will make such trips more valuable. If a\nnumber of soil types can be easily reached, a study of varietal adaptation\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFIELD\n\nLABORATORY\n\nWORK\n\n1085\n\nmakes an interesting practicum. In this connection the student should be\nexpected to pick out the best fruit or truck farm in the vicinity and prepare\nplans for planting and managing it. Such lines of work call for the application of many of the principles discussed in the classroom. There is almost\nno limit to the amount of observation work that may be conducted in\norchards, vineyards, small fruit plantations, nurseries, flower gardens,\ngreenhouses, parks, and lawns. Character and habit of growth, hardiness,\nyields, and quaUty with the various horticultural crops form an unhmited\nfield for study.\nc). Vocational Work\nThis line of work places the student on his own responsibility. \"Swim\nor sink\" is the principle involved. The advanced student in the shop is\ntold to build an engine or a motor. He must plan his work and work his\nplan. In horticulture, he is told to make a vegetable garden, a flower garden,\nor a nursery. It is assumed that he has had or is taking a course of lectures\ncovering these subjects. The instructor then is fully justified in putting\nhim on his own resources. This is absolutely essential to the highest\ndevelopment of the student. He is simply informed that Plat No. 10\nbelongs to him and that he is expected to fertilize, plant, and care for it\nwhile the course is in progress. This plan had been tested thoroly at the\nPennsylvania State College and too much cannot be said in its favor. There\nwere forty-three students in market gardening during the second semester\nof 1 909-10. Each student was informed early in the semester that he would\nbe expected to farm a plat thirteen by forty-five feet in size: A larger\narea might be assigned but we have found the results better when we look\nfor quality rather than quantity in work performed. Each student understands that he can plant whatever he wishes, but that it is purely a market\ngardening proposition and that cropping-plan, yield, quahty, appearance,\nand probable financial returns are the factors taken into account in making\nup grades. He is furnished space in the greenhouse, hotbed, and cold\nframe, and given access to stable manures, fertilizers, hoes, rakes, garden\nline, tapes, trowels, weeders, drills, and cultivators. He makes his own\nplans, sows seeds in the greenhouse, transplants at the proper time, visits\nthe greenhouse daily to see if seed-bed or plants need water or other attention. Later, the plants are placed in the cold frame, attended daily, and\nthen set in the field when conditions are right. Such a scheme calls for\nthe constant exercise of judgment. Is it time to sow, to transplant, or\nto set in the field ? Are water or tillage needed ? Will it pay to use flats,\nearthen pots, or paper pots ? Can nitrate of soda be used to advantage ?\nA multitude of questions come up which the student must settle. They\nrequire frequent consultation of text, lecture, or perhaps instructor. The\nwhole scheme works admirably and accomplishes far more than is possible\nwith craft or exercise work only. The same plan has been used at the\nPennsylvania State College in vegetable forcing and with just as great\n\n"}
{"page": 1102, "printed_page": null, "text": "io86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nsuccess. With new greenhouses now in course of erection the work will be\nenlarged and extended to floriculture and with better laboratory facilities\nnursery work can also be improved. These various lines are commercialized\nas much as conditions will permit.\n2.\n\nNON-RESIDENT\n\nWORK\n\nNon-resident work is not required in most of our college courses but\nit is well worth the consideration of teachers of horticulture.\na). Farm Experience\nIn the universities of Europe, practical farm experience is a requirement for graduation. Students must have it before degrees are granted\nin agricultural courses. Such experience is often gained before entering\ncollege, and if not, it must be secured during vacation periods. Is not\nsuch training just as important in this country ? What right have we to\ngrant diplomas to boys who don't know how to harness a horse, adjust\ncheck lines, run a mower , reaper, or manure spreader, or plow a field properly?\nIt is important that such experiences be acquired on the best farms of the\ncountry. Students in horticulture should be urged to spend their summers\nworking for orchardists, market gardeners, nurserymen, or florists.\nh). Inspection Trips\nInspection trips should be taken from time to time.\nThe frequency\nand duration of such trips will depend primarily on the location of the\ncollege.\nIf located near horticultural centers the trips may be frequent\nand vary from one to three or four days.\nIf, on the other hand, the college\nis remote from such centers, it is economy to make the trips once or twice\na year and probably take not less than a week for each itinerary.\nThe\nindustries inspected should be as varied as possible.\nA party of twentyfive students from the Pennsylvania State College with two instructors,\none in soils and the other in horticulture, took a trip in May of this year.\nThe first day was spent in studying intensive market gardening in North\nand South Philadelphia, closing the day by inspecting the Reading Terminal\nStorage Plant and the Reading Terminal Market.\nThe second day was\nspent in New Jersey inspecting orchards, a fruit-storage house, and the\nculture of asparagus, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, and many other vegetables.\nThe third day was devoted to an investigation of nurseries, mushrooms,\nand various greenhouse crops at Kennett Square, and roses at West Grove,\nPennsylvania.\nThe fourth day was spent in studying vegetable farming\non the Patapsco Neck near Baltimore, Md.\nThe party went by boat to\nNorfolk and remained there two days studying the varied industries of that\ngreat region.\nAnother day was spent at our national Capitol, where the\nstudents met Secretary James Wilson and other prominent officials of the\nDepartment of Agriculture and got a glimpse of the work being done at\nWashington for the farmers of the country.\nIt was a splendid trip and\n\n^\n-^\nJ\nn^\nA\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 1103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFIELD\n\nLABORATORY\n\nWORK\n\n1087\n\ngave the students a broader conception of the great horticultural industries\nof the East, to say nothing of the practical information acquired.\nc). Survey Work\nWritten instructions and information blanks are furnished the student\nby the department in which the work is done. The student is sent to a\ndistrict where there is some prominent horticultural industry. In Pennsylvania, itmay be the vineyards of Erie County, the apple orchards of\nAdams County, the peach orchards of Franklin County, or the greenhouses\nor market gardens of Philadelphia County. The student goes from place\nto place filling out the printed forms. About ten days are spent in this\nsurvey work. Information is thus procured on soils, crop and variety\nadaptation, varieties, fertilizers, methods of pruning, training, spraying,\ngrading, packing, marketing, and insect and fungous enemies. Several\ndays are then spent in tabulating the results and in putting the matter in\ntypewritten form. Conclusions are drawn and comments made on the\nvarious methods employed. Practicum work of this nature is exceedingly\nvaluable. It brings the student into close contact with the producer.\nIt connects him with the outside horticultural world. It teaches him to\ndiscriminate between good and bad farming, and he will be less liable to\nmake blunders himself when engaged in, or directing others in, similar\nlines of work. Survey work should be done at the end of the junior year\nand it should be in the field for which the student has the greatest natural\nbent or inclination. 'Such practicum work is the best possible preparation\nfor the closing year of his college course.\nFIELD\nK.\n\nC.\n\nDAVIS,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nLABORATORY\nOF\n\nSOILS AND\nBRUNSWICK,\n\nWORK\n\nAGRONOMY,\nN.J.\n\nRUTGERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThose engaged in the teaching of agriculture and horticulture all realize\nto a greater or less extent the value and importance of laboratory work.\nField exercises are particularly helpful in bringing out the truths of\nthe lessons being taught. There are more kinds of field exercises which\nlend themselves to the teaching of agriculture than have been found for\nthe teaching of any other subject, not excepting geology, physical geography, botany, zoology, or any of the common sciences. This is partly\ntrue because these sciences are fundamental to the broadest understanding\nof agriculture. But aside from that, there are countless exercises which\nmust be taken outside the schoolroom and which have a most direct bearing\non agriculture.\nExercises of this character may fall into one of the following groups:\n1. Those which deal with soils, as soil-formation, soil-movements, true soil-sampling,\nsoil-depths, soil-textures, effects of lime and other amendments.\n2. Those which deal with plants, as classes of plants useful in special ways, including\nlegumes; plants found where soils are very sour; plant life indicating very deep rich soil\n\n"}
{"page": 1104, "printed_page": null, "text": "io88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nor very poor shallow soil; crops used as winter soil covers, or as catch crops, or as longseason crops; adaptation of various grasses to the special agricultural uses; seasonal\ndevelopments of all fruit-producing plants, as formation of buds, fruit spurs, and preparation for winter; blossoming dates of different varieties; struggles in natural selection\nand competition, as in a tree- top; adaptation to environment; weeds of a perennial\nnature and where found; where annuals are most troublesome.\n3. Those which deal with animal life; as the study of poultry and its management;\nthe types and breeds of larger farm animals; care of animals; judging stock of all types;\ninjuries due to insects; collection of insect specimens; study of birds in their relation to\nagriculture.\n4. Those which deal with machines, tools, devices, and buildings; as the construction\nof barns, silos, milk-houses, poultry-houses, and piggeries; the plans for and installation\nof field drains, house and barn drains; cesspools, septic tanks, and water systems; the\nadaptability of the different forms of power to the farm needs; the special advantages\nof the different farm tools and machines for the care of soils, crops, stock, and the fighting\nof insects and diseases; grafting, budding, pruning, transplanting.\n\nThere are other categories into which some special exercises might fall.\nThe equipment for field exercises will depend entirely upon the surroundings ofthe school. In a farming or gardening section, the equipment is already provided. In a number of agricultural schools a few acres\nof land have proved to be sufiicient. Here crops are raised on a small\nscale. Poultry and hogs are kept. Cows may be maintained under the\nsoiling system, or near-by animals may serve the purpose of class exercises.\nIn a certain agricultural school now well established, students are given\nhundreds of exercises in field laboratory work elsewhere than on their\nown school farm.\nStudents are taken in carry-alls to neighboring orchards where they\npractice pruning or grafting. There they study the various orchard\ninsects and diseases, and try in a practical way spraying and other methods\nof combating the natural orchard enemies. On another occasion a farmer's\nplace is visited to inspect the plans for furnishing water tmder pressure\nfrom an elevation or from a pneumatic tank to the farmhouse and barn.\nA lesson is made of the cost of material and labor in providing such a\nwater system. The labor saved in one year and in five years is estimated.\nThe possibility as to clean walls, ceihng, and floors in barns and milkhouses, clean buggies, handy bathrooms and toilets, fresh water at all\ntimes for stock and people — all these and other advantages are brought\nstrongly to the minds of these young farmer boys, who realize how easily\nand cheaply they can supply their own places with these conveniences.\nWho shall say that this does not help to keep these boys on their farms ?\nSeveral days each winter are spent in 'testing cattle for tuberculosis.\nStudents go with a competent instructor to a neighbofing herd. There\nthey are divided into small squads; and with a leader for each squad who\nhas had some experience before, temperatures are taken for several hours.\nRecords are carefully kept and the injections made in time to return home\nbefore bedtime.\nThe owner of the herd has learned to take the morning\n\n"}
{"page": 1105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLABORATORY\n\nAND\n\nFIELD\n\nWORK\n\n1089\n\ntemperatures or a few students are sent to take them. The class and\ninstructor will chart the curves for each animal and make careful study\nof the results.\n\nScoring dairy barns and dairy herds producing milk for city use is a\nvery profitable exercise. The best are scored first to establish high standards in students' minds. Stock-judging and milk-sampling exercises may\nbe given in connection with the trips for scoring.\nMost of the above exercises may be classed as short-time field exercises.\nBesides these, there are a host of others requiring a season or more. I\ncan here merely mention a few: Testing and improving corn by the earrow method. Selecting and improving potatoes by the hill-row method.\nPollenizing work, and other forms of plant breeding and selection. Rotation and fertilizer experiments, and variety tests. Effects of various cover\ncrops. Trials of new crops which should be grown more in the neighborhood.\nTime forbids the elaboration of these exercises here.\nLABORATORY\nB.\n\nH.\n\nAND\n\nFIELD WORK IN\nHIGH SCHOOL\n\nTHE\n\nCROCHERON,\nPRINCIPAL, AGRICULTURAL\nBALTIMORE\nCOUNTY,\nPHILOPOLIS,\n\nAGRICULTURAL\nHIGH\nMD.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nThe problem of field and laboratory work as encountered in the agricultural high school seems to center about four main difficulties: First,\nlack of information published concerning the best exercises; second,\nmaterials with which to present these exercises; third, time in which to\nprepare exercises for presentation; fourth, difficulty in preserving the\nproper sequence so as to articulate with the textbook work.\nThe first difficulty, knowledge of actual exercises, at first appears to be\nthe most serious. If we take even a cursory glance at the practicums\npresented with textbooks, the bulletins and pamphlets sent out by governmental institutions, and the so-called \"laboratory guides\" pubhshed for\nrural, common, and high schools, we notice at once that there is a pitiful\nlack of actual outlined exercises with which to work. One finds the same\nfew exercises repeated again and again usually with the same copied illustrations. Taking the entire collection of good and bad exercises in agriculture thus far prepared and analyzing them carefully with a view to\nputting them into actual careful application, there is found to be a tremendous dearth of real outlined lessons. An observer is forced to one of\ntwo conclusions: either that there is little opportunity for good laboratory\nwork, or that there has as yet been little study put on the main problem of\na clear, concise, and logical series of laboratory guides sufficient to cover\na course of four years in an agricultural high school.\nThe second difficulty, materials, is not peculiar to an agricultural\n\n"}
{"page": 1106, "printed_page": null, "text": "I090\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nhigh school. The problem is, however, more acute there than elsewhere\nbecause as a vocational school it must have actual bona fide materials\nwith which to work and as a high school these materials must necessarily be of moderate cost. A wxll-equipped laboratory with gas and\nrunning water seems to me to be needed for a really thoro course in\nagriculture. The makeshifts used by some schools are never more than a\nvery deficient substitute for materials. I am aware that some authorities\ngive directions for using a coal shovel and the school stove to test soils,\nhome-made balances to weigh them, and tin cans in which to test their\nmanurial requirements. It looks possible that such materials as these may\nbe used in some few exercises but I am not aware that they have ever been\nused with any very great degree of success. Indeed, I am inclined to feel\nthat one of the reasons agricultural laboratory exercises are so meager\nand inadequate is that writers have been searching to use coal shovels\nand tin cans while they feared to face the actual fact, namely, that agriculture incommon with all applied science cannot be well taught without\nan equipment comparable with that required to teach chemistry, physics,\nor mechanics.\nThe third difficulty, time to prepare exercises, will perhaps in the end\nprove the most serious of all. Ultimately someone will outline a complete\nset of good laboratory exercises and many, if not all, of our schools will\nobtain a sufficient equipment to do adequate work. But never will there\nbe more hours in the day than now nor is it probable that the labors of the\nhigh-school teacher will lessen. The solution is, of course, that the agricultural teacher in the high school, who is usually also the teacher of science,\nprepares his laboratory material and exercises at the school in late afternoons\nor at night in order to get the work well done. This, perhaps, is a fairly\ngood solution except that it is rather hard on the agricultural teacher.\nThe trouble, however, is encountered where the element of human frailty\ncomes in: the teacher becomes tired, discouraged, or is merely lazy, the\nwork at night and late afternoons is neglected, and the school suffers. The\ndifficulty can be overcome only by securing agricultural teachers who\nbecome less tired, less discouraged, and less lazy, or else by lightening the\nburden of a teacher who is expected to carry all the work in agriculture\nand all sciences.\nThe fourth difficulty, of opportuneness of exercises so as to conform to\nthe textbook course, is one that is at least as serious in the agricultural\ncollege as in the agricultural high school. Those of us w^ho have taken\nsomewhat recent agricultural courses recall that we seldom studied in our\ntextbooks or lectures the work that was then going on in the laboratory.\nWe w^ere doing, in the laboratory or field, work which to us was often\nincomprehensible^ but which later became clearer when we studied the\nsubject in class. This is as often true in the high school as in the college,\nand since agricultural instruction in colleges has become settled and sue-\n\n"}
