{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
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{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin 2007 with funding from\nMicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1909natiuoft\n\n"}
{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAND ADDRESSES\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n"}
{"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\n"}
{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^ ^.\n\nJournal\nOF\n\nProceedings and Addresses\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFORTY-SEVENTH\n\nANNUAL\n\nHELD\n\nDENVER,\n\nMEETING\n\nAT\n\nCOLORADO\n\nJULY\n19093-9\n\n■\n\n'•#\n1909\n\npublisbeO b^ tbc dissociation\nsecretary's\n\noffice,\n\nWINONA,\n\nMINN.\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "Composed and Printed By\nThe University of Chicago Press\nChicago, 111., U. S. A.\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "2\n\nCONTENTS\nPAGE\nI\n\nAct of Incorporation\nBy-Laws\nCertificate of Incorporation\nCalendar of Meetings\n\n5\n8\n12\n10\n\nOflScers for 1908-9\nOfl&cers for 1909-10\nReport of Treasurer\nReport of Board of Trustees\n\n16\n20\n\nSecretary's Minutes of General Sessions\nAnnual Meeting of Active Members\nAnnual Report of Committee on Resolutions\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1908-9\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1909-10\nGENERAL\n\n33\n\n49\n34\n\nSESSION\n\n105\n\nThe Need, Scope, and Character of Industrial Education — Harvey\nThe Scope of the Department of Women's Organizations — Miss Gill\nThe Call to Citizenship— 5w//er\nEthics in Civil Life — Ahercromhie\n......\nEducation and the Petition to the Third Hague Conference — Gordy\nThe MacDonald College Movement — Robertson\nEducational Progress in Porto Rico — Dexter\n....\nIn Memoriam: Dr. James Hulme Canfield — Butler .\nShould the PubUc School Be the Bulwark of Public Health ?—Favill\nHygiene in the Boston Public Schools — Burke ....\nHygiene in the St. Louis Public Schools — Blewett\nMoral Training thru the Agency of the Public Schools — Barnes .\nSome Experiments in Moral Education — Sharp\nChildhood and Morality — Lindsey ......\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\n75\n\n123\n129\n\n88\n100\n\n42\n\n3\n\n118\n\n141\n146\n\n(Chicago Meeting, 1909)\n\nSecretary's Minutes — Nelson\n\n159\n\nTopic: The Elimination of Waste in School Work\nI. What Is Possible and Desirable in Simplification — Rickey\n.\n.\nII. Fundamentals in the Elementary School Curriculum — Meriam\n.\nIII. In Class Instruction, How Can the Individual Be Reached ?— Siders\nIV. Retardation of Pupils and How to Minimize It — Greenwood .\n'.\n\n107\n\n.\n.\n.\n.\n\n165\n169\n175\n182\n\nI. The Relations of the University to the Secondary School — Brooks .\n.\nII. Articulation of Higher and Secondary Education thru Teaching and\nTeachers — Aley .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n\n192\n\nTopic: Articulation of Higher Institutions with Secondary Schools\n\n198\n\n7\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "vi\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIII. Relation of the High School to the Coimn unity and to the College —\nChadsey\n...........\nIV. Proposed Changes in the Accrediting of High Schools — Cary .\n.\nV. Some Personal Relations of College and University — Chancellor\n.\n.\n\n203\n207\n212\n\nTopic: The Problem of the Delinquent Pupil\nI. Truancy: A Few Causes and a Few Cures — Hall .\n.\n.\n.\nII. What Share of Blame for Truants and Incorrigibles Belongs to the School ?\n— Miss Richman\n.........\n\n217\n222\n\nTopic: The Schools in Relation to Character Building\nI. Moral Enthusiasm in the Making — Call\n.\n.\n.\n.\nII. Moral Training in Schools — Mrs. Cabot\n......\nIII. Music as a Moral Influence — Tomlins ......\nIV. The American Peril — Abercrombie\n.......\n\n.232\n239\n245\n248\n\nTopic: School Hygiene\nI. The Necessity for Departments of Health within Boards of Education — ■\nMaxwell\n...........\n\n252\n\nII. The Playground as a Factor in School Hygiene — Johnson\n.\n.\n.\nIII. The Evil Influence of School Conditions on Health of Children — Hutchinson ............\n\n257\n262\n\nIV. Plea for Examination of School Children's Eyes, Noses, and Throats —\nAllport\n...........\n\n266\n\nTopic: Industrial Education\nI. The Dignity of Vocation as a Fundamental Idea in Industrial Education— Butterfield .........\nII. Industrial Education a Phase of Universal Education — Davenport .\n.\nin. Industrial Education as a National Interest — Brown\n....\nIV. Getting Our Bearings on Industrial Education — Burks\n.\n.\nV. The Functions of the City Training School — Withers\n....\n\n273\n277\n288\n291\n296\n\nround tables\nRound Table of State and County Superintendents:\nTopic: Is Employment of Untrained Teachers a Cause or Result of Low Salaries ?\nI. Felmley\n■ .\nII. Roy\nThe Reorganization of the Library of the Bureau of Education — Brown\n.\n\n307\n308\n310\n\nRound Table of Superintendents of Smaller Cities:\nTopic: Industrial Education — Woodley ......\nI. Conditions Which Demand Industrial Training — Thompson\nII. Industrial Training in High Schools — Frost\n....\nIII. Industrial Training in High Schools — Gibson\n....\nTopic: The Ward-School Principal\nI. Qualifications and Functions — Potter\n.....\nII. How Can the Ward-School Principal Be of Most Service ?— Nelson\nTopic: The Problem of Slow Pupils\nI. In Elementary Grades — Hotchkiss ......\nI. In the High School — Dreher\n\n317\n319\n\n312\n\n324 316\n\n322\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\nVli\n\nNATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nConstitution ..........\nOfl&cers and Members\n.........\nSecretary's Minutes\n.........\nPresident's Address — Swain\n.\n.\n.\nThe Care of the Deaf and Blind in the Milwaukee Public Schools — Pearse\nThe Systematic Care of the Exceptional Child — Miss Jones\nAbnormal Children — Their Classification and Instruction — Bruner\nProvisions for Exceptional Children in the St. Louis Public Schools — Blewett\nProvisions for Exceptional Children in the Boston Public Schools — Brooks\nThe Next Step in the Investigation — Gulick\n.....\nReport of Committee on Moral Training in the Public Schools — Greenwood\nReport of Committee on Culture Element and Economy of Time in Education —\nBaker\n............\nNeed of Investigation of the Culture Element in Education — Smiley\n.\nThe Meaning of Industrial Education to the Elementary Schools — Downing\nReport of Committee on Co-operation with Foreign Educational OrganizationsBrown\n............\nThe Progress of Education for the Year — Cook\n.....\nThe Supervision of Rural Schools — Schaeffer\n......\nThe Adjustment of the School System to Twentieth-Century Conditions — Cooley\nThe Province of the Common People in the Administration of Education — Seerley\nThe Province of State Boards in the Administration of Education — Fairchild\nThe Function of County and City Boards in School Administration — Keyes\nThe Province of State Institutions in the Administration of Education — Thompson\nMemorial Sketches —\nTheodore B. Noss — Philips\nWilliam C. Bates — Fitzpatrick\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n333\n\n343\n2,Z^\n355\n336\n365 340\n367\n373 346\n350\n377\n361\n\n415\n39074\n423\n380\n388\n390\n\n435\n435\n426\n430\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.437\nThe Preparation of the Kindergarten for Institutional Life — Brown\n.\n.\n.438\nThe Place of the Kindergarten in the Public School — Dyer; Forbes\n.\n.\n.439\nModification of Kindergarten and Elementary Handwork Necessary to Accord with\nModern Educational Ideals — Mrs. Ware; Miss Binzel\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nELEMENTARY\n\n....\n\n445\n\nEDUCATON\n\n457\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n..........\nPresident's Address: Progress and Needs in Elementary Education — Chamberlain\nDoes the Elementary-School Curriculum Meet Existing Needs ?— Cook .\nHow Can the Elementary-School Curriculum Be Enriched ?— Work\nPlace and Practice of Nature Study in. the Elementary School — Caldwell\nApplication of Household Arts in the Elementary Schools — Mrs. Richards\n.\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n..........\nPresident's Address: The Autonomy of the High School — Brown\nUnity in Education while Meeting Demands for Industrial Training — Davenport\nThe Ethical Value of Vocational Instruction in Secondary Schools — Hall\nThird Report of Committee on Six- Year Course of Study — Morrison .\n\n473\n458\n479\n460\n466\n471\n485\n\n480\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "vm\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nROUND-TA^LE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nA. Physics and Chemistry —\nThe Recent Movement in Physics — Random\n.\n.\n.\n.\nB. History—\nThe Scope and Value of History in the High School — Froula\nC. Mathematics —\nThe Illinois Syllabus on Algebra for Secondary Schools — Rietz\nThe Treatment of Geometry for Secondary Instruction — Hedrick\nThe Real-Problem Movement — Millis\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\n503\n507\n\n519\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n-523\nHas the American College Failed to Fulfil Its Function ?— Hill; WiUiston\n.\n.\n523\nHow to Develop the Inner Community Life of the College or University — Fordyce;\nMain\n535\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n,\n.\n.\n.\nPresident's Address: The Place of the Normal School in a System of Education —\nWilliams\n............\nThe Training School as a School of Observation and Practice — Harwood\n.\n.\nThe Functions of the Training School — Robertson\n......\nThe Davis Bill in Its Relation to Normal Schools — Seerley ....\nTeacher-Training in Great Britain — Salisbury .......\nProfessional Training for Teachers of Secondary Schools — McGregor; Hillyer\nStandards and Courses for the Training of Teachers — Thomas\n....\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\n5\"\n\n547\n548\n557\n561\n570\n573\n581\n592\n\nTRAINING\n\n624\n\n597\n599\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n..........\nPresident's Address: Definitions Pertaining to Industrial Arts — Addicott\nEstablishment of Special Trade Schools from Economic Standpoint — Monaghan\nArt as Related to the Industries, from Standpoint of Art — Clark\nArt from Standpoint of Manual Training — Miss Rich\n....\nArt from a General Educational Standpoint — Chamberlain.\nImportance of Instruction in Arts and Sciences for Home Life — Work .\nInfluence of Industrial Arts upon Home Life, from Domestic-Science Standpoint —\nMrs. Richards ...........\n\n636\n\nInfluence of Industrial Arts upon Home Life, from Economic Standpoint — Salisbury\n.............\n\n640 655\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n606\n616\n621\n628\n\n649\n\n666769\n\nOF ART EDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nPresident's Address: Better Preparation for Life Needs of the Majority-^JIfm Ellis\nArt in the Home — Mrs. Smith ........\nThe International Congress of Art in London — Carter\n....\nA Course of Study in Freehand Drawing and Applied Arts — Elson\nReport of Committee on University Entrance Examinations in Art — Clark .\nThe American Federation of Arts — Read .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n\n64s\n\n646\n660\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nIX\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nPresident's Address: The Status of Music in the United States — Mrs. Clark\nMusic on an Accredited Basis in Colleges and Universities — Farnsworth\n.\nModern Psychology and Music Study — Chambers\n......\nReport of Committee on Terminology — Rice\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nOur National Songs — Brown ..........\nMusic on an Accredited Basis — Kirk\n........\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\n673\n675\n681\n687\n.691\n695\n696\n\n.\n.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\n701\nPresident's Address: The Next Advance Movement — Hoover\n....\n702\nThe University of Commerce — Rowe\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n-705\nHigh School of Commerce or Commercial Department ?— Sheppard\n.\n.\n. 712\nPossibility or Desirability of a Uniform System of Stenography — Miss Van Sant . 716\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOP CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n719\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...\nWhy Children Play — Chambers\nThe Child in Industry — Love joy\nThe Child in the Gxon^--White\nThe Child and the Community — Lindsey\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\n733\n737\nEDUCATION\n720\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.745\n726\nPresident's Address: The Place of Physical Education in the Field of Hygiene —\nHastings\n............\n746\nShould School Hygiene Become a Department of the Public-School System ?—\nLuckey .............\n751\nThe Proper Balance between Mental and Muscular Training — Garrison\n.\n759\nAthletic Competition in College and Preparatory School — Slocum .\n.\n. 765\nOrganized\nSports on Public Playgrounds\nand\nin Schools — Chadsey; Mrs.\nLeland .............\n771\nAthletics in Public Schools: How Supplemented by Y. M. C. A. — Dietrich; Bishop 'j'j'j\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.789\nPresident's Address:\nThe Modern High School and Industrial Education —\nCaldwell ............\n790\nThe Status of the High School and Its Relation to Colleges and Universities —\nTownsend\n............\n794\nThe Aim and Methods of Science Instruction in Secondary Schools — Cowen .\n799\nReport of Committee on Government Materials Usable in Secondary Education —\nClifford .............\n\nProgress in Conservation — Winkenwerder .......\nWhat Shall the First-Year High-School Science Be }—Peet .\n.\nRelation of Elementary to High-School Science Course — Johnson\n.\nReport of the Committee on Secondary-School Geography — Chamberlain\n\n802\n\n.\n.\n.\n\n803\n.809\n.817\n.\n820\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nProgress in School Administration — Wolfe\n.......\nTrade Schools and School Boards — Perry\n.......\nThe Function of School Boards — Mark\nLIBRARY\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nBooks and High-School Pupils — Aley\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n. ' .\nPlan of a Course of Instruction in the Use of Libraries — Miss Tohitt .\n.\nThe Study and Use of Books— Blair\nWhat Do the Library and Public School Contribute to Making of Educated Men\n— Chadsey\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nThe Library and the School — BatUa\n........\nDEPARTMENT\n\n829\n830\n833\n839\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\n.\n.\n?\n.\n\n.\n.\n.\n\n.871\n873\n. 877\n. 885\n889\n\nOpen-Air Schools — Mrs. Clark\n\".\n.\n.\nReport of Committee on Books and Tests for Study of Exceptional Children —\nBruner .............\nOF INDIAN\n\nOF RURAL\n\nAND\n\n894\n901\n\nEDUCATION\n915\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.......\nPresident's Address: A Resume of Indian Work — Burton .\nThe Prevention of Tuberculosis in Indian Schools — Murphy\nRemarks — Miss Reel\n.......\nDemonstration Lessons by Teachers in the Service\n.\nOur Educational Duties to the Indian — Baker .\nEssential Features in the Education of the Child Races — Dyke\nThe Teacher's Responsibility to the Indian Child — Heeler\nCharacter-Building the Foundation of Education — Phillips\nWhat Education Has Done for the Indian — Peairs\n.\nMoral Training — Lindsey\n.\nThe Preservation of Aboriginal Arts — Fynn\nElementary Industrial Training in the Day School — Sherry\nDEPARTMENT\n\n860\n863\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nPublic Schools for the Exceptional Child — Pearse\nThe Indiana Plan for Handling Truants and Pauper Children — Neal\nIndustrial Education of the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-Minded — Milligan\nThe Outlook for the BUnd Youth— Fan Cleve\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n843\n844\n848\n852\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\n917\n919\n925\n924\n927\n\n947\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n..........\nAgricultural Education for the Rural Districts — Knapp\n.\n.\n.\n.\nSome Means of Awakening an Interest in Agricultural Education — Balcomb\nNational Aid in Preparation of Teachers of Agriculture — Seerley\nRelation of Rural Schools to the Needs of the People — Crosby\n.\nSpecial Agricultural High Schools — Crosby\n......\nPresent Status of Agricultural Education in the Public Schools — Bishop\n\n928\n932\n936\n953\n938\n940\n959\n954 950\n969\n965\n\n974\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\n-Main\n\nThe Correlation of High-School Science and Agriculture\nAgriculture for the Elementary Schools — Johnson\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF WOMEN'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n-Bache\nSecretary's Minutes\n.......\nThe Constitution of the Ideal School Board — Mrs. Grenfell\nDelinquency and the Responsibility of the School toward ItStudy at Home — Miss Gildemeister .....\nThe Parents' ObUgation to the School — Mrs. Hersey\n\nXI\n\n983\n987\n1009\n\n993\nlOOI\n\n994\n1012\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\n\nThe National Teachers\n\nOF\n\nI 857-1 870\nAssociation\n\nOrganized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\nPurpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession\nof teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStates.\nThe name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August\n15, 1870, to the \"National Educational Association.\"\n\n'\n\n1870-1907\n\nNational Educational Association\nIncorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24,\n1886, under the name, ''National Education Association,\" which was\nchanged to \"National Educational Association,\" by certificate filed November 6,1886.\nNational Education Association of the United States\n1907-\n\nIncorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906,\nto succeed the \"National Educational Association.\" The charter was\naccepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Convention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California.\n\nACT OF INCORPORATION\nAN ACT\n\nTO\n\nINCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nTION OF THE UNITED STATES\n\nASSOCIA-\n\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in\nCongress assembled:\nSection i. That the following named persons, who are now officers and directors\nand trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the\nyear eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the\nRevised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. SchaefFer, Eliphalet Oram\nLyte, John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews,\nof Arizona; John H. Hineman, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, Josiah\nL. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis\nC. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, of\nDelaware; J. Ormond Wilson, William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of\n♦ Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nColumbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann,\nof Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, Joshua\nPike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Crospey, Thomas A.\nMott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V.\nStorm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; Warren Easton, of Louisiana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot,\n♦Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White,\nWilliam H. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of\nMinnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, James M. Greenwood,\nWilliam J. Hawkins, of Missouri; Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of\nNebraska; Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M.\nGreen, John Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; * James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble,\nJames C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina;\nPitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L.\nGriswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs,\nof Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P, Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert\nLange, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E, Wolfe, of Texas;\nDavid H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph\nL. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall,\nLucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan,\nof Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths,\nof Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are\nor may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are\nhereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia\nby the name of the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and by that\nname shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and\nrestrictions herein contained.\nSec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause\nof education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of\nEducation and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by\norganization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second,\nof Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth,\nof Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth,\nof Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education;\neleventh, of Child-Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science\nInstruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department;\nsixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties\nand the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education\nmay be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its By-Laws.\nSec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a\ncommon seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any\ncourt of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws not\ninconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the constitution of the United States;\nto take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal\nestate, and^to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational\npurpose within the objects of the corporation.\nSec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Colimibia,\n* Deceased\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nwhich shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purpo'ses, shall be exempt from taxation;\nprovided, however. That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation\nwhich shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational\npurposes of the corporation; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually\nfile, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating\nin detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure\nor other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year.\nSec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of\nmembers — viz., active, associate, and corresponding — whose qualifications, terms of\nmembership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nSec. 6. That the oflficers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and\na Board of Trustees.\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of a President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member\nfrom each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of\none year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former\nPresidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association\nhereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of\nthe Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies\nin their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting\nthose herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as\nshall be conferred upon them by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nThe Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of\nthe Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors,\nto serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for,\nthe Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent\nof carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions\nas may be given by said board.\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors\nfor the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member\nex oficio, during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held\nduring the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect\none trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees,\nwhether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board\nshall forfeit his membership.\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \"Permanent Fund of the National\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other\nfunds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the\nprincipal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a twothirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon\nthe recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been\napproved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed\nexpenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the\nPermanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAssociation and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the\ndonation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills appit)ved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and\nSecretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When\npracticable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus\nfunds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after\npaying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed\nexpenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be\nsecretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his\nofl&ce for a period not to exceed four years.\nSec. 8. That the principal ofl5ce of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, provided that the meetings of the corporation, its officers,\ncommittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and\nan office or ofl&ces may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be\ndetermined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the By-Laws.\nSec. 9. That the Charter, Constitution, and By-Laws of the National Educational\nAssociation shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall\nbe accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until\nnew By-Laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said\nAssociation shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until\nthe expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until\ntheir successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the\nNational Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the\ncharter granted by this Act and adopt By-Laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose\nterms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the \"National Educa\ntion Association of the United States;\" and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation\nhereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this Act be accepted, receive,\ntake over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and\npersonal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association,\nincorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and\nall its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and\nthe several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other\nperson having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or\npersonal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or/ trustees\nof the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the\npresiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the\ncharter granted by this act by the National Educational Association shall be legal evidence\nof the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided further. That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted\nby this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its corporate existence shall be, and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day\nof July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be\nextended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District\nof Columbia.\nSec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the\nNational Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage\nof this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or\nobligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand,\nin any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released\nor impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities,\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\n5\n\nand contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action\nor proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued byreason of this act.\nSec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of\nincorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested\nor impaired.\nApproved June 30, 1906.\nAccepted and adopted as the Constitution of the National Education Association of\nthe United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual\nsession at Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907.\n\nBY-LAWS\n(Adopted at meeting of active members held in Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907.)\nARTICLE\n\nI— MEMBERSHIP\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSection i. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of\neducational institutions, including libraries and educational publications, may become\nactive members.\nSec. 2. Any eligible person may become an active member upon application indorsed\nby two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual\ndues for the current year.\nSec. 3. Active members only shall have the right to vote and to hold office in the\nAssociation, in the National Council of Education, or in the several departments.\nSec. 4. All active members shall pay annual dues of two dollars, and shall be entitled\nto the volume of Proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions.\nSec. 5. The annual membership fee shall be payable at the time of the annual convention, orby remittance to the Secretary before September first of each year.\nSec. 6. Any active member may discontinue membership by giving written notice to\nthe Secretary before September first in any year, and may restore the same only on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. A\nwritten application for active membership shall constitute an agreement to continue such\nmembership and pay annual dues, unless written notice of discontinuance is sent to the\nSecretary before September first of the fiscal year for which such discontinuance shall apply.\nCORRESPONDING\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 7. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board of\nDirectors to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall\nat no time exceed fifty.\nSec. 8. Corresponding members shall be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without\nthe payment of fees or other conditions.\nassociate\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 9. Any person on paying an annual membership of two dollars may become\nan associate member.\nSec. 10. Associate members may receive the volume of Proceedings in accordance\nwith the usual \"coupon\" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\nlife\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. II. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members and\nshall enjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual\ndues.\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nROLL\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 12. The names of active, life, and corresponding members only shall be printed\nin the annual Yearbook, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses,\nand the list shall be revised annually by the Secretary of the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nII— OFFICERS\n\nAND\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nSection i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Directors, and Treasurer shall be chosen\nby the active members of the Association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third\nday of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. They\nshall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election and\nuntil their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided.\ncommittee on resolutions\nSec. 2. At the first session of each annual meeting of the Association the President\nshall appoint a Committee on Resolutions.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nSec. 3. At the third session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be\nappointed by the President a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one member from\neach state and territory represented. Such a committee shall be appointed by the President\non the nomination of a majority of the active members from such state or territory present\nat the meeting called for the purpose of making such nomination; provided, however.\nThat such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination, when the\nactive members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a nomination.\nSec. 4. The meetings of the active members of the several states to nominate members\nof the nominating committee shall be held at 5:30 P. M. on the first day of the annual\nmeeting of the Association, at such places as shall be announced in the general program.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— DUTIES\nTHE\n\nOF OFFICERS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSection i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer.\nIn his absence the first Vice-President in order, who is present, shall preside; and in the\nabsence of all the Vice-Presidents, a pro tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nTHE\n\nSECRETARY\n\nSec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the\ngeneral meetings of the Association and of all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall\nconduct such correspondence and transact such other business of the Association as the\ndirectors or Executive Committee may assign, and shall have his records present at all\nmeetings of the Association and the Board of Directors.\nTHE\n\nTREASURER\n\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trustees\nhold in safekeeping, the current income of the Association; shall expend the same only\nupon order of said board; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures,\nwith vouchers for the latter; which accounts, ending the first day of July in each year, he\nshall render to the Board of Trustees and, when approved by said board, he shall report\nto the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge\nof his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees; and he shall continue in office\nuntil the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the\nAssociation next succeeding that at which he is elected, and until his successor has been\nelected and has qualified.\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\nAUDITOR\n\nOF\n\nACCOUNTS\n\nSec. 4. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the Association to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the\nsaid fund, shall be attached to the annual report of the Board of Trustees.\nCERTIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nBILLS\n\nSec. 5. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\napproved by the Board of Directors.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nSection i. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular annual meeting at the place\nof the annual convention, and not less than two hours before the assembling of the Association.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board or\nthe President shall determine.\nSec. 3. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nNATIONAL\nOBJECTS\n\nCOUNCIL\nAND\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nDUTIES\n\nSection i. The National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of public and professional interest;\nthe proposal to the Board of Directors, from time to time, of suitable subjects for investigation and research, and the recommendation of the amount of appropriations that should\nbe made for such purposes; the appointment and general supervision of such special committees ofinvestigation and research as may be provided for and authorized by the Board\nof Directors of the Association; the consideration, discussion, and recommendation to the\nBoard of Directors for disposition of all reports by such special committees of research as\nmay have been appointed on its recommendation or by its authority; the annual preparation and presentation to the Association at its annual convention of a report on \" Educational\nProgress during the Past Year;\" and in other ways shall use its best e£forts to further\nthe objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general.\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nSec. 2.* The Council shall consist gf one hundred and twenty members, selected from\nthe membership of the Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council.\nSec. 3.* The Board of Directors shall annually elect ten members, and the Council\nshall elect ten members, each member to serve for six years, or until his successor is elected.\nAt the meeting of 1908 enough additional members shall be elected in the same manner to\nmake the total number of members one hundred and twenty. The terms of the members\nso elected shall expire as follows: one-sixth in one year, one-sixth in two years, one-sixth\nin three years, one-sixth in four years, one-sixth in five years, one-sixth in six years.\nSec. 4: The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection\nwith the annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any\nreason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by\nthe Council.\nSec. 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the\nCouncil shall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall\nfill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\n* As amended at meeting of active members held at Cleveland, Ohio, July i, 1908.\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "8\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TION ASSOCIA TidN\n\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nBY-LAWS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nSec. 6. The Council may establish by-laws for its government not inconsistent with\nthe Act of Incorporation or with the By-Laws of the Association, provided such by-laws shall\nbe submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they\nshall become operative.\nARTICLE VI— DEPARTMENTS\nSection i. A department shall consist of those members of the Association who are\nespecially interested in the consideration of a particular group of educational problems.\nEach department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, secretary, and such\nother officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs.\nSec. 2. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time of the annual convention of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may hold\nits annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined\nby the officers of said department.\nSec. 3. The objects of the annual department meetings shall be the discussion of\nquestions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of\nthese meetings shall be organized and conducted by the respective presidents, in conference\nwith, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, at the time of the annual convention, except that a third session for business or informal round-table conference may be\nheld at the discretion of the department officers.\nSec. 4. Upon the written request of twenty active members of the Association for\npermission to establish a new department, the Board of Directors may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the departments named in the Act of Incorporation.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five directors.\nSec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\nSec. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of\nits departments, in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be\npublished in the volume of Proceedings, without the consent of the Association, upon the\napproval of the Executive Committee.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— AMENDMENTS\n\nSection i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by the\nunanimous vote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present,\nprovided that the substance of the alteration or amendment has been proposed in writing\nat a previous annual meeting.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNOW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nKNOWN\n\nAS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nTHE\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCERTIFICATE\nof Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June\n30, 1906.\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nWe, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard,\nthe secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles,\nCalifornia, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an Act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate\nthe National Education Association of the United States;\"\nDo hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being\npresent, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached,\nand accepted the Charter of the National Education Association of the United States,\ngranted by said Act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected\noflScers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions\nDo hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has\nduly accepted said Charter granted by said Act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is\nthe lawful successor to the National Educational Association.\nIn witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907.\n(Signed)\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer.\n(Signed)\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nVERIFICATION\nresolutions\n\nADOPTED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nJULY\n\nlO,\n\nI907\n\n1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the Charter\ngranted by an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate the National Education\nAssociation of the United States,\" passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and\nSecretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder\nof Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the\nAssociation of the Charter granted by said act.\n2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said\nmeeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately.\n3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the\ntitle \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and the dates \"1857-1907.\"\n4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize\nunder the Charter granted by the Act of Congress.\nFiled in the oflBce of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4,\n1907.\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\nNATIONALiTEACHERS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n\n1864— OGDENSBURG, N. Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Cajjp, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n186s— HARRISBURG, PA.\nS. S. Greenleaf, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n185Q— WASHINGTON, D. C.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ. W. Boi.KLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\n\ni866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nJ. P. Wickersham, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n\ni860— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, President.\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1867 — No session.\n\n1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized)\nJames L. Enos, Chairman.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\n1868— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer.\n\n1861, 1862 — No session.\n\ni86q— TRENTON, N. J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber, Treasurer.\n\n1863— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nDaniel B. Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby, Treasurer.\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHANGED\n\nTO\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1871— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. PiCKARD, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1877— LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. A. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1872— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1878 — No session.\n\n1873— ELMIRA, N. Y.\nB. G. Northrop, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1874— DETROIT. MICH.\nS. H. White, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1881— ATLANTA, GA.\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE, T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n1875— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nM. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbell, Treasurer.\n\n1876— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. T. Tappan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\nJ. Ormond\n\nWn.soN, Treasurer.\n\n1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ. Ormond\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n10\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\nII\n\n1884— MADISON, WIS,\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbei.l, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n189s— DENVER, COLO.\nNicholas Murray Butler, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer,\n\n1885— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nF. I-ouis SoLDAN, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1896— BUFFALO, N, Y,\nNewton C. Dougherty, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1886— TOPEKA, KAN.\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\niRwm Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1887— CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1898— WASHINGTON, D. C.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President.\niRWm Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1888-\n\n1889-\n\n-SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1899— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nE. Oram Lyte, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C, McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n-NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1900— CHARLESTON, S. C.\nOscar T. Corson, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n\n1890— ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1901— DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nL. C. Greenlee, Treasurer.\n\n1891— TORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary,\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nWilliam M. Beardshear, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCharles H. Keyes, Treasurer.\n\n1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1903— BOSTON, MASS.\nCharles W. Eliot, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nW. M. Davidson, Treasurer.\n\n1893— CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education.)\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1904— ST. LOUIS. MO.\nJohn W. Cook, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Treasurer.\nj^o5_ASBURY PARKand OCEAN GROVE, N. J.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1894— ASBURY PARK, N. J.\nAlbert G. Lane. President.\nIrwd* Shepard, Secretary.\nJ; M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\nJames W. Crabtree, Treasurer.\n\n1906 — No session.\n1907— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nNathan C, Schaeffer, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n,\n\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer.\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCHANGED\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1908— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nEdwin G. Cooley, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\nTO\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n1909— DENVER, COLO.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur\n\nH.'^Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOFFICERS\nGENERAL\n\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nIrwin Shepard\nArthur H. Chamberlain.\n\nFOR\n\nOF\n\n1908-9\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nMenomonie, Wis.\nWinona, Minn.\nPasadena, CaL\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nEdwin G. Cooley, President, D. C. Heath & Co\nJames C. Byrnes, Member of Board of Examiners, City Schools\nArnoldas H. McClure, Superintendent of Schools\nCarleton B. Gibson, Superintendent of Schools\nJoseph Rosier, Superintendent of Schook\nJasper L. McBrien, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nGeorge M. Philips, Principal, State Normal School\nBenjamin F. Moore, Superintendent of Schools\nCharles Evans, Superintendent of Schools\nJames A. Edwards, Editor, Iowa Normal Monthly\nGeorge H. Martin. Secretary, State Board of Education\nKatherine L. Craig, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nBOARD\nJames M. Greenwood, Secretary\nNicholas Murray Butler, Ch-airman\nHenry B. Brown\nCarroll G. Pearse\nLorenzo D. Harvey\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nKansas City, Mo\nNew York, N. Y\nValparaiso, Ind\nMilwaukee, Wis\nMenomonie. Wis\nEXECUTIVE\n\nLorenzo\n\nD. Harvey\n\nEdwin G. Cooley\nArthur H. Chamberlain\nNicholas Murray Butler\nJohn H. Phillips\nIrwin Shepard\n\nBoston,\nNew York, N. Y.\nYuma, Ariz.\nColumbus, Ga.\nFairmont, W. Va.\nLincoln, Nebr.\nWest Chester, Pa.\nMarion, Ind.\nArdmore, Okla.\nDubuque, Iowa\nWest Salem, Mass.\nDenver, Colo.\n\nTerm expires July, 1909\nTerm expires July, 1910\nTerm expires July, 1911\nTerm expires July, 1912\nRx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nPresident\n\nMenomonie. Wis.\n\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by Election\nSecretary\n\nBoston, Mass.\nPasadena, Cal.\nNew York, N. Y.\nBirmingham, Ala.\nWinona, Minn.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex officio\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis.\nEdwin G. Cooley, Boston, Mass.\n\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal.\nNicholas Mltiray Butler, New York, N. Y.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nJjife Directors\nBicknell, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, Washington, D. C.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\n*Canfield, James H., New York, N. Y.\nCook, John W., DeKalb, 111.\nCooley, Edwin G., Boston, Mass.\nCorson, Oscar T,, Columbus. Ohio\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\n♦Deceased.\n\nGreen, James M., Trenton, N. J.\nGreenwood, J. M., K^sas City, Mo.\nHarrls, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kan.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W. Va.\nMaxwell, Whxiam H., New York, N. Y.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, 111.\nPiCKARD, Josiah L., T>os .\\ngeles, Cal.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111.\nSchaeffer, Nathan C, Harrisburg, Pa.\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "DIRECTORS\n\n13\n\nLife Directors — continued\nSkinner, Charles R., Watertown, N. Y.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, 111.\nState Teachers' Association, Illino's\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nStratton, C. C, St. Johns, Ore.\nWhite, Charles G., I^ake Linden, Mich.\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\nDirectors by Election\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIlMnois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\n\nJohn W. Abercrombie, President, University of Alabama, University P. O.\nA. J. Matthews, President, Territorial Normal School, Tempe\nGeorge B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Little Rock\nDuncan MacKinnon, Superintendent of Schools, San Diego\nCharles E. Chadsev, Superintendent of Schools, Denver\nCharles H. Keyes, Superintendent of Schools, South District, Hartford\nGeorge W. Twitmyer, Superintendent of Schools, Wilmington\nW. T. Harris, Ex-United States Commissioner of Education, Washington\nMiss Clem Hampton, Department of Education, Tallahassee\nCarleton B. Glbson, Superintendent of Schools, Columbus\nWalter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schools, Pocatello\nWalter R. Hatfield, Principal of Elementary School, Chicago\nThomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools, Richmond\nFrank L. Smart, Superintendent of Schools, Davenport\nJohn MacDonald, Editor, Western School Journal, Topeka\n\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\n\nW. H. Bartholomew, Principal of Girls' High School, Louisville\nWarren Easton, Superintendent of Schools, New Orleans\nPayson Smith, State Superintendent of Schools, Augusta\nM. Bates Stephens, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Annapolis\nIrving O. Palmer, Science Master, Newton High School, Newtonville\nDavid McKenzie, Principal of Central High School, Detroit\nS. L. Heeter, Superintendent of Schools, St. Paul\nE. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools, Greenville\n«\nJohn R. Kirk, President, State Normal School, Kirksville\nS. D. Largent, Superintendent of Schools, Great Falls\n... Albert A. Reed, Associate Professor of Secondary Education, Lincoln\nRomanzo Adams, Professor of Education, University of Nevada, Reno\nHenry C. Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Concord\nJohn Enright, Superintendent of County Schools, Freehold\nR. R. Larkin, Superintendent of Schools, Las Vegas\nAugustus S. Downing, First Assistant Commissioner of Education, Albany\nIsaac G. Griffin, Superintendent of Schools, Salisbury\nB. A. Dunbar, Superintendent of Schools, Park River\nWh-liam McK. Vance, Superintendent of Schools, Delaware\nE. D. Cameron, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Guthrie\nJ. H. Ackerman, State Superintendent of Public Instioiction, Salem\n\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\n\nReed B. Teitrick, Deputy State Sup't of Public Instruction, Harrisburg\nHerbert W. Lull, Superintendent of Schools, Newport\nDavid B. Johnson, President Winthrop Normal & Industrial Coll., Rock Hi 11\n\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\n\n.'\n\nFreeman H. Hoff, Superintendent of Schools. Mitchell\nI. C. McNeill, Superintendent of Schools, Memphis\nCree T. Work, President of College of Industrial Arts, Denton\nWilliam Allison, Superintendent of Schools, Ogden\nMason S. Stone, State Superintendent of Education, Montpelier\nJoseph L. Jarman, President, State Female Normal School, Farmville\nEdward T. Mathes, Principal State Normal School, Bellingham\nRobert A. Armstrong, Head, English Dept. W. Virginia Univ., Morgantown\nH. C. Buell, Superintendent of Schools, Janegville\nA. D. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Cheyenne\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS\nNational Council\nPresident\n\nJoseph Swain, President, Swarthmore College\n\nSwarthmore, Pa.\n\nVice-President\nJames M. Green, Principal, State Normal School\nTrenton, N. J.\nSecretary\nJohn W. Carr, Superintendent of Schools\nDayton, Ohio\nExecutive Committee. . Elmer Ellsworth Brown, U. S. Commissioner of Exlucation . . Washington, D. C.\nExecutive Committee. . W. T. Harris, 1360 Fairmont Ave., N. W\nWashington, D. C.\nExecutive Committee. . James M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools\nKansas City, Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMabel A. MacKinney, Supervisor, Public School Kindergartens Cleveland, Ohio\nLuella A. Palmer. Teachers Coll., Columbia University\nNew York, N. Y.\nCaroline Sewall, Director of Kindergarten\nDenver, Colo.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJames F. Chamberlain. State Normal School\nAdelaide S. Baylor, Superintendent of Schools\nNeppa Holliday, Principal of Night School\n\nEindergarten\n\nSlementary\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nWabash, Ind.\nDenver, Colo.\n\nSecondary\nPresident\nJ. Stanley Brown, Principal, High School\nFirst Vice-President. . S. A. Underwood, Principal, Westport High School\nSecond Vice-President Wm. H. Smiley, Principal, East Side High School\nSecretary\nE. U. Graff, Principal of High School\n\nJoliet, 111.\nKansas City, Mo.\nDenver, Colo.\nOmaha, Nebr.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHigher\nFrank Strong, Chancellor, University of Kansas\nW. F. Book, Professor of Phil, and Edu., State University\nFred. E. Bolton, Director, School of Edu., State University\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHenry G. Williams, Dean, Normal College, Ohio University . . Athens, Ohio\nD. B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial Coll. Rock Hill, S. C.\nLouise M. Hannum, State Normal School\nGreeley, Colo.\n\nLawrence, Kans.\nMissoula, Mont\nIowa City, Iowa\n\nNormal\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nW. H. Elson, Superintendent of Schools\nCleveland, Ohio\nFirst Vice-Presidetit. . D. B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial Coll. Rock Hill, S. C.\nSecoiid Vice-President Ida C. Bender, Supervisor of Primary Grades\nBuffalo, N. Y.\nSecretary\nA. C. Nelson, Superintendent of Public Instruction\nSalt Lake City, Utah\nManual\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJ. E. Addicott, Newman Manual Training School\nEdna D. Day, Home Economics, University of Missouri\nEllen M, Bartlett, Supervisor of Domestic Science\nArt\n\nNew Orleans, Ln.\nColumbia, Mo.\nAlameda, Cal.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nFlorence E. Ellis, Supervisor of Drawing\nCleveland, Ohio\nC. Valentine Kirby, Manual Training High School\nDenver, Colo.\nGertrude R. Smith, Associate Professor of Art, Newcomb Coll. New Orleans, La.\n\nPresident\nVice-President. ..\nSecretary\n\nFrances ^. Clark, Supervisor of Music\nCharles I. Rice, Director of Music, Public Schools\nP. C. Hayden, Director of Music\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nS. R. Hoover, Principal of Commercial Dept.,West High School .. Cleveland, Ohio\nD' W. McMillan, Head of Commercial Dept., West High School . Detroit, Mich.\nH. C. Spillman, Teacher of Commercial Branches, High School. . Butte. Mont.\nChild-Study\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nGeorge E. Johnson, Superintendent of Playground Association . Pittsburg, Pa.\nA. Caswell Ellis, Professor of Education, University of Texas . Austin, Texas\nWill G. Chambers, Prof, of Psychology, State Normal School. . Greeley, Colo.\n\nPresident ,\n\nPhysical\nWm. W, Hastings, Y. M. C. A. Training School\n\nMusic\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nWorcester, Mass.\nKeokuk, Iowa\n\nBusiness\n\nSpringfield, Mass.\n\nVice President\nSecretary\n\nW. P. Bowen, Professor of Education, State Normal College.\". . . Ypsilanti, Mich.\nLorna H. Leland, Playground Organizer\nTempleton, Mass.\nScience\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nOtis W. Caldwell, Assoc. Prof, of Botany, University of Chicago Chicago, 111.\nFranklin T. Jones, Teacher of Science, University School\nCleveland, Ohio\nGeorge L. Cannon, East Side High School\nDenver, Colo.\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\n15\n\nSchool Administration\nPresident\n\nFrancis H. Haserot, President, Board of Education\n\nCleveland, Ohio\n\nFirst Vice-President. . Otto C. Schneider, President, Board of Education\nChicago, 111.\nSecond Vice-President Danford E. Ainsworth. President, Board of Education\nAlbany, N. Y.\nSecretary\nWm. George Bruce, Editor, American School Board Journal. . .. Milwaukee, Wis.\nChairman Ex. Com. . William O. Thompson, President, Ohio State University\nColumbus, Ohio\n\nLibrary\n\nPresident\nVice-President.\nSecretary\n\nMary E. Ahern, Editor, Public Libraries\nDavid Felmley, President, State Normal University\nJoseph F. Daniels, Librarian, State Agricultural College\n\nChicago, 111.\nNormal, 111.\nFort Collins, Colo.\n\nPresident\n\nFrank M. Jack, State Normal School\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCornelia D. Bingham, Normal School\nElizabeth E. Farrell, Inspector of Ungraded Classes\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCharles E. Burton, Supt. of U. S. Indian School\nL. M. Compton, Superintendent of Indian School\nEstelle Reel, Superintendent of Indian Schools\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLouis C. Monin, Dean, Armour Institute of Technology\nAlbert B. Storms, President of Iowa State College\nGeorge A. Merrill, Principal, School of Mechanical Arts\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nD. B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial Coll. Rock Hill, S. C.\nA. B. Graham, CoUege of Agriculture\nColumbus, Ohio\nE. E. Balcomb, State Supervisor of Industrial Education\nStillwater, Okla.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLaura Drake Gill, President Association Collegiate Alumnae.. Washington, D. C.\nMrs. Sarah S. Platt Decker, Member of Educational Council Denver, Colo.\nMary D. Bradford, Primary Supervisor, Stout Training School Menomonie, Wis.\n\nSpecial\nRiver Falls, Wis.\n,\n\nChicago, 111.\nNew York City\n\nIndian\nGd. Junction, Colo.\nTomah, Wis.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nTechnical\nChicago, 111.\nAmes, Iowa\nSan Francisco, Cal,\n\nRural and Agricultural\n\nOrganizations\n\nof \"Women\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\nJames Y. Joyner\nIrwin Shepard\nArthur II. Chamberlain\n\nOF\n\n1909-10\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nRaleigh, N. C.\nWinona, Minn.\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nLorenzo D. Harvky, Suj)erintendcnt of Stout Training School\nG. W. A. LucKEY, Professor of Education, University of Nebraska\nWnxiAM M. Hollow AY. State Superintendent of PubUc Instruction\nM. Bates Stephens, State Superintendent of Public Education\nFrank B. Dyer, Superintendent of Schools\nThomas H. Harris, State Superintendent of Education\nWilliam J. Kerr. President of Oregon Agricultural College\nMrs. Katherine M. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\n\nMenomonie, Wis.\nLincoln, Nebr.\nTallahassee, Fla.\nAnnapolis, Md.\nCincinnati, Ohio\nBaton Rouge, La.\nCorvallis, Ore.\nDenver, Colo.\n\nHervey B, Work, Superintendent of Schools. . .*\nWiLLLAM A. MiLLis, President of Hanover College\nLloyd E. Wolfe, Principal of Vocational School for Boys\n\nWheeling, W. Va.\nHanover, Ind.\nSan Antonio, Tex.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nNicholas Murray Btn:LER, Chairman.. . New York, N. Y\nHenry B. Brown\nValparaiso, Ind\nCarroll G. Pearse\nMilwaukee, Wis\nJames M. Greenwood, Secretary\nKansas City, Mo\nJames Y. Joyner\nRaleigh, N. C\nEXECUTIVE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nJames Y. Joyner\nLorenzo D, Harvey\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\n\nArthur H. Chamberlain\nNicholas Murray Butler\nJohn H. Phillips\n\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board 0} Trustees\nMember by Election\n\nIrwin Shepard\n\nSecretary\nBOARD\n\nTerm expires July, igio\nTerm expires July, 1911\nTerm expires July, 1912\nTerm expires July, 1913\nEx officio\n\nRaleigh, N. C.\nMenomonie, Wis.\n'\n\nPasadena, Cal. .\nNew York, N. Y.\nBirmingham, Ala.\nWinona, Minn.\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex officio\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, CaL\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N. C.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nLife Directors\nBiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, Washington, D. C.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCook, John W., DeKalb, lU.\nCooley, Edwin G., Boston, Mass.\nCorson, Oscar T.. Columbus, Ohio\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGove, Aaron. Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreen, James M., Trenton, N. J.\n\n16\n\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nHarvey, Lorenzo D., Menomonie, Wis.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans,\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W. Va.\nMaxwell, Willlam H., New York, N. Y.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, IlL\nPiCKARD, Joslah L., Los Angeles, Cal.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111.\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C, HarrisbuTg, Pa.\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nSkinner, Charles R., Watertown, N. Y.\n\nOFFICERS\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, lU.\n\nState Teachers' Association, III.\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nStratton, C. C, St. Johns. Ore.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\nDirectors by Election\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\n\nSamuel S. Murphy, Superintendent of Schools\n^Mobile\nA. J. Matthews, President Territorial Normal School\nTempe\nGeorge B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nLittle Rock\nDuncan MacKinnon, Superintendent of Schools\nSan Diego\nCharles E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools\nDenver\nCharles H. Keyes, Superintendent of South District Schools. . . . Hartford\nGeorge W. Twitmyer, Superintendent of Schools\nWilmington\n\nDist. of Col\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\n\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Com'r of Education. . . Washington\nMiss Clem Hampton, Department of Education\nTallahassee\nCarleton B. Gibson, Superintendent of Schools\nColumbus\nMiss S. Belle Chamberlain, State Supt. of Public Instr\nBoise\nJ. Stanley Brown, Principal of Township High School\nJoliet\nThomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools\nRichmond\nFrank L. Smart, Superintendent of Schools\nDavenport\nJohn MacDonald, Editor, Western School Journal\nTopeka\n\nKentutky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\n\nW. H. Bartholomew, Principal of Girls' High School\nWarren Easton, Superintendent of Schools\nPayson Smith, State Superintendent of Schools\nA. C. Willison, County Superintendent of Schools\nIrving O. Palmer, Science Master, Newton High School\nE. E. Scribner, Superintendent of Schools\nS. L. Heeter, Superintendent of Schools\nE. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools\n\nLouisville\nNew Orleans\nAugusta\nCumberland\nNewtonville\nIshpeming\nSt. Paul\nGreenville\n\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\n\nHow^D A. Gass, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nW. E. Harmon, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nA. H. Waterhouse, Superintendent of Schools\nRomanzo Adams, Professor of Education, University of Nevada...\nHenry C. Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instr\nM. H. Kinsley, Superintendent of County Schools\nJames E. Clark, Territorial Supt. of Public Instruction\n\nJefferson City\nHelena\nFremont\nReno\nConcord\nHoboken\nSante F€\n\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\n\nAugustus S. Downing, First Assistant Com'r of Education\nW. S. Snipes, Superintendent of Schools\nThomas Hillyer, President of State Normal School\nJ. W. MacKinnon, Superintendent of Schools\nLynn Glover, Prof, of Polit. Econ., State Normal School\nE. D. Ressler, President of State Normal School\n\nAlbany\nWinston-Salem\nMayville\nBellefontaine\nWeatherford\nMonmouth\n\nPeimsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming.\n\nReed B. Teitrick, Deputy State Sup't of Public Instruction\nHarrisburg\nHerbert W. Lull, Superintendent of Schools\nNewport\nJDavid B. Johnson, President of Winthrop Nor. and Indust. Coll. . Rock Hill\nFreeman H. Hoff, Superintendent of Schools\nMitchell\nI. C. McNeill, Superintendent of Schools\nMemphis\nGeorge H. Carpenter, Superintendent of Schools\nBrown wood\nW. S. Rawlings, Superintendent of Schools\nProvo\nMason S. Stone, State Superintendent of Education\nMontpelier\nJoseph Eggleston, State Superintendentof Public lastruction. . . Richmond\nHenry B. Dewey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . . . Olympia\nMorris P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools\nCharleston\nCarroll G. Pearse, Superintendent of Schools\nMilwaukee\nA. D. Cook, State Superintendent of Public lastruction\nCheyenne\n\n17\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "18\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOFFICERS\n\nNational Council\nPresident\nJoseph Swain, President of Swarthmore College\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nVice-President\nW, M. DAvrosoN, Superintendent of Schools\nOmaha, Nebr.\nSecretary\nJohn W. Carr, Superintendent of Schools\nDayton, Ohio\nExecutive Committee *W. T. Harris, ex-Com'r of Education of the U. S\nProvidence, R. I.\nExecutive Committee James M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools\nKansas City, Mo.\nExecutive Committee Elmer Ellsworth Brown, U. S. Com'r of Education\nWashington, D. C.\nKindergarten\nPresident\nMiss Ltjella Palmer, Teachers College\nNew York, N. Y.\nVice-President\nMiss Willette Allen, Principal of Kindergarten Normal. . Atlanta, Ga.\nSecretary\nMiss Lucy Ellis, Principal of Phoenix Kindergarten\nPhoenix, Ariz.\nElementary\nPresident\nT. A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools\nRichmond, Ind.\nVice-President\nJohn A. Welch, Supervisor of Grammar Grades\nSalt Lake City, Utah\nSecretary\nMiss Margaret Canty, Supervisor of Grammar Grades. .. . Milwaukee, Wis.\nSecondary\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nDavid E. MacKenzee, Principal of Central High School\nW. H. Bartholomew, Principal of Girls' High School\nEllis U. Graff, Principal of High School\n\nDetroit, Mich.\nLouisville, Ky.\nOmaha, Nebr.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHigher\nGeorge E. Fellows, President of University of Maine\nOrono, Maine\nCharles E. Bessey, Dean of Coll. of Science, Univ. of Nebr.. Lincobi, Nebr.\nFrank E. Thompson, Prof, of Education, Univ. of Colo\nBoulder, Colo.\nNormal\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJoseph H. Hill, President of State Normal School\nD. McGregor, Resident Regent, State Normal School\nW. S. Dearmont, President of State Normal School\n\n'\n\n.^ Emporia, Kans.\nPlatteville, Wis.\nCape Girardeau, Mo.\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nStratton D. Brooks, Superintendent of Schools\nBoston, Mass.\nFirst Vice-President Wales C. Martindale, Superintendent of Schools\nDetroit, Mich.\nSecond Vice-Pres.. . . Miss Jull\\ A. Richman, Dist. Superintendent of Schools. . . New York, N. Y.\nSecretary\nJohn F. Keating, Superintendent of Schools\nPueblo, Colo.\nManual\n\nand Art\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJ. C. Monaghan, Sec. for Nat'l Soc. for Prom, of Indus. Tr'g New York, N. Y.\nMiss Ednah A. Rich, Prin. of State Nor. School of Man. Arts Santa Barbara, Cal.\nC. Valentine Kirby, Manual Training High School\nDenver, Colo..\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCharles I. Rice, Director of Music\nWo^ester, Mass.\nMiss Elsie M. Shawe, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools.. St. Paul, Minn.\nMiss Birdie Alexander, Supervisor of Music\nDallas, Tex.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJames S. Curry, Commercial Dept., Central High School.. . . Cleveland, Ohio\nHarry C. Spillman, Commercial Department, High School... Butte, Mont.\nW. N. Clifford, Commerce Dept., Southern High School\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nChild-Study\nWill Grant Chambers, Prof, of Educ, Univ. of Pittsburgh. . Pittsburg, Pa.\nA. H. Yoder, Superintendent of Schools\nTacoma, Wash.\nC. B. Robertson, State Normal School\nCortland, N. Y.\n\nMusic\n\nBusiness\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nPhysical\nClark W. Hetherington, Dir. of Phys. Educ, Univ. of Mo.. Columbia, Mo.\nRobert W. Aley, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Indianapolis, Ind.\nMiss A. M. Homans, Nor. Dept., Phys. Educ, Wellesley Coll. Wellesley, Mass.\nScience\n\nPresident\n\nB. M. Davis, Professor of Agriculture, Miami University\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n* Deceased.\n\nE. L. Brown, Principal of North Side High School\nGeorge A. Cowen, West Roxbury High School\n\nOxford, Ohio\n.^. Denver, Colo.\nBoston, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nSchool Administration\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJ. J. Stoddart, President of Board of Education\nJ. S. Bowers, President of Board of Education\nW. G. Bruce, Editor, American School Board Journal\n\nColumbus, Ohio\nMoberly, Mo.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nE. W. Gaillard, Public Library\nC. E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools\nMiss Mary Hannah Johnson, Librarian, Public Library\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nDenver, Colo.\nNashville, Tenn.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nEdward M. Van Cleve, Supt., State School for the Blind\nF. G. Bruner, Child-Study Dept., Board of Education\nMiss Martha Bell, State School for Deaf, Mt. Airy\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nKenyon L. Butterfleld, President of State Agri. College\nCharles A. Lory, President of State Agri. College\nE. E. Balcomb, Dept. of Science, State Normal School\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMiss Laura Drake Gill, Pres. of Ass'n of Coll. Alumnae... . Washington, D. C.\nMrs. Hugo Rosenberg, Pres. of Council of Jewish Women. . Pittsburg, Pa.\nMrs. Orville T. Bright, Pres. of III. Congress of Mothers. . . Chicago, 111.\n\nLibrary\n\nSpecial\n\nColumbus, Ohio\nChicago, 111.\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\n\nRural and Agricultural\nAmherst, Mass.\nFt. Collins, Colo.\nProvidence, R. I.\n\nOrganizations of Women\n\n19\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\nOF\n\nNATIONAL\n\nREPORT\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJuly i, 1908, to June 30, 1909\nArthur H. Chamberlain, in Account with the National\nEducation Association\nBALANCE\n\nON\n\nHAND\n\nJULY\n\nI,\n\n1908\n\nBalance brought forward from Treasurer's report for year ending June\n30, 1908\n\n$2,357.60\n\nRECEIPTS\nFrom Annual Meeting:\nAdvance Enrollment —\nFrom H. G. Williams\nFrom W. G. Rose\n\n$ 694 . 00\n4,83400\n10,630.85\n$5,528.00\n\nConvention Registration\nFrom Memberships, Chicago Meeting of Department of Superintendence\nFrom Secretary's office during the year:\nMembership fees\nEnrollment fees\nExchange\nSale of back volumes\nSale of Committee Reports, etc\nMiscellaneous\n\n$16,158.85\n$ 1,446.00\n\n$8,868.00\n6.77\n163.04\n594.00\n839.08\n9.61\n\nFrom interest on Permanent Fund\nFrom royalty on sale of Reports on Committees of Ten and Fifteen ....\nFrom interest on deposits in First National Bank of Chicago\n\n$10,480.50\n6,743-17\n53-25\n179.30\n\nTotal receipts for the year\n\n$35,061.07\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\nBoard of Trustees:\nFor expenses\n\n$18.64\n\nExecutive Committee expenses:\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by election\n\n$18.64\n\n. $203.42\n14.8s\n177.34\n394 83\nV\n\n150.88\n\nGeneral Secretary's office:\nSalary of Secretary\nPostage\nTelegrams\nFreight and express\nClerical services\nExchange\nStationery and office supplies\nTraveling\nRent.,\nMiscellaneous\n\n2.238.33\n\n$941-32\n\n$4,000.00\n199.81\n188.74\n54.83\n2,878.68\n.90\n65.65\n600.00\n317.40\n\n20\n\n$10,544.34\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "21\n\nTREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nPrinting:\nVolumes of Proceedings (10,500 copies)\nYearbooks (6,250 copies)\n\n$8,182 . 30\n1.050 . 55\n921.99\n$9,232.85\n464.79\n\nReprints from volumes\nSpecial reports\nExecutive Committee Bulletins\nMiscellaneous (letterheads, blanks, envelopes, etc.)\n\n854 -95\n1,973 10\n$13,447.68\n\nExpress and Freight:\nDistribution of volumes and reports\nMiscellaneous\n\n208.27\n$3,524.56\n\nSpecial Appropriations:\nCommittee of Shortage of Teachers\nCommittee on Place of Industries\nCommittee on Moral Education\nCommittee on Exceptional Children\nCommittee on Industrial Education\n\n$3,732.83\n\n$246S-7S\n. 80\n6.50\n72.50\n12.00\n\nConventions:\nDepartment of Superintendence:\nClerical service —\nRegistration and typewriting\nBadges\n\n$343 • 55\n\n103.17\n\nPrintings\n\nPrograms for the Convention\nMiscellaneous — ■\nBill of Yawman & Erbe Mfg. Co\nBill of A. H. Andrews & Co\n\n76.00\n\n$9 .00\n6.00\n\nAnnual Convention:\nDepartment expenses\nState directors and managers\nClerical services:\nRegistration Bureau\nStenographers and typewriter operators\n\n469.12\n706 . 56\n540 . 92\n\n$1,977-96\n\n$529-00\n$\n\n3-25\n85-05\n52.72\n35-60\n\n$564-60\n\n$406 . 75\n44-55\n451-30\n\nUnclassified disbursements:\nBonds of Secretary and Treasurer\nAuditing books of Secretary and Treasurer\nExchange of typewriter\nConference of Department Presidents\nExpense incurred in securing 75 R. R. Certificates, Department of\nSuperintendence\nMiscellaneous:\nPurchase of reports\nPress clippings\nOffice furniture, etc\nRefunds of duplicate payments\nReports of Committees of Ten and Fifteen\n\n$245-17\n$261.36\n\nPrinting:\nPrograms\nMiscellaneous\nExpress and freight\nStationery\nTelegrams. . »\nMiscellaneous:\nExpense of Speaker (Cleveland Meeting)\nOther miscellaneous expenses\n\n51 00\n\n$50 . 00\n769 -54\n30.00\n30.00\n185.10\n\n$ 4 • So\n30 . 00\n37.00\n60. 12\n5 . 00\n136.62\n\n$592.32\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "22\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nReceiptsMMARY\nSU\n\n*\n\nBalance brought forward from the Treasurer's report for year ending June 30, 1908 $ 2,357.60\nReceipts for year July i, 1908, to June 30, 1909\n35,061 .07 $37,418-67\n\nDisbursements\nTotal expenses for the year\nBalance in treasury, June 30, 1909\n\n$33,609.67\n$ 3,809 . 00\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n23\n\nTWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD\nOF TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nASSOCIATION\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\nJULY\n\ni, 1908, TO JUNE\n\n30, 1909\n\nDenver, Colorado, July i, 1909\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Education A ssociation:\nThe Board of Trustees of the National Education Association has the honor to\nsubmit its report on the Permanent Fund of the Association for the year ending June 30,\n1909.\nThe amounts collected as income from the Permanent Fund and the disposition\nmade of the income are shown in the following Income Account.\nThe changes in the investments held for the Permanent Fund are shown in the following Principal Account.\nThere have been no additions to the principal of the fund during the year by trans\nfer from the current funds of the Association other than the amount of $7 2 — being the\naccrued interest ($49.50) on $9,000 New York City bonds, purchased June 12, 1908, and\nthe fee of the P'irst Trust and Savings Bank of Chicago on this investment ($22.50) —\nerroneously charged to Principal Account in the report of 1908.\nThe present state of the investments held for the Permanent Fund is shown in the\nfollowing Statement of Securities held for the Permanent Fund.\nDuring the year three Chicago real estate mortgages and one Lemont, Illinois, school\nbond have been paid off and the proceeds invested, as shown, in $10,000 3^ per cent, convertible bonds of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, and $10,000 fifty-year 4 per cent,\nbonds of the Chicago, Indiana and Southern Railway Company, guaranteed both as to\nprincipal and interest by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway Company.\nThe Permanent Fund amounts, at this date, to $170,100.\nStatement A shows the net income of the property at 4762 Lake Avenue, Chicago,\nIllinois, title to which, as previously reported, was taken by the Trustees under proceedings for foreclosure of mortgage.\nEvery efiFort is making to dispose of this property.\nThe operations of the year, and the present state of the Permanent Fund, are set\nout in detail in the accounts and statements which follow:\nINCOME ACCOUNT\nRECEtPTS\n$ 7,000 St. Louis and San Francisco R. R. Co. refunding bonds, 1951, at 4 per cent. $\niij.ooo Terminal Association of St. Louis general refunding bonds, 1953, at 4 per cent.\n20,000 Pittsburg, I>ake Erie and West Virginia System refunding bonds, 1941, at\n4 per cent\n10,000 Oregon Short Line R. R. Co. refunding bonds, 1929, at 4 per cent\n17,000 City of New York registered bonds, 1957, at 4^ per cent\n2,500\n1,000\n1. 500\n10,000\n40,000\n9,000\n10.000\nio,ooo\n2,500\n\n''\n\nHat 1911, at 4^ per cent. 'I\nVillage of Morgan Park gold bonds,\nVillage of Morgan Park gold bonds, 1912, at 4i per cent- /\n'\n'\nLemont, 111., school bonds, at s''per\nHatcent\nChicago drainage bonds, 1916\n^\n917J ,>at4Percent\n1\nb\nd\nChica\ngo rainage onds, 917/\nWest Chicago park bonds, ^v\n1\n'^ -^ 4 per cent\nWest Chica\np\nb\n19 19 J\ngo ark onds,\nPennsylvania R. R. Co. convertible bonds, 1915, at 3J per cent. (6months). .\nBond and mortgage on 5603 Madison Ave., Chicago (Levfis), 1909, at 5 per\ncent\nInterest to date of partial payment of bond and mortgage on 5603 Madison\nAve., Chicago (Lewi.s), $2,500 at s per cent\n\n:\n280. ooj\n600.00\n800 . 00\n400.00\n765.00\n\n75 . 00\n2,000.00\n760.00\n175.00\n125.00\n62 . 50\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nInterest to date of payment on bond and mortgage on 5136 Hibbard Ave.,\nChicago (Ritchie') $5,000 at s per cent\nInterest to date of payment on bond and mortgage on 5239 Cornell Ave.,\nChicago (Dickinson), $11,000 at 4i per cent\nInterest to date of payment of principal on I.emont, Illinois, school bond,\n$500 at s per cent\nInterest on cash balance in First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago\nNet income of property 4762 Lake Ave., Chicago (see Statement A)\n\n141 .91\n495 .00\n12 .50\n102 . 17\n186. 28\n$7,137.86\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\nTransferred to principal account\nAccrued interest on $10,000 Pennsylvania R. R. Co. bonds\nAccrued interest on $10,000 Chicago, Indiana and Southern Railway Co.\nbonds\nFee of First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, Illinois, on new investment\nof $20,000 — J of I per cent\nFee of First Trust and Savings bank , Chicago, Illinois, for care of principal\nof permanent fund\nNet income paid to the Treasurer of the National Education Association ...\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\n$\n\n72 , 00\n38.89\n16 . 67\n50 .00\n217. 13\n6,743 . 17\n$7,137-86\n\nACCOUNT\n\nRECEIPTS\nCash on hand for investment July i, 1908\n$\n925 . 50\nMortgage stey Madison Ave. (Lewis), partial payment made July i, 190S . . 2,500.00\nMortgage 5136 Hibbard Ave. (Ritchie), paid November 4, iqoS\n5,000.00\nMortgage 5239 Cornell Ave. (Dickinson), paid January 2, 1909\n11,000.00\nLemont, Illinois, school bond, paid December i, 1908\n500.00\nTransferred from Income Account\n72 . 00\n\n$19,997 50\n\nPLSBURSEMENTS\n$10,000\n\n10,000\n\nPennsylvania R. R. Co. 3^ per cent, convertible bonds, due October i, 1915,\nNos. B-22823 to B-22838 inclusive, 8-27655, B-27671, B-27672, and\nB-iii'58 at 95\n$9,500.00\nChicago, Indiana and Southern Railway Co. 50-year 4 per cent, gold bonds,\ndue January i, 1956, Nos. 11386 to 11394 and 13786, at 95\n9,500.00\nCash on hand for investment June 30, 1909\n997 . 50\n\nSTATEMENT\n\nOF SECURITIES HELD FOR THE PERMANENT\nJUNE\nMUNICIPAL\n\nAND\n\nPar Value\n\nSecurity\n\n$ 8,000\n\nCitv of New York registered gold bonds.\n\n9,000\n2,500\n1,000\n1,500\n10,000\n40,000\n9,000\n10,000\n\nCity of New York gold bonds, due NoVillage of Morgan Park, 111., gold bonds,\ndue November i, 1911\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111., gold bonds,\ndue July I, 1913\nLemont, 111., school bonds, Nos. 24, 30.\nand 32, payable $500 December i,\nyearly\n. .\nSanitary District of Chicago, drainage\nbonds, Nos. 24,516-24,525, due December I, 1916\nSanitary District of Chicago, drainage\nbonds, Nos. 24,591-24,625,\n24,636West Chicago park bonds, Nos. 1,1011,109, due April I, T918 . .\nWest Chicago park bonds, Nos. 615,629631, 1,243-1,248, due April I, 1909\n\nFUND\n\n30, 1909\nSCHOOL\n\nBONDS\n\nAcquired\n\nInterest\n\nBook Value\n\nFeb. 29, 1908\n4i% May and Nov.\nJune 12, 1908\nf\n\n1895\n1897\n\n$8,510.00\n\n4^% May and Nov,\n4*% May and Nov.\n\n9,810.00\n2,500.00\n\n4i% Jan. and July\n\n1,000 00\n\n1905\n\n5% June and Dec.\n\n1,500.00\n\n1904\n\n4% June and Dec.\n4% June and Dec.\n\nJuly 31, 1906\n\n4% April and Oct.\n\nJuly 31, 1906\n\n4% .\\pril and Oct.\n\n10,075.00\n9,045.00\n\n$9itOOO\n$92,440.00\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nRAILROAD\nPar Value\n\nSecurity\n\n$ 7,000\n\nSt. Louis and San Francisco R. R. Co.\nrefunding gold bonds, Nos. 47,435,\n47,457. 47.537. 49.oi2, 49,670, 57,373,\n57,514, due July i, 1951\nTerminal Association of St. Louis general refunding sinking fund gold bonds,\nNos. 16,311-16,325, due January i,\n1953\nPittsburg, Lake Erie, and West Virginia\nSystem refunding gold bonds, Nos.\n13.496-13,500, 21,236-21,250, due November I, 1941\nOregon Short Line R. R. Co. guaranteed\nrefunding gold bonds, Nos. 4,0134,017, 4,025-4,027, 4,976, 13,810, due\nDecember i, 1929\nPennsylvania R. R. Co. convertible\nbonds, Nos. B-22,823 to B-22,838, inclusive, B-27,6ss, B-27,671, B-27,672,\nand B-11,258, due October i, 191 5 . . .\nChicago, Indiana and Southern Railway\nCo. bonds, Nos. 11,386 to 11,394 inclusive, and 13,786, due January i, 1956.\n\n15.000\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nBONDS\nInterest\n\nBook Value\n\n4% Jan. and July\n\nS 5,775.00\n\n4% Jan. and July\n\n15,050.00\n\n4% May and Nov.\n\n19,942.50\n\n4% June and Dec.\n\n8,895.00\n\nAcquired\n\nJan. 3, 1907\n\nJan. 30, 1905\n\nJan. 13, 1906\n\nFeb. 3, 1908\n\nJan. II, 1909\nJan. 18, 1909\n\n4% June and Dec.\n9,500.00\n\n4% Jan. and July\n\n$68,662 . 50\n9,500.00\n\n$72,000\n\nREAL ESTATE\nPar Value\n\nSecurity\n\n$2,500\n\nBond and mortgage on 5603 Madison\nAve., Chicago, 111. (Lewis), due July i.\n\nMORTGAGES\n\n5% Jan. and July\n\n1900\n\nREAL\n\n$5,500\n\nESTATE\n\nSecurity\n\nPar Value\n\n4762 Lake Ave.,\nDroDertv^\n\nChicago,\n\nBook Value\n\nInterest\n\nAcquired\n\nInterest\n\nAcquired\n\nBook Value\n\n1907\n\n111. (Hord\n\nRent $30 monthly\n$5,500.00\n$go7 . 50\n\nCash on hand awaiting investment\n\nTotal\n$171,000\n\nTotal\n\n$1 70, 100 . 00\n\nSTATEMENT\nPROPERTY\n\nAT 4762\n\nLAKE\n\nAVENUE,\n\nA\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILLINOIS\n\n(HORD\n\nPROPERTY)\n\nRECEIPTS\nRents received by First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, Illinois\n$102.37\n13-35\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\nTaxes and special assessments\nRepairs\nAllowance to tenant\n\n,\n\nFees of 5 per cent, of First Trust and Savings Bank on $360.00 rents collected.\nNet income\n\n$360 . 00\n\n18.00\n186.28\n40.00\n\nRespectfully submitted\nNicholas Murray\n\n$360 . 00\n\nButler\n\nJames M. Greenwood\nHenry B, Brown\nCarroll G. Pearse\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nTrustees\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTo the Trustees of the National Education Association:\nGentlemen: The above and foregoing is a correct statement of the account of the funds of the National\nEducation Association of the United States from July i, 1908, to July i, 1909, as the same appears on the\nbooks of this bank.\nFirst Trust and Savings Bank.\nBy Louis Boisot, Trust Officer\nDeKalb, III., June 5, 1909\nTo the Board of Directors of the N. E. A.:\nI have this day examined the securities in the foregoing statement made by the Board of Trustees, and find\nall bonds and securities therein named in the custody of Louis Boisot, Trust Officer of the First Trust and Savings Bank, of Chicago, 111.\n(Signed) John W. Cook, Examiner\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF\n\nFORTY-SEVENTH\n\nTHE\n\nANNUAL\n\nCONVENTION\n\nor THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nDENVER,\n\nCOLORADO,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nJULY\n\nOF\n\n3-9, 1909\n\nSUNDAY\n\n. In accordance with an established custom of the Association, Sunday, July 4, was\nobserved as Educational Sunday by a large number of the churches of Denver and of the\nstate of Colorado. The pastors of churches in Denver held special services, with sermons\nor addresses on educational topics as follows — all services were in the morning unless\notherwise noted:\n\"The College of the Future\" (morning); \"The March of Peace\" (evening) — Rev. James\nD. Rankin, First United Presbyterian Church.\n\"The School House and the Nation\" — Rev. J. F. Harris, Asbury Methodist Episcopal\nChurch.\n\"Modern\nEducation\nBetter Than\nOld-fashioned\nRegeneration\"\n(morning);\n\"The\nReligious Spirit in Science, and the Scientific Spirit in Religion\" (evening) — Rev.\nHenry W. Pinkham, Bethany Baptist Church.\n\"The Church Part in Education\" (evening) — Rev. Charles H. Pettibone, Boulevard Congregational Church.\n\"Education and the Nation\" — Rev. Frost Craft, Capitol Hill Methodist Episcopal Church.\n\"Our Progressive School System.\nIs the Church Shirking?\" — Rev. G. A. Schmidt, German Evangelical Church.\n\"America's Educational Opportunities\" — Rev.\nMethodist Episcopal Church.\n\nJesse Albert Dean,\n\nWright Memorial\n\n\"The Mission of the School\" — Rev. C. N. Swihart, Trinity English Lutheran Church.