{"page": 1107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLABORATORY\n\nAN D FI ELD\n\nWORK\n\n1091\n\ncessful we may infer that this last difficulty is not one which will seriously\njeopardize the ultimate success of the agricultural-high-school instruction.\nThe difficulty will continue as long as schools are in session during the winter\nmonths and close their doors during the summer. So long as the growing\nseason among plants is not the teaching season among agriculturists so\nlong will the difficulties of theoretical and laboratory presentation continue to hamper the agricultural teacher.\nPerhaps the greatest outlook for better field work in agricultural schools\nis thru the keen interest which may be created in the neighborhood. It is\nthe people of the community who will in the end determine the ultimate\ndestiny of the school. Its success or failure is to a very great degree\ndependent upon their attitude of mind and of property. Where an agricultural school must depend entirely on its own land and live-stock it can\ndevelop its field work to but a minimum degree, but if it can so interest and\nco-operate with the people that the whole community becomes the field\nand laboratory of the school, then its work takes on a new impetus and has\npossibilities of enormous enlargement.\nIn Baltimore county we are developing this community interest and\nactivity in the school both as a means to help the school and as a means\nto help the people. The community work of the rural or agricultural\nhigh school has a direct bearing on its field and laboratory work just as the\nfield and laboratory work is, after all, designed for the immediate betterment of that community. Altho departing somewhat from the direct\nsignificance of our subject this morning I have been asked to tell a little\nabout the community work which the Agricultural High School of Baltimore\ncounty is doing because of this bearing which it has on our laboratory work.\nWhen the school first started, but nine months ago, it was decided as a\ndefinite part of its policy that to attain its full mission it must offer educational facilities for every class of persons in the community — men, women,\nand children. Situated as it is, out in the open country, away from a town\nor village, surrounded by farms and homesteads, it offered a remarkable\nopportunity for school development entirely for farmers and their families.\nThe school is but a small affair with but five classrooms, three laboratories,\nand but two resident teachers in the high-school department, yet it went\nto work on its way to overcome the prejudices of a century and revolutionize\nthe agriculture of a whole county.\nBefore the school opened a great list of persons in the county was made.\nThe list was compiled from poU-Hsts of voters, subscription lists of the\ncounty papers, memberships of agricultural clubs and granges, account\nbooks of physicians and lawyers, and many other sources. When this list\nwas made up into a cross-referenced card index a very valuable fund of\ninformation was obtainable about almost anyone of consequence in the\ncounty. The dedication of the new building was turned over to two\nfarm clubs — one of women, the other of men — and three thousand personal\n\n"}
{"page": 1108, "printed_page": null, "text": "log 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\ninvitations were sent out for the dedicatory exercises. The school printed\nposters telling what it had to offer and these were nailed up on fences,\nblacksmith shops, and post-offices. The community work started almost\nas soon as the regular classes. A literary society was formed for young\npeople too old to go to school. A hundred are members paying dues and\nattending meetings every two weeks where debates, spelling bees, and other\nso-called literary exercises are held. The farm women meet at the school\none Saturday afternoon a month to get instruction. The school wagons\ntravel along the regular routes and bring these women from their homes.\nThe attendance ranges from seventy-five to a hundred. After general\nexercises and an address by some well-known personage, the women divide\ninto self-selected groups and take a lesson in cooking, carpentry, home\ncrafts (such as basketry, rug- weaving, and chair-caning), or in modern\nliterature. The women do not attend a demonstration but do the work\nthemselves. They do things. It is the same type of instruction that we\ngive to the children. The men of the families were last winter given a course\nof ten evening lectures on soils and fertilizers which were accompanied by\nsome of the usual experiments in soil physics. One evening lecture a week\nwas given for ten weeks. At first the people came by dozens, later by\nhundreds. The attendance averaged for the entire course, good and bad\nweather together, one hundred and twenty-five at each lecture. After\nthe close of the lecture course a corn congress was -held for two days which\nabout a thousand persons attended. Fifteen hundred ears of corn were\nexhibited by farmers of the county, agricultural clubs, rural schools, and\nour high-school pupils. Twelve speakers from the national Department\nof Agriculture and the state experiment station held forth at six sessions:\nmorning, afternoon, and evening for two days. Meetings were held for\nmen and others for children on how to grow and select corn, while others\nwere held for women on how to cook corn and corn products. During the\nfall and winter all-day meetings on occasional Saturdays were held for\nrural-school teachers at which they were given instruction in agriculture,\nnature study, and allied topics. The work was performed in the school\nlaboratory and the teachers themselves went thru a lesson which they were\nto repeat before their classes in their own schools. Because of transportation difficulties the meetings did not reach all the rural teachers and were\ndiscontinued. Another plan will be inaugurated next year. The school\ntests seeds, milk, and fertilizers for farmers and was kept busy last spring\nin this work alone. As a direct result of this testing work of the school the\nfarmers are building a creamery near by and have already formed a cowtesting association. This summer the school is conducting experiments on\nthe home farms of its pupils. Every boy in the high school performs an\nexperiment of his own selection during the summer. Variety tests of\ncorn, variety tests of cowpeas, alfalfa fields, and milk-weighing records\nare proceeding.\nThe experiments are scattered over a territory twenty-\n\n"}
{"page": 1109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nLABORATORY\n\nAND\n\nFIELD\n\nWORK\n\n1093\n\nfive miles long by five miles broad. They are under constant supervision\nfrom the school. Up on the steep hillsides of northern Maryland many an\nacre patch of corn is being carefully tended by a high-school boy under the\nwatchful eye of all the neighborhood.\nThe agricultural high school must meet the people by popular work with\nthem for their immediate betterment. So will the agricultural high school\nbecome better itself thru the aid and co-operation of its thousands of\nneighbors on a thousand farms.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn J. Dargan, principal of the General Sumpter Memorial Academy, Sumpter\nCounty, S.C— When we undertook this work we bought a place for a school proper and\na home for the principal. Both of these were farms, and adjoining each other. The home\nplace of the principal was as much a part of the school equipment as the school building\nitself. I then went to Dr. Seaman A. Knapp at Washington and got him to give us a\n\"demonstration farm\" to be operated in connection with the school which was a classical and literary institution. We have not changed the school in any particular whatever, except so far as we have added the agricxiltural feature. When this work was begun\nwe had but one boy in the school who thought of taking agriculture as his avocation; but\nwhen the first class graduated there this year, there were five boys and two girls. All\nthe five boys are now determined to adopt farming, and one of the two girls poultryraising. They seem to have fallen completely in love with and take pride and delight\nin all work connected with the farm. The boys plow, gather grain, clear up new ground,\ncutting down, sawing off, and splitting up timber, and preparing the land for cultivation,\nand they have done some ditching. Almost all this work is entirely voluntary. They\nreceive for it ten cents an hour. There is not one of these boys who could not go to any\ncollege in our state, that is, they have the pecuniary means to go to any institution they\nplease. We think that the result of which I am telling has come about in large measure\nby the excellent instruction in the schoolroom of the science of agriculture by the teacher\nsent us by the National Agriculture Department and its application in field and forest.\nThe boys are told continually of the proud characters in history, from the earliest\ntime to the present day, who were farmers. To mention a very few of them, leaving out\nthe ancients entirely: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison; and in\nEngland, John Hampden and Oliver Cromwell; with a whole host of others whose names\nare as familiar to them now as household words, who have done enduring service to the\nhiunan race and won an immortal place in history. Standing in the group of such characters as these, how can they be ashamed of farming ? They are proud of it, and proud\nof doing any work necessary to make it a success in their lives.\nThe home of the principal is so conditioned and conducted that they may see what\npleasant and healthy food can be gotten from the farm; what good cooking can be done\nby farmers' wives and daughters, who are at the same time literary women and musicians\nof no mean attainments. These boys attend Hterary clubs, write essays on poetry, history, etc., and take part in the musical programs of ,the school as violinists, pianists,\nand vocalists, according to their respective talents. We intend that the world shall see\nboys not ashamed to handle pitchforks and axes, who can handle the bow of the violin\nor the pen with great skill and charm, and a boy whose voice has been cultivated will find\nthat there is no detriment to it by the open-air work of the fields.\n\n"}
{"page": 1110, "printed_page": null, "text": "I094\nREPORT\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON AGRICULTURAL\n\n[Agricultural\n\nEDUCATION\n\nREAD BY E. E. BALCOMB, SECRETARY\n\nThe National Committee on Agricultural Education met in the Palm Room of the\nClaypool Hotel, at Indianapolis, Ind., on February 28, at 8 p.m. President H. H. Seerley presided. He made some appropriate remarks concerning the history and origin of\nthe National Committee and the work that it had already accomplished. He said that\nthe year had been a very active one and that the outlook for legislation was very promising. At this meeting the committee was reorganized and the vacancies were filled.\nA special committee was appointed to wait on President Taft and appear before the\nSenate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry. The committee was composed of Secretary E. E. Balcomb, of Rhode Island; President Thomas D. Miller, of West Virginia,\nand State Superintendent Stephens, of Maryland. A very instructive general meeting\nwas held in which the following program was carried out:\nAn address on \"The Training of Teachers for Our Schools with Special Reference\nto Agriculture,\" by Walter E. Ranger, commissioner of education, Providence, R.I.\nA report of a committee on \"College Credit on Agricultural Education\" by Professor A. B. Graham, University of Ohio, Columbus, Ohio.\nPresident Seerley reported on the progress of the DoUiver-Davis Bill for the aid of\nagricultural instruction which was being pushed in Congress.\nProfessor Fred L. Charles, of the State University of Illinois, gave an address on\n\"The Next Step in Agricultural Education.\"\nState Superintendent E. C. Bishop, of Lincoln, Nebr., gave a preliminary report as\nchairman of a committee on \"A Course of Study in Agriculture.\"\nThis was followed by a general discussion participated in by President David Felmley, of Normal, 111.; Dr. Frank M Murray, of Columbia University; Professor Josiah\nMayne, of Urbana, 111.; Dr. B. M. Davis, of Miami University, Oxford, Ohio; President John W. Cook, of De Kalb, 111.; and Professor Eugene M. Phillips, superintendent\nof city schools, Albert Lea, Minn.\nAt this same meeting President Seerley announced that he had sent out a call to all\nnormal-school presidents with the object of ascertaining their views with regard to having\na meeting of the normal-school departments with the meeting of superintendents, as well\nas at the regular summer session of the National Education Association.\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n7.\n\nOF AGRICULTURE\nHIGH SCHOOLS\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nGEORGE\n\nTHE\n\nPLACE\n\nF. WARREN,\n\nPROFESSOR OF FARM MANAGEMENT AND\nCORNELL\nUNIVERSITY,\nITHACA, N.Y.\n\nFARM\n\nCROPS,\n\nThe greatest problem in American education is vocational training.\nThe schools do not now serve all the people.\nThey must be made to do so.\nEvery person should have three educations. He should be vocationally\ntrained, liberally trained, and every person should do some useful manual\nlabor.\nIt is no longer sufficient that a student \"Learn things that he is not\ngoing to use in after life, by methods that he is going to use.\" A part of\nthe education of every person should consist of learning things that he is\ngoing to use by methods that he will also use.\nI will not spend any time in discussing the relative merits of vocational\nand liberal education.\nTo debate this question is much like discussing\n\n"}
{"page": 1111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1095\n\nthe old debate questions: Resolved, That fire is more useful than water,\nor, That sight is more useful than hearing. In each case both are necessary.\nEvery man should do useful work in the world and should be trained for\nthat work. Every man should spend some time in intellectual recreation,\nand should be trained to make the most of this leisure.\nWhat is vocational for one person is liberal for another. To a minister, aknowledge of scientific agriculture contributes to a liberal education,\nwhile the kind of education given by our high schools is technical. To\nthe farmer the places of the subjects are reversed.\nWhat is more technical, or narrow, or distinctly a trade education than\nthe education that ministers, teachers, and doctors now receive ? We have\ncome to speak of the particular trade-subjects taught by the old-line high\nschool as liberal studies. But they are also trade-subjects preparing for\nteaching and some other occupations. History is a trade subject to the\nteacher in history, just as much as cooking is to a chef. Boys who have\nred blood in their veins refuse to spend all their time on the other fellow's\ntrade subject. They are anxious to be doing a man's work in the world.\nTo a considerable extent our high-school courses have attracted those\nwho were seeking an education in order to avoid work.\nFormerly nearly all children learned to do manual labor. Nearly all\nfarm children still learn to do it. Now many children are as much in need\nof an opportunity to do useful manual labor as others are of laws to stop\nchild labor. If every teacher, every preacher, and every politician did\nsome useful manual labor, there would be fewer boys leave school, fewer\nempty churches, fewer graft prosecutions.\nHOW\n\nMUCH\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDOES\n\nA LABORER\n\nNEED?\n\nMany persons do not believe that a laborer needs education. Men\nused to say that reading and writing were not necessary for a laborer.\nNow we grant him a common school course but doubt the value of high\nschool work. The economy of educating men can never be measured by\ntheir occupations. There is no occupation that does not offer unlimited\nopportunities for the use of brains. The only limit of education should be\nthe capacity of the individual, not his proposed occupation.\nLast summer I rode a few miles on a canal-boat load of coal that was\ngoing to Washington, and talked with the ''Captain.\" He had been\ndriving a canal boat some fourteen years as near as he could \"reckon,\"\nand was yet a boy. All this time he had been going over the same 180\nmiles and has seen the canal-boat business decreasing year by year. He\nhad a good mind but no schooling. I asked him what the charge was per\nton for hauling. He did not know. What did the railroad with which\nhe competed charge ? He did not know. His interest was m changing\nthe mules and in seeing the old landmarks as he passed.\nI contrast this with a boy who had taken a short winter course in agri-\n\n"}
{"page": 1112, "printed_page": null, "text": "1096\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nculture and whom I had just seen on a farm. When he sows oats he is\nthinking of the variety, the rate of seeding, the depth of seeding, and how\nthe plant readjusts itself if sown too deeply, the amount of fertilizer that\nis being put on, how much it costs, how much is saved by home mixing,\nhow much the labor of sowing is worth. He is alert and happy because\nhe is living. To think is to live.\nNo class of our citizens has more leisure than industrial laborers.\nThey should have a liberal as well as a vocational training in order that\nthey may make the most of this leisure.\nIn our farm-management investigations at Cornell University, we have\nincidentally secured some very emphatic figures on the value of high-school\neducation for farmers. In this work we have visited all the farms in a\nnumber of townships and have secured figures that give the farmer's labor\nincome. By this we mean the amount that he earned as a result of his\nyear's labor. If we subtract the business expenses from the receipts and\ncorrect for any change in inventory, we secure what we call the farm\nincome. But the farmer and his capital were both employed; therefore,\nwe subtract interest on his capital at 5 per cent, in order to see what the\nfarmer made. If more than one member of the family worked, the value\nof the additional unpaid labor is also subtracted. We then have the\namount that the farmer made as a result of his own labor. The primary\npurpose of this work is to study the effect of methods of farming and other\nfactors on profits. , Incidentally we ask each farmer the highest school\nthat he has attended. When these results were compared in four townships we find:\nNumber of farmers who have attended district school only\nNumber who have attended a high school or equivalent\nNumber who have attended a college or university\n\n.\n\n622\n223\n14\n\nWe secured figures that enable us to calculate the labor income for 573\nof these men. The results are as follows:\nNumber of\nAverage labor\nfarmers\nincome\n\nAttended district school only\nAttended high school or equivalent. .\nAttended college or university\n\n398\n^\n165\n10\n\n$318\n622\n847\n\nThe question at once arises as to whether the high-school men did not\nhave better farm opportunities. To eliminate any such differences the\nfarms were arranged in equal capital groups.\nCapital\n\nAverage labor income of\nfarmers with districtschool education\n\nAverage labor income of\nfarmers with more than\ndistrict-school ediication\n\n$2,000 and under\n\n$187\n\n$286\n\n2,001- 4,000\n4,001- 6,000\n6,001- 8,000\n8,001-10,000\n10,001-15,000\nOver-15,000\n\n241\n398\n395\n618\n525\ni>054\n\n27s\n466\n709\n796\n1,091\ni>272\n\n"}
{"page": 1113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1097\n\nFrom this table we see that in every group the men with the better\neducation were able to use their capital more effectively. From the first\ntable we see that there is a difference of $304 per year greater wages, or\nlabor income, for the men who have attended high schools. A high school\neducation is worth mOre to these farmers than an endowment of $6,000 in\n5 per cent, bonds.\nWe still have one factor of possible difference. The men who went to\nthe high schools may have had the more native ability at birth. This is\nprobably true, but to us who know the men the differences do not appear\nto be very great.\nTHE\n\nOBJECT\n\nIN\n\nTEACmNG\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nWe are told that we must teach agriculture in order to keep the boys\non the farms. At the same time we are told that farming does not pay.\nIf the laws of economics apply we must have too many farmers — if farming\ndoes not pay. During the past generation we have certainly had too\nmany farmers to allow farmers to make reasonable wages. Now the proportion offarmers is very much less and farming is beginning to pay. The\nreal reason for this teaching is to train men to farm better and hve better.\nThe better we farm the fewer farmers we need.\nIn the times of our forefathers when farming was very poorly done,\nall men were farmers because one man could not raise more food than his\nfamily required. When men began to farm better, one farmer raised\nenough to keep two families, so one family could move to town to make\nmachinery, clothing, pianos, and automobiles for the remaining farmer.\nLarge cities are the result of good farming. If we so train our farmers that\none man can raise as much food as four men now raise, then we will be\nsending men to the cities — not keeping them on the farms, and they will\nbe needed in the cities to make the numerous articles that the more intelligent farmers demand.\nDuring the past thirty years the area farmed per male worker has\nincreased one-third, and the crop yields per acre have also increased.\nAs farmers become better educated there will be an increasing tendency\nfor the less efficient to move to cities where they can work in factories under\ndirection. The factories can give such close supervision that they can use\nmen who are not quahfied to make good farmers. The natural road to\nadvancement for the rural laborer is as it should be: first a laborer, then a\nrenter, then a farm owner. The man who is to be a hired laborer all his\ndays is best off in the city where the closer supervision can get the most\nout of his smaller talent; and in return the city pays him better wages\nthan he can secure on the farm. You have doubtless seen the failures of\nthe numerous efforts to colonize the inefficient of the cities on farms.\nThese efforts can rarely succeed. The farm is not the best place for the\ninefficient.\n\n"}
{"page": 1114, "printed_page": null, "text": "logS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Agricultural\n\nWe often hear it stated that the agricultural high school is needed to\nprepare students to enter the agricultural colleges. If all the students are\nto go to agricultural colleges there is Uttle need for the subject in high\nschools. Vocational training naturally comes in the last years of the\nschool course. If one goes to college he needs no vocational training\nbefore entrance.\nThe primary object of teaching agriculture in high schools is to prepare\nmen and women for farm life without their having to go to college. The\nhigh schools must do for the many what the agricultural colleges have done\nfor the few.\nThere will be several secondary benefits. Agriculture is one of the\nbest liberal studies for doctors, lawyers, merchants, teachers, and ministers. Probably no other subject appeals to so many persons. The interest\nin agriculture includes nearly all the population. A very large part of our\ncity population, particularly of the larger cities, is coming to take the\nkeenest interest in agricultural questions. The number of agricultural\ninquiries that have come to the Cornell Experiment Station from New\nYork City within the past few years is very remarkable, but no more so\nthan the movement for the ownership and management of farms by city\nmen. Nearly everyone is interested in growing plants and animals, and\nthere are some fundamental principles of this growth that every boy and\ngirl should have an opportunity to learn, if they so desire; not that they\nmay become farmers or farmers' wives, but for the educational training\nand intellectual interest in Hfe that this knowledge brings. This training\nis often as desirable for those who are to live in cities as for those who are\nto live on farms. We never can wholly separate our interests from the soil\non which we walk, and the plants and animals on which our Hfe depends.\nA study of agriculture will greatly enrich the science teaching in high\nschools and will prepare teachers for efficient work in the rural schools.\nIt will be of great help to such teachers even tho they may never attempt\nto teach agriculture.\nPerhaps a greater need for this work is that our high schools are getting\nout of touch with the people. The high schools in the small towns need\nagriculture to save them quite as much as the farmers need the work.\nThese schools must wake up to the local needs or they will find a competing\nset of trade schools. If this condition ever comes the high schools will\nlose their support and will be Uving the precarious existence that the oldline academies now have.\nIN WHAT\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSHALL\n\nSECONDARY\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nBE\n\nTAUGHT?\n\nTwo ways have been proposed for establishing this work:\n1. Separate agricultural high schools.\n2. Agriculture in the present high scliool.\n\nIt is possible that a few agricultural high schools — perhaps one in ten\n\n"}
{"page": 1115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1099\n\ncounties — may be desirable, but any large number of such schools will be\na misfortune.\nIt is very unfortunate to have agricultural students separated from\nthose who are preparing for other occupations, just as unfortunate as it\nis to have lawyers or ministers trained in isolated colleges or seminaries.\nBy studying together the natural respect is increased and their breadth\nof character is incomparably greater. If we are to maintain a democracy\nwe should have all kinds of education in the same institutions.\nAt Cornell University agricultural students live with other students\njust as plain men with men. They are citizens of the state and of the\nuniversity just Hke any other citizens. The occupation of an American\nought never to be known by his speech, his dress, or his prejudices.\nMen who are entering the professions need this liberalizing influence\nquite as much as does the farmer. They cannot sneer at farm education\nor farmers when they have worked in the same classes with them and have\nperhaps been outranked. A member of our faculty recently showed his\nlack of broad training by suggesting that some of our practical subjects\nwere easier than his work. For his education I tabulated the grades of\nthe class of 1909. His was an arts subject of the Freshman year. This\nclass averaged 85 in his subject but the same students averaged 74 in Animal Husbandry in their Junior year. I think that his respect for agriculture isnow increased.\nA considerable number of students who do not expect to farm will\nelect agriculture as a culture subject.\nIt is also desirable to have many kinds of instruction in one school so\nthat students may easily change their plans. It is desirable to allow as\ngreat freedom as possible in the choice of a profession.\nIf separate schools are estabHshed it will mean much duplication of\nbuildings and teachers, as half of the studies in the agricultural course\nwill be the regular high school subjects.\nSeparate schools cannot be numerous enough to be in walking or driving\ndistance of the people. The students must leave home. This will make\nsuch education much more expensive. Everything that tends to make\neducation expensive makes it aristocratic.\nStudents of high-school age ought to be at home every night. They\nshould sleep at home.\n,\nNo matter how many special schools of agriculture we may estabhsh\noff\nn\nEducatio\nschools.\nhigh\npresent\nthe\nall\nin\nure\nagricult\nwe will still need\nsomewhere will never reach all the people.\nBY WHOM\n\nSHALL\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nBE\n\nTAUGHT?\n\nbe combined with\nA very large part of our agricultural instruction may\nbeheve that agnI\ns.\nstudie\nthese\nenrich\nto\nserve\nwill\nother sciences and\nng of saence,\nteachi\nthe\nionize\ncultural illustrations will almost revolut\nget a science\nwe\nas\nsoon\nSo\nwhich is in danger of becoming too academic.\n\n"}
{"page": 1116, "printed_page": null, "text": "iioo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nwell systematized with definite sets of laboratory exercises, which we feel\nare fixed for all time, we have lost one of the most useful features about\nscience, that is, that it studies the earth and the civilization that surrounds\nus — conditions that are ever changing.\nWhile teaching capillarity in physics, the soil offers a most useful illustration. While teaching friction, such questions as the relative draft of\nriding and walking plows may be cited. A well-constructed riding plow\nwill carry a man and draw easier than will a walking plow, because a third\nof the draft of the walking plow is due to friction on the bottom of the\nfurrow, whereas with the riding plow the friction is placed on the axle and\nthe axle is greased. Another illustration might be given of the reason why\nplacing the double-tree below the tongue will enable a team to pull a\nheavier load than if the double-tree is high as in the case of carriages. The\nfirst thing that gives way when a horse fails to pull a load is the feet. The\nhorse cannot stick to the ground, but if hitched low a part of the load will\npull down on the back, making the horse heavier and the friction greater,\nand will enable the horse to pull more. This is also one of the reasons why\na draft horse should be heavy.\nWhile teaching book-keeping in rural high schools, farm accounts\nrather than operations involving some large city business should be used\nfor at least a part of the illustrative material. Farm accounts are more\ncomplicated than are the accounts for city business. They would, therefore, better meet the objection that some people have to book-keeping —\nthat it does not require sufficient mental appHcation. Similar illustrations\nfor these and other sciences may be multiplied indefinitely.\nI know of no better ecological illustration for the botanist than the\nlime requirement of plants. Alfalfa may fail for lack of lime where clover\nthrives; clover may fail and timothy yet thrive; timothy may fail and still\nredtop may grow.\nSince agriculture is based on all the sciences, some persons have argued\nthat it can best be taught by having the principles presented in the separate sciences, as illustrated above, rather than by having a new subject.\nThis argument may sound logical, but it is utterly impracticable. In the\nfirst place, our textbooks on science are now written, and we can only change\nthem gradually. The knowledge of agriculture is rapidly increasing,\nwhich would involve the re-writing of all the science textbooks every few\nyears. It would be a simple matter to re-write only the books on agriculture. In the second place, if all the agriculture were taught thru sciences\nit would require that each teacher of science should know considerable\nabout agriculture. It will be difficult enough to secure one such teacher\nfor each school.\nI believe most thoroly in having agricultural illustrations used in the\nteaching of science, because the science teaching would be so much improved\nbut we must still have a separate subject of agriculture. Agriculture is\n\n"}
{"page": 1117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nI i\\ THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\niioi\n\nbased on many sciences just as is the science of medicine. I do not think\nthat the time will ever come when our instruction in medicine will be given\nby the college teachers of zoology, botany, physics, and chemistry. No\nmatter how many medical illustrations these teachers may use, we must\nalways have separate departments and separate instruction that will correlate allthe sciences into a single unit— the science of medicine. Similarly\nwe must have the sciences correlated into the unit— agriculture.\nLet us take a single illustration. How would the teaching of a crop\nrotation proceed if there was no special teacher of agriculture? Crops\nare rotated:\n1. To control weeds.\n2. To control insects.\n3. To control fungi.\n4. To keep up the humus supply.\n5. To secure the benefits of growing grasses and legumes on each field.\n6. For convenience in working.\n7. For control of toxic substances.\n\nPossibly the botany teacher might mention weeds, fungi, legumes, and\ngrasses in this connection, and might even discuss toxic substances. The\nteacher of zoology might mention crop rotation as a means of controlling\ninsects, but to have these points mentioned at various times and in a disconnected way would not teach the importance of crop rotation. All the\nreasons must be grouped together under this one head and considered at\none time in order to bring out effectively the importance of the subject.\nBut more important than the reasons for rotation is the training in the\nplanning of a cropping system. After having studied the reasons, the\nclass should take up a particular farm and plan a cropping system for it.\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nIN THE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\nOne or more years of agriculture can be taught in a high school just as\nalgebra is now taught. It will naturally replace * foreign language. I\nknow that this sentence will arouse the fury of some of our live teachers\nof the dead languages, but I beg them to lemember that this does not mean\nfewer students in language, but means that many bright boys who refuse\nto take the present course will be held in school. I know of a teacher of\nGreek in a great university who says that there are only seventy real university students in the institution because only seventy take Greek.\nHe forgets that if all the students were required to take Greek there would\nprobably not be seventy in the institution.\nBiology and chemistry ought to precede or accompany agriculture.\nIt is possible to teach agriculture and combine a few lessons in chemistry\nwith it, but a good course in chemistry ought to be given in every high\nschool.\nIf a school wishes to have a strong course in agriculture it might offer\nsomething like the following:\n\n"}