\n\"Christ as an Inspirer of the Human Intellect\" — Rev. Louis Albert Banks, Trinity\nMethodist Episcopal Church,\n\"The Education of the Heart\"— Rev. R. B. Peery, St. Paul's English Lutheran Church.\n\"The Religious Factor in Education\" — Rev. Frederick F. Kramer, All Saints' Protestant\nEpiscopal Church.\n\"The Kingliest Teacher\" — Rev. G. R. Edmundson, York St. Presbyterian Church.\n\"The American Public School Our One Democratic Institution — An Appreciation and a\nPlea\"— Rev. W. H. Hopkins, Third Congregational Church.\n\"The Fundamental Elements of True Education\" — Rev. Chas. F. Seitter, Cameron\n27\nMemorial Methodist Episcopal Church.\n\"Education — The Privileges and Responsibilities\" — Rev. A. J. Finch, Calvary Baptist\nChurch.\n\"Christian Education\" — Rev. C. J. Rose, Harkness Heights Methodist Episcopal Church.\n\"Teacher and Taught\"— Rev. S. E. Taylor, Berkeley Presbyterian Church.\n\"The Failure of the Public -School System to Produce a Robust National Character and\nthe Remedy\" — Rev. H. Martyn Hart, St. John's Chapter House.\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n\"Intelligent Patriotism\" — Rev. Guy E. Konkel, Merritt Memorial Methodist Episcopal\nChurch.\n\"America's Triple Crown: Personal Liberty, Public Education, and the Religion of Jesus\nChrist\" — Rev. T. C. Smith, First Avenue Presbyterian Church.\n\"True Education\"— Rev. Ira D. Hall, Bapdst Church (Golden, Colo.).\n\"Some Victories of Peace\"— Rev. E. E. Weller, State Industrial School for Boys (Golden,\nColo.).\n\"The Meaning of True Education\" — Rev. Jesse B. Haston, East Side Christian Church.\n\"Life's Teachers\"— Rev. Chas. G. Williams, Hyde Park Presbyterian Church.\n\"What is Educational\"— Rev. C. E. Wakefield, Hess Methodist Episcopal Church.\n\"Christianity and Education\" — Rev. P. F. Ramsey, St. Paul's Methodist Episcopal\nChurch, South.\n\"Education and Patriotism\" — Rev. W. B. Craig, Central Christian Church.\n\"To School with the Great Teacher\" — Rev. N. O. Bartholomew, Ohio Avenue Congregational Church.\n\"Character Building\" — Rev. Frederick Carman, St. Peter's Episcopal Church.\n\"Education in Its Relation to Action\" — Rev. O. S. Baum, Highland Park Church.\n\"The Church and Education\" — Rev. Henry F. Cope, General Secretary, Religious Educational Association, First Baptist Church.\n\"True Education\" — Rev. J. E. Pickett, Highland Christian Church.\n\"Education and the Common Weal\" — Rev. M. D. Hornbeck, Grant Avenue Methodist\nEpiscopal Church.\n\"The Church in Its Relation to Modern Educational Ideals\" — Rev. Wm. Theodore\nPaullin, Capitol Hill Baptist Church.\n\"The End and the Aim of Education and the Development of the Whole Character\" —\nRev. C. H. Marshall, St. Barnabas Church.\n\"Our Divine Image\" — Rev. David H. Fouse, The First Reformed Church.\n\"Moral Factors in Education\" — Arthur H. Chamberlain, Dean of Throop Polytechnic\nInstitute, Pasadena, Cal., First Universalist Church.\n\"Education in Patriotism, with a Tribute to Edward Everett Hale\" — Rev. David Utter;\nUnity Church.\nOPENING\n\nSESSION.— Monday\n\nEvening, July 5\n\nThe forty-seventh annual convention of the National Education Association was\ncalled to order by President Lorenzo D. Harvey of Menomonie, Wis., in the Auditorium,\nat 8 o'clock p. M.\nInvocation by Rev. William O'Ryan, St. Leo's Church, Denver.\nThe audience, under the direction of Wilberforce J. Whiteman, supervisor of music,\nDenver, sang the hymn \"America.\"\nHon. John F. Shafroth, governor of Colorado, delivered an address of welcome on\nbehalf of the state of Colorado and the city of Denver.\nEdgar H. Mark, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky., responded to the address\nof welcome on behalf of the members of the Association.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, president of Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis., and president of\nthe Association, then delivered the annual presidential address on the subject \"The Need,\nScope, and Character of Industrial Education in the Public-School System.\"\nA baritone solo, \"Toreador Song\" from \"Carmen\" — Bizet — was sung by Robert\nHenry Perkins.\nMiss Laura Drake Gill, president of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, Washington, D. C, delivered an address upon \"The Service of Organized Women to the Public\nSchools.\"\nPresident Harvey then announced the following\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n29\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nEdwin G. Cooley, of Massachusetts, Chairman\nAugustus S. Downing, of New York.\nCharles H. Keyes, of Connecticut.\nSilvanus L. Heeter, of Minnesota.\nWilliam A. Greeson, of Michigan.\nRobert A. Armstrong, of West Virginia.\nJohn H. Phillips, of Alabama.\nSECOND SESSION.— Tuesday Evening, July 6\nThe second session of the Association was called to order by President Harvey at\n8 o'clock p. M.\nMusic: \" Onward March \" — Geihel — Knickerbocker Male Quartette.\nNicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia University, New York City, delivered\nan address on \"The Call to Citizenship.\"\n\"Ethics in Civic Life\" was the subject of an address by John W. Abercrombie, president of the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Ala.\nMusic: \" Go where Glory Waits Thee\" — Tershak — Knickerbocker Male Quartette.\nWilbur F. Gordy, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass., delivered an address\nupon \"Education and the World's Petition to the Third Hague Conference.\"\nTHIRD SESSION.— Wednesday Afternoon, July 7\nThe opening address of the session was delivered by James W. Robertson, president\nof Macdonald College, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada, on the subject \"Education\nfor the Improvement of Rural Conditions.\"\nEdwin G. Dexter, commissioner of education, Porto Rico, delivered an address upon\n\"The Educational Problem in Porto Rico.\"\nNicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia University, New York City, spoke\nbriefly in memory of Dr. James Hulme Canfield, secretary of the Association for the years\n1887, 1888, and 1889, and president of the Association for the year 1890.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was announced by President Harvey in\naccordance with sections 3 and 4, article 2, of the By-Laws:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nZ. X. Snyder, of Colorado, Chairman\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\n\nJohn W. Abercrombie\nMerna B. Robinson\nW. B. Torreyson\nC. C. Van Liew\nZ. X. Snyder\nCharles H. Keyes\n(Vacant)\nDick J. Crosby\nMiss Clem Hampton\n(Vacant)\nWalter R. Siders\nS. E. Harv^^ood\nRobert J. Aley\nO. P. BosTWiCK\nE. T. Fairchild\nC. W. Richards\nMiss Marion Brown\n(Vacant)\nJames H. Van Sickle\nJ. E. Burke\nDavid Mackenzie\nE. G. Schulz\nF. B. Woodley\nJohn R. Kirk\nC. A. Duniway\nE. J. Bodwell\n\nUniversity\nMorenci\nLittle Rock\nChico\nGreeley\nHartford\nWashington\nTallahassee\nPocatello\nCarbondale\nIndianapolis\nClinton\nEllsworth\nPrinceton\nNew Orleans\nBaltimore\nBoston\nDetroit\nSt. Paul\nHattiesburg\nKirksville\nMissoula\nBeatrice\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\n'NATIONAL\n\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\nFOURTH\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Vacant)\n•\n(Vacant)\nJ. M. Green\nW. E. Garrison\nNicholas Murray Butler\nW. H. Swift\nS. Henry Wolfe\nWilliam McK. Vance\nE. D. Cameron\nW. J. Kerr\nJ. George Becht\nJohn L. Alger\nD, B. Johnson\nH. A. Ustrud\nG. A. Lofton\nR. B. Cousins\nD. H. Christensen\n(Vacant)\nAnna L. Kinderdine\nE. T. Mathes\nThomas C. Miller\nC. P. Cary\nCO. Merica\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nTrenton\nAgr'l College\nNew York CityGreensboro\nMinot\nDelaware\nGuthrie\nCorvallis\nClarion\nProvidence\nRock Hill\nPierre\nNashville\nAustin\nSalt Lake City\nRadford\nBellingham\nFairmont\nMadison\nCheyenne\n\nEvening, July 8\n\nMusic: Contralto Duet— \"The Morn of Endless Light \"—iVeww— Mrs. W. J.\nWhiteman, Mrs. Feme Whiteman Smith.\nBen B. Lindsey, judge of the Juvenile Court, Denver, presented the opening address\nof the session on the subject \"The Child and the State.\"\nAn address on the topic \"Hygiene in the Boston Public Schools\" was delivered by\nJ. E. Burke, assistant superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\nBen Blewett, superintendent of instruction. Public Schools, St. Louis, Mo., delivered\nan address on \" The Department of Hygiene in the St. Louis Public Schools.\"\nFIFTH SESSION.— Friday Evening, July 9\nMusic: Longmont School Band, directed by S. R. Schraeder.\nThe closing session of the convention was called to order by President Harvey at\n8 'oclock p. M.\nThe opening address was by Henry Baird Favill, M.D., Chicago, 111., on the subject\n\"Should the Public School Be the Bulwark of Public Health ?\"\nClifford W. Barnes, honorary secretary. International Committee on Moral Training,\nChicago, III., delivered an address on the subject \"Moral Training thru the Agency of\nthe Public Schools.\"\nThe closing address of the convention was delivered by Frank C. Sharp, professor of\nphilosophy. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., on the subject \"An Experiment in\nMoral Education.\"\nThe following letter was sent to be read before general sessions during the convention.\nIt was received too late. It is printed in the Proceedings on account of its historical\nimportance. — [The Secretary.]\nOn the Maine Coast, July 3, 1909\nTo the National Education Association of the United States:\nCordial greetings from the East! I am mindful of the fact that the great meetings\nyou are now^holding in Denver mark the twenty-fifth anniversary of a remarkable series\nsince the first memorable gathering at Madison, Wis., in 1884. Concerning that meeting, I have a large amount of valuable correspondence and other material of historic\nvalue, which I will contribute to the Association whenever it shall have proper conditions\nfor their preservation.\nMany of the strong men and women of the Association, who helped to make the\nMadison meeting of 1884 famous, have passed on from noble service to rich rewards.\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n31\n\nA quarter of a century of great doings has dulled the memories of survivors, while others\nare engrossed in the interesting problems of today, unconscious of the events which have\nmade the present conditions possible.\nLet me congratulate the Association on the great work it has accomplished in these\nrecent years. Shall I be pardoned, however, if I call attention to some of the great results\nflowing directly from the meeting of 1884?\nThe Madison meeting was the first national meeting the Association ever held.\nPrior to that date, the Association was provincial in its character and work. It was an\neastern institution, mainly in the hands of New England, Ohio, and Illinois men. It\nwas small in membership, poor in purse, conservative in policy. It had a small clientele,\na very limited influence, and in no practical way touched and molded educational opinion\nand practice.\nThe meeting at Saratoga in 1883 had an attendance of less than three hundred persons, with no enthusiasm, little optimism, and no broad outlook. At its adjournment,\na debt in dollars twice the size of the membership lay at the doors of the treasury.\nIn 1884, it was estimated that more than seven thousand people gathered at Madison\nfrom all parts of the Union, as well as from other lands. The Central West and North\nWest awoke to its opportunity, and sent thousands of its most active educators to this\neducational revival. The East sent a splendid delegation. The South was well represented by its white and colored teachers. It was a real national gathering of men and\nwomen representing all grades of work, from kindergarten to university. Distinguished\nteachers fron all parts of the land were on the program, which was truly national in scope\nand ability. Booker T. Washington was introduced in his maiden speech to the American\npublic. An educational exposition superior, according to United States Commissioner\nHarris, to that of the Centennial at Philadelphia, was held in the State House at Madison.\nEnthusiasm was universal. All felt that a new day had come to American educators,\nand that a national life had been infused into the veins of the Association. Another\ngreat gain was the discovery of the West, not only to itself but to the rest of the country.\nLike a sleeping giant, the West had not been conscious of its place and power in the great\nConfederacy of Education. From this event dates the most remarkable exhibition of\nintellectual energy and progress the world has witnessed in the Central and Western States.\nThe Madison meeting illustrated the value of numbers as a social educational force.\nIt also made known the value of organization in the accomplishment of large ventures\nin matters ethical, moral, and spiritual, as well as in business and finance. It made\npossible the analysis and differentiation of forces, materials, and equipment on broad,\nnational grounds.\nSpace forbids more than the bare mention of the foundation of a fund, the organization of departments, the enlistment of state organizers and managers, the appointment\nof a permanent Secretary of the Association, and the multitude of secondary results flowing\nfrom the Madison meeting of 1884.\n\"Other men labored, and ye have entered into their labors.\"\nThomas W. Bicknell,\nPresident of the National Educational Association for the Year 1884.\nPresident Harvey, in closing the session, spoke as follows:\nIn closing this, our last session, I wish to express my thanks to all those who have\nassisted me in preparing for these meetings — especially to the officers of this Association\nand to the heads of departments. I wish to express on behalf of the officers of the Association, and I feel sure that I am voicing the sentiment of the great body of the Association,\nwhen I say to your Local Executive Committee of Denver and to the citizens of Denver,\nthat we feel that we have been royally entertained. We came back here a second time to\nthis city with the memories of our visit of fourteen years ago, and we shall go from it with\nmemories that will linger longer than fourteen years and that will bring us back again and\n_ again.\nI think a special word is due to Dr. Charles E. Chadsey, chairman of the Local\nExecutive Committee, for his thoughtfulness, his kindness, his courtesy, and his efficiency\nin carrying out the plans for this meeting.\nI think a word is due from the officers of this Association and its members to those\npersons who have appeared upon our programs, some of whom are not engaged in educational work, but who have graciously taken the time to prepare addresses and to come\nhere to give us their messages. To Dr. Robertson, Dr. Favill, and Mr. Barnes I wish to\nmake acknowledgment of the appreciation of the officers of this Association.\nI cannot close without expressing a personal tribute to one whom perhaps many of\nyou have not seen during this convention, but one whose unfailing courtesy, untiring energy,\nand whose wisdom born of long service has been perhaps the most potent factor in what-\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\never of success has attended this Association. I refer to that oflScer of the Association who\nhas served it so long and well — Secretary Irwin Shepard. The president comes and serves\nbut a single year, and but for this officer his lot would be a hard one indeed.\nAnd now I have the honor of presenting to you the president-elect, Hon. James Y.\nJoyner, State Superintendent of North Carolina for three terms, whose work I know.\nWhen I say to you that he will bring to his duties as President of this Association the same\nearnestness and the same efficiency that he has shown in his work as state superintendent\nof North Carolina, I can pay him no greater tribute. I take pleasure in presenting to you\nPresident Joyner.\nPresident Joyner: Ladies and Gentlemen: I feel fortunate in receiving the gavel\nof authority from my distinguished friend who has wielded it so acceptably. To all of\nmy friends I wish to express my heartfelt thanks for this high honor that you have conferred, for this national recognition of the struggle that my people yonder in the oldest part\nof this, our noble country, are making for the education of all their people. The honor is\nincreased by your selection of me over such worthy competitors, but the joy is weakened\nby the fact that I cannot share this office and its honors with them. I wish to assure you\nthat I shall bring to the discharge of my duties such ability as I have. I take them up with\na sincere desire to serve well the great cause for which our Association stands in this great\nRepublic of ours.\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING OF THE ACTIVE\nOF THE ASSOCIATION\nDENVER,\n\nMEMBERS\n\nCOLO.— Thursday, July 8, 1909\n\nThe meeting was called to order at Trinity Methodist Church at 12 m. by President\nL. D. Harvey.\nOn motion, the minutes of the last annual meeting of the active members were approved as printed in the volume of Proceedings.\nThe report of the Board of Trustees, having been printed and placed in the hands of\nthe members, was, on motion, accepted and adopted by vote of the members, and ordered\nprinted in the annual volume of Proceedings.\nThe report of the Treasurer, as printed and distributed, was adopted and ordered\nprinted in the annual volume of Proceedings.\nZ. X. Snyder, of Colorado, chairman of the Committee on Nominations, presented\nthe report of that committee, as follows:\nTo the Active Members of the National Education Association:\nYour Committee on Nominations, thru its President, has the honor to report the\nfollowing nominations:\nFor President\nJames Y. Joyner\nNorth Carolina\nFor Treasurer\nArthur H. Chamberlain\nCalifornia\nFor Vice-Presidents\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nMenomonie, Wis.\nG. W. A. LucKEY\nLincoln, Nebr.\nWilliam M. Hollow ay\nTallahassee, Fla.\nM. Bates Stephens\nAnnapolis, Md.\nFrank B. Dyer\nCincinnati, Ohio\nThomas H. Harris\nBaton Rouga, La.\nWilliam J. Kerr\nCorvallis, Oregon\nMrs. Katherine Cook\nDenver, Colo.\nHervey B. Work\nWheeling, W. Va.\nWilliam A. Millis\nHanover, Ind.\nLloyd E. Wolfe\nSan Antonio, Texas\nAnd for directors for the States and Territories the following:\nSTATE\n\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nSamuel S. Murphy\nA. J. Mathews\nGeorge B. Cook\nDuncan MacKinnon\nCharles E. Chadsey\nCharles H. Keyes\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nMiss Clem Hampton\nCarleton B. Gibson\nMiss S. Belle Chamberlain\nJ. Stanley Brown\nT. A. Mott\nFrank L. Smart\nJohn MacDonald\nW. H. Bartholomew\nWarren Easton\nPayson Smith\nA. C. Willison\nIrving O. Palmer\nE. E. Scribner\n\nMobile\nTempe\nLittle Rock\nSan Diego\nDenver\nHartford\nWilmington\nWashington\nTallahassee\nColumbus\nBoise\nJoliet\nRichmond\nDavenport\nTopeka\nLouisville\nNew Orleans\nAugusta\nCumberland\nNewton\nIshpeming\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\n\nS. L. Heeter\nSt. Paul\nE. E. Bass\nGreenville\nHoward A. Gass\nJefferson City\nW. E. Harmon\nHelena\nA. H. Waterhouse\nFremont\nRomanzo Adams\nReno\nH. C. Morrison\nConcord\nM. H. Kinsley\nHoboken\nJ. E. ClarK\nSanta Fe\nA. S. Downing\nAlbany\nW. S. Snipes\nWinston-Salem\nThomas Hillyer\nMayville\nJ. W. MACKINNON\nBellefontaine\nLynn Glover\nWeatherford\nE. D. Ressler\nCorvallis\nReed B. Teitrick\nHarrisburg\nH. W. Lull\nNewport\nD. B. Johnson\nRock Hill\nF. H. Hoff\nMitchell\nI. C. McNeill\nMemphis\nGeorge H. Carpenter\nBrownwood\nW. S. Rawlings\nProvo\nMason S. Stone\nMontpelier\nJoseph Eggleston\nRichmond\nHenry B. Dewey\nOlympia\nMorris P. Shawkey\nCharleston\nCarroll G. Pearse\nMilwaukee\nA. D. Cook\nCheyenne\nRespectfully submitted,\nThomas C. Miller, Secretary\nZ. X. Snyder, Chairman\n\nThe report of the committee was received, and the Secretary was instructed, by\nunanimous vote, to cast the ballot of the active members for the nominees as reported by\nthe committee.\nCharles H. Keyes, of the Committee on Resolutions, in the absence of the chairman\nof that committee, presented the report of that committee as follows which was on motion\nadopted as read:\nDECLARATION\nThe National Education Association, now holding its Forty-seventh Annual Convention in Denver, representing teachers and friends of education in every state of the Union,\nmakes the following Declaration of Principles and of Aims:\n1. A free democracy cannot long continue without the assistance of a system of statesupported schools, administered by the chosen agents of the people and responsible\nto the people for its ideals, its conduct, and its results. The commanding position of the\nAmerican people is due largely to the general diffusion of knowledge and culture by its free\nschools.\n2. Our system of state-supported schools must include elementary schools, secondary\nschools, schools for the training of teachers, colleges, and universities. The changed conditions of the twentieth century also demand the establishment of free schools the purpose of\nwhich shall be the training of our youth for commerce and the industries, as well as for the\nprofessions.\n3. The purpose of our system of free common schools must continue to be chiefly\nculture for the individual and the transmission to posterity of the results of the investigations and deliberations of the past. Our schools must advance along the lines of educational\ndemocracy in the sense that they must provide equal educational opportunities for all.\nAltho they must give practical preparation not only for the professions, but also for commercial life, the demands of any part of the business world that courses of study be subordinated to particular interests is riot in accord with the proper aims of a national system\nof common schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n35\n\n4. A system of common schools that will meet the needs of the times must be democratic inits purpose and its administration; must recognize the importance of expert supervision, of better and more numerous high schools, of better and more numerous schools\nfor the training of teachers, of a merit system for the appointment and promotion of\nteachers; and it must exclude fraternities and secret organizations of every sort from the\nsocial life of the school.\n5. The common schools of our country must recognize more fully than ever the necessity of training our youth for citizenship. The perpetuation of democracy depends upon\nthe existence in the people of that habit of will which is justice. Liberty under law is the\nprocess for attaining justice which has thus far been most successful among civilized men.\nThe call to citizenship is a call to the exercise of liberty under law, a call to the limitation\nof liberty by law, and a call to the pursuit of justice, not only for one's self but for others.\n6. The National Education Association indorses the purpose of the American School\nPeace League. The Association believes that the principles of the League will make for\neffective citizenship, and urges all teachers to acquaint themselves with the work of the\nLeague and to co-operate with its efforts and aims.\n7. The increased tendency to congestion of population in cities makes necessary\ngreater and more systematic attention to the physical development of our children. No\nvigorous race of people has long maintained a high state of civilization under conditions\nthat did not make for the physical, as well as the mental and moral, development of its\nyouth. The Association recommends that provision be made by the United States Bureau\nof Education for effective promotion of physical education thru the diffusion of scientific\ninformation on this subject.\n8. The National Education Association approves the ever increasing demand for\nbetter qualified teachers in the common schools. This higher standard must lead logically\nto a longer tenure and to a compensation more nearly commensurate with the quality of\npreparation and with the nature of the service required.\n9. The National Education Association heartily indorses the use of school buildings\nand all school equipment for community interests and social betterment.\n10. The National Education Association indorses the movement to consolidate the\nrural district schools wherever practicable, and expresses the hope that this movement\nwill be encouraged until the children of rural communities shall enjoy the benefits of public\neducation to an extent approximating those now supplied to children of urban communities.\n11. The National Education Association gives its hearty indorsement to the work of\nthe National Bureau of Education, the Carnegie Foundation, the General Education\nBoard, and all associations, institutions, and organizations that are working to develop\nand promote the educational interests of the country.\nRespectfully submitted,\nEdwin G. Cooley, of Massachusetts, Chairman\nJohn H. Phillips, of Alabama\nCharles H. Keyes, of Connecticut\nAugustus S. Downing, of New York\nSylvanus L. Heeter, of Minnesota\nCommittee on Resolutions\nE. O. Vaile, of Illinois, offered the following resolution, and moved its adoption. The\nmotion was duly seconded.\nResolved, That a committee of seven be appointed by the chair to consider and recommend at our next meeting what, if any, new simplified spellings should, in its judgment,\nbe adopted by this Association in its printed literature.\nOn motion of John MacDonald, of Kansas, the resolution of Mr. Vaile was laid on\nthe table.\nNathan\n\nC. Schaeffer, oi^Pennsylvania:\n\nMr. President, I wish to bring to the\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nattention of the members a matter which has troubled the officers of this Association for\nseveral years. With your permission, I will read a brief statement of the situation, which\nhas been prepared by the Secretary, and move the adoption of the resolution therein\ncontained.\nAt the time the Association was reincorporated by a special Act of Congress it was\nfound impracticable to introduce into the Special Act all the provisions of the old constitution. Such provisions were therefore transferred to the By-Laws. In making such\ntransfer, it was the purpose not to make any changes in either meaning or phraseology.\nConsequently it is found that there are a number of inconsistencies and conflicts which\nshould be corrected, and a few changes that should be made. In order that this matter\nmay be carefully considered and that the desired amendments may be acted upon at a\nfuture meeting,\nResolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the President to formulate the\ndesired amendments to the By-Laws so that the same may be submitted at the next annual\nmeeting and be finally considered at the business meeting in 191 1.\nThe motion was seconded and carried by unanimous vote of the convention.\nThe committee appointed by President Harvey is as follows:\nE. Oram Lyte, principal, First State Normal School, Millersville, Pa., Chairman.\nJ, Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N. C.\nE. G. Cooley, president, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools, New York, N. Y.\nCarroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin: There is a matter which has been spoken of a\nnumber of times by persons in informal discussion, relative to the disadvantage of having\na new Board of Directors, or one so largely new, each year. It has occurred to a number\nof members that it might be desirable if the directors from each state should serve for a\nlonger time, perhaps for three years, one-third to retire each year. As this would require\nan amendment to the Articles of Incorporation, I offer the following resolution:\nResolved, That the Executive Committee of this Association be and hereby is directed\nto seek at the hands of the Congress of the United States, such amendment of that paragraph of Section 6 of the Act of Incorporation which relates to the Board of Directors and\ntheir selection as shall provide that the directors by election shall serve for three years,\none-third of such directors being chosen each year.\nI move the adoption of this resolution.\n(Seconded.)\nAugustus S. Dov^ning, of New York: I move as an amendment that we refer this\nmatter to the Committee on Revision created under the resolution just adopted.\nMr. Pearse: I am entirely willing that my motion shall stand so amended.\nThe amendment was also accepted by the member who seconded the motion to adopt.\nAfter discussion as to the advisability of referring the matter to a committee or deciding\nit at the present meeting, J. A. Whiteford of Missouri moved that Mr. Pearse's resolution\nas amended be laid upon the table. The motion was seconded and carried by a vote of 135\nto 54.\nW. R. Callicott, of Colorado, introduced the following resolution:\nResolved, That a committee of five be appointed by this Association to investigate and\nreport at the next session on the subject of \"Humane Education in the Public Schools.\"\nThe resolution was, on motion, laid upon the table.\nEdwin G. Dexter, Commissioner of Education of Porto Rico: I rise to propose the\nfollowing resolution, and move its adoption:\nResolved, That the National Education Association place itself on record as favoring\nthe granting of immediate citizenship to the Porto Ricans.\nThis resolution has no political bearing. It has a very important educational bearing.\nAn important aim of education is education for citizenship. We are trying to educate 100,000\nchildren in Porto Rico without being able to lay before them this aim of citizenship as a\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n37\n\nprobable realization on their part in the not-far-distant future. Ten years ago American\noccupation of the Island made the Porto Rican a man without a country. Since that time\nthey have been asking that citizenship be granted to them by the United States.\nThe motion was duly seconded.\nJohn W. Abercrombie, of Alabama: I move to amend the resolution just offered\nby adding a statement that we also favor immediate independence for the Philippines.\nMiss Elizabeth Shirley, of California: I would add to the resolution a provision\nthat suffrage be extended to the women of the United States.\nAugustus S. Downing, of New York: This resolution introduced by our friend from\nPorto Rico was before the Committee on the Resolutions of this Association, and was\ndiscussed most carefully. We were all agreed that if this resolution were adopted, it\nwould involve the Association in just such an argument as we are involved in now. Commissioner Dexter did not intend that the right of suffrage should be given to the Porto\nRicans.\nI move that the resolution be laid upon the table.\nSeconded and carried.\ntion:\n\nJames M. Green, of New Jersey: I offer the following resolution and move its adop-\n\nResolved, That we express our appreciation of the hospitality shown to our Association\nby the citizens of Denver, and of the efficiency of the Local Executive Committee in making\nthe arrangements for this meeting.\nThe motion was seconded and carried after some discussion.\nThere being no further business, the meeting adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF MEETING OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS\nOF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nFOR THE YEAR\n\n1908-9\n\nThe annual meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order by President\nLorenzo D. Harvey in Trinity Methodist Church, at 3:30 p. m., July 5, 1909. The following members responded to roll-call:\nL. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Arthur H. Chamberlain, California; Nicholas Murray\nButler, New York; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; G. A. Lofton, representing the Board\nof Education, Tennessee; Elmer Ellsworth Brown, District of Columbia; John W. Cook,\nIllinois; James M. Green, New Jersey; James M. Greenwood, Missouri; E. O. Lyte,\nPennsylvania; Nathan C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania; A. J. Matthews, Arizona; Duncan\nMacKinnon, California; Charles E. Chadsey, Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut;\nMiss Clem Hampton, Florida; Walter R. Siders, Idaho; Walter R. Hatfield, Illinois;\nT. A. Mott, Indiana; John MacDonald, Kansas; Warren Easton, Louisiana; Payson\nSmith, Maine; Irving O. Palmer, Massachusetts; S. L. Heeter, Minnesota; E. E. Bass,\nMississippi; A. E. Reed, Nebraska; R. R. Larkin, New Mexico; A. S. Downing, New\nYork; E. D. Cameron, Oklahoma; Reed B. Teitrick, Pennsylvania; D. B. Johnson,\nSouth Carolina; F. H. Hoff, South Dakota; I. C. McNeill, Tennessee; Cree T. Work,\nTexas; Edward T. Mathes, Washington; H. C. Buell, Wisconsin; A. D. Cook, Wyoming.\nDirectors present, thirty-seven.\nThe Secretary reported that several state directors who were unable to attend the\nmeeting had written asking to have other active members from their respective states\nappointed in their places; and also that in a few other instances directors had been delayed\nin reaching the convention, leaving vacancies in the Board.\nUpon motion duly seconded the following appointments to fill vacancies were made :\nJ. H. Phillips, of Birmingham, Ala., to succeed J. W. Abercrombie, absent.\nB. W. Torreyson, of Arkansas, to succeed George B. Cook, absent.\nB. K. Purdum, of Maryland, to succeed M. Bates Stephens, resigned.\nJohn L. Alger, of Rhode Island, to succeed Herbert W. Lull, absent.\nD. H. Christensen, of Utah, to succeed William. Allison, resigned.\nThomas C. Miller of West Virginia, to succeed R. A. Armstrong, absent.\nAs all of these appointees were present the total number of directors present was fortythree.\nUpon suggestion by the President, it was moved and carried that the reading of the\nminutes of the last meeting be omitted and that they be approved as printed in the volume\nof Proceedings.\nThe report of the Board of Trustees, having been printed and distributed among the\nmembers, was upon motion received and accepted by the Board of Directors, and recommended for adoption by the active members.\nThe report of the Treasurer, Arthur H. Chamberlain, as printed and distributed\namong the members, was on motion accepted and approved by the Board of Directors,\nand recommended for adoption by the active members.\nThe Treasurer called the attention of the members to the fact that the receipts of the\npast year were only $1,451 .40 in excess of the necessary expenditures for the year.\nDirector Nathan C. Schaeffer, Chairman, presented the report of the committee\nappointed to consider the communication addressed to the Board of Directors by Mrs.\nFrances W. Leiter, at its meeting July 2, 1908.\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\nIn making its report, the committee, to whom were referred the questions of Mrs.\nFrances W. Leiter, deems it proper to annex to the several questions the replies prepared\nfor your consideration.\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n39\n\n1. \"In creating the Educational Department of National Organization of\nWomen, was it intended that these societies petitioning for same should appear at the\nNational Education Association sessions in their organized capacity, or in the individual\ncapacity of their members who are active members of the National Education Association ?\"\nIn creating the Educational Department of the National Organization of Women, it\nwas not intended that the societies petitioning for the same should appear at the National\nEducation Association sessions in their organized capacity. Under the Charter and ByLaws their members must become active members of the National Education Association\nin order to secure the right to vote, to hold ofl&ce, and to claim the privilege of the floor at\nthe meetings of the new department.\n2. \"Was it intended that all, or part, of the national organization of women who\nwere instrumental in petitioning for creation of the department should have power, in\neffect, to make this National Education Association Women's Educational Department\nexclusive, so far as other national societies of women are concerned, which also have educational bearing, and have representation in the National Education Association by active\nmembership?\"\nThe new department cannot be made exclusive, but all active members of the National\nEducation Association are members of said department.\n3. \"Was it intended that the societies taking an initial step toward this department\nshould, because of this initial step, continue to have controlling power in, and jurisdiction\nover, the department, so far as plans, policies, and elections are concerned ?\"\nThe societies taking the initial steps in the organization of the department cannot have\ncontrolling power in and jurisdiction over the department, so far as plans, policies, and\nelections are concerned. Their members can become members of the new department\nonly by becoming members of the National Education Association.\n4. \"Does it not come under the constitutional law of the National Education Association that any national organization of women, with active National Education Association membership, by virtue of these active members, may voluntarily become a part\nof this department — its active members having equal power with active members of all\nother similar societies — of vote and discussion — whether in the list of initial organizations\nor not?\"\n5. \"Where a national society has an educational department, are superintendents, or\ncommittee members, of the same department, in state and local capacity, eligible to active\nmembership in the National Education Association?\"\nAny national organization having an educational department, or distinctive educational aims, can join the National Education Association, as libraries and other educational\norganizations now join the National Education Association. They can send a representative who will be permitted to speak (and vote) as other active members in case the organization acquires active membership.\nIf the above is not satisfactory to the organizations, they can hold the same relation\nto the National Education Association as the Herbart Society for the Study of Education\nnow holds. Its program is printed and circulated with the National Education Association program, but its proceedings are printed separately; and no place is given to these\nin the annual volume of Proceedings, nor is any money appropriated for expenses out of\nthe treasury of the National Education Association.\nRespectfully submitted,\nNathan C. Schaeffer\nAugustus S. Downing\nEdwin G. Cooley\nUpon motion, the report of the committee was received and adopted.\nThe President next called for the report of the Committee on Investigations of ManualTraining Courses, which was presented by the Chairman, Charles H. Keyes.\nChairman Keyes: Your committee recommends that copies of this report be printed\nand circulated as soon as possible. Two years ago at a joint session of the Departments\nof Manual Training, of Art Education, and of Child-Study, a paper was read showing the\ninconsistency of allowing courses of study to be built by allowing the manual-training\nteacher to suggest one part, the art teacher another, and so on. This practice is responsible\nfor most of the incongruous courses of study that are today being inflicted upon schools\nthruout the country.\nA committee of investigation was appointed to consider and report on courses of\nManual Training in Public Schools, and this Board of Directors appropriated $500 for\ncarrying on the work for two years. It was felt that the committee was not large enough\nnor representative enough. Last year we asked the Board of Directors to increase our\nmembership to not less than fifteen nor more than twenty.\nSince then the committee has\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nheld meetings in Albany, Chicago, New York, Springfield, and elsewhere. The committee\nhas taken the position that it would not use any of the money which you appropriated\nfor the purpose of paying the expenses incurred by members in attending these meetings,\nand so we have submitted bills only for printing, telegrams, postage, and stenographic\nwork — practically $175. At least $325 of the amount you appropriated is still unexpended.\nThis is probably ample to cover the cost of printing the report if not more than 5,000\ncopies are wanted. If the edition has to be a thousand larger, the amount might fall\nshort from $25 to $100. We propose to turn this balance of $325 back into the treasury.\nThe individual members have paid their own expenses. Not one cent has been expended\nfor transportation or personal expenses. I hope, in light of the statement that has been\nmade, you will decide to print the report, which covers about 64,000 words and, it is estimated, would make about an eighty-page document.\nOur purpose in wishing to have this report printed and distributed is that we may have\nthe criticism of the members, destructive, if it is deserving of that sort, or constructive, if\nthat is what is needed. I think the character of that committee is warrant for my saying\nthat I believe it is one of the most valuable reports prepared by any committee commissioned\nby this body in the last twenty years. It seems to me that it does for the cause of manual\nand industrial training a service that is probably as valuable or very much more valuable\nthan was the report of the Committee of Seven in the field of history.\nUpon motion, it was decided to carry out the request of the committee, and the Secretary was authorized to print an edition sufficiently large to supply the active members.\nAlfred Bayliss, of Illinois, Chairman of the Committee on Reorganization of Departments, being called upon for the report of his committee, stated that some matters which\nhad come up at a late date made it advisable to postpone the presentation of their report\nuntil the meeting of the new Board of Directors.\nUpon motion, the request was granted.\nPresident Harvey: We are now ready to take up any new business.\nSecretary Shepard: We have two communications with reference to the traveling\nscholarships, adopted by resolution at the last meeting of the Board of Directors. In\nboth of these communications I am asked for a statement of conditions necessary to enable\nthe writers to qualify for appointment. As the conditions have never been formulated, I\nwas unable to answer their inquiries, so simply present their letters.\nDirector Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York: In view of the fact that the\nestablishment of these traveling scholarships must be dependent upon whether funds for\ntheir maintenance are available, I suggest the reference of these communications, and any\nsimilar ones that may be received, to the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations\nof the National Council for recommendation. In accordance with the administrative\nplan for these scholarships adopted last year, this committee has full authority to put the\nplan into effect whenever it is determined by the Trustees that the necessary funds for the\nmaintenance of the scholarships are available.\nOn motion the recommendation of Director Butler was adopted.\nSecretary Shepard: In 1906 action was taken establishing the Department of\nTechnical Education. Some doubt was expressed as to the wisdom of creating a department on the lines announced, but the department was created. A tentative program was\npresented at Los Angeles, but with some difl5culty. Again at Cleveland a partial program,\nand a very good one, was presented. This year the president, who had been prominent\nin urging the establishment of the department, and who had been its president each year\nsince organization. Dean Monin, of the Armour Institute of Chicago, has found it impossible\nto prepare a program, and writes a letter saying that he does not see any use of continuing\nthe department as an independent organization, and recommends that it be combined\nwith the Department of Manual Training.\nUpon motion of Director Augustus S. Downing, of New York, the matter was referred\nto the Committee on Reorganization of Departments, of which Alfred Bayliss, of Illinois,\nis chairman.\nSecretary Shepard brought to the attention of the Board of Directors the fact that a\nmisunderstanding had arisen with the Department of Indian Education bcause of the\nenforcing of the rule that admission to department meetings should be limited to members\nonly.\n\nHe explained that Miss Reel's relations with the Department of the Interior made\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n41\n\nher position rather unusual. The Department of the Interior wishes to have all meetings\nof her department open to the public, which would be contrary to the rule being enforced\nat all other department meetings. Secretary Shepard suggested that inasmuch as this condition was not thoroly understood before the convention, it might be advisable, in order\nto relieve the present embarrasssment, to suspend the rule regarding admission, so far as\nthe Department of Indian Education is concerned, during the remainder of the convention.\nOn motion of Director Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut, the rule regarding admission\nwas waived for the remainder of the convention, so far as the Department of Indian Education was concerned, and the entire matter referred to the Committee on Reorganization\nof Departments.\nDirector Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees: I am instructed by the Board of Trustees to report a design for an official seal\nfor our corporation. It is provided in the Act of Incorporation that there shall be a seal,\nand the Board of Directors at the meeting in Los Angeles instructed the Board of Trustees\nto procure such a seal. I have here a few prints of a design by Frank D. Millet which\nshows the \"little red schoolhouse \" as its distinctive feature. I am instructed by the\nBoard of Trustees to report this design and to recommend its adoption as the official seal\nof the Association.\nOn motion, the seal was adopted as the official seal of the Association.\nDirector Butler then brought up the matter of electing to corresponding membership\nin the Association certain educators who live and work in foreign countries.\nHe presented\na list of distinguished gentlemen whom he, in consultation with other members of the Association, had selected as worthy of being elected to such a position, giving a brief outline\nof the qualifications of each gentleman and his official position.\nUpon motion, the following named educators were elected as corresponding members of the National Education\nAssociation:\nNAMES\n\nOF CORRESPONDING MEMBERS ELECT OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES\nFor England\nAlfred Mosely, C.M.G., Union Bank Buildings, Ely Place, London, E. C.\nProfessor Henry E. Armstrong, 55 Granville Park, Lewisham, S. E., London.\nJ. Struthers, Secretary to the Committee of Council on Education in Scotland,\n55 Whitehall, London.\nR. Blair, care of Education Department, Victoria Embankment, London, W. C.\nH. T. Gerrans, Bursar of Worcester College, Oxford.\nSir Edward Henry Busk, Vice-Chancellor of the University of London.\nT. Gregory Foster, Provost of University College, London.\nHenry Jones, Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.\nJ. St. Loe Strachey, Editor of the Spectator, London.\nFor Denmark\nOtto Jespersen, Professor of English Philology in the University of Copenhagen.\nHarald Hoffding, Professor of Philosophy in the University of Copenhagen,\nFor Germany\nUlrich von Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, Professor of Classical Philology in the\nUniversity of Berlin.\nProfessor Dr. W. Paszkowski, Director of the Bureau of Information, University\nof Berlin.\nProfessor Dr. F. Klein, Professor of Mathematics in the University of Gottingen.\nGeheimrat Dr. Friedrich Schmidt, Ministerial Director, Cultus Ministerium, Berlin.\nGeheimrat Dr. Reinhardt, Cultus Ministerium, Berlin.\nProfessor Dr. H. Munch, Professor of Education in the University of Berlin.\nFor France\nM. Louis Liard, Vice-Rector of the University of Paris.\nM. Ernest Lavisse, Director of the Ecole Normale Superieure, Paris.\nProfessor Emile Boutroux, Director of the Fondation Thiers, Paris.\nAfter announcement of state meetings of active members for the purpose of election\nof members of the nominating committee, the meeting adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nFOR\n\nOF THE\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\n1909-1910\n\nThe meeting was called to order Thursday p. m., in Trinity Methodist Church, by\nPresident-elect J. Y. Joyner, of North Carolina. The following members responded to\nroll-call:\nJ. Y. Joyner, North Carolina; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Arthur H. Chamberlain,\nCalifornia; Nicholas Murray Butler, New York; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; Elmer\nEllsworth Brown, District of Columbia; John W. Cook, Illinois; James M. Green, New\nJersey; James M. Greenwood, Missouri; E. O. Lyte, Pennsylvania; Nathan C. Schaeffer,\nPennsylvania; S. S. Murphy, Alabama; A. J. Matthews, Arizona; Duncan MacKinnon,\nCalifornia; C. E. Chadsey, Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut; Miss Clem Hampton, Florida; Miss S. Belle Chamberlain, Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, Illinois; T. A. Mott,\nIndiana; Frank L. Smart, Iowa; John MacDonald, Kansas; W. H, JBartholomew,\nKentucky; Warren Easton, Louisiana; A. C. Willison, Maryland; Irving O. Palmer,\nMassachusetts; E. E. Scribner, Michigan; S. L. Heeter, Minnesota; Howard A. Gass,\nMissouri; W. E. Harmon, Montana; A. H. Waterhouse, Nebraska; M, H. Kinsley, New\nJersey; J. E. Clark, New Mexico; A. S. Downing, New York; W. S. Snipes, North\nCarolina; Thomas Hillyer, North Dakota; J. W. MacKinnon, Ohio; Lynn Glover,\nOklahoma; Reed B. Teitrick, Pennsylvania; D. B. Johnson, South Carolina; I. C.\nMcNeill, Tennessee; George A. Carpenter, Texas; W. S. Rawlings, Utah; Joseph Eggleston, Virginia; Carroll G. Pearse, Wisconsin; A. D. Cook, Wyoming.\nDirectors present, forty-six.\nPresident Joyner: The first business is the appointment of a Committee on Membership inthe National Council.\nThere are ten vacancies caused by expiration of terms.\nThe President, being authorized by motion to appoint the committee, named the\nfollowing: Director J. M. Greenwood, of Kansas; Director D. B: Johnson, of South\nCarolina; Director C. G. Pearse, of Wisconsin.\nDirector A. S. Downing presented the report of the Committee on Traveling Scholarships, appointed by the former Board of Directors, as follows:\nTo the Directors of the National Education Association:\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations to whom was referred the\napplications of Miss Amalie Hofer and Mrs. Mary D. Bradford, both as candidates under\nthe National Education Association's Traveling Scholarship Act of 1908, submit the following statement of facts: (i) Amalie Hofer asks to be sent to Switzerland for the purpose\nof translating the complete works of Pestalozzi, a greater part of which is partial dialect\nwriting; (2) Mary D. Bradford wishes information as to what is necessary to qualify for a\ntraveling scholarship in order that she may make application in due form.\nIn view of the uncertainty of the financial outlook of the National Education Association, the Committee recommends that the said applicants be informed by the Secretary\nof the Association that no appropriation can be made to the Traveling Scholarship Investigation at this session.\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman\nAugustus S. Downing\nL. D. Harvey\nNicholas Murray Butler\nJ.\nH. Phillips\nF. A. FiTZPATRICK\nThe report was on motion accepted and adopted.\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the National Council, being\ncalled, reported that they had no recommendations to make.\nAlfred Bayliss, of Illinois, Chairman of the Committee on Reorganization of Departments, created by vote of the active members at their annual meeting at Detroit, Mich.,\nJuly II, 1901, next presented the following report:\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n43\n\nChairman Bayliss: The report of this Committee has been in abeyance for a number\nof years, as most of you are aware. The reason for this might be interesting if the hour\nwere not late and time were not so valuable. The Committee received a notice early in\nthe year from President Harvey to formulate some report, and the following is the result:\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nREORGANIZATION\n\nOF DEPARTMENTS\n\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Education Association:\nYour Committee on the Reclassification of the Departments of the National Education\nAssociation presents the following report:\nThe Committee recommends:\nFirst, That the Department of School Administration be consolidated with the Department of Superintendence; the Department of Child-Study with the Department of Normal\nSchools; the Department of Business Education and Science Instruction with the Department of Secondary Education; the Departments of Manual Training and of Rural and\nAgricultural Education with the Department of Technical Education, and the Department\nof Kindergarten Education with the Department of Elementary Education.\nIt further recommends that the Departments of Art Education, Music Education,\nSpecial Education, and the Library Department be discontinued as such, their subjects\nbeing intimately associated with the other subjects of Elementary, Secondary, and Higher\nEducation.\nSecond, That the Department of Indian Education be cordially invited to continue\nto hold its meetings with the National Education Association, and to maintain an affiliated\nrelation corresponding to that of other societies and associations now meeting with this\nAssociation.\nThird, That the consolidated Department of Child-Study and Normal Schools be\nhereafter designated as the Department of Professional Preparation of Teachers.\nFourth, That the Department which shall include Manual Training, Rural and\nAgricultural Education, Technical Instruction, and Domestic Science (the last named not\nrepresented as such in the present organization) be designated as the Department of\nIndustrial Education.\nFifth,\nThat Patrons.\nthe Department of Women's Organizations be designated as the Department of School\nSixth, That the regular Departments of this Association be as follows until otherwise\nordered by the Board of Directors:\n1. The National Council of Education.\n2. The Department of Superintendence.\n3. The Department of Professional Preparation of Teachers.\n4. The Department of Elementary Education.\n5. The Department of Secondary Education.\n6. The Department of Higher Education.\n7.. The Department of Industrial Education.\n8. The Department of School Patrons.\nYour Committee believes that the adoption of the foregoing recommendations will,\nwithout too great sacrifice of potential contributions of permanent value, materially reduce\nthe cost of publication and distribution of the Proceedings of the Association — a matter of\nprimary importance at this time; that it will lessen the confusion of interests and dissipatioh of energ)' consequent upon the present multiplicity of departments, and clear the\nground for a more logical and efficient future development.\nFurthermore, that inasmuch as the future may disclose the need or wisdom of departments based upon groups of related subjects, especially, perhaps, in secondary, higher,\nand technical education, the Committee is of the opinion that, if directed to continue this\nwork, the membership should be increased by the addition of the President of the Association, the retiring President, and the former President upon whose initiative this report\nwas undertaken, the last two of whom have aided this work so far done at every step of its\nprogress.\nRespectfully submitted,\n{Signed) Alfred Bayliss, Chairman\nBen Blewett\nNicholas Murray Butler\nI am instructed by the Committee to move the adoption of the report.\nSeconded.\nDirector I. C. McNeill, of Tennessee: I was present yesterday at a joint meeting\nof the Department of Manual Training and the Department of Art Education.\nThey\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "44\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nagreed to consolidate. The arguments for merging were quite clear and seemed to me\nquite satisfactory. It may be that some of the groups named in the report would not, of\ntheir own notion, come together just as the Committee suggests here; but I believe this\nreport is a move in the right direction, and that, after some little friction which may possibly result, the changes will be found satisfactory to everyone concerned.\nDirector John W. Cook, of Illinois: I would like to hear a stronger argument for\nthe discontinuance of the Departments of Art Education, Music Education, Special\nEducation, and the Library Department. Are we not taking a very radical step in eliminating these departments ? I have no special argument to oflFer for the continued maintenance ofthe departments mentioned except those of Art and Music. I know that in our\nschools we consider these two branches very important, and I should like to hear some\ngood reason given why the National Association should give them up before I vote on the\nadoption of the report.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, of California: On the appointment of J. E. Addicott,\npresident of the Department of Manual Training, and Miss Florence E. Ellis, president\nof the Department of Art Education, I served as chairman of a joint committee to consider\nthe merging of these two departments into one. I presented the committee's report at a\njoint meeting yesterday, and it was the almost unanimous opinion of those there assembled\nthat it would be decidedly to the advantage of the schools and of those who are teaching\nart and manual training if the departments were merged; that art training, as such, had\nnot been doing the work it should be doing, and that manual training would be very much .\nstrengthened and improved by closer relations with the art work. I think the art department should be merged with that of manual training, and not discontinued.\nDirector Cook : I should offer no serious objection to the merging of the Department of Art Education with the Department of Manual Training. I am thoroly in favor\nof a very much closer and more important relation between the art work and the manual\ntraining; but to discontinue the art department seems to be a great mistake. I move that\nthe report of the Committee be amended so as to authorize merging the Department of\nArt Education with the Department of Manual Training, and to continue the Department\nof Music Education in its present form. That is, I would have Art included in the new\nDepartment of Industrial Education, and the Department of Music Education made the\nninth department in the new organization.\nChairman Bayliss: I am authorized to say that the Committee on Reorganization of\nDepartments will accept the amendment offered by Director Cook.\nPresident Joyner: The amendment has been accepted by the Committee. What is\nyour pleasure ?\nDirector Elmer Ellsworth Browj^, of Washington, D. C. : I am very much interested inthis report. It seems to be a document which has been prepared with much care.\nHowever, there may be points of view which the Committee has possibly not considered.\nTherefore I would suggest that the report be accepted as a report of progress, printed for\ndistribution as soon as possible, and considered by the members during the year, to be\nfinally acted upon at a later meeting.\nDirector T. A. Mott, of Indiana: I should like to have the report accepted as it is,\nthe same to apply for the coming year.\nDirector Brown: It seems to me it would be entirely practicable to make certain\ncombinations of departments for our next meeting, but not to put in force the report exactly\nas suggested by the Committee. I would like to suggest another point of view. I take\nit that what we are trying to do here is primarily to avoid getting too large a volume of\nProceedings, and to prevent the carrying on of departments which may be simply interesting\nin their discussions, but which are not making any substantial contributions to our literature. The point of view has been considered by the Committee, I suppose, that any department which gives evidence of doing good work, and whose meetings attract as large\naudiences as can conveniently be handled, should not be discontinued.\nOne other thing:\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n45\n\nIs it not practicable for us, without making such a reduction of our departments as might\npossibly be injurious, to consider seriously the question of not publishing everything that\nis said at our meetings — of making our volume of Proceedings a representative volume of\nthe best things that are said in each department, very much as is done by the American\nAssociation for the Advancement of Science ? I therefore move, as a substitute for the\npending motion, that the report be accepted as a report of progress; that it be printed\nand distributed to the active members, and that it be voted upon at the next annual convention.\nDirector McNeill:\n\nAt one time Congress was considering the matter of specie\n\npayment. After a long-drawn-out debate, one member said: \"The only way to resume is\nto resume.\"\nAnd so I think the way to get ahead in this matter is to adopt this report.\nA Director: I think the general membership of the Association should have some\nnotice of the proposed change of departments, and I believe that it is wise, before we take\nany such radical step, that those who are deeply interested in those departments should\nhave some notice. I believe they would feel better about it. I take it that is one of the\nobjects of the motion made by Commissioner Brown.\nDirector L. D. Harvey: I think there are one or two reasons not yet stated which\nmay count in favor of the report of this Committee. This year there has been rather serious\ndifficulty on the part of the heads of several departments in making up programs that the\nofficers themselves felt would be satisfactory. For instance, the Department of Technical\nEducation found it impossible to make up a program, and so none was presented for this\nmeeting. The Department of Kindergarten Education found extreme difficulty in finding\nin this country people who would attend this convention and appear upon the programThis can be easily accounted for by the fact that there is a National Kindergarten Association which attracts the kindergartners of the country, and they find it impracticable to\nattend two meetings. In the Department of Art Education, there is some difficulty in\nsecuring an attendance and members to appear on the programs, growing out of the fact\nthat there is an Eastern Art Teachers' Association, a Western Art Teachers' Association,\nand a Pacific Coast Art Teachers' Association. It was some of these matters, I think,\nthat were in the minds of the Committee when they framed this report. They feel that it\nis better to concentrate our work upon elementary, secondary, and higher divisions, and\nthat occasionally when these questions of special lines of work come up, they could be\ntreated under these general departments. With the reduction in the number of departments, itwill be entirely feasible to hold a larger number of sessions at each meeting, so\nthere would be a wider opportunity for these different subjects to be represented. I am\nglad to see the art teachers and manual-training teachers making an effort to combine\nforces. It means an active effort on their part to relate their work as it has not been related\nin the past. If we continue the art department, I think it should be merged with the\nmanual-training department. I do not believe in eliminating any departnu'nt of this\nAssociation for which there is any real demand.\nDirector James M. Green, of New Jersey: I think the object of the Committee\nwas in part to make such consolidations as would decrease the expenditures for meetings\nof so many heads of departments, etc. ; that we could materially reduce our expenses by\nnot keeping up so many departments. I also understand that it is not the object of the\nCommittee in any sense to decrease the interest in the work of the departments that are\ndone away with. Each department still has its place in the general departments of elementary, secondary, or higher education, and it can be recognized on the program; so\nthat it is only a question of drawing in — of beginning over on new lines. I would like to see\nstill other departments — ^for instance, one of engineering — but I do not believe it is wise\nat the present time to attempt to create them. I believe the report of the Committee is\na very good report at this time.\nDirector Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin: It seems to me that the matter is one\nof such importance that the motion of Director Brown is very pertinent.\nI do not think\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthe Board of Directors should act until they have had time to hear from the members of\nthe Association. I am myself undecided as to some features of the report. I should like\nmore information before I am compelled to act. We should be given this opportunity to\nthink over the matter and have it in print before us for a year.\nDirector Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut: I believe it will be to the advantage\nof the Association if further combinations can be made for the ensuing year. If Director\nBrown's suggestion is acted upon, we will have all these several programs for the next year.\nWe should make final disposition of this matter before the departments elect their ofiicers\nfor the ensuing year.\nPresident Joyner announced that two motions were before the house — one to accept\nthe amended report, and a substitute for that motion to the effect that the report be printed\nfor the consideration of the active members during the year and voted upon at the next\nmeeting.\nThe substitute was voted upon first, it being necessary to take the count. The substitute was lost by a vote of 23 to 15.\nDirector Brown: Just one word explaining why I shall be obliged to vote against\nthe report. I am in favor of the general sort of reorganization presented by the report.\nBut while this report has been considered some years by the Committee, it has been considered less than thirty minutes by the Board of Directors, and yet it is the most far-reaching reorganization of the Association that has been undertaken in years.\nThe original motion as amended was then voted upon and adopted.\nDirector Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York: Mr. President: I move that\nthe Committee be continued and enlarged by the addition of yourself, sir, the retiring\nPresident, Director L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, and Director James M. Green, of New\nJersey.\nThe motion was carried.\nDirector Keyes: I suppose there will be no change in the programs for the next\nyear?\nPresident Joyner: My understanding is that the programs for the next year will\nconsist of the number of departments contained in the report as amended and adopted —\nnamely, nine.\nSecretary Shepard: I should like to ask who are to be the officers of the new departments ?\nDirector McNeill:\n\nThat is taken care of very nicely by the exact wording of the\n\nreport. It says \"consolidated with;\" therefore the officers of the department that is\nretained are the officers who would hold for the new department. There might be some\ndifficulty, however, where you have given a new name to the combined department.\nDirector Augustus S. Downing, of New York: I move that the entire matter of\ncarrying out the action of the Board of Directors be referred to the Executive Committee\nwith power to act.\nSeconded and carried by unanimous vote.\nThe Committee appointed at the opening of the session to nominate candidates for\nthe vacancies in the membership of the National Council presented their report, which\nwas as follows:\nTo the Members of the Board of Directors:\nYour Committee finds that the terms of membership of the following named expire\nwith this meeting:\nJohn MacDonald, Topeka, Kansas\nAlma L. Binzel, Salt Lake City, Utah\nM. E. Dailey, San Jose, California\nS. L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minnesota\nCharles McKenny, Milwaukee, Wisconsin\nW. T. Harris, Washington, D. C.\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n47\n\nBenjamin Ide Wheeler, Berkeley, California\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nE. G. CoOLEY, Boston, Massachusetts\nH. J. Rogers, Albany, New York\nThe Committee recommends that all of the above named be re-elected for the term\nof six years excepting as follows:\nThat C. O. Merica, of Laramie, Wyo., be nominated to succeed M. E. Dailey, of\nCalifornia, and\nThat W. R. SiDERS, of Pocatello, Idaho, be nominated to succeed William H. Maxwell, of New York.\nJ. M. Greenwood\nD. B. Johnson\nC. G. Pearse, Secretary\nUpon nomination of Director Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, J. M. Greenwood was elected member of the Board of Trustees for four years, to succeed himself.\nUpon nomination of Director Downing, J. H. Phillips, of Alabama, was elected member of the Executive Committee for one year, to succeed himself.\nPresident Joyner: The next order of business is the very interesting one of receiving invitations for the Convention of 19 10. Will you take any action as to limitation of\nspeeches ?\nUpon motion of Director Greenwood, the speeches of invitation were restricted to\nfive minutes each.\nPermission was granted Director James M. Green to speak first. He assured the\nAssociation that they would be welcome to meet in Asbury Park if they decided to go to\nthe eastern coast next year.\nDirector Duncan MacKinnon, of California, in a few words introduced Thomas E.\nHayden, member of the board of education of San Francisco, who gave the Association\na most cordial invitation to meet in San Francisco in 1910. Among the other inducements\noffered was the statement that the state of California would guarantee 7,000 members for\nthe Association at $2 .00 each, and also that a round-trip railroad rate of one fare would be\nsecured from the transportation lines.\nStratton D. Brooks, of Boston, assured the Association that Boston enjoyed having the\nteachers with them in 1903, and would be glad to see them again at the earliest date that\nthey wished to come.\nCurt M. Treet, secretary of the Chicago Association of Commerce, was introduced\nand spoke earnestly in support of the invitation of Chicago for the Convention of 1910.\nSecretary Shepard reported the receipt of letters of invitation from different cities, as\nfollows: New Orleans, Niagara Falls, and Cincinnati, but no one was present to support\nthese invitations personally.\nDirector Carroll G. Pearse introduced Mr. Cannon, of Milwaukee, who invited the\nAssociation to come to that city in 1910. He spoke of the central location of the city, and\nthe fact that 1,000 successful conventions had been held there in the last twelve years, and\n72 this year.\nThere was some discussion as to whether the matter of selection of the next meetingplace should be referred directly to the Executive Committee with power to act, or whether\na vote of preference be taken, this report not to be binding in case the investigations of the\nExecutive Committee make it seem best to hold the meeting at some place other than the\none preferred by the majority of the directors. It was finally decided on motion to take\na vote of preference. The result of a vote of preference by roll-call was: San Francisco,\n21; Milwaukee, 10; Boston, 4; not voting, 3.\nDirector Greenwood offered the following resolution in honor of Dr. Harris:\nResolved, That the President, in the name of the Association, send a message of love\nand affection to Dr. William T. Harris as a token of our appreciation of him as a man, and\nof his great service to the cause of education in the United States and thruout the world;\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nand that it is our earnest hope that he will soon be restored to health, to the end that we\nmay have him with us in our deliberations to give us counsel and inspiration.\nFollowing the unanimous passage of the resolution, Director Butler read a telegram\nwhich he had received from Dr. Harris extending love and best wishes to the Association\ncorporately and individually.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL\n\nSESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\nTHE NEED, SCOPE, AND CHARACTER OF INDUSTRIAL\nEDUCATION IN THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM\nLORENZO\n\nD.\n\nHARVEY,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nSTOUT\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nMENOMONIE,\n\nWIS.\n\nEducation has for its purpose the development of those powers of the individual that may be made effective for useful ends, and the development or\ncreation of tendencies to exercise these powers for those ends.\nThis statement tho brief is comprehensive. The realization of this\npurpose involves the play of those activities thru the exercise of which any\npower — ^mental, moral, or physical — ^is developed and made effective, and thru\nwhich native tendencies are strengthened or weakened and new tendencies\nacquired.\nThe educational process involves knowing, not for the sake of knowing,\nbut for the sake of doing because of the knowing, and for what one may come\nto be as a result of the doing because of the knowing. Knowledge is useful\nonly as it affects conduct — conduct in its broadest sense, not merely moral\nconduct, but physical and mental conduct as well.\nThe elementary conditions of knowing are practically the same for all\nhuman beings, and as the beginning of education is found in knowing, so the\neducational process in its beginnings may be practically the same for all.\nHuman experience has shown that there are certain forms of activity common\nto all, and therefore the educational process in its elementary stages may be\nsimilar not only in the field of the knowing but in the field of doing. Since\nall well-directed physical activities of different kinds are initiated, guided, and\ncontrolled by mental activity, the importance of the latter becomes apparent.\nThis may perhaps explain why in educational effort in the past, the development of mental power has been the chief end sought.\nMISTAKES\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROCESSES\n\nIn educational work two mistakes have been made : one is the assumption\n'that the development of mental power dissociated from any other form of\nactivity is an adequate preparation for efficiency in other forms of activity.\nIn other words, the mental activity has not been carried over and made effective in physical or moral activity. The other mistake has been in the assump49 thru dealing with symbols and largely\ntion that mental activity was best secured\nignoring the things symbolized.\nWords have been the symbols chiefly used\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto incite and develop mental power. Here and there along the pathway of\neducational progress our attention has been called to the importance of the\nstudy of things and of processes in dealing with things. Their value as a\nstimulus for mental activity has been pointed out, but it is only recently that\nthere has come to be any general conviction that organized, directed effort in\ndoing in the field of motor activity may be made a fruitful source of stimulus\nfor the development of mental power.\nI have already stated that purposeful physical activity must be initiated,\nguided, and controlled by mental activity. But this does not preclude the\npossibility'of securing, thru this physical activity, a reorganization of one's\nknowledge and a further development of mental power.\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nSPECIAL\n\nTYPES\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nThe field of human knowledge is so broad, the demands of society are so\nmultiform, and the activities necessary to meet these demands so varied, that\nno one individual can hope to master the entire field covered by educational\neffort. For this reason educational institutions have arisen whose scope has\nbeen limited to a somewhat narrow field. They have been organized to\nfurnish the facilities deemed necessary for the training of particular forms\nof activity for effectiveness in a definite field of effort. For this purpose\ndivinity schools, law schools, medical schools, scientific schools, classical\nschools, art schools, music schools, engineering schools, schools of agriculture,\nand here and there trade schools have come into existence. Each of these\nschools has its definite purpose — the training of individuals thru the development of certain forms of power for effectiveness in particular fields of\nthe world's work. Each has come in response to a definite demand. Each\nnew type of school has been opposed at the outset by individuals who feared\nthat its field of effort would trench upon the field which it was assumed was\nalready occupied by some other institution or institutions of different type.\nTime has shown that these fears were groundless. Each new institution has\nfound a place for itself. Its clientage has come, not largely from those either\nconnected with other institutions or who might be connected with them, but\nchiefly from the large number who, but for the new type of school, would not\nhave been found in any institution devoted to systematic educational effort\nbeyond the elementary or secondary stage.\nWIDESPREAD\n\nDEMAND\n\nFOR\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIn very recent years a widespread demand has arisen for what is termed\nindustrial education. The remarkable thing about this demand is that it is\nnot a local demand. It exists in every part of the country, in urban and rural\ncommunities alike; the demand comes from all classes of people, the farmer,\nthe professional man, the manufacturer, the laboring man, and the student of\neducation. It means different things to different individuals, but to all it\nmeans something which does not now exist in our present system in any adequate form. To the farmer it means education that will fit the boy to become\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n51\n\na more effective farmer and that will present inducements to him to remain\nupon the farm ; to the manufacturer it means training that will give him skilled\nworkmen and more efficient foremen and superintendents, or the kind of\nscientific training that fits one for the research work necessary for the discovery\nof new or improved industrial processes; to the professional man it means a\nrather indefinite broadening of educational opportunities; to the laboring man,\na better opportunity for his children than he has had; to the student of education itmay mean any one or all of these and very much more.\nFor a number of years the programs of this association and of many of its\ndepartments have given a prominent place to discussions of industrial education. Had these topics appeared at but one meeting of the association, they\nmight have been attributed to the bias of the individuals who happened to be\nresponsible for the program for that year; but appearing as they have year after\nyear, and not only in this association, but in practically every state association\nmeeting that has been held in a number of years and in associations of men\nengaged in various fields of industrial activity, supplemented by discussion\nin the leading magazines and papers of the country, it is clear that its prominence in the educational world today is due to a widespread feeling that the\ntime has come to extend the facilities for education to meet the needs of those\nwho are not now securing in our educational system the kind of training that\nfits them for efficiency in life. It is not enough to say that present facilities in\nscope and purpose are ample enough. The fact remains that the existing\nschools, no matter how excellent their organization and purpose may be, do\nnot appeal to thousands of young people in this country with sufficient strength\nto hold them in these schools until they could realize the whole benefit to be\nderived from 'them. The demand is for something that will appeal to them.\nIt is probable that if all the different forms of industrial education advocated\nin various quarters were to be freely and generously offered, there would be\nmuch disappointment, because for one reason or another there would still\nbe thousands who would not avail themselves of these educational means.\nAnd yet if other thousands would avail themselves of such means, that would\nbe ample reason for furnishing them.\nPURPOSE\n\nAND\n\nSCOPE\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nUp to the presei\\t time no definition of industrial education has been\nframed that has met with general acceptance ; and years may yet elapse before\nany single definition shall be accepted as entirely adequate. When, however,\nwe come to consider industrial education as entitled to such recognition and\nplace in our educational system as will adapt it to meet present and future\nneeds, it is desirable to state in a broad way its general purpose.\nWith this end in view I can do no better than to quote with slight modification the statement by the Committee of the National Education Association\non Industrial Education in Schools for Rural Communities. That statement\nis as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIndustrial education has for its purpose the acquiring a body of usable knowledge\nof greater or less extent relating to industrial conditions, processes, and organization, and\nto the administration of industrial affairs; involving the gaining of some skill in the use of\nsuch knowledge, and securing mental, aesthetic, and ethical training thru the acquisition\nand use of the knowledge indicated.\n\nIt will be observed that this statement of the purpose of industrial education\nmakes no claim as to its adequacy for all, and no demand that it shall displace\nother forms of education. It is simply an effort to set forth a distinct field of\neducational effort not heretofore fully occupied, and to state in rather general\nterms the content of that field; in other words, to do for industrial education\nwhat has been done for medical education, legal education, engineering\neducation, in practice at least. It does not include all of education, but indicates the field that industrial education in its various phases should occupy\nas a part of our educational system. It does not undertake to say when nor\nwhere industrial education shall be begun, nor what phases of it any individual\nshall undertake to master, nor when the efforts of the individual in this field\nshall end.\nIt will be noted that the view of industrial education presented by this\nstatement is rather broader than appears in most of the discussions pertaining\nto this subject. In the main, these discussions, no matter what their source,\nhave, up to the present, been confined chiefly to a consideration of what is\nneeded and what is necessary to meet that need in the education for skill in\nindustrial processes. It must be evident that any attempt properly to treat\nthe subject of industrial education would be entirely inadequate if confined\nsimply to a consideration of industrial processes, whether on the farm, in the\nfactory, or in the home.\nI am not attempting now to state the most immediate need, nor the one\nwhich should first be met, but as well as I am able, to present, in outline at\nleast, what is essential for the final organization of the entire field of industrial\neducation that may be worthy a place in our system with other kinds of special\neducation.\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nIt must be clearly evident to all who have studied the industrial problem\nfrom the standpoint of the employer, or of the employee, or from the standpoint of the student of education, that one of the greatest needs today in the\nindustrial world is a more definite, widespread, detailed knowledge of industrial conditions and a better appreciation of how these conditions affect\nproduction, the individuals employed in production, and the distribution of\nproducts, as related to the economic, social, and ethical welfare of the producers, and as related to the welfare of society at large.\nAlmost every community affords examples of industrial undertakings in\nwhich large sums of money have been expended and which have proved\nfailures, because those responsible for the undertakings did not have a knowledge of those industrial conditions, that might have been gained, and which\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n53\n\ndoomed the experiment to failure from the outset. Had a proper study been\nmade of these conditions, the failure of the experiment might have been averted,\nor means might have been employed, that were not employed, to anticipate\nthese conditions and to adjust effort to meet them.\nA proper study of industrial conditions in any one of these cases would have\ntaken into account the demand for the product; the probable permanency of\nthat demand; its increase due to increase of population, or to the increase of\nwealth in the communities to be supplied; the proximity to the market;\naccessibility to that market on equal terms with competitors in other fields;\npossible modifications of mode of transportation of the product and of similar\nproducts produced elsewhere, to the same market; the available supply of\nraw material at competitive cost; the facilities for manufacturing the product\nas compared with other localities; the availability of a continuous, adequate\nsupply of skilled labor; the liability to labor difficulties and interruption of the\nsupply of labor.\nThis last would involve a study of labor conditions, the extent and character oflabor organizations in the community, their relations to other organizations, the grounds for the demands of those organizations, the reasonableness\nor unreasonableness of these demands, and the effectiveness with which these\ndemands could be made, together with the likelihood of modifying them by\npossible concessions or compromises.\nA study by employers of the conditions out of which labor organizations\nhave sprung and which have given rise to the demands of these organizations,\nof the conditions of life of the laborer and his family, of how far these conditions\nare the fault of the laborer or of industrial or social conditions or of statutory\nenactment for which he is not responsible, should put the employer on a\nbetter basis for a fair study of the laborer's point of view, and might suggest to\nhim the possibility of effort on his part for the improvement of those conditions\nin a way that would be mutually beneficial.\nA study by the laborer of the conditions outside the labor field under which\nindustry must be carried on, the stress of competition, the influence of transportation rates, and the hundred and one other elements entering into successful production would make him broader minded and tend to create in him a\nfairer state of mind in his judgment of what was due him from the employer.\nThe necessity for education in the field of industrial conditions is not confined to the manufacturer and his employees. It extends into that other great\nindustrial field known as agricultural pursuits. The value of this study to the\nfarmer I can state in no better terms than those employed by the committee\nalready referred to in its first report to this body.\nThe study at first hand of industrial conditions as they exist upon the farm, and in\nthe relations of the farmer to those whom he supplies with the products of the farm and\nwho in turn supply him with the things he needs and does not produce, affords opportunity\nfor developing the power of observation and exercising the reason beyond that afforded\nby a study of what others have written concerning these conditions, and is the necessary\npreliminary step for effectiveness in the latter form of study, in that it affords in the simplest\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand most natural way the apperceptive material necessary for the understanding of the\nverbal exposition and discussion of industrial conditions.\nSuch a study paves the way for an understanding of these conditions — of what in them\nis faulty; how far the far.ner is responsible for the faulty conditions; what is essential for\ntheir improvement; how far their improvement demands co-operative as well as individual\naction, the character of that co-operation and individual action, and the means necessary to\nsecure them; how far their improvement demands governmental action, the character of\nthat action, and the steps necessary to bring it about.\n\nWhile the list of topics for study as here given is long, it is by no means\ncomplete, but it is sufficient to show the necessity for such study before investing money in industrial enterprises.\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nThe necessity for education in the field of industrial organization as a\nuniversal movement in the industrial worid should not be confined to the\neconomist, the money king, or the occasional statesman. Every individual\nemployed in a factory, every holder of stock in that factory has an interest in\nthe results of this movement and will be benefited by any study of it which\nresults in definite knowledge and broader comprehension of the forces which\nare brought into play and which are controlling it in its development.\nBut it may well be considered in a more narrow sense. The farmer who\ntills his own soil, the man in the shop who is his own employer, the proprietor\nof the small factory as well as the manager of the greatest manufacturing\ncorporation and his subordinates are each concerned with the problems of\norganization in their special work.\nThousands of farmers today are eking out a scanty subsistence because\nof a lack of intelligence in the proper organization of the activities of farm life.\nThousands of manufacturing establishments are upon the verge of bankruptcy\nor are reducing dividends for the same reason. Industrial education confined\nto the production of skilled workmen might prolong the agony but would not\navert the final disaster, because of lack of intelligence in the organization of\nmeans to ends in the particular productive enterprise. Thousands of firms\nconcerned with the distribution of products fail annually, not because of lack\nof interest on the part of those who are managing them, but because of lack\nof skillful organization of the various forces whose action is necessary to\nsuccess.\nThe schools do not exist today which undertake to give instruction in these\nparticular fields. Even the body of knowledge which would form the proper\nfield of study has not been organized and put into teachable form. Even the\nbeginnings have hardly been made toward industrial education in this particular field.\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nAFFAIRS\n\nIn the field of administration of industrial enterprises, when the organization has been properly effected with reference to industrial conditions, there is\nthe same need for special education. No matter how admirable the organiza-\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n55\n\ntion, nor what capital is back of it, intelligent, skillful administration in every\ndepartment and in every detail is an essential to success. The only place\nwhere this can be learned today is in the school of experience, and the bankruptcy courts too often tell the cost of that experience.\nDo not think for a moment that this matter of administration is of vital\nimportance in the great corporations alone. It is of importance wherever\nsystematic, economic, orderly procedure is essential to success. It is as essential for the farmer as for the United States Steel Corporation or the Standard\nOil Company.\nHere again the field of knowledge has not been organized and put into\nform for instructional purposes; that fact does not lessen its importance but\nshows the necessity for constructive work by men competent to organize into\npedagogic form the materials for instruction in this as in the other fields of\nindustrial education.\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nPROCESSES\n\nThe need of education in industrial processes and the value of this education not only to the producer and his employees, but to the consumer of his\nproducts, is written in the course of prices of any single product, in the manufacture of which advantage has been taken of the knowledge of industrial\nprocesses due to education in that particular field. And it is written as well\nin the high cost of production and inferior quality of great quantities of goods,\ndue to lack of skill in processes. The range of educational effort in this field\nis wide — from that of the humblest worker whose employment demands any\nsort of skill to that of the scientific expert who employs his knowledge for the\ndiscovery of new processes or the improvement of existing processes in industrial production.\nThe statement of the purpose of industrial education already quoted\ndemands knowledge in all these fields. It demands skill in the application of\nthat knowledge, and it involves general training thru the mental, ethical,\nand aesthetic development acquired in the organization and use of the knowledge. Industrial education as thus considered is special education for\nefficiency in special fields, but is general education as well.\nPRESENT\n\nDEMAND\n\nCHIEFLY\n\nFOR\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\n\nPROCESSES\n\nAs I have already said, the chief demand for industrial education at the\npresent time is in the field of industrial processes, whether it be in the mastery\nof a trade or in the form of skilled labor less comprehensive than a trade in its\nscope.\nThere are a number of reasons why the present demand centers upon this\none phase of industrial education. It is to this field that most of the efforts\nfor industrial education made either in this country or in other countries have\nbeen confined. The passing-away of the old system of apprenticeship has\nemphasized to the manufacturer the necessity of some other mode of training\nskilled workmen.\nThe division of labor and the introduction of labor-saving\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General,\n\nmachinery have in many lines of work apparently obviated the necessity for\na systematic and thoro training of the old apprenticeship system when at its\nbest, when four to seven years constituted the period of apprenticeship, and\nwhen it was expected that every detail of the trade would be mastered. While\nit is true that in the modern factory with its multiplicity of machines each doing\na limited amount of work, but a short time is required to develop reasonable\nskill in the operation of a single machine, it has become evident to the manufacturer that for the best results he needs men with greater knowledge and a\nwider range of skill than are necessary for the mere manipulation of a single\npiece of machinery.\nThe rapid advance of Germany and other foreign countries in manufacturing, as shown by the lessening of our exports of manufactured products to\nthose countries and the increase of imported manufactured products from\nthose countries to the United States, has opened the eyes of American producers. They have sought the reason for the marvelous development of\nmanufacturing in those countries, especially in Germany, and have found it\nnot in its great supply of raw material, its water power, and abundant capital,\nbut rather in the system of industrial education that has furnished skilled\nworkmen in increasing numbers and made available the results of scientific\nresearch for the improvement of industrial processes. As a result, the manufacturers and business men of all classes who are interested in the industrial\nwelfare of the country and who recognize its value to every class of our citizens\nare demanding the development of this particular phase of education for this\ncountry.\nTHE\n\nEARLY\n\nAGE\n\nAT WHICH MANY\nLEAVE\nSCHOOL\nUNFITTED\nEMPLOYMENT EMPHASIZES\nTHE DEMAND\nFOR INDUSTRIAL\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nANY\n\nThe compilation of statistics relating to the period of school attendance\nby the youth of this country, the study of these statistics and of the result of\nthe limited attendance of so large a proportion of the school population which\nthey disclose, have attracted the attention not only of men engaged in educational work thruout the country but of people generally. The fact that\nso large a proportion of the boys in the United States are leaving school at or\nbefore the completion of an elementary course of instruction, and that the\nmajor portion of them are subsequently to earn their living by the work of\ntheir hands, that at an early age they seek employment largely in unskilled\nindustries because they are fitted for nothing else and because they are too\nyoung to enter upon the work of apprentices even where that is feasible, and\nthat the prospect of emergence from the unskilled to the skilled industries\nis so small, are all attracting attention to this problem and demanding its\nsolution.\nThe large number of girls employed in unskilled labor in factory or shop\nunder similar conditions presents practically the same problem tho in a more\nlimited form.\nPeople everywhere are coming to recognize that a school\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n57\n\nsystem which confines its efforts in both elementary and secondary phases\nto the development of mental power thru the study of books, and which offers\nat best only a limited range of hand training for general culture, is not at all\nadequate to meet present necessities. The claim frequently made that the\nonly opportunity a boy has in this country to become educated in a trade is to\ncommit some crime for which he is committed to an industrial school, is\nregarded by some as being a severe arraignment of our present school system,\nnot so much in what we do as in what we leave undone. Statistics show (and\ncommon observation emphasizes the showing) that thousands of boys leave\nschool at an early age not thru the pressure of necessity but because the subjects of study and methods of school work do not interest or appeal to them,\nnor to their parents. They feel and do not hesitate to say that the school is not\nfitting them to earn a Kvelihood and that, therefore, they might as well leave\nat once and become wage-earners even at the lowest rate. It is beside the\nmark to argue for the value of continued work in the school. The argument\ndoes not appeal to them, no matter how true it may be, and it is powerless to\nhold them in the schools.\nThis one fact alone, if there were no other, would be a powerful argument\nfor providing facilities for industrial education, at least in the field of processes,\nfor this large class of young people. There is still another argument in the\nfact that if thru compulsory laws these boys were held in school, a large number of them would fail to secure any large benefit from the school work, and\nin many instances their presence would be a positive damage to others who\nmight benefit by it, because of their lack of interest or of capacity to master\nthe kind of work the schools offer and of the interference with the work of\nother pupils in the school resulting from these conditions.\nEven the boy who stays in the school until he has completed the secondary\ncourse and who then enters the field of industrial effort finds his academic\ntraining has not fitted him to enter any of the industrial fields except on the\nlowest plane. His hand is untrained and his mind is not trained to think\nin terms of things and constructive processes. His opportunities for employment are limited. He must begin at the bottom and his path of progress is\nslow at best.\nEVOLUTION\n\nOF\n\nOUR\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nNOT\n\nYET\n\nCOMPLETE\n\nThe secondary schools are organized primarily as preparatory schools for\nthe universities and colleges.- Even where they have introduced manual training in its best form, the higher institutions give little recognition of that line\nof work as a preparation for admission to their doors.\nThe elementary schools are organized with reference to preparing their\npupils for the high school. I have no quarrel with these conditions. It\nmay be entirely true that the evolution of our school system has been along\nthe best lines possible when all conditions are taken into consideration. But\nI protest, and others protest with me, against ;what is practically an assumption\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin many quarters that we have passed to the end of the evolutionary stage\nand that our educational system has become fixed in type, purpose, and\nmethods. I contend that the process of evolution is not yet complete; that\neach new type of school providing facilities for education for special lines of\nefficiency is a phase of the evolutionary development of the system and that\nthe demand for the addition of industrial education in its various forms is a\ndemand for still further evolution in order to meet new demands and to discharge new duties.\nSTATE\n\nSUPPORT\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nJUSTIFIED\n\nIt is too late to argue that it is no part of the function of the state to provide\nin its educational system special instruction for vocations or trades or other\nphases of industrial education. If it be proper, as is generally conceded, that\nspecial colleges for instruction in agriculture, in engineering, in medicine, in\nlaw, and in other fields may be organized and supported by the state for the\ndirect benefit of the few, it must be conceded that it is proper that other schools\nshould be organized to fit a much larger nimiber of American citizens for\nefficiency in other lines of special work, even tho they may not be so well paid\nnor demand so extensive a training or high degree of intellectual power.\nPROCESSES\n\nREQUIRING\n\nSKILL TAUGHT\nINSTRUCTION\n\nBEST\n\nTHRU\n\nSYSTEMATIC\n\nIt has been demonstrated not only in this but in other countries and it is\napparent to any individual who gives the subject careful consideration, that\nthere is no kind of skilled labor that may not be a subject of special instruction,\nand that systematic, organized, continuous instruction by competent teachers\nenables the person being instructed, to acquire the requisite knowledge and\nskill in less time than is possible under any other conditions.\nSome of the greatest manufacturing establishments in this country have\nrecognized that principle by the establishment of definite schools of instruction\nfor their own apprentices — a far different system from the old system of apprenticeship. Such a plan, however, is not feasible except in the largest establishments, but it indicates the possibilities for definite and effective training for\nefficiency in skilled work of any kind. That the individual thus trained may\nnot know everything of value connected with the exercise of his skill in productive effort; that he has some things to learn thru experience, is no argument\nagainst its value, because such instruction far more than compensates for lack\nof experience in the shop, covering the same period of time thru the better\narticulation of the various parts of the course of instruction, and thru the\nwider range of knowledge that should accompany it as a result of the proper\norganization of the subject-matter for instruction.\nTHE\n\nCASE\n\nFOR\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSTATED\n\nThe case for industrial education then stands as follows: Physical and\nmental activities effectively directed to useful and productive ends are a neces-\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "NEED\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n59\n\nsity for the majority of mankind. Systematic direction and training are essential for the proper development and control of these activities. For the best\nresults such training must come early in life during the period when the child\nis properly found in school. Such systematic direction and training are not\nnow adequately given during this period and are not likely to be given in the\nfuture outside the school.\nIt is the right and duty of the state to do whatever is necessary for its\npreservation. Good citizenship is an essential for the preservation of the\nstate; and one of the essential qualities of good citizenship is that the citizen\nshall be competent to support himself and those dependent upon him. For\nthe great majority of hand workers in skilled industries, industrial education\nof proper scope and character will develop this ability. It will transfer from\nthe class of youth who tread the path of idleness, to the class of useful citizens,\nthose who otherwise would quickly and surely pass to the parallel path of crime\nwith its entailment of expense to the public, of public demoralization, and of\nindividual debasement.\nFEAR\n\nTHAT\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\nWILL LOWER\nSTANDARDS\nGROUNDLESS\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nAmong educational men there are some who express the fear that the introduction ofindustrial education will result in a lowering of educational standards thru the lessening of the culture element, and that it will divert many\nfrom the field of general education to this special field and thereby narrow the\ndevelopment of the individual. This is but an echo of the fear expressed\nwhenever the proposition has come for the establishment of any special line of\neducational work. Those fears have always proved groundless in the past,\nand this will prove groundless.\nWe must not forget that industrial education is not for the youth who\ncontinue on thru the secondary and higher educational institutions and enter\nthe learned professions. It is chiefly for the thousands who will not so continue, who in any event will get but little, if any, of the so-called higher culture;\nfor the thousands who leave school at too early an age and unfitted for any\nvocation in life. Whatever of culture may be in the present elementary course\nof instruction, they have had to the extent that they have mastered that course\nof instruction. Whenever they leave the school, the cultural value of the\ncourse beyond the point where they leave it is of no value to them.\nThe question is: Shall we offer them school facilities that shall be of greater\nvalue to them in directly preparing them to do better work, to fill better positions with increased opportunities for advancement than they would have but\nfor these facilities ?\nI shall not attempt to define that illusory term \"culture\" but shall await\nwith interest the exposition of its advocates who shall show that any education\nfitting one for any useful work is utterly devoid of the culture element.\nThe great need for the mass of the children of this country today is a longer\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nperiod of instruction in school; and common-sense would indicate that the\nintroduction of a phase of education that will appeal to them and to their\nparents and to the community, and which will ultimately be demanded as a\nnecessity by the employers of labor and by the laborers as well, will be the\nmost potent influence in extending the school life of the child.\nFor the realization of this end, the child, the parent, the manufacturer,\nsociety, and the state have a common interest.\nOVERCROWDING\nOF ELEMENTARY\nAND SECONDARY\nCOURSES\nNO ARGUMENT AGAINST INDUSTRIAL\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\nThere are many who claim that the elementary and secondary courses of\ninstruction are now overcrowded and that there is place for nothing more.\nIf we grant for a moment that this statement is true, it has no bearing as affecting the large number of children who have already left the school and who\nneed this industrial education.\nThat the courses of study are overcrowded is unfortunately true; but that\nis no proof that they are necessarily overcrowded. The crowding is due to\nthe great mass of non-essentials that have found their way into the school\ncurriculum. The proposition to find a place for industrial education will\nmake it necessary to re-examine these courses, to determine the educational\nvalue, not so much of subjects as of phases of subjects and of methods of\ninstruction. Nothing short of some such necessity is likely to bring about this\nresult. The unwillingness to displace anything in the curriculum in order to\nmake place for industrial education is the result of inertia, or lack of appreciation of the idea that there is any other source of stimulus for mental activity\nthan that found between the covers of a book.\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION:\nCONDITIONS\n\nHOW\nSECURED\n\nORGANIZED\nIN SPECIAL\n\nAND UNDER\nSCHOOLS\n\nWHAT\n\nIf the necessity for the introduction of industrial education is conceded,\nthe large question yet remains as to how it is to be organized and under what\nconditions it is to be secured. It will doubtless be claimed that those phases\nof industrial education concerned with industrial conditions, organization, and\nadministration are not adapted to the elementary school — and to a very large\nextent this is true. Heretofore whatever has been done in this field has been\nconfined to the university or to the school of experience. It was only a little\ntime ago when what was done in the field of agricultural education was confined to the agricultural college ; and yet today we find that a body of knowledge\nrelating to the principles and practice of farming is being organized that is\nadapted to schools of secondary grade and is even being carried down into the\nelementary schools. It is entirely feasible to do the same thing to a very\nlarge extent with these phases of industrial education. I am not now speaking of what must be done at once, but of what we should look forward to as\na thing to be realized as early as possible.\nIndustrial education, if it is to be valuable for the great mass of youth who\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n6l\n\nneed it, must be offered under conditions that meet local necessities. This\nwill mean in one place the trade school, in another the trade school and shop\nor factory combined, in another the continuation school at night or during a\nportion of the day for those already engaged in the industries, and the continuation school will vary in its aims and scope according to the conditions it is to\nmeet. In one place it will be devoted distinctively to the development of skill\nin trade processes; in another, to a study of the theory underlying the trade\nprocesses; in another, to a combination of the two; in a fourth, to dealing\nwith those portions of the general elementary school course of most value to\nthe students attending.\nThe trade school too will vary in its type. Under one set of conditions it\nwill attempt nothing more than the teaching of processes, in another it will\ncombine with such teaching a teaching of the theory underlying the processes,\nand in another it will combine with the teaching of the processes general\nphases of educational work that may be made to appeal to the students as a\nnecessary part of their equipment. Under certain conditions schools must be\nestablished, limited in scope to training for special vocations that do not rise\nto the dignity of trades. In many Hues of industry employing youth, the\nemployers will find it to their advantage to organize schools for the training\nof their employees for efficiency in their particular work. These schools may\nor may not be of any type previously mentioned.\nOf technical schools of the highest type, many are already in existence.\nOthers must be added. Research work of the highest grade of scientific attainment must be encouraged for the development of new industrial processes.\nManufacturers in this country must more generally follow the example set\nby the manufacturers of Germany by the employment of scientific specialists\nand must furnish them with laboratory equipment for research connected\nwith their special lines of manufacture. Had these manufacturers a knowledge of industrial conditions in the manufacturing establishments in other\ncountries, they would realize, more fully than they do now in most cases, the\npractical value of a high grade of scientific research in the industrial field.\nBut when we have provided all these different types of schools devoted\nchiefly to furnishing facilities for bettering conditions in the manufacturing\nworld, we have only begun the solution of the problem. The same necessity\nexists in the agricultural world as in the manufacturing world for industrial\neducation; and the conditions under which agriculture is carried on render\nimpossible the establishment of certain types of schools that may be made\neffective in the production of skilled workmen for the factory. Special schools\nof agriculture, secondary in type, should be established in every agricultural\nstate in the union and in considerable numbers. Farmers' schools of even\na few days' duration, such as are conducted in some of the agricultural\ncolleges of the country, should be a feature of the work in every agricultural\ncollege. Such schools would bring the farmers in large numbers into direct\ncontact with the work and workers in such institutions and would be an inspira-\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntion and'an uplift to them for better things in their own field of effort. The\nagricultural colleges should extend their work beyond the walls of the institution, not simply by bulletins, but should put men into the field who shall\ncarry the results of the experiment station work to all parts of the state and\ninitiate and direct farm experiments by farmers in the different agricultural\ndistricts of the state.\nI am aware that there are some who seriously oppose the establishment\nof special secondary schools of agriculture even tho they themselves have contributed in large measure to the success and usefulness of another special\nschool — the agricultural college. No secondary education in agriculture were\npossible but for the work of the agricultural college. The secondary school of\nagriculture, special in its aims and in its course of study, will help to organize\ninto teachable form the matters of knowledge not yet fully organized for\nsecondary work. It will set standards showing the possibilities in this field\nwith boys and girls from the farm. It will be the place to which men in charge\nof the existing high schools will go to learn what it is best for them to do in\norganizing the instructional work in agriculture in their schools. They will\ndignify this kind of education, and, as they multiply, will show the public its\nvalue. It will then be easier to find a place in the existing high school, a thing\nwhich it does not now easily do.\nWe must not forget the purpose of the high-school course of study today;\nwe must not forget the atmosphere that permeates it; we must not forget the\ntraining of its teachers and the demands upon them by the university and\ncollege; we must not forget also that a very small nimiber of children living\nin the agricultural communities go to the city high school and that even a\ncourse in agriculture in such an institution would hardly appeal to any great\nnumber of them. It is remote from them, it is a side issue. The student\nbody, in the main, is a body of city youth. The country boy and the country\ngirl are not there in sufficient numbers to create a congenial atmosphere. The\nhigh school in the small city or village may have a considerable influx of\nstudents from the country, but in the main today, they are those whose faces\nare turned away from the farm, who are looking to the city as their future\nhome, who are not interested in farming but who are interested in going\naway from the farm. They are in the high school because they feel that it\noffers them a training that will enable them to escape from the farm. In time\nthis condition may change, but I believe it will not be in the near future, unless\nthru the establishment of special schools the whole subject of industrial education for the farmer is dignified and given the place it deserves.\nFACILITIES\n\nFOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION MUST ALSO BE PROVIDED\nEXISTING\nELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nIN\n\nI am not claiming that these special schools will furnish facilities entirely\nadequate, but I do feel that they are the first step; that they will quickest show\nresults that will command the attention not only of the farming population but\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n63\n\nof educators as well; and that because of their influence this work may be\ntaken up in such high schools as are favorably located for it and ultimately\ncarried on with great effectiveness, supplementing the work of the special\nschools of agriculture; and that finally more of this work may be carried into\nconsolidated district schools and into the single-room country school.\nThe same argument holds for the establishment of special trade and\nvocational schools, and the same necessity exists (and even to a larger degree)\nfor carrying this work into the existing public schools, both elementary and\nsecondary. The special industrial school will set standards, will show methods\nbest adapted to securing desirable results. But as these schools, in the nature\nof the case, are not likely to be found for many years outside the larger cities,\nif the great mass of children in the smaller cities are to have industrial education, itmust find a place in the existing schools.\nThere is a condition existing in the city schools favorable to the introduction of distinct phases of industrial education which does not exist in the\ncountry. Manual training is found in hundreds of the smaller cities and in\nnearly all of the larger cities of the country today.\nMANUAL\nTRAINING\nMAY BE SO ORGANIZED\nFOR INDUSTRIAL\nEFFICIENCY\nWITHOUT\n\nAS TO HAVE\nA DISTINCT\nVALUE\nLOSS OF CULTURAL VALUE\n\nThere are people who discriminate very sharply between manual training\nand industrial education. They tell us that manual training has for its purpose the same general educational value that any work in the traditional course\nof study has; and it is true that it has been justified and may be justified on\nthose grounds. But manual training, like the general system of education,\nis in a process of evolution. It is yet unorganized in many localities; it is\ngiven but scanty time and meager equipment. The wonder is that under such\nconditions, it continues to be justified in the minds of the public. There is a\ndistinct tendency today in manual-training circles to modify and enlarge\nthe traditional course in manual training in such way as to make it distinctively\nindustrial in character. To anyone who will study the question with any seriousnes , itmust be evident that such a modification may be made without\nin any way impairing its value for training or cultural purposes, while at the\nsame time giving those who take it a training that, so far as it goes, may be\na direct and proper beginning for industrial efficiency in some particular trade\nor vocation.\nBASIS\n\nFOR\n\nREORGANIZATION OF MANUAL-TRAINING\nINDUSTRIAL ENDS\n\nCOURSES\n\nFOR\n\nIn the work of learning a trade there are two stages. During the first stage\nthe learner is concerned with finding out the what of each particular process\nthat must be mastered, the how in performing, coupled with the performance\nof the process, under the guidance and control of the attentive mind.\nDuring the second stage the learner is occupied in developing skill in the\naccurate and rapid performance of each particular process, and in the correla-\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntion of these processes to meet the demands of the shop in which he may be\nemployed. This skill is developed thru the repetition of that which, at the\nbeginning of this stage, he could perform reasonably well, when done slowly\nand with the closest attention to every detail of the doing, continued until the\nprocess is performed accurately and rapidly with little mental effort beyond\nthat involved in initiating the motor activity demanded by the process..\nIn the statement of the scope and character of work demanded in the first\nstage, it must be observed that there are three steps in the mastery of any\none process: (i) The determination of what is to be done. (2) The determination of how it is to be done. (3) The doing, for the accomplishment of the\nwhatj thru the application of the how.\nIt must be observed further that the necessary knowledge of the how,\nrequisite for the proper performance of a process, may not be acquired in advance of any effort in doing; but the learner must have in mind how he proposes to perform any act he regards as necessary in the process, before he\nbegins the action. The result of the action may show him that the manner in\nwhich he attempted the doing was wrong, and that he must revise his conception of the how; but always a how must precede the doing. The doing modifies the how; this modification reacts upon the doing, until the proper standard\nof correctness is reached.\nThe first stage is one thru which every learner must pass in the mastery of\na trade before he can properly enter upon the second stage, during which\nskill in processes and their use is to be developed, no matter whether the trade\nis learned in the shop, in the school, or in both school and shop.\nThis is not the time to discuss the educational principles which determine\nthe place, scope, and character of manual training in the elementary and\nsecondary courses of study for training purposes other than for industrial\nefficiency; but I venture the assertion that the three steps which characterize\nthe first stage in the mastery of a trade must also characterize every phase of\nwork in a manual-training course which requires an intelligent use of tools\nand materials in constructive processes, in accordance with sound educational\nprinciples. Therefore it follows that the first stage in the mastery of trade\nprocesses, in its rudimentary form at least, is found in all manual-training\ncourses based on sound educational principles, and that with proper equipment and competent teaching force, the manual training may be so extended\nas to complete the work of this stage for a considerable number of trades.\nThe second stage may be completed in the trade school, in the shop, or in\nboth.\nManual training in its earlier stages must of necessity be carried on without\nany direct reference or relation to the development of skill in any particular\nvocation. The training which it gives in close observation of an object, to be\nproduced from any given material, of the results of effort in the construction of that object, the determination of wherein the effort has failed, and\nwhat must be done thru further effort to remedy the failure, the training of\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n65\n\nthe hand to execute the mental judgments, furnish a preliminary preparation\nof high value as a basis for intelligent workmanship which employs the hands\nlater on.\nIn the later development of manual training, It may be so organized as to\nbear a very definite relation to certain processes largely employed in the industrial world, and at the same time secure the kind of mental training needed\nfor the proper development of the individual.\nIn a general way it may be said that the following things are essential for\nindustrial efficiency in the workman:\n1. Habits of close observation.\n2. A high ideal as to what constitutes honesty in workmanship.\n3. Habits of accuracy in work.\n4. Comprehension of what is good in design as related to use in connection with the\nwork in hand.\n5. Knowledge of materials best adapted to different forms and types of construction.\n6. Knowledge of construction processes in the treatment of materials.\n7. Skill in the care of tools and in their use in industrial processes.\n8. Knowledge of machine processes and skill in using machinery.\n9. Skill in freehand and mechanical drawing.\n\nThe above statements are general, but specific applications may be made\nof them so far as they apply to a particular industrial process or trade.\nThe practical problem for any community in organizing work in manual\ntraining In the public schools, so that it may bear the most direct and immediate relation to the industrial efficiency of the boys on leaving school, Is to\nconsider: first, the manufacturing Industries of the community where skill\nin operation Is required and which are likely to furnish employment for the\nboys upon their leaving school; and then, to determine the kind of training\nthru which the boys will make the greatest progress toward skill In the special\nIndustry or Industries.\nIn case there are no manufacturing Industries In the community In which\nthe school Is located, and It is still desired to give training which shall count\nmost largely for Industrial efficiency within the particular trades or skilled\nindustries which are likely to prove most attractive to the boys of the community, those trades or industries are to be considered.\nWhen we attempt to organize the manual-training course so that it becomes\na direct contribution to Industrial education, we have the problem presented\nof how to make a course which shall meet the needs of the pupil for mental\ntraining and for motor training, and at the same time for Industrial efficiency.\nIn order that this may be done on a basis fundamentally correct, we must begin\nwith the occupation or trade In which thru industrial education the pupil Is to\nbecome proficient. We must analyze this occupation or trade and determine\nwhat must be known and done in order that proficiency may result. To\nillustrate : Let us take the house carpenter's occupation, and let our problem\nbe to determine how the course In woodworking In manual training may be\nso organlzed^as to enable the pupil because of this training to make a very\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndecided progress, before leaving the public school, toward the mastery of the\ntrade as a skilled workman.\nThe carpenter must know the qualities and values of materials which adapt\nthem for use in different kinds of construction work; how to select the material,\nand how to determine the amount and cost of each different kind of material\nnecessary for any particular structure; what construction and assembling\nprocesses must be employed and how to perform them, involving a knowledge\nof the tools which must be employed in these processes and of their use and\ncare; how to interpret plans and specifications and how to make and read\ndetailed working drawings. He must be able to make skillful use of this\nknowledge.\nI have given here only the barest outHnes of the different kinds of knowledge necessary for the carpenter. In making the necessary analysis for the\npurpose I have indicated, each general statement of what must be known\nmust be worked out in detail, and the details must be presented in the order\nin which they are to be applied to the actual work.\nOnce this analysis has thus been worked out in detail, we have before us\nmaterial capable of being utilized in a woodworking course in manual training\nwhich shall bear a very close relation to industrial efficiency in the carpenter^s\noccupation. Everything which the carpenter must know and do for the proper\nperformance of his work is here outlined. Such of these things as are within\nthe range of the pupil's understanding and power to master, and which\nrequire proper mental activity, may very properly become a part of the manualtraining course of instruction and may be presented in the order of their relation and difficulty. It is of as great value when thus definitely organized and\nrelated as any other training in woodwork, not so organized and related, and\nit has the additional advantage of giving the training from which results\nspecific mastery of the tools and processes of the carpenter's occupation, so\nfar as the work may go.\nIn the manual training course it will stop in the mastery of the trade,\nsomewhere in the first stage, but it will have offered what the apprentice rarely\ngets — systematic and definite training to a given end so far as it is carried.\nFrom that stage on, it will be a question of the development of skill in the\nperformance of a process with which the pupil is already famifiar.\nAny number of trades may thus be analyzed, and when so analyzed will\nfurnish material, in its simplest form, for instructional purposes. This will\nhave to be done before industrial education, in any type of school, can be\norganized on the proper basis; and so far as any of these separate elements of\nknowledge or of doing are within the range of the pupil's capacity and the\ncapacity of the community to make provision for, they may become a part of\nthe manual-training course of instruction.\nThis problem will vary in different communities, but the mode of solution\nis the same in every case.\nWith this modification of the elementary and secondary courses, we should\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n67\n\nhold pupils in school longer than we do under existing conditions, and I\nbelieve all will agree that with the proper organization of instructional work\nas to matter and method, the longer the pupil can be kept in the public schools,\nthe better for him.\nThe present manual-training course may be very greatly modified by\nwidening the range of materials and tools and processes. It should be begun\nearlier than it is begun in most schools. It should be given more time than\nis now devoted to it, and more time may be given to it than is now devoted to\nit in most schools; and more time may be given to it without in any way lowering the effectiveness of the training in the other subjects of the school curriculum. This is not a theory; it has been demonstrated beyond the shadow\nof a doubt, and what has been proven in a number of school systems under\nordinary conditions, may be taken as true for other school systems. It means\nsimply a reorganization of the course of study; the elimination of non-essentials in the common branches; and the better organization of the manualtraining work in ways which shall lead out to a number of vocations or trades.\nBecause this work cannot be carried on in a given locality to the extreme\nlimit that might be desirable, is no reason why it should not be begun. To\nwhatever extent it is given, to that extent it helps the pupil to determine\nwhether he is adapted to a particular line of work or not, gives him the beginnings inthat line, encourages him to further effort, and places him at a decided\nadvantage in seeking employment, over the boy who has had none of this\nwork.\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nGIRLS FOR THE\nFOR THE HOME\n\nSKILLED\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nAND\n\nWhat I have said of the various types of schools adapted to the needs of\nthe boy may in a very large sense be taken as true when the needs of the girl\nwho seeks skilled employment in the industrial field are considered.\nBut there is still another side to this problem of industrial education that\nhas not been considered. It is that which concerns the education of the girl\nwho sooner or later will assume the responsibilities that will come to her as wife\nand mother in^the home. We shall never solve the industrial problem by\nconsidering the boy and the man alone; the girl and the woman must be taken\ninto account. The home is the unit of society; the man is charged with the\nresponsibility of providing the means for its maintenance; the woman is\ncharged with the responsibility for the proper use of what is thus provided for\nthe organization and administration of the affairs of the home. There come\nto no human being greater responsibilities, none more exacting, none more\nimportant, than to the woman in the home. Shall we say that it is necessary\nfor success in the manufacturing establishment that men shall be trained to\nunderstand industrial conditions, organization, administration, and processes,\nbut that for the woman in the home no such training is necessary ?\nUntil very recently practically no provision has been made anywhere for\nthe special training of the girl to fit her for her responsibilities later in the\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n-f\n\nhome. The elementary course of instruction, the secondary course, the university course, valuable as each is, important as it may be for purposes of training\nand culture, gives no special preparation for the practical discharge of her\nduties. Is special preparation needed for the man who runs a machine in the\nfactory or who tills the soil, and no special preparation needed for the woman\nwho is charged with the responsibility for making the home something more\nthan a lodging-house — instead, a place adapted to its purpose from sanitary,\nhygienic, economic, and artistic considerations — and who is charged with the\nrearing of the family, because in their early years it is her influence that is\nmost potent in the guidance and direction of the lives of the children ? Is the\nspecial knowledge and training necessary for the proper unfolding and development into the pattern of noble manhood and womanhood less important than\nthe special education and training needed for the transforming of a piece of\nwood into a pattern for a casting ? We deem the latter of vital importance.\nShall we omit the former?\nHundreds of thousands of dollars have been expended in experiments to\ndetermine the proper ration for the cow, the hog, and the horse, and for disseminating this information, because such special knowledge is deemed necessary for the farmer who would succeed in growing stock. Is it any less important that the girl shall be trained to know the food elements in different food\nstuffs, to know how to select these food stuffs with reference to their economic\nand food values, to know how to care for them, to prepare them into foods,\nand to care for and serve those foods, keeping in mind that, like the hog, the\nhorse, and the cow, man is an animal, needing balanced rations for his best\ndevelopment and greatest efficiency ?\nWe spend thousands of dollars to investigate the diseases of chickens and\nto determine means for checking or preventing these diseases, and for disseminating this knowledge among farmers. We would agree that in the special\nschool for the farmer's boy instruction in poultry raising, diseases of poultry,\ncare of poultry would be a kind of education of the highest value, because it\nmeans increased revenue for the poultry farmer. But if special education is\nneeded here, shall we not have it for the girl who, later in the home, is responsible for the feeding of the child ? Mortality records in the large cities every\nyear show the death of thousands of children, the causes of which are, by\nboards of health and physicians, attributed to the ignorance of the mother\nin the proper feeding of the child.\nWhat matters the industrial efficiency of the man in the home, if there is no\nindustrial efficiency on the part of the woman, if she has no knowledge of\nvalues, no special training that will fit her to understand the scientific and\neconomic principles that underlie the administration of home affairs? This\nlack of special training is a fruitful source of dissension in the home and of\nthe dissolution of the partnership in the home life.\nWe deem it vitally important to establish textile schools where workers\nmay be trained for skill in the cotton or woolen factory because it means\n■\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n69\n\nincreased earnings for the operative and increased dividends for the stock\nholder. If special education is worth while here, shall we deny to the woman\nthe special education that fits her to select these fabrics with reference to their\ndurability and hence their economic value, and with reference to their artistic\nvalue as well, which will fit her, when necessary, to shape these fabrics into\nwearing apparel, or when not necessary to do it herself, to supervise the doing\nby others who may be employed by her ?\nWe deem it vitally important that the teacher shall have special training to\nfit her for her work; that she shall study the child and the manner of its\nmental and physical unfolding in order that she may adapt her instruction to\nits needs. Is it of less importance that the woman rearing her own child shall\nhave some training that shall at least open up to her the seriousness of the\nproblems of maternity ?\nWhere shall this special instruction be given ? Here again special schools\nadapted to the training of young women for the responsibilities of home\nlife, demonstrating what can be accomplished in this field and the conditions under which it can be accomplished, will pave the way for a much\nmore extensive course in domestic art and science than is now provided in any\npublic school in this country. Here again in many directions, the body of\nknowledge necessary for such education has not been organized; it must be\nworked out and it must find a place in the public schools, running parallel\nwith the special lines of industrial education adapted to the needs of the boys.\nSUMMARIZATION\n\nTo sum up: industrial education must be provided of such kinds and to\ns uch extent as shall furnish faciHties for those who need it for special instruction and training to fit them for efficiency in the industrial world. The range\nof this work is from the upper grades of the elementary school, thru the\nsecondary school, in the special school of the elementary and secondary grade,\nand in the college and university. In rural communities the special class of\nsecondary schools of agriculture will, I beheve, provide the means for the\nnecessary special education for the farmer's boy and girl more rapidly than\nit is possible to do in any other way. In the larger cities special trade, vocational, and continuation schools of varied type must come into existence.\nBut even in the large cities they will not begin to meet the demand for industrial education on the part of the great mass of pupils who are to work with\ntheir hands. For these and for the pupils in the smaller cities and villages and\nin the country, education, less extensive perhaps than in the special school but\nvaluable because of the beginning toward industrial efficiency that it will make\npossible, must be provided in such public schools.\nI have undertaken to sketch in outline what I conceive co be the scope\nand character of industrial education when it finally comes to have its proper\nplace in our educational system.\nI am aware that it is not all possible at once, ,\nbut it is worth while to see the field in its entirety and to proceed wisely in the\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndevelopment of this work. It will be many years before this scheme in its\nentirety can be realized; but I believe the American people will be satisfied\nwith nothing less.\nTHE\n\nSCOPE\n\nOF THE DEPARTMENT\nORGANIZATIONS\n\nLAURA\n\nDRAKE\n\nGILL, PRESIDENT\nOF ASSOCIATION\nALUMNAE,\nWASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nOF WOMEN'S\nOF\n\nCOLLEGIATE\n\nOur president has asked for a brief account of the organization, meaning,\nand outlook of the newest department in this National Education Association —\nthe Department of Women's Organizations. It was established a little over\na year ago, for the purpose of closer co-ordination between various volunteer\nagencies for improved pubUc schools. It has suffered an irreparable loss in\nthat the woman who conceived the idea passed over to the silent majority just\nbefore the organization was authorized. The work has thus fallen to those\nwho must serve without the inspiration of knowing fully its original aim. How\nwell they may be able to interpret Miss Abbott's vision, no one can ever know;\nhow well they may be able to define and establish a wise relation between the\nvolunteer and professional workers in public education^, time will reveal.\nAs I have understood the origin of the idea, it sprang from a helpful combination among the organized women of Connecticut. In order properly to\ninform the women of that state in regard to school matters which affected\ntheir own children, one group studied the conditions of instruction in the\nschools; another group considered the problem of properly constructed,\nproperly placed, and properly cared-for school buildings; yet another group\ntook up schoolroom decoration and the incentives to a keener patriotic sentiment, etc. This was a true division of labor, based upon the fundamental\ninterests of the various groups; but with it went also a full co-operation in disseminating information about school conditions and in arousing a vigorous\npublic sentiment in favor of progress. The fact that Miss Abbott inspired and\nmarshaled her forces so ably in this state movement gave confidence in her\nability to realize her dream of a national co-operation. Her request was\nmade to our general officers in January, 1907, for a new department thru which\ncertain women's organizations engaged in educational studies might gain the\nneeded viewpoint for their work by close affihation with the organized teachers\nof the nation.\nThe department was later authorized at Los Angeles, was organized at\nWashington in February of 1908, held its first conference at Cleveland last\nJuly, and has been feeling cautiously for a sure footing during the past winter.\nLet us recall some of the basic rules of this Association and note their\neffect upon a department whose constituents are derived from other active\norganizations, and whose activities must be consummated thru these groups.\nFirst of all we remember that any professional or volunteer worker in education—^man or woman — ^may join our ranks. Further, any active member of\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n71\n\nthe Association may vote and hold office in any department. Therefore there\nis no legal assurance that even the officers of the Department of Women's\nOrganizations shall at any given time be elected from members of the national\nassociations officially named in the description of the department. Yet all\nactive work must be effected thru the various state groups of these organizations; itmust be planned, financed, and executed by them. In order to avoid\nany possible embarrassment until further definition of the department can be\nreached, it has been deemed wise to recognize as official and formal only the\nthree executive officers who are chosen at the annual meeting. Their duties\nconsist chiefly in providing the section program for this meeting. In this relation they are solely persons^ active in educational work, and responsible to the\ngeneral officers of the National Education Association.\nBut, above this, it was necessary to provide for the active work in the intervals of meetings, which constitutes the sole reason for the existence of the\ndepartment. To accomplish this end an executive committee was authorized\nby the departi^ent, consisting of one appointee from each of the five recognized\norganizations. These women are empowered to provide the needed machinery\nand supervise its operation in producing effective co-operation among their\nvarious groups.\nIn making initial plans, it was at once recognized that the state is the\nlargest unit possible for such co-ordinated work. Two adjoining states will\nhave widely differing laws for education, utterly different urgent needs, as\nwell as varied modes of approaching these needs. Hence a so-called \"State\nJoint Committee\" was organized in each state, consisting of five members —\none intended to represent each co-operating association. Any vacancy was\nfilled by a member-at-large, who was required to be the unanimous nomination\nof the existing members of the given state committee, and was formally confirmed inher appointment by the president of the department. This gave an\nopportunity to appoint several members-at-large who represented strong\nlocal interests such as the School Improvement Associations and the United\nDaughters of the Confederacy in parts of the South.\nThe only real danger in this method is the chance of having the name of\nthe National Education Association involved in some unwise state activity.\nThis point of danger has been openly acknowledged, and constant warnings\nhave been given for caution in this respect. Some safeguard may be necessary\nagainst any possible exploitation of the name of the general association; but\nsince the work is supervised and authorized by the officers of the department, it\ndoes not promise any serious difficulty of control.\nTwenty-five states have fully organized committees, and twenty-one of\nthese states show definite accompfishment during the brief months of their\nexistence. The specific lines of work are too varied to admit of summary\nhere; but two victories may properly be recorded here because they should\nbe omens of future success. The first great accomplishment is the close of the\nmost difficult initial year, with no case of meddling or friction with school\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nofficers brought to my knowledge. This betokens an intelligent caution\nwhich must be the basis of any success. My second cause of rejoicing is in\nthe fact that a marked generosity has prevailed among the co-operating\nwomen, showing that they realize that the work has nothing in it for themselves\n— except the joy and satisfaction that honest work may properly bring.\nSo much for the biography of the department. Let us now dwell for a\nmoment upon its meaning. Why was it launched into Ufe? Like many\nanother thing, it seems to have had both an occasion and a cause. The occasion was evidently the unwillingness of our general officers to deny a request\nfrom a group of women, whose good intent was above question. The occasion may then be passed over with few words and as scant respect. Yet the\nreal cause for the department may be something much deeper and truer and\nfiner than its mere occasion; so do the Fates often work their subtle wisdom\nthru our blundering impulses. Has not the fulness of time come for the coordination insome organic way of the interest of the teacher and the citizen in\ngood public schools ? Are we not really regaining a lost point of vantage ?\nIn earlier times the school directors were citizens fully representative of\npublic opinion; the teachers were largely residents of the town, and lived in\ndaily contact with the families whose children they taught; the classes were\nsmall, tho numerous; the relation between the home and school phases of a\nchild's life was intimate and continuous. But the same irresistible forces\nthat modified business methods in general, modified our policy of school\nmanagement. The control of schools became more complex, and was turned\nover to professional superintendence; the teachers received higher professional\nequipment, less frequently taught in their home communities, and were consequently less well acquainted with the home conditions of their pupils. In\nshort, every advance in school organization has widened the chasm between\nthe citizen and his school, until the resultant disadvantages are so apparent that\nhe who runs may read. Long since a few sensitive people felt that something\nwas wrong, and tried various good methods of special treatment. The public\neducation, school improvement, and home and school associations are all\nphases of this effort to re-establish a sympathetic relation between the school\npatron and the school officer. This sympathetic co-operation is not antagonistic to a highly developed school system. Both things are good and should\nbe insisted upon. What, then, does the department really stand for but this:\nthat a definite, even if somewhat unforeseen, expression has been given to one\nof the deepest educational movements of the day — the effort to range citizen\nand teacher side by side in the fight for better citizenship.\nBut what justifies the introduction of the name of \"Women's Organizations\" into an Association like this, that makes no sex discrimination in its\nmembership ? The reason surely does not arise from the character of the\nwork; that is in no sense peculiarly the province of women. It is but an\naccident of our American civilization that the only available machinery at\nthe present moment for any wide co-operation is found in the national organi-\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n73\n\nzations of women. If the men of America had possessed as well-organized\nnational bodies to execute their educational interests as the women of greater\nleisure have developed, then we need never have faced the regrettable necessity of seeing a Department of Women's Organizations injected into this\nAssociation. Many of us felt at first that we could not stand for such an\ninnovation, even to gain the much-desired end. But necessity knows no law;\nand the work, if done at all, had to be done by existing agencies. However,\nlet no man hope to evade a conscription to help in the good work; he will be\nneeded, and I doubt not that he will be used, for his full value in wisdom\nand in political power. It only means that in the America of today the woman\ncitizen has the leisure to plan, create, and operate the social machinery for\nthrowing her own power, and that of her men friends, into a given cause at\nan opportune moment. Unfortunately her experience does not yet match her\nleisure and good intent; but this must be earned by hard work and time.\nNow what does this opportunity mean to the American woman? It is\nher entrance upon an apprenticeship in public work that savors of the day\nof judgment in its solemnity. She may here learn the aims which should\nactuate her daily relations to the local schools; she may here see her community problems magnified into national proportions; she may here learn\nfrom the successes and failures of other workers. She is not here for a separate\neducational program of her own; but to share your councils, to learn your\nambitions, to recognize your unnecessary obstacles, and then to thresh out a\nkernel of helpful suggestion to guide and stimulate her during the next twelve\nmonths of steady work. It is at once a challenge to her intelligence and to her\ncharacter. The work is new to her; she will many times fail of the best; but,\nif the signs of the times fail not, she is fated to share increasingly in public\nduties, and her education to a full comprehension of her new responsibility is\nthe first step to safety, as well as to efficiency.\nBut success involves even more than intelligence; it calls for high moral\nqualities — unselfishness, impersonality, and generous recognition of any good\nwork done anywhere by anybody. There can be no monopolies of ideas or\nof credit for good work in education. Any effort should be prefaced by the\nmodest admission that the best ideas and the greatest successes are more the\nproduct of social forces in the environment than of any personal genius.\nSo this opportunity is a new challenge to learn the lesson that women need\nmost of all: to have general, and not personal, ambitions; to look at principles,\nand not at personalities. If the avowed policy of the department to let no\nfriction exist without being brought into the open; to study its causes frankly;\nto shame an unworthy ambition into annihilation, and to applaud an unselfish\neffort openly and cordially can remain, then by intelligence and generosity may\nthe full power of its ambition be employed for good, and no waste be allowed\nfor petty human playing at cross-purposes. To the womanhood of America\nthis may well be counted the greatest public opportunity, as well as the sternest\ntest of power, that has ever opened.\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nLooking at the reverse side of the shield, what does it mean for the professional teachers? It means a chance to use or to ignore a great, and ever\nincreasing, social force. This force may be used to clear the teacher's path\nof countless obstacles, and thereby increase his results incalculably. Let me\nread a few paragraphs from the minutes of one of the state joint committees:\nReport of the State Joint Committee. MintUes of the meeting held April q, iqoq. — An\ninvitation was presented from the county examiner for the five members of the committee\nto attend a meeting of the school directors for the County of\n, to be held on May 24,\nfor the purpose of discussing the questions of the consolidation of rural-school districts\nand the establishment of township high schools. The committee voted to accept the\ninvitation. An invitation was then presented from the president of the State School\nImprovement Association for the members of the committee to meet with their Advisory\nBoard on May i. The invitation was accepted. It was decided to postpone outlining\nthe state needs in education until a later meeting, but the following subjects were discussed:\n(a) the work of the School Improvement Association, which is already well organized; (6)\nthe need of medical inspection; (c) rural-school improvement; {d) how to teach physiology\nand hygiene so that the pupils will put into practice in the care of themselves what they are\ntaught; (e) how to teach children to respect truthfulness. This is a serious question in the\npublic schools.\nThe committee adjourned to meet on May i.\n\nOne may well ask why these records were chosen for quotation, when it\nhas been stated that twenty-one states can show genuine accomplishment.\nBecause this brief half -page from the minutes of a state which is classified as\n''organized, but not yet at work\" exemplifies ahnost every essential principle\nin my ideal for this volunteer work. It shows the school authorities ready to\ninform and use the interested citizens; it shows the chief existing volunteer\nassociation of the state welcoming to its directors' meeting our five newly\nappointed women; it shows a ready recognition by these women of the good\nwork already being done by other agencies; it shows caution, and a determination to reserve action until it can be based upon a fair amount of knowledge;\nit shows wisdom in choosing for discussion the subjects in which the home must\nback the school — health, character, better school equipment; these are not\ndomains in which teachers need fear any meddling. In these lines every small\nshred of assistance may be fully and fearlessly welcomed without chance of\nfuture complications.\nDo we wish to work out such a co-operation as this report suggests?\nNext to the press, the organized women are often counted the greatest force\nin the country for the creation of public sentiment. In many cities the leading\npapers give generous space to women's pubhc interests, and thus the two forces\nmay even be combined. Undoubtedly many a city superintendent will bear\nwilUng testimony to the fact that he can today, as never before, call upon the\nbusiest and ablest citizens for serious consideration of his school problems.\nWhat is true of our business men is even more true of our women. They\nhave larger leisure and fresher enthusiasm, altho less business training. Can\na training be given them that will make their leisure a valuable contribution to\nthe community welfare ? One way to begin to do it is to get as many of them\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nWOMEN'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n75\n\nas possible to share in these educational conferences, and thereby learn what\nthe teachers are trying to attain for their children.\nWhat better backing can a good superintendent have than this for a\ncampaign of enlightenment in support of good laws, either in their passage or\nin their enforcement ? What readier machinery for a ''long pull and a strong\npull, and a pull altogether\" in aid of any eduf:ational need of his state ?\nThis youngest child of the association is already here in our midst. It is\nof somewhat unusual proportions, representing about 900,000 organized\nwomen at its birth. It is no innocent plaything; it represents tremendous\nundeveloped forces for good or ill. Now what shall we do with it ? We can\ndo any one of just the same three things which can be done with any living\nchild. It can be killed, if one dares to destroy so much promise of power.\nThis method has the sole merit of eliminating all future risks. It can be\nallowed to run wild, to be moved by caprice or self-seeking — an unreckonable\ndanger to the association and to society. Best of all it can be educated to serve\nintelligently and devotedly the great human interests for which this association\nso ably stands. It may never become the most comfortable department of this\nAssociation, but I dare prophesy that it may easily be made the most valuable\nsingle department that we have, if we can face the task of training it to its\npurpose.\nThis, then, is my estimate of the new child in the family. It was probably less welcome to me sixteen months ago than to anyone else in our active\nmembership. I have watched it grow thru the intervening months, and\nfrankly admit today that — while I still tremble for its future — I believe it\nbears a promise too precious to American womanhood and to American childhood for us to begrudge it our patient service.\nTHE\nNICHOLAS\n\nMURRAY\n\nCALL TO CITIZENSHIP\nBUTLER,\nPRESIDENT\nNEW\nYORK, N.\n\nOF\nY.\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nFourteen years ago this Association met for the first time in the city of\nDenver. It was then my privilege to address the members of the Association\nas their president, and I chose as my subject a question which was then, and\nperhaps is still, perplexing the minds of thoughtful teachers everywhere —\nWhat Knowledge Is of Most Worth ? In answer to that far-reaching query\nI attempted to point out where, in my judgment, standards were to be found\nwith which to make sure test of the relative worth of the knowledges which\ncompete for the attention and the patronage of intelligent men.\nTonight, at the kindly instance of the distinguished gentleman who occupies\nthe chair, I am again permitted to address this great Association, as broad in\nits sympathies as in its scope, assembled once more in the city of Denver. In\nthe interval much has happened. Many familiar faces have dropped from\nour ranks, and their spirits have passed over to the shores of the undiscovered\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncountry. Education has everywhere advanced with giant strides. Schools\nof every kind have multiplied and important new educational agencies have\ncome into existence. The College Entrance Examination Board and the\nCarnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching have demonstrated\ntheir capacity and effectiveness as standardizing agencies for institutions of\nsecondary and higher education* Vexed problems of the program of studies\nhave advanced toward solution. Some dogmas eagerly taught fourteen years\nago have lost their power, and new centers of educational interest have been\ndeveloped. Our nation as a whole has passed thru important and quite\nunexpected developments. Economic distress and economic prosperity have\ntrod upon each other's heels with startling suddenness. A new political\ngeneration has come upon the scene, and it finds itself confronted by new\nand unfamiliar problems. Strong, virile personalities have contended together\nin the political arena for public favor and support, while the whole world has\nlooked on. The war with Spain, which fourteen years ago was unthought of,\nhas passed into history, and as its result, peoples and lands at once distant and\ndependent have been brought under American rule. The phenomenal growth\nof industry, transportation, and commerce has put a new face upon many old\nquestions, and has proposed some new ones as well. For these reasons alone,\nwithout pausing to add others which at once suggest themselves, the burden\nof responsibility resting upon American citizenship is today greater than it has\nbeen at any earlier time.\nSeveral imposing political antinomies confront us. The natural desire\nto develop foreign commerce, and to enrich our people thereby, finds itself\nface to face with the determined purpose to throw the protecting arm of\ngovernment about domestic industry. The definite wish to attract to our\nshores the ambitious and the worthy from all the world is held in check by the\nstubborn weight of the race problem, the roots of which are deep down in the\nnature of man. The purpose to keep open to every individual all possible\navenues of usefulness, and all possible opportunities for lawful acquisition,\nis opposed by the determination not to permit the development under law of\ngreat organizations, powerful enough to bend the law to their own purpose and\nto control the state itself. If fourteen years ago it was natural to discuss the\nprinciples which determine educational values, tonight it is equally natural to\ndiscuss the principles which underlie and control good citizenship.\nThe American citizen at the beginning of the twentieth century has something more to do than to face, and if possible to solve, these contemporary\nproblems, complicated and difficult as they are. He has also, and first of all,\nto preserve and protect those underlying principles of civil and political Uberty\nwhich were established by the fathers, and which have been handed down to\nhim as the basis on which the whole fabric of this Republic rests. To fail to\nsolve the problems of today would certainly damage, and perhaps destroy, the\nfundamental principles of Anglo-Saxon institutions. On the other hand,\nto solve those problems in ways that antagonize and contradict the great\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nCALL\n\nTO\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\n77\n\ninsights of the past two thousand years, which insights have crystallized into\nforms of liberty and modes of government as familiar and as necessary as the\nair we breathe, would be not to solve them at all, but only to postpone and to\ncomplicate their possible solution.\nIt is plain, then, that the educational instrumentalities of the country,\nschools, colleges, and universities alike, have before them here a task which\ntakes precedence of all questions of school organization and management,\nof programs of study and curriculum, of teachers' salaries and tenure of office,\nof general versus vocational training, of secondary and ancillary questions of\nevery sort — the task, namely, of preparing intelligent American citizens to\ntake up each his own share of the nation's responsibiUties.\nThe unrest which is abroad in the world, and which is found alike in\nEurope and in America, in the unchanging East as well as in the restless and\nrapidly moving West, is in no small part due to the lack of understanding of\nwhat is going on in the world and what has gone on hitherto. What one does\nnot understand first perplexes, then annoys, and finally antagonizes him. It\nis not true, as some hold, that the world's unrest is traceable in last analysis to\nphysical hunger. Probably there never were so few hungry men as there are\ntoday. Civilization may have its faults, but lack of abihty to uplift the masses\nof the population and to offer them opportunity is not one of them. The world\nhas been for more than a hundred years under the spell of abstract principles,\nadmirable in themselves, and yet the world in large measure lacks the ability\nor the capacity so to organize itself and its business that those principles shall\nfind just and equable expression. Everywhere old beliefs, old traditions, and\nold customs are giving way before the corroding tooth of time, and as the timehonored creeds — political, social, and religious — lose their hold, others equally\ncontrolling and imperative do not come forward to take their place. Immense\nmasses of men are left, therefore, with almost boundless opportunities for good\nor evil, but without guiding principles with which to work. This leads to intellectual, political, and moral restlessness.\nThere are many who feel that the rising generation of Americans is growing\nup without any proper knowledge of the fundamental principles of American\ninstitutions and American government. Because of this lack of knowledge,\nwell-meaning men lend ear quite too readily to demagogs who propose to them\nall sorts of schemes without any relation, save one of antagonism, to establish\npolitical principles. From listening to demagogs, it is but a short and easy step\nto a state of mind in which envy, greed, and hate are elevated to the lofty place\nwhich should be occupied by respect and confidence, as well as by political\ninsight, poHtical knowledge, and poHtical experience. The Americans of an\nearlier day got their training in the fundamental principles of citizenship from\nthe stern facts which faced them. This was the school in which the nation's\nfathers were educated. During the early part of the nineteenth century the\ntask of nation-building went on apace, and the discussion of fundamental\nprinciples was always to the fore in the Congress as well as before the people.\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThen came the great clash of arms in civil war, and principles were yet turned\nto for guidance and direction. Men sought even to stay and to turn back the\ntide of battle with the force of logic.\nToday, however, one hears much less of these fundamental principles.\nThere are those among us, some of them in places of responsibility and great\ninfluence, who call them outworn, antiquated, obstacles to popular government,\nand who would substitute the passing desire of today for the carefully wrought\ndesign of all time. Men now talk with straight faces of substituting rude and\nprimitive justice for the orderly procedure of law, apparently with no recognition of the fact that this substitution means to plunge man and his highest\ninterests back into barbarism, and to re-establish the time when might made\nright. The courts are attacked as usurpers of an authority which the people\nthemselves have given them for the people's own protection. The carefully\nbuilt guards which have been put about individual rights and liberties are\ndenounced as fortresses of privilege by those who seek privileges for themselves\nat the expense of the rights of others.\nThere are only two really deep-seated and influential enemies of human\nhappiness and human order, ignorance and selfishness. These do pretty much\nall the damage that is done in the world, and they are the always-present\nobstacles to improving the condition of mankind. It is the province of intellectual education to address itself to the first of these, and it is the task of moral\neducation to deal with the other. If men's eyes could only be really opened\nto an understanding of how the civilization of the world has been won; if they\ncould be brought to see the significance of each step taken, however long ago,\non the upward path of man's development; if they could recognize that the\nperplexities of today are due chiefly, if not entirely, to lack of adjustment\nbetween the ruling principles which are at work in human life and the circumstances of the moment, and not to the imperfection or unwisdom of those\nprinciples, they would be able to pass juster and wiser judgment upon the\nquestions submitted for arbitrament to them as citizens. If men could only\nbe led to appreciate the distinction between selfishness and selfhood; to see the\nrichness and fullness of nature which come from service; and to realize that\nthe highest expression and the greatest conquest which a human personality\ncan attain is thru finding its ideals and its satisfactions in promoting the\nhappiness and the interests of its kind, the task of government would be easy\nindeed.\nIn all parts of the world there are those who feel this so strongly that, in\norder to gain what seems to them to be a desirable end for the whole body\npolitic, they would strike at the roots of human individuality and deprive it\nof the favoring soil in which alone it can grow. If they were to succeed in this\nendeavor, they would not mend matters at all. On the contrary, they would\nmake them worse. It is not less individuality that we need, but fewer selfcentered individuals. It is not less private property that we need, but private\nproperty more widely distributed and fewer men who treat their hoards as\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nCALL\n\nTO\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\n79\n\nmisers rather than as trustees. Human individuality and personality will\nblossom anew and more richly if planted in the garden of service.\nIf one, seeking to know the story of civilization, casts his eye back over the\npages of recorded history, he will find that the record of progress can be written\nin a single sentence. It is the development of liberty under law. Liberty and\nlaw are the two words upon whose true and faithful exposition all training for\ncitizenship must rest. He who truly understands the meaning of liberty and\nthe meaning of law, and the relation of one to the other, is ready to face his\nfull duty as an American citizen.\nIt is a sorry travesty upon the serious business of training for citizenship,\nthat it should be thought that we can make citizens by teaching the external\nfacts relating to the machinery of government alone. A knowledge of how\ngovernment works in this and other lands is highly important and of course\nhelpful. But this knowledge may be minute and complete and yet be unaccompanied with any real grip on the principles that vitaUze free government\neverywhere.\nAn admirable book for training in the fundamentals of citizenship could\nbe written in three parts: the first to deal with, to describe, and to illustrate the\nconception of Liberty; the second, to deal with, to describe, and to illustrate\nthe conception of Law; and the third, to outline in simple fashion the agencies\nwhich the American people have created in order that Liberty and Law may\nstrengthen each other.\nLiberty is the freedom from all restraints but those which the lawful rights\nof others impose. Liberty, therefore, attaches to man as a social and political\nanimal. It relates to his conduct and opportunities as a member of a body\npolitic. Liberty contradicts and denies license just as completely as it contradicts and denies tyranny. To escape from restraints other than those\nimposed by the lawful rights of others, men have made every conceivable\nsacrifice. To be permitted to hold opinions of one's own choosing, to pursue\nthe caUing of one's own preference, to move about as inclination and opportunity may lead, to retain as one's own possession the rewards of one's labor\nand skill, are inseparable from liberty. The free man, therefore, lives surrounded byboth opportunities and limitations. The opportunities are an\ninvitation to the exercise of his own capacities; the limitations are the just\nopportunities and privileges ©f others. It is one of the paradoxes and marvels\nof human nature that man grows in power and in grace as he lives and works\nwith others who have the same privileges and opportunities as himself. As\nhe rises superior to these limitations and thru sacrifice overcomes them and\nturns them into elements of strength and power for himself, he grows in individuality and in usefulness as a citizen.\nIt is law which imposes the limitations that are characteristic of liberty.\nLaw is nothing more or less than the system or collection of principles and\nrules of human government in their application to property and conduct,\nwhich are enforced by a sovereign political authority.\nLaws themselves\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nchange but the principles underlying the existence of law do not, and cannot, change unless society and civilization are to be destroyed. They are the\nlong and painful product of evolution operating in the field of human conduct\nand human affairs. The really intelligent man regards the tried and tested\nproducts of time with high respect; the anarchist would destroy them at\none blow for the pleasure of returning to chaos. It is of high importance to\nteach that law is not caprice, that it is not tyranny, that it is not limited in its\napplication. It is the sovereign people themselves who speak by the mouthpiece of the law, and the institutions and agencies which have been created\nfor the exposition and enforcement of law are the people's own institutions\nand agencies. It is a noteworthy and singular characteristic of our American\ngovernment that the Constitution provides a means for protecting individual\nliberty from invasion by the powers of government itself, as well as from\ninvasion by others more powerful and less scrupulous than ourselves. The\nprinciples underlying our civil and political liberty are indelibly written into\nthe Constitution of the United States, and the nation's courts are instituted\nfor their protection. We Americans are thus in possession of an apparatus\nunlike anything which exists elsewhere in the world to protect the principles\nof liberty, and it is to this more than to any other single cause that we owe the\nstupendous strides of the past one hundred and twenty-five years.\nAn intelligent citizenship, which is also good citizenship, implies, however,\nmuch more than a knowledge of fundamental principles, indispensable as\nthat knowledge is. Good citizenship implies a habit of will by which the\nindividual instinctively conforms his action in concrete cases to the abstract\nprinciples in which he professes belief. It is curious how many men feel\nthat the rule of sound principle is excellent for the conduct of others, but that\nit should be suspended or at least relaxed in their own case when some material\nadvantage is to be had. It is a long time since clever men first began to devise\nways and means of making the worse appear the better reason, and human\ningenuity has not yet exhausted itself by any means. Madame Roland's\nheart-breaking cry from the scaffold, '^ O ! Liberty, how many crimes are committed inthy name,\" is still ringing in the world's ears. We must be careful,\nthen, not to confuse the names Liberty and Law with the facts. We must\nnot permit ourselves to be misled by appearances, but rather insist upon digging down to the bedrock of underlying principle in order to determine our\nattitude toward a specific poHtical or social problem.\nIt is curious, too, how ready men are to condemn in their contemporaries\nthe qualities which they profess most to admire in their ancestors. What was\nthe determined purpose of long ago becomes narrow-mindedness and stubbornness when exhibited today. The lofty idealism of some great prophet of\nthe race, which has been celebrated in song and story for centuries, passes into\nthe vagaries of a dreamer and the outgivings of an unpractical mind, when we\nfind it looking us in the face. This power of self-deception keeps many of the\nworst citizens from realizing that they fall short of perfection in any degree.\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nCALL\n\nTO\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\n8i\n\nThey go thru all the forms and recite all the formulas of the creed of respectability and of duty. They dole out a little something to charity now and then,\nwith quite the air of a martyr going to the stake for his beliefs. What more\ncan be asked of them ? The answer is instant and imperative : Make some\nshow of genuine human feeling. Give some expression of honest human\nsympathy. Offer some real sacrifice for the common interest and the common\ngood. Dwell upon something other than one's own physical comfort and\nmaterial welfare, and lend a hearty hand to the huge task of making more human\nbeings intelligent, property-holding, and free from the harassing and in large\npart unnecessary cares which now torment them. If the decent men and\nwomen of America would begin tomorrow to do the things which their private\nbeliefs and their public professions require, the sum-total of the world's comfort and happiness would be marvelously increased before sunset. It cannot\ntoo often be repeated that the problem of human betterment is not a problem\nof revolution. It is not a problem whose solution involves cutting loose from\nall that has gone before, or one which compels radical readjustment of accustomed legislation. It is simply and solely a njatter of individual self -betterment. Individual men and women are not going to be made over by the\nspread of some philosophy as to how under other auspices or in other worlds\nthan ours the race might have been happier and more comfortable. Society\nas a whole is nothing more or less than the sum-total of the individuals\nwho compose it. It has no separate metaphysical entity, nor is it some strange\nand alien thing of which individual citizens know nothing and form no part.\nIndividual men and women are society. They are the state. To it their\nhighest allegiance is due. No church, no party, no union, no lodge, may interpose its interest or its ties between the state and the highest duty of the citizen\nwith impunity, or without tending to overthrow the social order and to substitute\nthe hatefulness of class feeling for the glory of patriotism. If men's standards\nof action be raised, if their citizenship be real, sincere, and vital, then society is\nalready reformed.\nNothing else remains to be done.\nIn one of his well-known essays, Macaulay makes the statement that no\ncompositions have ever been produced in the world that are equally perfect in\ntheir kind with the great Athenian orations. He adds the striking suggestion\nthat genius is subject to the same laws which regulate the production of cotton\nand molasses. The supply adjusts itself to the demand. The quantity may\nbe diminished by restrictions and multiplied by bounties. To the influence\nwhich oratory exerted at Athens, Macaulay attributes the singular excellence\nto which eloquence attained there. Why should not good citizenship rise to\nheights here in America equal to those which oratory and eloquence occupied\nat Athens ? Macaulay may be right. Let us put a bounty on good citizenship by giving to it great influence; by rendering it high honor; and by holding it in incomparable esteem. Let these standards be set early in the home\nand in the school. Teach young children who the real heroes of our Republic\nare. Show them with clear illumination the underlying principles on which\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe nation is built, and tell the story of how mankind discovered those principles\nand wrought them into political institutions. Do not permit the problems\nof today to become separated from the problems and principles of yesterday.\nMake it plain that the story of our political evolution is continuous and that\nwhat exists and perplexes now is the natural and necessary product of all that\nhas gone before, and will, in turn, condition and determine what is to follow\nafter. Before all else, keep the inspiring maxim. Liberty under law, before\nevery American child, and as he grows in power of appreciation see that he\nunderstands what it means and involves.