{"page": 1118, "printed_page": null, "text": "1102\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nFIRST\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Agricultural\n\nYEAR\n\nEnglish.\nBotany.\nGive considerable attention to agricultural plants and plant diseases.\nAlgebra.\nPhysical geography (one-half year). Give special attention to soils and soil formation, and to Ihe weather.\nZoology with special reference to insects and economic forms (one-half year).\nSECOND\n\nYEAR\n\nLatin, modern language, or elective.\nHistory.\nAlgebra and geometry.\nChemistry.\nGive special attention to plant food and animal foods.\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nPhysics.\nUse as many illustrations from every-day life as possible.\nLatin, modern language, or elective.\nGeometry (one-half year). Business and farm arithmetic (one-half year).\nAgriculture.\nFOURTH\n\nYEAR\n\nEnglish.\nCivics (one-half year).\nBook-keeping and farm accounts (one-half year).\nCommercial geography (one-half year).\nPhysiology of man and domestic animals (one-half year).\nAgriculture.\nSPECIAL\n\nSTUDENTS\n\nIf the desire is to reach all the people, it will be necessary to consider\nthose who cannot take an entire course. In any of the courses above suggested, such students can be provided for by allowing them to take such\nstudies as they desire for one or two years, entering the regular classes so\nfar as the hours of recitation will allow. In one year a student might take\nbotany, chemistry, agriculture, and one other study. Such an opportunity will attract boys who would otherwise not come to the school.\nCITY HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIn city high schools the same work can be given. There are many city\nboys who would take the work for the general education it gives. Some\nwant to be farmers. There is now little chance for them. Such boys\ncould be placed on farms as hired men during the summer vacations. This\nwill give them a splendid training whether they become farmers or not.\nThere are also many farm boys attending every city school who should have\nan opportunity to study agriculture.\nPREPARATION\n\nOP\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIt will take a few years before we will have a supply of teachers trained\nfor the work. When prepared such teachers will be more expensive than\nother teachers, because they will be able to do so many other things.\nIn the meantime if our agricultural colleges will give summer work to\nteachers who are already teaching science and who have lived on farms,\n\n"}
{"page": 1119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1103\n\nvery satisfactory teachers can be trained and, as with all subjects, many\ngood teachers will work up the subjects themselves.\nFinally let me urge you to have patience with the work. We must not\nexpect any new science to be perfected at once. Teachers will never be\nprepared until they begin to teach the subject. We must develop the work\ngradually, as botany and physics have been developed, altho I think that\nwe can move much more rapidly in the case of agriculture.\n//.\n\nTHE\n\nPLACE OF THE AGRICULTURAL HIGH SCHOOL\nTHE SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION\n\nDICK J. CROSBY, SPECIALIST IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION,\nOFFICE OF EXPERIMENT\nSTATIONS, WASHINGTON,\n\nUNITED\nD.C.\n\nIN\n\nSTATES\n\nWe are told that the American ideal is a system of universal education,\nwherein every child, every boy and girl, rich and poor alike, shall have an\nopportunity to develop and train all his faculties. We have been led to\nbelieve that such an ideal and its actual working-out in practice are essential\nto the success and perpetuity of a republican form of government. Enlightenment, vocational efficiency, and civic responsibility are qualities of\ncitizenship without which no republic can long endure. This being true,\nwe undoubtedly should have a system of universal education, and, moreover,\nthat system should provide instruction and training in all the essential\nqualities of citizenship. This does not mean, however, that all men are\nalike, nor that all can be trained in the same way; neither is the truth of the\nstatement predicated on everybody's traveling the whole length of the\neducational trunk-line. On the contrary, it seems to me that we must\nstart with a realization that all men are different; they have different\ntalents, a different outlook upon the world, different ideals and ambitions;\nand in the very nature of things each must be provided with a choice of\neducational facilities, so far as this may be done without injustice to others.\nTwo things seem to me to be essential in a system of universal public\neducation, namely:\n1. A standard graded course of instruction leading from the kindergarten thru the\nuniversity to the learned, technical, and business professions; and\n2. Adequate provision for those who cannot pursue the whole course, or who, for any\nreason whatever, have got out of the direct hne of the standard course.\n\nOne trouble with our system of public education as it exists today is\nthat we have provided excellent thru service, with almost perfect terminal\ngiving much consideration to the \"way\" passengers or\nfacilities,\nto branch without\nlines.\n\nI wonder what would be thought of a trunk-Hne railroad from New York\nto Chicago, which ran only \"limited\" trains, carrying only thru equipment\nand making stops only at Philadelphia, Harrisburg, Pittsburg, and other\nmain division points; which took no account of the local passengers nor\n\n"}
{"page": 1120, "printed_page": null, "text": "II04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nof those who might wish to go to Buffalo, Cleveland, or Cincinnati from\nsome one of the division points — which ran no local trains and did not\nmaintain any branch lines. But that is about the way we have been\nmanaging our school system. We have had splendid thru trains, with\npretty fair day coaches for everybody, and Pullman cars for the well-to-do,\nbut we have largely neglected the local service and the branch Hnes. This\n'has not been much of a hardship on the first division, because a large percentage ofthe passengers go thru to the first division stop, but from that\npoint onward the service is far from satisfactory. Nine-tenths of the passengers are local and many of them would like to take branch lines, if\nsuch there were, leading off from the first division stop or from intermediate\npoints between that and the next division stop. Such passengers we regard\nas unfortunate, but we make no particular effort to provide accommodations for them. If they leave the limited at the first division stop they\nmust take their own chances on getting a local on some other system, or\nmust trek it for their destination. Those who remain on the limited with\nthe expectation of getting off a few miles up the line, or of getting another\ntrain at some convenient junction, find to their dismay that the limited\nmakes local stops for no one and it makes no connections. They must\njump from the moving train and run their own risks. A few land on their\nfeet and are able to maintain an upright position, but many come out of\nthe adventure more or less crippled for life and find later that this handicap\nmore than offsets any slight advantage they might have gained from their\nshort ride on the second division.\nWe need not pursue the figure farther. It is not original with me except\nin some of its applications. In a somewhat different form it was used not\nlong ago by one who was arguing against special schools of any kind. He\ncontended that all would prefer to travel on the main line and that all\nshould travel together, thus avoiding the danger of creating class distinctions and the expense of providing special equipment, which would all\nbe very well, as stated above, if all were thru passengers and the thru\ntrains could provide suitable accommodations for passengers of different\ntastes and qualifications. But there are always many local passengers and\nmany requiring special accommodations which it is beyond the power of\nman to provide on a thru train and at the same time maintain thru-train\nschedules and quality of service.\nAll of which, being interpreted in terms appropriate to our public\nschools, means this: (i) That the work in our common schools — the elementary and grammar grades — might well be so \"redirected\" as to make\nfuller and freer use of local concrete material, thus increasing the efficiency\nof teaching-methods and bringing the pupils into closer and more sympathetic relations with their environment; (2) that our public high schools\nshould introduce more required work of an educational character concerning our fundamental industries — agriculture, mechanic arts, and home-\n\n"}
{"page": 1121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF THE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n'\n\n1105\n\nmaking— and should provide optional courses leading directly to collegiate\nand professional courses in these subjects; and (3) that a limited number of\nspecial industrial vocational schools and courses should be provided for\nthose who are not in a position to complete the regular high-school course,\nor who must content themselves with a high-school course leading to some\nchosen profession.\nBy this time you will have discovered that my conception of an agricultural high school is a specialized school and its function is to provide a\nsomewhat local service which the regular high school does not and cannot\nprovide in any general or adequate way.\nI believe that secondary instruction in agriculture serves two main\npurposes — one primarily educational, the other primarily vocational.\nBoth are educational, but one is education thru agriculture or by means of\nagriculture, while the other is education for agriculture and those engaged\nin it. Agriculture is much more than a vocational subject or an industrial\nsubject. In one way or another it touches nearly every human interest\nand endeavor. In some of its aspects it is economic; in others social,\naesthetic, scientific. In a broad way, then, studied with reference to its\nhuman interests, agriculture is a liberalizing subject, a cultural subject.\nConsidered from this point of view, agriculture becomes to the country\nboy, and also to the city boy, one of the best possible means of disclosing\nhuman relationships, the functions of commercial, political, and social\norganizations, and the importance of scientific study and research. From\nthis point of view, it should be studied in every public high school, by\nboys who are to become captains of industry, or leaders in finance, or\nprofessional men, as well as by the future owners and operators of farm\nhomes and other agricultural enterprises.\nBut agriculture is also more than a subject of broad general interest.\nIt has a much more intimate personal aspect to the boy who has made up\nhis mind to become a farmer, or a fruit-grower, or a trucker. He wants\nto know the how of things as well as the why of them; he wants training\nin the practice and business operations of Lgriculture as well as the theor>'\nof it.\n\nI recently heard a young agricultural-college graduate, who had been\nplaced in charge of a farm, deplore the fact that he, and others like\nhim, could go thru college and receive a bachelor's degree in agriculture\nwithout anywhere, either in high school or in college or on a farm, learning\nhow to plow, or dig a ditch, or harness a horse, or milk a cow. Such things\nare not taught in public high schools; they are not considered to be an\nessential part of \"education thru agriculture\"; and, furthermore, the\npublic high schools have neither facilities nor the men to teach such things\nin any effective way. Nor do the agricultural colleges generally afford\ntraining in the practice of agriculture. Their function is to train leaders in\nagricultural education and research, and they assume that the details of\n\n"}
{"page": 1122, "printed_page": null, "text": "iio6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\npractice have been mastered by the students before coming to college.\nBut there is a best way to till the soil, grow crops, care for live stock, and\nmanage the farm, which thousands of farm boys brought up on poorly\nmanaged, one-horse farms, never learn at home, and no city boy ever has an\nopportunity to learn. What should a system of universal education do for\nsuch boys? There are thousands of them and I doubt whether we can\nafford to ignore them in our scheme of public secondary education.\nIt was consideration for them that led to the establishment of the first\nagricultural high school in Minnesota twenty-two years ago — a school to\nwhich boys who had made up their minds to be farmers might elect to go\nfor more thoro and effective instruction and training in agriculture than\ncould be had in any public high school, and for more practical training than\nthe agricultural colleges afforded.\nAnd because this Minnesota school succeeded in its purpose, and hundreds of boys and girls completed its courses and went back to the farms,\nwhere formerly tens had completed the college courses and remained away\nfrom the farms — because this school succeeded, several others like it have\nbeen started in connection with agricultural colleges, and many that are\nsimilar in purpose have been started as independent institutions, so that\nnow we have thirty Congressional District agricultural schools in Alabama,\nGeorgia, and Virginia, five county agricultural schools in Wisconsin, and\nothers in Maryland, Michigan, and Mississippi, and several state agricultural schools in undefined districts, as in California, New York, and\nMinnesota.\nThese schools have been established and maintained to supplement the\nwork of the public high schools, on the one hand, and that of the agricultural\ncolleges on the other. They have not been intended to take the place of\neither or to compete with either, but to occupy an intermediate field which\nneither has fully occupied — much less cultivated. They have been supplied\nwith real farms and farm equipment, with animals, machinery, shops, and\nlaboratories; and the more successful of them with faculties, not single\ninexperienced instructors, but faculties of trained experts — everything\nnecessary to give effective instruction and training in the business and,\nto some extent, the science of agriculture.\nThe influence of such schools and their place in a system of public\nsecondary education may be briefly summarized as follows:\n1. To stimulate the general introduction of agriculture into the ordinary high schools\nand in a general way to set the pace for and give permanence to secondary education in\nagriculture.\n2. To aid in the preparation of teachers for the rural schools. This is accomplished\nin a definite way in Wisconsin by connecting teachers' training schools with the county\nschools of agriculture.\n3. To serve as vocational connecting schools between the public elementary schools\nand the agricultural colleges. In order to do this effectively, the standard courses of\nstudy for these schools should conform in a general way to that of the ordinary public\n\n"}
{"page": 1123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nPLACE\n\nOF THE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1 107\n\nhigh schools of the state. These courses should include instruction in English, history,\nmathematics, chemistry, and botany, such as is generally given in good high schools.\n4. To serve as schools to which boys who have chosen to become farmers may\nelect to go for more thoro and effective preparation for their life-work than the ordinary\npublic high schools can give.\n5. To relieve the agricultural colleges of much of the secondary and short-course\nwork they are now compelled to do, to the detriment in many cases of their regular collegiate work and that of research in agriculture.\n6. To serve the farming communities more intimately and sympathetically than the\nagricultural colleges can do and more effectively than the public high schools can do.\nThis they can accomplish (a) by conducting short courses for adult farmers at points\nremote from the agricultural colleges: {h) by extension teaching in different parts of their\nrespective districts; (c) by rendering the farmers expert assistance and advice; id) by\nconducting demonstration experiments on their own farms and on those of leading farmers in their districts, and (e) by conferring with teachers in near-by public schools and\nassisting them in planning and conducting agricultural work.\n7. To be most effective these special agricultural schools shoul^ be so limited in\nnumber that they will serve relatively large districts— ten or fifteen counties, depending\nupon the density of the rural population, the value of farm lands, and other local conditions. Experience thus far has shown that the county is too small a unit for the proper\nequipment and maintenance of such schools, and too small to supply a sufficient number\nof students. These schools should be large enough and have funds enough to maintain\na relatively large faculty and an adequate modern equipment, so that their students\nwill not only have offered to them a standard course of high-school grade, but will also\nhave opportunity to specialize to some extent along different agricultural lines.\n8. The courses in agriculture in the different schools may well be varied according\nto the predominant agricultural industries in different regions, and there should also be\nshort practical courses for those who cannot complete the standard course.\n9. Agricultural high schools, whether connected with colleges or maintained separately, should be kept strictly secondary in grade and there should be no pretence of\ngiving collegiate instruction in such schools.\n\nBriefly, then, the place of the agricultural high school is within, not\nwithout, our system of public education. It should be one of the important\nbranches of the main line, making definite and close connections with the\nlatter at the end of the grammar-school run, maintaining a good thru service\nwith attractive and comfortable terminal facilities in the agricultural\ncolleges, and providing adequate local accommodations, with a convenient\nschedule and safe and comfortable alighting pkces at the various agricultural stations. Such a branch service, when properly equipped and\nmanaged for all the important agricultural regions, would do much to\nincrease the efficiency and happiness of those living in the open country.\nAnd when these producers of wealth and conservators of democratic\ninstitutions are happy, all the rest of us feel safe and comfortable.\n\n"}