\nThe Institutes of Justinian, which have shaped the law of Europe for nearly\nfifteen hundred years, open in sonorous Latin with the sentence which rendered into our tongue reads, ''Justice is the constant and perpetual wish to\nrender everyone his due.'* Justice, then, is a habit of will; a habit of will not\non the part of an individual sovereign, or of a high officer sitting in state, but\na habit of will on the part of every individual who claims and receives the\nrights and privileges of a citizen. The will to render everyone his due means\nthat the rich, the powerful, and the successful are to have their due accorded to\nthem without grudging and without envy, just as the poor, the unimportant,\nand the struggling are to have their due in fullest measure without oppression\nor exploitation. It is easy to be just when it costs nothing. The test of one's\nessential justice of mind and will comes when personal interest, personal prejudice, or personal passion stands in the way of its exercise. The perpetuation\nof democracy depends upon the existence in the people of that habit of will\nwhich is justice. Liberty under law is the process for attaining justice which\nhas thus far been most successful among civilized men. The call to citizenship\nis a call to the exercise of liberty under law; a call to the limitation of liberty\nby law; and a call to the pursuit of justice, not only for one's self, but for others.\nFor inspiration to an understanding of American citizenship let teacher\nand student alike turn to the great oration of Daniel Webster delivered at\nPlymouth, Massachusetts, on December 22, 1820, to commemorate the first\nsettlement of New England. The reader who follows this remarkable exposition of the meaning of republican institutions as Americans had framed them\nwill understand the feeling of John Adams when he wrote: \"This oration will\nbe read five hundred years hence with as much rapture as it was heard. It\nought to be read at the end of every century, and indeed at the end of every\nyear, for ever and ever.\"\nThose glowing words are the judgment of one of the nation's fathers\nupon the meaning of the call to American citizenship. What is to be the judgment of those who are now the nation's children ?\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nJOHN\n\nW.\n\nETHICS\n\nIN\n\nETHICS\n\nIN CIVIC LIFE\n\nABERCROMBIE,\n\nCIVIC\n\nPRESIDENT\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nLIFE\n\nOF UNIVERSITY\nALA.\n\nOF\n\n83\n\nALABAMA\n\nI invite you to a consideration of a trite but important subject, Ethics in\nCivic Life; or, The Obligations of Citizenship. Civic life relates to home and\nsociety and business and church and state, and out of those relationships\ngrow the many and complex obligations of citizenship. Personal relationship\nalways carries obligation, moral or legal.\nEvery government — civic, social, or religious — ^is founded upon the principles of human duty; and no civil government can be administered successfully unless there is harmony of relationship between the character of its institutions and the ethical standards of its members. As governments vary in\nplan and development, so will relationships and standards. Successful\nmonarchy is possible under moral standards quite different from those which\nare essential in efficient democracy. Barbarism and civilization have few\nideals in common.\nAs citizens, our relationships, responsibilities, and standards are peculiar\nto our form of government and to the age in which we live. What are the\nrelations of democratic citizenship? What are the resultant obligations?\nWhat are the essential standards? Do we realize those relations; appreciate\nthose obligations; live up to those standards?\nSOME\n\nCIVIC\n\nRELATIONS\n\nThe home — source and nursery of every civic and social virtue — grows\nout of the marriage relation, and the first and most lasting obligations originate\nthere. The relations of child to parent, of parent to child, of child to child,\nand of parent to parent, are natural, and from them spring sweet and sacred\nobligations, which cannot be disregarded without a pollution of the wellsprings\nof life. With fidelity, patience, and pleasure should those obligations be\nborne.\nThe relations and obligations arising in everyday life are great and numerous, and are ever increasing in magnitude and numbers. Among such relations may be mentioned those of rich to poor, of employer to employee, of seller\nto purchaser, of lender to borrower, of educated to ignorant, of old to young,\nof neighbor to neighbor — all of which also exist conversely, and impose duties\nat once weighty and difficult of performance.\nSince government has to do with the regulation of everyday affairs, practically all of the relations mentioned are civic as well as social. Some that are\npeculiar to government are those which exist between ruler and ruled, lawabiding and criminal, government and individual, citizen and citizen.\nLOW\n\nETHICAL\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nThese are some of the relations belonging to civic life. Are we as individuals and as a people meeting the obligations which they impose — ^meeting\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthem honestly, fearlessly, successfully ? Permit me to call attention to some\nconditions and tendencies that indicate a negative answer — to some of the\nresults that have arisen from too general a yielding to low ideals. It becomes\nnecessary sometimes to expose the dark in order to produce the bright side.\nIn all the fields of human activity the evils of unrestrained selfishness, the\nnatural and inevitable results of low ethical standards, are manifesting themselves, and are influencing unfavorably all business, social, and governmental\nlife — ^yes, even religious life itself. Old theories, old practices, old conceptions of honesty, virtue, and fair dealing are being revolutionized.\nIn the domain of business, success at any price is coming to be the motto.\nThat which is not specifically prohibited by statute is regarded as permissible.\nTake every advantage under the law; if possible, evade the law; if necessary,\nviolate the law — this is the practice in the get-rich-quick business world, and\nhas resulted in the marvelously rapid accumulation of colossal fortunes, which\nstand as a menace to democratic institutions, and threaten to shatter democratic ideals.\nParadoxical as it may seem, this disregard for moral obligations, this excess\nof liberty, this deformed sense of duty in business relations, is being organized\nto the end that unethical and illegal combination is lessening the field for independent individual effort, and merciless monopoly is feeding and growing fat\nupon legitimate personal endeavor.\nIn social life, modern standards threaten to undermine the basis of right\nliving, and stress is placed upon the follies and frivolities of life, rather than\nupon those things that are elevating and ennobling.\nMoney is being made the chief qualification for high social standing; gold\nis valued above brains; ill-gotten wealth above nobility of character. Marriage islaughed at; its sacred vows are made to be broken; and the divorce\nevil threatens to make of the home a veritable pandemonium.\nAn alarmingly large number of people act as if they were created only to\neat, sleep, breathe, glitter, and pass away — as if it were all of life to live and all\nof death to die.\nGovernment, too, is jeopardized. Intoxicated by certain phases of material\nprosperity, maddened by the allurements of territorial acquisition, frenzied by\nphenomenal success at arms, we are drifting into a policy of subjugation and\ncolonial expansion, imperialistic in tendency and vastly costly in maintenance,\nwhich is causing observant, patriotic, thinking people to regard the country's\nfuture with deepest solicitude. With misgivings should we contemplate the\ncarrying of the flag where the constitution does not follow, for the flag and the\nconstitution should be one and inseparable, now and forever.\nThere is developing that centralization of governmental power which,\nwith its natural concomitant, political corruption, if not checked, will devour\nwith insatiate greed the civic rights of the people. The policy of protection\nfor protection's sake presents its seductive form, and there come forth palaces,\nriches, power, pomp, and splendor for the few; huts, poverty, wretchedness,\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nETHICS\n\nIN\n\nCIVIC\n\nLIFE\n\n85\n\nmisery, and ruin for the many. Justice, equal and exact justice, pleads for a\ndeparture from this unethical and oppressive policy.\nThere is felt frequently the shock of conflict between labor and capital\nwhich, but for wrong-doing upon the part of the one or the other, would be\nfriendly coworkers. At times, the world stands appalled at the fierceness of\nthese conflicts, and sometimes the very foundations of government are made\nto tremble in their places.\nAs a consequence of man's failure, in past ages, to appreciate fully the rights\nof his fellow-man, we are confronted today with the race problem — a menace\nto government, an obstacle to advancement, a hindrance to learning, and the\nstanding adversary to sectional reconciliation. From the porticoes of high\nheaven angels of peace and love watch with fear and trembling the process of\nthe solution of this most perplexing problem.\nSPIRIT\n\nOF\n\nLAWLESSNESS\n\nAs a result of the failure to maintain high ethical standards, the spirit\nof lawlessness is prevalent. Disregard for law, man-made and God-given,\nis widespread. Everywhere* we have excess of liberty, unbridled license,\nbarbaric lawlessness; and lax enforcement is the bane of both state and nation.\nThe frequency, the recklessness, and the impunity with which laws are\nviolated should bring fear and shame to every patriotic citizen. In no other\ncivilized country is law-breaking regarded with so little concern. If the offender be wealthy or influential, acquittal or light punishment is practically\ncertain. If he be poor and without family influence, conviction is the usual\nresult. Impartial and adequate justice is seldom administered. What a sad\ncommentary on our boasted civilization !\nOne of the most alarming features in which the spirit of lawlessness manifests itself is that of mob violence. At first, appeals to mob rule were infrequent; now tljey are frequent. Then, only negroes and uninfluential whites\nwere the victims; now, people of character and standing, without regard to\nrace or class, are sometimes executed. The lawless spirit, whether it manifests\nitself in the ''Night Riders,\" the ''White Cappers,\" the race riot, the \"Black\nHand,\" the \"boycott,\" the financial conspiracy, or other form is no respecter\nof persons or institutions.\nWhen these conditions are contemplated, one is constrained to wonder if the\ncourt is to be superseded by the mob; if self-government is to prove a failure;\nif the result is to be complete anarchy — a drifting-back into the darkness of\nbarbarism.\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nNECESSARY\n\nWhat is the remedy ? How can we attain to new and better conditions ?\nOnly thru the processes of education. In no other way can proper ethical\nstandards be established and maintained; by no other means can a people be\nadvanced in civilization, and prepared for the highest forms of self-government.\nThru the development of mind and heart, the masses must be brought to a\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nrealization of the fact that violation of the law, civic or moral, degrades all\nwho participate or condone; that crime is not a preventive but a producer of\ncrime; that lawlessness begets lawlessness; that hatred and revenge breed\nhatred and revenge.\nPublic oflScials must be trained to realize that public oflfice is a sacred trust,\nand that yielding to the lawless element is inexcusable. The children of the\nland must be taught to obey the golden rule; must be made to appreciate\nthe meaning of the command, \"Thou shalt not.\" Along with mental and\nphysical training must go moral culture. **Thou shalt not lie,\" \"Thou shalt\nnot steal,\" \"Thou shalt not kill,\" and all the other \" thou-shalt-nots \" must be\ninculcated so systematically, so persistently, so effectively, that proper regard\nfor the rights of others shall become a fixed principle in the life of every man,\nwoman, and child.\nThe lawless rich and the lawless poor must be placed upon the same plane\nin the administration of justice. To that end, preparation for citizenship\nshould begin in infancy and continue thru life.\nPLACE\n\nFOR\n\nTRAINING\n\nThis training should begin in the home, for nowhere else can the lessons\nof love, truth, obedience, honesty, and fidelity be so effectively inculcated.\nThere should be implanted that nobility of character, that love of right for\nthe right's sake, that stalwart patriotism, and that unfaltering courage so\nnecessary in governments where the people rule. But, sad to say, the home\nis failing in this important duty. The obligations of fatherhood and motherhood are neglected in the race for wealth and pleasure. The undisciplined\nchild grows into the lawless citizen; and the lawless citizen is the liar, the\nswindler, the thief, the grafter, the robber, the lyncher, the murderer.\nCan this training be given by the church ? Is the church giving it ? While\nI have an abiding faith in the efficacy of the work of the church, there seems\nto be little hope for speedy and adequate relief from that source.\nWhat about the press ? While the press is a great educator and is powerful in advocacy of the supreme importance of civic righteousness, it does not\nreach adequately the citizen at the most impressionable age.\nHOPE\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n' It is clear that, for a development of ethical standards which will lead to a\nproper appreciation of the relations and obligations of civic life, we must look\nto something other than the agencies mentioned. To what source shall we\nlook?\nIt is to the school, especially the public school, we must look. Upon the\nteacher in the school must we rely; for it is the teacher's privilege to erect\nhigh ideals and build up to their full stature, to apply correct thinking and\nnoble acting to the solution of life's problems, to direct and preserve the\nrepublic. Knowledge is power, and an educated conscience is its only safe\nguide.\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nETHICS\n\nIN\n\nCIVIC\n\nLIFE\n\n87\n\nTo the end that the teacher's work may be most effective, every child should\nbe required by law to attend school an adequate length of time in every year.\nIf it is the duty of the state to provide schools, equally is it the state's duty to\nrequire its children to attend them. Shall the state sacrifice the citizen and\nendanger its own stability and efficiency by permitting children, thru the\nneglect or cupidity of unnatural parents, or thru the avarice and inhumanity of\ngrasping corporations, to grow into manhood and womanhood dwarfed in\nbody, mind, and soul ? Such a policy is nothing less than social and governmental suicide.\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAID\n\nWhile each of the states recognizes the necessity for universal education\nat public expense, while each is striving to meet its obligations in that respect,\nand while each is making commendable progress under existing conditions,\nthe task is only begun. Indeed, students of education and economics are\ncoming to realize that the task of providing adequate educational facilities\nfor all of the people is beyond the power of some of the states; especially is\nthis true of the section from which I am come.\nIf the South were as wealthy and productive as other sections of equal\narea and density of population, which is not true by reason of the ravages of\nwar and the presence of the negro, it would require double the rate of taxation\nto give educational advantages to her children equal to those provided by\nother sections for theirs, because the South is confronted with the necessity of\nmaintaining a dual system of schools. To provide equal advantages under\nexisting conditions would require a rate of taxation many times larger than that\nlevied elsewhere. Such a rate would be oppressive, impoverishing, confiscatory, and practically the whole of the burden would have to be borne by about\none-half of the population.\nThen what is to be done ? This, and nothing less than this: the national\ngovernment must come to the rescue. Congress must make an adequate\nannual appropriation for purposes of general education, to be apportioned\namong the states of the Union upon the basis of illiteracy, and to be expended\nby the states thru the channels already established. Such apportionment\nwould place most of the appropriation where it is most needed and would\naccomplish most good.\nThe educational problem peculiar to the South was created by the national\ngovernment, and that government is in duty bound to assume its share of the\nwork of solving that problem. To create a burden, and then neglect or\nrefuse to assist in bearing that burden, is unfair; and, if deliberately done,\nis not only unfair, but absolutely wrong and criminal. This is true of\nindividuals — it is equally true of governments. How long — oh, how long —\nwill it require for the nation to awake to a sense of its duty to that section and\nthat people !\nIf the continued inaction of the national government renders it necessary\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfor one or both of the races there to receive meager educational advantages, it\nis best for all concerned that, for a season, the advantage should go to the\ndominant race. Why ? Because the best way to secure universal education\nfor the negro is to give universal education to the white man. The more you\neducate people in the right way, the more willing and eager do they become\nto give education to others. Educate the white man properly and the white\nman will educate the negro. Of course it is desirable and necessary, where\npossible, that the education of the races should proceed under conditions\nequally advantageous.\nCONCLUSION\n\nAs a means, then, of raising the standard of ethics in civic life, I would\nurge for everybody education of the right kind — education of body, mind, and\nconscience, with special emphasis upon the last mentioned. To that end,\nI would have individuals and states to exert themselves to the utmost. To that\nend also, I would have the nation to perform its long-neglected duty.\nIn conclusion, I would not have y.ou believe me to be a confirmed pessimist\nin my views as to the country's future, for I am not. Beyond the storm-clouds\nI see sunshine. The American spirit has never yielded to complete and continued retrogression. Great crises are necessary for the development of that\nwhich is best in a people.\nAdequate leadership has never failed to materialize when the country's\nsafety has been imperiled. Such leadership is now in preparation. Already\na general awakening of the public conscience is noticeable. We will meet\nand solve every perplexing problem, and in that great work the teacher will\nperform not the least important part.\n\nEDUCATION\nWILBUR\n\nF.\n\nGORDY,\n\nAND THE PETITION TO THE\nHAGUE CONFERENCE\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTHIRD\n\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nElihu Root, who has rightly been called the great peace Secretary of State,\nhas recently said:\nThe true work of promoting peace is not so much a matter of diplomacy as it is a matter\nof education.\nThe great obstacle to the peaceful settlement of most international disputes\nis to be found in popular intolerance of concession\nWhen the people of the civilized\ncountries have been educated up to the spirit of fairness and just consideration for the\nrights of others, .... the danger of war will be, in a large measure, ended.\n\nI believe we all agree that Mr. Root is right. Public opinion has never\nbefore so largely determined the trend of events thruout the civilized world.\nIt holds dominating sway whether in the town, the city, the state, the nation,\nor the world, and the public opinion of the next generation, on the entire\ngroup of questions involving international friendship and good-will, must to a\nvery large extent be the outcome of school influences.\nBut in trying to shape public sentiment, we need not confine our efforts\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHIRD\n\nHAGUE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n89\n\nto the young. Much has been done, much can be done by appealing to the\nnobler feelings of thinking men and women. By signing the petition which we\nare now to consider, and by inducing others to sign it, we can bring into action\na force that will powerfully affect the world for good.\nTo explain the significance of this petition, allow me briefly to refer to a\nfew of the most important achievements of the two Hague Conferences.\nThe First Hague Conference, that of 1899, brought about two striking\nresults: (i) It framed the great convention for the peaceful adjustment of\ninternational controversies; and (2) it established the permanent Hague\nTribunal, from which a body of arbitrators may at any time be selected to\npass upon any specific dispute between two countries. This tribunal has\nalready rendered a noteworthy service to the world. It has adjusted four\ninternational difficulties, and our own country and England will soon refer to\nits decision the age-worn dispute about the Newfoundland fisheries.\nThe Second Hague Conference, of 1907, made a long stride forward in the\ncause of international brotherhood, peace, and good-will. It represented\napproximately all the nations of the world, and therefore acted with the highest\npossible authority. It achieved several notable things: (i) By voting that\na third world-conference should be held in or about 191 5, it made itself in effect\na periodic body. (2) It devised and adopted a working plan for the organization and procedure of a world court of justice. (3) Altho it failed to adopt a\ngeneral treaty of arbitration, without a dissenting vote it indorsed the principle,\nand all but nine of the forty-four nations represented in the conference would\ngladly have become parties to such a treaty. This fact is so remarkable that\nit is worthy of special emphasis. All the forty-four governments in that great\nconvention put the stamp of approval upon the principle of obKgatory international arbitration. But traditional fear, suspicion, and jealousy of nations\ntoward each other caused them to make an important exception to its application. This principle, they said, cannot be safely appHed to the settlement\nof difficulties involving the vital interests and honor of nations. The reason\ngiven was that international arbitration was not in all cases a protection of a\nnation's vital interests and honor. This means that the world must take one\nstep more before it can save the awful waste involved in the enormous armaments kept up by such countries as England, France, and Germany.\nIt is to induce the great family of nations to take this step, as the result\nof which the principle of arbitration may be applied to all international controversies, that the world-petition to the Third Hague Conference will be\npresented.\nIt is in substance as follows:\nWe respectfully petition that at the Third Hague Conference a convention be agreed\nupon by virtue of which each nation shall declare itself in honor bound: first, to adjust in\nspeedy succession all international interests by convention and treaties, each containing\na clause pledging avoidance of war in the settlement of future difficulties relating to the\ngiven arrangement; second, while this adjustment of the international interests is in process\nof completion, to avoid war also in the settlement of any difficulties that may arise from\nan international interest not yet covered by a preventive convention or treaty; with the\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nunderstanding that the decision of any difficulty by pacific means shall, in no case, endanger\nthe self-preservation and development of any nation.\n\nIn other words, this petition urges all governments to agree to guarantee\neach other's integrity and just development. If the nations of the world\nwill only give this guarantee, we may feel sure that arbitrators will respect\nsuch guarantee when they decide any international controversy. Having\nadvanced so far, all the nations can then agree, without in any sense endangering their vital interests and honor, to pledge themselves to refer to arbitration all\ncontroversies that cannot be settled thru diplomatic channels.\nAs an example of what this would mean to the United States, let me remind\nyou that we have not yet finished paying for the Civil War, which closed fortyfour years ago. Our pensions have in the past ten years cost an average of\nmore than $140,000,000 annually. In 1908 our taxation for pensions was\nnearly $154,000,000, while in the same year we paid for the maintenance of\nthe army $111,000,000, and for the navy $119,000,000, a grand total of $384,000,000 credited to the army and navy account. Nearly two-thirds of our entire\nrevenue is expended upon wars past and anticipated. Moreover, this material\nloss suggests untold suffering, which we must take into account in any attempt\nto measure the disastrous effects of war. For instance, if we count those who\nwere slain on the battlefield in the Civil War, and those who died from wounds,\ndisease, and hardship in wretched prisons, the loss of men — ^many of them the\nflower of the nation's young manhood — was equal to seven hundred a day\nduring the four long years of the war. This wholesale destruction of the\nmoral wealth of the country cannot be estimated.\nOf course, I need not add that what is true for our own country and its\nCivil War is to a greater or less extent true for other countries and their wars.\nIt is the sacred duty of the civilized world to divert the gigantic sums of national\ntaxes from the destructive forces of war to the constructive arts of peace.\nThe most striking paradox in all history is the lamentable fact that enlightened\nnations like England, Germany, and France insist upon wringing from economic production almost untold millions to be used in the brutal destruction\nof material wealth and human life, rather than in the furtherance of great\nreforms for the moral and social uplift of the masses.\nAs I have already suggested, there is just one way to abolish huge armaments and barbarous warfare, and that is by the education of public opinion.\nSuch education is steadily going on. Ideas are growing into ideals and convictions, and these in turn are rapidly finding embodiment in organized action.\nImportant among the organized forces is the American School Peace League,\nwhich \"aims to secure the co-operation of the educational public of America\nin the project for promoting international justice and equity.\"\nThe principal officers of the American School Peace League are as follows:\nPresident, James H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md.\nTreasurer, B. C. Gregory, superintendent of schools, Chelsea, Mass.\nSecretary, Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, Boston, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHIRD\n\nHAGUE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n91\n\nThere are five important committees. Two of these are the Press Committee and the Committee on Meetings, whose function is to make this movement in behalf of universal peace known to teachers thruout the country.\nThe three other committees are engaged in constructive work. The Publication Committee is to publish books and manuals for the use of teachers and\npupils. The History Committee hopes to develop among teachers a sentiment which shall lay emphasis on the arts of peace, and on the industrial and\nsocial conditions of the people, rather than on campaigns, battles, and other\nmilitary details. The International Committee aims to bring about co-operation between American teachers and the teachers of other countries in order\nto develop common educational ideals in the interests of all. It is the intention\nof this committee in the near future to organize an International School Peace\nLeague with the American School Peace League as a branch. In Great\nBritain, France, Germany, Sweden, and Italy there are active groups of\nteachers who are ready to join such an International School Peace League.\nBut the American School Peace League is not alone in its work in behalf of\ndeveloping ideals of international peace and good-will. Such organizations\nas the Interparliamentary Union, the Hague Conference, and the five hundred\npeace societies of the world are molding public opinion in favor of the new\ninternational spirit. Without question the most valuable work already done\nby the Hague Conferences has been the molding of this public opinion of the\nworld.\nYou will remember that Abraham Lincoln's dominating purpose was to\nsave the Union. He saw clearly that the cause of civilization would materially\nsuffer if the great experiment in developing a Christian democracy in the United\nStates should fail. And he was everlastingly right. The federation of states\nforeshadowed then, as it does now, the federated nations of the world; our\nnational Congress, the congress of the world; and our Supreme Court the\npermanent international tribunal. These great embodiments of the co-operative spirit in political life have been of the highest value to our country and\nhave reacted powerfully upon the international sentiment of the world.\nIt is, therefore, fitting that the American people, and especially that part\nof the American people represented by the public-school teachers, should take\nan active part in the transcendently important movement for international\nfriendship and good- will — a movement which is in strict accord with the fundamental principles underlying our American democracy. Our duty is imperative. We must not, we will not, shirk our responsiblity; and in no better way\ncan we symbolize our loyalty to righteousness and justice than by signing and\ncirculating the petition to the Third Hague Conference in behalf of the settlement of all international controversies by the peaceful methods of law, diplomacy, and arbitration.\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNA TIONA\n\nTHE\nJAMES\n\nW.\n\nL ED UCA TION\n\nMACDONALD\n\nROBERTSON,\nDE\n\nPRINCIPAL\nBELLEVUE,\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nTION\n\n[General\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nOF MACDONALD\nCOLLEGE,\nQUEBEC,\nCANADA\n\nSTE.\n\nANNE\n\nFor the whole country as a matter of protection, safety, and insurance, it\nbehooves us to look well to the training of the young people toward rural life,\nand to look well to the training of leaders for them. The Macdonald movement, as helped by Sir William C. Macdonald, has nothing destructive in it.\nIt does not desire to destroy anything that now exists in rural districts, except\nweeds, but it hopes to help in building up something better than is now known\nand done, and thereby displace what is poor. It aims at helping the rural\npopulation to understand better what education is and what it aims at for them\nand their children. It plans to help in providing more competent leaders for\nthe horticultural and agricultural population. Somebody's watchfulness,\nsomebody's thoughtfulness, and somebody's thoroness are always required;\nand the progress of the people in all worthy ways can be increased in what\nmight be called geometric ratio thru intelligent leaders who possess and use\nsuch qualities with unselfish public spirit.\nAt that time, in 1898-99, in fact before that. Sir William C. Macdonald had\nbeen most anxious to help to improve rural schools in Canada, and he came\nto me for some help in the way of plan-making and administration. I said\nthat, in my judgment, the first thing to do was to give object-lessons of manual\ntraining in the elementary schools of cities and towns so as to educate public\nopinion in favor of better methods of education in places where newspapers\nwere published and to which the country people looked for guidance. He\nrather demurred, saying that the city and town schools were already too good\nin comparison with the country schools, and tended to draw people in from\nthe country to the towns in order to get education for their children. Afterward when he saw it would be a means of helping the rural schools he said,\n''All right, we will carry on the manual training in some town schools^.\"\nThe man in the rural district imitates the man who lives in town. The man\nwho lives in town has the best chance of being a leader; and the man in the\ncountry would not be willing to take a lower grade of education for his boy\nthan a town or city man. It was important to get the leaders from the city\nto recognize improvement by means of practical education. This was the\nreason for the Macdonald Manual Training Fund and its work. Manual\ntraining was the first step in this plan. The rural school was not an afterthought; idid\nt not come out of the manual-training movement. The manualtraining movement was a step toward the other end — that of improving the\nrural schools. Hitherto the wealth and wisdom of the country have been\ngiven to town schools. The little rural school has been left without hel \\\nSir William C. Macdonald. furnished funds to establish manual-training\ncenters in connection with the public schools in twenty-one places, from\nPrince Edward'Island to British Columbia, and to maintain them without cost\n\n4i\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMACDONALD\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\n93\n\nto the pupils or the public for a period, in most cases, of three years. At first\nspecial teachers of ability and experience were brought in from outside, mostly\nfrom England. Some twenty-seven manual-training teachers were thus\nbrought into Canada. As time went on Canadian teachers were trained and\nbecame duly qualified. Before the end of the period of maintenance by the\nMacdonald fund, there were forty-five manual-training teachers on the salary\nroll at a cost of some $3,600 per month, and more than 7,000 boys were taking\nthe courses. Summer courses were provided for teachers of urban and rural\nschools. In the cities on Saturday forenoons, or at some other convenient\ntime every week, classes were arranged for the teachers from whose rooms the\nboys went to the manual-training centers. In Ottawa these classes were\nattended by over ninety teachers, and in Montreal and in Toronto by over a\nhundred in each place. This work was begun seven years ago and in 1903\n(in Montreal in 1904) the local authorities in the several provinces took over\nand extended the work. The equipment was presented free to the school\nboards, and in the case of the normal schools to the provincial governments.\nNow over 20,000 boys and girls in Canadian schools receive the benefits of\nmanual training in their regular course under the school authorities as a\nresult of Sir William's benefaction in giving that form of industrial and agricultural education a good friendly lift.\nSEED\n\nGRAIN\n\nPRIZES\n\nOut of the Macdonald Manual Training Fund came the Macdonald\nSeed Grain Competition carried on by boys on farms dotted all over Canada\nfrom the Atlantic to the Pacific. The main purpose of this movement was\nto improve the crops of Canada by encouraging the general use of seed improved byselection from varieties of which the product is in demand or has a\nrelatively high market value. The use of such seed increases the quantity\nof produce per acre; makes the quality better, and thus renders rural occupations more profitable and the people who follow them more prosperous and\nmore contented. I went to my friend, William C. Macdonald, of Montreal,\nand said in substance: \"Here is a great chance to do some educational work\nin progressive agriculture; to do something interesting, something attractive,\nsomething definite, something beneficial to the whole community, something\neasy and yet with plenty of difficulties. Farmers and their famihes may fail\nto appreciate the educational advantages of a plan or scheme set out in a\nwritten statement, but here i^ something which would be so helpful and instructive to boys and girls that they would go on with it, and the habits of observation and thought and study would go on with them.\" I told him $10,000\nfor prizes would set and keep this thing going for three years. He provided the\nmoney with all good-will — ^my little $100 come back a hundred fold — to offer\nas prizes to boys and girls to encourage them to carry out in practice the plan\nof selecting the largest heads of the most vigorous plants and growing seed\nfrom those heads on a plot by itself.\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe yields from the crops of 1900 compared with those of 1903, on an\naverage for all Canada for spring wheat, showed an increase of 18 per cent,\nin the number of grains per hundred heads, and 28 per cent, of increase in the\nweight of grains per hundred heads. In oats the figures were 19 per cent, of\nincrease in the number of grains per hundred heads, and 27 per cent, of increase\nin the weight of grains per hundred heads. These are results from several\nhundred seed grain plots operated by boys and girls. Altogether over 1,500\nentries were received. Out of that number 800 completed in full the first year's\nwork, and 450 of them completed the three years' work in a satisfactory manner.\nCANADIAN\n\nSEED\n\nGROWERS'\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMany of the farmers on whose farms the competition was carried on were\nformed into the Macdonald-Robertson Seed Growers' Association, out of\nwhich grew the Canadian Seed Growers' Association. Its third annual\nmeeting was held in June, 1906, and the report of its proceedings contained a\nmarvelous record of valuable public service. Particular information was\nobtained from leading members of the association. These reported several\ndistinct and definite gains from the method of selection which had been\nfollowed by the members of_the association — namely: the size and quality of\nthe kernels definitely improved; the strains of selected seed maturing more\nevenly; the strains becoming better adapted to local conditions; varieties\nbeing kept pure; the strains becoming more resistant to disease and gaining in\nproductiveness. All these are highly desirable and give added value to the\ncrops in every case.\nI made inquiries last year from the Seed Branch of the Department of\nAgriculture and from members of the Canadian Seed Growers' Association.\nI gathered from their estimates that one of the direct results from the seed\ngrain competition was an increase in the value of the grain crops on the\nrelatively few farms as yet following the selecting practice to the extent of at\nleast $500,000. That is high finance for you. High finance by a man of\nlofty intelligence and spirit — 5,000 per cent, on an investment of $10,000, and\nthe best of it all is that Sir William Macdonald has not sought and did not\nreceive a single dollar of return for himself from it. That is laying up treasures\nwhere neither moth nor rust doth corrupt and which goes on gathering and\ndiffusing benefits for ever and for ever for the people.\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\nUnder the Macdonald Rural School Fund^ arrangements were made\nfor providing a school garden at each of five rural schools in each of five\nprovinces. A trained instructor was placed in charge of each group of five\ngardens and of the nature-study work at them. He spent one day at one\nschool and the next at another. The cost of this was met by Sir WiUiam\nMacdonald.\nAt the school gardens an effort is being made to give the children information and training in three important matters in connection with agriculture:\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMACDONALD\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\n95\n\nthe selection of seed; the rotation of crops; and the protection of crops against\nweeds, disease, and insects. It is really industrial education. Children find\nout something by doing, observing, and recording the results themselves, and\nI say it over again that all worthy progress, in matters that are worth thinking about, springs from learning the lessons of consequences. As soon as a\nchild understands that, and governs his Hfe accordingly, he becomes a better\npupil and the promise of a better citizen in every sense.\nThe school garden is one way of making rural life more popular as well\nas efficient. It may be the first step toward actuating the people to pay more\nto make the schools more efiicient. The best education in rural schools should\nmake the people like rural life and also enable them to make it more profitable.\nThe best way to make any workman like his work is to make him understand\nit. The beginnings of all that and much more are laid in the schools.\nIn the largest school, two hours' work per week by the pupils was found\nrequisite to keep the gardens in proper condition. In one school the enthusiasm was so great that the pupils did all their garden work outside the regular\nschool hours. At this school, also, the garden did not suffer from neglect in\nthe slightest degree during the midsummer vacation of six weeks. Experience\nindicates that when the gardens are fully organized the plots can be well kept\nby devoting two half-hours per week to the work. This time is mentioned,\nnot as the ideal condition, but as an encouragement to those who may desire\nto start school gardens in districts where prejudices are likely to be met. The\nfact is that in the ordinary ungraded school, and for that matter in the urban\nschool as well, the working power of the pupils is ill-sustained thruout the day\nowing to their merely forced interest in much of the prescribed work. An\nawakening as to the educational waste of our schools is coming, and when the\nschool garden is seen in its true relation, it will have a period in each day of\nthe school program during the growing season. The children have ample time\nto spare, and the work of the gardens is promoting their intelligence and\nprogress in the ordinary school course.\nMr. E. A. Howes, who is now principal of the Macdonald Consolidated\nSchool at Guelph, Ontario, had charge of the school garden nearest the city\nof Ottawa. I venture to include the following extracts from an article by\nhim:\nBowesville, Ontario, which is situated six miles south of the Dominion capital, has\nlong been regarded as one of the most progressive sections in the progressive county of\nCarleton, and it is to the active interest of its people in the welfare of their school that the\ncredit for a large measure of the success of the movement here is due. They have never\ninterfered but to aid. Land sufficient to make a school ground comprising two and onehalf acres was purchased, and this was enclosed by a neat fence with turned posts and\nattractive gates.\nThe daily attendance at Bowesville school may be placed at approximately fifty\nchildren, ranging from six to sixteen. The plan of dual ownership of garden plots has\nbeen followed here, a senior and junior pupil having joint ownership in a piece of ground\n(ten feet by twenty feet), working in conjunction and making a just division of the spoils at\ntime of harvest.\nThis plan gets over the difficulty experienced when juniors are shouldered\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwith the entire responsibility of managing a plot, while it does not destroy the sense of\nownership which makes proud the juvenile gardener. In laying out and cultivating the\ngarden plots the entire work, with the exception of the ploughing of the ground, was performed bythe children and, it may be added, cheerfully performed. Neighboring farmers\nbrought manure for the garden and ploughed the ground.\nThe experimental plots, belonging to the senior class, deserve special notice. Experiments in crop rotation, in the effect of clover growth, and in potato spraying have been\ncarried on and results carefully noted. Bowesville is the center of the largest potato producing section in eastern Canada, so particular attention was paid to potato spraying\nexperiments. In addition to the class experimental plots mentioned, three of the oldest\npupils carried on an independent experiment in spraying. Care was taken that the crop\nreceived neither more nor less attention, other than the spraying, than did the crop in a\nneighboring field. Rows of potatoes sprayed with Bordeaux mixture were grown beside\nrows receiving ordinary attention. When the resulting crops were piled side by side\nin the toolhouse, showing an increase equivalent to more than fifty bushels per acre\nfor the sprayed over the unsprayed crops, and also a decided improvement in size and\nquality, the farmers sat up and did more thinking than would have been the case had they\nread of the same results in some agricultural publication. It is not so much what these\nplots teach as it is the trend of thought induced.\n\nThe following extracts are from letters and reports received from teachers\nin charge of school gardens, Carleton County, Ontario:\nThe school garden seems to fill in the weak parts of our education for the growing\nchild, as it tends to the molding and developing of his character. I know that the general\ndiscipline in my room has been helped by the garden work and also that the pupils like\ntheir work in the schoolroom better on account of it. If our politicians would try teaching\nschool with a garden and then without one for two years, as I have done, I am certain that\nthey would be willing to grant all the financial support required; yes, probably be too\nliberal with it.\n(Miss) Public\nM. York\nRichmond\nSchool\nMy pupils are more observant than they were before we started school garden work,\nand seem to acquire a clearer understanding of all their work.\nMr. A\ntold me that\nthe school garden had been a benefit to his boys, and that they were more independent in\ntheir work both in school and out of school.\nW. Pettapiece\nPrincipal North Gower Public School\nI am ready to put myself on record as saying that the school garden has relieved much\nof the drudgery of the school work to which I was always accustomed. This year we had\nour school garden and it has been the pleasantest year of my school work. I would never\nagain pass a summer without a school garden. I consider that the chief value of the school\ngarden lies in the effect which it produces on the moral tone of the school. The juvenile\nsense of ownership is the greatest insurance on the success of the garden and incidentally\non the care of the whole school property. The garden is the central point of interest for\nthis end of the township, and it is not unusual to have as many as a hundred visitors at the\ngarden on one Sunday afternoon. I have noticed that the cultivation of flowers has\nreceived more attention in the homes since the advent of the school garden, and I am often\nconsulted about this work. I have not heard any unfavorable opinion expressed by\nresponsible persons in this community, but on the other hand the most progressive men\nhave spoken highly of the garden work.\nB. A. Howes\nMacdonald Consolidated School, Guelph\n(Late_of Bowesville Public School)\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMACDONALD\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\n97\n\nIt is impossible to overestimate the value of school gardening on our boys and girls.\nInstead of being detrimental (as at first supposed) to their advancement in the other\nbranches of learning, it has had the opposite effect. Since engaging in the work my boys\nand girls have been first in all examinations, competing with children from other schools,\nincluding city schools. The whole tone of the school has been improved morally, socially,\nand esthetically. Our boys and girls have now a reverence for life unknown before, and\nit has awakened in them, as nothing else could do, a deeper interest in all life around\nthem. It has helped to make school life a pleasure. Now the boy makes the excuse to get\nto come to school instead of the excuse to remain at home. It has aroused the interest of\nthe entire community. The parents take a pride in \"the work of our boys and girls in the\nschool gardens,\" and never fail to bring visitors to see the work that is being done there.\nThe pupils learn practical gardening, and already their advice and assistance are often\nsought by parents and others interested in the cultivation of plants. Its influence is seen\nalso in the plots and flower borders outside. Our school board has come to realize the\nvalue of this work and are anxious to have it continued.\nG. A. Moore\nPrincipal Carp Public School\nCONSOLIDATED\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFour object-lesson consolidated rural schools were provided by the Macdonald Rural School Fund — one in each of the four provinces of Ontario,\nNew Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island.\nThey were located at places chosen or approved by the Provincial Departments ofEducation. In each case a new building was erected to take the place\nof the small schools which at that time were serving the single sections proposed to be consolidated. They were each equipped with ordinary classrooms and an assembly hall, and also for manual training, household science,\nand nature study with a school garden.\nA consolidated school board was elected according to the school law of the\nprovince concerned. The school in Nova Scotia was opened in September,\n1903; in New Brunswick, September, 1904; in Ontario, November, 1904, and\nin Prince Edward Island, early in the summer of 1905.\nThe Macdonald Rural School Fund meets for a period of three years the\nadditional expense of the consolidated school over the cost of the small rural\nschools which formerly served the locality. The school sections contributed\nexactly the amount of the former expenditure, and the extra cost is met by the\nMacdonald fund for three years to enable the people of four provinces to have\nthese object-lessons and experiments in education.\nThe educational results from these schools have been entirely satisfactory\nto the authorities, to the teachers, and especially to the parents and children.\nThe average daily attendance at the consolidated schools was on the whole over\n55 per cent, higher than the average daily attendance at all of the schools\nwhich formerly served the localities; at Kingston, N. B., it was over 140 per\ncent, higher.\nThe attractiveness of the consolidated schools becomes in itself a form of\ncompulsory education — the interest of the children being the power which\nsecures regular attendance. A great point has been gained when love of the\nschool and love of education there set the pace for progress.\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nOne of the gratif)dng results is the large number of boys and girls, young\nmen and young women, from rural homes, who are doing advanced or highschool work. At one of these schools there were about loo pupils in the highschool grades. Many of these are preparing to be teachers in rural schools.\nWhen teachers, who themselves have been educated in consolidated rural\nschools, with nature study, household science, and manual training, teach in\nsingle rural schools they will make the influence of their own training tell\nthruout many of the one-room schools.\nTHE\n\nMACDONALD\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nNotable results have followed in several of the provinces from these objectlessons — consolidated rural schools. Dr. MacKay, superintendent of education in the province of Nova Scotia, writes that in his province 53 schools have\nbeen consolidated into 22 effective ones. In the province of New Brunswick\nthere are four large consolidated schools, each with nature study and school\ngarden, manual training and household science. The provincial government\npays half the cost of conveying the children and gives other special grants.\nSir Willam Macdonald gave the sum of $182,500 to provide buildings and\nequipment at the Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, to train teachers now\nin the service for this \"new education.\" Besides serving that purpose the\ninstitute has become a headquarters for manual training, for household science,\nand for providing short courses of instruction and training for farmers'\ndaughters and others in cooking, sewing, domestic art, and other branches of\ndomestic economy. Two buildings were erected. Short courses of instruction in nature study and school gardens were provided without fees to teachers.\nThe governments of four eastern provinces where the consolidated schools\nwere established gave scholarships to enable teachers to attend. Over 200\nteachers have already taken these courses. When pupils who pass thru consolidated rural schools go on thru the normal schools, each with advanced\nwork and suitable professional courses in manual training, nature study, and\nhousehold science, they will be thoroly qualified to carry on this better system\nof education.\nMACDONALD\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nMacdonald College has grown out of Sir William Macdonald's keen desire\nto help the rural population to build up the country and to make the most of\nit and themselves. In some measure it grew out of the school garden movement and the consolidated schools, to serve as a headquarters for the training\nof leaders. In some measure it grew out of the manual-training movement,\nwhich is a first necessity in the general education of pupils if they are to profit\nby technical and industrial education afterwards. In some measure it grew\nout of the oft-expressed desire on the part of the educational leaders over the\nwhole Dominion for such advancement and improvement of education for\nrural communities as would not only prepare the children for life at its best in\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMACDONALD\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\n99\n\nrural occupations, but would also satisfy the people as being the right training\nfor their children.\nWe are standing at Macdonald College for research work and for illustration work in three of the important matters in agriculture: the use of selected\nseed on suitably prepared ground; the proper rotation of crops (which is\nhardly understood and certainly is not practiced in the eastern part of Canada,\nexcepting in parts of Ontario) ; and the protection of the crop against weeds,\ninsects, and diseases. Each one of these three might increase the average\nyield as much as 25 per cent, within ten years wherever put into intelligent,\ncareful practice. Our policy at Macdonald College is not merely to have\nresearch work along these lines, but to give illustrations along these lines\nwherever our students go, and we hope by and by to make every graduate of our\ncollege a leader to carry out this system of farming on his farm under college\ndirection. He shall have selected seed (if need be, furnished by the college)\ngrown on suitably prepared soil; he shall follow a rotation of crops properly\nadapted to his locaHty; and he shall be capable of fighting the weeds, insects,\nand diseases. Such illustrations on his farm will be a beacon light to the whole\nlocality, and thus the lessons will be brought home in an effective way.\nIn our research work, because we have the means and the men, we want\nto make the benefactions of Macdonald College for rural communities extend\nas widely as possible. We carry on the work of the college in three departments or schools. In connection with the school of agriculture we have the\nresearch and illustration departments of which I have spoken. Then we\nhave household science with research, and instruction for the homes of the\npeople. That branch treats of the three prime necessaries of life — food,\nraiment, and housing. It is just as important that the woman should be\neducated for her sphere of management as the man for his. In the school ioi\nteachers the instruction and training are for teachers preparing for city and\nrural schools. It is important that the rural school and its teacher should stand\nin with those two other activities — the occupations and the homes of the\nparents — and that the children should be thoroly trained toward ability for,\nas well as an understanding of, what will be required of them in the fields\nand in the homes. The threefold character of the college fits it to train leaders\nfor rural communities.\nThe work carried on at Macdonald College consists of instruction in the\nthree fundamental, mothering occupations which nurture the race: first,\nfarming, whereby man becomes a partner with the Almighty and, thru cooperation with nature, obtains the benefactions of Providence for food, clothing,\nand shelter; secondly, the making of homes; thirdly, the teaching of children.\nAt Macdonald College the education of leaders for those fields of human\nendeavor is being carried on in close co-relation. In times gone by the segregation of teachers-in-training, in institutions devoted exclusively to their use,\nhad been no better for them than the isolated training of leaders for rural life in\ncolleges of agriculture had been for their students.\nUntil recently, neither of\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthem had muchjnjheir courses which identified formal or liberal education\nwith the activities of the homes. The substantial advantages of co-education,\nin this larger sense, are already evident. The homes, the schools, and the\nfarms are finding the common center from which radiate plans and labors:\n\"A little child shall lead them.\"\nEDUCATIONAL\nEDWIN\n\nG. DEXTER,\n\nPROGRESS\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF\n\nIN PORTO\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRICO\nPORTO\n\nRICO\n\nThe educational problem which confronted the Americans upon their\noccupation of Porto Rico, ten years ago, was nothing less than the organization de novo of a school system for a population of upward of one million\npeople. That they had little or nothing to build upon is shown by the fact\nthat there was but one building constructed and used solely for school purposes\nwithin the island. There were about five hundred semi-public, semi-private\nschools, in which were in attendance a little more than twenty thousand pupils.\nThese schools were held in private houses, usually the homes of the masters,\nand were extremely primitive, both in equipment and method. Parents who\ncould afford to pay for the tuition of their children did so, while the poor were\nadmitted free. For the instruction of this latter class, the government paid\na small salary to the teacher, altho this salary was usually many months in\narrears.\nOf the inhabitants thruout the island, more than 80 per cent, were iUiterate.\nNowhere outside of the larger cities were books or newspapers to be seen. To\nno one had it occurred that the ability to read and write was worth while to\nany but the professional man.\n*The American flag was welcomed upon its arrival, and the people as a\nclass seemed willing and anxious to follow the desires of their new conquerors.\nThe organization of the school system was taken up with vigor, almost\nfrom the day of the arrival of the flag, and never since have the people, as a\nclass, been other than most appreciative of what is being done for them along\neducational lines, and most enthusiastic in the support of educational measures.\nAs may be expected with every people, there are some who, largely for political\nreasons, are open critics; and since the columns of the press are open to them,\nthis comparatively small class becomes overly conspicuous. There are some\nwho are honestly and openly opposed to the coeducation of the sexes, and considering the conditions of race, climate, etc., there is, perhaps, some basis for\ntheir contention. There is another small class which feels that the EngUsh\nlanguage is being overly emphasized in the schools. There is another which\nis pleading for moral and religious instruction in the schools; but taken all\ntogether these various factions have not been able to retard, materially, the\nprogress of the schools.\nAnd what has the progress been in the decade ? An increase in enrolment\nin the public schools from 2i,cxx) to 105,000. The one lone building erected\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN\n\nPORTO\n\nRICO\n\nloi\n\nfor school purposes, at a cost, perhaps, of five or six thousand dollars, stands\nnow with 193 other public school buildings, erected at a cost of more than $760,000. No handsomer structures have been erected anywhere than the more\nmodern public schools in Porto Rico. In San Juan we have one building of\ntwenty-one rooms; in Ponce a group of school buildings on a single lot, containing more than thirty rooms, and in other parts of the island, plants in\nprocess of construction. Planned in a modified Spanish style of architecture,\nof cement block, with a flat or tiled roof, generous patios, and wide balconies,\nthe public school building is the architectural beauty spot in most Porto Rican\nmunicipalities.\nBut, you ask, what of the schools themselves ?\nUnder the present educational organization, the island is divided into\nthirty-five school districts, each under the direction of a superintendent, who is\nappointed by the Commissioner of Education and is his personal representative\nin the district. The schools are of four classes: high schools; graded schools;\nrural schools; and special schools. In the three largest cities of the island — San\nJuan, Ponce, and Mayaguez — are high schools having the four-year course,\nwhose students are admitted, without examination, to many of the better colleges and universities of the United States. In each of these schools is a wellorganized commercial department. Besides these three full-fledged high\nschools, in four other towns of the island one year of high -school work is\noffered, to which will be added, each year, further work until the full four-year\ncourse is organized.\nThe graded schools are maintained in each of the larger centers of population in the island — about eighty in all — in many instances carrying the children\nthru the full eight years of the common school course. The total number of\ngraded schoolrooms is 729. In 289 of these graded schools all subjects are\ntaught in English, while in all of them English is taught as a subject.\nOf the rural schools there are 1,158 distributed thruout the smaller barrios\nand remoter parts of the island. In a large number of these schools English\nis taught, tho it is not possible to secure competent teachers for the introduction of English in all of them. The regular course of study in the rural schools\nis of three years' duration, altho in a considerable number fourth-year instruction isgiven.\nIn the school systems of all of the larger cities are teachers of music and\ndrawing; the special schools consist of agricultural schools, kindergarten, and\nnight schools, there being eight of the first, five of the second, and one hundred\nand eight of the last class of schools.\nThe agricultural schools are situated in the country districts, and have\nadequate grounds for the maintenance of school gardens and for practice in\nelementary agriculture.\nKindergartens are situated in the larger cities, while nearly every center of\npopulation of large size has one or more night schools.\nBut, you say, give us a pen picture of some of these schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe most numerous, and, perhaps, the most interesting of them all is the\nrural school, which takes the place of the little red schoolhouse of New England.\nIn Porto Rico it is quite likely to be of thatched roof, with walls of pabn\nboards or even of \"yagua,\" a part of the royal palm. If you were to station\nyourself near any one of the thousand or more of these simple schoolhouses\nat eight o'clock in the morning of any school day, you would see approaching\nin one*s or two's or little groups, wending down the narrow paths from the\nmountain side, little black-haired, bare-footed, simply but neatly dressed\nchildren, many of them with books under their arms. Soon comes the\nteacher, who opens the door and gives us a peek inside. There we, perhaps,\nsee the modern iron school desk, tho more likely benches, made by the local\ncarpenter of \"asubo,\" perhaps mahogany, seating five or six pupils. The\nroom has maps and blackboards, a desk for the teacher, and more than likely\na portrait of McKinley, Washington, Lincoln, or Roosevelt.\nAt a command from the teacher, the pupils, forty or fifty or even sixty of\nthem, line up facing the building, while the teacher raises the Stars and Stripes,\nwhich flies over every school building in Porto Rico thruout every school day.\nAs the flag ascends, the children salute and repeat the words: ''I pledge\nallegiance to my flag and to the country for which it stands: one nation indivisible, with liberty and justice. for all.\" One hundred thousand prospective\nAmerican citizens are doing this every morning down in Porto Rico.\nOnce inside of the schoolroom, you could hardly distinguish this school\nfrom many of the rural schools we know in the United States, except that the\nchildren are a little more variegated in color, are more comfortably dressed,\nand are, perhaps, a little more studious than our youngsters at home.\nThe graded schools are much better housed and equipped than are the\nrural schools, always using the modern iron desk with adjustable seats and\nhaving all the apparatus of a first-class school. The grading is fully as far\nadvanced as we know it in the best schools of the States; in fact, my own boy\nof eleven, upon entering the sixth grade in San Juan, had much greater difficulty in keeping a high standing than he had ever had in his previous school\nexperience.\nThe teachers of the lower grades are largely Porto Ricans, while in many\nof the larger cities all the grades above the fifth are taught by American\nteachers. The examinations in the graded schools thruout the island are uniform, the questions being sent out from my office. At the end of the eighth\ngrade a diploma is given granting admission to the high schools and to the\nnormal school, as well as granting eligibifity to certain classes of scholarships\nin the United States.\nThis leads me to call attention to the system of scholarships in vogue in\nthe island. Thru legislation passed one year ago, school boards are empowered\nto use an amount of their funds, not to exceed 5 per cent., for the purpose of\nmaintaining in the graded schools those pupils who have completed, with\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN\n\nPORTO\n\nRICO\n\n103\n\ncredit, the work of the rural schools. This makes it possible for any bright\npupil, even in the remoter barrios, to complete the eighth grade of the school\ncourse. Having received his eighth-grade diploma, there are open to him,\nthru appointment by the Commissioner, one hundred scholarships, at a value\nof $100, each, annually, in the high schools of the island; or, in case his preference leads him in another direction, there are open seventy-five scholarships\nin the normal school, at a value of $200, each, annually; or forty scholarships\nin the agricultural department of the University of Porto Rico; or twenty\nscholarships at a value of $250, each, annually, for study in such institutions\nin the United States as Tuskegee or Hampton institutes. A boy or girl, having\nreceived a scholarship either in the normal school or in one of the high schools,\nis eligible, upon completion of the four-year course, to one of the thirty-nine\nscholarships in the colleges and universities of the United States, each of the\nannual value of $500. I doubt if a more complete plan for the survival of the\nfittest, educationally speaking, is in vogue anywhere.\nBut to return to our description of the schools. If you were to visit one\nof the high schools of the island, you would hardly be able to distinguish\nbetween the work done there and that in any of our first-class high schools in\nthe States. Except for the intructors in Spanish, the teachers are all Americans, and, with few exceptions, college graduates who would be a credit to any\neducational system. In the graduation exercises, parts are usually taken in\nEnglish; applause is as tumultuous and bouquets are as abundant as with our\ndaughters at home.\nIn our kindergartens the interesting experiment has been tried of placing\nchildren who know not a word of English under teachers who are equally\nunproficient in Spanish, with the result that, before the end of the year, the\nchildren can converse more or less fluently in the English language.\nAs yet, because of finanical and other reasons, the organization of manualtraining work in the schools has not made the progress that might be wished.\nFor two or three years a system of mechanical schools was in operation, but\nbefore my arrival upon the island they were closed thru the failure of the legislature to make appropriation. It is my hope, at as early a date as possible,\nto re-establish, perhaps under the auspices of the University of Porto Rico,\nhigher mechanical instruction, as well as to introduce into the graded school\ncourses in manual training and domestic science. We must, however, wait\nfor a legislature that is more willing to make appropriation for educational\npurposes than was the last.\nDuring the past year three moves have been made by the Department,\nwhich promise to be of the greatest value to the island. One is the organization of school libraries, more than sixty of which have been established. In\nmany instances these are nothing more than collections of fifty or sixty books\nplaced in the hands of the teacher, with directions for charging out to pupils\nand other residents of the school district. It is extremely important that this\nmove be extended, since without such libraries a vast majority of the twenty or\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthirty thousand children who annually leave the schools would hardly be\nbrought into contact with the printed page for the rest of their lives, thus\nmaking the ''little learning\" which they have acquired, if not a \"dangerous\nthing,\" at least a useless thing. As the result of appeals which I have made\nthru the public press of the United States and in other ways, nearly six thousand\nvolumes have been donated to these libraries, and I urge that others interest\nthemselves in the library movement on the island. The steamboat companies\nplying between New York and Porto Rico very generously transport all donations to school libraries, free, and I shall be very glad to answer any appeals\nfor information on the subject.\nAnother movement of importance is the establishment of school banks\nthruout the island. Within the past year such banks have been established\nin two hundred and seventy-five different schools, with thousands of depositors.\nIn the city of Ponce alone, the deposits since January have averaged more than\none thousand dollars monthly.\nA third movement is the establishment of children's playgrounds. Of the\nsixty-six municipalities in the island, more than forty are planning the immediate establishment of such playgrounds, and seventeen are already in operation. Dr. Curtis, secretary of the Playground Association of America, visited\nthe island in December and gave impetus to the move.\nBut what, you ask, will all this educational interest and outlay result in ?\nAn immediate result should be the granting of American citizenship to the\nPorto Ricans. They are ready for it. With the change of flag ten years ago\nthe Porto Rican became a man without a country, having renounced his allegiance to Spain and being refused citizenship under the Stars and Stripes.\nCitizenship would not mean statehood to the island; merely the acceptance\nof the Porto Rican as a brother under the flag.\nA gradual result of the educational movement in Porto Rico should be a\ngreater participation in the affairs of government, with perhaps ultimate statehood for the island. While the people as a whole are unanimous in their\ndesire for citizenship, the desire for statehood is not felt by all. What the\nfuture of the island in this respect will be, it is difficult to predict with certainty,\nbut if statehood comes at all it should not, in my opinion, be in the immediate\nfuture. With the present status of education and literacy on the island, the\npeople are not ready for the degree of participation in the affairs of government\nwhich statehood would mean, and I say this with all kindliness and with the\ndeepest feeling of affection for a people that I have learned to love for their\nmany kindly characteristics. But with the educational progress that is now\nbeing made, for the enrohnent in the public schools has increased more than\n60 per cent, in two years, those are now alive upon the island who should see the\nlone star of their tricolored flag transferred to the azure of the Stars and Stripes.\n\n-. M\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM—DR.\n\nIN MEMORIAM—DR.\nNICHOLAS\n\nMURRAY\n\nJAMES\n\nCAN\n\nFIELD\n\nHULME\n\nBUTLER,\nPRESIDENT\nOF\nNEW\nYORK\nCITY\n\n105\n\nCANFIELD\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n[Stenographically reported]\n\nIt is not easy for me, standing in the spot where my friend was to have\nstood, to speak however briefly and inadequately of one whom I hold to have\nbeen a great American citizen, as he was a dear and close companion. It is\nparticularly hard to speak of one whose last words bade us not to attempt, out\nof what he well knew was the wealth of our affection, to hold any meeting or\nexercises in his memory.\nOn March 18 last Dr. Canfield was sixty-two years of age. Perhaps it\nwas because it was his birthday that he was led to give himself in the solitude\nof his study to an hour of reflection, familiar enough to him, on the deeper\nthings of life. It may have\" been that his great spirit saw the shadow of the\nRock of Eternity creeping slowly toward his feet as the sun of his life made\nits westering in the sky; for on that day he wrote with his own hand a message\nto be read by his son only after the final summons should have come. From\nthat message I will read a brief paragraph — a message from the man himself:\nI do not wish to seem ungracious, but it will please me better if there shall be no\nmemorial meeting — nothing of the kind. I have lived my life as best I could. No one\nknows better than I its shortcomings, and I shall be more than content simply to abide\nthe quiet judgment and the kindly remembrance of my neighbors and friends. If those\nwith whom I have been associated, who have known me in my several undertakings,\noccasionally speak of me with kindly thoughts of the past, it will be reward and notice\nenough.\n\nHow else than with kindly remembrance can we speak of Canfield ?\nI used to say to him, partly in jest but more in earnest than he knew, that\nwhile I had known Christian women, I believed he was the only Christian man\nI had ever met. His religion, his faith, his devotion, his service, his sacrifice,\nwere genuine, and real, and boundless, and unending. See at how many\npoints he touched our American life! Born in Ohio, he was educated in\nVermont, in New York, and in Massachusetts. In his maturer years he lived\nin Iowa, in Michigan, in Kansas, in Nebraska, in Ohio, and in New York.\nEverywhere, in each of these commonwealths, he carried that splendid spirit\nof service which became synonymous with his name in thousands of American\nhomes and in thousands of American schools. Few faces and forms were\nmore famihar than that sturdy frame of his, with its splendid head and heart,\nfour-square to every wind of opinion that might blow, which led a life solely of\nprinciple and devotion.\nWhether he was learning the elements of railroading in Iowa, or practicing\nat the bar in Michigan, or teaching history and economics in Kansas, or guiding\nthe policies of the state university of Nebraska and Ohio, or inspiring the life\nof our great metropolitan university, he was always the same. There was no\nchange in his sturdy simplicity.\nThere was no selfishness or self-seeking, no\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nlack of clear vision, no lessening of hold on the eternal verities that guided his\nnoble life.\nHow patient he was with the typical errors of the pedagog, yet how fully\nhe understood them ! I remember a story that he told of himself when he was\nChancellor of the University of Nebraska. Toward the close of the college\nyear a young tutor of mathematics who was completing his first year of service\ncame into the Chancellor's office and asked whether he was to be reappointed\nfor another year. The Chancellor said, \"Well, what do you yourself think of\nyour work? What have you done that you are proud of?\" The young\ntutor answered, \"Mr. Chancellor, I have just held such a stiff examination in\nmy course that I have flunked sixty members of the freshman class.\" The\nChancellor looked at him kindly and said, \"Young man, suppose I gave you\na herd of one hundred cattle to drive to Kansas City, or Omaha, and you came\nin to tell me that you had driven them so fast, and so hard, and had made such\ngood time, that 60 per cent, of them had died on the way. Do you think that\nI should want you to drive any more cattle to the Missouri River?\" \"No,\nsir,\" said the tutor. \"Well, I do not think we will let you drive any more\nfreshmen.\" That was characteristic of Canfield, of his insight, of his wit, and\nof his good sense.\nJust before the last days of his illness came upon him, feeling at peace with\nhimself and with the world, knowing that he was soon to die, yet sorry to go\nbecause he felt that he might have something still to do for his fellows, Dn\nCanfield copied out and kept with him these beautiful lines:\nRemember me when I am gone away,\nGone far into the silent land;\nWhen you can no more hold me by the hand\nNor I half turn to go, yet, turning, stay.\nRemember me when no more, day by day,\nYou tell me of our future that you planned:\nOnly remember me; you understand\nIt will be too late to counsel then or pray.\nYet if you should forget me for awhile\nAnd afterwards remember, do not grieve;\nFor if the darkness and corruption have\nEven a vestige of the love that once I had,\nI shall prefer that you forget and smile\nThan that you should remember and be sad.\n\nI cannot speak more of Canfield ; my heart is too full. The older members\nof this Association knew him well. For three years he served this body as\nits secretary; one year he adorned it as its president. He was with us at\nCleveland a year ago; he loved our Association's high traditions; he loved\nhis associates among its members; be believed in it with all the ardor and\nvigor of his being.\nLet me read a few sentences from a letter written of him by Michael Sadler,\nour distinguished English colleague and friend who knew him well Sadler\nwrote:\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nBULWARK\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\n107\n\nHe left upon my mind an almost unique impression of vitality. He was quick with\nhuman sympathy, and in his humor there was tenderness which comes from a wide experience of men and things heightened by Christian faith and charity. He was a great organizer\nof his time and thoughts: one who had leisure from himself for the need of others; a giver\nof himself to institutions; a man in whom the buoyancy of youth and the ripeness of age\nwere singularly combined. I loved him and shall always think of him as we saw him at\nColumbia and at Oxford; here at Weybridge, and for the last time in an upper room in\nthe Thackeray Hotel in London when he was full of that last inquiry of his, in which he\ntouched so many deep and difficult matters with firm insight and courage. Lux perpeiua\nei: he brought to so many sunshine and light.\n\nOf all the experiences of Canfield's life those in Kansas made, I think, the\ndeepest and most lasting impression upon him. It is related, you remember,\nthat Queen Mary of England said that after her death the name Calais would\nbe found graven on her heart. I cannot help thinking that on Canfield's\ntired heart the name Kansas was written. The fourteen years that he spent\nin that state, the years of his young manhood, were full of meaning for him.\nHe entered into the splendid commonwealth building of that epoch with\nenergy, with zeal, and with high intelligence. He joined hands with the eager\nspirits of the young idealists who so distinguished the state of Kansas in the\n70's and early 8o's. The years that he spent in Kansas and the Kansas\nfriends were always close to his heart. Tho in later years the fortunes of life\ncalled him to other parts of our country and to new fields of service, and to\nenvironments that he loved and delighted in, yet I feel sure that Kansas always\nmeant more to him than any other place that we associate with the story of his\nlife.\nSo I say to his departing spirit as the shadows of life are lengthening about\neach one of us, \"Good-bye, old friend! Good-bye, old friend! and may the\neverlasting light shine upon you who brought light and sunshine to so many\nhuman lives.\"\nSHOULD\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC SCHOOL BE THE\nPUBLIC HEALTH?\n\nBULWARK\n\nOF\n\nHENRY BAIRD FAVILL, M.D., lOO STATE STREET, CHICAGO, ILL. ■\nWithin a month there was held in the city of Chicago a National Conference on Criminology, conceived by the officers of the Law School of the Northwestern University as a means of celebrating its fiftieth aniversary, and designed\nto consider primarily criminal law with reference to its correction and reform.\nIncidental to this purpose came, as a matter of course, analysis of conditions\nunderlying the causation of crime and delinquency. If the deliberations of\nthat conference could be carried to their legitimate end, the conclusion would\nbe reached that effective dealing with crime lies in prevention, and the further\nconclusion would be practically unanimous that the pathway to prevention\nlies thru education.\nAt the last International Congress on Tuberculosis wherein was gathered\nthe intelligence of the civilized world concentrating its power upon this great\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "io8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npublic question, it was concluded, as it has been concluded before and since,\nthat the ultimate solution of the problem of tuberculosis must lie in the territory of prevention, and it was and is further concluded that the essence of\nprevention, the indispensable factor looking thereto, is education.\nAt all the active world-conferences upon political conditions, looking to\nthe betterment of the social structure and a higher type of living, invariably\nand unerringly the line of analysis runs thru the field of prevention or avoidance\nof evils, back to the fountain head of human intelligence — to the culture of\nthe human mind.\nFinally, and most impressive, the field of medical science has been brought\nunder this illumination, and medical intelligence today stands firmly upon the\nground that the combat with disease is fundamentally a question of hygiene,\nwhich, being interpreted, means a question of prevention, and this in its last\nanalysis means a question of education.\nThis universal reference of the great problems of life, back and back thru\nwhatever steps may be involved, to the training of human minds, that is, to\nwhat we call education, is a little suspicious. It looks as tho the tendency\nof this reasoning were to get back to a generality and to suggest a result more\nor less unattainable in its remoteness. In fact, to some extent this is true,\nand in so far as it tends to place the responsibility for conditions upon antecedent conditions at the moment irremediable, it is a source of weakness.\nThe fact that we, today, face conditions which had their origin far back\ndoes not in any sense justify our neglect of present results nor lessen our obligation to struggle with the morbid conditions which we find; but quite beyond\nthe efforts of the world to deal with its social disease in its present form as\nbest it may, lies the obligation to transform this generalization — prevention\nthru education — into a militant activity which shall ultimately achieve the\ncorrection of our social errors.\nFor the most part the possibilities of education are concentrated upon the\neducation of the young, and the logic of the situation leads to certain conclusions which have yet to undergo a tedious probation before they become effective\nconvictions.\nOne may view the progress of events with weariness but not discouragement; with intolerance but not impatience. Under this broad social conception, how long will it be before the nurture and culture of the child will be\nregarded as the greatest question open to the operation of human intelligence ?\nHow long will it be before the world is convinced that the greatest of all profes ions isthe profession of teaching? How long will it be until the spirit\nof the public toward its educators is one of broad and liberal sympathy, which\nshall place them socially and materially upon a plane of commanding superiority ?\nI refer to this question of the status and function and recognition of the\nteacher, not for the gratification of voicing my own appreciation, but because\nthe theme which I am about to discuss and all possibility of a practical bearing\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nBULWARK\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\n1 09\n\nto my mind is predicated upon a competent, intelligent, and progressive pedagogic body.\nMy belief is that the maintenance of physical well-being or health is\nfundamentally a moral question. In this statement I do not mean to reiterate\nsimply the doctrine to which all subscribe that we are under moral obligation\nto secure and maintain in our children the best possible health. That is\nob\\dous and accepted and, in a more or less effective way, striven for. What\nI wish to enunciate is: first, that the moral progress of the race is dependent\nupon its physical well-being; second, that an intelligent building and maintaining of health is a function of character and inseparable from a healthy\nmorale.\nIf health were universal and automatic and the social conditions related\nthereto better, it would not be so easy to discern this relationship to race progress. A study of social conditions as they are yields the most convincing\nproof of the enormous importance of defective health in the causation of social\ndisease.\nIt is, of course, to be admitted that industrial conditions and a variety\nof inequalities of opportunity and capacity have much to do with bad health;\nbut it is also true that even under the existing laws of society, the health of the\npeople could be vastly better than it is.\nWhatever that relationship may be, analysis of the situation shows clearly\nenough that poverty, crime, viciousness, and inefficiency are preponderatingly\ndue to defective physical condition.\nThe bearing of this is co-extensive with human pursuits. In infancy we\nhave learned the lesson of the \"bad\" child; in school we have learned the\nlesson of the backward child; in sports the incompetent child; in the factory\nor workshop the inefficient hand; in asylums and almshouses the defective\nindividual; in the courts the habitual criminal; in the saloon the besotted\nhabitue; in society the invalid parasite; in business the perverted marauder;\nin the pulpit the distorted bigot; in the schoolroom the nervous critic — all\nof them harking back to a foundation of imperfect health for the common\nfactor in explanation, and even in extenuation, of their faults.\nStatistics are open to interpretation and hence not to be followed too\nclosely; nevertheless, extensive observation throws much light upon these\nquestions. ^\nIn the great cities, broadly speaking, 85 per cent, of the relief extended\nthru organized charity is made necessary by sickness and accident. Our\nincreasing social delinquency, growing out of poverty and its necessary conditions, isthus directly and causally coupled with ill-health. That these\nunfortunate conditions in turn produce and aggravate disease, establishing\nthereby a vicious circle, is beside the point. The fact upon which we should\nfocus our attention is that imperfect health is an effective barrier to individual\ndevelopment and an enormous clog upon social progress.\nThe impression prevails widely that ill-health is unavoidable and that\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmost conditions of disease are not only inscrutable, but that they remain at a\ncertain degree of destructiveness unaffected by human endeavor or intelligence.\nThis is positively untrue. The average duration of life has increased markedly\nin the last few centuries, and this increase is noticeable in direct proportion\nto the progress in civilization of the various peoples under observation.\nThis is true in spite of the fact that the conditions of urban life operate\nstrongly in the opposite direction. What the showing would be if this entirely\nremovable incubus were to disappear is a matter of conjecture, but enough\nis known to warrant us in saying that public health is susceptible of improvement to a very great extent, and the sentiment has become fixed in the minds\nof students of social economy, that this is the greatest conservation field that\nis before us today.