{"page": 1124, "printed_page": null, "text": "II08\n\n///.\n\nHOW\n\nNATION\n\nAt\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nTHE SCHOOLS AND THE UNITED STA TES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE CAN CO-OPERATE\n(A Synopsis)\n\nHON. W. M. HAYS, ASSISTANT\nSECRETARY, UNITED\nOF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON,\n\nSTATES\nD.C.\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nWe have more than thirty million farm folks living on rather more than six million\nfarms. In one or two generations these figures will have increased to fifty million farm\nfarm folks living on ten million farms. The family farm in which the home and the farm\nbusiness are a combined unit is our basic and most vital rural institution. There is an\naverage of rather more than one school pupil from each farm.\nThe institution which is next above the family farm is the rural school. We have\nnearly three hundred thousand ons-room rural schools, or practically one school to twenty\nfarms. More than ten thousand one-room rural schools however, have been consolidated\nwithin the last fifteen years. Sometimes two schools have been brought together; in\nother cases three, four, five, six or more schools have been put under one roof. At least\nhalf of these ten thousand one-room schools have been combined into typical consolidated\nrural schools in which the limit of team haul gives a district four to seven miles across.\nSuch a school owns half a dozen school wagons, each of which accommodates twenty or\nmore pupils. Drivers employed at public expense gather the children together at the\nschool in the morning and return them to their homes in the evening.\nThe typical consolidated rural school of the immediate future, accommodating an\narea of about twenty-five square miles, will have a five-room or six-room school building,\na cottage for the principal, and a ten-acre school farm, including a five-acre combined\ncampus and farm-stead, with playgrounds, orchard, garden and ornamental plantings,\nand an outer five acres devoted to plots of the field and other crops, which patrons of the\nschool grow commercially.\nThe consolidated rural school in the open country will accommodate one hundred to\ntwo hundred farms, or an average of one hundred and fifty farms, whrch will send one\nhundred and fifty pupils to school. In round numbers, one hundred of these pupils will\nbe in the first six year courses of the elementary school, thirty in the seventh and eighth\nyears of the elementary school course, and twenty in the first and second high-school\nyears. In the great agricultural regions the average county will so consolidate its one\nhundred and thirty-five one-room rural schools that it will have about twenty consolidated schools in the open country, and also five combined village and rural schools.\nDoubtless in many mountainous regions, in swampy areas, and even in sandy and forested\nareas, the little one-room school to which pupils walk will continue to be the rule. Even\nhere in many cases two or more of these schools can be brought together, with more or\nless private and public team service, to transport the pupils to and from their homes\nin comfort.\nAll this means that we shall have in the rural communities larger schools which can\ntake on more of institutional organization. There can be larger grounds, more equipment for teachers; and, most important of all, teachers who receive better remuneration,\nhave longer tenure of ofi&ce, and have the satisfaction of giving larger service within\nthe school and to the community. These large units will make it possible to greatly\nincrease the effectiveness of such outside help as may come from the county superintendent ofschools, from the State department of education, from the agricultural college\nand experiment station, and from the United States Bureau of Education and the United\nStates Department of Agriculture. If two-thirds of our rural schools were thus combined,\nwe should have thirty thousand consolidated rural schools, with thirty thousand principals trained to teach agriculture and thirty thousand assistants trained to teach home\neconomics.\n\n"}
{"page": 1125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1109\n\nA dozen or more states are developing large, highly equipped\n, usually separate,\nagricultural high schools adapted specifically to those farm youth,\nwho, intending to\nreturn to the farm, desire a vocational closing course especially relating\nto the management ofthe farm or the farm home. These schools are especially adapted to articulate\nwith the consolidated rural school and with the village schools. They can\nreceive the\nstudents who have had the first two high-school years in the consolidated rural\nor village\nschool, giving them a two-year course broadly combining the general, the scientific,\nand\nthe vocational studies and returning them to the farm to become leaders or even teachers\nin the rural schools. A small proportion of these students, probably not more than ten\nper cent., will naturally go forward to the agricultural college and to the state normal\nschool, many of them with a view to becoming teachers, editors, researchers, etc.\nMany non-public academies and colleges will also establish courses of study to meet\nthe requirements of students who may come to them for instruction preparatory to life\non the farm. These institutions have an open and wide field in this line. There seems\nabundant warrant, however, for throwing out the caution to administrators of these\nschools that they should not undertake the organization of vocational courses relating to\nthe industries without thoroughly investigating the cost. These courses are much more\nexpensive than the general courses and should not be undertaken without assurance of\nadequate equipment and a group of special teachers each with his almost industrial equipment. Young men cannot aflford to go to a boarding school to learn to farm from books.\nVocational higher schools in agriculture should not be relatively so numerous that each\nmay not have a sufficiently large equipment in technicians, lands, laboratories, practice\nshops, domestic animals, etc., that the instruction may be both strongly educational\nand highly inspirational. Because country people are isolated, they especially need\nthat their school life be inspirational as well as informational.\nOne of the most encouraging signs of educational improvement is the rapidly developing feeling in our state normal schools that these institutions must at once become\nhighly equipped to prepare teachers who can instruct in our local and secondary schools\nin the subjects of agriculture, the trades and industries, and home economics. By\ninspecting the wonderful equipment being developed at our state agricultural colleges,\nthe officers of the normal schools are brought to a realization that they must become\nright arms to our state agricultural colleges in preparing teachers who can introduce\nthese vital vocational subjects into the schools of our rural and non-agricultural communities. x\\nd the development of the state normal schools to prepare teachers qualified to instruct in agriculture, the trades and industries, and home-making, will forever\nsweep away the oft-made criticism that our normal schools are guiding our pupils away\nfrom the virile industries and from home-making.\nOne cannot visit the more highly equipped college of agriculture and the mechanic\narts, as in Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Michigan, and other states; or the\nmechanic arts high school of St. Paul, Minnesota; Menomonie, Wisconsin; Springfield,\nMassachusetts; Washington, D.C.; or Columbus, Georgia; or the agricultural high\nschool at St. Anthony Park and Crookston, Minnesota, and at Lincoln, Nebraska, without realizing that this vocational work in the manual industries and in home economics\nis a powerful addition to our educational system.\nThe United States government and the state governments together have spent\napproximately fifty million dollars in agricultural research. The Federal and state\ngovernments are probably spending nearly fifteen million dollars annually on research\nand education in relation to agriculture, and conservative estimates place the economic\nreturn in increased food products at hundreds of millions annually. Were it not for this,\nthe prices of food would be even higher than now, and it is believed that making agricultural education general, thus decreasing the cost of production, is necessary to keep the\ncost of food within bounds. On the other hand, education in the trades and industries\nand in home economics is necessary to enable the workers in the non-agricultural indus-\n\n"}
{"page": 1126, "printed_page": null, "text": "I no\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\ntries to so increase their production that they will be able to pay the higher cost of food,\nand will know how best to utilize the foods in the era already begun of permanently\nhigher-priced farm products.\nThe purpose of the above analysis of the situation is to give a viewpoint of the complex relationship of the United States Department of Agriculture and the other institutions which are to carry the knowledge of agriculture and home economics to more than\nsix million pupils. It is clear that a body of research knowledge which has cost the national\nand state governments fifty millions to obtain — and I might add that other governments\nhave spent an aggregate even larger — and the new knowledge that will result from the\nhundreds of millions which in the near-by decades the wor|4 will have spent in agricultural research, will demand entrance into the closing school courses of all who are to\nmanage farms and make farm homes. A share of this knowledge will be demanded by\npupils whether they leave school at the end of the elementary course, or at some point\nin the high school, or after four years in college. It does not require prophetic vision\nto see that we shall have tens of thousands of consoHdated rural schools; efl&cient courses\nin agriculture in agricultural high schools; and splendid collegiate instruction in agriculture in many colleges, as well as collegiate extension instruction in many farms and\nextension work of the United States Department of Agriculture for the adult farming\npopulation of the country. The administrators and workers in the departments of agriculture, experiment stations, and colleges of agriculture are all a unit in their desire\nto help place in pedagogical form the vast stores of old and new knowledge which they\nare accumulating into a most wonderful literature, and to help organize schools which\nwill reach all the miUions of farm youths and will broaden out the courses of study so\nthat a new vitality will be given to one entire school system.\nUnder the initiative of Congress, the Department of Agriculture is able to investigate many of the problems both general and local, economic and educational, with which\nthe farmers are concerned. I cannot do better than to briefly review what the bureaus\nof the department are already doing. And I should preface what I may say with the\nstatement that the Bureau of Education of the Department of the Interior is also doing\nigreat service in its publications regarding the organization of instruction in agriculture.\nFollowing the spirit which prompted the Congress of 1862 to inaugurate agricultural\ncolleges and experiment stations, and in the same year to pass the basic law under which\nthe United States Department of Agriculture is broadly organized, the Department\nof Agriculture is constantly breaking new ground. In the language of ex-President\nRoosevelt, it is also ''striving to co-ordinate its work with the agricultural departments\nof the several states and so far as its own work is educational to co-ordinate it with the\nwork of other educational authorities.\"\nThe Office of Experiment Stations is the agency thru which the secretary of agriculture deals with matters concerning agricultural education. In that office one division\ndeals with education in school courses, a second deals with college extension work. This\nbureau is doing much to help outhne courses of study both in agriculture and home\neconomics. Its publications are great aids to teachers and to authors of textbooks for\nclass and practice work in agriculture and home economics.\nThere is much departmental extension work done by the various bvireaus, notably\nby the Bureau of Plant Industry. Dr. S, A. Knapp has in hand that most wonderful\nextension work, largely along the Hne of demonstration farming in the South.\nThe Bureau of Plant Industry has given much assistance in Washington and elsewhere to those who have been organizing school-garden instruction in cities. It has\npublished farmers' bulletins on schools gardens, the decoration of home grounds, and the\npropagation of plants, and very many of its bulletins are adapted to use as reference\nbooks and even almost as textbooks in schooTs. Thru that bureau, often with the\nco-operation of congressmen, seeds are sent to schools and to school-garden improvement\nassociations.\n\n"}
{"page": 1127, "printed_page": null, "text": "illl\n\nDepartment]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF THE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe agents of the weather bureau in many cities are not only publishing\nthe local\nweather reports, but in numerous institutions and colleges these men give\nlectures on\nmeteorology. They are working out the pedagogy of meteorology, and the\nchief of this\nbureau has recently published a textbook along this line. The bureau furnishes\ndaily\nweather charts to many schools.\nThe forest service is working out the pedagogies of forestry in a number of ways.\nIts simplified publications are becoming a basis for textbook material in consolidated\nrural schools and in secondary schools as weU as in coUeges. This bureau is especially\nactive in giving addresses before teachers' institutes, normals, and other gatherings of\nteachers in the various states. It has prepared various maps for teachers, and is working\nout methods of giving instruction in nature-study. It has given assistance to schools in\nconnection with Arbor Day, and has aided in making plans of tree plantations on school\ngrounds.\nMany publications of the Bureau of Chemistry and of the division of foods of the\nOffice of Experiment Stations are used in connection with instruction in home economics\nand in the preparation of textbooks on cookery, household sanitation, and other subjects.\nThe Bureau of Soils greatly aids in the movement for the extension of agricultural\ninstruction, and furnishes soil-maps for the schools of the locality of which these maps\nare made. It sometimes analyzes soil samples and has co-operated with some of the\nagricultural colleges in establishing soil professorships, which when established are cared\nfor by these institutions. This bureau is especially anxious to assist in selecting farms\nfor agricultural high schools and consolidated rural schools, that they may have soils\ntypical of the region which the school serves and on which are uniform tracts available\nfor plot experiments.\nThe Bureau of Statistics in co-operation with the assistant secretary of agriculture\nhas made a careful statistical study of the organization, the cost, and the effectiveness\nof the different forms of consolidated rural schools; and especially the relative value of\nthis form of school in instruction in agriculture and home economics.\nThe Office of Road Inquiry provides many lectures, assists in getting together\nmaterial for textbooks, publishes literature for use of schools, and assists in every way\npossible in introducing the subject of road-engineering into the schools of engineering\nand schools of agriculture.\nThe Bureau of Entomology has built up a wonderful body of knowledge of beneficial and injurious insects and is assisting in putting it into pedagogical form. The\nBureau of the Biological Survey is doing a similar service regarding the native wild\nanimals and birds, and is especially active in introducing the subjects of game animals\nand game birds into the public schools.