\nIt appears that this matter of adjusting mass conditions is to be the function\nof the state, and it is consequently imperative that all of the factors or units of\ninfluence should be rapidly and effectively aligned in furtherance of this\ngovernmental control. It is not going to be enough that schools be brought\nunder medical inspection and organization on the basis of health. The most\nthat can be accomplished thereby will be inadequate to meet the conditions.\nHabitation, food, and habits are factors of equal importance, and the real and\nultimate problem of the school is how to become an effective influence upon\nthis outlying but essential territory.\nIs it too much to anticipate that the school shall become a social center;\na reservoir of intelligence as to living conditions, into which shall flow streams\nof social influence tending to universal betterment, and from which shall\nemanate the laws of intelligent living ?\nUnless we conceive an entirely new machinery so related to our governmental structure and so related to our child nurture, we have no alternative\nthan to settle upon the school as the proper instrument of popular culture.\nSo far as I can see, no better instrument can be desired. Our machinery\nexists, and what we now need is inspiration. Where shall we look for inspiration ? I am convinced that it is only to be found in widespread opinion as to\nvalues; in the deep and fundamental conviction on the part of an intelligent\nminority as to what are the essentials in education; in a thorogoing recasting\nof our views as to what the state owes to its people, that is to say, to itself.\nToo long have we gone on under a conception of education that aims to\nprovide a child with a minimum amount of information looking to its economic\nindependence, and too superficially we have touched the problems of culture\nand spiritual development, without which life never rises above the dead level\nof material existence. Too exclusively we have concentrated upon simple\nmental acquisition more or less rudimentary, ignoring the great forces of life\nwhich are sweeping on irresistibly to results dire or benign according as we\nadjust ourselves to them. Far too uniformly have we permitted the pressure\nof circumstances to drive us .to the illogical position that education of the child\nis a dual process partly to be done in the school and partly to be done in the\n\na\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nBULWARK\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\nIII\n\nhome. In short, educational effort in general has failed to conceive the\ndevelopment of the child as a coherent process to which it is bound to contribute a comprehensive sympathy and discriminating judgment as to values,\nand a firm guidance and authority expressed in the broadest and simplest\ncurriculum that can be made effective.\nI beg you not to convict me of ignorance, of the vast chasm of disappointments which is suggested by the foregoing stipulation. The danger and the\ndifficulty in the whole proposition is expressed in the term \"ineffective.\"\nWell I know that the path of education is strewn with failures of good intention,\ninitiated in this spirit and wrecked upon obstacles presented by existing conditions. All progress is like that, and it offers not the least reason nor excuse\nfor abating one jot the effort to find a way out of the darkness. For the most\npart, failures have been legitimate and foreordained. Even where obstruction\nhas been due to lack of vision and comprehension on the part of that mass\nof the community known as the intelligent class, which has damned the spirit\nof pedagogy with the odium of \"fadism,\" failure has been logical.\nWe are in the midst of a material age in which an economic problem is\nscrutinized in the fight of its commercial relations, and the preponderating\nmass of people who have advanced to the point of thinking about it at all\nhave advanced only to the point where they can regard immediate industrial\nefficiency as the sole desideratum. When the mind of the public has reached\nthe point where ultimate fife efficiency shall have equal weight, then may the\npublic school have a clear field and a comprehensive function. To this end,\nthose who have vision must lead, and in this effort their foundation must be\nbroad and deep and sound.\nIt is from such premises that one is entitled to the belief that the public\nschool has no deeper obligation than to assume responsibifity for the physical\neducation of the child. If it were simply a process of decreeing good health,\nthis would be true. If it were a laborious process of working out and bestowing good health, it would be true; but where the process of achieving good\nhealth involves the operation and integrity of every mental and moral fiber in\nthe individual, this obfigation becomes overwhelming and paramount.\nLet us not be misled by the thought that the child is a natural animal,\npursuing the course of nature and adapting itself, as intelfigence grows, to\nits environment. Exceptionally that is true, but very exceptionally. Conditions of living are artificial; habits are imitative, and general conceptions\nof fife are faulty.\nOn the whole, the maintenance of sound health must be a conscious\nprocess, intelfigent and intentional. Does this seem to foreshadow a burdensome and unattractive mode of living ? Surely to be constantly considering\none's health, the pros and cons of conduct, the better and worse of method,\nand the good and bad in pursuits, all with reference to one's physical wellbeing, must be unwholesome, must it not ? The answer to that query is simple.\nIt depends entirely upon how one does it. One can do that thing in a way to\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "112\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmake of life a thing so unlovely that it is not worth preserving. One can\nmagnify luxurious considerations of comfort, the solicitousness of precaution,\nhairsplitting definitions of hygiene, superficial trivialities of vanity, to the point\nof outrageous and disgusting selfishness. Better by far that the world should\ngo on and find its solution in the most unthinking struggle for survival than\nthat that spirit should be fostered or tolerated as a phase of education.\nAs a matter of fact, the very falseness of this conception determines the\nfailure of such an effort. No health was ever achieved upon that basis. The\nconception is wrong, the purpose is wrong. The dominating motive under\nthis idea is timidity, fear of ill-health, and avoidance of discomfort. It is\nessentially a negative impulse, unbalanced, querulous, and cowardly. It\nmakes people dependent, victims of their own distorted minds, a burden to\nthe strong, and a prey of the unscrupulous. Perish the thought that we\nshould counsel cultivation of that sort of self-consideration !\nThe ideal of physical integrity glorifies the body to the point of a willingness to make the sacrifices necessary to maintain perfection. I think the\nword \"glorifies\" is not too strong. I speak not of pride of bone and brawn, of\nphysical prowess or beauty or skill; all of these are of it, but not it. I speak\nof that sense of well-being, courage, self-reliance, hardihood, and harmony\nwith nature in the individual whose physical equilibrium is the product of\nintelligent living and the object of conscientious attention. Herein lie power\nand freedom.\nAre these not a foundation for glory ?\nUnusual natural endowment is no necessary part of this. Undue physical\ndevelopment is quite apart from it. That person is exceptional, no matter\nwhat his natural limitation, who cannot attain the physical poise necessary to\nthis great emancipation.\nI fancy I hear the comment, ''That is not physical poise, that is mental\npoise.\"\nThey are inseparable.\nIt is true that inferior physical status can be dominated in a measure by\nmental effort. It Is true that the results of physical disability can be mitigated\nby spiritual equilibrium; but taken by and large, mental activities pay tribute\nto physical condition, and physical aberrations dominate, deteriorate, and\ndestroy as inexorably as do other physical and chemical forces which control\nthe course of the world.\nIt is small wonder that those who have seen and appreciated the maladjustment oflife, in which mental and moral instability play such a part and\npermit such havoc, should strike at this point as the root of social disease.\nWhile estimating these factors at their full and true value, those who know\nthis subject most deeply know that there is a territory In which actual and\ndemonstrable forces play, unconquerable by will, uninfluenced by thought,\nacting and reacting with perfect relation of cause to effect, which are the product\nand logical sequence of conditions antecedent and more or less avoidable.\nThe educated medical mind knows this. To a distressing degree it does\nnot know what to do about it. Much of the physical perversion which we call\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nBULWARK\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\n113\n\ndisease is terminal and fixed. Naturally, then, the medical mind seeks the\nsources of disturbance, strives to detect the earliest departure from the normal,\nand reaches the conclusion that the effective effort of the race must rest in\nmaintaining the normal.\nIf this were susceptible of mass control, and if we could determine and\ndefine the canons of health, adherence to which would insure the health of all\nthe people, the problem would be comparatively simple.\nTo determine the facts would be the first step. To establish the authority\nnecessary to universal observance would be the second step. So far as I\nknow, neither of these steps has been suggested as possible by any careful\nmind.\nThe detailed facts of hygiene, tho susceptible of some generalization, are\nessentially individual, and an individual's study of his equation is the important\nneed. Observance of detailed and intimate methods of life on the part of an\nindividual can never be reached by edict. The motive and authority for this\nis internal and comes only in response to consciousness of the importance\nand dignity of the subject. From the point of view of an educator, therefore,\nthe question becomes like any other question in education: not simply what\nmaterial to present, but how to secure its assimilation.\nAll teachers know the subtle evasiveness of the child mind in the face of\ncoercion. The precept which a child does not incorporate finally into his\nphilosophy is lost. Mere instruction offered to the young as to laws of health\nis almost useless. Here and there a general principle hammered enough and\nreiterated enough may serve as a ral lying-point for a later intelligence, but\nthe real fabric of education is woven in the experience of daily life. So it is\nthat I say that the physical education of a child must be determined by something that is basic, by a receptiveness that I believe can be furnished only thru\nevolution of an ideal of physical development.\nLet us not make the mistake of thinking that the child and the adult could\nreach this result by the same path. The adult, if he reaches this conclusion\nand adopts it, does so by a process of annexation, belated and imperfect.\nThe child, if he gets it, grows it, and it is a part of himself, unconscious, at\nfirst, and largely automatic. Never will the result for the child be achieved\nuntil the adult who rears him has adopted the ideal. To you, therefore, who\nare intrusted with the young, and I think the responsibility for the future of\nthe world, I make this earnest plea: that you take this matter at its full value;\nthat you surround it with all the color and all the quality possible and necessary to its attractiveness; that you dignify the subject to the point where you\nare wiUing to give it commanding importance in the curriculum at any point.\nAssuming your acquiescence herein, what is necessary to do ? What is it\nnecessary to be? Why speak of ''sacrifices necessary to the maintenance of\nhealth\"?\nThe world lives not by thought but by imitation. Fashion controls the\nactivities of life and, curiously enough, there is a constant mimicry of the\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nso-called' \"classes\" by the masses. There is no doubt that this is an unconscious tribute to what is assumed to be cultivated intelligence. Nothing better\nexpresses it than the keen analysis of a laboring man whom I once heard\nexploiting the subject to a fellow-laborer, who was commenting adversely on\nsome fashionable people who were dining out in public view. With a fine\nirony, he rebuked his companion, saying, \"Jim, they're layders,\" and when\nJim asked, \"What the divil is a layder?\" he replied, \"When folks gets to do\nin pubhc what common folks does in private, they're layders.\" Is it not true\nthat is the way we fashion our lives ?\nWith the progress of civilization comes steady increase in the faciUties\nfor living. Convenience and comfort are generally increased. Resources\nand materials for furthering activities and happiness are enormously developed.\nThe result is that, for the people who have access to these resources, the line\nbetween necessities and desires is lost and we find acquired a myriad of wants\nwhich, for the most part, are confused with needs.\nAvoiding all discussion of these as an economic question, my theme directs\nme merely to a discussion of the good or bad in this in relation to physical\nwell-being. One cannot go into this in detail, but it blocks itself out in thought\nclearly enough. Given the ability to procure unlimited food, what determines\nthe amount and character of the food that we eat ? When all things are available, what guides us in our doings ? When we have a distinct choice as to the\namount of physical labor we shall perform, upon what do we decide the\nquestion? So with our sleep, so with tobacco or alcohol or narcotics, the\nquestion is pertinent, upon what ground do we adopt and pursue our daily\nhabit ? I venture the assertion that for the most part the grounds are two :\nfashion and self-indulgence.\nAltho I am predicating unlimited access to things, this indictment is by\nno means confined to persons of wealth. Almost everybody above a certain\nlevel has sufficient choice in this matter to participate in all abuses. Does\nany one of us underrate the difficulty of selecting a path divergent from the\ncommon, and more or less counter to it ? Stop and think. Are not all our\npersonal and domestic habits fashioned upon a conventional method which\nis modified from time to time by influences which are arbitrary or accidental ?\nWithout attempting to dispute that the gradual working-out of a method\nof living by a people in the process of civilization has a certain a-priori sanction\nas a phase of evolution, I assert that, in matters of health, this is especially\nopen to scrutiny and review, and so far as we act individually, we fail to exercise such discrimination.\nEvery practicing physician knows the difficulty of inaugurating new habits\nin those whom he has occasion to advise. The reasons for this are many.\nSometimes it is embarrassing to be different from other people. Sometimes\nit is disagreeable to do a hard thing, when an easy thing is at hand. Sometimes itis a bother; but the real difficulty lies in the attitude of the individual\ntoward the project. He goes to his physician looking for dictation rather than\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nBULWARK\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\n115\n\nlight. He- accepts whatever he may get on a basis of obedience rather than\ninstruction. In short, he is seeking a compromise on the score of his comfort\nrather than knowledge to fortify him in a real desire to maintain an ideal.\nWhat the physician encounters is typical of the usual attitude. It takes\nself-discipline to be abstemious. It takes self-respect to be individual. It\ntakes self-possession to be undisturbed in the confusion of social opinion\nand prejudice. For that reason I say health cultivation is a function of\ncharacter.\nGranted all these attributes of an intelligent individual, there still remains\na necessity for a true conception. There is basic morality in physiology as\nthere is in theology. It is as false in physics as it is in ethics to determine\nconduct on the basis of penalty. Let us fix this distinction clearly. We live\ncorrectly, not to avoid disease, but to attain our birthright. The principle is\nconstructive, the obligation is supreme.\nThe point is to attain the best individual development that is possible.\nThe process must be thru demonstration and interpretation. Is it not perfectly\nobvious that this can only commence in childhood, which is tantamount to\nsaying that it must be accomplished in the school ?\nI protest earnestly against any philosophy which tends to obscure this\nobligation. Let us remember that to be charged to the degree that teachers\nare charged with the welfare of humanity is an awe-inspiring responsibility.\nDecisions which are reached must not be matters of taste or fancy or idiosyncrasy. They must be right.\nI admit freely that to establish this conception of physical well-being generally isnot only enormous in its magnitude, but a reversal in human philosophy.\nSo much deeper, then, the reason for grappling with it; so much the more\nsatisfactory as an opportunity for real achievement.\nLogically, the first step is so to determine the sanitary conditions of our\ncustody of the children as to promote and insure their well-being.\nActually, this desirable position is far off. A campaign of education of the\npublic — lay, pedagogic, and .official — will have to precede any satisfactory\nadvance. Let us remember that the child of today is the public and official\nof tomorrow, and take heart. Meanwhile, there lies within the control of\nschool teachers a powerful influence. The factors in this are two: the curriculum, and co-operation with the authority of the state.\nThe public-health function of the state is nowhere more potent than in its\nrelation to the school. In the existing state of society there is a tendency to\nclash between school authorities and school population. There is a territory of\nintimate mutual interest lying between the school and the home, in which\nneither has indisputable authority. It is right and necessary that the state\noccupy this field and determine the law that shall govern these reciprocal\nrelations.\nFor the present it is important that there be public supervision of such a\ncharacter as to give continuity to the efforts that are initiated in each territory\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nas they spread into the other. Hence, for example, the importance of reinforcing school inspection by visiting nurses or of counteracting parental lax ess\nby official inspection.\nWe shall see that the state will broaden its interest and responsibility in these\nmatters until protection is realized. Necessary as this is on the basis of protection, it\nf is well carried on it becomes of important educative value and will\nenhance the public appreciation of intelligence in living.\nThe school teacher can perfect or ruin this attempt according to his efforts\nin co-operation. Tho it falls far short of a solution of our problem, it is\nobviously the first step and is imperative.\nAs the idea of the social character of the school grows, opportunity to\ntouch effectively the real life of children will broaden. When the day comes\nthat the child seeks his light in the school as naturally as he seeks his orders,\nthe school vdll have come into its own.\nAt present, the great limitation upon the school is in lack of facilities.\nTradition and economy are hard masters. Overcrowding, bad air, poor\nlight, imperfect seats, and insufficient teachers are charged to lack of money.\nRigid ideas as to confining children hour after hour to their desks like cattle\nin their stanchions, prolonged pursuit of mental tasks, unrelated to interest\nand unassisted by inspiration, are chargeable to tradition.\nLack of money is not really lack of money. It is lack of vdllingness to\ndivert money sufficiently into its proper channel. It is really lack of conception.\nTradition is not insuperable. It is to a very large extent an obstacle\nbecause teachers are insufficiently represented in the councils which determine teaching methods.\nThe interest of teachers can be stifled by sufficient non-participation in the\nintellectual activities involved in the school management. No part of the\ncurriculum is more vulnerable to stupidity than that which concerns the\nphysical well-being of children. No part is more in need of initiative on the\npart of the teacher.\nWe are bound to do this work better.\nI repeat, the process must be thru demonstration and interpretation. Can\nwe hope for any impression upon the developing child unless we furnish that\nchild obvious, hygienic methods during its school life? Can we hope to\nderive full benefit from the most perfect hygienic conditions unless the significance ofthese conditions is interpreted ?\nThe child must grow its conception and there must be concurrent and\nincessant association between proper conditions and appreciation of their\nvalue.\nFor our possibilities of demonstration, we must plead with the public\nfor generous and enlightened disposition of funds; for our interpretation, we\ndepend solely upon the pedagogic force.\nLet us ask this question: To what extent is the average school curriculum\nbased upon or related to the physical needs of children ? I do not mean to\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nBULWARK\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\n117\n\nimply in this question that it is not to a considerable extent so related. Is it,\nhowever, fundamentally determined by those needs ? Ought it not to be ?\nLet us approach this question from another angle: What is the attitude\nof the school authorities in the most enlightened educational circles with\nreference to children who are physically defective? Is it not true that an\neffort is being made, here and there, to find a solution of the problem by a\nradical departure in system ? I call your attention, for example, to the celebrated school at Charlottenburg, created for the special treatment of sick\nand debilitated children. This enterprise was instituted to meet serious conditions. Ifsuch children were treated in sanatoria, they were not educated .\nIf they were educated in schools, they declined and died, or became hopeless\ninvalids. The combination of a sanatorium method and school was found\nlargely to solve the problem. A very great percentage is restored to health.\nPractically all reach normal educational standards. Nine-tenths of them\nare able to resume school work.\nIn the light of this illustration, is there any reason why a school curriculum\nbased upon judicious hygiene should not be the prevailing type instead of the\nexceptional type? This is a repetition of experience. Methods which are\nfound to be necessary and effective to cure established disease give the key to\na proper hygiene for those who are still normal. You have seen this illustrated\nfamiliarly. Since the world has discovered the proper treatment for tuberculosis, the notions and habits of innumerable people who are well have been\nmolded to correspond to the principles involved.\nI do not suggest that the average school be brought to the extreme type\nof the special school for the defectives. What I wish to emphasize is that there\nis neither logic nor justice in recognizing hygienic principle only for those\nwho are ill. Wisdom dictates that the principles of hygiene be determined\nbroadly and practicably and that they be accepted as the initial point in the\ndetermination of a school curriculum.\nThis is not the point at which to attempt to discuss the detail of such\na program. The thing to establish is acquiescence in the proposition that\nsound hygiene is fundamental to any school curriculum.\nThere are certain defects, however, which it is worth while to touch upon.\nPerhaps chief of these is the question of fresh air. No problem of the schoolroom ismore difficult to solve under existing conditions. None is more crucial.\nI cannot take your time to go into that in detail. I must ask you to fill in the\nthings I leave unsaid; but this I wish to say: the child should be educated\nto an abundance of fresh, cool air, fresher than it is accustomed to, cooler\nthan is perhaps comfortable at first. If involving a process of hardening,\nwhy not? Please believe that I realize the difficulties in this suggestion.\nObstruction, complaint, and criticism are inevitable. School architects and\nschool authorities have not crossed the threshold of this proposition. No\nmatter what the difficulties, it is an absolute necessity that this question be met.\nIt will pay many fold, not only in health, but in educational results.\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ii8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nLet us take another question — that of physical activities. I wish to take\nunequivocally the position that competitive athletics, under the conditions prevailing atpresent, are a serious bar to general physical development. Whether\nin themselves objectionable depends upon circumstances. At present they\nusurp and monopolize the field of physical development to the extent of li iting participation to those who have signal ability. They concentrate interest\nupon competitive success and not at all upon intrinsic physical superiority.\nFrom the primary grade to the end of the college course this criticism is progressively just. Until athletics (so called) can be put in their proper position\nof exceptional demonstration functions, they will continue to be a seriously\npernicious factor in this educational field.\nEvery child should be trained physically to its best point, and no influence\nwhich stifles interest and cripples effort by establishing impossible standards\ncan be permitted to dominate indefinitely.\nChildren cannot be forced into a process of physical development which\nshall be continuous, without interest. So far as I can see, this interest can\nonly be supplied by evolving gradually and consistently an ideal of physical\nperfection to which each shall adhere as tenaciously as to any standard in life.\nLet individual achievement displace the desire for conspicuous success.\nLet emulation take the place of disheartened envy. Let a high standard of\nschoor superiority displace the feverish eagerness for the glory of a winning\nteam. Then may we hope for general growth of an ideal which shall guide\nour physical lives.\nIn conclusion, let us recognize that mental, moral, and physical poise go\ntogether.\nDisciplinary factors, external and internal, involved in self-control are of\nincalculable value in the growth of character.\nIs there any prospect of realizing our legitimate hope for the race struggling\nwith the incubus of civilization, except in the apprehension, by teachers, of\nthe importance of this matter ? Is there any other class of society which can\nundertake to develop and mobilize the conviction necessary to accomplish\nthis regeneration ?\nHYGIENE\nJ. E. BURKE,\n\nIN THE\n\nASSISTANT\n\nBOSTON\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nPUBLIC\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nPopular education subserves a twofold purpose. It enables every child\nto rise to the height of his capabilities and his aspirations, and to become a\ncitizen of power in the service of the state. But if the individual is to realize\nhis possibilities and fulfil his civic responsibilities, in body as well as in mind,\nhe must be developed to the highest tone of efficiency. Here, then, are reciprocal obligations. The individual must cultivate sanity of body and mind, and\nthe state in turn must surround him with guarantees and safeguards essential\nto his welfare and likewise to its own integrity. With patriotic motive, there-\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nIN\n\nBOSTON\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n119\n\nfore, we rejoice to join in this widespread propaganda for the promotion and\nthe conservation of the national health.\nBoston blazed the way for the whole country in 1894 by the adoption of a\nsystem of medical inspection of schools which has ever since remained in\nvogue. This system briefly described is as follows: Deriving authority from\nthe Board of Health and serving under its direction, medical inspectors,\neighty in number, visit daily the schools within their assigned districts; inspect\npupils reported by the teachers; suggest medical or surgical treatment wherever\neither seems desirable; and in cases of diseases contagious, infectious, or\nsuspicious, they recommend the exclusion of children from school. As\nofficers of the Board of Health they likewise attend to the isolation of pupils\nthus excluded, and impose the conditions of readmission to school.\nNegatively speaking, the medical inspectors do not visit the classrooms\nto, examine pupils, and do not prescribe or offer any medical services further\nthan indicated above.\nThe School Committee of Boston did pioneer work in 1907 when it united\nthe various elements affecting the physical welfare of pupils and teachers —\nthe physical-training, the sanitary, and the hygienic agencies — and grouped\nthem within a single department with a director of school hygiene in control.\nThis Department of School Hygiene — the first of its kind to be organized in\nthis country — besides the director, includes assistant directors, instructors in\nphysical training (women), instructors in athletics (men), supervisors of playgrounds, playground teachers, assistants in playgrounds, assistants in sand\ngardens, instructor in military drill, medical inspector of special classes,\nsupervising nurse, and assistant nurses.\nThe appropriation for the maintenance of the Department of School\nHygiene is secured by a special tax levy, and cannot be diverted from its\nspecific purpose. The department again is befriended by the method of\nappointments. Eligibility for service in any position is dependent absolutely\nupon certification. The certificate of quaUfication is secured by the candidate\nsuccessfully passing an examination prescribed by the Board of Superintendents. In several of the grades of certificates, in addition to academic requirements, a classroom demonstration of skill is required.\nIt is the policy of the school authorities to welcome the co-operation of other\nintelligent forces for the popularization of constructive health. Local physicians are public-spirited and helpful. A commission of physicians has recently\nsubmitted a report upon the health of children attending the first three grades ;\na committee of oculists and electricians has reported upon the artificial lighting\nand color-schemes of school buildings; still another commission has made a\ncontribution to the problem of tuberculosis among school children.\nWith the approval of the School Committee the Director of School Hygiene\nhas appointed an Advisory Board for his department. The personnel of this\nBoard comprises representatives from the Harvard Medical School, from the\nMassachusetts General Hospital, and from social service workers; a medical\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 20\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[General\n\ninspector; the chairman of the committee on athletics at Harvard College;\nand an army officer, a graduate of West Point.\nThe first subject presented for the consideration of this new Board was\nan interesting one. A suggestion came from a prominent physician that\ncultures be taken from the throats of all children about to enter school in\nSeptember, the object being to ascertain the prevalence of diphtheria among\nschool children, and to detect and isolate the carriers of the germs. The\nAdvisory Board decided that the original suggestion involved too many complexities, but recommended a modified plan which was approved. It is\nproposed, therefore, that the experiment be tried in that section of the city\nknown as Brighton, and that cultures be taken from the throats of school\nchildren of all grades, public and private, approximately four thousand in\nnumber. The examination will be conducted conjointly by the Board of\nHealth and the School Committee, upon the reassembling of the children after\nthe summer vacation.\nThe results of this investigation should furnish some criteria for determining at what times and to what extent physical examinations of school children\nshould be made. The yearly examinations of all children for defective hearing\nand vision, as now required by law in Massachusetts, point unmistakably to\nthe desirability of examining all children when they enter school for the first\ntime, as well as periodically thereafter.\nNo accurate data are anywhere available showing the relation of the physical\nto the mental development of children. At the opening of the next school year\nit is the intention of the Department of School Hygiene to weigh and measure\nevery child in the public schools who is five years of age. An examination of\nthese same children will be repeated semi-annually until the end of their\nschool life. It will be interesting to trace the progress of this experiment.\nWithin the teaching corps likewise are advisory councils. For instance,\na committee of thirty teachers conspicuous for their interest in physiology and\nhygiene has been appointed by the Board of Superintendents to co-operate\nwith the Director of School Hygiene in interpreting the new course of study in\nphysical training for the elementary grades. This committee meets with the\ndirector and discusses with him the content of the course and the methods\nof instruction. From the viewpoint of the director these teachers get a\nclearer perception of the relative order and proportion of subjects. They\nderive no little enthusiasm from the community of their efforts.\nThe members of this committee, to each of whom a definite district has\nbeen assigned, then become the teachers of their fellows whom they call together\nfrom time to time and communicate to them the instructions and the deliberations of their conferences with the director.\nThus uniformity of work and of method is established, viligance is aroused,\nintelligent oversight is assured, and the fact that teacher as well as pupil is\nawakened to the demands of personal hygiene are considerations too vital to be\ndisregarded.\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nIN\n\nBOSTON\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n121\n\nThe professional equipment of the teacher is defective without an acquaintance with health problems and an ability to deal with them. Special attention, therefore, is devoted to these subjects at the city normal school. The\nDirector of School Hygiene personally meets all the pupil-teachers in groups.\nLectures are given by speciaHsts on the eye, the ear, the skin, the nervous system, digestion, and tuberculosis. The interrelation of teacher and school\nnurse is made clear. Early signs for the detection of common diseases are\npointed out, and a clinic is given before each division of pupil-teachers, illustrating common forms of skin diseases, facial expression of sufferers from\nadenoids, and other noticeable defects.\nA setting-up drill of ten minutes' duration is a requirement in the program\nof every high school in the city.\nInstructors in physical training (women) are in charge of the gymnasium\npractice that is required of all girls in high schools. But in addition to these\nduties the instructors are expected to care for the physical welfare of their\npupils. They weigh, measure, and examine the girls, recommend Corrective\nexercises, and keep a discriminating record of the girls' physical condition from\nyear to year. When the exigency seems to justify it, the co-operation of the\nfamily physician is invited.\nBut above all, these instructors are the girls' advisers in affairs pertaining\nto health, and often become the girls' confidants during this critical period of\nUfe. The optimist takes an additional hope as he reads the reports submitted\nby these physical-training instructors. These records show conclusively that\nthe girls are not impaired in health, that they are uniformly normal, and that\nthey give every promise of robust womanhood.\nHigh-school boys are required to take military drill. By statute law of\nthe commonwealth \"the School Committee may supervise and control all\nathletic organizations composed of pupils of the public schools and bearing the\nname of the school;\" and furthermore, \"it may directly or thru an authorized representative determine under what conditions such organizations may\nenter into competition with similar organizations in other schools.\"\nBoston has availed itself of these provisions, and the school authorities\nmaintain absolute control over all school athletics; over all games, plays, and\nsports; over all rules governing the same; and over schedules of all contests.\nInstructors in athletics, holding certificates of qualification issued by the Board\nof Superintendents and appointed by the superintendents of schools from\nrated eligible lists — these, and these alone, are privileged to act as coaches\nfor the various school teams; and whenever at any of the athletic events\nadditional assistance is required it is cheerfully rendered by men from the\nregular teaching force.\nIf it be true that the battlefields of England were won upon the playgrounds\nof Eton, what human tongue can foretell the victories to be wrought out upon\nthe playgrounds of the Republic — of the weak made strong; of reserve power\ntreasured; of initiative awakened; of courage enkindled; of manliness aroused;\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "122\n\n'NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof selfishness repressed; of self-mastery won; of joy experienced; of purposes\nfulfilled?\nHere again Boston is fruitful and patriotic. Her playground system comprises twenty-two schoolyards for younger children supplied with suitable\nequipment and under the control of certified instructors, open from April first\nto December first; twenty additional schoolyards without either equipment\nor supervision, open the whole year round; fifteen children's corners in park\nplaygrounds adequately equipped and supervised, open from April to December; and twenty-eight athletic fields for the advanced elementary-grade\npupils. From April first to December first, while the schools are in session,\nthese athletic fields are under the supervision of sub-masters and men teachers,\nninety-four in number, who accompany their pupils to the fields after school\nand meet them there on Saturday morning. Bats, balls, and equipment for\nother sports are provided, and all boys of the seventh and eighth grades are\nrequired to participate in some athletic event. In summer when the schools\nare not iA session and during the winter months these playfields are supervised by the instructors in athletics. Thus opportunity for play is afforded\ncontinuously at all seasons of the year.\nA supervisor (a woman physician) and thirty-four assistants constitute the\ncorps of nurses. Under the rules of the School Committee a school nurse must\nbe graduated from a hospital giving a two-years' course of instruction in\nnursing, and must pass an examination satisfactory to the Board of Superintendents. The examination includes academic and professional subjects, and\na demonstration of the candidate's skill at a children's clinic. The names of\nsuccessful candidates are placed upon a merit list from which appointments\nare made by the Superintendent of Schools. The duties of the nurses are\nvaried. They co-operate with the medical inspector, receive his reports, and\nfollow his suggestions. They visit the schoolrooms and talk to the pupils\nupon such subjects as care of the teeth, and proper nutrition. They advise\nwith teachers concerning special cases. They accompany excluded pupils to\ntheir homes; sometimes give directions to mothers concerning the child's care\nand diet; recommend that a physician be called; and frequently with the\nconsent of parents conduct children to the hospital or dispensary. They\n''follow up\" cases of exclusion by the medical inspector and give attention to\nchildren after hospital treatment. On Saturday mornings they escort groups\nof children to the offices of private dentists or to dental clinics as circumstances\nmay dictate. They are instrumental in securing glasses for children who\notherwise might go unprovided. They have established most cordial relations\nbetween school and home, , and in many instances they have been veritably\nthe harbingers of fresh air, sunshine, cleanHness, and dietetic reform. There\nis no attempt to patronize or to paternalize, to coerce or to usurp. All that\nis done is strictly educative and altogether confidential.\nIn October, 1908, an open-air class for tuberculous children was established.\nThirty-eight children have been admitted to the class, all of whom were posi-\n\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nIN\n\nST. LOUIS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n123\n\ntively diseased. Twenty of this number have been dismissed entirely cured\nand have been reinstated in their regular classes without loss of grade. Another\nexperiment with pupils of low vitality has been conducted in another quarter\nof the city with gratifying results. And it has been decided by the Schoolhouse Commission that in all buildings hereafter constructed a room shall be\nprovided especially adapted to pupils who are physically subnormal.\nOn May twelfth Health Day was inaugurated in Boston schools at the\nsuggestion of the Director of School Hygiene, and the pupils of all grades united\nin its celebration. The essentials of good health and its accompanying advantages were extolled. Health for the day was paramount. In the elementary grades stories were told and lessons taught upon a variety of suitable\ntopics, such as sunshine and fresh air, proper nutrition, cleanliness, correct\nbreathing and standing and walking, the cigarette, and the prevention of\ntuberculosis. Wherever it was practicable, out-of-door games were encouraged\nand demonstrations of physical exercises were given. In the high schools the\nsocial, economic, and ethical value of health was emphasized. The demand\nfor men and women, clean ahke in body and mind, was elaborated upon.\nPhysicians became instructors for the day. Teachers seized the opportunity\nto reinforce the lessons on constructive health; parents came to cement the\nbonds between hygiene in school and home; and the children rejoiced in the\nadvent of a brighter day.\nTHE\nBEN\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HYGIENE\nST. LOUIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nBLEWETT,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nST. LOUIS,\n\nINSTRUCTION,\nMO.\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe history of the establishment of this department in St. Louis shows\nsuch a natural development of a special function that it is likely to find its\ncounterpart in any large school system.\nThe medical profession of the city, of course, realized long ago that the\ngreat number of children in the public schools, coming from all conceivable\nconditions of environment and heredity, gave the best possible field, if it could\nbe used, for scientific investigations of the body and mind of the child. The\nopportunity for such investigation was sought repeatedly and in 1891 permission was given to Dr. Porter, an eminent speciaHst, to make a study of the\nphysical growth of St. Louis children. The results of the investigation were\npublished in the Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis in April,\n1894, and became noted.\nAt the meeting of the Committee on Instruction in February, 1898, a\ncommunication from a committee appointed by the St. Louis Hospital (Alumni)\nAssociation, requesting the Board to introduce medical inspection, was read.\nAfter a thoro discussion of the question, the committee decided to recommend\nto the Board the adoption of the following resolution:\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nResolved: That, in view of the arguments advanced by a committee of the St. Louis\nCity Hospital (Alumni) Medical Society, the Board of Education recommend to the Board\nof Health of the City of St. Louis, that said Board of Health submit to the Municipal\nAssembly an ordinance providing for the appointment of one or more medical inspectors\nto visit the public schools daily, under the direction of th e Board of Health, for the purpose\nof examining and removing children who are affected or threatened with infectious diseases,\nsaid inspectors to be paid by the City of St. Louis.\n\nNo action was taken by the Municipal Assembly to carry into effect the\nsuggestions of this resolution. The Hospital Association then sought and\nobtained from the Board permission to undertake with its own appointees,\nand without cost to the Board, the investigation in a portion of the city that\nwould give a cross-section running from the river to the western limits and\nincluding all conditions from the slums to the best residence districts. A\nprinted report of the investigation was submitted and the Board was again\nimportuned to take up the work.\nIn June, 1899, the committee reaffirmed the position it had taken in February, 1898. In the committee meeting, May, 1900, the superintendent stated\nthat he desired to recommend to the Board the appointment of a medical\nofficer, with the rank perhaps of assistant superintendent, whose duties would\nconsist of looking after the general sanitary condition of the schools; the health\nof the children in general, such as instructing teachers concerning eye and ear\ntests, and cases of contagious disease; vaccination; in fact, to have general\nsupervision over the hygienic conditions of the public schools. After some\ndiscussion of the matter, the committee decided to defer its consideration\nuntil the special meeting which would be called during the month for the\npurpose of considering the superintendent's list of nominations.\nAt the special committee meeting in the same month, Mr. Eliot's motion\nto appoint a medical officer was discussed, and the committee agreed to defer\nfurther consideration of this matter until September next. On inquiry from the\nmembers of the committee, the superintendent stated that the services of such\nmedical officer would be an advantage in the following directions, and others.\n1. Visits to the schools, to inquire into their sanitary condition.\n2. Instructions to principals and teachers in regard to school hygiene. Conference\nwith the Building Department in regard to the same matter.\n3. Issue of certificates to teachers who are in ill-health, when the question arises\nwhether they ought to be allowed to continue in their classes. Examination of pupils\nreported from some chronic and possibly contagious disease.\n4. Determining the proper time for the return of children that have suffered from\ncontagious diseases.\n5. Instruction to teachers concerning sanitary matters in general, and in particular\nshowing how to test the eyes and ears of children for the discovery of abnormal cases.\n6. Inquiry into cases of defective or mentally abnormal children now in the public\nschools.\nPassing on the question whether they ought to be excluded from school or not.\n7. Issuing certificates to young teachers prior to their appointment.\n8. General supervision of the vaccination of the pupils by the physicians of the Board\nof Health.\n\nThe question under discussion involved both function and finance.\n\nThe\n\nm.\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nIN ST. LOUIS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n125\n\nfunds of the Board of Education are derived largely from a special school\ntax and are consequently not appropriated out of a general city fund; so the\nquestion of who should pay for the work partly obscured the question of\nresponsibih'ty. No action was taken upon previous recommendations.\nDuring the next six years, the question was again raised in one form or another\nbut the Board did not at any time change materially from its position that the\nBoard of Health should be responsible for the inspection of health conditions,\nwhile the responsibihty for sanitary conditions rested on the Board of Education.\nIn 1906 the necessity for establishing schools for individual instruction\nof children of defective mentality became evident. In its discussion of the\nplans for this work, the committee resolved:\nThe committee recognizes the necessity of medical inspection, and examination for\nadmission to the defective schools in particular, as outlined in the report of the superintendent, but the committee is of the opinion that the appointment of a medical expert by\nthe Board should be deferred until the system is in operation, and that the superintendent\nbe authorized to obtain the necessary medical advice and that the Board pay for such\nservices a legitimate fee.\n\nIn its meeting, May, 1907, it discussed further the superintendent's plan\nfor the special schools and was of the opinion that while medical supervision\nfor the purpose of discovering cases of incipient disease among the children\nwas the function of the city authorities and not that of the Board of Education,\nthere should be sanitary inspection of the schools by some well-qualified officer\nand this person should also have charge of the defective schools and control,\nunder the direction of the superintendent, admission to the same.\nIn its meeting, October, 1907, the committee briefly discussed the estabfishment of defective schools for defective children which was to be submitted\nto the Board in November, and they were of the opinion that medical supervision should be introduced by the employment of from one to three persons\nto inspect the sanitary conditions of the various buildings and also the special\nschools to be established. At the meeting of the Board in November, 1907,\nthe superintendent's final plan for special schools was submitted and approved\nand contained the following paragraph :\nMedical inspection of the children in these schools is a necessary condition of their full\nsuccess. In some cases, the child is mentally weak on account of certain physical defects\nwhich, when once detected, are subject to cure or removal. The time of a physician would,\nas a matter of course, not be filled altogether by his duties in the special schools. The\ngreater part of his time should be given to the sanitary inspection of the other schools.\n\nAt the same meeting, the Board approved the superintendent's nomination\nof a medical adviser and defined his duties thus:\nThe medical adviser shall be under the control and direction of the superintendent\nof instruction and keep such office hours in the rooms of the Board of Education and tender\nsuch reports as the superintendent may prescribe.\nThe!?medical adviser shall devote his whole time during the sessions of the schools\nin visiting the same, except when required by the superintendent to assist him in other\nduties. He shall report to the superintendent in writing on his inspection of the schools\nand recommend such measures as he deems conducive to sanitary interests.\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe medical adviser shall inspect the conditions of light and ventilation in the various\nschoolrooms; also the heating of the schools and the temperature of the rooms. He shall\nexamine the appliances of the school buildings and the practices of instruction in their\nsanitary aspects, and report his observations and eventual suggestions to the superintendent.\nThe medical adviser shall have authority, under direction of the superintendent of\ninstruction, to instruct principals and teachers in sanitary matters.\nHe shall be authorized to instruct teachers individually or in such meetings as the\nsuperintendent may call, in the best ways of conducting elementary tests of the eyes and\nears of the pupils. He shall inspect new plans of schoolhouses or of improvements and\nadditions to the same, in order to observe whether they are in accordance with proper\nsanitary conditions.\nIn case of epidemics or accidents, he shall render medical advice and give such assistance as the superintendent may direct, provided, however, that he shall not undertake the\ntreatment of diseases in cases coming to his notice thru his connection with the public\nschools.\nHe shall have power under the authority of commissioner of school buildings to give\ninstructions to janitors in all matters appertaining to the health of pupils and teachers, and\nthe sanitary conditions of the buildings.\n\nIn January, 1908, the committee took cognizance of a bill drafted by\nofiScers of the Health Department for presentation to the Municipal Assembly.\nThe purpose of the bill was to establish a system of medical supervision of all\nthe schools in the city. A copy of the bill was addressed to the Board of\nEducation by the Health Department and suggestions as to changes or modifications were invited. The committee agreed to make the following report\nto the Board:\nThe committee has learned that a draft of a bill, providing for medical supervision\nof all the schools in the city by the Health Department of St. Louis, is to be submitted to the\nBoard of Education for examination at the present meeting.\nIt is recommended that this proposed bill be referred to a committee composed of the\npresident of the Board, the superintendent of instruction, and the attorney, arid that if\napproved by this committee, the president is to communicate with the presidents of the\nCity Council and the House of Delegates, recommending the adoption of the bill in question, after it has been introduced in the Municipal Assembly.\n\nThis legislation remained in debate during the year 1908; some holding\nthat the work would be more efficiently done if under the control of the Board\nof Education, others claiming that there was doubt about this and that, if it\nwere not doubtful, still the Board of Education should not bear the expense.\nMeanwhile the medical adviser was at work and was demonstrating his value\nby efi5cient service in connection with the special schools and in many other\nways that could not have been foreseen. And finally, the Committee on\nInstruction reported to the Board at the meeting in January, 1909, that it\napproved the recommendation of the superintendent that a Department\nof Hygiene be established and maintained by the Board. In the meeting\nof the Board, February, 1909, the following report was approved:\nComplying with the suggestions of the report of the Committee on Instruction submitted to the Board at the January meeting of 1909, the undersigned presents for the consideration ofthe Board the following as a plan for establishing a department, the function\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nHYGIENE\n\nIN\n\nST. LOUIS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n127\n\nof which shall be to discover and cause to be remedied, as far as possible, physical defects\nand communicable diseases that might interfere with efficient school work:\nAmend Rule 8 by adding the following sections:\nSection XVI. There shall be a division of the Department of Instruction, designated\nas the Department of School Hygiene.\nSection XVII. The work of this department shall be:\na) To examine all of the pupils at least once a year for the purpose of ascertaining the\nexistence of any physical defect that interferes with the pupils' progress in the school, and\nto report any such defect to the parents, and advise that the family physician be consulted.\nb) To examine daily all evidences of the presence in the schools of communicable\ndisease and to make prompt report of all cases of such to the Board of Health or its officers.\nc) To examine the sanitary conditions of the school premises and to make report of\nit to the superintendent of instruction.\nSection XVIII. The superintendent of instruction shall have power to appoint for\nthis work: a supervisor of hygiene and as many inspectors of hygiene as the Board may\nfrom time to time determine.\nThe supervisor and inspectors shall be graduates of medical colleges of recognized\nstanding.\nSection XIX. The supervisor of hygiene shall be a skilled physician and shall have\ngeneral supervision of the work of the department and such other duties connected with\nit as may be assigned to him by the superintendent of instruction.\nHe shall devote his entire time to the work of the department.\nSection XX. The inspectors of hygiene shall devote themselves to this work for ten\nmonths in each year, and shall during all school hours be engaged in their investigations\nin the school buildings; and during the school term shall use such further time as shall be\nrequired for making the necessary examinations and reports.\nNo one shall be nominated for or appointed to the position of inspector of hygiene\nwho has not passed successfully an examination offered by the Board of Education to all\ncandidates for such positions. This examination shall be given both as a test of professional\ntraining and experience as a physician, and of personal qualifications for this special\nwork.\nSection XXI. The supervisor and inspectors shall be elected for a term of one year by\nthe Board of Education upon nomination of the superintendent of instruction. The\nschedule of salaries shall be so fixed as to include the necessary expenses for carfare or\nlivery, for which no extra allowance shall be made.\nSection XXII. The supervisor and inspectors shall not treat any case of physical\ndefect or disease that has been discovered by either of them while engaged in the work\nof this department\nSection XXIII. The provisions of the Rules of the Board of Education and of the\nCharter, relating to the suspension and removal of teachers, shall apply to the supervisor\nand inspectors in this department.\nSection XXIV. The work of the department shall be conducted under such further\nregulations as may be prescribed by the superintendent of instruction with the approval\nof the Board of Education.\nRECOMMENDATIONS\n\nShould the above rules be approved by the Board, it is further recommended:\nA. That the first examination for inspectors be held at an early date under the direction of the superintendent of instruction.\nB. That the following five districts, composed of the school districts here given, be\nestablished for the present and until experience warrants an extension of the work:\nDistrict No. i, Jefferson, Henry, O' Fallon.\nDistrict No. 2, Carr Lane, Lincoln, Franklin, Carr.\nDistrict No. 3, Madison, Laclede, Peabody, Clinton.\nDistrict No. 4, Lafayette, Humboldt, Carroll.\nDistrict No. 5, Delany, Dessalines, Dumas L'Ouverture, Attucks.\nC. That each district be assigned to one inspector of hygiene.\nD. That the work of these inspectors begin in September, 1909.\nE. That the salary schedule be as follows: Supervisor, ist year, $2500.00; 2d year,\n$2600.00.\nThis salary to be paid in twelve monthly installments.\nInspectors, ist year, $1200.00; 2d year, $1300.00; 3d year, $1400.00; 4th year,\n$1500.00.\nThese salaries to be paid in ten monthly installments.\nF. That a bacteriological laboratory be opened in the Board of Education Building,\nor in some school building, and that it be equipped with necessary instruments and supplies.\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe opinion of the attorney was required on the suggested change of rules.\nThe following portions of his opinion answer the question of right of the\nBoard to undertake the proposed work:\nOur State Constitution declares that a \"general diffusion of knowledge and\nintelligence is essential to the preservation of the rights and liberties of the\npeople,\" and therefore provides for the establishment and maintenance of free\npublic schools. Pursuant to this constitutional provision, the General Assembly in 1833 provided for the establishment of such schools in St. Louis, and\nin that Act it was provided that the Board of Education\nshall have power to make all rules, ordinances, and statutes proper for the government\nand management of such schools and property, so that the same shall not be inconsistent\nwith the laws of the land, and generally to do all lawful acts which may be proper or convenient to carry into effect the business of the corporation.\nIt is a fundamental principle in statutory and constitutional construction that a comprehensive grant of power, particularly for the accomplishment of great public ends,\nnecessarily carries with it the right to select any appropriate means which are not prohibited\nby law.\nIt therefore follows that the Board of Education may determine, in the exercise of a\nwise discretion, whether the establishment of a department of school hygiene, with a supervisor and a number of inspectors in charge, is a necessary or proper means for maintaining\nthe eflSciency of the schools, whether such means are reasonably required for \"the general\ndiffusion of knowledge and intelligence\" which our Constitution declares to be \"essential\nto the preservation of the rights and liberties of the people.\"\n\nThe superintendent of instruction made the following report to the Board\nat its meeting, April, 1909:\nIn accordance with the provisions of Rule 8, Section XX, and the action of the Board\nat the February meeting. Vol. XV, p. 12 16, an examination of candidates for the position of\ninspector of hygiene was held on Apri 1 28.\nThe examination was conducted by the superintendent of instruction, assisted by the\nmedical adviser and the assistant superintendents.\nThe examination consisted of a written test of professional scholarship and experience,\nand an oral test of special fitness for the work. The written test was covered by sets of\nquestions on seven general topics. During the written examination, the candidates'\npapers were identified by the numbers and not by the names of the writers. In estimating\nthe results of the examination, 50 per cent, was allowed to the written test and 50 per cent,\nto the oral test. The value of testimonials entered into the oral test. Fifty physicians having the qualifications required by the Board presented themselves for the examination. Of\nthis number, forty-six were white men, two white women, and two colored men. Complete\nreports on the examination, including sets of questions given in the written examination,\nare placed in the files in the sui)erintendent's oflSce.\nUpon a careful review of the per-cent. returns of the examination, without knowledge of\nthe names of the candidates, it was thought best to report to the Board the names of all\nwho made 75 per cent, or more and in the order of their standing in the examination.\n\nThe work of the new department will begin with the opening of the new\nschool year. Each inspector will have under his care between three and four\nthousand pupils, including the pupils of one of the special schools for individual\ninstruction.\n\n§L\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n129\n\nThe details of administration of the department are being worked out.\nThese details will include forms of reports and records for the guidance of the\ndepartment and for the information of teachers, physicians, and the general\npublic.\nMORAL\nCLIFFORD\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU THE AGENCY\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nWEBSTER\nBARNES,\nEXECUTIVE\nCHAIRMAN\nOF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE ON MORAL\nTRAINING,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nUnless the signs all fail us, we are nearing the dawn of a new era which\nbids fair to form a better setting to the song of the herald angels than any\nwhich has gone before. It will prove no rival to the Victorian Age, with its\ndevelopment of arts and letters; and industrialism will point to other eras\nfor her most wonderful achievements; but it will win a glory greater than these\nand far more lasting, for the hearts of an eager people will beat in sympathy\nwith that of the Christ when he took little children in his arms and blessed\nthem, and said: *'For of such is the kingdom of heaven, and whosoever shall\noffend one of these little ones, it were better that a millstone were hung about\nhis neck and that he were drowned in the depth of the sea.\" Perhaps, as the\ndawn grows brighter, someone will call it \"The Children's Age.\"\nOne of the significant signs of the times is the marked attention which\nscience is giving to the lifting of some of the burdens so long and patiently\nborne by the children of the poor. Helpless infants are kept from the blindness\nwhich follows improper attention; the lame are taught to walk, and the weak\nbecome strong; the spread of contagious diseases is prevented; and the awful\nlaw of heredity is stripped of half its terror by the wise use of training and\nenvironment.\nThe city of Glasgow has just completed a careful series of experiments\nwhich go to prove that children of bad parentage, if removed from vicious\nsurroundings and carefully trained, can be made into upright citizens, with\nonly a small percentage of failure; and the Barnardo homes for slum children\nin London are collecting ample statistics corroborating the same fact.\nMunicipalities are awakening to a new sense of their responsibility toward\nthe right development of child life, and in addition to the large gifts made for\npublic education, they are generously establishing playgrounds, gymnasia,\nbathing beaches, bath-houses, and other agencies which afford pleasure and\nrecreation, as well as juvenile courts and such associations as promise protection for the weak and the ignorant. Child-labor laws are receiving the attention of state and national legislators to a remarkable degree, and woe betide\nthat corporation which attempts to withstand the strong tide of public opinion\nwhich demands not only fair play, but generous consideration for the children\nwho have to toil.\nBut most significant of all the signs which herald the coming of this new\nera is the earnest effort being made by educational authorities to increase the\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "I30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nefficiency of the public schools as an agency for the development of character.\nThe schools have always aimed at this high ideal, and that which most stirs our\nhearts as we read the lives of the great teachers is their splendid struggle to\nattain this end. But, tho much has been done in the past, there is a deepening\nsense that our schools should become more effective along these lines, and\nthat there are special conditions of ominous portent which make this demand\ndoubly imperative at the present time.\nCriminologists who have examined most carefully into the facts relating\nto juvenile delinquency speak in a rather discouraging way of the influence\nexerted by our public schools in the prevention of crime. The various church\norganizations, to which we look for spiritual leadership and religious education,\ndo not hesitate to reveal an unfortunate state of affairs. The attendance at\nSunday services and mid-week meetings is growing steadily less. The\nSunday schools fail to reach as many of the children in proportion to the\npopulation as they did in former days, and the scholars remain under their\ncare a shorter time. The authority of pastors and religious teachers is not\nwhat it used to be, and, as the result of historical research and higher criticism,\nonly partially understood, many old beliefs have been swept away, and even\nthe Bible, for some at least, has lost much of its wholesome influence.\nThe homes themselves, the very nurseries of our childhood, seem to be\nundergoing a silent process of deterioration, in which one of the prominent\nsymptoms is the disinclination to undertake careful and systematic training of\nthe young, but instead a wilUngness to intrust it all to the schools. Lay it, if\nyou will, to a growing lack of parental authority; to the excessive demands\nmade by our modern commercial and social Ufe upon the heads of the family,\nor to the passing-away of those good old Puritan customs, such as morning and\nevening prayers; whatever the cause, the fact remains, and the school is becoming more and more in loco parentis, both as regards the soul and the mind of\nits pupils.\nThus, from far and near, a cry goes up to make the school a greater safeguard of the nation's virtues, to increase its efficiency as an agency for moral\ntraining and the development of character, and, to the everlasting credit of the\nteacher be it said, this appeal is meeting with a noble response both in our\nown and foreign countries.\nFrom such great leaders as President G Stanley Hall, Professor John Dewey,\nDr. Felix Adler, Professor Michael Sadler, and a score of others who might\nbe mentioned, there have come volumes and essays and inspiring addresses\nbearing upon this topic. Various governments have appointed special commis ions todeal with the problem in its more complicated forms; and in two\nor three of the European countries, the fate of national parties has been largely\ndetermined by their attitude toward this all-important question.\nThe measures adopted by different educational authorities to attain the\nhigh aim we have under consideration have varied ahnost beyond number;\nbut with- every passing year there has come a clearer understanding of the\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\ Sessions]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n131\n\n\\\n\\\n\\yiumerous factors which\nenter into the problem, and we may confidently pre-\n\ndict that its correct solution, in accordance with the peculiar needs of each\nihdividual nation, will not long be delayed.\nIt was my privilege to have some part in a recent international investigation\nwhich served to show the methods used or approved by a majority of the educational authorities of Europe, and I venture to present here a brief summary\nof certain portions of that inquiry.\nIn regard to the much-debated question as to the ethical value of different\nstudies, it was found that a vast majority of the teachers in the preparatory\nschools were incHned to believe that there is ethical value in all school work\nwhich calls for concentration and effort — \"the blessedness of drudgery,\"\ndoing to the best of one's ability ''whatever the hand findeth to do\" — but that\nhistory and literature (including Bible lessons) lent themselves more especially\nto moral instruction. As a whole, they were ''strongly opposed to systematic\nmoral instruction according to syllabus, as being too much in the air.\" They\nurged that the end to be kept in mind is not \"stocking of the brain with moral\ntags,* but the formation of moral habits, and habits can only be formed by\ngetting the will to assert itself in action.\"\nSpeaking from personal investigation, carried on in many schools thruout\nGreat Britain, I can say that no teacher in my hearing ever spoke slightingly of\nBible lessons; but, on the contrary, they were unanimous in praising their\nethical value and in testifying to the satisfaction which they found in teaching\nthis subject.\nIn one of the largest cities of Scotland, a Roman Catholic priest, who was a\nmember of the school board, expressed to me his most hearty approval of these\nBible lessons, saying they were the only religious and moral instruction which\nmany of the children of his own denomination received, so careless were their\nparents, but he added that he would be glad to have the Westminster Catechism dropped from the school curriculum.\nAnother investigator, reporting on elementary schools in England, stated\nthat it was the unanimous opinion of the teachers that \"the root of all morality\nlies in religion, and that to divorce the one from the other is impossible.\"\nIn the opinion of nearly all, the secularization of the schools would be a\nmenace to the national life. One head mistress has recently pubHshed \"a\nsuggestive scheme in which moral teaching based on religion is woven into\nevery fiber of the curriculum.\" This report goes on to say that \"it is the\natmosphere of their schools, the influence of their own personalities, the children's strong instinct of imitation and keen desire to please upon which most\nteachers rely in early moral training, tho they also welcome openings for giving\nmore direct teaching as the moral sense of the children gradually develops.\"\nTake it as a whole, however, there is a strong opposition to what may be\ncalled the French system of direct moral instruction, one of the leading masters\nof Great Britain calling it not only \"useless\" but \"really pernicious.\" He\nsays: \"One of the principal moral faults that a teacher has to fight, and one\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwhich is fostered by the class system, is the want of truth. By this I mean not\nmerely lying, but use of the teacher's ideas as the boy's own. He says not\nwhat he thinks, but what he thinks the teacher would like him to say, and the\naverage teacher is blinded into thinking that the boy actually feels what he\nsays. There is thus a double evil, and at the close of a moral lesson, one can\nwell imagine the boy's answers, which, having the appearance of moral progress, are only the result of mental effort.\"\nMy own investigation in the schools of France led me to feel that systematic\nmoral instruction was fairly well done, and productive of good results. I saw\nclasses taught in this subject from the primary grades to those in the Lycee,\nand certainly there was no lack of interest on the part of either teacher or\nscholar. Indeed, most of the teachers in the public schools felt, as one\nexpressed himself to me, that \"the church is lost to the state, and the future\nwelfare of the nation depends on the moral training afforded by the public\nschools.\" For them, this kind of training centers largely on moral instruction,\nand they, therefore, teach this subject with nothing less than religious zeal.\nIt is only fair to add, however, that one of the English investigators who\nlater followed in my footsteps, reported thus: '*It may be objected to all these\nlessons that, on the one hand, they are in danger of producing moral priggishness, or even hypocrisy as serious as the religious hypocrisy of former days;\nand that on the other hand the attempt to analyze motives and to examine\ninto hypothetical exceptions to the general rules laid down may produce a\nmental attitude not far removed from that of a pupil of a seventeenth-century\ncasuist.\"\nIn my judgment, this whole matter has been well summed up by still\nanother who had a part in this same inquiry. \"It would seem, then, as a\nresult of this examination of the French system, that direct moral instruction,\nappealing thru the intellect, is unable to stand alone or to take the place of\nmoral training. But, where moral atmosphere can be produced, direct instruction would then be useful in defining, strengthening, and controlling the\nimpression made, and in helping the mental outlook.\"\nAs a result of our investigation in Germany, it was found that the teachers,\nwith few exceptions, do not favor separate moral instruction. They contend\nthat \"any attempt to teach morality in special lessons will defeat its purpose;\nthat morality cannot be taught; and that the aim of influencing children\nethically can be achieved much better thru the whole spirit of the school, and\nthru ethical teaching in connection with the various subjects.\" It will, of\ncourse, be remembered that in all the schools of Germany, religious lessons\nare given on a denominational basis, and that great importance is attached to\nthis special instruction.\nReligious lessons are given in most of the schools of Switzerland, but\nsystematic moral instruction in only the primary departments. There seems\nto be a strong indisposition on the part of the teachers to introduce systematic\nmoral instruction in the higher grades.\nOne experienced teacher urged that\n\n^1\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n133\n\nmoral teaching must be the natural outflow of the teacher's personality.\nVery careful selection of the school staff seemed to him the vital point.\nFor lack of time, however, I must turn from foreign shores, and give you a\nbrief summary of another inquiry in which I had a somewhat larger part, and\nwhich was carried on much nearer home. But, in passing, it is of interest to\nnote that one of the immediate results of this European investigation was the\ngathering, last September, in London, of the first International Moral Educational Congress, with official delegates from almost every civilized country on\nthe globe.\nFor sometime past, a Committee of the National Council of this Association\nhas been at work prosecuting an inquiry on lines similar to those which were\nfollowed in Europe, and speaking on behalf of this committee, I want to express\nour sense of gratitude at the generous assistance which has been extended by\nteachers, principals, and superintendents of public schools covering a territory\nfrom the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Lakes to the Gulf. Not less than\none thousand schools have been brought within the scope of this investigation.\nIn reply to the question as to the comparative ethical value of different\nschool studies, 58 per cent, give the first place to the group comprising history\nand literature, literature being somewhat the favorite. As an example of the\ntestimony in respect to these studies, I would quote the following:\n1. Perhaps the best discipline for strengthening moral motives within the minds and\ncharacter of developing children is the study of history; at least it can be made such.\nThere is no subject better adapted to the ethical aim and none so valuable in adding\ninterest and life to th6 merely formal labors in reading, spelling, and grammar. Factors\nmaking for the development of character in young children are the dramatic, picturesque,\npersonal, heroic. While much depends upon the manner of presentation, yet, if all other\nthings are equal, history should have the greatest ethical value among the school studies.\n2. No other study in the elementary school compares in ethical value to the study of\nliterature, because human duty, right character and conduct are therein presented with\ngreater detail and analysis than even conduct in the concrete presents. By means of reading, dramatization, memorization, conversation, and the drama, high standards of right\nin conduct and aims are worked into ideals of life.\n\nTwenty per cent, of the teachers considered that the ethical value of studies\ndiffered so slightly and that the method of teaching was so all-important that\nthey refused to make any special selection. As examples of this position, I\nquote the following:\n1. All exact knowledge and thoro study has in itself a moral value and a moral effect\non the student. I deem it important, therefore, that all study should be conducted with\naccuracy and thoroness to get the best moral results. Loose, slipshod work has an immoral\neffect on the student. I would, therefore, urge that we seek the best moral results in all\nour schools directly in line of each day's work, and of each pupil's studies.\n2. The value of studies varies with individuals and the preference should, I think,\nbe given in any instance to that study in which the individuality of the student counts\nmost. That study is best for any pupil, morally considered, which quickens most his intellectual interest and inspires him to put forth his most earnest effort in the direction of\nworthy objects to the exclusion of indolence, dissipation of energy, or indulgence in frivolity.\n3. The ethical value of a school study is the moral force of the teacher presenting the\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsubject. The subjects usually referred to as ethical, history and literature, are frequently\nof less apparent ethical value to a class than scientific or mathematical subjects presented\nby a teacher of sincerity and moral earnestness.\n4. The ethical results of school subjects depend as much, if not more, upon the method\nof handling them, as they do upon the subject-matter. Of course, each subject has its\nown method in so far as it determines the way the learner's mind must move. Two\nthird-grade teachers in arithmetic, using same text in same school, all conditions and circumstances similar, save the one of different teachers, got quite different results, not only in\narithmetic, but in character.\nA\nB\nCompleted assignment in 18 weeks\n35 weeks\nNeat in board work\nCareless\nSystematic on paper\nProblems scattered over paper\nAccurate in processes\nLess accurate\nRapid in processes\nSlower\nEnjoyed the work\nIndifferent\nWanted to show what they could do\nIndifferent\nAshamed of mistakes\nTook it as a matter of course\nConscious of power and self-control\nConscious of inability\nThese same differences appeared in all work. I have illustrated by arithmetic because it\nis easier to measure the objective results. These differences in ethical results are due\nchiefly to the teaching power of the two women.\n\nA small percentage spoke strongly in favor of manual in combination with\nmental work. As, for instance:\nWithout doubt the highest ethical value lies in those subjects combining mental and\nmanual effort — moral training, drawing, domestic art and science, laboratory work, business training, etc. I am of the opinion that much of the ethical value of such subjects\nlies in the fact that they bring the teacher and pupil into closer personal relations because\nof their demand for individual help.\n\nIn reply to the question as to how far, under existing conditions, systematic\nmoral instruction and training were given, 21 per cent, denied that anything\nsystematic along this line was being done; 60 per cent, affirmed that the work\nwas insignificant and perfunctory, while 19 per cent, were wiUing to consider\nit as fair. There were absolutely none who felt satisfied with present conditions along these lines.\nAs an example of the testimony received concerning the general work of\nmoral training, I quote as follows:\nSystematic moral training is given in nearly every public school worth the name, and\nthe emphasis is placed on punctuality, industry, truthfulness, and total abstinence frorn\nalcohol and tobacco. In some 50 per cent, of the schools or more, some attention is given\nto personal cleanliness, kindness to others, and kindness to animals.\n\nIn regard to the instruction received thru religious exercise, an example of\nthe testimony received is as follows:\nSuch instruction is received only thru opening exercises held three mornings of the\nweek. The time used is fifteen minutes, sometimes more. The exercises comprise the\npresentation of moral and religious questions thru readings from the Bible and other\nreligious and ethical works, and brief talks growing out of the life and concrete needs of\nthe school. An attempt is made to unify and solidify the feeling of the school over questions of right and wrong in manners and morals, with fair success.\nWe close with a hymn.\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n135\n\nWe believe these exercises to be of very great value; and, therefore, they have been continued with the growing power that comes from reverent tradition for thirty years.\n\nConcerning systematic moral instruction at present carried on, I quote as\nfollows:\n1. The lower grades of the elementary schools have definite daily instruction given in\nconduct and morals, the lessons being based upon the stories and fables told or read to the\nchildren and upon concrete examples found in everyday life.\n2. One period per week (half -hour) should be set aside for lessons on conduct. The\nthoughts of the child should early be directed to ideas of the proper conduct of life. He\nshould learn the word duty, have his sense of moral obligation aroused. The aim is not\nintellectual knowledge of some ethical system, but rather that the children should gain\nappreciation and admiration of great and noble actions and should conceive a disapproval\nand dislike for what is morally wrong or low. The essential ethical element of a story (the\nstory is suggested) is developed thru questions which appeal to the moral sentiment and\njudgment of the child and impress the idea that doing right regardless of the personal comfort or advantage is a duty an^ the measure of human worth. Conduct is divided into\n\"Duties toward Self and Duties toward Others\" with several subtopics. \"Helps and\nHindrances\" are named. The work is carried on during the special period, chiefly thru\nspecial reading-lessons which are assigned with the ethical element suggested.\n\nA question which elicited lengthy and interested responses was as follows:\nDo you think that, in addition to the influence exerted on the pupils by the tone of the\nschool, by the organization of its work and play, and by the personality of the teachers,\nmore should be done to provide systematic moral instruction and training as part of education ? If so, should it be (a) tho systematic in plan, almost entirely indirect in method,\ne. g., given thru the teaching of literature and history; or (b) arranged as part of the religious\nexercise of the school; or (c) planned in the form of regular lessons, making a graded course\nof moral instruction on non-theological lines; or is some combination of these methods the\nmore eflScacious ?\n\nOf those who replied 47 per cent, considered that the personality of the\nteacher and the tone of the school were together so important in providing\nmoral instruction and training that, at most, there would only be required in\naddition some indirect method of moral instruction. I quote the following\nopinions on the subject:\n1. The personality of the teacher is paramount in instilling moral tone into her pupils.\nHer influence, her organization, and her administration of her school leave a marked impression.\n2. It is emphatically true, with respect to the earlier years of school life, that everything depends upon the personality of the teacher; in innumerable ways that can never be\nreduced to formal statements, the teacher may impart to the eager minds of children impressions as to their family, social — in a word — their moral relations, which never will be effaced.\nWhether this intuitive instruction will take place or not depends entirely upon the teacher.\nIt cannot be brought about by any system of formal preparation or decided by any examinations.\n3. Most emphatically and unreservedly, I must say that the ethical and moral training\nof public-school pupils should be imparted altogether indirectly thru: (i) the tone of the\nschool; (2) the organization of its work and play; (3) the personality of the teacher, who\nshould stand for everything that is true, honest, just, pure, lovely, and of good report.\n4. In catching fish, bait is as important as the hook.\n5. Personally it seems to me that the best moral instruction is given when it is least\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nobtrusive. Pupils begin to regard ethics, systematically taught as part of their school\ncurriculum, as something artificial, something good enough for the classroom and for discussions with the teacher, but entirely unnecessary on the playground or in after life.\n\nOnly 13 per cent, spoke in favor of a religious exercise. As an example,\nother than that quoted under another heading, I might give the following:\nThe lack of reverence is a crying evil of the day. It seems to me highly proper that\nthere should be some recognition of a Supreme Being in our schools. Even Congress is\nopened with prayer, and I see nothing inconsistent with public-school methods in having\nthe day sessions opened with prayer.\n\nOnly 18 per cent, came out strongly in favor of a graded course of moral\ninstruction on non-theological lines. As examples:\n1. I must think that some form of regular lessons in a graded course of moral instruction on non-theological lines would be valuable, provided the teacher is perfectly in sympathy with the children and interested in her subject.\n2. As a result of experience and observation, both as an individual teacher and also as\nprincipal of a city high school, I am convinced that systematic moral instruction and training should be made a part of education in the pubUc schools. This work should be direct\nas well as indirect. It should include rational non-sectarian religious exercises, the relation of incidents from life, the discussion of wholesome literary and historical themes, and\nalso definite, formal, positive, direct teaching of those precepts and practices and cultivation of those sentiments and emotions that tend toward the refinement of character and the\nelevation of manhood.\n\nIt might be of interest to quote here one of the numerous statements in\nopposition to religious education, as, for instance :\nReligious exercises, even if non-sectarian, should not be conducted in the public\nschools at any time or season. The danger is near that non-sectarian instruction will\nbecome at all times distinctly sectarian. Even by the indirect method of moral instruction\nthru reading, stories, literature, music, art, history, and geography, the teacher is apt to\nimpart this or that religious notion peculiar to her belief.