\nThe Federal Government, under the Nelson Act, has recently given each of the\nstate colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts an annual grant of twenty-five thousand\ndollars, which they may use in preparing teachers to give instruction in agriculture,\ntrades and industries, and home economics. Some of the administrators of the state\nnormal schools have been wise enough to secure funds from their state legislators to\nenable them to join the state colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts in preparing vocational teachers along these lines.\nPresident Seerley of the Iowa State Teachers' College has called attention to the\nfact that if the sixty state colleges of agriculture, and the one hundred and thirty-five\nstate normal schools, each and all, were equipped to prepare teachers competent to give\ninstruction in agriculture they would not be able to prepare enough to give instruction\nin vocational lines in the nearly three hundred thousand rural schools in this country.\nIf two hundred thousand or two-thirds of the rural schools were consolidated so that\nonly one-third of the teachers would need to be trained to teach agriculture and home\neconomics, we would still require teachers for the one hundred thousand remaining district rural schools, and two teachers each for the thirty thousand consolidated rural schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1128, "printed_page": null, "text": "1112\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nEven under this arrangement the secondary schools would need to co-operate with the\nstate agricultural colleges and normal schools in preparing teachers for the rural schools,\nespecially for the remaining one-room schools. There is need, therefore, that vocational\neducation be developed in separate agricultural high schools and even in the city high\nschools. Taken as a whole, the normal schools are now but poorly meeting the situation\nby way of helping to co-operate with the national department of agriculture in preparing\nteachers to carry this new body of knowledge to the people. I am not so sure but that\nthe state colleges of agriculture are even more blamable, because with the funds provided for them by the Federal Government, under the Nelson Act, they are not assuming\nthat leadership which has been thrust into their hands by Congress. Heie and there a\npublic high school is making a praiseworthy effort to get into the co-operative movement\nand help to bring agricultural knowledge and training to the country people. Of the\napproximately one thousand existing consohdated rural schools in this country, a small\nnumber are placing agricultural instruction in the classroom and the school laboratory.\nNumerous teachers in the one-room schools, especially if they have had training in an\nagricultural college or state normal school with an agricultural department, in an agricultural high school, or even in the local schools which give instruction in agriculture,\nare successfully introducing this subject into their schools. Indeed, some teachers are\nsecuring the best agricultural textbooks, bulletins, and literature and are meeting with\nsuccess in teaching agriculture though they themselves have had no school training\nalong this line. In a few places an itinerant teacher, employed by the county, goes about\nfrom school to school and introduces something of instruction in agriculture to the district rural school. Not a few of our state legislatures are taking part in the new movement\nto bring about a general co-operation in vocational training for farmers. The efforts\nto build up educational departments in our agricultural colleges and agricultural departments in our state normal schools are meeting with ready response. Some of the legislatures have made it compulsory to give instruction in agriculture in the rural schools,\nthough this plan has not met with universal approval.\nWhat has been said before, regarding co-operation in developing agricultural education, should be repeated almost in detail concerning education in home economics for\nthe girls of the farm. There is the same need in, and advantage of, providing school\ncourses for the non-agricultural trades and industries for the youths in our non-agricultural communities. I believe that we all are ready to enlist our national and state departments in the great movement to carry this new body of technical knowledge to all the\nyouth of the land, that all who farm, all who work in the shop, and all who manage our\nhomes, shall have the opportunity to gain that efficiency in doing things which comes\nfrom technical school-training in the industries as well as in the professions.\nThat this co-operative project may go forward in every state, in every institution,\nand in every neighborhood which is needy and able to take initiative and successfully\npush aside the too-conservative influence of the older organization, leadership should\nnot be too aggressive and the changes should be evolutionary rather than revolutionary.\nHere, as elsewhere, the reactionary should stop to carefully consider before he takes the\nresponsibility of arresting progress. There is at stake not merely ten million farm youths,\nand nearly double that number of youths living in non-agricultural communities, but\nthere is at stake the interest of all the toiling miUions; and since this project will so\ngreatly increase production, all classes, even the wealthy, are vastly interested. The\nnation is interested also in improving the civilization of the open county and in the\nproduction of fine citizenship and of virile folks for both rural and city leadership.\nTo so conduct the education of those who are to manage all our six or more million\nfarms and farm homes that they will be able successfully to compete with the highly\norganized large commercial farm, this vocational education must mainly be done in the\nlocal school. Fortunately the newly devised consolidated rural schools, as those in\nMaryland, Ohio, Indiana, Florida, and other states, many of which have employed effi-\n\n"}
{"page": 1129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF THE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1 1 13\n\n^cient teachers of agriculture and home economics, have clearly proved that this\nform of\nschool can do this work and that it is adapted to multiplication so as to cover at least\nall\nwell-to-do farm regions. The consolidated rural school is the greatest educational\ninvention of our generation.\nOnce vocational education is efficiently taught in the elementary schools, including\nthe first and second years of high schools, within driving distance of the farms of America,\nthere will be relatively less need of extension and correspondence courses; even these\nforms of instruction can be largely connected with and organized about the consolidated\nrural school. Let us all, farmers, home-makers, educators, legislators, pubUcists, and\ncitizens, whether our field be local, city, or national, co-operate in promoting vocational\neducation, that all classes may be prepared for high personal efficiency in their fields of\nlife work.\nThe outflow of co-operative effort must be reciprocal. The rural community especially should energetically seek to co-operate with state and national departments and\ninstitutions, and the states should investigate the on-coming movement of scientific and\nvocational knowledge, and the advances in the organization of affairs generally that they\nmay not be made less important by allowing the vital work of education and government to be too much centralized in the national government. Citizens, publicists, and\nlegislators should not wait for schoolmen to take the lead in re-organizing and broadening out of schools. Teachers have come to acknowledge that material reforms in schools\nrarely originate from teachers. They are rather isolated from business affairs and seem\nunable to effect changes in schools which require additional funds. But too much emphasis cannot be given the fact that the teachers should make unusual efforts to promote\nmovements to improve the vocational side of our education. They should absolve themselves of any fear that education in agriculture, the trades and industries, and in home\neconomics is not real education. They should plan to add courses of study in all schools\nwhere these vocational subjects are needed. They can do a large service by promoting\nrural schools, and by encouraging the states, cities, and rural communities to provide\nfunds for instruction in the manual vocations, and in home economics in the secondary\nand even in the primary schools of all communities.\nYoung men and women partially trained for teaching, especially if they have proven\nability to teach, and a grain of missionary zeal for service, should investigate the rich life\nwhich service in education in agriculture, the trades and industries and home economics has to offer. The salary, the growth of one's self, and the opportunity for real service\nsum up larger than service in most lines of teaching. The principal of a consohdated\nrural school who rarely measures up to his opportunities has more vital functions than\nthe average college professor.\nDISCUSSION\nProfessor Dexter, of Porto Rico. — Our problem is in some respects a unique one.\nWe have in the Island about a million people who are engaged entirely in agriculture;\nbut these people have the mistaken idea that their children should not till the soil, and\nin order to get them to send their children to school, we are obliged not to emphasize\nsuch work as agriculture; but we have introduced it into the high schools very generally\nand have a special supervisor for the elementary school, so that about twenty-eight thousand children are getting more or less instruction in agriculture. In certain cities a type\nof school-garden work is being carried on which seems to be very helpful.\n\nDavid Snedden, commissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass. —\nOne of the first things to be definitely determined is how many hours out of approximately four thousand, which the child spends in the high school, should be devoted to\nclassroom work in agriculture, to library work in agriculture, to laboratory work in agriculture, tohome study in agriculture; how many hours should be given to so-called lib-\n\n"}
{"page": 1130, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\neral studies. In other words, before anything very definite can be accomplished, it will\nbe necessary to decide the relative importance of these subjects and whether or not all'\nchildren should be required to devote the same number of hours.\nL. S. Ingraham, principal of the Sparta Agricultural and Industrial Institute,\nSparta, Ga. — I am from that portion of country where cotton is king, and I represent\na class of people that do not take favorably to agricultural education from the fact thata large portion of colored people think they have done enough field labor. When I was\na boy, the Yankee came south and sang a song that I shall never forget. It was, \"By\nand by, little children, you are free. There's no more Monday mornings; there's no\nmore going to the wash-pot.\"\nThis brought to the minds of the newly emancipated that freedom meant a cessation\nfrom manual labor. Another thing that unfitted him for his new condition was the\npromise of forty acres and a mule. While he has persisted in tilling his crop with the one\nmule, the South is beginning to wake up. The two-horse plow is being rapidly introduced, whereas thirty years ago, if a man was seen ploughing with two horses, he would\nhave been considered a fool.\nI am planning to erect an agricultural and industrial school at Sparta, Ga., where\nI shall teach the boys and girls to do things in a practical way. I was at Rome, Ga.,\nfor ten years, where I taught agriculture by theory, but now I shall teach by practice.\n\n"}
{"page": 1131, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL INDEX\n[Names of department presidents and authors of formal papers are set in small capitals.\na memorial sketcL.)\n\nAbbot, William F. — Discussion, 503\nAbrahams, Henry — Discussion, 373\nAct of Incorporation, i\nActive members. Minutes of Annual\nMeeting of, 30\nAdams, Mabel Ellery — The deaf schools\nday and institutional, 1039\nAddresses of Welcome (Eben S. Draper),\n53; (John Francis Fitzgerald), 53\nAdministration, College and University:\nthe ofitice side of the question, 542\nAdvancement of drawing and art teaching\nin our public schools (Bonnie E. Snow),\n630\nAesthetic development of children at the\nkindergarten period ( Caroline Crawford), 388\nAgricultural education of the rural populations, Value of demonstrative methods\nin, 107\nAgricultural education, Report of the\nnational committee on, 590, 1094\nAgricultural high school in the system of\npubUc education, The place of, 11 03\nAgricultural high school. Laboratory and\n'field work in the, 1089\nAgriculture in the public high schools, The\nplace of, 1094\nAgriculture in the public school system,\nI (George F. Warren), 1094; II (Dick\nJ. Crosby) 1103; III (W. M. Hays),\n1 108\nAims and methods in modem education\n(James C. Monaghan), 597\nAley, Robert J.— Care of exceptional\nchildren in the grades, 881; The consolidation of schools, 276; Discussion,\n333.\nAlleman, L. J.— Teachers for the country\nschool: kind wanted: how to secure\nthem, 280\nAllen, William H. — How every school\nmay be a child welfare conference, 899\nAmerican game of football as related to\nphysical\ndan), 357education (David Starr JorAndrews, Arthur I. — Discussion, 1002\nAnnual Meeting of Active Members, Minutes of, 30\n\nAt indicates\n\nAshmun, Margaret — Discussion, 999\nAttitude of academic high-school teachers\ntoward students of commercial departments James\nM. Green), 868\n(\nAutomatic\nplayer in schools (John G.\nThompson), 808\nAyres,\nLeonard\nP.— What\nconstitutes\nretardation?\nHow significant are retardation statistics? When is retardation\nHow may it be corrected ?justifiable?\n149\nBackward children. Schools for, 1054\nBailey, Thomas P. — Discussion, 240\nBaker, James H. — University administrative problems outside of teaching,\n537\nBalcomb,\nE. E. — Secretary's\nMinutes,\nDepartment of Rural and Agricultural\nEducation, io8i\nBalliet, Thomas M. — Discussion, 932\nBarlow-Smith,\nMrs.\nConstance — ^The\neducational value of the folk-song, 818\nBarnum, Mrs. O. Shepard — Work of the\ncoming\nyear (Department\nof School\nPatrons), 1078\nBarss, J. E. — Discussion, 502\nBayles, Martha B. — Some results of elementary school class reference work in\npublic libraries, 1022\nBaylor,\nAdelaide\nSteele — English in\nthe elementary schools, 430; Uses of\nthe public library in the teaching of history in the schools, 1015\nBecht, J. George — Discussion, 211\nBeggs, Robert H. — Discussion, 1013\nBetz,\nWilliam — Preliminary\nreport of\nthe \"National Geometry Syllabus Committee\" and its practical pedagogical\nimplications, 511\nBibliography on industrial education, 766\nBicknell, Thomas W. — Discussion, 374\nBiRGE, Edward B. — High school orchestras, 815; Discussion, 810, 811.\nBlack, George H. — Discussion, 283\nBlair,\nFrancis 54G.— Response to addresses\nof welcome,\nBlewett, Ben— Discussion, 325\nBlind in schools with the seeing (Frank G.\nBruner), 1044\n\nBlind, InsUtutional care and training of\n(William E. BreckenApplied\nthe, 1050\n515\nridge),problems\nBlindness, Prevention of, 1055\nArt as a medium for liberal education (C.\n\"ISBole, John A.— Writing in German, 529\nValentine Kirby), 626\nBoston, the cradle of public-school music\nArt as a necessary factor in industrial eduin America (Charles I. Rice), 798\ncation (Walter Sargent), 284\n\n"}