\n\nIn opposition to systematic moral instruction, I quote the following:\n1. Regular lessons in a graded course would be productive of much more harm than\ngood. I do not believe moral or religious growth can be arranged on schedule. It must\nbe clinched when the occasion is ripe for it. A child should have systematic religious\ninstruction, but the public schools cannot give it.\n2. A graded course of moral instruction would gradually be given by most teachers in\na perfunctory way and thus fail in the very object to be accomplished.\n\nThere were 16 per cent, of the replies in favor of combining all of the\nmethods mentioned — viz., the indirect, the systematic and direct, and the religious exercise.\nA very small number, hardly a fraction of i per cent, favored a scheme\nof denominational instruction, as for instance:\n1. Give a period each week to the di£ferent religious denominations to give direct\ndogmatic religious instruction.\n2. Let the state and churches unite in an e£Fort to hold \"services\" or \"meetings\" in\nother places than the school building. This might require a readjustment of the time for\nthe opening of the daily sessions of the schools; it would also require more \"open churches\"\nbut such a compromise would not be doing even a \"little wrong\" to a \"great right.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n137\n\nReplying to the question as to how far the schools succeeded in cultivating\na sense of civic responsibility and of duty to the state, 52 per cent, considered\nthat the schools were fairly successful, while 48 per cent, felt that the results\nwere far from satisfactory.\nAs examples of these positions, take the following:\n1. As civic pride is the basis of civic duty, I had my teachers, by familiar talks, call\nthe attention of their pupils to the places and buildings made sacred by the struggle for\nliberty, and to have their pupils visit these buildings and write occasional essays upon the\nevents with which these buildings were associated. Much interest was aroused in this\nrespect as Philadelphia is especially rich in historic associations. Teachers were instructed\nto require their pupils to commit and recite passages of prose and poetry, containing the\nexpression of patriotic sentiments. A list of such extracts was appended to the course of\nstudy in civil government, many of them classic in thought and judgment. In 1893 I\nintroduced the observance of Flag Day into the public schools, which attracted such wide\nattention that the custom has spread from city to city and from state to state until it has\nnow become well-nigh universal. I also introduced the observance of the anniversary of\nthe landing of William Penn, which is now an annual custom.\n2. I fear we have not had much success in culttvating civic responsibility. In my\nown school I try always to make the children feel the power of their togetherness, to feel\na loyalty to the school, and we use all memorial days — by whatever name — to arouse and\ndeepen love of country. I feel strongly that it is a mistake to have the flag floating all the\ntime. The children carelessly do not see it, and have no feeling about it. It seems to me\nbetter to float it on occasions and recognize it each time.\n3. I think, under careful guidance, that civic responsibility and duty to the state can\nbe taught by making the school a community itself, and by emphasizing the duty of each\none of the pupils to this community. Then, when they get into the world, they will see\nin the life about them something in which their school life has fitted them to take part.\n\nReplying to the question: \"What success has attended eifforts to interest\nthe elder pupils in social or charitable work ?\" 60 per cent, reported that little\nor nothing had been done along this line, while 40 per cent, told of various\nkinds of effort that seemed successful.\nIn regard to hindrances to the work of the schools in the formation 'of\ncharacter, there was a surprising unanimity of expression as to the failure of\nthe home to fulfill its obligations along this Une; 96 per cent, reported as finding\ndifl5culty in the development of character by reason of improper home training.\nAs, for instance :\n1. We find it a constant struggle in our school work to inculcate feelings of obedience\nto parents and yet at the same time to help children to rise above a condition of home life\nand social environment which is most deplorable.\n2. A large percentage of moral failures in school results from bad home influences\nfound alike in the homes of the rich, the poor, and the well-to-do.\n3. The conditions of home life, especially for the pupils who are brought up in wealthy\nsurroundings, are most unfortunate for the development of the young people of today.\nToo much is done for our young people if they are to develop a proper sense of responsibility to the community life and a relf -reliant spirit — a spirit of initiative.\n4. The conditions of home life and social environment hinder much of the work of the\nschool in the formation of character. The homes of the lower tier, where drunkenness,\nprofanity, licentiousness, and vice of every kind are common, where starvation and neglect\nare not infrequent — such homes are acting in opposition to every good work of the school.\nBut on the other hand, the homes of the well-to-do and the refined are not all the very best\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfor the formation of noble and strong characters. There is too much of the namby-pamby\ndiscipline in such homes. The children act at their own pleasure, and place themselves\non the same level as their parents. They have their clubs, their social affairs, their dances;\nthey woo sweet pleasure when they ought to be in dreamland.\n\nEven the 4 per cent, who seemed to be fairly well satisfied could not always\nspeak without some qualifications, as, for instance:\nThe conditions of home life in this school are as a rule helpful. The patrons are homeowners of the middle class. There is one exception: abnormal attendance at cheap\ntheaters.\n\nThe replies indicate that all of the teachers are keenly alive to the efifect\nof physical conditions in reference to the formation of character, and some\nexcellent reports were received as to the work being done along this line; as,\nfor instance:\n1. For four months of the present school year we had medical inspection, altho we\ncalled it sanitary inspection, by a thoroly trained nurse. This inspection accomplished\ngreat good in securing the co-operation of parents toward improving sight and hearing by\nvarious operations. It also decreased contagious diseases; in every way contributed\nmuch toward the warding-off of diseases and providing better sanitary conditions. To\nshow the character of the work done under sanitary inspection the following is the report\nsubmitted for the month of September.\n(Our total enrollment is about 6,000.)\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nSANITARY\n\nINSPECTOR\n\nDefects of vision\nAcute trachoma\nConjunctivitis\nBlepharitis\nAdenoids\nChronic bronchitis\nTuberculosis\nSuppurating ears\nTyphoid fever\nScarlet fever\nPediculosis\nEczema\nCold sores\nPruritus\nImpetigo\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nMONTH\n\nOF\n\nSEPTEMBER,\n\n-\n\nI907\n\n49\ni\ni\n2\n15\ni\n2\n2\ni\ni\n17\n7\ni\ni\nn\n\nImperfect\n'\nSkin cases hearing\nwithout diagnosis\n107\nMentally deficient, and applications made to the \" School for the Feeble\nMinded \"\nt\nRecommended for transfer to the \" School for the Deaf\"\ni\nNiunber of pupils recommended for treatment\n194\nNumber of pupils treated\n129\n2. A superintendent reports: \"In several schools I have found that nearly every\nhabitual truant had some physical defect.\"\n\nAsked concerning the size of classes and consequent lack of individual\nteaching, 90 per cent, of the replies indicated dissatisfaction with the size of\nthe classes, and the amount of clerical work required of the teachers. As, for\ninstance:\nI. This is a serious drawback. We have attempted to reduce its pernicious effects\nby decreasing the amount of class instruction and increasing the amount of individual\ninstruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n139\n\n2. Unless some organization (such as the Parents' Association) is formed between the\nhome and the school, it is impossible for the teachers to keep any hold of former or even\nof past pupils. Too much technical and clerical work required of teachers of today. Too\nmuch centralization of management.\n3. Over-pressure of clerical and routine work on principals and teachers shuts out\nthe opportunity to follow up the influence gained in the classroom by continuance of interest\nand friendship. It seems sometimes as tho the days were spent in \"paying tithes of mint\nand anise and cummin and omitting the weightier matters of the law, judgment, mercy, and\nfaith.\"\n4. Either time should be given to teachers, or special agencies formed to keep up connection between schools and parents.\n5. A clerk should be employed in each large building. My experience is that if I\nkeep my clerical work up I must neglect visiting my pupils.\n\nLess than 10 per cent, signified anything like satisfaction concerning the\nmatter.\nThe question was asked whether it would strengthen the moral influence\nof the school to give more responsibility to the elder pupils in the maintenance\nof discipline, and to this question 65 per cent, answered in the affirmative and\n35 per cent, in the negative.\nWith almost no exception there was an expression of earnest desire to\nbeautify the school surroundings and to emphasize in every possible way\nrecreation and school games.\nAs to the value of formal addresses to pupils by teachers and others, 81\nper cent, were in favor of this method of inspiring higher ideals, and 19 per\ncent, were opposed.\nAsked as to what encouragement should be given parents to take a personal\ninterest in the school, with a view to closer relations between the school and\nhome, 83 per cent, expressed themselves strongly in favor of parental associations or some such organizations, while 17 per cent, doubted their value, or\ntold of unfortunate experiences in connection with them.\nThere was no opposition on the part of anyone to school journeys, visits\nto places of educational interest, vacation schools and holiday camps, when\nthese undertakings could be successfully carried out.\nRegarding the organization of old scholars' clubs, alumni associations and\nthe like, 75 per cent, spoke in their favor, and 25 per cent, felt that they were\nnot productive of much good, or else were beyond the range of possibility for\nthe ordinary teacher.\nThe following question was not universally answered, but seemed to deserve\ncareful consideration from a number:\nShould steps be taken to make the continuation classes and night schools more effective\nin their training for citizenship ?\n\nIn regard to this I quote as follows:\nSuch courses would not only fit the students better for the work they are to do, thus\nenabling them to earn bett.er wages and to raise the standard of life, but it would also be\nof benefit to the community as they would have a greater earning capacity. In a moral\nway, it would be of benefit because it would take these young people away from the streets\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "I40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin the evenings where they learn all kinds of evil and get into lazy and vicious habits, which\nhurt them all their lives. I believe our present laws should be so amended as to require\npupils who leave school before the age of sixteen to take a certain amount of evening work\neach week up to the age of sixteen, in public or private schools.\n\nAs we sum up these reports, taking into our range of vision the schools of\nthis and foreign countries, we note certain facts which stand out boldly and are\nfull of significance.\n1 . The deep interest which teachers the world over are taking in the problem of moral training thru the agency of the public school.\n2. The almost universal opinion that the strongest influence in the development of character is to be found in the personality of the teacher.\n3. The agreement on the part of the large majority that every study and\nevery school duty, including the organization of the student body, should be\neffective in the work of moral training.\n4. The hesitation and distrust shown toward systematic moral instruction,\nbased upon a syllabus, wherever this plan has not been tried. (This applies\nto the greater part of the schools.) On the other hand, the universally favorable attitude of those teachers who have had experience in this method of\ninstruction.\n5. The general agreement that direct moral instruction, if it be timely and\nwise, is of great ethical value.\n6. The high regard shown for Bible lessons and religious exercises by\nthose who make use of them, and the intense opposition expressed by those\nwho are unaccustomed to their use.\n7. As a corollary of the preceding, the marked tendency on the part of all\nteachers to be conservative, to believe in their own methods, and to doubt the\nvalue of anything different.\n8. The general condemnation of the American home and social life as a\nhindrance to the teacher in the development of student character.\nWhat then shall be our conclusion of the whole matter? This, perhaps:\nThe problem of moral education, whose far-reaching importance no one can\noverestimate, demands for its wise solution an awakened church, inspiring\nwith religious ideals the souls of its youth; unselfish homes, consecrated to their\nGod-given mission of caring for the children; and last, but not least, the everpresent public school, whose corporate life, courses of study, student organizations, and physical surroundings shall each and all play their silent tho wellplanned part in the development of moral character, and whose teaching force,\nwith minds open to conviction, shall serve in love, in justice, in faith in things\nunseen, in reverent devotion to their high calling, and in conscious recognition\nof the tremendous power for moral training which is ever active thru the personality ofthe teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEXPERIMENTS\n\nSOME\nFRANK\n\nCHAPMAN\n\nIN\n\nEXPERIMENTS\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN MORAL\n\n141\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSHARP, PROFESSOR\nOF PHILOSOPHY\nOF WISCONSIN,\nMADISON,\nWIS.\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAmong the memorabilia preserved at the Ehnira Reformatory is a letter from\na convict to the director which reads : \"Please let me join the class in ethics. I\nthink ethics is my weak point.\" If by ethics we mean not conduct, as perhaps\nour convict did, but reasoned thought upon the issues of life, then decidedly\nethics is the weak point of the school curriculum of the United States. This is\nnot because of any want of interest in the subject on the part of the leaders in\neducation, at least during the past half -decade. We are all coming to recognize more and more that our schools must train directly for life ; that character is\nthe most important thing in the world; and that mere intellectual training does\nnot necessarily have any considerable moral influence, and in fact often results\nin the grafting upon the wolf of the qualities of the fox. We are beginning to\nlose, also, some of our smug self-satisfaction at the moralizing agencies which\nwe already employ. We have been wont in the past to point with a smile of\npride to the influence of the discipline of the school, and of the character of the\nteacher. These, especially the latter, we shall indeed never cease to value as\nnot merely of the highest importance in themselves, but as the foundation for\neverything else that we can do. But a more careful observation and the application of higher standards are showing us that these things are not enough.\nFor in spite of them the output of the schools is, from the moral point of\nview, usually mediocre and sometimes worse. These facts we teachers are\nbeginning to recognize, and we are vaguely feeling that we must bestir ourselves.\nWe vaguely feel that we must bestir ourselves, yet almost nothing is accomplished. Why? I suppose it is because we do not see our way, we do not\nknow exactly what to do, and are afraid of doing the wrong thing. In consequence we do nothing, falling back indolently upon the example of the teacher,\nand the word dropped incidentally during the course of a recitation. Excellent, and indeed indispensable, these things, I repeat, to avoid being misunderstood, but, I insist, hopelessly inadequate to the seriousness of the conditions\nconfronting us.\nIn view of this situation I wish to ask your attention for a few minutes this\nevening to one or two devices for moral education that are so simple that it\nwill be self-evident that they can be used, and to one or two others whose\npracticability and value have been demonstrated by experience. And I want\nto appeal to you to introduce some one of these into your schools; or, if you\nhave worked out something that seems better to you, to try that even if it does\nnot appear to you as beyond all criticism. Let us not wait until we can see\nthe entire length of the road before us; let us not stop to argue with our own\nfears or the skepticism of anyone else; let us settle the problem of the possibility of systematic moral training and instruction by putting it to the only\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npossible test, the test of experience. There is indeed a time for thought and\ndiscussion. We do not want to be like the Irishman riding by furiously on\nhorseback, who didn't know where he was going, and only knew he was going\nat a terrible pace. But the time has come when bare speculation on this subject has accomplished about all it can; and what we have to do now is to get\nto work. To work, then, I say. And since in the multitude of counselors\nthere is wisdom, let those of you who are willing to join the ranks of the workers\nmake arrangements to meet around a table at least once a year, say at the\nmeetings of the state teachers' associations, to compare, and perhaps, thru a\nsecretary, record your experiences. Soon means will be found for a broader\ncomparison and synthesis, perhaps at the meetings of the National Association,\nand thru these means and thru reports, thru journal articles and otherwise,\na system of moral education, truly national in scope and character, will arise.\nIt will be national in character because it will not be forced upon an unprepared\npeople from above by some minister of education, as in France. It will be the\nproduct of the minds of those who are in close contact with the people whom\nthey are training and instructing. Hence, whatever blunders may be made at\nfirst, in the end it will speak directly and unequivocally to the national\nconscience.\nWhat, then, shall we do, you ask ? I answer that there is so much which\ncan be done that you can select one out of several radically different methods,\nand then, as time goes on, you can introduce another and another if you wish,\nuntil you are employing all the varied agencies which are requisite for the\nattainment of the best results. If you are of the active type yourself you will\nfind it easiest to begin by training your pupils in self-control, obedience to the\ncommon will, and mutual helpfulness by means of one of several different\nsystems of pupil self-government. There is the school city, for instance, which\nhas recently been described in several magazines. Better still, I think, is the\nsystem of class-prefects or tribunes. One boy and one girl are chosen by each\nclass from its own membership, and these are responsible for the order and\ndecorum of the class, and all of them collectively, for the order and decorum\nof the school as a whole, and that, not merely during the recitation period,\nbut on the playground, and even in the hours of going to and coming from\nschool. But what is even more important, this system can be used by a wise\nprincipal for developing a spirit of mutual helpfulness. Remarkable results\nhave been obtained in this way. For example, the life of one school which\nI know where this work was for several years carried on was as unlike that of the\npublic school which I attended in my youth — a school community which was\nprobably as good as the average, but which was a hotbed of almost unbridled\nindividualism — ^the one, I say, was as different from the other as the material\ncivilization of today is different from that of a generation ago. This method\nof character-building can be employed successfully with pupils from the sixth\ngrammar grade on thru the senior class of the high school.\nBut good as this is, it is not enough.\nIn order to get the best results it\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nEXPERIMENTS\n\nIN\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n143\n\nmust be supplemented by direct and systematic work in the classroom. The\nfirst method I would suggest is to bring your pupils into contact with lives and\nmovements that will awaken by contagion aspirations for the best things.\nArrange that there shall be a course in your school in which, once or twice a\nweek, the biographies of the heroes of our national life shall be studied. Make\nyour pupils acquainted with Franklin, Washington, Garrison, Robert E. Lee,\nand Lincoln; and, of our own generation, with such men as Jacob A. Riis\nand Walter Reed, who sacrificed his life in demonstrating the relation of the\nmosquito to the spread of yellow fever. Good biographies for young people\nare rare. For this reason I have made a bibUography of the subject with the\nhelp of one of the chief authorities in the United States on young people's\nliterature. I shall be glad to send it to any teacher who cares to apply for it.\nThe class may be conducted by having the pupil read a paper on a portion of\nthe life of the person selected, in which everything that can be found in an\nencyclopedia will be rigorously excluded, and an attempt will be made to get\na clean-cut picture of the man's character and his contribution to the higher\nlife of his time. Of many of these men there exists a brief biography; of the\nlives of the remainder sketches can be found in one place or another. These\nshould be read by all members of the class, so that the presentation of the\npaper may be followed by a general discussion. In these days of political and\nindustrial corruption, what a breath of mountain air to learn of the reception\naccorded by Franklin, Washington, and the other Revolutionary leaders, to\nthe repeated corrupt overtures made to them in the early years of the American\nRevolution by the British Government! In the end they could have had anything they chose to demand; but they stood firm like a rock. Henry IV of\nFrance called Plutarch his conscience; and we Americans have in the annals\nof our own country our own Plutarch, a record of men and women of the same\nrace with ourselves, going and coming in the same kind of a world, whose lives\ncan thrill us and our children like a trumpet call.\nSuch a course might well be supplemented by a study of the movements\nthat are going on about us to make the world a better place to live in, and man\na better person to live with. In order to give human interest you may identify\neach with some person with whom it is especially connected. Thus the movement for governmental control of corporations may be identified with ex-Presisident Roosevelt; the work for our colonies, especially the Philippines, with\nPresident Taft; the conservation of our national resources with Mr. Pinchot;\nthe fight against child labor with Mrs. Florence Kelley; and the reform of\njuvenile deUnquents with Judge Lindsey. These are mentioned merely as a\nsuggestion, for there are many more. For materials send your pupils to the\nmagazines, among which stand pre-eminent for such purposes the World's\nWork, the Outlook, or the Independent, and the Survey, the journal which till\nvery recently bore the misleading, because too narrow, title, Charities and the\nCommons. This last is published by the Charity Organization Society of\nNew York.\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nSuch subjects, as will be obvious, are adapted both to the upper classes of\nthe grades and to the high school. But they should be supplemented by a\nvery diflferent kind of work — a course in which the pupil shall be led to reflect\nsystematically upon the problems of the conduct of life. Courses of this kind\nare courses in moral instruction in the narrowest sense of that term. It is of\nthese that I wish now to speak. The aim of a course in moral instruction is not\nprimarily to teach the pupil what conduct is right and what is wrong. This\nis of some importance and should not be neglected. It is well, for instance,\nfor the pupil to see that a man may lie by his actions as well as by his words, and\nthat he may lie by keeping silence as well as by speaking, and thus play the\ntraitor to his friend when he has never opened his mouth or even shrugged\nhis shoulders. These things, I say, are useful, and have their place. But\nthe place is a subordinate one. The primary aim we must keep in view is to\nmake our pupils feel the claims upon them of the right forms of conduct, the\nevil and hatefulness of the wrong forms. And this can be done principally\nby leading them to see and to realize the effects, direct and indirect, of the\nright and of the wrong course of action respectively, the effects upon their own\nhappiness and their own character, and upon the happiness and character of\nothers. In other words, the primary end is the development of moral thoughtfulness. Given this moral thoughtfulness, with the moral enthusiasm\nwhich it tends to inspire, let this enthusiasm be first quickened by the\nstudy of the biographies of good men, let it ever find an outlet in action\nby means of a system of self-government in which the pupil learns to practice the self-control and helpfulness to his fellows about which he reads\nand studies — let these things become general, and I believe in a generation we shall see one of the greatest moral uplifts this country has ever\nknown.\nThis work in moral instruction, as experience seems to show, can be introduced with profit into the grades. Mr. F. J. Gould's Child's Book of Moral\nLessons^ pubh'shed by the Moral Instruction League of London, has been\nused apparently with much success among the younger children in England,\nand his lessons seem to me equally well adapted to the needs of American\ngirls and boys. For high-school pupils there are a number of admirable\nmanuals that could be used with great advantage; for example, the Practical\nEthics of President Hyde, of Bowdoin, pubHshed by Henry Holt & Co., and\nCharacter Building by Mr. E. T. Jackson, published by Houghton, Mifflin\n& Co. These books, I repeat, are excellent for high-school work; but they\nseem neither to give the teacher, especially the beginner in this field, quite\nenough material to work with, nor to supply him with sufficiently specific\ndirections as to how to proceed. For this reason and other reasons I have\nprepared a Manual of Moral Instruction for the upper classes of the highschool which aims to rectify these seeming defects, and at the same time takes\nup the subject from a somewhat different point of view. By the generosity\nof the regents of the University of Wisconsin, who have published this manual\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEXPERIMENTS\n\nIN\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n145\n\nfor me, I am able to present a copy of it to every member of this Association\nwho cares to apply for it.\nThe course herein described was given last semester in the Menomonie,\n(Wis.) High School, under the direction of the principal, Mr. G. A. Works.\nOffered as an extra study, entirely without credit toward graduation, it was\ntaken by forty-two out of the forty-five members of the senior class. All of\nthese continued it to its conclusion, g,nd most of them did gladly a considerable\namount of outside work in connection with it. This seems to show that it\nrepresented something which the students felt they needed. The same conclusion isfairly deducible from the fact that from the middle of the semester\nthe members of the junior class kept coming to the principal to inquire whether\nthe course was to be given the following year. The three teachers who took\ncharge of the three divisions into which the class was divided agreed that the\nwork not merely proved interesting to their pupils but was very distinctly\nprofitable also. Such, as I understand, was the unanimous opinion of the\npupils themselves, many of whom regarded it as among the most valuable of\nthe courses offered by the school. The fruits of the work were seen at once,\naccording to the testimony of the teachers, in better order and a more serious\nattitude toward their studies in every class of which these students were members. Ido not say these things to recommend my own particular program.\nEqually good results might well have been obtained by the use of the books\nwhose names I have mentioned above. I tell this experience in order to show\nthat the teacher who undertakes to discuss systematically with his pupils the\nserious problems of life is offering them that for which their souls thirst, a\nthirst which no stream of Latin or mathematics or ancient history can quench,\nand in the presence of which much of what we teach seems little better than a\nmockery.\nThe character of the course can be seen by an examination of the manuals\nwhich are at your disposal, and requires therefore but a few words of explanation. Its subject-matter is success. The advantage of approaching a problem\nof conduct thru this path is, obviously, that the interest and attention of the\npupil can in this way be easily awakened and sustained. The first half deals\nwith the means to success, using success in its ordinary conventional signification. Itdoes not confine itself at all to the moral qualities, but begins with the\nmanagement of the attention and the memory, and the means of educating the\npowers of imagery. It then points out the relation of intellectual and physical\nvigor and thereupon passes to some of the moral qualities necessary to success.\nIn the second part the question considered is wherein true success in life consists. The transition between the two parts is made by a study of the lives of\ncertain persons who had wealth, power, and social position, and yet were\nprofoundly unhappy. The method of procedure which is presupposed thruout is that of awakening the activity of the pupils' mind, compelling them to\nwork out the solution of their problems, to take each step for themselves, the\nteacher serving merely as guide. The device employed to attain this end is,\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin the main, sets of questions which are to be mimeographed and put into the\nhands of the pupils. They are supplemented by abundant references to the\nliterature of the subject. The material which the teacher is to have in mind\nin conducting the course is supplied in the form of copious notes. The point\nof view which pervades the whole is that genuine success has never to be\npurchased at the expense of the rights of others; that to a view which penetrates\nsufl5ciently below the surface, the mighty .organism of which we are members\nis far more harmoniously constructed than we in our short-sightedness often\nsuppose ; that loyalty to the demands of our best selves and devotion to others\nalike call for precisely those lines of conduct which the most enlightened\nand far-seeing conscience approves. The detailed perception and realization\nof this fact cannot but liberate the forces of steadfastness, honor, and generosity,\nwhich lie dormant in so many young people, half-asphyxiated in the atmosphere of convention, of suspicion, of timid egoism, in which a great part of\nAmerican society lies steeped. The liberation of these forces should appeal to\nthe teacher as the noblest and most inspiring work to which he can set his hand.\nCHILDHOOD\nBKN\n\nB.\n\nLINDSEY,\n\nJUDGE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nAND\nJUVENILE\n\nMORALITY\nCOURT,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nIn dealing with the morals of the child, it has never been the purpose of\nthe state to usurp the function of the home, the school, or the church; but\nunder our form of government, it always has been the duty of the state to\ndeal with certain child offenders. Under the common law accepted in many\nof the states of the Union with some modifications by statute, a child after\nthe age of seven might be guilty of crime ; and when he violated the law he\nwas dealt with by the state, under the same court procedure as in the case\nof adult criminals. One of the first protests against this absurdity was made\nby a schoohnaster in England in a treatise on criminal jurisprudence and the\nactual working of the penal code of laws, published in London in 1833.\nPlease observe this description of trials of boys in the Old Bailey Court,\nthe leading criminal court of London:\n. The Old Bailey Court, in proportion to the numbers, as often sentenced boys as men\nto transportation for fourteen years and life. Nothing can be more absurd than the practice of passing sentence of death on boys under fourteen years of age for petty offenses,\nI have known five in one session in this awful situation; one for stealing a comb almost\nvalueless, two for a child's sixpenny story-book, another for a man's stock, and the fifth\nfor pawning his mother's shawl. In four of these cases the boys put their hands through\na broken pane of glass in a shop-window, and stole the articles for which they were sentenced to death, and subsequently transported for life. This act, in legal technicality, is\nhousebreaking. The law presumes they break the glass and it is probable in most instances'\nthey do so. In two of the cases here named, however, the prosecutrix's daughter told me\nthere was only a piece of brown paper to supply the place of that which once had been glass.\nIn the latter case, the unfortunate mother caused her son to be apprehended, in the hopes\nof persuading the magistrate to recommend him to the Refuge for the Destitute, or some\nother charitable institution. She, however, in the course of her examination, said she was\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nAND\n\nMORALITY\n\n147\n\nfrom home, and that the house was locked up at the time of the shawl being taken, which\nwas afterwards found at a pawnbroker's. This made it housebreaking; and, in spite of\nall the mother's efforts, he was condemned to death. He is now in the penitentiary. The\njudges who award the punishments at the Old Bailey appear to me as if they were under\nthe influence of sudden impulses of severity, there being at no time any regular system to\nbe recognized in their proceedings. This the prisoners know, and speculate on, particularly the boys (p. 300).\n\nWithin a hundred years boys, it would seem, have been hanged for what\nnow is denominated petty larceny, and it is not much beyond this period\nwhen they were beheaded and their heads stuck upon gibbets as the gruesome\nreminder of the punishment in store for thieves; and even with two hundred\noffenses in England at that period punishable by death, many of which today\nare looked upon as the petty offenses, crime increased. It was such protests\nas that of the old schoolmaster that caused considerate home secretaries to\ncommute such sentences to imprisonment for life or a period of years in the\npenitentiary; but to one at all famiUar with the degradation that came to\nchildhood thru the old methods of the jails, this consideration might be questionable. The state that sent the child out into life with his soul seared and\nhis body debauched, as thru jails was so often the case, was just as culpable\nas the state that choked the child to death upon the theory that it was choking\ncrime. The state had not waked up to the difference between evil and the\nchild; it had not waked up to the truth the Master taught, that evil is overcome\nwith good, not with the stripe, the iron bar, or the degrading lash, much less\nthe hangman's noose. The federal government as yet has not provided us\nwith very reliable statistics as to the number of children dealt with by police\noffices and courts. And it is to be hoped that a federal children's bureau will\nbe established, to gather, specialize, and focus statistics and facts upon this\nimportant subject.\nI am satisfied, however, from special inquiry and investigation in sixty\nof the large cities and towns of the nation, that we do not overestimate when\nwe place the number of children dealt with by police and court officials every\nyear as at least one hundred thousand.\nIt might reach two hundred thousand.\nAs the ages of dependents and delinquents are now being measured in most\nof the states up to the eighteenth year, it will be seen that within the period of\ndelinquency and dependency, as fixed by the laws of the states, the courts of\nthe nation are called upon within this period of the child's life to deal with\nnearly two million children under this minimum estimate, and nearly four\nmillion under the maximum estimate.\nBut counting the number even at a million, it should be sufficient to emphasize the responsibility of the state for the child. Until some very material\neconomic changes are brought about, this number is more likely to increase\nthan to decrease. Courts alone will not stop the increase. They are not\ncure-alls. Children's courts can do much, but whatever they do must be done\nlargely thru the home, the school, and the church. They must bring into\nthe life of the child the influences that come from these institutions responsible\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfor the child, and therefore, the appeal of the state must be to the home, the\nschool, and the church. In dealing with his morals, instead of taking the\nchild out of these three institutions of his life and putting him in jail, he must be\nplaced under those influences that are as near akin to them as it is possible\nfor the state to devise. The state's effort in this direction may be seen in the\ndevelopment of the industrial schools, training schools, parental schools,\ndetention-home schools, the probation system, and that marvelous revolution\nin the law which came upon us about ten years ago in Colorado and in Illinois,\nwhen the child for the first time in the history of jurisprudence was no longer\nregarded by the state as a criminal, but rather as its ward; no longer looked\nupon as the malefactor to be hung or degraded thru the mire and filth of jails\nand criminal courts, but rather, as in the language of our own statute, \"one\nto be aided, assisted, encouraged, educated;\" in a word, to be saved to good\ncitizenship, to be redeemed as the most valuable asset of the state. Therefore, since the appeal of the state must be principally to the home and the\nschool, the work must be done principally by and thru the home and the\nschool. It is unnecessary to recount the splendid work that is being done.\nWe are not here to pat ourselves on the back with an inventory of the things\nwe have done, but rather to point out those things we can do, which we have\nnot done : to discover, if we can, those faults, those mistakes that are bound\nto be a part of any work, however sincere and however helpful. I am not\nsure I can do that. I can perhaps point to some experiences that seem to me\nto present some defects, some mistakes of the home and school.\nThe average young child is frankly, innocently unmoral. He takes what\nhe wants, if he can get it, not because he is an embryonic thief, but because\nthis is nature; not human nature, but nature itself, and nature is seldom\naltruistic. The normal child is merely a healthy little animal, to start with,\nand his morals develop, grow with his growth and strengthen with his strength\nonly when they are guided in the right direction. The most demoralizing\nagency in childhood is fear, and it may be found at the bottom of most of the\nimmorality among children. The child lies because he is afraid to tell the\ntruth; he may be afraid of a whipping, of one parent or the other, of a bigger\nboy, of the teacher, of some far-off abstraction called God, a remoter abstraction called the devil, or a fearfully imminent reality called the bogie man,\nsaid to haunt all dark places. In any event, no matter what it is he fears,\nit is fear that makes him a Uar, and this opens the way for all the other dereUctions of youth, and age too, for that matter. I lay emphasis upon this because\nthe habit of truth-telling and the attitude of fearlessness are generally either\ndominant or lacking in the child before he enters the pubUc school. The\nschool is what the children make it, moral, unmoral, or immoral, according\nto the homes they come from, quite as much as the children are a product\nof the school. It is very lovely to think of childhood as the age of innocence\nand uncontaminated virtue, but it is also very dangerous; for childhood left\nto follow its own devices, its own untaught impulses, its purely animal emotions,\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nAND\n\nMORALITY\n\n149\n\nis very far from that ideal that we like to believe it. Our morals are very\nlargely a matter of relationship to the life around us. Thou shalt not bear\nfalse witness, thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil,\nthou shalt not oppress a stranger, thou shalt not covet — these are the temptations that come with community life, and the boy and girl who go to school are\nassailed on all sides as never before. It is not to be wondered at that they\nfail now and then.\nAsk the average boy in the Juvenile Court why he will not steal again and\nnine times out of ten he will give you precisely the same answer: \"I will\nget in jail.\" To my mind, that is an indictment by the child of the teaching\nin the home and the school. The child has learned his lesson wrong, a lesson\nunconsciously taught by parent or teacher: \"Steal all you can, cheat all you\ncan, so long as you don't get caught.\" It is the lesson he carries with him\nthru life into the commercial and business world, and the lesson that develops\nmany of our most dangerous criminals in the world of business and finance.\nTheir intelHgence (or, if it fails, the same intelligence of shrewd lawyers\never held in reserve) makes them masters of the art of not getting caught, and\nlike the delinquent child, getting what they want lawfully, if they can; lawles ly, ifthey must.\nOne of our difficulties is to overcome this careless teaching and to teach\nthe child to do right because it is right; because he hurts himself when he\ndoes wrong and because he owes it to himself to do right; because it is weak\nand cowardly to do wrong and because it is strong and brave to do right. The\nthreat of a mother or teacher to turn the child over to the policeman or jailer,\nhas, in my judgment, started as many criminal careers as any mistake ever\nmade. It is well to hold up the consequences of evil-doing, but in doing this\nthe undeveloped mind of the child has too often accepted it as the real\nmotive or the only motive for righteous conduct.\nI also wish to contend for a different definition of the sins of childhood.\nIgnorance of the law cannot be pleaded as an excuse by man, but how is a\nchild to know until he is taught, and why condemn thoughtlessness and\nignorance in the same terms which we bestow upon hardened vice? We\nshall deal more justly with erring youth, and more wisely with the great\nproblem of zig-zag human nature if we look upon the cardinal virtues as an\nachievement, rather than a heritage lost early in life.\nPerhaps the most common offenses against morality among school children\nmay be listed as follows: disobedience, swearing, use of tobacco, lying, stealing, and personal impurity in thought and action. After eight years of active\npersonal work, gaining the confidence and getting the opinions of hundreds,\nand I would almost say thousands, of boys and many girls, I would not dare\nconfirm their judgment as to the extent of these delinquencies. For instance,\nI have frequently addressed the question to boys of the intelligent type and\nan age when their judgment is fairly worthy of confidence, as to the number\nof their companions who were guilty of the offenses named.\nTheir answers\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "I50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin 90 per cent, of the cases were about like this: ''Nearly all the kids I know\nswear.\" \"Most all the fellows will lie if they think there is no proof and they\ncan get out of it. that way.\" ''Over half of the kids in our school will steal\nif they get a chance and they think they won't get caught.\" \"All the kids\nI know talk bad things, tell dirty stories, and boast about things that most of\nthem never did, but they think it is smart to say they did and some kids\nI know have.\"\nMaking due allowances for the exaggeration of children, and especially\nboys apprehended for delinquency, who are inclined to exaggerate the extent\nof similar delinquency among others, and over against this taking the opinion\nof some of the best boys I ever knew who have never been guilty of any of\nthese offenses, but whose life among their companions makes them reliable\nwitnesses — infinitely more so than their parents or teachers — I am inclined\nto think that if we tried the morality of children in the public schools in this\ncountry by this test — namely: Is the child disobedient, does he swear, does\nhe He, does he steal, is he impure in word, thought, or act — the results would\nbe so startling that I have always seriously doubted the wisdom of its pubHc\ndiscussion, except in a most guarded and careful way.\nAgain, however distressing it may seem, I am not disposed to believe the\nresults as bad as the admission of technical moral delinquencies would imply.\nHow many men can say they passed thru their boyhood without being technically guilty of any one of these offenses ? That is a part of the weakness of\nhuman nature. Its occurrence and correction is a part of the method of\nstrengthening and building character; but of course there is a limit. If\nany one of these misdeeds becomes chronic the state is certainly preparing\nto reap a criminal rather than a good citizen, and in the home, the school, the\nSunday school, and in our deahngs with childhood and youth as citizens —\nfor our example is constantly affecting some sensitive soul — we cannot be\ntoo careful in our teaching and dealing with children. Of course, I do not\nmean to justify even an occasional lapse or violation of the moral code in the\nderelictions which are the most common among children, but I do say it is a\nvery exceptional child who passes thru the period of childhood and adolescence\nwithout an occasional lapse in some and often all the respects referred to.\nWhen I consider the children themselves I do not believe their moral condition\nas alarming as it might seem, and yet it is alarming enough not only to justify\nbut demand a great deal more of our attention than I believe we are inclined\nto give the subject.\nAfter all, the protection of the child against immorality in his Hfe depends\nupon the strength of his character. Character is founded upon conscience,\nand conscience comes from the development of the human heart; therefore,\nthe necessity for moral and religious training, which is the very basis of all\nour principal education and the most important part of it. Thus to solve\nthese difficulties of childhood and youth we must fall back upon the home,\nthe school, and the church, and in these recent times of congested cities I\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nAND\n\nMORALITY\n\n151\n\nwould add another factor, the neighborhood itself. We have four factors\nin the development of character and childhood which I should put in this\norder: (i) the home;\n(2) the church; (3) the school; (4) the neighborhood.\nOf course, the home means the parents, the church means the Word of\nGod, or other ethical training. It would be well if we had such a perfect\ncondition of society that we could depend principally upon the home and the\nchurch for this moral training; but how is that possible when there are hundreds of thousands of children without homes who are left to shift for themselves because of the ignorance and indifference of parents or thru some\neconomic, social, or political condition? Divorce, desertion, drink, ignorance, poverty, crime, and evil neighborhoods, where lawlessness flourishes\nthru bad politics, provide an example and environment that is a constant\nsource of evil to child-life. It is hopeless to expect these children to receive\ninstruction from the natural source — father and mother. For similar reasons\nthey are without religion or church influence.\nNow the state is in certain cases as much responsible for the moral, physical,\nand mental development of the child as the parent. Where there is no parent,\nor where the parents are careless or helpless or unable to discharge their\nfunctions, it becomes the duty of the state to step in. Thus we have compulsory school laws, child-labor laws, probate-court laws, juvenile-court laws,\nnon-support laws, contributory-delinquent laws, and so forth. All of these\nlaws simply represent the effort of the state to perform its duty toward the\nchild, just as the clothing and fitting of a child in the home and his being sent\nto church, to Sabbath school, or to the public school, represent the effort\nof the parent to do precisely the same thing. The state being burdened with\nparental responsibility under the law of parens patriae^ must take a hand in\nthe development of the child; and since the most important factor in its\ndevelopment is its moral character, the state cannot shirk its responsibility\nin this respect.\nThe fact that the school must necessarily and properly be non-sectarian\nhas made the burden of the state one of considerable difficulty, and to harmonize its attitude toward the child with the recognized rights of parents\nis one of the great problems of our modern civilization. The fact that most\nof our children have good homes and some church affiUation does not justify\nus in objecting to the school making the basis of all its education moral training; but because of the difficulties referred to, the school is deficient in the\nmost important feature of all education, and in thousands of cases is merely\ngrinding out citizens who are more dangerous because they are more inteUigent.\nIntelligence without moral character, intelligence without conscience, is\ninfinitely more a menace to the state than ignorance without character or\nconscience. The methods of the latter are crude and revolting and generally\neasily corrected and guarded against. The methods of the former are shrewd,\ncunning, insidious, and deceiving.\nIn the nine years that I have been the judge of a court, I say without hesita-\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntion that the most dangerous crimes against the state have come not from the\nordinary or ignorant criminal, thief, \"stick-up,\" burglar, or murderer, but\nfrom men from the high schools and universities, who thru the cunning of\ncriminal intelligence have committed monstrous crimes against their country\nand set in motion a wave of evil that has sorely afflicted the home in thousands\nof cases and contributed to the debauchery of childhood.\nCrimes of this kind could not exist if men and women were brought up\naccording to the golden nile of doing as they would be done by. It is their\nabsolute selfishness that makes them disregard everyone else in their scramble\nfor place or wealth. The home that knows no touch of altruism is responsible\nfor them, and the condition of society that worships success, no matter how\nit has been achieved, delights to honor them. When it comes to the power\nof an example, one \"malefactor of wealth\" is ten times as productive of evil\nas ninety and nine ordinary prisoners doing time in the penitentiary.\nI believe it is the duty of the school, and especially presidents of universities,\nwho are leaders in the thought of the nation, to point out such criminals in\norder that the youth of the nation may abhor rather than wish to emulate\nthem, as many of them wish to do.\nAs that man is dangerous who would raise up hate as a champion of his\ncause, so is that man more dangerous when in the interest of lawless business\nhe suppresses the truth and sneers at those who dare to tell it. The apologies\nof pious plutogogues (which includes some college presidents) for the lawlessness of plutocrats, whose bounties they have shared, are doing more in this\ncountry to inflame the passions of the envious, the ignorant, and debased, and\nto raise up anarchy than all the sayings of all the demagogues and Emma\nGoldmans. If the vile monster of anarchy flames and hisses it is largely\nbecause of the injustice and evil that men do.\nBecause industrial wealth deserves its honors should it not be more ashamed\nof its crimes? Men have a right to make money honestly. But shall the\nright to \"special privileges\" and monopoly of the people's natural resources\ncarry with it a right to corrupt men, women, and children, to poison the sources\nof democracy and endanger our freedom and our liberties, the administration\nof our laws, and all the institutions of the Republic ?\nDo not those, conscious or unconscious, who thus lend themselves to the\ndefense of lawlessness, become' the assassins of human character; become the\ndespoilers of manhood and the exalters of an unrighteousness that, of all\nplaces, should be pointed out and condemned in the universities and the\nschools ? Should it not be known to those who are to take the reins of government from our hands? Should donations of money, however great, or\nadvantages, however needful, deter us from teUing the truth to youth ? Should\nwe not warn them of treachery? Should we not sanely dwell upon the\nominous shock it portends ? As Chief Justice Ryan, of Wisconsin, said over\nthirty years ago, should we not \"point out their colors, teach them the sound\nof their^trumpets, that they be not deceived; that they may know of the\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nAND\n\nMORALITY\n\n1 53\n\npreparation in their camps?\" Shall institutions of learning be faithful to\nMammon or faithful to God; faithful to the Republic or faithful to its despoilers?\nJust as some of the courageous college professors and university presidents\nare strengthening the morals of the youth of the nation in fearlessly pointing\nout evil in high places regardless of consequences, so among the greatest\ndebauchers of the morals of the youth of this nation are those college presidents\nwho become apologists for rich criminals. This is very seldom direct and\nopen, tho it has been amazingly so in a few instances. It is often veiled in\naddresses abounding in high platitudes warning us against the radical and\nthe anarchist and insisting that we should be \"let alone,\" should be ''safe\nand sane\" or \"smile and push;\" constantly pointing out the dangers of being\nenvious of the rich, as tho the American people were generally given to that\nmonstrous crime. It is one of the most effectual schemes of intellectual\nsissies who are afraid to attack evil lest it involve them in a row with the\nleader of the bad gang, which they are forced to follow. Rebellion might\nbring a smash in the face with the withdrawal of financial support.\nFrom ten years' experience in seeing the government of a city and state\ncorrupted and democracy murdered, and knowing that the conditions in\none state are not different from those in other states where the same temptations exist to steal public property and trample upon justice to men and women,\nI am profoundly convinced that many college presidents and college professors\nknow little about the real government of their country. I know some street\nboys and any number of saloon-keepers and gamblers who could tell them\nmore truth about it than they know. I think one of the greatest things that\ncould be done for some universities in this country would be to get some\nward boss to deliver a few truthful lectures to their presidents upon how their\ncountry is governed; they could tell who are the real criminals; they could\ntell them who are responsible for the debauchery of the home and the ruin\nof the child that comes thru political corruption, involving always a partnership with vice, and thru the corruption of courts and legislatures the withholding ofthat economic justice that is the chief weakening of the American\nhome, and from which the child suffers most both physically and morally.\nI know positively from actual experience and personal knowledge that some\nof the men directly or by innuendo thus held up as models to the youth of the\nnation are the men who debauch city councils or legislatures in order to defeat\nlaws for the just protection of men and women, and, profiting by it, become\ngenerous contributors or maintainers of the institutions presided over by\nintellectual sissies who are too incompetent, too ignorant, or too cowardly to\ntell the truth.\nThe bad example furnished by business men and public officials is a\nserious cause of youthful delinquency. A messenger boy confided to me\nthat he went to a well-known club one night, and there received a message\nfrom a \"prominent\" citizen, which took him to a disreputable resort, and\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthat he went from there with a bottle of champagne to another dissolute\nplace. I knew the man the boy described. He violated every duty toward\nthe child that his education in the home, the school, and the church had ever\ntaught him to respect.\nI tried another boy who was accused by a wholesale jeweler of stealing\nwatches. The boy, about sixteen years of age, had passed the second year\nin the high school. When I got his confidence I first learned his habits, for\nbad habits make weak characters and weak characters cannot resist temptation to lie, steal, and lead immoral lives, however much their intelligence\nmay enable them to make money or succeed in other directions. He had been\nvery successful in securing certain jewelry from his employer and disposed\nof it without detection for a long time. He had been a messenger boy. He\nwas perfectly aware that men holding prominent positions in the churches\nand posing as good citizens were found by him in places that belied all of\ntheir professions. He told me frankly of the habits of his life without any\napparent shame and indeed endeavored to justify his sins. He said that\nmore than half of the boys he knew were guilty of similar indiscretions and\nthat, of course, included his chums in the high school. He assured me that\nthe police did not interfere with boys frequenting disreputable places in spite\nof the law, but he said as tho imparting information, ''The cops do not put us\nout because there is a graft in it— they stand in with those people, and as long as\nthey get a rake-off they do not stop the kids doing what they please.\" He insisted\nthat the ''fourteen K.\" stamped in the wiatch case was a fraud and that they\nwere plated brass, and the \" 22 J. M.\" stamped in the works was another fraud,\nsince it was not a genuine 22-jewel movement as it purported to be. This\nwas put on the watches in order to \"fool the suckers in the country\" who\npurchased what he called \"fake jewelry\" at ten times its real value. He also\nconfided to me that there was burglary insurance upon this sort of property\nand upon several occasions the amount of insurance collected for loss was\nmuch in excess of the value of the jewelry.\nAgain, I recall a heartbroken mother who came to me in tears telling me\nthat her Httle Billie had been arrested for stealing a bicycle. She insisted\nthat the boy was looked after and such conduct was unaccountable upon the\ntheory of home neglect or training. The boy stood well in his classes at school.\nHe naturally associated with the boys in the neighborhood and the leader\nof his gang had been sent by his father, a faro-dealer and gambler, to the\nsaloon for liquor at various times. On a Sunday afternoon when the gang\nwas together, the leader having been sent by his father to the saloon for a\nflask of whiskey, he tarried on the way home with the boys assembled in the\nalley, and out of pure banter, perhaps, he \"double-dared\" any fellow to take\na \"swig\" out of the bottle; and since no boy likes to be double-dared, of\ncourse, everybody took a drink. The crowd became more or less intoxicated\nfor one dare led to another, and one or two drinks is enough to affect the\nmind of a twelve-year-old child. _^The boys who were not affected declared\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nAND\n\nMORALITY\n\n155\n\nthat the liquor burned them so that they were unable to swallow it. In leaving\nthe alley it was proposed that they steal the bicycle on the curb and sell it\nfor money to get drinks more acceptable to the gang. When they appropriated the bicycle the policeman stepped into the case for the first time — tho\nit was against the law for the boy to enter a saloon or purchase liquor — and\narrested them for the theft of the wheel. All of these children were guilty\nof immorality and were regular attendants at the public school.\nWhen we begin to place the responsibility we must divide it between the\npublic official who tolerated lawlessness, the home and the school that had\nfailed to strengthen the characters of the boys so as to resist temptation, and\nthe business man who set the bad example. Of course, the chief difficulty\nwas in the home and the failure of the school to make good the shortcomings\nof the home. The Master taught us to pray, \"Lead us not into temptation\nbut deliver us from evil.\" The public official by his own action certainly\nviolated that injunction, which of course did not mean that the mere leading\ninto temptation was an excuse for crime, for the prayer was also an admission\nof the great inherent character of human nature that needs to be strengthened\nagainst evil by moral training — thru the heart and conscience. In all of these\ncases, had the boys been properly trained in the home or the school they\nwould have resisted temptation and have avoided evil. None of us is so strong\nbut that we fall into evil at some time in our lives. The extent of our sin\ndepends upon the strength of our character.\nIt is a truism to say that the hope of the nation is in the home and the\nschool; and while the school cannot supply the deficiencies of the home, it\ncan, if it fulfils its functions, do much to overcome them. This does not\nmean that parents shall shirk and put the responsibility upon the school;\nbut because of the defects in our modern society the school must recognize\nits responsibility and endeavor to perform its duty as a developer of the home.\nOur contributory-delinquent laws enable the schools and the public officials\nto compel the parent to do his duty, and the probation courts will assist many\na helpless home that is unable to perform its full mission; but the principal\naid in such cases must come from the school.\nPersonal influence comes thru personal contact, and since personal influence\nis perhaps the most powerful factor in moral or immoral development, there\ncomes a grave responsibility to the teacher. With this responsibility comes also\na great opportunity that from the standpoint of service to mankind ought to\nbe welcome, since there is no class of our citizens, not even parents themselves, who can do or are doing more to mold the character of the coming\ngenerations than the teachers in the schools. I believe that to gain the affection and confidence of the child is the first step toward strengthening his\nmoral character. Nothing helps more than little talks with the children.\nSometimes these talks are better delivered in private and sometimes when\nthe children are together. I believe it is a good deal more important in the\ngrammar grade to have frequent talks upon such subjects than to teach\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nGeneral\n\ngrammar, arithmetic, or geography. Among the subjects I would recommend\nwould be: \"Our Duties to Each Other;\" ''The Absurdity of Hate;\" \"Truthfulness;\" \"About Quarreling;\" \"Usefulness,\" \"Gentleness and Kindness,\nMercy and Charity;\" \"Money and Manhood;\" \"Evil Associations;\" \"Evil\nThoughts;\" \"Evil Talk;\" \"Jealousy and Envy;\" \"I Forgot;\" \"What Is\nSuccess?\" \"The Man Who Serves and the Man Who Makes Money;\"\n\"PubUc Service;\" \"A Pure Life.\"\nChildren will not tire of these subjects, if they are properly presented.\nOn the contrary, there is nothing that interests them so much and nothing\nthat contributes more to their real education. On quarreling I would take\nsome actual experience, describe it, and get the boys interested and then\nhave them join in the discussion as to the duty of each boy involved, with\npraise for the moral courage necessary upon such occasions. Let the boys\nknow that you understand what they talk about, with some homely illustration. Describe about what they do and what they say. Discuss their duty\nto each other and the varying conditions; when to fight and when not to\nfight, and in the vernacular of the street, when to \"snitch\" and when not\nto \"snitch,\" this being the slang expression for telling on another.\nThe moral development of the child must in a measure depend upon\nhis physical development. You cannot separate the two. The child is\nentitled to be well fed, nourished, housed, and cared for. This means again\nthat his moral welfare must depend upon the economic conditions under\nwhich he lives, and just in proportion as we improve these conditions, just\nto that extent do we increase the chances of the child to become a healthy,\nwholesome, moral, strong citizen.\nNeither can we leave out of consideration the importance of industrial\ntraining. Just in proportion as we equip the child for industrial efficiency,\nto that extent do we equip him for moral eflSciency. Human character too\nweak to resist temptation is a prolific source of immorality. Therefore,\njust as we equip the boy and girl by practical training to meet the real conditions oflife by ability to care for themselves thru honest labor, to that extent\ndo we really strengthen character and reduce the chances to yield to temptation.\nIt is a sad thing to read reports from school ofi&cials in cities, for example,\nthat 90 per cent, of school children have bad teeth. It is not at all far-fetched\nwhen we point this out as one of the causes of immorality. Moral weakness\nis often very properly traceable to physical deficiencies. Such defects may\nbe and happily are being removed by the work of the schools. So long as\nwe have parents in this country, as has been said, \"who are as competent\nto set the character of a little child as they are to set its broken leg,\" we must\ndepend upon the school to supply the deficiency of the parent and the home.\nMedical inspection and the work of the visiting nurses alone, thru the\ndirection of the schools, can do more for the moral welfare of the children of\nthis nation than all the children's courts can ever do.\n1\nOne of two things seems fairly plain: either we must revise our ideas of\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nAND\n\nMORALITY\n\nwhat is to be exacted from the public schools, or we must reorganize the\nschools upon a very different and much broader and more expensive foundation.\nIf education is to be made not merely a period of schooling, not even a preparatory course for the duties of life, but part of life itself, it is evident to even a\ncursory observer that the profession of the teacher is shortly to be regarded\nquite as seriously as that of the physician or lawyer, and remunerated accordingly. There must be many more classes, and instructors who are specialists in the subject with which they deal. Education must be made so fascinating that compulsory school laws and truancy officers will come to be regarded\nas anomalies, belonging to that dark age in our history when special legislation was necessary to bar out the subjects of the Mikado from those schools\nwhose officers were constantly employed in trying to prevail upon native\nAmerican children to attend.\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nCHICAGO\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nMEETING,\n\nFEBRUARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n23-25, 1909\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY\nMORNING\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, February 23, 1909\n\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in\nthe Music Hall of the Fine Arts Building adjoining the Auditorium Hotel, Chicago, 111.,\nat 9:30 A.M., President W. H. Elson, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio,\npresiding.\nPresident Elson introduced Mr. Otto C. Schneider, president of the Board of Education of Chicago, who delivered an address of welcome after which the following program\nwas presented:\nTopic:\nThe Elimination oj Waste in School Work\n1. What Is Possible and Desirable in the Simplification of the Elementary-School\nCourse?— The Next Step. — J. B. Richey, superintendent of schools, McKeesport, Pa.\n2. The Retardation of Pupils in Studies: What Is It and How Can It Be Minimized ?\n— J. M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo.\n3. Fundamentals in the Elementary-School Curriculum. — Junius L. Meriam,\nTeachers College, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\n4. In Class Instruction, How Can the Individual Be Reached? — Walter R. Siders,\nsuperintendent of schools, Pocatello, Idaho.\nDiscussion was led by Roland P. Falkner, agent in charge of school inquiries. Immigration Commission, Washington, D. C. — A general discussion followed by Samuel\nHamilton of Braddock, Pa.; J. E. Armstrong of Chicago, 111.; J. Dietrich of Colorado\nSprings, Colo. ; and C. A. McMurry of DeKalb, 111.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nAt 2 p. M. President Elson called the meeting to order and the following topic was\nconsidered:\nArticulation 0} Higher Educational Institutions with Secondary Schools\n1. The Relation of the University to the Secondary Schools. — Stratton D. Brooks,\nsuperintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\n2. Higher and Secondary Schools as Related thru Teachers and Teaching. —\nRobert J. Aley, Department of Mathematics, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.\n3. The High School in Its Relation to the Community and the College. — Charles E.\nChadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.\n4. Proposed Changes in the Accrediting of High Schools. — Charles P. Cary, state\nsuperintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis.\n5. Some Personal Relations of College and High School in this Democracy. —\nWilliam E. Chancellor, superintendent of schools. South Norwalk, Conn.\nSuperintendent F. D. Boynton of Ithaca, N. Y., led in discussion.\nAt the close of the discussion Superintendent Boynton offered the following:\nSome years ago the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen outlined\nsuggestive programs for the elementary and 15secondary schools which proved of great\n9\nservice as ideals toward which to work as local environment\npermitted.\nSince then conditions in both the secondary and elementary fields have changed and\nnew ideals need to be set. This work can best be done by a committee appointed for this\nspecific purpose.\nIf the \"colleges dominate the high-school curriculum,\" if the elementary\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "l6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nschool program is full of \"fads and frills,\" why not cast about us to ascertain how far and\nwhy we have drifted so far from the course ? In order that this work be carefully done and\nas a summary of the day's discussion, I wish to offer the following resolution and move its\nadoption:\nResolved, That the chair appoint a committee of not more than twenty members whose\nduty it shall be to take under consideration the improvement of the whole course of study —\nelementary and secondary — and report at the next meeting of this body specific\nrecommendations for improvement.\nOn motion of H. C. Minnick of Oxford, Ohio, the secretary of the Department was\ninstructed to send to Hon. W. W. Stetson of Auburn, Maine, who was detained at home\non account of protracted illness, the following telegram:\nThe Superintendence Department of the National Education Association sends you\na most cordial greeting. It sincerely regrets the cause of your absence and hopes that a\nspeedy and complete recovery will return you to the councils of the Association and that\nfor many years you may be found at its meetings again with your many friends.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nThe Evening Session was called to order at 8:15 o'clock. President Elson presiding.\nThe topic considered was:\nThe Problem of the Delinquent Pupil\nMr. Bert Hall, Truancy Department, Public Schools, Milwaukee, Wis., read a paper\nWhat to Do with the Truants.\nWhat Share of the Blame for the Increase in the Number of Truants and Incorrigibles\nBelongs to the School? was the subject of an address by Julia Richman, district superintendent of schools, New York City, N. Y.\n\non:\n\nA Simple Story of Work with Boys was given by John E. Gunckel, Newsboys* Association, Toledo, Ohio.\nThe president announced the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nFrank B. Cooper, superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash.\nh. E. Winship, editor of the Journal of Education, Boston, Mass.\nHenry Snyder, superintendent of schools, Jersey City, N. J.\nL. L. Wright, state superintendent of public instruction, Lansing, Mich.\nA. C. Nelson, state superintendent of pubUc instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nNicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia University, New York City, N. Y.\nJ. B. Aswell, president of State Normal School, Natchitoches, La.\nFrancis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111.\nH. H. Seerley, president of State Normal School, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nJ. Dietrich, superintendent of schools, Colorado Springs, Colo.\nA. W. Rankin, professor of education. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.\nMeeting adjourned.\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION— Wednesday,\n\nFebruary 24\n\nMeeting called to order at 9 : 30 a. m. by President Elson.\nTopic:\nThe Schools in Relation to Character Building\n1. Moral Enthusiasm in the Making. — ^Arthur D. Call, district superintendent,\nHartford, Conn.\n2. Ethical Training in Schools. — Ella Lyman Cabot, member of the Massachusetts\nBoard of Education, Boston, Mass.\n3. Music as a Moral Influence. — William L. Tomlins, New York City, N. Y.\n4. The American Peril. — John W. Abercrombie, president of University of Alabama,\nTuscaloosa, Ala.\nGeneral Discussion.\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nl6l\n\nW. N. Hailmann of La Porte, Ind., at the close of the discussion made the following\nmotion which was unanimously adopted:\nResolved, That a committee of twelve be appointed by the President of this Department\nto examine into the claims advanced by Wm. L. Tomlins in his addresses of 1897 and\nagain at this meeting with reference to school music, the committee to report to this Department, provided, however, that no funds of the Association be used for the promotion of\nthis purpose.\nBUSINESS SESSION\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was called for by President Elson and\nSuperintendent Frank B. Cooper, chairman of the committee, submitted the following\nnominations:\nFor President — Stratton D. Brooks, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\nFor First Vice-President — Wales C. Martindale, superintendent of schools, Detroit,\nMich.\nFor Second Vice-President — Miss Julia A. Richman, district superintendent of schools,\nNew York City, N. Y.\nFor Secretary — John F. Keating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo.\nThe report was unanimously adopted and the nominees declared elected.\nInvitations to hold the meetings of the Department for the year 1910 were received\nfrom Mobile, Ala.; Indianapolis, Ind.; Atlantic City, N. J,; Rochester, N. Y. ; Toledo,\nOhio; Dallas, Tex.; and the City of Mexico.\nAfter several ballots were taken, Indianapolis received 278 votes, a majority of the\nvotes cast, and was therefore declared the choice of the Department as the place of meeting\nin 1910.\n\nThe invitation extended to the Department by the officials of the government of\nMexico expressed a desire, in case it was not deemed advisable to hold the meeting of the\nDepartment in the City of Mexico in 191 o, that a committee be sent in August to represent\nthe Department at the celebrations of the first centennial of the political independence\nof that nation. The President of the Department was authorized by a unanimous vote\nto appoint a committee of three to meet the wish conveyed in the invitation and the following members were appointed: Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Illinois; E. A. Jones, commissioner of education, Ohio; and Professor Horace H.\nCummings, superintendent of schools of the Latterday Saints, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nPresident Elson read the following telegram to the Department:\nAuburn, Me., February 24, 1909\nYour message from the Department brings joy and strength.\nMay blessings unnumbered come to the most useful body of men and women the Lord has seen fit to give to\nthe world.\n(Signed) William Wallace Stetson\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nROUND-TABLE\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nThe afternoon was devoted to the respective round-table meetings with programs\nas follows:\n(a) round table of state and county SUPERINTENDENTS\nLeader — J. B. Aswell, president of State Normal School, Natchitoches, La.\n1. The Worth of a Trained County Superintendent. — Francis G. Blair, state superintendent ofpublic instruction, Springfield, 111.; T. H. Harris, state superintendent of\npublic instruction, Baton Rouge, La.\n2. Is the Employment of Untrained Teachers the Cause or the Result of Low Salaries?— David Felmley, president of State Normal University, Normal, 111.; V. L. Roy,\nsuperintendent of schools, Avoyelles Parish, La.\n3. The County Superintendent's Duty to the Untrained Teacher in the Service. —\nR. L. Jones, state superintendent of public instruction, Nashville, Tenn.\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "i62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\n4. The Question of Agreement upon the Fundamental Group of Statistical Items\nWhich Shall Be Uniform for All the States. — H. C. Morrison, state superintendent of public\ninstruction, New Hampshire; E. C. Bishop, state superintendent of public instruction,\nLincoln, Nebr.\n5. The Reorganization of the Library of the Bureau of Education with a View to\nMake It an Agency for Effective Co-operation with Pedagogical Libraries thruout the\nCountry. — Elmer Ellsworth Brown, U. S. commissioner of education; P. P. Claxton,\nprofessor of science and art of teaching. University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.\n(b)\n\nround table of superintendents of larger cities\n\nLeader — W. M. Davidson, superintendent of instruction,\nSouth Parlor, second floor, Auditorium Hotel. ^\n\nOmaha,\n\nNeb.\n\nSession in\n\nTopic: The Next Step in the Improvement of the Course of Study — Elimination\nand Simplification for Enrichment. Leaders in discussion: C. F. Carroll, superintendent\nof schools, Rochester, N. Y., and C. N. Kendall, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis,\nInd. General discussion: John R. Kirk, president of State Normal School, Kirksville,\nMo.; A. E. Winship, editor, Journal of Education, Boston, Mass.; Joseph H. Hill, president of State Normal School, Emporia, Kan.; Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of\nschools, Denver, Colo.; John W. Cook, president of State Normal School, DeKalb, 111.;\nJohn A. Whiteford, superintendent of schools, St. Joseph, Mo.; C. G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.; William H. Hatch, superintendent of schools. Oak\nPark, 111.; Reuben Post Halleck, principal of Boys' High School, Louisville, Ky.\n(c)\n\nround table of superintendents of smaller cities\n\nLeader — Vernon L. Davey, superintendent of schools. East Orange, N. J.\nBanquet Room, sixth floor.\n\nSession in\n\n1. Industrial Training. — O. I. Woodley, superintendent of schools, Passaic, N. J.\na) In Grammar Schools. — A. C. Thompson, superintendent of schools. Auburn, N. Y.\nb) In High Schools. — Joseph M. Frost, superintendent of schools, Muskegon, Mich.;\nCarleton B. Gibson, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ga.\nc) In Vocational Schools. — Wilbur F. Gordy, superintendent of schools, Springfield,\nMass.\n2. The Ward-School Principal. — Milton C. Potter, superintendent of schools. District\nI, Pueblo, Colo.\na) His Necessary Training before and after Appointment. — S. O. Hartwell, superintendent of schools, Kalamazoo, Mich.\nb) How Can He Be of Most Service? — B. E. Nelson, superintendent of schools,\nRacine, Wis.\n3. The Problem of Slow Pupils: How to Handle Them. — H. V. Hotchkiss, superintendent of schools, Akron, Ohio.\na) In the High School. — E. S. Dreher, superintendent of schools, Columbia, S. C.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nMeeting of Joint Session with American School Hygiene Association, President Elson\npresiding.\nThe President introduced Edward L. Stevens, associate superintendent of schools,\nNew York City, who read a paper on The Necessity for Departments of Hygiene within\nBoards of Education. This paper was written by Superintendent William H. Maxwell,\nof New York City, who was unavoidably absent from the meeting.\nGeorge E. Johnson, superintendent of Playground Association, Pittsburg, Pa., read\na paper on The Hygiene of the Public Playground.\nDr. Woods Hutchinson of New York City gave an address on The Evil Influences\nof School Conditions upon the Health, of School Children.\nDr. Frank Allport, Professor of Clinical Ophthalmology and Otology, Northwestern\nMedical School, delivered an address on the topic: A Plea for the Systematic Annual and\nUniversal Examination of School Children's Eyes, Noses, and Throats.\nDr. Herbert D. Schenck followed in discussing different phases of the subjects of\nthe addresses of the evening.\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nTHIRD\n\nMINUTES\n\n163\n\nDAY\n\nMORNING SESSION— Thursday, February 25\nThe Department was called to order at 9:30 a. m., President Elson presiding.\nThe topic of the session was Industrial Education, which was treated in the following\nprogram:\n1. The Dignity of Vocation as a Fundamental Idea in Industrial Education. — Kenyon\nButterfield, president of Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. As Mr.\nButterfield was unavoidably absent from the meeting Chas. S. Howe, president of Case\nSchool of AppHed Science, Cleveland, O., read his address.\n2. Shall Industrial Education Be Treated as a Phase of the Problem of Universal\nEducation? — Eugene Davenport, dean. College of Agriculture, University of Illinois,\nUrbana, 111.\n3. Industrial Education as a National Interest. — Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United\nStates commissioner of education, Washington, D. C.\n4. Getting Our Bearings on Industrial Education. — Jesse D. Burks, chairman of\nCommittee on Place of Industries, Teachers Training School, Albany, N. Y.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nJohn W. Withers of Teachers College, St. Louis, Mo., read an address treating the\ntopic: The Functions of a City Training School,\nThe following resolution was unanimously passed by the Department:\nResolved, By the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association, that the Department has learned with deepest regret of the illness of Dr. W. T.\nHarris, ex-commissioner of education, that the Department has greatly missed from this\nmeeting his presence and his counsel, and that the Department earnestly hopes for his\nspeedy and permanent restoration to health, so that the country may for years to come\ncontinue to enjoy his philosophic and practical leadership in education.\nThe Committee on \"Phonetic Key Alphabet\" reported as follows:\nTo the Department of Superintendence of the N. E. A.:\nYour committee appointed to invite and join with like committees from the Modern\nLanguage Association and the American Philological Association to prepare and recommend a practical phonetic alphabet for key purposes, begs leave to submit the following\nreport:\nThe joint subcommittee, on which the other two societies were represented by members\nof the highest eminence and influence as experts in linguistic science, after careful and\nearnest conference, submitted its preliminary report in 1905 (which was distributed at the\nMilwaukee meeting) with the expectation that after criticisms and suggestions had been\nreceived, its final report would be issued. That preliminary report was prepared and\nsigned by the experts who represented the M. L. A. and the A. P. A. on the subcommittee.\nIn matters of detail there had to be some surrender of personal preferences, of course; but\nthe report, and the alphabet contained in it, were finally agreed to and signed cordially\nby the entire subcommittee. Considering the eminent source of that alphabet, as above\nexplained, the difficulties overcome or compromised in reaching it, and the unanimity with\nwhich it was agreed to by the joint subcommittee, your committee regarded it, and still\nregards it, as eminently sensible and satisfactory, and worthy of hearty indorsement by all\ninterests. There seemed no reason to doubt that when finally submitted it would be\nindorsed by the parent societies substantially as recommended by the subcommittee.\nHowever, by a series of misunderstandings, not necessary to recount, this preliminary\nreport, without ever having been revised or put into final form, was brought before the M.\nL. A. and the A. P. A. at their 1906 meetings. Each society referred the report to a special\ncommittee, \"to examine and report what, if any, amendments are desirable before the\nalphabet proposed by the joint committee shall be submitted to the Association for final\naction.\" These two special committees brought in concurrent reports recommending\nvarious definite changes in the alphabet before it should be indorsed by the two societies.\nInstead of the joint report, together with these recommendations, being referred back to\nthe joint committee for consideration in preparing its final report, as had been expected,\nthe recommendations were concurred in by each society and the preliminary report of the\njoint committee, thus amended by each of these two societies to suit itself, was adopted.\nThis action, taken in disregard of this Department, but, we believe, without any intentional\ndiscourtesy, thus abruptly and prematurely removed the report and the alphabet from the\nhands of the joint committee and left the committee with no further function.\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nIt is needless to explain the embarrassment of the situation in which your committee\nis thus placed as your representatives. Upon careful consideration we find ourselves\nquite unable to acquiesce in some of the amendments adopted, and compelled to deprecate the others as needless or unfortunate. We realize that, in accordance with the\npurpose for which our committee was created, we are looking at this alphabet question\nrather from the view-point of adaptation to practical, everyday use and of its enlisting popular\nand commercial interest. While we are deeply impressed with the need, both in the schoolroom and out of it, of a uniform system of key notation, we feel that such a key can be and\nshould be based upon a simple, practical, phonetic alphabet, as free as possible from all\ncharacteristics which may needlessly arouse antagonism or prevent its gradual growth into\ncommon, everyday use, but which at the same time, with possibly slight modifications,\nthe lexicographer and the phonetician can use for their more precise purposes.\nWe believe that in solving this problem the prepossessions and personal preferences\nof the expert should be made subordinate to ease and convenience in common, everyday use,\nand to striking the line of least resistance to acceptance by the people and by publishers.\nIf in two or three instances the same symbol is not satisfactory from both standpoints, we\nbelieve optional forms should be adopted. But we deprecate the promulgation of a\nphonetic alphabet by the experts alone which the educators of the country, from their\npractical view-point and with their influence with the great public and with the publishers,\ncannot heartily indorse. One of the objects in inviting this conference, an object which\nmust command the sympathy of every thoughtful person who appreciates the importance of\nhaving such an alphabet well received when launched, was to unite the utmost amount\nof scholarship and influence in supporting and promoting its introduction — first for pronouncing purposes, and ultimately for common every-day use. In our judgment, it would\nbe most unfortunate to drop the matter where it is at present. Only a comparatively few\npoints of disagreement now remain which can* be considered important from any point\nof view. We believe the members of the other societies will concur in the opinion that\nagreement on these points should by all means be reached. We earnestly desire to see\nanother strong effort made to agree upon a phonetic alphabet which all of us, educators\nand specialists, can heartily indorse for practical use as well as for expert use. Accordingly\nwe recommend that your committee be continued with instruction to invite the attention\nof the Modern Language Association and the American Philological Association to the\npresent situation as regards the report on a phonetic alphabet and to propose to these two\nsocieties that the points of disagreement be referred to the same or a like committee of\nconference with instruction to come into accord on these points if it is possible to do so.