{"page": 1132, "printed_page": null, "text": "iii6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBoynton, F. D. — Discussion, loio\nBreckenridge, William E. — Applied\nproblems, 515\nBright, Mrs. Orville T. — Secretary's Min■ utes. Department of School Patrons, 1073\nBrogden, L. C. — Discussion, 427\nBrown, Edwin J.— Discussion, 301\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth — A message\nfrom the United States Bureau of Education, 87; fin meraoriam — William\nTorrey Harris, 195\nBrown, George P. — fin memoriam — William Torrey Harris, 185\nBrown, H. B. — Discussion, 784\nBrown, J. Stanley — The effects of electives upon the future welfare of secondary education, 203; Discussion, 333\nBruce, William C. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of School Administration,\n969\nBruner, Frank G. — The blind in schools\nwith the seeing, 1044; Discussion, 880\nBurks, Jesse D. — Manual activities in the\nelementary school, 778\nBurnham, Ernest — Thru courses in state\nnormal schools, 583\nBurnham, William H. — The hygiene of\ninstruction, 900; Discussion, 926\nBy-Laws, adopted July 10, 1907, 5; Art.\nI, Membership, 5; Art. II, Officers and\nCommittees, 6; Art. Ill, Duties of Officers, 6; Art. IV, Board of Directors, 7;\nArt. V, The National Council, 7; Art. VI,\nDepartments, 8; Art. VII, Meetings,\n8; Art. VIII, Amendments, 8\nByrd, C. E. — Industrial work: in the\none-room school, its kind and scope, 277\nCabot, Richard C. — The deeper significance of the school-hygiene movement,\nCalendar of meetings, 10\n922\nCanty, Margaret — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Elementary Education, 417\nCare of exceptional children in the grades\n(Robert J. Aley), 881\nCarlton, Frank T. — The industrial factor in social progress, 659\nCarpenter, Frank O. — Discussion, 872\nCarr, John W. — Secretary's Minutes, National Council of Education, 312.\nCarrington, W. T. — Discussion, 334\nCary, C. p. — fin memoriam — William\nTorrey Harris, 190; Opportunities of\nthe modern high school, 457\nCauble, Laura A. — Discussion, 650\nChadsey, Charles E. — The use of the\npublic library for reference purposes by\nthe elementary schools, 1014; Discussion, 324; 373Chamberlain, Arthur H. — The purpose\nand content of the elementary curriculum, 286; Discussion, 335\nChase, W. T.— Discussion, 556\nChemistry (Joseph S. Mills), 474\nChild as the center of correlation in the\nkindergarten (Amy E. Tanner), 384\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nChild study and school organization and\nadministration (F. E. Spaulding), 906\nChildren differ in environments, I (Samuel E. Weber), 234; II (Clifford\nB. Connelley),\n242; III (John W.\nZeller),\n245\nChildren differ in mental alertness, I\n(Leonard P. Ayres), 149; II (James H.\nVan Sickle), 155; III (Maximilian\nP. E. Groszmann), 160\nChildren differ in mental attitudes, tastes,\nand tendencies, I (W. E. Striplin), 199;\nII (J. Stanley Brown), 203; III\n(Albert Ross Hill), 208\nChildren differ in moral responsibility, I\n(P. W. Horn), 169; II (Walter F.\nLewis), 174; III (Horace H. Cummings), 180\nChildren differ in physical condition, I\n(Thomas F. Harrington), 214; II\n(D. A. Sargent), 223; III (Herman\nH. Horn), 228\nChildren differ in vocational aims, I (Ben\nW. Johnson), 253; II (W. F. Webster), 260; III (W. B. Prescott), 265\n557\nClark, pline,\nThomas\nArkle — College disciCollege and university administration:\nthe office\nside of 542\nthe question (Frederick P. Keppel),\nCollege discipUne (Thomas Arkle Clark),\n557\nCollege entrance credit in high-school\nagriculture, Report of committee on\nencouraging, 480\nCollege fraternities, the relation of the\ncollege faculty to, 548\nCoLTON, sions,Margaret\n410\n\nM. — Open-air ses-\n\nCommercial education as a branch of vocational training (Cheesm an A. Herrick) ,\n861\nCommercial teachers. The education and\nprofessional training of, 847\nCommittee on cosmopolitan high school.\nPreliminary report of the, 462\nCommittee on encouraging college entrance\ncredit in high-school agriculture, Report\nof, 480\nCommittee\non provision for exceptional\n223\nchildren in the public schools. Report\nof, 321\nCommittee\non the place of industries in\npubhc education, Report of, 652; 774\nCompetition and culture (D. A. Sargent),\nConnelley, Clifford B. — The conservation of educational methods, 616; The\neffect of industrial environment, 242\nConservation of educational methods\n(Clifford B. Connelley), 6x6\nConservation of vision and the prevention\nof blindness (F. Park Lewis), 1055\nConsoUdation of schools (Robert J.\nAley,) 276\n\n"}
{"page": 1133, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nContent of the elementary curriculum, The\npurpose and, 286\nConverse, F, E. — Discussion, 300\nCook, Henry R. M.— The standardization\nof school statistics, 980\nCook, John W. — Some of the effects of\nmusic instruction in the public schools,\n822; Discussion, 574\nCo-operation with the schools, I (Alice\nM. Jordan), 1016; II (Mrs. Mary E.\nS. Root), 1018\nCountry child. The, I (Howard A. Gass),\n275; II (Robert J. Aley), 276; III\n(C. E. Byrd), 277; IV (L. J. Alleman),\n280\nCountry school, Teachers for the: kind\nwanted, how to secure them, 280\nCourse of study: Industries in the elementary school, 692\nCowen, George A. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Science Instruction, 949\nCrabtree, James W. — The criticisms of\nthe public schools by the laity, 99\nCrawford, Caroline — Aesthetic development of children at the kindergarten\nperiod, 388\nCriticisms of the public schools by the\nlaity (James W. Crabtree), 99\nCrocheron, B. H. — ^Laboratory and field\nwork in the agricultural high school, 1089\nCrosby, Dick J.— The place of the agricultural high school in the system of public education, 1103\nCulture, Competition and, 223\nCuMMiNGS, Horace H. — Methods of reducing moral truths to practice, i8o\nCurry, James S. — Past, present, and future of commercial education, 835\nCurtis, Miss — Discussion, 414\nDanger-signals in young children (Maximilian P. E. Groszmann), 874\nDangers and advantages of specialization\nprior to the high-school age (W. E.\nStriplin), 199\nDargan, John J.— Discussion, 1093\nDavis,\n1087 K, C. — Field laboratory work,\nDeaf schools, day and institutional (Mabel\nEllery Adams), i'o39\nDean, Arthur D. — A practical system\nfor general training in industrial education, 612; Discussion, 786\nDearmont, W. S. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Normal Schools, 563\nDecade of school administration in Boston\n(David A. Ellis), 987\nDeeper significance of the school-hygiene\nmovement (Richard C. Cabot), 922\nDemocratic government, Relation of education to, 71\nDepartment of Business Education, 833;\nof Child Study, 873; of Elementary\nEducation, 417; of Higher Education,\n535; of Kindergarten Education, 377;\nof Library, 993; of Manual Training\nand Art Education, 595; of Music Edu-\n\ncation, 789; of National Council, 307;\nof Normal Schools, 563; of Physical\nEducation, 921; of Rural and Agri143\ncultural Education, 1081; of School\nAdministration, 969; of School Patrons,\n1073; of Science Instruction, 949; of\nSecondary Education, 443; of Special\nEducation, 1033; of Superintendence,\nFellows), 536\nDepartment\nproblems (George\n\nEmory\n\nDexter, Professor — Discussion, 11 13\nDifferences in moral responsibility, DiscipHne as affected by, 174\nDirect method of teaching modem languages, and present conditions in our\nschools (Frederick Monteser), 523\nDiscipline as affected by differences in\nmoral responsibility (Walter F. Lewis),\nDistinctively professional content of normal-school and college courses (Joseph\nH. Hill), 564\n.174\nDo present college-entrance requirements\nsufficiently recognize different tastes\nand tendencies of pupils? (Albert\nRoss Hill), 208\nDodd, Alvin E. — Discussion, 624\nDownes, F. E. — Discussion, 290\nDowse, Mabel B. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Music Education, 789\nDrake, Ellis H. — Discussion, 440\nDrake, Grant — Discussion, 831\nDraper, Eben S. — Address of welcome, 53\nDrawing and art teaching in our pubhc\nschools. Advancement of, 630\nDrawing and its relation to the arts and\ncrafts of the public schools (William\nC. A. Hammel), 365\nDuniway, C. A. — Discussion, 547\nDyer, F. B. — Discussion, 166\nEconomical use of school buildings (William H. Maxwell), 326\nEducation and American independence\n(William W. Kitchen), 57\nEducation and professional training of\ncommercial\nman), 847 teachers (J. Asbury PitEducation in the country for the country\n(John W. Zeller), 245\nEducation of women, for home-making\n(Mrs. W. N. Hutt), 122\nEducational\nadministration, The outlook\nfor, 970\nEducational progress during the year. Report on, 336\nEducational value of the folk-song (Constance Barlow-Smith), 818\nEffect of industrial environment (Clifford\nB. Connelley), 242\nEffects of electives upon the future welfare\nof secondary education, (J. Stanley\nBrown) 203\nElder, Ella C— Discussion, 413\nElementary curriculum. The purpose and\ncontent of the, 286\n\n"}
{"page": 1134, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nElementary-school class reference work in\npublic-libraries (Mrs. Adelaide Bowles\nMaltby), 1 014\nElementary school, Industrial education\nin the, 253\nEliot, Charles W. — ^The value during\neducation of the life-career motive, 133\nEllis, David A. — A decade of school administration inBoston, 987\nEllis, Lucy T. — Secretary's Mmutes, Department of Kindergarten\nEducation,\n377\nEnglish in the elementary schools (Adelaide Steele Baylor), 430\nEssential principles in teaching English\n(Charles Swain Thomas), 487\nExceptional child; the influence of environment and education upon his development beginning with the kindergarten\nyears (S. Philip Goodhart), 886\nExceptional children in the grades, Care\nof, 881\nExceptional children in the public schools,\nReport of committee on provisions for,\nFarrell, Elizabeth E. — Schools for\n321\nbackward\nchildren, 1054\nFaunce, W. H. p. — The relation of the\ncollege faculty to college fraternities,\nFellows, George Emory — Department\n548\nproblems,\n536\nField\n1087 laboratory work (K. C. Davis),\nField laboratory work accompanying college courses in horticulture (Ralph L.\nWatts) 1082\nFish, Frederick P. — ^The vocational and\nindustrial school, 363\nFitzgerald,\ncome, S3 John F. — Address of welFolk-song, The educational value of the,\n818\nFoster, J. M. — Discussion, 556\nFrench, John Shaw — The practical limitations of an ideal course in secondary\nmathematics, 511\nFulton, M. D. — Discussion, 847\nFundamental education (Clark W. Hetherington), 350\nGardens (Anna E. Harvey), 402\nGass, Howard A. — The necessary oneroom school, 275\nGaylord, E. E. — Discussion, 845\nGifted children in public schools, Provision for, 155\nGill, Laura Drake — The work of the\ndepartment of school patrons, 19091910, 1075\nGoDDARD, Henry H. — What can the public\nschool do for subnormal children, 912\nGod WARD, W. A. — Discussion, 212\nGoodhart, S. Philip — The exceptional\nchild; the influence of environment and\neducation upon his development beginning with the kindergarten years, 886\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nGrading and promotion of\n(Charles S. Hart well), 294\n\npupils\n\nGraff, Ellis U. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Secondary Education,\n443\nGraham, A. B. — Report of committee on\nencourageing college entrance credit in\nhigh-school agriculture, 480\nGreen, James M. — The attitude of academic high-school teachers toward students of commercial\ndepartments, 868;\nDiscussion,\n785\nGreenwood, James M. — Strengthening\nthe work in the elementary grades, 436;\nt William Torrey Harris, 92\nGroszmann, Maximilian P. E. — Dangersignals in young children, 874; What\nconsideration should be given to subnormal pupils, 160; Discussion, 323;\n335\nGuLiCK, Luther Halsey — Physical education from the standpoint of health,\nKallmann, W. N.— Discussion, 881\nHaines, John F. — Discussion, 252\nHall, G. Stanley. — ^The national child\nwelfare conference: its work and its\nrelations\nto child study, 893; Psy346\nchological aspects of physical education,\n927\nHall,\nMary\nE. — Secretary's\nMinutes,\nLibrary\nDepartment,\n993\nHammel, William C. A. — Drawing and\nits relation to the arts and crafts of the\npublic schools, 635\nHarmony courses in high schools (Osbourne McConathy), 811\n195\nHarrington,\neducation, 214Thomas F. — Health and\nHarris, Ada Van Stone — The test of the\nchild's kindergarten training, 396\nHarris, William Torrey,t 92;\n185,\n190;\nHart, William\nviewpoint, 466\n\nR. — The\n\npedagogical\n\nHartwell, Charles S. — The grading and\npromotion of pupils, 294\n\nHarvey, Anna E. — Gardens, 402\n\nHawkms, W. A. — Discussion, 859\nHays, Hon. W. M. — How the schools and\nthe United States department of agriculture can co-operate, 1108\nHealey, Horace G. — What business men\ndemand\nof graduates of commercial\nschools, 854\nHealth and education\n(Thomas F. Harrington), 214\nHeeter, S. L. — Discussion, 428\nHenderson, Ernest N. — ^The industrial\nfactor in education, 666\nHermann, Ernst — Discussion, 935\nHerrick, Cheesman a. — Commercial\neducation as a branch of vocational\ntraining, 861\nHetherington,\neducation, 350 Clark W. — Fundamental\n\n"}
{"page": 1135, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\nHigh school itself (William Mc Andrew),\n450 school librarian (William ' McAnHigh\nDEEw),\n994\nHigh school, Opportunites of the modern,\n457\nHill, Albert Ross— Do present collegeentrance requirements sufficiently recognize different tastes and tendencies\nof pupils ? 208\nHill, Joseph H.— The distinctively professional content of normal-school and\ncollege courses, 564\nHomans, Amy M. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Physical Education,\n\nI\n\ni\n\n921\nHome-making,\nThe education of women\nfor, 122\nHorn, Herman H. — The principle underlying modern physical education, 228\nHorn, P. W. — The variable factors in\nmoral responsibility, 169\nHousehold arts. Vocational value of the,\n642\nHow every school may be a child welfare\nconference (William H. Allen), 899\nHow the schools and the United States\ndepartment of agriculture can co-operate (Hon. W. M. Hays), 1108\nHow to make commercial courses more\nefficient (Frank E. Lakey), 839\nHoward, George H. — Discussion, 810\nHuTT, Mrs. W. N. — The education of\nwomen for home-making, 122.\nHygiene of instruction (William H.\nBurnham), 900\nIn M^moriam — William Torrey Harris — I\n(George P. Brown), 185; H (C. P.\nGary), 190; HI (Elmer Ellsworth\nBrown), 195\nIncorporation, Act of, i; certificate of, 9.\nIndustrial and technical education in the\nsecondary school. Report of sub-committee on, 731\nIndustrial education, A practical system\nfor general training in, 612\nIndustrial education, Art as a necessary\nfactor in, 284\nIndustrial education in our public schools.\nThe need of, 369\nIndustrial\neducation\nin the elementary\nschool (Ben W. Johnson), 253\nIndustrial education in the United States,\nSome notes on the history of, 675\n265\nIndustrial\neducation. Trade unions and,\nIndust\nenvir\nThe effect of, 242\nIndustrrial factoronmein t.educat\n(Erne\nst\nion\nial\nN. Henderson), 666\nIndustrial factor in social progress (Frank\nT. Carlton), 659\nIndustrial work:\nin the one-room school,\nits kind and scope (C. E. Byrd), 277\nIndustrial work. The training of teachers\nfor, 621\nIndustries in the elementary school. Re-\n\nport of sub-committee on the place of.\n680\nIngraham, L. S.— Discussion, 11 14\nInstitutional care and training of the blind\n(John E. Ray), 1050\nIntermediate industrial schook (David\nSnedden), 782\n\nIntermediate industrial schools. Report\nof sub-committee on, 710\nJohnson, Ben W.— Industrial education\nin the elementary school, 253\nJohnston,\ning, 115 Emma L. — Training for teach1035J. B. E. — Discussion, 532\nJonas,\nJones, Edmund A. — The state's obligation\nto prov-^ide educational opportunities\nfor all children, normal or otherwise,\nJones, Lewis H. — Discussion, 333\nJones, Olive M. — Discussion, 325\nJones,\nRalph ofK.— Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment\nDiscussion,\n554 Higher Education, 535;\nJordan, 27Alice M.— Co-operation with the\nschools, 10 1 6\nJordan, David Starr — The American\ngame of football as related to physical\neducation, 357; War and manhood, 61\nJordan, Ella C. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Special Education, 1033\nJournal of Proceedings of General Sessions,\nJoyner, James Y., Presidential Address —\nSome dominant tendencies in American\neducation, 78\nJuDD, Charles H.— The school and the\nlibrary, 1026\nKeating, J. F. — Secretary's Minutes, Department ofSuperintendence, 143\nKeppel, Frederick P. — College and university administration: the office side\nof the question, 542; Discussion, 556\nKindergarten method. The principle of\ndevelopment as the basis for, 378\nKindergarten out-of-doors: I (Anna E.\nHarvey), 402; II (Mrs. Alma 0. Ware)\n404; HI (Margaret M. Colton),\nKindergarten training, The test of the\nchild's, 396\nKinne, Helen — The vocational value of\nthe household arts, 642\n410\nKiRBY, C. Valentine — Art as a medium\nfor liberal education, 626; Secretary's\nMinutes,\nDepartment\nof Manual Training and Art,\n595\n625\nKirtland, John C. — Discussion, 497\nKiTCHiN,\nW. — Education\nand\nAmerican William\nIndependence,\n57\nKreuzpointner, Paul— Discussion, 610;\n1089\nLaboratory and Field work in the agricultural high school (B. H. Crocheron),\nLakey, Frank E.— How to make commercourses more efficient, 839\n\n"}
{"page": 1136, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nLarson, Walter E. — Thru the county\nnormal school, 578\nLasher, William R. — School activities\nas\nan educational\nfactor in secondaryschools,\n445\nLegitimate spheres of influence for the\nnormal school in public education (Guy\nE. Maxwell), 569\nLewis, F. Park — Conservation of vision\nand the prevention of blindness, 1055\nLewis, Walter F. — Discipline as affected\n174 differences in moral responsibility,\nby\nLife career motive, The value during education of the, 133\nLodge, Gonzalez — The oral method of\nteaching Latin, 493\nLuckey, G. W. A. — Discussion, 933\nMaltby, Mrs. Adelalde Bowles — Elementary school class reference work in\npublic libraries, 1014; Discussion, 102 1\nManual activities in the elementary school\n(Jesse D. Burks), 778\nMarshall, Leonard B. — Success in public-school music, 826\nMathewson, Chester A. — Zoology, 476\nMaxwell, Guy E. — Legitimate spheres\nof influence for the normal school in\npubHc education, 569\nMaxwell, William H. — The economical\nuse of school-buildings, 326\nMcAndrew, William — ^The high school\nitself, 450; The high school librarian,\n994\nMcConathy, Osbourne — Harmony\ncourses in high schools, 811\nMcCormack, Thomas J.— Why do we\nstudy mathematics: a philosophical\nand historical retrospect, 505\nMcDermott, Irene E. — ^The scientific\ndepartment of the secondary schools\nand its relationship to the household\narts, 646\nMeek, Charles S. — Discussion, 434\nMeetings, Calendar of, 10\nMeredith, Arthur J.— Discussion, 866\nMessage from the United States Bureau\nof Education (Elmer Ellsworth\nBrown), 87\nMethods in the agricultural education of\nthe rural population. Value of demonstrative, 107\nMethods of reducing jnoral truths to practice (Horace H. Cummings), 180\nMeyers, George E. — Discussion, 609\nMiller, Charles A. A. J.— What kind\nof qualifications and training should the\nteacher of the special class have, 106 1\nMiller, Edwin L. — Rebuilding an English course, 483\nMills, Joseph S. — Chemistry, 474\nMinority report: Committee on place of\nindustries in public education, 765\nMinutes of Annual Meeting of Active\nMembers, 30\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors,\n1909-10, 38\nMinutes of Meeting of New Board of Directors, 1910-11, 48\nModern-language teaching in New England (Julius Tuckerman), 519\nMonaghan,\nC. — 597\nx^ims and methods\nin modern James\neducation,\nMonro, sion, 107Mrs.\n1\n\nSarah\n\nJordan — Discus-\n\nMoNTESER, Frederick — The direct\nmethod of teaching modern languages,\nand present conditions in our schools,\n523\nMoral responsibility, DiscipUne as affected\nby differences in, 1 74\nin, 169\nMoral\nresponsibility, The variable factors\nMoral truths to practice. Methods\nreducing, 180\n\nof\n\nMotivation of the children's work in the\nelementary schools (H. B. Wilson),\nMouth\nhygiene 948\nin public schools (William\nH. Potter),\nMuRBACH, Louis — Physiology and hygiene,\n418\nMurray, Michael W. — The training of\nteachers for industrial work, 621\nMusic instruction in the public schools,\nSome of the effects of, 822\n478\nNash,\nAlice Morrison — Discussion, 1065\nNational child welfare conference: its\nwork and its relations to child study\n(G. Stanley Hall), 893\nNational Committee on agricultural education. Report of the, 590; 1094\nNational Council of Education, Constitution, 307; Officers for 1910-11, 309;\nMembers, 310; Secretary's Minutes,\n\"National Geometry Syllabus Committee,\" Preliminary report of, 511\nNatural and artificial stimuli in teaching\nLatin (Ernst Riess), 499\nGass),\nNecessary\n312 275one-room school (Howard A.\nNeed for better school reports and publicity (David Snedden), 977\nNeed of industrial education in our public\nschools (Theodore W. Robinson), 369\nNon-Normal children. Provisions for education of— their efficiency and cost, 1039\nNormal-school and college courses, The\ndistinctively professional content of, 564\nNormal school in public education. Legitimate spheres of influence for the, 569\nNorton, Ruth — Discussion, 392\nOfficers of General Association for 190910, 12; of Departments for 1909-10, 13;\nof General Association for 1910-11, 16;\nof Departments for 1910-11, 17\nOpen-air sessions (Margaret M. Colton),\nOpportunities\nthe modern high school\n(C. P. Gary),of457\n410\n\n"}