\nE. O. Vaile, Chairman\nT. M. Balliet\nMelvil Dewey\nH. H. Seerley\nCommittee\nThe report was unanimously adopted, and ordered filed with the Secretary.\nThe Committee on Resolutions then presented its report.\nThe resolutions presented by the committee were after considerable discussion laid\non the table.\nTo give future committees on resolutions ample time to consider matters of educational interest and importance which might be deemed necessary to be presented to the\nDepartment in the form of resolutions, the president-elect was instructed by resolution\nto announce the appointment of such committee at least one month before the meeting\nof the Department.\nThere being no other business the Department adjourned.\nA. C. Nelson, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSIMPLIFICATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nCOURSE\n\n165\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTOPIC:\n\nTHE ELIMINATION\n\n/.\n\nIS POSSIBLE AND DESIRABLE IN THE SIMPLIFLCATLON OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\nCOURSE?— THE NEXT STEP\n\nWHAT\n\nJOSEPH\n\nB.\n\nRICHEY,\n\nOF WASTE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nMC KEESPORT,\n\nWORK\n\nPA.\n\nSo great was the number of subjects recommended by the Committee of\nTen to be taught in the elementary schools, that the committee itself said that\nif anyone feels dismayed at the number and variety of the subjects to be opened to the\nchildren of tender age, let him observe that while these nine conferences desire each their\nown subject to be brought into the courses of elementary schools, they all agree that these\ndifferent subjects should be correlated and associated one with another by the program\nand by the actual teaching.\n\nExperience has taught us that the different subjects cannot be successfully\ncorrelated by the program as recommended by the committee. It is possible\nto correlate the different subjects by the teaching. History should be correlated\nwith geography, not for the purpose of teaching geography, but for the purpose\nof enriching the teaching of history. During the past five or six years there\nhas been an attempt made to simplify the course by omissions of whole or parts\nof subjects. While it is possible to reduce the amount of work by this method,\nyet it is not the solution for the problem of simplification. It is true that eliminations will be necessary, but they will be eliminations of degree as well as eliminations ofparts of subjects.\nBefore we begin to discuss what is possible and desirable in the simplification of the elementary-school course, it will be necessary to examine the\ncharges which are being made against the present curriculum.\nFirst indictment. — It is alleged that too much work is required of the children of the public schools; that to do the work as outlined in most school\ncourses, pupils are compelled to study for hours at night after five or six hours'\napplication to their studies in school, thus robbing them of the time that should\nbe given to play and recreation, which are so necessary to their growth and\nhappiness. This charge is well founded. No child of the first four grades\nshould be required to study at home. The time out of school should be devoted\nto playing, reading, and sleeping.\nThe children in the fifth and sixth grades should be required to do systematic reading at home under the direction of the teacher. Such reading\nshould be closely related to the study of subjects in geography, history, and\nliterature.\nThe children in the seventh and eighth grades should be required to study\none subject, as history, at home and also to do systematic reading which should\nbe closely correlated with the subjects taught in school. The home reading\nshould be as carefully selected and graded as the subject-matter of the regular\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "l66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nstudies. A few books should be chosen and the children should be held responsible for a thoro reading of same. It is a waste of time and dissipation of the\nenergies of the children to require them to read book after book and not be able\nto discuss intelligently their contents. Under no circumstances should problems in arithmetic, or written work of any kind, be given for preparation out of\nschool.\nSecond indictment. — It is alleged that the work of the public school lacks\nthoroness. This charge, too, is well founded. The essentials of the different\nsubjects should be so thoroly taught that they become a part of the child himself. He should have definite ideas about the fundamentals of each subject\nof the grade. Instead of his knowledge being hazy and confused, it should\nbe clear, plain, and definite. It must be more intensive. The facts must be\nthoroly learned. There is no reason why the child should not be able to carry\nwell-defined ideas of the subject-matter taught in the one grade to help him\ninterpret and master the work of each succeeding grade. To accomplish this\ntakes time. Time is an element in mental growth. It takes time to acquire\nclear and definite ideas. Thinking also takes time ; and haste in teaching any\nsubject defeats the very purpose of the teaching.\nThird indictment. — It is alleged that the present curriculum is one-sided;\nthat too much time is given to the study of books, and not enough to the study\nof actual things; that radical changes have taken place in our social and industrial life, and the old curriculum does not meet social requirements and needs.\nThis indictment, too, is well founded. The public demands that the course be\nsimplified so more time can be given for instruction and practice in the elements\nof productive industry, including agriculture and the mechanic and domestic\narts.\nFourth indictment. — It is alleged that our crowded curriculum is largely\nresponsible for the retardation found in our schools; that the child of average\nability is unable to do the work required in the specified time; that many\nchildren become discouraged, lose interest, and leave school as soon as the\nperiod of compulsion has been removed. This, too, is well founded. Most\nof the children in the grades are from one to two years older than they should\nbe. This is due to the fact that the subject-matter is often too difficult for the\nchildren of normal abilities, is unorganized, both from the standpoint of the\ncourse and the teaching, and that the quantity is more than the children can\nassimilate.\nWe have four true bills against the present curriculum ; namely, overworked\nchildren; lack of thoroness; failure to meet the requirements and needs of\nour present social and industrial life; retardation of pupils.\nThe next step in the simplification of the course of study must be taken\nby experts who are able to apply theory to the actual practice of the school.\nWe need educational standards to guide the experienced and well-trained\nteacher and superintendent as well as the inexperienced and unskilled. While\nwe have been discussing the theory of the course of study and the aim of educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSIMPLIFICATION\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nCOURSE\n\n167\n\ntion, the fact remains that very little has been accomplished in removing the\ncharges which have been constantly made against the schools. After examining\none hundred and fifty courses used in every part of the country, I am satisfied\nthat only occasionally has there been any attempt to make an application of\nthe most important and fundamental principles underlying the course. Textbooks which have been prepared from a commercial standpoint have determined the character of the courses more than educational principles.\nCan anything be done to relieve the situation ? Is it possible to dismiss\nthese charges by simplifying the course of study? If so, what is to be the\nnature of the simplification? No course of study which indicates only the\nnumber of pages to be covered in each subject in a given time can in any sense\nbe a simplified course.\nIt is my idea that the simplified course should be worked out in detail in a\nmanual that is to be placed in the hands of the teachers. It should consist of\na monogram upon each subject taught. The preparation of these monograms\nwould be very difficult and would test the professional strength of the superintendent ina very critical fashion.\nIt is possible to simplify the course —\n1. By determining the minimum amount of time that should be given to each subject.\nThe simplified course should indicate the number of weeks and the number of hours per\nweek that should be given to each subject in each grade.\n2. By determining when each subject should be taught.\n3. By determining how much of each subject should be taught in each grade. We\nmust remember that the course contains the educative material to be used by the teacher\nin the educative process. The course should indicate just how much (depth and breadth)\nof each subject should be studied in each grade. The essentials should be indicated and\nonly such details should be taught as are necessary to make clear the fundamentals. The\ncontent of the subject-matter for each grade can be determined only by taking into consideration the capabilities of the normal child at each stage of its growth. The child\nshould be exhausted instead of the subject. The assignment should be definite. The\noutline for fractions, for example, in the fifth grade, should give type problems, both\nmechanical and practical, for the purpose of indicating just how difficult the work should\nbe made at each stage of the development of the subject. What is true of the subject of\nfractions in the fifth grade is true for each subject in all grades. Permit me to give another\nexample. The study of poetry is a part of the curriculum of all schools. I find, after careful investigation, that most courses require from eight to fifteen poems to be studied and\nmany of them committed to memory in one year. The time necessary to do this work\nwould be from 50 to 75 per cent, of all the time that should be devoted to the study of\nlanguage, of which poetry is a part. No more poems should be studied in a given time\nthan can be properly and profitably taught in the time to be given to that subject. At\nthis point we can reduce the quantity at least 50 per cent, and increase the efficiency at\nthe same time, one hundred fold.\n4. By the organization of parts within each of the branches of study. \"Objective\ncorrelation, as given in the report of the Committee of Fifteen, discusses the relative educational value of studies, and involves a consideration of their equivalents. It merely determines the function of each study in enabling the child to master his environment, thus\ngiving the reason for its presence in the curriculum; but it determines nothing as to the\ntime, amount, sequence of parts, the relation of the other branches that correlation should\nhave in the recitation.\" The coiurse should give the order of topics of each subject in proper\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntChicago\n\nsequence so that each branch will be developed in a manner suited to the natural order of\nthe subject and the progress of the child. Each subject should be so clearly outlined and\nso fully elaborated that the grade-teachers, experienced or inexperienced, would have\nlittle or no difficulty in understanding it. The great waste in teaching is due to the fact\nthat' the work is given to the children unorganized and without due regard to their abilities.\nIf the facts are consecutive and naturally connected, the amount of material that the\naverage child can assimilate without injury is astonishing, as is the little that will fag him\nif it is a trifle above or below or remote from him or taught dully or incoherently.\n5. By proper presentation of the subject-matter by the teacher. The teacher will\ncomplete the simplification by carefully planning and organizing material for each day's\nwork, selecting details necessary to make clear the essentials which she proposes to teach.\n\"The purpose of the recitation must be so clear in the mind of the teacher that she can\nstate it with definiteness and exactness and show that it has a necessary place and where that\nplace is, in working out the general purpose. The success of the individual teacher's\nwork depends primarily upon this definite idea and definite end for each day's work in\nthe subject. It may very well happen that the teacher may have in mind a definite purpose\nin today's lesson, and may work skilfully and secure good work on the part of the pupils\nfor the accomplishment of that purpose and yet the work may be utter waste of time,\nbecause the aim of the recitation has no place in the general purpose for which the subject\nis being taught.\"\n\nThe course should be arranged so that at least one-half of the time of the\nfourth, fifth, and sixth grades in arithmetic, language, and geography is a\nreview of the work of the preceding grades, making it possible for a pupil\nstrong physically and mentally to complete the work of the first six years in five.\nIn my experience I have found few pupils who have gained very much by\nshortening the time in completing the elementary course. What they have\ngained in time they have lost in power and efficiency. By skilful training we\nmay increase the knowledge of the young child, but we cannot in the same\nratio increase his powers of reason and of independent thought.\nWhile the course should be arranged so it is possible for the bright pupils\nto gain time, it should be primarily arranged so that a pupil of average ability\nwill be able to complete the work of each grade in the given time, with close\napplication to the work during school hours, and such work out of school as I\nhave indicated in the first part of this paper.\nSuch simplification of the course of study will make it possible to conserve\nthe energies of the children; to master more thoroly the essentials of the\nsubjects studied; for the average child to complete the course in a specified\ntime; to shorten the time required each day to accomplish the work in the\nacademic subjects in order to give boys time to learn how to work on the farm\nand in the shop, and to give the girls time to learn how to perform the duties of\nthe home.\nTo be of real service to the schools thruout this country, the next step\nto be taken in the simplification of the course of study should be taken by this\ndepartment. A committee prepared to formulate such a course should be\nappointed. Let us have such a practical application of theory that will take\ninto consideration the physical strength, the mental capacities, and the needs\nof the children.\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] FUNDAMENTAL\n\n//.\n\nFUNDAMENTALS\n\nJUNIUS\n\nL. MERIAM,\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nIN THE ELEMENTARY\nCURRICULUM\n\nTEACHERS COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY\nCOLUMBIA, MO.\n\n169\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF MISSOURI,\n\nI wish to discuss in this paper, first, what seems to me a fundamental\nweakness in our present elementary-school curriculum; second, a fundamental principle for guidance in the selection and arrangement of a content\nbetter suited to present needs. What I have to say is based largely upon my\nexperiments and study in directing the Teachers College Elementary School\nof the University of Missouri during the past four years.\nWaste in school work is due to a maladjustment between means and end.\nToo frequently educators look for the solvents of this waste in better systems\nof management and better methods of instruction. On the contrary, I am\nforced to believe that the real source of waste is the maladjustment between\nthe content of the curriculum, on the one hand, and the needs of the pupils\nand the needs of the community, on the other. Time is wasted, not by reason\nof a lack of machine-like organization, but rather by reason of the presence of\na dozen or more subjects in each grade. To teach all these the school must\nrun on schedule time. Energy of both teacher and pupil is wasted in the very\nbeginning of reading and ciphering, not by reason of faulty method but because\nthe usual primer and number work are inappropriately selected. No wonder\n\"Emmy Lou, laboriously copying digits, looked up\"^ and gave attention to\nthe little boy making signs to her. In the nature of the curriculum is found\nthe real source of waste in school work.\nTHE FUNCTION\n\nOF THE CURRICULUM\n\nI wish at this point to consider the function of the elementary school curriculum from two points of view: that of the adult and that of the child.\nAdult view. — The idea of preparation for complete living has so dominated\neducational thought that the school is looked upon as an institution to which\nthe child is intrusted for a season, at the close of which he is returned to the\ncommunity as an efficient social factor. Social efficiency has reference,\nprimarily, to the ultimate aim of education. The adult, with this aim in\nmind, selects and arranges the content of our elementary school curriculum.\nIt is probably under the influence of science that the adult has been led to\nanalyze his varied experiences and to arrange them in the categories of arithmetic, geography, reading, grammar, etc. As human experience may be thus\nclassified, it has apparently been assumed that instruction should be given in\nthese subjects. So it is that we have our program of studies. In early ages\nlife was exceedingly simple; little more than the three R's sufficed to classify\nsuch experience. Twentieth-century life, on the contrary, is so complex that\nalmost a score of school subjects are used.\nSuch a curriculum may be described as follows: First, it is an arrange* George Martin, Emmy Lou, p. 3.\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "17©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nment of isolated, unrelated experiences: arithmetic with no essential relation\nto geography; drawing with no close relation to nature-study; and so with all\nthe subjects. Second, the curriculum is congested. The ever-increasing\nnumber of subjects and topics is only the inevitable result of the ever-increasing\ncomplexity of our civilization. These subjects are generah'zations of our experiences. Ifthe curriculum is to consist of such generalizations, the congestion\ncannot be avoided. Third, the curriculum is abstract rather than concrete.\nDr. Frank McMurry is right when he claims that materials of instruction are\n\"concrete only when they deal with real things and with actual, significant\nsituations.\"' Facts, isolated from their original association and having now\nno specific function, are abstract. Accepting this we are forced to regard as\nabstract practically all the content of our curriculum, as it is usually arranged.\nTaken by itself with no relation to any significant situation, the fact that the\nAlbany Congress in 1754 failed to accomplish its purpose is as truly abstract\nas the principle for the division of one fraction by another. It is against this\nabstract formal nature of elementar\\' education that Dr. Kerschensteiner, of\nMunich, has taken so strong a stand. Thus the curriculum, as now arranged,\nis crowded with isolated subjects of an abstract nature.\nThe evils of such a situation are too obvious to mention. But to counteract these evils and to make the curriculum more efficient three special remedies\nhave been proposed in recent years: First, enrich the work. This has been\ndone by increasing subjects, topics, and details, and by applying the abstract in\nconcrete situations. The former has only crowded the schedule and the latter\nhas proven superficial. Second, relieve congestion by omission. Conservatism and personal prejudice have blocked progress here. Further, omission\nis seen to be only a temporary relief, not a principle providing for permanent\nprevention of congestion. Third, correlate the subjects. The result has been\na forced and therefore wholly unnatural and superficial adaptation of one\nsubject to another.\nStrenuous endeavor to improve the curriculum by enrichment, omission,\nand correlation has done much, but by no means sufficient to meet present\ndemands. The attempt has been to repair an old curriculum. This curriculum has grown up under varying influences, foremost of which have been the\nclaims of culture and the idea of preparation for later life. This is what I call\nthe adult view.\nChild-view. — Quite contrary to this view is that from the standpoint of the\nchild. There is more truth than fiction in Charles Dudley Warner's magnificent little book. Being a Boy. He says, **Boys, in general, would be very good\nfarmers if the current notions about farming were not so very different from\nthose they entertain. What passes for laziness is very often an unwillingness\nto farm in a particular way.\"=^ (And that is the way of the adult, as he goes\non to show.)\nMuch the same may be said of the boy in school. A serious\n' Teachers College Record, Vol. IV, No. a, p. 6.\n• Warner, Being a Boy, p. ii.\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] FUNDAMENTAL\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n171\n\ninjustice is done the boy when he is judged by adult standards. And it is\nexactly such standards that we use when we insist that the boy learn the principles of percentage and the geography of Australia because, perchance, he\nmay have use for that information in adult life. The schoolboy is as yet too\nlimited in experience to plan for the future. His aim is to live in the immediate present. He cares for arithmetic only so far as it contributes to his present needs; for geographical facts only so far as they contribute to his immediate interests. And we adults are slowly coming to this view. For many\nyears students prepared for college by the pursuance of courses selected by\nthe college for that purpose. The dictation of a higher school to a lower is\nwhat President Jordan calls *'a species of impertinence which only tradition\njustifies.\"^\nBut we are learning that the most adequate adjustment today prepares\nbest for adequate adjustment tomorrow. The boy cares little to prepare for\nthe future; his great desire is to act now. This child-view is in strictest accord with recent thought designated by the term pragmatism. To use the\nwords of Professor Woodbridge, ''It would aim to introduce subjects into the\ngeneral course of study at the times when these subjects are needed for the\nextension of knowledge already acquired. It would make against the tendency to insist on certain subjects on the ground that they may prove of advantage to the student in later life. ... It would make the point of departure\nin the education of the individual students, the student himself and his environment.\"^\nIt is from this point of view that I wish to suggest some principles that\nmay guide us in selecting materials of instruction and then outline briefly what\nthat curriculum would be. But before going farther let me remind you that\nour problem here is not to enrich our present curriculum by the introduction\nof fads and frills or even manual training and vocational subjects. Nor are\nwe concerned with the problem of advisable omissions from our program of\nstudies. And correlation, important as it is when normal, need not trouble\nus as we are simply face to face with a large school population teeming with\nthe spirit of activity and asking: What can the school do to help us in what\nwe are doing today ?\nPRINCIPLES\n\nOF\n\nSELECTION\n\nLet me suggest four principles to guide in the selection and arrangement of\nthe content of the curriculum :\nFirst, that content has a place in the curriculum which meets real, present\nneeds of the pupils. This is an era of industrial and vocational agitation.\nKerschensteiner in Germany, Sadler in England, the Commission on Industrial\nEducation in Massachusetts, the Commissioner of Education in New York, and\nso on to the remotest rural school, are just now laying much emphasis on industrial, vocational, and trade schools. This attitude is due to the ever stronger\nconviction that our schools are not serving adequately individual and com' Educ. Rev, XXXVI, 372.\n\n' op. cit„ XXXIV, 240.\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nmunity needs. The effect is the tendency to demand that the curriculum be\nmore practical and constructive, relating more specifically to everyday life.\nThe old \"culture\" aim is yielding to the utilitarian and we are not averse to\nthis, for \"culture\" is no longer confined to formal, intellectual accomplishments,\nbut finds its realization in any work nobly done. The real needs referred to\nin this principle are not limited to vocational interests of youth and adult life.\nThey must extend down to the child first entering school. Any of his normal,\nwholesome activities may rightfully claim assistance from the school.\nSecond, only that content has a rightful place, in the study of which the\npupil has a conscious motive. Here will be debarred practically all that is\nformal and abstract in our present curriculum. This principle does not\nrefer to that which is superficially interesting, but rather to that in which the\npupil finds a contribution to his need, and which thus supplies a real motive.\nThird, only that content may be admitted which the pupil can comprehend\nand the significance of which he can appreciate. This principle debars practically all that is usually given as mere discipline.\nFourth, only that content may be admitted which contributes to the continuity inthe development of the special problem being studied. This principle debars all isolated bits of information, but on the positive side suggests a\nwholly natural scheme of correlation.\nCURRICULUM\n\nSUGGESTED\n\nIn attempting to arrange a program of study for the elementary school, we\nmust bear in mind that pupils cannot study all that is within their comprehension, or all that is available. We must select wisely from a great wealth of\npossible material. Further, we must select, not in terms of arithmetic, geography, grammar, etc., but in terms of child-activities and adult pursuits.\nActivities of children and activities of adults are real content for they are concrete experiences. Arithmetic, geography, and grammar are only form-studies\nin such experiences. It would be the height of folly and a gross insult to the\nwisdom of the past — and the present — if we advised our public school to set\naside abruptly our present curriculum. Emancipation from tradition is practically impossible for school men and school communities. But, for the sake of\nemphasizing a point of view which will tend to contribute much to making our\ncurriculum more commensurate with contemporary needs, let me ask you to\nset aside for the moment our established program of studies and consider\nquite a different plan of work.\nIn applying the four principles suggested above we are confronted with the\nquestion: What are the normal activities of children of school age, in which the\nschool can assist ? During the first two or three years of school life, play,\nsimple observation of any wholesome thing within reach, and commonplace\nhandwork are dominant. The educational value of well-directed play is\nemphasized by educational psychologists, by the Playground Association of\nAmerica, and by school men who are in sympathy with child-life. The edu-\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nFUNDAMENTAL\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n173\n\ncational importance of observation and handwork is emphasized by all classes\nof practical men. At first, these three activities center largely in the self,\nbut as the child grows older he becomes interested in the activities of those\nabout him and later interested in industrial activities in the world at large.\nWe are a motor people and so are our pupils. To help them in their own\nactivities and in understanding the activities of others is the function of the\ncurriculum.\nActing in accordance with this view the elementary school at the University\nof Missouri is using the following curriculum : in each of the first three years\nthe playing of wholesome games, the observation of anything interesting and\nprofitable to children, and the making of things useful and ornamental; in the\nfourth year, local industries, as found in the blacksmith-shop, the post-office,\nthe laundry, the grocery store, the meat market, the dairy, the shoe factory,\nthe farm; in the fifth and sixth years, industries at large, such as fishing, lumbering, mining, manufacturing, transportation, government; in the seventh\nyear, the development of important industries, especially within the United\nStates.\nIn pursuance of such a course the three R's, language, drawing, and\ngeography, contribute what they can. A bit of handwork done by the first\ngrade just before Christmas was much enriched by a personal account of the\nmaking, which was read by the pupils.\nMAKING\n\nA\n\nCALENDAR\n\nDo you know, a Christmas fairy whispered to us that it would be great fun to make\nour fathers a Christmas gift?\nWe could make so many things that we hardly knew what to choose.\nWe could have made pen wipers, blotters, boxes for the desk, mats for the ink wells,\nbook marks, napkin rings, and some other things.\nBut we decided to make calendars for the month of January.\nDo you not think our fathers will be pleased?\nThe second grade had marked off our oblongs of paper.\nThe spaces were ready for the numbers of the days.\nWe wrote January on the top line.\nThen the first letter of each day of the week was written below in the small squares.\nEveryone wanted to be careful to place under each day the proper figures.\nSome of us made mistakes and began all over again.\nWhen these were finished, we fastened them with brass clips to green oblongs of\ncardboard.\nAbove the calendar leaves we pasted a picture of the Holy Mother and Child.\nWere not these pretty gifts ?\n\nIt will be readily noted that in this reading, writing, number-work, language,\nhandwork, all are subordinate to that which is worth while in itself — viz., the\nmaking of the calendars as a gift. Further illustrations would show all the\nformal studies in the first three years wholly subservient to real activities in\nwholesome games, profitable observation, and useful handwork.\nIn the fourth grade a study — occupying ten days — of a local dairy included\nthe following: (i) an excursion of three hours; (2) readings from twenty\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nChicago\n\nreferences; (3) thirteen compositions amounting to twenty pages, which\nincluded (4) forty problems with additional drill exercises involving the four\nfundamental processes — fractions, United States money, liquid, and avoirdupois measurements; (5) chemical experiments in the souring of milk; (6)\nhandwork in the making of butter and cottage cheese; (7) science work in the\nstudy of various kinds of cows and the care of them; (8) sentence-structure\nto make clear their own compositions; and (9) seventy-four words liable to be\nmisspelled. All these various \"studies\" serve as means in the study of the\nlarger problem — that of the dairy as a local industry. This is a type of the\nwork done by the fourth grade in one year's work on local industries.\nIn the fifth grade the lumber industry is given twenty-five days. It includes\nthe following work: (i) four excursions to a forest, sawmill, planing mill,\nlumber yard; (2) readings from eighty references; (3) eighteen compositions\ncovering forty-two pages; (4) twenty-three concrete problems involving the\nfour fundamental processes, square measure and board measure in the United\nStates and several foreign countries, common fractions, decimals, percentage,\nand considerable drill exercises in these topics; (5) the geography of almost\nevery country on the globe, with three maps carefully drawn; (6) science work\non trees, lumber, other forest products, sawmills, etc.; (7) drawing in twentytwo illustrations; (8) literature in both poetry and prose fiction.\nIt needs but a little study of the manufacture of cotton cloth, for example\nin the sixth grade, to call for much arithmetical work, geographical data,\nstudies in science, drawing, reading, etc.\nTime does not suffice for further illustrations; but I wish to emphasize\ntwo leading things accomplished by such a course: First, motive is supplied in\nanswering a felt need. Children are by nature interested in their own activities. This interest develops into an interest in the activities of others — the\nindustrial pursuits of adults. And a study of such industries is worth while.\nIn a recent number of Science Mr. Spillman, of the United States Department\nof Agriculture, rightly pleads for a course of study that will deal with the industries of men. The elementary school should not attempt industrial education\nas a vocational school, but merely acquaint pupils with the various community\nactivities and with industries at large. In the study of such industries the\npupil finds a real motive for some study in arithmetic, geography, etc. The\nconclusion of Thorndike^ and others that spelling may well be taught incidentally may probably be extended to other subjects. \"Incidentally,\" however,\ndoes not mean \"with no attention,\" but rather with real motive, functioning in\na larger problem. Second, unity and continuity in the school work are the\nnatural consequences. For four or five weeks the fifth grade devotes its\nmain energy and time to the study of the lumber industry. Attention is\ngiven to concrete problems or drill on principles in decimal fractions or in\nmeasurements, only as such drill contributes to some quantitative aspect of\nthe industry being studied.\n' Principles of Teaching, p. 273.\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nIN CLASS\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n175\n\nIt may be added that such a program of studies sets quite at naught the\nproblems of enrichment, omission, and correlation. Further, if the old\nschool still wishes emphasis on the studies now in the curriculum, the program\nhere suggested may well be used as a means to that end. Under the influence\nof the stronger motive, more of the three R's, language, geography, etc., will\nbe mastered. The vocabulary in the first half-year is three times that of most\nprimers, with general reading correspondingly extended. The seventh grade\nlast year worked out arithmetical problems proportionately more extended\nthan is usual in texts. More compositions are written, and therefore more constructive work in language.\nIn conclusion, a fundamental weakness of our present curriculum is that\nit is a patchwork of \"studies\" thrown together with no principle of relation.\nThese studies are largely the generalizations of adult experience and are\noffered to the pupil on the ground that they will be of service to him in later\nlife. On the other hand, a fundanjental principle for guidance in providing a\ncurriculum better suited to contemporary needs is: Consideration must be\ngiven primarily to the real, present needs of the pupils. The school curriculum must consist largely of the concrete in pupil activities, and the concrete\nin adult industries. This study of real life, with formal ''studies \" subordinate,\nis more truly educational and more truly vital than the study of formal generalizations with labored application to life.\n///.\nWALTER\n\nIN CLASS INSTRUCTION, HOW CAN\nVIDUAL BE REACHED?\nR. SIDERS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTHE\n\nPOCATELLO,\n\nINDIIDAHO\n\nThe individual can be reached in class instruction by a judicious use of\nwhole-class, group, and individual instruction.\nWhole-class instruction presupposes classes in which the members have\nbeen reduced to the point where the teacher may be sure of the mental reaction\nof each individual to the instruction offered. Mass teaching does not make\nmass learning possible. The individual may bear all the outward marks of\nearnest attention, but inwardly have a vacant mind.\nWhole-class instruction is demanded to afford the necessary subordination\nof individual impulses to the good of the class. It is stimulating, it arouses\ncompetition, and appeals to emulation. But whole-class instruction is\nplanned for the average child who has no existence in reality. It loses sight of\nindividual differences and becomes a machine to grind out a certain uniform\nproduct. Where whole-class instruction is relied upon to do all of the teaching, ittakes up nearly the whole of the school time and most of the pupil's\npreparation must be done outside of school hours. Whole-class teaching\nprovides no remedy for the worry and strain put upon the weaker pupil to keep\nhim \"up to grade,\" and none for the teacher who must lengthen her hours to\naccomplish the bringing-up of pupils behind the class.\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nThe closest classification cannot level pupils to an average which wholeclass instruction can invariably reach. Instruction directed at the majority is\ndiscouraging to the brightest and the slowest minds in increasing numbers as\nwe advance in the grades. These pupils become disheartened and frequently\nleave school.\nAttempts have been made to answer these objections by reform in method.\nIt was believed that if the teacher properly prepared, properly presented, and\nproperly developed the lesson in accordance with sound pedagogy that there\nwould be no problem of the bright and of the dull child. Our attention has\nbeen so fixed upon interest, correlation, and apperception that we have frequently forgotten to inquire how much the pupil knew.\nImprovements in methods have not abated the evil for which a remedy is\nsought. The burden of home-study with parent-tutoring remains. The same\nworry and strain about promotions exist. Teachers find it not easier to accomplish the allotted portion of the course of. study. Pupils continue to \"drop\nout\" of school because they cannot keep up with the work, or because they\ncannot find the work which interests them.\nMethod has been, and is being, abused. The result: pupils become unable\nto do independent study, to acquire knowledge for themselves, and to grasp the\nsalient points in what is put before them.\nThe test of the excellence of any system is the training given the individual\nchild, and there are many who hold that the old-time rural school afforded\nideal training because it held no classes and each individual received training\naccording to his needs. Individual instruction lifts up the discouraged and\nenables each individual to work up to his capacity. It produces independence\nof work, and wherever it can be applied to productive work it is better than\nwhole-class instruction. But purely individual instruction is impracticable\nwith large numbers. It is undesirable with any number because it eliminates\nemulation and comparisons. It is futile because it cannot make the solitary\nlearner socially efl&cient.\nTo those who are giving the matter earnest attention, it begins to be apparent that some compromise is necessary between the individual teaching of\nthe old-time rural school and the whole-class teaching of the modern graded\nschool. Most of the attempts to organize the graded school on a basis of\ninstruction to the individual and promotion by subjects have resulted in a loss\nof classification and in confusion. To continue whole-class instruction in the\ngraded school is to sacrifice the minority to the majority. The majority rules,\nbut they should not be permitted to impair the efficiency of the minority.\nThe present machinery of our graded-school system should be preserved,\nbut its operation upon the individual should be made more efficient. The\ncompromise should be a system whereby whole-class instruction with all its\nbenefits will be retained, and whereby explicit and systematic instruction will\nbe provided for the individual and for such groups of individuals within the\nclass as are experiencing similar difficulties. Such a compromise, if effectually\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nIN CLASS\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n177\n\nput into operation, will reach the majority thru whole-class instruction, and\nthe minority thru group and individual instruction. It will make it possible\nto keep the backward pupil up to grade, and to make such provision for the\nbright pupil as will compel him to work up to the limit of his abilities.\nAn investigation of the more prominent plans for group and individual\ninstruction, thus far devised, reveals two different provisions for the bright\npupil: either to provide that because of his special aptitude he shall advance\nthru school more rapidly, or to provide that because of his increased capacity\nhe shall be required to do more intensive work in his subjects in each grade.\nThe latter plan rarely promotes him faster than others in his class.\nBecause it is difficult to detect whether the child is brilliant or superficial,\nand because it is always difficult to be sure who the bright pupils are, many\nof the harmonized systems of whole-class and individual instruction dem.and\nthat the bright pupil be held in the grade and class as long as the other pupils.\nI'rovision is made for additional work for this class of pupils, which is planned\nto give the pupil a more thoro and more comprehensive knowledge of the\nsubject than is required of the other pupils. This additional work is spoken\nof as busy work, seat work, or supplementary work. It is held, in the case\nof thesai brighter pupils, that the intensive cultivation of a small area will be\nproductive of greater results than the non-intensive cultivation of more extended\nfields of knowledge.\nThe plans for advancing the bright pupil thru school more rapidly are\neither after the type of the Pueblo plan of almost purely individual instruction,\nor the Elizabeth plan of four or five groups in a room with frequent reclassification and pronlotions, or the Cambridge double-track plan of arranging a given\nhalf of the course of study so that it may be completed in four, five, or six years,\naccording to the rate of progress which the pupil is able to make.\nThe Batavia plan and the group plan of New York City emphasize keeping\nall pupils up to grade, getting more intensive work from the bright pupil, and\npassing the entire grade to promotion without loss. These two plans accomplish similar results, but differ in that the Batavia plan depends more largely\nupon individual instruction, and the New York City group plan more largely\nupon group instruction.\nThe Batavia plan makes individual instruction supplementary to class\ninstruction. It finds its widest adaptability in its double-alternating program\nfor a schoolroom of one teacher, which program provides that in a given subject\nthere shall be on one day whole-class instruction, and that on the next day this\nsame program time shall be given to individual instruction, and further provides that individual work and class work shall alternate on the same day with\ndifferent subjects. .The Batavia plan insists that individual instruction shall\nbe given by a competent teacher, which is a great improvement upon the pupil\nteaching done under the Bell-Lancaster system.\nThe insistence that individual instruction shall have as much time as wholeclass teaching seems arbitrary.\nIt would be better to leave the amount of\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "178\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nindividual instruction to the needs of the class as judged by the teacher, as is\ndone in some systems of group and individual instruction to be mentioned.\nThe technique of individual instruction differs from the technique of class\ninstruction in that —\n1. Initiative must come from the teacher.\n2. All individual instruction is to be by the development method; i. e., the pupil is\nto be helped to develop himself.\nDirect instruction is forbidden.\nThe principles laid down by Superintendent Kennedy for individual instruction are:\n1. Do not give individual instruction upon forthcoming lessons.\n2. Do not tell a child anything, but see that he knows it.\n3. Do not do anything for the child, but see that he does it.\nTo which has been added by a Minnesota superintendent:\n4. Use the individual instruction period to bring up absent pupils.\n5. Do not try to help too many pupils in one individual-help period.\n\nIf it were possible to reduce the number of pupils to a teacher so that she\ncould always be sure of the mental reaction of each individual in the class, it\nwould not insure that all would react in the same time. Some would fully\nunderstand upon the first presentation of the subject, and be ready for the\napplication of what they had learned ; that is to say, they would be ready for\nintensive occupation work, such as would enable them to go deeper Wo the\nsubject, or they would be ready to be passed on to higher work in the same\nsubject, or to pass to work in another subject in which they are not so proficient.\nTo hold this group in class when they have fully comprehended what is\ntaught means a loss of attention on their part, and an abuse of their time which\nmight be employed in going deeper into the subject while the teacher is further\ninstructing those of the class who need it.\nIt is at this point where the bright pupils make a departure from the class\nthat group instruction takes its rise. The method pursued in group instruction\nin New York City is essentially as follows:\n1. Each new point is developed by whole-class instruction. A brief test at the close\nof the lesson shows those who have grasped the point, and those who need further instruction.\n2. In the next lesson period the teacher leaves in their seats those who grasped the point\nin the previous lesson to do individual study upon work prepared in advance for them,\nwhich work is an intensive study along lines in which the class is proceeding. These\npupils may for convenience be designated as Group A. The remainder of the class is\ncalled into recitation and taught the same work as in the previous lesson by a new method of\nattack. A test given at the close of this recitation will reveal another group who have\nfully comprehended the work.\nThis group may be designated Group B.\n3. In the third day's instruction, Group A is provided with new seat work, Group B\nwith the seat work given Group A the day before, and the remainder of the class, now\nknown as Group C, is called into recitation, and worked with one or two days longer\nuntil all are proficient. New York does not make a practice of carrying this work beyond\nthree groups.\n4. When Group C is proficient, the class is reassembled and whole-class instruction\nis resumed.\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nIN CLASS\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n179\n\nUnder the above plan the fast group does more thoro and intensive\nstudy upon the same subject-matter, and since this group is drilled upon intensive work there is no danger of superficiality. To insure that seat work is well\ndone, it is always carefully inspected, and is so planned as to be open to easy\ninspection.\nGroups doing this intensive work are forming invaluable habits of study\nand of self-reliance. The plan provides for the advancement of Group A so\nthat they may in less than one term attain to a working place with the Group\nC pupils of the grade ahead of them.\nThis plan does not neglect the slow group which receives more instruction\nthan the fast group. The plan aims not at the education of the few bright ones,\nnor at the majority, but at the education of all — eacji according to his capacity\nto receive. Group A may do the work in less than one term; Group B covers\nthe work fully and thoroly in one term, and Group C is brought up to grade and\npasses on with the class.\nThe groups A, B, and C vary, of course, with each subject taught, and from\ntime to time whole-class instruction may proceed several days without the\nnecessity of grouping, and the groups may often not need to be more than\ntwo.\nThe plan is flexible and adaptable to the needs of the class.\nAs has been said before, the group being instructed must be small enough\nthat the teacher may be sure of mental reaction in each individual. Whenever\na class is being instructed in such subjects as singing, drawing, or writing where\nthe individual reaction is certain, no grouping is needed, and group instruction\nwould be wasting time, but the necessity of drilling groups in the technique of\nsuch subjects is clearly recognized.\nNone of the special branches nor manual training will, for the above reason, demand group instruction, but in such subjects as reading, arithmetic,\ngrammar, and sometimes writing, the group method of instruction will be found\ninvaluable. The work in these fundamental branches will by this method be\nmuch more thoro. Geography, history, and civics are subjects which lend\nthemselves less readily to group instruction. These subjects are best taught\nby whole-class instruction except for special drill with the weaker pupils.\nAs the groups in reading will have something of a permanent character they\ncan be used as the basis of seating — this for convenience in handling the groups.\nThe greatest variations will be found in the groups in arithmetic and grammar.\nThe chief objection against the group system, from the standpoint of the\nteacher, is the difficulty in planning or finding ready to use suitable seat work\nto afford the necessary intensive study upon the topic in hand. Unsuitable seat\nwork results in mischievous idleness or in careless, slovenly habits of thought\nand study. Properly planned seat work makes lessons clearer and applies\nthe principles already learned, and by the drill insures accuracy and facility\nin all mechanical operations. Repetition makes the pupil's possession more\npermanent. In the upper grades it trains how to acquire new knowledge by\nindependent, unaided study.\nIt is necessary that the assignments of seat work\n\n{\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "i8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nbe clear and definite and that they cajl for real study. They must have a\ndefinite relation to the grade of work being done and that child must be held\nstrictly responsible for the preparation of the work assigned.\nIn the Pocatello schools we are trying out a combined system of wholeclass, group, and individual instruction. The plan is similar to a combination of the ideas embodied in the Batavia plan and the New York City group\nplan, but has been developed, so far as it has gone, independently of these\nplans. Like most other schools we first sought a reform thru method of\nteaching. The development of the methods demanded a change from wholeclass to group and individual teaching, so we have come to depend upon these\nthree ways of handling our pupils.\nOur endeavor was to reach the individual without disturbing the system\nof grading in use — the semi-annual promotion classification — and without\ncreating an elaborate system whereby to attain the desired end. Our first\nexperiment was with the study-recitation. The study period and the recitation\nperiod are combined as much as possible. The teacher is instructed to work\nwith the pupils over all new work. The teacher's task is to teach the advanced\nwork, to develop and to explain all new principles, and to demonstrate how the\nnew work is to be done. This instruction leaves for the pupil out-of -recitation\nwork of the following kinds:\n1. Memory work — committing definitions, rules, principles, dates, facts, etc.\n2. Copy work — copying and expanding the work of the lesson, composition writing, etc.\n3. Drill work — solving problems where the principle and the operation have been\nthoroly taught (the pupils solve such problems for a drill in the principle involved and for\nfacility in operation), also drill work in parsing, analysis, synthesis of elements, etc.\n\nIn brief, we try to teach so that all of the more important thinking processes\nwill be developed in the study-recitation, and the mechanical processes will be\nleft to the pupil's out-of-recitation preparation. Questioning and testing\nsufficient to compel the pupil to do his own thinking are used in the regular\nclass work, but all formal tests are left until a logical portion of the subject has\nbeen taught.\nThe test is to cover two things:\n1. The fulness and the completeness of the pupil's knowledge structure.\n2. The facility and accuracy of all mechanical operations.\n\nPupils who are weak in either of these tests are further taught in a group\nuntil they become proficient.\nWith the working-out of these ideas came the need of a plan whereby there\ncould be whole-class, group, and individual instruction in the subjects of reading, arithmetic, and grammar; and so the periods for the study-recitation\nin these subjects were lengthened to one-quarter, or even to one-half a day,\nso that there might be time in one period for the different kinds of instruction.\nDuring such times the entire number of pupils in the same room work upon the\nsame subject, even if there are two different grade-classes in the room.\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nIN CLASS\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\ni8l\n\nBy whole-class instruction the new work is developed. When necessary\nthe work is further developed for those who need it by group instruction. By\nputting the entire room at work upon the textbook in arithmetic, or grammar,\nor some similar work, the teacher is free to pass from seat to seat to inspect\nwork or to give individual instruction where needed. Our teachers follow the\nsame principles as in the Batavia plan, above stated, for the handling of individual instruction. This individual work enables the teacher to discover what\npupils are having special difficulties. These are assembled for group instruction and then dismissed for further individual work. This group and individual instruction is continued until the pupils are again assembled for wholeclass work.\nThere is no limitation imposed upon the teacher by this program. She is\nfree to give whole-class, group, or individual instruction as the need arises.\nThe variety of occupation offered the class affords the necessary relaxation of\nattention, for we have found that it is not concentration upon one subject that\ntires so much as one way of doing, or a fixed method of procedure.\nThe program is calculated upon the basis of the number of minutes per\nweek to be given to each subject. The special subjects of music, drawing, etc.,\nare taught by whole-class instruction three times per week, an aggregate of\none hour per week for each subject. The subjects of arithmetic, grammar, and\nreading are taught in long study-recitation periods as above described, the\ntotal number of minutes per week aggregating about two hundred minutes\nfor each grade-class in a room. The subjects of geography, history, civics, and\nphysiology ai:e taught in the length of periods customary for these subjects,\nand when group or individual instruction becomes necessary in these subjects\nit is accomplished by instruction one day and by group or individual instruction the following day at the regular program time — the same plan as the\nBatavia double-alternating system.\nIn the first grade the pupils are taught in groups of not more than ten,\nand in the second grade in groups of not more than fifteen. In the third and\nall grades higher, below the high school, there are not more than two grade\ndivisions for a room. The third grade is taught by means of a double-alternating program.\nIn the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, the pupils are taught\nby a combination of whole-class, group, and individual instruction — the\nstudy-recitation periods in the fourth and fifth grades being made shorter than\nin the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades.\nIn the high school, group instruction and individual instruction are effected\nwhen necessary by calling into the recitation room the pupils to receive group\nor individual instruction. The group left in the study-room is assigned intensive study topics or is permitted to use the time upon other subjects in which\nthey are not so proficient.\nThis, in brief, is our plan.\nTeachers differ as to whether discipline is easier or more difficult under\nthe plan of whole-class, group, and individual instruction.\nThe majority\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "i82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nincline to the view that it is easier because pupils are better occupied. It is\nalso the general testimony that the teacher comes to know the pupils and their\nneeds more intimately and that because the teacher's instruction is more wisely\nadapted. Pupils make more rapid progress in the fundamental branches and\nlearn them more thoroly. They are more self-reliant, more industrious,\nand more devoted to their work. They obtain more confidence in themselves\nbecause the weaker ones are not constantly subjected to a discouraging comparison with the brighter ones. Pupils are more encouraged to continue their\nwork into the higher grades as is shown by the fact that our percentage of\ngrade mortality is constantly decreasing.\nThere certainly exists in our schoolrooms less formalism than heretofore\nand more earnest activity of a healthy, interested sort. We do not feel that\nour plan has yet passed the experimental stage, but we are sufficiently satisfied\nwith the results to continue the investigation of how to reach the individual.\nIV.\nJAMES\n\nRETARDATION OF PUPILS IN THEIR\nHOW TO MINIMIZE IT\nM.\n\nGREENWOOD,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSTUDIES\nKANSAS\n\nAND\nCITY,\n\nMO.\n\nThere is no very definit?e, technical educational vocabulary in use in this\ncountry, and this fact creates much confusion in popular discussion. A\nterm used in one system of city schools may have an entirely different meaning\nin another city of equal size not a hundred miles away. Seldom do two schoolmen, except in the same system, attach the same meaning to a term that both\nmay use in a public discussion of the same subject. In this paper I shall use\nthe word ** retardation\" in a technical sense and to signify a subnormal rate\nof movement by a pupil in completing a prescribed amount of school work in a\ndefinite portion of time.\nThe expressions \"reviewing studies,\" \"going over the work,\" or ''being\nput back in classes,\" have had a tolerably fixed meaning among school teachers,\nparents, and pupils from time out of mind. In order to appear semi-scientific,\nthe word \"retardation\" has been quite recently plucked out of physics and\nis now made to do duty in indicating the rate of speed that a pupil makes when,\nfor any cause, he is hindered or delayed in his studies, thereby causing him to\nlose time. In a potential sense, however, a pupil may be regarded as an unorganized, or partly organized, mass of humanity, supposed to move over a\ndefinite part of a subject in a given time at a uniform or variable velocity,\nowing to rough places on the track, or up-grades on some of the curves. Consequently the pupil's speed may be uniform, accelerated, or retarded, owing\nentirely to the circumstances or conditions of motion. However, I disclaim,\nat the outset, any intention of laying down a law\" too large for the subject and\napplying it to the pupil before he reaches a point in his progress prior to any\nbeginning in his studies. Children of foreign birth have not been included\nin this paper because, so far as I have observed, those who had received instruc-\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRETARDATION\n\nOF PUPILS\n\nIN STUDIES\n\n183\n\ntion in another country have made very rapid progress in all their school work,\nsometimes covering three or four grades in a year in our schools.\nConsequently, ''retardation\" as dealt with in this connection has simply\nto do with the pupil's progress in his studies as a pupil after he is once regularly\ninstalled as a pupil in school. It does not take into account his age, environment, and such other accidental qualities of his condition, except incidentally\nin studying and in explaining his history as a member of the family or social\ngroup. If his parents deem it wise to keep him out of school until the compulsory law would force him into school, then the question of retardation or\nacceleration would begin soon thereafter to operate. The forcing of a pupil\ninto school as soon as a certain number of revolutions of the earth around the\nsun has been made is not a proper means of finding a starting-point for investigating whether he is able to keep up with his classmates, or will fall behind\nthem. Retardation, except in a very remote way, is not a problem of years,\nmonths, and days, but one of educational velocity after one starts to school,\nand it should be estimated on his rate of speed thru his studies.\nIt may be the very best thing for a child to be kept out of school till he is\neight or ten years old, rather than to start in at six, because good health is most\nimportant. When a child shall start to school is a question of expediency and\nof balanced judgment. It frequently happens that the child that is put to\nschool work later in life moves forward with an accelerated velocity unknown\nto those who step just so far each year. Furthermore, I am clearly of the\nopinion that there is not so great danger in keeping children out of school till\nthey are eight or nine years of age, as there is in putting them into school at\nfive or six; provided they can have a good place to play and run about outdoors\nand grow strong and vigorous. After a pupil is once entered in school, no\nmatter what his age may be, and he does his work in the time allotted to his\nclass, or in a shorter period, that pupil is not retarded in his studies, and should\nnot be so counted. The school is not a race-track upon which all four-, fiveor six-year-olds must be brought out and started at the same time, and all who\ndo not thus start, or reach the goal, at the same moment, must be classed as\nretarded. Children never have developed that way, and I venture the assertion that they never will.\nAs our courses of study are made out in all institutions of learning, the time\nelement figures as the dominant factor in all of them. It is tolerably well\nknown how much time will be required for the elementary, the high school,\nthe college, or the university pupil to complete a prescribed course of study!\nIf it happens that he can not keep up with his classmates for any reason, and\nhe must devote a longer period of time to the course, he is certainly retarded.\nThis is so clear that I do not believe it is susceptible of any other interpretation.\nHowever, from some recent reports that I have read, the basis for retardation isthe age of the pupil instead of his mental and physical attainments. By\nthis system of measurement, all pupils, say from six to seven and one-half\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "i84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nyears, belong by necessity to the first grade, and so on thru the other grades\nor forms. This may be called the official schedule. If it should so happen\nthat one older than the limits prescribed should be found in another group, he\nis retarded, and is therefore slow or behind in his class standing. Mind-growth\ncan not be measured that way in advance.\nTHEORETICAL\n\nDISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN THE GRADES\nTHE ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION\n\nCOMPARED\n\nWITH\n\nThere is such a thing abroad in this land as building a theory and then\nhunting for facts to prove that theory. Some years ago I called attention to\nthe fact that in the best organized systems of city schools in this country the\nages of pupils in any one grade, owing to various causes, varied from five to\neight years, and occasionally as much as ten years; but that a large percentage\nof the pupils in any one year's work, from the lowest primary to the fourth-year\nclass in high school, would be of the same mean average age as demanded\nby the organization; that mean average counted for Httle when each should\ncount one. In a year or two after this announcement was made public, a\nfew city superintendents instituted similar investigations, and every investigation, whether in a large city or a small one, has confirmed what I had found to\nexist in my own field of work. Each year the superintendents' reports indicate an increasing interest in the problems of school organization and the distribution ofthe pupils by age in each grade, and this same kind of classification\nholds good in all technical and higher institutions of learning, even including\nthe military and naval academies.\nJust at this point is a very serious sociological question involved: whether\nhaving all the pupils in a class or grade practically of the same age, say not\nmore than an extreme limit of two years, is the best possible condition for the\npupils themselves. In the German schools the age limits in the same class are\nnot quite so pronounced as in this country. Frankly, I do not believe that\nthere is a common measuring unit that can be applied to either the power or\nthe intelligence of children or grown people when the revolution of the earth on\nits axis is taken as the unit of measurement. While exact and vigorous compulsory laws would perhaps decrease the maximum spread in the ages of the\npupils in each grade, the general effect would not all be on the right side of the\nbalance sheet. But with the elastic system of promotion in vogue in nearly all\nwell-organized schools in our country, there is no valid reason why over-aged\n*or under-aged pupils should be kept marking time in any class or grade if they\ncan do the work in a higher class or grade. Elastic promotion will, if liberally\nused, help to equalize, adjust, and smooth out irregularities. With a rapidly\nincreasing school population where conditions are unstable and the citizens\nare leaving the rural districts to live in town, no very definite conclusions can be\ndrawn from school statistics except to indicate a general trend. The depopulation of the rural school districts in many states bears a striking testimony to the\nfact that the American people are lively movers.\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRETARDATION\nWHAT\n\nIS MEANT\n\nBY\n\nOF\n\nPUPILS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPROMOTION\n\nSTUDIES\nOF\n\nA\n\n185\n\nPUPIL?\n\nFrom forty leading cities in the United States I have replies to this question.\nPromotion of a pupil in one city means a very different thing from what it does\nin another. In a majority of the cities, a pupil who has done acceptably a\nhalf-year's work is promoted once, and if he does a whole year's work he is\npromoted twice; in other cities, again, if he does a year's work he is promoted\nonce, and if he does only a half-year's work he is not promoted, because the\nunit for promotion is a full year's work; but in other schools that are organized\non four terms per year, a pupil may be promoted at the end of each ten weeks.\nThen there are irregular or special promotions which need not be considered\nin this connection.\nAs we read of promotions in school reports, it is seldom clear just what is\nmeant unless we know precisely the practice of each city. There ought to be\nan educational nomenclature so that we may know, when examining school\nstatistics, what value to attach to each statement. When we read that out of a\ntotal enrolment of 272,311 pupils, 183,977 were promoted, it would be more\nsatisfactory to know whether the number promoted did a full year's work, or\nwhether some did it and others completed only a half-year's work, I submit\nthat it would be more intelligent in making up the school statistics each year\nto give the number who did the whole year's work, two-thirds of a year's\nwork, a half-year's work, and so on, in order that we may have a uniform\nstandard of measuring the pupil's progress thru a school system, since a\npromotion may mean anything from a fourth of a year's work to a full year's\nwork under the prevailing systems of bookkeeping. In the German elementary\nschools, if a pupil does a year's work according to the schedule, he is promoted\nonce, and it is estimated that 90 per cent, of the pupils do this work, and are\nthus promoted.\nA\n\nSPECIAL\n\nINVESTIGATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE PROGRESS\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\n1,957\n\nPUPILS\n\nTHRU\n\nJust before the close of school in June of last year, I made a special investigation ofthe individual histories of 1,517 pupils who completed the elementary\ncourse in the Kansas City schools, and of 440 pupils who had completed the\nelementary and also the high-school course, thus making a total of 1,957\ndifferent pupils. There were 1,581 of the elementary pupils, but 64 were not\npresent on the day the report was handed in. The elementary pupils included\n682 boys and 899 girls, and of the high-school graduates 149 were boys and\n291 girls. Of the elementary pupils, 325 had attended kindergarten — most\nof them for the full term — but under the constitution of Missouri no money\ncan be used for the education of children before the age of six, hence no time\nin studies was gained by attending kindergarten. Neglecting the kindergarten\ntime, the investigation showed that of the 1,957 pupils, 231 had completed the\nelementary course in less than seven years, 895 in seven years, 59 in seven and\none-half years, 557 in eight years, 18 in eight and one-half-years, ^and 189\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "l86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nin nine years. Throwing these items into simpler form we find that 12 per\ncent, completed the elementary course in less than seven years, 46 per cent, in\nseven years, 3 per cent, in seven and one-half years, 28 per cent, in eight years,\nI per cent, in eight and one-half years, and 10 per cent, in nine years.\nNow since the course is seven years in the elementary schools, it is only\nnecessary to deal with those who required more than seven years to complete\nthe course, and to ascertain the reasons for overtime in doing the work. It\nwill be observed that the number who completed the elementary course in\neight years is counted as behind time, although they number 616 out of a total\nof 731. That is, all the pupils except 115 out of 1,957 completed the elementary\ncourse from six to eight years, while 115 required more than eight years to do\nthe prescribed work. But I deem it pertinent to this inquiry to make a classified list of those who took more than seven years for the elementary work,\nbecause this exhibit throws a good deal of light on the topic under consideration. Each individual case was carefully investigated and placed in one of\nthe following groups:\nT.\n2.\n\n,-56.\n8.\n,S-\n\nTime 1(\n5st on account of sickness\nlost\ni\na\n<\n\" changing schools\n\" reviewing school work\n\" absence\n'* having to work\n( ((\n<\n\" lack of interest in studies\n( ((\n(\n\" weak eyes\n( <<\n(\n4\" defective speech\n( (<\n(\n** no reason assigned\n\n268\nIQ3\n143\n40\n12\n15\n3\n2\n35\n\nAn analysis of- this table leads me to conclude that sickness is the most\n7\npotent retardation factor when schools are elastically graded; that the removal\n9of parents from one school district to another is two-thirds as strong as the\nretardation caused by sickness ; that the present system of holding back classes\nor pupils to review certain studies is half as strong, as a retardation factor, as is\nsickness; and all the other factors are very small in comparison with these\nthree essential factors.\nI await further investigation along the lines indicated.\nSUMMARY\n1. That children really old enough to attend school regularly and of average intelligence will do the work of the elementary schools on schedule time, whatever that time\nmay be.\n2. That the greatest hindrance is sickness, which by intelligent medical supervision\nmay be materially decreased.\n3. That a system of more careful examination, and of placing children in classes where\nthey properly belong when they are changed from one school to another, would greatly\nlessen the second item.\n4. Efficient and progressive teaching is the correct remedy for the second and third.\n5. The other items are merely incidental, and must be treated accordingly.\nDISCUSSION\nRoland P. Falkner, agent in charge of school inquiries, Immigration Commission,\nWashington, D. C. — It is mainly to the question,\" What Is Retardation\" that I shall address\nmyself, leaving the discussion]as to how it is to be met to men of wider experience than my\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] RETARDATION\n\nOF PUPILS\n\nIN STUDIES\n\n187\n\nown. To the onlooker recent discussion of the subject might well appear as a curious\ncompound of exaggeration and indifference. On the one hand he reads that large proportions of the children in the schools are behind the grades appropriate to their ages.\nI would not make any invidious comparisons, but I hold in my hand a list of twenty cities\nin which from time to time computations of the number of over-age pupils have been made.\nThese calculations, not always uniform as to time and method, show percentages running\nfrom 18.5 in Boston to 60.1 in Erie, Pa.\nThese figures further show plainly the cumulative effect of failure. Thus, for instance,\nin Kansas City in 1906-7 the over-age pupils are 25.2 per cent, of the first grade, but\n64 per cent, of the fifth grade. Or, if we consider ages, we find that of the eight-year-old\nchildren who should normally be in the second grade, 34 .9 per cent, are below that grade;\nwhile of the thirteen-year-old children who should normally be in the seventh grade, 78 . 7\nper cent, are below that grade.\nOn the other hand we hear an occasional protest that the methods used to determine\nthe amount of retardation are erroneous, with the implication that the problem is not so\nserious as it appears. Again we are told that the problem is not a new one, that the\ncondition of affairs described has long existed. More frequently the voice of the critic\nis listened to with a respectful but none the less impressive silence, to which there is no\nanswer except reiteration.\nIt may be admitted that the problem is not a new one but that does not make it less\nreal. If an old problem, it is in our day freshly perceived and newly expressed. This\nnew expression warrants us in taking cognizance of it.\nOf more weight is the suggestion that students have wandered astray in their methods,\nwith its implication, if not assertion, that they have thereby been led into exaggerations.\nWith this possibility in view it becomes more important to review fundamental concepts\nand ask ourselves, \"What Is Retardation?\"\nTechnical terms are not always self-explanatory. They acquire conventional meanings as well as their obvious significance. To express a certain result which we find in\nour schools we have borrowed the term \"retardation\" from one — the most important — of\nthe processes by which that result is reached. So far as there is a difference of opinion\namong those who have thought and written on this subject, it arises from the fact that one\nemphasizes the result, and the other the process. The result referred to, however caused,\nis a disparity between the ages of children in the schools and the grades in which they\nare found. The process referred to is the failure of pupils to secure promotion and thus\na slow rate of progress.\nCommenting on some very excellent work of Dr. Cornman, of Philadelphia, Superintendent Greenwood, of Kansas City, voices his dissent as follows:\nThe only correct way to estimate retardation or the slow movement of a pupil is the\nlength of time it takes him to do a year's work. It is not a question of age without respect\nto progress, but it is one of time required to do a given amount of work within a specified\ntime without regard to age. Suppose two boys enter college, one sixteen years old and the\nother nineteen, and each one completes the four years' work on time. Now, would anyone claim that the older one was retarded ? So, if a child begins the regular grade work\nat eight and he does a full year's work each year till he completes the elementary course,\nthat child is not retarded, and it would be puerile to class him as a backward pupil. The\nonly clear cases of retardation are those in which pupils are kept longer on a certain unit\nof work than is prescribed in the course of study. Many intelligent, sensible parents,\nespecially in the middle and western sections of the United States, prefer not to send their\nchildren to any kind of a school till the age of eight, and where such children do enter\nschool they go forward rapidly and easily in their studies, often skipping classes.\nWe may designate these two standards respectively as those of age and of progress,\nand I would plead for the validity of the more inclusive or age standard. In so doing I\nwould call your attention to the significance of retardation which we must consider from\ntwo 'points of view:\n\nthat of the school, and that of the child.\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "l88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nFrom the standpoint of the school the significance of retardation lies in what Superintendent Greenwood, with his characteristic aptness of expression, terms \"the spread of\nthe ages.\" For eflEicient instruction in our schools the \"spread\" of the ages is altogether\ntoo broad. Teaching suffers when it is directed to heterogeneous hearers. The child\nof ten years, no matter what his instruction or attainment, feels himself out of place beside\na child of seven. It does not seem to me to require argument before an audience of educators that a nine- or ten-year-old child is out of place in the first grade, and because he\nis out of place, is a nuisance in the class and an impediment to the work of the teacher.\nFrom this point of view is it very material whether the child is in the first grade because of\nfailure to be promoted from it or because unwisely indulgent parents, with the sanction\nof high educational authorities, have kept him out of school till he was nine or ten years\nof age ?\nFrom the standpoint of the child tlje significance of retardation lies in its outlook\nto the future, in the amount of schooling which he can reasonably expect to get in the\nfuture. Few, very few, children remain in school after they are fifteen years of age. For\nthe great majority, the possibilities of an education are measured by the amount which\nthey can get before they reach this period of life. A child who enters at six years of age\nand has no interruptions in his study can be ready for the high school at fourteen, but\none who enters at nine cannot reach it till three years later. The chances are that he will\nnever reach it. Any child in the first grade who is nine years old has much more limited\nprospects for an education than one who is six years old. Again, from this point of view,\nit makes but little difference whether the child grew to be nine years of age while attending\nthe first grade or whether he grew up outside the schools, and first entered when he was\nnine years of age.\nBut Mr. Greenwood would have us believe that so far from being a disadvantage,\na relatively late entrance into school is a benefit to the child. In one of his articles he\nsays: \"I would rather a little youngster of mine played in a green pasture in pleasant\nweather, dressed in a little slit-shirt, than to be dressed in knickerbockers and a frilled\nshirt, and to sit much of the time in a beautiful schoolhouse with his hands folded and\n'being good' while his educational food is being chewed for him, and then having it fed\nto him with a spoon.\"\nNow I assume that there are none of us who, either as parents or pedagogs, are so\naustere that we would willingly curtail the innocent joys of childhood. We might be very\nwell disposed to incline toward the view here expressed, if our cities afforded, as Kansas\nCity appears to do, an opportunity for its youngsters to wander in their sylvan dells, and\nkick their heels and gather buttercups and daisies in their green fields.\nMr. Greenwood admits an initial disadvantage for the young child who has had the\nbenefit of these rural advantages, but contends that he can make it up. But can he do so ?\nHow many of oiir schools are arranged to facilitate a rapid progress thru the grades?\nIn another place Mr. Greenwood says: \"There is not today an elementary course of study\nin the United States, but that a boy or girl nine or ten years of age, if turned loose on\nit and permitted to go ahead, would not complete it in three or four years.\" But is the\nchild turned loose upon the course of study, and is he permitted to go ahead ? If there\nis in our schools any considerable number of pupils capable of advancing more rapidly\nthan the course provides, statistics of promotions do not reveal their existence.\nRapid progress thru the schools is represented by promotion over more than a\ngrade and by promotions during the term. These constituted in Somerville, Massachusetts, in 1907 exactly i .4 per cent, of all promotions. Again in Springfield, Ohio, where\nwe have a record of 4,755 promotions, there were only 7 pupils who were promoted more\nthan one grade. In Philadelphia among 122,644 promotions, 2,406 are described as incidental. In the investigation conducted by the Russell Sage Foundation in New York\nCity, Mr. Ayres found complete records for 949 pupils in the fifth grade.\nOf these only\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] RETARDATION\n\nOF PUPILS\n\nIN STUDIES\n\n1 89\n\n51 or a fraction over 5 per cent, had progressed more rapidly than the progress of the\nschools contemplated.\nIn the same article in which he directs the shafts of his satire against the \"antiretardation incubators\" he quotes some names famous in history — Sir Isaac Newton,\nAdam Clark, the great Methodist commentator, George Washington, and Sir Walter\nScott — as men slow of learning in their youth and \"retarded\" by the modern acceptance\nof the word. But may we not in turn ask whether there is any evidence that these distinguished men ever attended a graded school?\nBut enough of pleasantry. It appears clearly that the result is more important than\nthe process, that age is a more forcible criterion of retardation than progress. We may\nadmit some verbal incongruity in deriving our general designation from only one causal\nelement, that of progress. But if we stop to consider progress not as the ground actually\ncovered but as the relation between attainment and opportunity, there can be not the slightest objection to considering as retarded a child who has neglected his opportunities, and\nwho by a late start is already far behind his fellows in the race.\nBut what of the implication that the age standard exaggerates conditions? If there\nwere a reasonable doubt as to its propriety, the question would then mean how large a\npart of age retardation is ascribable to late entrance into school. Obviously this factor\ncannot grow. It is fixed from the start and is found as an original proposition in the first\ngrade only. Now let us take again an illustration from Kansas City. In the first grade\nthere are by the age standard 25.2 per cent, retarded. In 1907 there were 1,232 pupils\nwho had been more than 200 days in the first grade. If this is properly comparable with\nthe total enrolment, it amounts to 15.9 per cent, who are retarded by lack of progress.\nHence, in a total retardation of 48.5 per cent, in Kansas City schools by the age standard,\nthere is 38.5 per cent, caused by failure and 10 per cent, by late entrance.\nIn New York City, Mr. Ayres found that among 100 retarded children by the age\nstandard such retardation was due to a late start in only about 30 cases. If there is any\nreason then for eliminating late start as a cause of retardation, it would leave us with a\nvolume of retardation about one-third less than that currently reported.\nBut suppose we apply the progress standard pure and simple. It is difficult of application because records of the number of years in school are not frequent. In the one\nhundred largest cities there are only five in whose reports I find the slightest information\nupon this subject. In Cambridge we learn that 35 per cent, of the pupils fail to complete\nthe primary grades in three years, the allotted time. There are no age figures for Cambridge, but in neighboring cities, with similar conditions, we find a retardation by the age\nstandard in the fourth grade of\n28.0 per cent, in Springfield\n27.6\n\"\n\" Boston\n7.7\n\"\n\" Medford\nIn Boston, in 1897, 46 per cent, of the pupils took more than the regular time to finish\nthe primary schools, while the percentage of age retardation in the fourth grade was only\n29.3 per cent. In the same city in 1894, 34.5 per cent, of the pupils took more than the\nregular time to finish the grammar grades, while the percentage of age retardation in\n1896 was 20.0 per cent, for the ninth grade.\nAgain in Somerville, in 1907, in the graduating class 36 per cent, took more than nine\nyears to complete the course. No age retardation figures are available but it is doubtful\nwhether they differ greatly from Boston where the age retardation in the ninth grade was\n16.3 per cent, in the same year.\nOther figures available such as those printed in Kansas City do not give cumulative\nretardation but only retardation ^\\hich has occurred in one year. If the figures given are\ncomparable with the total enrolment, we had in IQ07:\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "I90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFirst grade\nSecond grade\nThird grade\nFourth grade\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\n15 .9 per cent.\n13.8\n\"\n19.5\n\"\n26.3\n\"\n\n75 . 2 per cent.\nBut if these be the proportions who fail in each grade, the whole number who have\nfailed by the time they have reached the fourth grade must approach the sum of these,\nor 75 . 2 per cent. Now the age retardation shows only 67 . 4 per cent, in the fourth grade\nIn Baltimore we learn that of 45,085 pupils, 12,246 are more than ten months in their\ngrade, a percentage exceeding one-fourth. It can be readily seen that in a series of years\nthe accumulated retardation would be considerable.\nWe therefore see that wherever there is an opportunity to test the relative results of\nthe two methods, the progress standard invariably gives higher results than the age standard.\nThis should absolve the advocates of the age standard from the charge of exaggeration.\nMoreover, those who have employed the age standard have been generous in its\napplication. Very seldom has it been so rigorously applied as in Medford, Massachusetts.\nIn that city many children enter school at five years of age, and hence the superintendent\ntakes five years as the normal age for the first grade. Calculating all above five years in\nthe first grade as above normal age and using corresponding figures in the upper grades\nhe discovers that out of 4,036 school children 3,423 or 84.8 per cent, are retarded. But\nthis is a strained and unusual application of the age standard. Generally any child under\neight years in the first grade is considered of normal age, and those of eight years and\nupward are considered as above normal age. For those who enter the first grade early,\nsay at six, this allows for one failure, or, by half grades, two, before the child begins to be\ncounted as retarded. On the other hand any pure progress standard makes no such allowance. Hence the percentage of retardation as measured by the age standard as commonly\napplied instead of being greater is always less than when the progress standard is used.\nTo sum up: the amount of retardation has not been overstated in current discussion.\nIt is prevalent everywhere. Because of the impediments it offers to the forcefulnesfe and\neffectiveness of teaching, it is one of the most serious questions of school management.\nBecause it is depriving our children of a part of the education which the state provides\nfor them, it is most serious for the prospects of the future citizens. It is an old evil, newly\nstated. Every effort made to diminish it will redound to the benefit both of school and\nchildren. Concerning its causes we are yet much in the dark, but who can doubt that\nout of the continued study of this greatest of problems of our school administration will\narise practical measures which will not abolish the evil, but will greatly lessen it.\nJ. A. KOONTZ, superintendent of schools, CarroUton, Mo. — The amount and kind of\nwork done by a school depends very largely on what is demanded. This may account for\nthe results in Kansas City. The authorities there expect great things and they are not\ndisappointed in their expectation.