{"page": 1137, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nOral\nof teaching Latin (Gonzalez\nLodmethod\nge), 493\n\nOralism\n1067 in oral schools (Harris Taylor),\nOrr, William— Physics, 472; Public\nhealth and public education, iii; Discussion, 934\nOsterhaut, W. J. v.— The scientific viewpoint, 472\nOur public schools as preparatory schools\n603 practical life (Edward A. Rumely),\nfor\nOutlook for educational administration\n(J. J. Stoddart), 970\nPage, Mrs. — Discussion, 415\nPalmer, Luella A. — The principle of\ndevelopment as the basis of kindergarten method, 378; Discussion, 880\nPark, Richard — Discussion, 283\nPast, present, and future of commercial\neducation (James S. Curry), 835\nPattengill, Henry R. — Discussion, 282\nPedagogical viewpoint (William R. Hart),\n466\nPeterson, A. E. — Discussion, 1000\nPhillips, Mrs. J. H. — Discussion, 394\nPhj'sical Education, I (D. A. Sargent),\n341; II (Luther Halsey Gulick),\n346; III (Clark W. Hetherington),\n350; IV (David Starr Jordan), 357\nPhysical education from the standpoint of\nhealth (Luther Halsey Gulick),\n346 education in its various phasesPhysical\nelementary, secondary, and higher (D.\nA, Sargent), 341\nPhysical education of girls during childhood and pubescent period, or uppergrammar and lower-high-school age\n(Rebecca Stoneroad), 936\nPhysical education. Psychological aspects\nof, 927\nPhysical education. The American game of\nfootball as related to, 357\nPhysical education. The principle underlying modern, 228\nPhysical training of post-adolescent girls,\n(Elizabeth A. Wright), 942\nPhysics (William Orr), 472\nPhysiology and hygiene (Louis Murbach),\n478\nPiCKEN, W. S. — Thru secondary schools,\n575; Discussion, 283\nPitman, J. Asbury. — The education and\nprofessional training of commercial\nteachers, 847\nPlace of agriculture in the pubhc high\nschools (George F. Warren), 1094\nPlace of the agricultural high school in the\nsystem of public education (Dick J.\nCrosby),\n\n1103\n\nPlummer, Laura S. — Discussion, 941\nPotter, William H. — Mouth hygiene in\npublic schools, 948\nPoulsson, Emilie. — Discussion, 414\nPractical aspects of biologic science in\n\n1121\n\nschool administration: the problem of\njanitor service, 964\nPractical aspects of science in secondary\neducation, I (William R. Hart), 466;\nII (W. J. V. Osterhaut), 472; A (William Orr), 472; B (Joseph S. Mills),\n474; C (Chester A. Mathewson),\n476; D (Louis Murbach), 478\nPractical limitations of an ideal course in\nsecondary\nFrench), 511mathematics (John Shaw\nPractical system for general training in\nindustrial education (Arthur D. Dean),\n6l2\nPreliminary report of the committee on\ncosmopolitan\nSmith), 462 high school (Spencer R.\nPreliminary report of the \"National\nGeometry Syllabus Committee\" and\nIts practical pedagogical implications\n(William Betz), 511.\nPRESCOTT, W. B.— Trade unions and industrial education, 265\nPresident's Address, National Couiicil of\nEducation (Joseph Swain), 317\nPrinciple of development as the basis of\nkindergarten\nmethod (Luella A. Palmer), 378\nPrinciple underlying modern physical education (Herman H. Horn), 228\nof, 27\nProceedings\nof General Sessions, Journal\nPromotion of pupils, The grading and, 294\nProvisions for education of non-normal\nchildren — their efficiency and cost, 1039\nProvision for gifted children in public\nschools (James H. Van Sickle), 155\nPsychological aspects of physical education (G. Stanley Hall), 927\nPublic education, PubUc health and, ixi\nPublic health and public education (William Orr), III\nPurpose and content of the elementary curriculum, (Arthur H. Chamberlain),\n286\nPutnam, Helen C. — Practical aspects of\nbiologic science in school administration: the problem of janitor service,\n964\nRay, John E. — Institutional care and\ntraining of the blind, 1050\nRead, Frederick H. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Business Education, 833\nRebuilding\nMiller), an\n483 English course (Edwin L.\nRegal, Mary L. — The study of the appreciation of music in the high school of\nSpringfield, Mass., 803\nRelation of departments of science in\nsecondary schools to teachers of elementary schools (C. H. Robison), 960\nRelation of education to democratic government (William Howard\nTaft),\nRelation of the college faculty to college\nfraternities (W. H. P. Faunce), 548\n\n71\n\n"}
{"page": 1138, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nReport of Board of Trustees, Twentyfourth Annual, 23\nReport of committee on encouraging college\nentrance credit in high-school agriculture, (A. B. Graham), 480\nReport of committee on provision for\nexceptional children in the public schools\n(James H. Van Sickle), 321\nReport of Committee on Resolutions, General Association, 35\nReport of sub-committee on industrial\nand technical education in the secondary school, 731\nReport of sub-committee on intermediate\nindustrial schools, 710\nReport of sub-committee on the place of\nindustries in the elementary school, 680\nReport of the committee on the place of\nindustries in public education, 652;\n774\nReport of the national committee on agricultural education, 590; 1094\nReport of the progress of simplified spelling\nin America, 588\nReport of Treasurer, Annual for 1909-10,\n20\nReport on educational progress during the\nyear (Frank Strong), 336\nResponse to addresses of welcome (Francis G. Blair), 54\nRice, Charles I. — Boston, the cradle of\npublic-school music in America, 798\nRichards, Charles R. — Introductory address: Report of committee on place of\nindustries in pubhc education, 774;\nSome notes on the history of industrial\neducation in the United States, 675\nRichards, Mrs. Ellen H, — Discussion, 650\nRichardson,\nMary\nC. — Discussion,\n1009\nRichman, JuUa — Discussion, 323; 336 •\nRiess, Ernst — Natural and artificial\nstimuli m teaching Latin, 499\nRobertson, C. H. — Secretary's Mmutes,\nDepartment of Child Study, 873\nRobinson, Theodore W. — The need of\nJt industrial education in our pubhc schools,\n369\nRobison, C. H. — Relation of departments\nof science in secondary schools to teachers of elementary schools, 960\nRockwell, Miss — Discussion, 810\nRoot, Mrs. Mary E. S. — Co-operation\nwith the schools, 1018; Discussion, 1008\nRound Table: English, 483; Latin, 493;\nMathematics,\n505;\nModern\nforeign\n^ languages, 519\nRound tables: State and county superintendents, 275; superintendents of larger\ncities, 284; superintendents of smaller\ncities, 286\nRumely, Edward A. — Our public schools\nas preparatory schools for practical life,\n603\n\nV\n\nRural population. Value of demonstrative\nmethods\nthe, 107 in the' agricultural education of\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nRussell, H. G. — Science instruction in\nthe smaller high schools, 955\nRussell, H. L. — Value of demonstrative\nmethods in the agricultural education\nof the rural population, 107\nSargent, D. A. — Competition and culture, 223; Physical Education in its\nvarious\nphases\nand higher,\n341 — elementary, secondary,\nSargent, Walter — Art as a necessary\nfactor in industrial education, 284\nSchool activities as an educational factor\nLasher),\n445\nin secondary\nschools (William R.\nSchool\nadministration in Boston, A decade\nof, 987\nSchool and the library (Charles H. Judd),\n1026\nSchool buildings, Economical use of, 326\nSchool-hygiene movement, The deeper\nsignificance of, 922\nSchool statistics, Standardization of, 980\nSchools for backward children (Elizabeth E. Farrell), 1054\nScience\nthe small high school (H. L.\nTerry),in 950\nScience instruction in the small high school,\n(H. G. Russell), 955\nScientific department of the secondary\nschools and its relationship to the household arts (Irene E. McDermott), 646\nScientific viewpoint (W. J. V. Osterhaut),\nSecondary education. The effect of electives upon the future welfare of, 203\nSecondary mathematics. The practical\nlimitations of an ideal course in, 511\nSecondary\nschools, School activities as an\n472\neducational factor in, 445\nSecondary schools. Vocational education\nin, 260\nSecretary's Minutes, Department of Business Education, 833; of Child Study,\n873; of Elementary Education, 417;\nof Higher Education, 535; of Kindergarten Education, 377; of Library, 993;\nof Manual Training and Art Education,\n595; of Music Education, 789; of National Council, 312; of Normal Schools,\n563; of Physical Education, 921; of\nRural and Agricultural Education, 1081;\nof School Administration, 969; of School\nPatrons, 1073; of Science Instruction,\n949; of Secondary Education, 443; of\nSpecial Education,\n1033; of Superintendence, 143\nShirley, John B. — Discussion, 810\nSimphfied spelling in America, Report of\nthe progress of, 588\nSims, John F. — Discussion, 573\nSmith, Frank Webster — Discussion, 574\nSmith, Spencer R. — Preliminary report\nof the committee on cosmopohtan high\nschool, 562\nSnedden, David — Intermediate industrial\nschools, 782; The need for better school\n\n"}
{"page": 1139, "printed_page": null, "text": "II23\n\nINDEX\nreports and publicity, 977; Discussion,\n1113.\n\nof education to democratic government,\n\nSnow, Bonnie E. — The advancement of\ndrawing and art teaching in our public\nschools as compared with the advancement made in foreign countries, 630\nSnyder, Z. X. — Discussion, 787\n659 progress, The industrial factor in,\nSocial\n\nTanner, Amy E.— The child as the center\nof correlation in the kindergarten, 384\nTanzer, Helen H. — Discussion, 504\nTappan, Ruth — Discussion, 394\nTastes and tendencies of pupils, Do presT067 ent college-entrance requirements sufficiently recognize different, 208\n71\nTaylor, Harris — Oralism in oral schools,\n\nSome dominant tendencies in American\neducation (James Y. Joyner), 78\nSome notes on the history of industrial\neducation in the United States (Charles\nR. Richards,) 675\nSome of the effects of music instruction in\nthe public schools (John W. Cook), 822\nSome results of elementary school class\nreference work in public libranes\n(Martha B. Bayles), 1022\nSouthern educational problems (Samuel\nE. Weber), 234\nSpaulding, F. E. — Child study and school\norganization and administration, qo6\nSpecial preparation of teachers for the\nrural schools, A(W. S. Picken), 575;\nB (Walter E. Larson), 578; C (Ernest\nBurnham), 583\nSpecialization prior to the high-school age.\nDangers and advantages of, 199.\nStandardization of school statistics (Henry\nR. M. Cook), 980\nState's obligation to provide educational\nopportunities for all children, normal or\notherwise (Edmund A. Jones), 1035\nStimuli in teaching Latin, Natural and\nartificial, 499\nStodda-rt, J. J.— The outlook for educational administration, 970\nStoneroad, Rebecca — Physical education of girls during childhood and\npubescent period, or upper-grammar\nand lower-high-school age, 936\nStrengthening the work in the elementary\ngrades (James M. Greenwood), 436\nStriplin, W. E. — Dangers and advantages of specialization prior to the highschool age, 199\nStrong, Frank — Report on educational\nprogress during the year, 336\nStudy of the appreciation of music in the\nhigh school of Springfield, Mass. (Mary\nL. Regal), 803\nSturges, James V. — The training of\nteachers in the use of books and the\nlibrary 1003\nand in a knowledge of children's\nbooks,\nSubnormal children. What can the public\nschool do for, 912\nSubnormal pupils, What consideration\nshould be given to, 160\nSuccess in pubhc-school music (Leonard\nB. Marshall), 826\nSwain, Joseph — Introductory statement,\n317\nTaft,\nWilliam\nHoward — The relation\n\nTeachers for the country school: kind\nwanted: how to secure them (L. J.\nAlleman), 280\nTendencies\ndominant, in78 American education, Some\nschool, H.950L. — Science in the small high\nTerry,\nTest of the child's kindergarten training\n(Ada Van Stone Harris), 396\nThomas, Charles Swain — Essential\nprinciples in teaching English, 487\nThompson, John G. — The automatic\nplayer in schools, 808; Discussion, 783\nThompson, F. V. — Discussion, 852\nTowne, LilUan M. — Discussion, 946\nTrade unions and industrial education\n(W. B. Prescott), 265\nTraining ton),for\n115 teaching (Emma L. JohnsTraining of teachers for industrial work\n(Michael W. Murray), 621\nTraining\nof teachers in the use of books\n1003\nand the library and in a knowledge of\nchildren's books (James V. Sturges),\n20\nTreasurer's Annual Report for 1909-10,\nTrustees, Board of, Twenty-fourth Annual\nReport of, 23\nTuckerman, Julius— Modern-language\nteaching in New England, 519\nTwitmyer,\nGeorge\nW. — Discussion,\n919\nUnited States Bureau of Education, A\nMessage from, 87\nUniversity administrative problems outside of teaching (James H. Baker), 537\nUse of the public library for reference purby the elementary\nles E.posesChadsey),\n1014 schools (CharUses of the public library in the teaching\nof history in the schools (Adelaide\nSteele Baylor), 1015\nValue during education of the life-career\nmotive (Charles W. Eliot), 133^\nValue of demonstrative methods in the\nagricultural education of the rural\npopulation (H. L. Russell), 107\nVan Sickle, James H.— Provision for\ngifted children in public schools, 155;\nReport of committee on provision for\nexceptional children in the public schools,\nVariable factors in moral responsibility,\n(P. W. Horn), 169\n\n321\n\n"}
{"page": 1140, "printed_page": null, "text": "II24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nVocational and industrial school (Frederick P. Fish), 363\nVocational education in secondary schools\n(W. F. Webster), 260\nVocational training. Commercial education as a branch of, 861\nVocational value of the household arts\n(Helen Kinne), 642\nWadlin, Horace G. — Discussion, 1013\nWalks and excursions (Mrs. Alma Oliver\nWare), 404\nWar and manhood (David Starr Jordan), 61\nWare, Mrs. Alma Oliver — Walks and\nexcursions, 404\nWarren,\n\nGeorge F. — The place of agriculture in the pubUc high schools, 1094\nWarriner, E. C. — Discussion, 292\nWatts, Ralph L. — Field laboratory work\naccompanying college courses in horticulture, 1082\nWeber, Samuel E. — Southern educational problems, 234\nWebster, W. F. — Vocational education\nin secondary schools, 260\nWelfare of secondary education. The effects\nof electives upon the future, 203\nWestcott, Edith C. — Discussion, 809\nWhat business men demand of graduates\nof commercial schools (Horace G.\nHealey), 854\nWhat can the public school do for subnormal children (Henry H. Goddard), 912\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWhat consideration should be given to\nsubnormal pupils (Maximilian P. E.\nGroszmann), 160\nWhat\n\nconstitutes retardation ? How significant are retardation statistics?\nWhen is retardation justifiable? How\nmay it be corrected? 149\nWhat kind of qualifications and training\nshould the teacher of the special class\nhave (Charles A. A. J. Miller),\n1061\nWhy\n\ndo we study mathematics: a philosophical and historical retrospect\n(Thomas J. McCormack), 505\nwood), 92\nWilliam Torrey\nHarris f (James M. GreenWilson, H. B. — Motivation of the children's work in the elementary schools,\n418; Discussion, 303\nWork of the coming year, Department of\nSchool Patrons (Mrs, O. Shepard\nBarnum), 1078\n\nWork of the department of school patrons,\n1909-1910 (Laura Drake Gill), 1075\nWright, Elizabeth A. — The physical\ntraining of post-adolescent girls, 942\nWriting in German (John A. Bole), 529\nYoung, President-elect\nElla Flagg, Remarks of, 29\nZeller, John W. — Education in the\ncountry for the country, 245\nZoology (Chester A. Mathewson), 476\n\n"}
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{"page": 1143, "printed_page": null, "text": "13\nL\nN3A13\n1910\n\nNational Education Association\nof the United States\nAddresses and proceedings,..\n\nPLEASE DO NOT REMOVE\nCARDS OR SLIPS FROM\n\nTHIS POCKET\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\n"}
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