\nThere is but one kind of instruction. If the individual is not reached there can be\nno instruction.\nThere must be contact between teacher and pupil and not mere association.\nDr. Arnold Tompkins said, \"The school is a spiritual union between teacher and\npupil.\" My contention is that there can be no teaching without this union, whether the\nclass consists of one or of many. There is a distinct advantage in good class instruction,\nbut good class instruction presupposes a unity of thought between the teacher and each\nindividual pupil. The teacher who permits the individual units of his class to go woolgathering islacking in the essential elements of a teacher.\nHow, then, may this spiritual union, this vital personal contact, be maintained?\nIn the first place, the teacher must command attention by his downright earnestness.\nHe must ring true. A strong personality is, as a matter of course, essential. Each pupil\nmust, somehow, come to feel that that teacher means him; that it is a personal matter\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRETARDATION\n\nOF PUPILS\n\nIN STUDIES\n\n191\n\nbetween himself and the teacher; that it is all for him. Takes energy and vitality?\nSure, it does. But it is necessary to real success, and what true man or woman would not\nrather wear out than to rust out!\nIn the second place, the teacher must have an objective point in every lesson. He\nmust know what he is going after before he starts, and then starting from the child's\nview-point move steadily and clearly toward the objective. Inattention is too. often encouraged by inefl5cient, aimless, purposeless teaching. The lesson without a definite purpose\nmay well be omitted. Purposeful teaching will, to a large extent, solve the question of\nfundamentals and many other vexed questions connected with the course of study. Granting the force of Dr. Meriam's view-point in the course of study, could the average teacher\nof today use such a plan successfully ?\nModifications in the curriculum will of necessity come. There may be, and probably\nwill be, elimination; there may be, and probably will be, addition, as there has been, but\nwe need not be alarmed. Thru it all there has come, and must still further come,\nsimplification; and this is the third essential element I would emphasize for this unity\nin class work. But the most effective simplification is, and always will be, thru the\nteaching process. All great teachers have been simple teachers; the great Master Teacher\nwas the soul of simplicity. With the good teacher there is Uttle ground for complaint\nwith the present day course of study. The problem of waste is not here a serious consideration. But with the poor teacher no course of study can be a success. No outward\nrules or regulations, no plan of tutorship or other device can take the place of the real\nteacher. Hope for improvement lies in the improvement of the teacher, and in definite,\npurposeful teaching.\nSamuel Hamilton, superintendent of schools of Allegheny Co., Pa. — I have listened\nwith great interest this morning to these papers on elimination of waste, and especially\nto the one on retardation by our venerable friend from Kansas City who claims that the\nelementary-school course can easily be completed in seven years. I have great confidence\nin his judgment, and yet in this conclusion he is either right or wrong. If he is right,\nthis body ought to know the secrets of his success, for in that case to take eight years is\nto committ a crime against childhood; if he is wrong, we should know it, so that we may\nturn aside from his leadership at this point.\nThere are three conditions under which the elementary-school course may be completed in seven years:\n1. By superior organization, flexible gradation, and expert work in the classroom.\n2. By eliminating much of the diflScult subject-matter from the course and presenting\nit in the high school.\n3. By a low standard for advancement from grade to grade.\nWould it not be wise, then, for us to send a commission to Kansas City to ascertain\nupon which of these three conditions the work is completed in seven years, and to report\nto this body next year ?\nRetardation is a timely topic for discussion; but in my opinion it is not so prevalent\nin practice or so detrimental in its effect as acceleration or undue haste in the grades. The\nstudent of modern education is likely to arrive at three somewhat definite conclusions:\n1. There is a marked tendency to sacrifice quality for quantity.\n2. This sacrifice, in the elementary school, is due to the crowded curriculum amd the\nearly age at which it must be completed; in the high school, it is due to unreasonable\nquantitative, rather than reasonable qualitative, college-entrance requirements.\n3. The results of this sacrifice are detrimental to the child's physical well-being,\nto his mental and moral life, and to his worth as a citizen.\nA low standard for advancement from grade to grade is the keynote of this sacrifice\nof quality to quantity, and its justification is somewhat doubtful. Modern psychology\nseems to indicate that a child gets two kinds of discipline from a study — one special, the\nother general.\nThe special discipline is the power to peruse that study or some study\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nclosely allied to it. For instance, the special discipline that comes from the study of\nalgebra is the ability to study algebra and other allied mathematical subjects such as\ngeometry and arithmetic. This special discipline is largely the result of two factors:\nfirst, a knowledge of the facts and principles of the subject; second, the ability to use\nthem to practical ends.\nThe general discipline that is derived from the study of a branch is the power that\nmay be used in any field beyond the one or the related one in which it was acquired. Thus\nthe general discipline derived from the study of algebra is not the power to pursue that, or\nallied studies, but rather the general power that may be used in biology, language, or\nin any field of human endeavor.\nPsychologists practically agree that this general discipline is so limited in quantity\nthat it is not sufiicient upon which to base the doctrine of formal mental discipline. If\nthey are correct in their conclusions, then the only discipline worth while that the child\ngets from the study of any branch is this special discipline, that is, a knowledge of its\nfacts and principles and the abiUty to use them. And consequently if he is promoted up\nthru the grades upon a low standard for advancement, he gets very little return from the\ncourse.\nLow standards for advancement are not easily justified. No bank wants a clerk\nwho is 40 per cent, accurate^ 40 per cent, truthful, and 40 per cent, honest, and possibly\nthere is some relation between low intellectual and low moral standards.\n\nTOPIC:\n/.\n\nARTICULATION OF HIGHER EDUCATIONAL\nTUTIONS WITH SECONDARY SCHOOLS\nTHE\n\nSTRATTON\n\nRELATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY\nSECONDARY SCHOOL\nD. BROOKS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nINSTI-\n\nTO THE\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nIt has been said that the university should be the nurse of scholarship and\nthe mother of men. The service that the university has rendered to humanity\nin conserving, protecting, and expanding scholarship is immeasurable. There\nis and there can be no greater community service than the production of men\nof the profoundest scholarship. And if our discussion today causes us to lay\nemphasis on the mothering of men, let us not be forgetful that this service can\nbe performed with highest efficiency only when the university best performs\nits functions as the nurse of scholarship.\nThe purpose of promoting scholarship is that the results of scholarly\nresearch may be useful to mankind or serve to increase the happiness of the\nrace. The professor in his laboratory may work for years and the world\ncares little whether he lives or dies. But what an awakening when the morning papers flash across the continent the news that a serum that will cure\npneumonia has been perfected. What a contribution to human advancement !\nWhat an increment to human happiness! What a monument to human\npatience! What a triumph to the university that has given the opportunity\nthat results in such achievement 1 To name the benefits to mankind for which\nthe scholarship of the university has been directly or indirectly responsible\nwould be to define the limits of civilization.\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1 93\n\nNor should we forget that it is h'kewise the province of education to open to\nmankind avenues that lead to the greatest pleasure of which he is by nature\ncapable, and that the contributions to hunaan happiness for which the scholarship of the university is responsible are in extent and value comparable with its\ncontributions to the material welfare of mankind.\nBut it is one thing to discover a fact or a principle that will affect the welfare\nand happiness of a nation. It is quite another to weave it into the daily life of\nmillions of people so that its highest possibilities for pleasure and for profit are\nattained. It is for this purpose of making the marvelous product of the\nscholarly research of the recluse in his library or his laboratory today, the commonplace and daily practice of millions tomorrow that the university must\nbecome the mother of men. Scholars are rare and remain to a great degree\nupon university faculties. Men are plentiful and go everywhere and the great\nproblem of the university is to send forth men so trained that the results of all\nscholarly research may find the largest fields of influence for the betterment of\nconditions of life and living.\nAnd it is more than sending forth men. It is the creating of vital, palpitating, regenerating influences that vivify and invigorate the whole life of a community. The graduates of a university number a few hundreds. Those who\ncome under its direct instruction reach a few thousands. But those who are\naffected in life and living by the pulsating heart-beats of a live, vigorous,\nforceful university spirit, include millions upon millions, many of whom may\nnot even know that such a university exists.\nThe danger is that in the pursuit of its scholastic ideals the university may\nforget its duty to the present; that in attempting to preserve the standards of\nscholarship that have dominated the world's history, and in its endeavor to\ndiscover hitherto unknown bits of knowledge, it may forget the vital necessity\nof relating these two into an active*, energetic and controlling force over the\nlives of men now living. Its pioneers may push forward the boundaries of\nknowledge but forget to send back messengers to show the people the roads\nthat lead to the newly conquered kingdoms. Its antiquarians may roll back\nthe curtain that veils the past achievements of humanity but neglect to report\nthat they have discovered material of value in the moral, material, and civic\nprogress of the generation of today.\nIn the early colonial days the greatest need of the community was for men\ntrained in those professions for which the best of cultural preparation was\nmost useful, and the colleges of those days were founded and conducted for the\npurpose of supplying those needs. At that time secondary schools were\nestablished almost for the sole purpose of preparing pupils for admission to\ncollege, and the secondary-school course was in effect but part of one continuous course leading to an education that we now denominate cultural. It\nwas therefore natural that the college should dominate the secondary school, or\nrather let it be said that those who were in charge of secondary schools so\nframed the work therein that it would best meet the purposes for which those\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nschools were established. History has shown that the graduates of colleges\nwere well equipped for the successful performance of the duties of their professional careers, and so by inference we may state that the secondary schools\nsatisfactorily performed their work as preparatory schools.\nToday the university still has large duties to perform in supplying the community with professional men of every type, but it has taken up the broader\nduty of preparing all men for better living; of assisting all men in solving the\nproblems of life that confront them. It gives attention to every phase of\ncommunity life, and studies with care every resource of the community it serves,\nwhether spiritual, intellectual, or material. It goes upon the farm to teach the\nfarmer how to improve the quality and quantity of his crops. It studies the\nmines, the forests, and the streams that each may give a more abundant product.\nIt goes with that product thru every process of production, manufacture,\nand transportation, and endeavors at every point to improve the old or devise\na better new. It enters into all the broad problems of life and living. It\nendeavors in every way to assist in the social, moral, and civic betterment of the\nnation. The enormous amount of time, energy, and money that are expended\nby some of the universities of this country upon problems connected directly\nand indirectly with the daily life of the people could scarcely have been conceived ofas within the proper function of a university of a generation or two ago.\nMarvelous as has been the expansion of the university, it has been but slow\nand slight in comparison with the changes that have occurred in secondary\nschools. The number of high schools has doubled and trebled almost over\nnight. The yearly expenditure for buildings, equipment, and teachers is\nenormous.\nThe number of pupils has increased beyond all expectation.\nMore important than the change in numbers is the change in function of the\nhigh school. Today the high school is primarily and fundamentally related\nto the immediate needs of the community,* and its chief purpose is to give its\ngraduates a training that will have large elements of immediate vocational\nvalue. Thousands upon thousands of high-school pupils are going forth\nyearly to become the producers, the manufacturers, and the transporters of the\ncommunity. Other thousands are filling public offices and performing public\nservice of every kind. It is comparatively only a few that find their way to college in line of preparation for professional service. The chief business of the\nhigh school of today is to train its boys and girls for immediate participation\nin the community life,\" to prepare them to become citizens, capable of supporting themselves and defending the government — or rather of becoming themselves the government — carrying forward all the uplifting influences of our\npresent civilization.\nThere was a time when we said that education should contribute to the\nmental, moral, and physical welfare of the individual. Today we are giving\nconsideration to a fourth item ; namely, the social service of the individual, and\nwe are inclined, in our definition of education, to place a greater emphasis\nupon the preparation of the individual for helpful and happy service.\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n195\n\nNeither university nor high school is exempt from the obligation of preparing the youth of the nation for inteUigent participation in the civilization of the\npresent time and their mutual relations must be determined by the dominant\n■purpose of each. A change in the scope or methods of either must of necessity\nbe accompanied by a readjustment of the relations existing between them.\nIt is because both the university and the high school are rapidly enlarging the\namount of education for service that a readjustment of their mutual relations\nis desirable.\nIn considering the relation that must exist between the high school and the\nuniversity, it should be repeated that the prime purpose of the high school is to\nprepare for service in the community, and that the prime purpose of the\nuniversity is also to prepare for service in the community in similar tho in\nhigher lines. In other words, the high school of the present day is fundamentally and almost exclusively a vocational school, and the word ''vocational\"\nis used here meaning that the graduates of the school go immediately into the\noccupations of life. The university likewise, in a large proportion of its\nfunctions today, is also a vocational school, preparing men to go upon graduation into active participation in the businesses of living. It seems therefore\nthat the day is at hand when those who control requirements for admission\nto the university must recognize the upper vocational schools as extensions\nof the lower vocational schools, just as the university has always recognized\nthat the upper cultural schools are extensions of the lower cultural schools,\nand that requirements for admission to the university in those courses of vocational purpose shall be so framed that the boy who has pursued courses in the\nhigh school of similar purpose shall find open to him a path of admission to\nhigher instruction in the same Hne.\nThe ideal school of commerce should sort out from the boys of the community those whose tastes and aptitudes are such as to interest them greatly in\ncommercial work, and whose abiUties are such as to insure success therein,\nand the work of the school should be dominated with the idea of giving the\ngreatest possible vocational efiSciency to the largest possible number of boys.\nUnder any condition, a very great proportion of all the boys attending such\na school will go directly into the business of commerce, or of transportation;\nbut for those whom ambition and opportunity lead to seek preparation for the\nhigher fields of commercial endeavor, there should be easy transition to the\nhigher schools of training along commercial lines.\nIn a similar way, if a technical high school is established in a community,\nits pupils should be those whose aptitudes and desires lead them into mechanical work. Let us assume, perchance, that reasonable success has been\nattained in segregating in such a school all the boys of a given community\nwhose purpose it is to enter into the fields of mechanical production. Shall\nwe then say to these: For you there is no higher field. When you graduate\nfrom the technical high school, there is no opportunity for further technical\ntraining open to you. You must then go to work.\nIf it is your desire to\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nattend a higher engineering school, you have started wrong. You must attend\na classical school and be prepared along the traditional lines of college admission.\nStrange that such a condition should exist ? To be sure it is strange, but\nunfortunately it is so, and, more unfortunately, there are men who have control\nof schools who believe it ought to remain so. I, for one, wish to voice my protest against the conservatism which fails to recognize the advancing needs of the\npresent time.\nThe modification that seems necessary at the present time is the waiving\nof uniformity; the abandonment of the feeling that one set of requirements for\nthe university shall govern admission to all colleges and to all courses therein.\nFrom personal knowledge I know that the establishing of an elective system\nof admission by the University of Illinois has done more to expand the high\nschools of this great state, or rather, I may say, has done more to give them the\nopportunity of expansion, of which they have themselves availed, than all\nother influences put together. The university said years ago thru its personal representative to practically every principal in this state :\nThe chief purpose of your high school is to prepare the boy for the business of making\na living, and the university believes, on the whole, that it will require as good a training\nto make him a success in life as it will to make him a success in the university. We propose,\ntherefore, to leave you free to determine the needs of your community and to prepare\nyour boys and girls for success in that community. We shall then admit them to such\ncourses in the university as will best supplement the education you have given them, and\nbest fit them for larger spheres of influences and of service.\n\nUnder such a system, both university and high school have been free to\nmake every effort to meet the most urgent of community needs and both have\ngrown in numbers and in usefulness at a rate that seems quite unaccountable\nto our conservative brethren of the East.\nOf course, it is not to be expected that pupils who have been trained in\nnon-classical subjects should expect admission to classical college courses;\nbut the difficulty is that there is still required, even for admission to the vocational courses of many universities, the training that is required for admission\nto the classical and cultural courses.\nMany men in the university itself who are charged with determining what\nthe relation between the university and the high school shall be have not\nobserved the general trend of the university life and purpose. Being themselves concerned with special departments, whose purposes and ideals have not\nchanged and ought not to change, they have failed to perceive that the university istaking upon itself a function a thousand times broader than it used\nto perform, and that the high school has likewise taken upon itself a function\nmore intimately connected with the life and purpose of the community than\nhas hitherto been the case.\nI believe that there should be a readjustment with reference to the responsibility for the success of the boy after he enters the university. Under some\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "»\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n197\n\nof the certificate systems now in vogue, the responsibility placed upon the high\nschool is too great, and many a boy who would have greatly profited by university instruction fails to secure admission because the principal is unwilling\nto assume the responsibility for possible failure in the college work. On the\nother hand, under some of the systems of examination, the responsibility\nplaced upon the high schools is too little, and many boys secure admission by\nprocesses of cramming that have no real basis for substantial achievement, but\non the contrary breed wrong conceptions of scholarly standards and wrong\nhabits of working and thinking.\nThe decision as to admission should be based upon the unofficial, or at\nleast unsystematic, judgment of the principal. By this I mean that no schematic arrangement of percentages or subterfuges or reports should take the place\nof the real judgment of the principal, based upon daily contact thru four\nyears of a secondary-school course, from which he concludes that the pupil\nwill or will not succeed in the more difficult phases of college work. While for\npurposes of accrediting, some schematic arrangement may be necessary, and\nsome statement showing that a certain number of hours have been devoted to\nhistory or mathematics may be unavoidable ; yet what is needed is the personal\nelement which causes the principal to write at the bottom of the report, ''This\nboy will, in my judgment, do college work acceptably.\" This judgment\nshould not be formal and perfunctory, or lose weight because it is a printed\nstatement, or be concealed in an elaborate certificate; but it should come\ndirectly from the principal himself in the full belief that such an expression\nof opinion is the full measure of his responsibility in the case.\nUpon the university is to come the responsibility for giving to the young\nman such conditions of instruction and such surroundings in influence and in\ncompanionship that ideals of accomplishment shall be instilled, and that he\nshall be held to perform the tasks required by the university itself.\nWhat is needed is a division of responsibility in which both university and\nhigh school shall have a share, but in which the boy himself shall have a larger\npart. There should be placed upon the boy himself the responsibility for\nsuccess, and from the beginning of his high-school course until he stands upon\nthe university platform in cap and gown, he should be led to feel that it is himself that is to succeed, and that it is upon him and upon him alone that the\nresponsibility for success must lie, and it is by him and by him alone that the\nrewards of his success are to be reached and enjoyed.\nIt is left for others upon the program to discuss the details of the relation\nthat should exist between the univeristy and high school. In broad terms,\nit should be that of co-operative effort for community service. The university\nshould neither abandon nor abate its efforts as the nurse of scholarship, nor\nshould it, on the other hand, allow its scholastic ideals to restrict its influence\nas the mother of men . The university should provide instruction to meet every\nhigher need of the community — cultural and vocational — and the high school\nshould hold itself in readiness to furnish adequate preparation for admission\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "198\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nto such courses of instruction, both cultural and vocational. On the other\nhand, the high school must adapt itself to the vocational purposes of the pupils,\nand has a right to demand that the university shall establish the requirements\nof admission of such a nature that they will not interfere with the proper\nvocational function of the high school. Both schools are concerned with one\nconsecutive and continuous process, and the establishment of admission\nrequirements should mean nothing more than the determination of the point at\nwhich, with greatest profit to the community, ones hould leave off and the other\nbegin. For the proper solution of this problem, the essential consideration is\nmutual confidence, mutual co-operation, and s)mipathetic appreciation of the\nceaseless changing of the conditions of both schools.\n\n//.\n\nARTICULATION OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY\nCATION THRU TEACHING AND TEACHERS\n\nROBERT\n\nJ. ALEY,\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOF MATHEMATICS,\nBLOOMINGTON,\nIND.\n\nINDIANA\n\nEDU-\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThe last twenty years have witnessed great growth in schools for secondary\nand higher education. The attendance has increased at a rate not even\ndreamed of a generation ago. The course of study has been changed, improved,\nand enriched until it now offers such a wide and tempting range of intellectual\nfood that even the most fastidious ought to partake fully of the good things\noffered.\nIn 1888 the enrolment at fifteen of the larger privately endowed colleges\nand universities was 9,880. In 1 908 these same institutions had grown until\nthey had a total enrolment of 26,873. Fifteen of the larger state universities\nin 1888 had a total enrolment of 7,952. These same institutions in twenty\nyears had grown until their total enrolment was 42,859. The statistics of other\nschools of higher learning show like large increases.\nIn material equipment and endowment the growth since 1888 has been\nnothing short of marvelous. Private beneficence has given us Chicago and\nStanford Universities and has added millions upon millions to the wealth of\nother schools. In the past two years alone about $84,000,000 has been given\nby private individuals to educational institutions in the United States. State\nsupport to higher education has become the habit. Nearly all the states are\nnow annually pouring large sums of money into their state universities.\nThe growth of schools for secondary education in the last two decades has\nbeen more wonderful than that of the colleges and universities. Their growth\nis the result of a change in the popular mind which has made the people want\nsecondary schools and be willing to pay for them. Today every town of a few\nhundred people has its high school with a good building, first-class equipment, and well educated teachers. In many communities there is located at the\ncrossroads the rural high school, better in every respect than the high school\nin the city of five thousand population twenty years ago.\nIn many large cities\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHIGHER\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n199\n\nthere are today high-school buildings, laboratories, libraries, and faculties superior in every way to those possessed by the majority of colleges two decades ago.\nEverywhere there is great interest in both secondary and higher education.\nThe belief is becoming more and more general that these institutions are\ndirectly and vitally related to the affairs of everyday life. The common people\nare pinning their faith to education in the hope that thru it they may lift\nthemselves to higher levels.\nThe great growth of higher and secondary schools, their close contact with\nall the people^ and the fact that neither school can exist without the other\nmake the problem of close, easy articulation an important one. In the past\nthere has been much adjustment, but most of it has been by the secondary\nschool in order to fit the conditions imposed by the higher. This has very\nnaturally caused considerable friction. There needs to be an articulation\nof the two schools that shall be mutually beneficial and especially helpful to the\ngreat body of students. This articulation should be such as to make the friction a negligible quantity.\nIn some states laws have been enacted making gra,duation from college,\nor its equivalent, a necessary qualification for the high-school teacher. Nearly\neverywhere public sentiment and custom are so strong upon this matter that\nno law is needed. Positions in high-school faculties are almost closed to all\nbut college and university graduates. The secondary teacher of the future\nwho is not a college graduate will be as rare as the college teacher who has no\nadvanced degree. Secondary teachers of experience are feeling the pressure\nand are stopping out of teaching long enough to complete the college course.\nThe teachers of the secondary school are college men; many members of\nthe school boards are college men; the textbooks are written by college men;\nthe student games are played under the direction of college-trained coaches;\nthe course of study is written by college men and to suit college requirements;\nthe teachers are given the title professor by their students; the fraternities are\norganized by college fraters; the four classes are given college names; the\nsermon to the graduating class is called a baccalaureate, and on commencement day a distinquished orator speaks for the class. All this tells of conditions that may produce an articulation entirely unsatisfactory to the patrons\nof the lower school. It shows the possibility of the secondary school becoming\na miniature college, having for its atmosphere air drawn from the lower layers\nof college life, and for its aim nothing more than preparation for college.\nThe friends of education should recognize this danger, but they need not\nbe filled with fear nor become panic stricken because of it. The college and\nthe secondary school are essential parts of American life. They are the best\nmeans yet discovered for multiplying the power of the individual. For the\ngreat majority the secondary school is the only power factory. This must be\nremembered in all work of adjustment between secondary and higher education. The lower school must be kept close to the needs of the people for it is\ntheir college and to most of them a finishing school.\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nA larger number of A.B. men and women become high-school teachers\nthan go into all other learned professions combined. Every large college has\nits regular teachers' bureau to attend to location of graduates as teachers. A\nfew years ago nearly every school board thought that the A.B. stamp on an\napplicant for a high-school position was equivalent to O. K. They are more\ndiscriminating now. The indications are that they will be still more so\ntomorrow. They now ask, \"What particular preparation have you made for\nhigh-school teaching?\" The answer, **I have taught in the grades and\ngraduated from college\" is no longer satisfactory. The belief is now general,\nindeed, it has become almost a conviction that the high-school teacher is made\nby a process very similar to that used in making a dentist, a doctor, or an engineer. The members of these professions must have broad scholarship, special\nknowledge of the field in which they work, and specific training under competent direction in the practice and art of their profession. Teachers of\nmen should be equally well prepared before they are allowed to ply their\ncalling.\nThis change of view by the managers of secondary education has had a\nmarked effect upon the higher institutions. All the larger institutions have\nestablished schools or departments of education. Many of the smaller ones\nhave done likewise and the others are making strenuous efforts to get sufficient\nmoney to do so. Quite a number of institutions are already equipped with\nmodel or practice high schools. In all these schools prospective high-school\nteachers study the history of education, principles of pedagogy, educational\npsychology, secondary-school problems, and special pedagogy of the subject\nthey are preparing to teach. In addition to all this, those in schools having\npractice departments do considerable teaching under direction.\nIn order that the school or department of education may do work of importance for the student who .expects to be a high-school teacher, its professors\nmust be thoroly familiar with the field of secondary-school thought and\npractice. The aims, needs, and purposes of the high school must be known\nbefore specific help can be given to those who are to teach in it. As a result of\nthis need a large number of college professors have become close and interested\nstudents of the high-school problem. They are working at the problem, not\nwith the idea of getting a preconceived result, but as their scientific training\nhas taught them to work at all problems. They are testing theories by observation and practice. They are making new theories in the light of collected data.\nThey are trying to answer certain questions, such as: How should the high\nschool be organized ? What should its course of study be ? How far should\nit go in giving specific preparation for vocation ? What can it do to meet in a\nbetter way the specific needs of the community which supports it ? Of course\nthe answers to these questions must change with each generation. No fixed\nand permanent answers can be found. In the effort to find the answer means\nwill be discovered which will make it possible to train more intelligently those\nwho are to become high-school teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "^\n\nSuperintendence]\n—\n\nHIGHER\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\nr\n\n20I\n\nIn getting men to fill the various positions in schools and departments of\neducation, great wisdom has been shown by the selection of many superintendents and high-school teachers. The addition of this sort of men to the university teaching force has made considerable change in faculty atmosphere.\nMany of us remember the scant courtesy with which the college faculty of a\ngeneration ago received the man who came into it from a secondary-school\nposition. It was formerly a common belief that teaching in a high school\nunfitted one for a college professorship. It was supposed that the high-school\nexperience made one \"teachery,\" while one in a college position should be\n*'professory\"!\nThe feeling of antipathy between the two schools was not one-sided. Many\nhigh-school teachers were sure that the college professor could not hold a thirdrate high-school job unless he improved his method of teaching. The transfer\nof high-school teachers to college faculties, together with the study of highschool problems by college men has already brought great improvement into\nthe relationship of higher and secondary education. The schools and the\nmen in them understand each other better. Because of the better understanding the relations are more cordial and the mutual reactions of each upon the\nother more beneficial.\nThe attempt of the university to prepare men for the profession of teaching\nexerts a salutary influence upon the teaching of the entire faculty. The department of education by its very existence makes the whole university take note\nof the fact that school problems are worthy of study. Much of the work of this\ndepartment centers about the various kinds of teaching and points out that\nthe quality may range from positively bad to excellent. The excellent is held\nup as the ideal before the students. The students soon become keen critics of\ntheir teachers. All this conspires to make even the poorest teacher recognize\nhis weakness and try to improve. The professor who does not respond to this\nstimulus soon finds his classroom deserted by all students except those who are\nabsolutely required to take his work.\nEvery school of education recognizes that in the making of teachers imitation plays a large part. Poor pedagogy can never entirely overcome the effects\nof the excellent teacher, and the best pedagogy requires much time to eradicate\nthe evil results of bad teaching. The student who learns his Latin from a\nhigh-grade Latin teacher will not present many difficulties to those who are\ntrying to train him for high-school work. The student who learns his mathematics from a dry-as-dust professor will be made into a good high-school\nteacher of the subject with the greatest difficulty. The recognition of these\nfacts by the administrative officers of the university soon puts their influence\nalongside that of the school of education and together they work in favor of\nbetter teaching in every department of the university. Several good results\nwill come from this. Better teachers will be made for the high schools and\nbetter men and women for all purposes. In time the great teacher will rank\nwith the great investigator both in the estimation of the public and on the pay\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nroll of the university.\nExpert teaching will come into its own and will be considered asimportant as expert work in any other field.\nUntil very recently the higher institutions of learning have been interested ,\nin the secondary school mainly as a preparatory school. They exert their\ninfluence to have it shape its course of study for them. For years the response\nof the high school was all that the university could wish. It dutifully followed\norders. That day has passed. There will be no more articulation of that\nsort. The influx of great numbers of strong men into the ranks of high-school\nteachers has given the high school a distinct place of its own. It is rapidly\ncoming into a position to give orders rather than to take them.\nIn many of the colleges able men are studying the high school with a view\nof finding out how it can be made to serve its constituency better. In the highschool faculties well-trained, keen observers are at work on the same question.\nBetween these men of the higher and lower school there is unity of purpose.\nThey are all working to make secondary education meet the needs of the people\nbetter.\nPartly as a result of this better understanding and partly as the result of\nnecessity, college-entrance requirements have been greatly changed. The\nvery large number of subjects now accepted for entrance shows the extent of\nthe work done by the secondary schools and is a strong tribute to their high\nquality. The colleges have easily and readily adjusted their work to these new\nconditions. Everything runs as smoothly under the new regime as under the\nold. Larger numbers of young people are getting the uplift of college life.\nIndirectly the whole country is profiting by this widening of the door of opportunity. Back of this change of entrance requirements and its attendant\nbenefits is the teacher in each school patiently studying the problem and earnestly searching for a solution that will benefit the people still more.\nThe present strong tendency of college men and women to enter the\nprofession of high-school teaching is a hopeful sign for the better articulation\nof secondary and higher education in the future. These people, with their\nyears of special training for the work, go into it to stay. They have selected it\nas a profession. They have paid too much for the entrance to be turned easily\ninto some other field of work. The high school becomes their world, just as\nmedicine becomes the world of the physician. It is of great importance that\nthe boundaries of their world be pushed out, and so they become students\nworking hard toward that end. In order to get the best results they must have\nthe help of the university, and so they become allies of the department of education. Inthis way better co-ordination and finer adjustment are made possible.\nThe high school and the university are closely and peculiarly related.\nHigh-grade teaching in the high school increases the demand for good teaching in the university. First-class teaching in the university soon increases the\nnumber of good teachers in the high school. The expert in either field is sometimes called to the other in the belief that his field of influence will be widened.\nWhen the high schools seriously study the college-entrance requirements, the\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCOMMUNITY,\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n203\n\ncolleges grow nervous and loosen up a bit. When the colleges make an investigation ofthe course of study and character of instruction in the high school, the\nhigh schools take note and begin to strengthen their work. Neither school can\nexist without the other. For the most part their methods and aims are distinct,\nbut they overlap enough to make the closest sympathy an absolute necessity.\nThis final bond that will give just and proper articulation can only come thru\nteachers and teaching.\n///.\nCHARLES\n\nTHE\nE.\n\nRELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO THE\nCOMMUNITY AND TO THE COLLEGE\nCHADSEY,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nIn spite of the remarkable growth in high-school attendance in recent years,\nor perhaps as a result of it, the high school cannot as yet be said to have established satisfactory relations either with the community or the college. The\nprinciples which must govern educators in determining the curriculum to be\npursued in the high school must be established more clearly than so far has\nseemed practicable. Similarly we must determine the methods of presentation\nof the subject-matter in the various subjects offered. The question as to the\namount of information to be imparted and the degree of mastery of the subject\nto be secured by the pupil has not been answered satisfactorily.\nHigh-school principals are, in the vast majority of cases, handicapped in the\npreparation of their courses of study by the limitations imposed upon them by\ncolleges and universities.\nTo say that these requirements have been fixed very definitely by committees upon which there were representatives of high schools, as well as\ncolleges, is not to the point. The w^ork of these committees, important and\nexcellent as it has been, has always been based upon the assumption that a\ncertain specific amount of work is to be demanded of the high school and that\ncertain subjects must be pursued for certain fixed periods of time. In the\ncarrying out of this idea the distinctly specified subjects are so numerous and\nthe fixed requirements are so great that but little, and in some cases no, liberty\nis afforded the principal who wishes to offer other courses of study which he\nmay deem desirable.\nThru the efforts of these committees which have determined collegeentrance requirements and the very general insistence upon these requirements by our colleges and universities, a very real uniformity has resulted.\nTo a certain extent this result has been decidedly advantageous. It is undesirable, even in a democracy the individual units of which are as independent\nas they are in the United States, to have our high schools offering courses\nbased merely upon the individual opinions which the principals may have as to\nthe proper character of secondary education. Many subjects have about\nequal values in any portion of the United States. The vast amount of discussion which resulted from the original proceedings of the Committee of\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nTen, and the continual consideration of the proper requirements for admission\nto the freshman class of our colleges and universities, have been invaluable\nto secondary education. We needed most emphatically the very kind of\nwork which resulted from the effort toward standardization of high-school\ncourses.\nPreceding this long-drawn-out and carefully considered discussion of the\nhigh-school problem, ideals in too many cases were exceedingly low. The\nfrequent attempt to complete a subject with only a few weeks study resulted\nin an amount of superficiality which was highly discreditable to our American\neducation. The appointment in many states of high-school inspectors, whose\nduty it has been to .pass upon the character of the work offered in the high\nschools, and to place or to refuse to place these high schools upon the accredited\nlist of the university, in accordance with the result of this inspection, has also\nraised most decidedly the standards of high-school work.\nFor all these things, those who have the interests of secondary education\nat heart should be profoundly thankful. It does not follow, however, that\nthere has resulted from this a condition in any sense to be considered as static.\nWe have attained high standards. We now have a vast army of high-school\nteachers and principals well equipped, who realize clearly what is implied\nby first-class work. They know definitely the kind of scholarship necessary\nfor pupils who expect to pursue work in colleges and technical schools, and in\ngeneral they may be said to be, in a very real sense, masters of their problem.\nIn spite of these good results, however, these high-school principals and\nteachers under present conditions are not able to give to all their pupils the\nmost valuable work. It is now a commonplace that different pupils frequently\nrequire somewhat different work. The intellectual power of the pupil, the\nkind of life for which he is probably destined, his home conditions and the\nlocal interests of the community, all modify more or less any ideal course framed\nby any committee of high-school or college people, no matter how carefully\ntheir work may be done.\nThe old idea that the college-preparatory course, of necessity, is the course\nof most value to the pupil who will not go to college, is false. There are many\nsubjects which are of more value to the pupil whose education ceases with the\nhigh school, than some of the courses accepted at the present time for admission to college. If the number of specified subjects for admission to college\nwere substantially decreased it would certainly be easy for this adjustment to\nbe made in individual cases, and should hinder in no way the possibility of\nthe pupil receiving the proper credit for his work should his plans change\nand make possible a higher education which was not anticipated.\nAs it is, however, if the high-school principal or the teacher adviser recommend certain subjects not on the accepted list, the pupil's chances for successful admission are decidedly lessened. The result is that in practically all cases\nthese more valuable subjects are omitted and the time which should have been\ngiven to them is spent upon subjects of minor importance. The common-sense\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCOMMUNITY,\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n205\n\nof the pupil frequently comes to the front, and realizing that much of his work\nis not worth while to him, he leaves school.\nWhile I am not one of those who believe that every child should go thru\nhigh school, and that a tragedy has resulted when the child becomes discouraged and leaves the school, yet I do believe that there are many cases\nwhere very real harm to the individual has come thru his failure to find in the\nhigh school the work which he ■v\\dshes.\nA commonly suggested relief to this condition is the establishment of parallel courses more practical, sometimes vocational, in their nature, which are not\nintended to prepare for college. There are serious objections to these courses\nunder present conditions. In the first place, courses which do not prepare\nfor college are looked upon as distinctly inferior both by the teachers themselves and by the pupils, with the result that registration in these courses is discouraged and their real value underestimated. In the second place, under\npresent conditions the injury already alluded to frequently occurs: the pupil\nwho at first has no desire or ambition for higher work finds his power and ambition developing, only to be confronted with the fact that so far .as college\nentrance is concerned he has been marking time for two or three years. Needless to say the realization of this wasted effort is discouraging and generally\ndecisive in preventing the extension of his educational equipment.\nThe high school emphatically needs more freedom than it has at the present\ntime. While all high-school educators are not agreed upon the kind of work\nwhich should be found in high schools, a large number most strongly emphasize the fact that, if allowed more opportunity, they themselves could make\ntheir high schools more effective in meeting the needs of the community.\nWe hear a great deal of discussion nowadays about the superficiality of the\nelementary-school product. Many times we feel inclined to admit a measure\nof truth in this criticism. We believe that in many cases mastery of certain\nelementary subjects has not been obtained and cannot be secured in the\nelementary schools. Certain phases of grammar and arithmetic are unquestionably too difficult for proper presentation on the part of the teacher and\nmastery'on the part of the pupil in the elementary schools. Many educators\nbelieve that the more difficult portions of these subjects are of far more importance than some things found in the high schools. The heavy demands of the\ncollege and university make it impossible to offer these subjects. Admitting\nfor the moment the truth of such a belief, would it not be better for our high\nschools, if it were possible, to have these subjects offered as part of the general\nrequired work in the high school ? I believe that it will not be long before it\nwill be recognized as desirable that sufficient flexibility in college-entrance\nrequirements should be secured to enable the high-school principal to frame\ncourses of study which, in his judgment, are best adapted to the needs of the\npupils under his charge, with the assurance that if they are well organized the\npupils desiring higher education will experience no difficulty in securing admission to the college or the university.\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nThe argument that courses of study which are not framed in compliance\nwith the entrance requirements of our standard colleges are elected with a full\nand free understanding on the part of the pupil, and that he must therefore\nbear the consequences of his folly, is specious. American life always has\nbeen and will continue to be far more flexible than life in other countries. It\nis highly desirable for it to be so. If a pupil has been pursuing well-organized\ncourses of study faithfully, he has experienced a mental growth which will\nnot prove discreditable to him should his chances for higher education be\nsecured.\nThe old assumption that the particular courses for which credit in our\nuniversities is given are inherently more valuable than others is incorrect.\nThis will from year to year become more patent to all. Modern life with its\nramifications has developed lines of thought and study which, while different\nfrom the traditional courses, do possess genuine culture value and develop\ngenuine power.\nIt must be assumed that the well-organized modern high school has a\nfaculty eminently able to determine what courses should be accepted toward\ngraduation. This faculty, if less hampered, will be able to develop courses\nbetter fitted for local needs than those traditionally demanded.\nThe period during which it was advisable to demand certain fixed amounts\nof work in certain definitely specified studies has, for our better-equipped high\nschools, passed by. We have entered upon that stage in our secondary development when the efforts of our colleges, so far as they continue to endeavor to\nsupervise high-school work, should be confined to the securing of a genuinely\nhigh standard of work in the course of study offered. Our high-school\nprincipals must develop such an individual sense of responsibility that their\nmere general statements that their students have completed definite courses of\nstudy covering certain amounts of time should be sufficient to secure their admission without further qualifications.\nI believe fully in high standards of work; I believe that our universities\nhave much to learn yet in the way of demanding from the beginning to the\nend of the college course genuinely scholarly work on the part of the students.\nI believe that if the high-school graduate is not able to measure up to these\nstandards in the colleges, his usefulness as a college student is at an end and\nhe should be so informed. I do believe, however, profoundly, that every\nstudent should have his chance and that we have now reached the time when\nthis greater flexibility can be secured, and that if it is secured, the general\nresults for education will be distinctly good.\nIn spite of the ease with which educators are brought to agree to these\ngeneral truths, it stiil remains difficult to bring about any real change in conditions. The problem of securing greater flexibility, and yet not endangering\nthe good secured thru the combined efforts of the faculties of our high schools\nand colleges during the last fifteen years, remains a difficult one.\nPerhaps some suggestion may come from a consideration of resolutions\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN ACCREDITING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n207\n\nrecently adopted by a conference held by representatives of forty-eight Colorado high schools. After an unusually careful discussion participated in both\nby representatives of the State University and high-school instructors, it was\nresolved :\nThat each high school should be at liberty to arrange the content of four to six units\nof its course to the end of best subserving local needs and that the university should accept\nfor entrance such units of this work as have been vi^ell organized and well taught even\ntho the subject-matter is not traditional.\n\nAltho this resolution recognizes the existence of the ''unit system\" as\nthe prevailing system used in high schools, it was felt that the system itself was\nunsatisfactory. The very word \"unit\" presupposes a mechanization of the\ncourse of study which is bound to interfere with the best interests of the high\nschool and of the student.\nIt was therefore also resolved:\nWhereas, The various studies of the high-school curriculum differ in respect to the\npurpose for which they are taught and to their functions, and\nWhereas, The usual practice in high schools now is to teach all subjects without any\ndifferentiation in method with respect to function and purpose, therefore, be it\nResolved, That it is the sense of this body that such a differentiation in method\nshould be made; that certain studies should be taught intensively to the end of producing\ndefinite powers and abilities; and that content subjects should not be taught with the\nmethods suitable to formal subjects, but should be taught to the end of inspiration, producing equivalent results with a smaller expenditure of time and energy; and that this\nmay be done, be it further\nResolved, That it is the sense of this body that the present unit system, with its\ninsistence upon mathematical measurement of inspirational result, and its tendency\ntoward mechanization of method, is unsatisfactory, and that some modification is desirable.\n\nIt is probable that at the present time it would be unwise for high schools\nforcibly to break away from the requirements imposed by our universities.\nContinued agitation of the subject is necessary. There must be a very keen\nrealization on the part of the university authorities that the present system of\nentrance requirements does not result in the furtherance of the best interests\nof the high schools.\nOn the other hand, as pubUc school educators, we must never lose sight of\nour great aim in high-school work: the realization of a condition which will\nbest meet the needs of the community.\nIV.\n\nPROPOSED\nC.\n\np.\n\nGARY,\n\nCHANGES IN THE\nHIGH SCHOOLS\n\nACCREDITING\n\nSTATE\n\nMADISON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT,\n\nOF\n\nWIS.\n\nThere are vaUd objections to everj^ conceivable method of admission to\ncollege. The oldest method of which we need to take any notice is that of\nexamination of every prospective student at or near the time of entrance.\nThis method, however, resulted in a cramming process rather than an educational process. Students commonly gave only the tithe demanded by the\nlaw; mental assimilation was not called for. The secondary school shaped\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nits work to a highly specialized end — that of passing a more or less stereotyped\nset of entrance examination questions. It was the era of conning of question\nbooks composed of examination questions that had been used in Harvard,\nYale, and other institutions of the east. The intellectual and spiritual growth\nof the pupil suffered arrested development from which he might or might not\nrecover in the period of four years in college. When the human mind once\nbegins to grow by accretion instead of assimilation it takes a set that is likely\nto remain thru life. The pedant and the man afflicted with that peculiar\nmental squint called ''total recall\" were the legitimate outcome. Examination for entrance .to college means dry rot in the secondary school. The\nexamination board removes some administrative difficulties but it has not, in\nthe nature of the case, reached the root of the difficulty. We still have the\nexamination with its attendant evils. I am told that the Harvard authorities,\nat least some of tkem, still claim that the entrance examination gives them a\nbetter class of students than any other plan they have tried. I have also been\ntold recently by a gentleman who is famiHar with the Massachusetts situation,\nthat nobody outside of Harvard concurs in this opinion.\nThe certificate plan has been used in the east and is still used in large\nmeasure by many of the better institutions. Reports conflict as to the efficiency ofthis plan, but as the board now charged with the administration of the\ncertificate plan pursues a very conservative course in accrediting only such\nschools as have proved their efficiency, and since the list is revised yearly and\nany school whose pupils do not reach a high standard is thrown off the list,\nit follows that principals will use the greatest care in recommending only students of more than ordinary ability. While the certificate plan may be efficient in the sense of bringing into the schools a limited number of high-grade\nstudents it, nevertheless, has a tendency to shut out the average student from\ncollege privileges.\nThis, by the way, is one of the greatest difficulties today in our higher\neducational institutions. The schools seem to want only the intellectual cream\nof the country. This tendency is away from the democracy of intellect, and\nit is unfortunate, for the reason that at present our schools pay a premium on\npower to absorb and give out again the instruction received. The student\nwho is slow in maturing or who is so original in his bent of mind that he finds\nit difficult to conform to the order of things that he finds around him in the\nschoolroom, has an uphill road to travel in getting thru the secondary\nschool, and especially in getting into college. The aristocracy of intellect is\nthe bane of many a higher institution of learning. This would not be so bad\nif the precocious student always proved to be the best in the end and the most\nhelpful to his fellow-men; but it often happens that he falls by the wayside in\nlater life, while the student who did not make his mark in college becomes the\nbenefactor of his race. Those of us who have read Swift's Mind in the\nMaking will recall his chapter bearing upon the unpromising character of the\nyouth of many men who are now world-famous.\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN ACCREDITING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n209\n\nThe diploma plan of admission to the university originated, I believe, in\nthe University of Michigan. It has come to be the chief method of admission\nto all the state universities in the group of North Central states. In the early\nyears of Michigan's history, laws were passed making the state university\nthe head of the educational system, not merely the highest school in the system;\nit was to exercise supervisory authority over high schools and over other colleges\nthat should later be estabUshed. This gave authority, and, in fact, made\nnecessary the then liberal plan of accrediting certain schools so that graduates\nmight enter the university on diploma.\nNo other state in this group, so far as I am aware, had such a provision in\nits early legal enactments. In Wisconsin, for example, provision was made\nfor the supervision of high schools by the state department of education, and\nnot by the university. The state superintendent was required to approve\nall free high-school courses, to inspect high schools, and to withhold highschool aid from such schools as did not reach a reasonable standard. The\nonly authority given the university was bestowed upon the Board of Regents\nwhich was authorized to determine entrance qualifications.\nFollomng the lead of Michigan, Wisconsin and various other states of\nthe Union have developed a system of inspecting and accrediting high schools.\nMany difficulties grew out of this relationship between the high schools and\nthe universities. Numerous efforts have been made to solve these difficulties\nwithout giving up the general plan. For instance, when it was discovered that\nthere was a strong call for courses of instruction that did not, according to the\ntraditional idea, lead to college, the universities suggested that the schools might\noffer courses that did not lead to college but which were designed more immediately to prepare for life and for service in the community. This solves the\ndifficulty in part only, for it involves an early determination on the part of the\nstudent whether he will go to college at the end of his high-school course or\ngive up his school education at that point. This is indeed a serious difficulty.\nNo pupil is fully prepared to say, at the beginning of his high-school course,\nwhether he will be able to enter college or not, or whether he will desire to go\nfurther with his education. It is evident that the broader the road leading\nto the college door, the better for the boys and girls of the nation — hence the\nbetter for the nation. The question of entering college or not entering college\nshould not be settled definitely, at least not definitely in the negative, until the\nopening of the college year following high-school graduation. No, it should\nnot even then be settled in the negative, for many a man goes to college after\na decade or more of work following his graduation from the secondary school.\nAnother attempted solution on the part of the university authorities was to\nsay that what was best in the way of preparation for college entrance was also\nbest as a preparation for life. This is a broad and sweeping generalization\nwhich no doubt has given great comfort to college authorities; but who is\nprepared to say that four years of Latin is a better preparation for life than\nfour years of well-planned, well-articulated work in industrial training ? The\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nfact is, this generalization is entirely too broad and sweeping and too little\nbased upon actual investigations and facts to be worth anything as an educational doctrine. The fact is, few if any of us believe there is any truth in it.\nThere is a tendency today, and with a great deal more practical sense, it seems\nto me, to turn the maxim around and say that which is best for life is best as a\npreparation for college. I would rather undertake to maintain this proposition\nthan the one so long maintained by college presidents.\nAnother method of solution has been gradually to liberalize the work of the\nhigh school by admitting subject after subject for college credit and of reducing\nthe friction in the high school in analogous ways. This tendency has had\nbeneficial effects, it is true, for the simple reason that it approaches more and\nmore nearly to the condition that ought to exist as between college and high\nschool.\nAnother method that has been used in a few states is the establishment\nof a board composed of the president of the university, the state superintendent\nand certain others for the purpose of determining what the high schools shall\nteach and how they shall teach it. The state of Minnesota has perhaps had\nthe most successful experience of any state with a board of this kind, but I am\ninformed that it amounts to very little more than a device after all for the university to exercise its real authority over the schools thru its president,\nwithout creating so much friction as utter lack of representation on the part of\nthe high schools would involve. I am told by competent observers in Minnesota that the university really dominates the situation in that state, whatever\nappearances may be.\nIn Wisconsin we have a double-headed system of inspection and some other\nstates are now moving in the direction of such a system. This tendency is\nunfortunate. The state inspects and the university inspects, but when the\ntwo occupy the field jointly, the university inspection is in the position of paralleUng, duplicating, and conflicting with the work of the state, or vice versa, if it\nbetter suits the hearer to put it in that form.\nThis is not a final solution to this vexed question. I have had many letters\nfrom high-school inspectors, from high-school principals and others, most of\nwhich show confusion of thought upon this point. Some think the state can\ninspect in one way while the university inspects in another; that one may\ninspect for one purpose and the other for another purpose, but this is only\ntemporizing the situation. In order that we may have unity, efficiency, and\neconomy in the inspection of high schools the inspection should be centralized.\nThe evil effects of the system of accredited high schools are numerous and\nserious. The college or university is today yielding slowly and perforce to the\npressure of modern life without its walls. The old ideal, and the ideal still in\nvogue in the college of letters and science in particular, is that of leisure to\nfollow intellectual interests to the end that scholarship may result. To make\na college course useful in the way of preparing for efficient citizenship, except\nin the broadest and most general way, is not the ideal of the college or univer-\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCJy^iVG£5\n\nIN ACCREDITING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n21 1\n\nsity today. This tendency and ideal, the higher institution of learning forces\ndown into the secondary school. Such an arrangement forces all to take\ncollege-preparatory courses or forego college, as has already been stated. It\nbrings utility courses into disrepute and disarranges the natural valuation that\nwould otherwise be placed upon the various studies of the high school. Furthermore, the university tends to crowd too much into the course. The requirement, for instance, in the four-year Latin course is much beyond what the\nordinary student can accomplish satisfactorily. Thus, while the university\nstands for scholarship it, in the direction of Latin and many other subjects,\nstands squarely in the road leading to the ideal of thoroness. This domination by the university has existed so long and the high schools have become so\naccustomed to it that they generally seem as little aware of it as we are of the\nair we breathe. It has become the natural way of living. The work imposed\nupon the high schools by the university is also, in many cases, too technical for\nthe needs and interests of boys and girls in our secondary schools. This is\nnotably the case in physics, but it is not confined to this subject.\nThe accrediting system places the control of the high school outside of the\nhigh school and in another authority which tends strongly to tise the school to\nits own ends. This tends to make a technical school of the high school. It\noften does not have the merit of being technical in a broad sense. It becomes\nmore of the nature of a trade school. The high school apes the college in\nmany ways and does not develop into a stong, independent, self-reliant institution with its own ideals and standards. The high school looks to the college\nto learn its duty to its constituency instead of studying the situation at first\nhand.\nWhat is the remedy?\n\nAt the outset I reminded you that no method is\n\nfree from objection, but the plan to have the high school free from all domination except what the state sees fit to exert thru legislation and thru its\ndepartment of education is the one that commends itself to me as far preferable\nto any other. This is particularly true of all state universities. There is not\nthe shadow of an excuse for the domination of high schools by the university\nin any state in which the high schools have been brought up to a fair standard\nof excellence and in which the state has come to realize the necessity of making\na school system out of the schools of the state.\nThe state university is often spoken of as the head of the school system.\nWhether it is or not depends upon the meaning of the term. If it is used in\nthe sense of the highest school in the system, then it is true, but not in any\nother case. The state university should rest squarely upon the preparation\ngiven by the school next lower in the system. The head should not separate\nitself arbitrarily from the body.\nWhen colleges were small and had a limited faculty and taught only a few\nbranches, it was necessary for the proper articulation of the secondary school\nwith the college to have pretty definite instruction as preparation for passing\nfrom one school to the other; but at the present time our great state institu-\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ntions have beginning classes in almost every subject ordinarily pursued in the\nhigh school.\nIt makes no material difference to the university whethej: the student has\npursued physics or not; whether he has pursued German or not; whether he\nhas pursued biology or not. The only thing the university by right is concerned\nabout is the thoroness with which the work that is attempted is accomplished,\nand the habits and maturity of mind acquired.\nI would, then, have the states of this group develop state departments with\nan adequate force of inspection entirely independent of the university, stimulating and encouraging high schools, and bring about such development in them\nas modem needs and requirements dictate. I do not believe that the state\ndepartment should dominate the high schools in the sense of standardizing the\ncourse of study and determining, from outside, just what the high school shall\ndo and what it shall not do. The only graduates of four-year high schools that\nshould not be recommended for college are those who have not shown intellectual interests or who have pursued what may properly be termed trade-school\ncourses.\nSuch a change as I suggest would in no wise lower university standards;\nin fact, I think the greater thoroness in the teaching of the branches that\nare attempted, which would likely result, would bring about a far better standard of work in the university itself.\nThe college thru official, or pseudo-official, inspection is now making\nit impossible for the high schools to do work that satisfies them, or the public,\nor the college. Many students who ought to go to high school do not go, and\nmany who start do not finish because the courses are not adapted to boy nature\nunless the boy happens to be a bookworm.\nWhat we ask for is that the university shall release its grip and allow the\nsecondary schools to develop. They ought to be permitted to develop freely\nfrom within and not be forced into the Chinese shoe of college-entrance requirements. When this is done both institutions will profit by the change.\n\nV.\n\nSOME\nWILLIAM\n\nPERSONAL\nESTABROOK\n\nRELATIONS OF COLLEGE\nVERSITY IN THIS DEMOCRACY\nCHANCELLOR,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\n,\n\nCONN.\n\nNORWALK,\n\nOF\n\nAND\n\nUNI-\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nFor nearly a thousand years, the university has stood in the midst of\nwestern civilization as the chartered City of Freedom. In its essential nature,\nthe university is detached, isolated, and independent. Its quality of detachment, its character of independence, enable the university to perform its own\npeculiar service. Whatever be their name or their reputation, that body of\nscholars which barkens obediently to the voices of the changing social world\ncannot constitute a university, or even an institution; it becomes merelv an\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRELATIONS\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n213\n\ninstrument. The franchise of the university teacher is to speak the truth\nclearly and in full.\nAs a matter of history, the college is one of the essential component members of the university. The college is not a university in the making; nor is a\nuniversity an overgrown college; nor again, is the college properly a university\npreparatory school. For any school to be merely preparatory to another is for\nit to develop its students to less than the full measure of their possibilities and\nof its own opportunities, which from every point of view appears unfortunate.\nAs part and parcel of the university, the college shares with it the historic\nquality of detachment and, in a certain sense, of isolation. The peril of any\nquality is, of course, that it may develop to the extreme of its logical defect,\nwhich in this instance is remoteness, with attendant inconsequentness and\nabsence of sympathy.\nThe college is far older than such democracy, as we mean when we use the\nterm in these modern days. But the high school is the product of that democracy— a typical and characteristic product. Since we are only at the beginnings of democracy and do not yet see clearly what it means, it is hazardous to\ntry to state its principles. There seems, however, now a measure of agreement\nthat democracy involves a harmony, plainly difficult to secure, between at\nleast two principles. Democracy is the control of society by the majority —\nperhaps I should say the effective majority. Not so obviously, and yet many\nbelieve truly, democracy is the direction of society by the men who understand\nits needs and its interests. Neither the effective majority that controls, nor\nthe abler men who direct, society necessarily proceed upon the lines of the\ngeneral welfare. Yet in building the high-school, democracy has unmistakably\nproposed to benefit humankind. Arising new in the life of society and wholly\ndependent upon it, the high school has found itself confronting the ancient and\nindependent institution of the university. But it sees that institution itself\nstrangely unquiet and often unhappily incomplete in form and insecure in\nmood. In this presence I need only to suggest the great variety of universities\nin our own land. The high school, strange as this may seem in the light of\nhistory, has standard qualities of maintenance and operation. The contrast\nis suggestive.\nIt is, therefore, highly interesting to observe the struggle of adjustment\nbetween these schools which in the progress of youth stand in consecutive\nhierarchical relation. The high school stands for the education of youth, to\nmake individual lives worth while to themselves, and thereby to society. The\nuniversity, which, I repeat, is the college plus the professional and technical\nschools, has stood for the preservation and extension of science and art. These\nare by no means antagonistic forces; and yet they are not forces in the same\nforward line of direction.\nUntil the boy or girl is eighteen or nineteen years of age, knowledge is but\na means to be used for his benefit. Thereafter, he becomes a means by which\nknowledge may endure in the lift of the race.\nFor the high-school graduate,\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthe world of culture thru teachers and books has paid its price. He is\nthereafter a bondservant whose life is not his own. This democracy is the\nagency of a regeneration. It produces a self-alienation in which the person\ncomes into being.\nHere then is the word that suggests the strength and weakness of the\npresent situation as it exists between school and college. It is with much hesitation and caution that I proceed to the theme proper: the personal relations\nbetween the free and immeasurably useful college and the democratic high\nschool.\nThere are three ways in which young men and women go from high school\nto college:\nThey proceed from school to college via examinations imposed by the\ncollege.\nThey proceed via certification upon subjects determined by the college but\nwith proficiency estimated by the school.\nAnd they proceed via solicitation in the school from the college.\nWhether in the college or in the school, two forces make war over youth:\nthe traditions of the ages and the ideas of the present. If we must use catch\nwords, let us call them \"culture\" and \"efficiency.\" The same forces make\nwar over school and college themselves. Shall these institutions pursue the\nold aims, or shall they cease their aloofness and share the common life and the\ncommon lot ? The answer in fact to all the questions depends largely upon\nthe person. We do not operate with figures but with human beings, weighing so many pounds each, more or less, and coming to us unsuspectingly out\nof the matrix of society.\nThere were in 1907 about 800,000 boys and girls in secondary schools, and\nabout 125,000 young men and women in higher institutions. A secondary\nschool Is a school that educates youth for four years — from the ages of fourteen\nto eighteen, more or less. A higher institution is one that imparts knowledge\nto and trains young men and women for perhaps four years, perhaps seven\nor eight years, from the ages of (say) eighteen or nineteen years to forty years,\nmore or less.\nSaid EHhu Root in an address before the New York State Legislature,\nthanking them for his election as senator of the United States: \"The general\nsituation is that we now have a civilization so complex that none can understand it,and that we are producing scarcely enough men to operate it properly.\"\nLet me use just one illustration: Three months ago, the Senate of the United\nStates asked the Interstate Commerce Commission to inform it whether or not\nthe railroads of the country were generally raising rates. Last week the Commission replied that it could not find out the facts; that twenty clerks had\nbeen detailed to examine the matter, but that in view of the publication of an\naverage of three million pages of new rates every week, it had proven impossible\nto answer the question with statistical accuracy! The flood of life is ever\ngrowing greater, ever flowing faster.\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRELATIONS\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n21 5\n\nNo man knows the United States or its people. We do not know whether\nthere are five or ten million persons here properly styled negroes. We do not\nknow whether the annual average income of the American people is twenty\nbillions of dollars in value a year or a hundred billions. We do not know\nhow many persons there are who may properly be styled Christians.\nSaid Theodore Roosevelt recently in an address before a convention of\nministers: \"We must find a way to get more able men into the Christian\nministry.\" The same thing is being said daily by competent observers regarding education, journalism, and nearly every other profession and learned\ncalling. This is said not with reference to the power of economic absorption\nbut to the social needs. Civilization is running short of men who know and\ncan do. The mass of people may soon exceed the directing power of its leading persons. Several times before in human history such a state of affairs\nhas developed, with results that require no exposition here. The service of\npersons is too often ignored.\nA principle is simply the thought of some person commonly accepted by\nothers,\nA statute of government is simply the common thought of persons in effective control.\nAn article of creed is likewise.\nA law of nature, whether it be gravitation or light or electricity, is but the\nthought of God.\nPersons always rule.\nAnd the failure of high school and college to send into American life the\nnumber and the kind of men and of women actually required today is the\nfailure of the persons who direct and operate the high school and the college.\nI bring in no bill of particulars here. I am not the prosecuting attorney in\nthis matter, but one of the defendants. When less than one in six of the youth\nwho enter the secondary schools proceed to college, we have a situation not\npermitting defense, but requiring remedy.\nBetween democracy and Christianity there are many likenesses and yet\nmany differences. Democracy says, ''Let me have always one majority,\nwhether it be five hundred and one in one thousand or three in five.\" Christianity says, \"Let me have all; and if so be but one stray in one hundred, I will\nleave the ninety-and-nine and go into the wilderness to seek and to save the\nlost.\" Christianity has taken hold of elementary education to make it unijrsal ; democracy is taking hold of secondary education to make it common ;\n|[l3Ut higher education is not yet fully persuaded of Christianity or even of\nlemocracy.\nAh, I hear it protested that of course not everyone is capable of higher eduLtion; in fact, only a few are — the intellectual elite, that is, ourselves.\nNow\nam not here to argue either generalities or impossibilities, or even ideals.\nI\nlo not say that we might easily double the number of youth going from high\n:hool to college.\nI will not say that we might, by better methods, increase\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "21 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nby so much as one the number who will go to college in 1910. What I have to\nsay relates to obvious fact. Time was in America when culture sought to make\nsweetness and light prevail; when the ministers of churches, the writers of\nbooks and essays, the professors of colleges, the teachers of academies went\nabout proclaiming that a college education was good, was indeed immensely\ndesirable, and that humanity needed scholars as social engineers, and when\none by one they took youth by the hand and set about persuading them to go\nto college.\nSome very old-fashioned ministers and teachers do this yet. Some very\nnew-fashioned universities in new ways are doing the equivalent now. To all\nof whom, praise and gratitude ! High-school teachers should visit colleges and\ncollege teachers should visit high schools.\nTo what shall I liken education ? I would liken education to a voyage : A\ngreat ship rides in dock near a flat shore covered with small, low houses, and\ntroops of little people go on board. The ship swings away from the wharf\nand makes out for the open sea. Captain, mates, and most of the crew know\nthe course and the haven; but the passengers never crossed before. It is a\nlong, long voyage thru storm and calm, thru cold and heat; a voyage of\nyears; a voyage that tests faith. The years pass and the little people grow\nand grow. During the voyage, most of the passengers go overboard into the\nopen sea; but some make the voyage to arrive at a coast with mountains and\nvalleys, cities and castles, a world of powers and of activities unseen by the\ndwellers upon the low coast on the other side of the sea of life.\nSuch is education. And the question is how to keep the passengers aboard\nuntil the ship makes harbor.\nIt is a mere figure of spfeech and will not stand too close inspection ; but I\nhope that it serves the purpose.\nThere is a scene that we who deal intimately with the lives and destinies of\nothers may recall with profit: All night Jacob wrestled with the man, and in\nthe morning the man broke his thigh bone and subdued Jacob and thereby\nsaved him. Youth are not saved until they are laid low by men and brought\nto understand the higher powers. There is in every human being a savage,\nan original, a primitive, who by defeat and by surrender gains in a new worship\nhis citizenship in a kingdom that is worth while.\nEvery relationship of high school and college, of college and life, of school\nand life, of any and all kinds of educational institutions with one another and\nwith the world, to count for anything beyond the printed page or the articulate\nsound, must be immediate and personal. For its expression, it must have the\nforth-stepping and forth-putting man or woman.\nThe feast of knowledge is set. The host must send forth into the highways\nand among the hedges and compel the wayfarers to come in as guests. For\nknowledge is indeed a weariness to the flesh, an aching in the bones, a leaven\nof melancholy, save when it is being shared by the hungry at one's own table.\nRules and regulations there must be, commissions and boards are yet\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTRUANCY:\n\nCAUSES\n\nAND\n\nCURES\n\n217\n\nbetter; but the men and women who go about with their invitations and with\ntheir prayers and with their compelling are best.\nI am not advocating the letting-down of the bars; I am only saying that\nwe do well to persuade our youth that it is worth while to go into hard training\nin order to develop strength and skill and courage to jump them fairly.\nTOPIC:\n/.\nBERT\n\nTHE\n\nTRUANCY:\nHALL,\n\nCHIEF\n\nPROBLEM\n\nOF THE\n\nDELINQUENT\n\nA FEW\n\nCAUSES\n\nAND\n\nTRUANT\n\nOFFICER,\n\nCITY\n\nA FEW\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nPUPIL\nCURES\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS.\n\nTruancy in its broadest meaning is not confined to school children. This\ncountry has a large population of adult truants — men who \"leg\" from their\nduty; women who shirk and have but the faintest conception of, and no training for, life's most sacred duties.\nChildren coming from homes presided over by truant adults cannot be\nexpected to be without truant tendencies. The burden in these cases rests\nupon the school management and other agencies to correct such tendencies\nwith the best methods that have been or may be devised.\nTruancy in children is dehnquency and delinquency is in thousands of\ncases incipient crime. This question of truancy, therefore, is of more vital\nimportance to the American people than the so-called great political questions\nof our time.\nThe juvenile-court movement, started about ten years ago, has attracted\nthe attention and won the approval of the nation. The greatest work of these\ncourts has not been in the correction of juvenile delinquencies so much as in\npointing out the causes which produce the appalling amount of delinquency\namong our city school children.\nFrom our present view-point, the old methods of treating child oiBfenders\nagainst the law appear barbarous and cruel. Some of our present methods\nseem to some workers very short-sighted and foolish. In states where there\nare adequate school-attendance laws, and the enactment of such laws is the\nfirst step in solving the truancy problem, it seems foolish to wait until a child\nhas committed a felony before the authorities take steps to correct and shape\naright his life. Why wait and turn the child over to a juvenile court for correction when a study of the home life of the child by the school department — a\ntruancy department, if you will — ^might have corrected or prevented the whole\ntrouble ?\nThe ideal truancy department is one that not only compels attendance at\nschool but one which can enlist the co-operation of teachers and laymen in the\nwork of preventing all kinds of juvenile delinquency. There is nothing\nIaccomplished in the best juvenile court in America that could not be done and\n[done better and at less expense, without the machinery of a court, thru\nwell-organized truancy department.\nThe court frequently does not reach\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthe child until he has formed habits that are hard to correct. A truancy department should, if properly organized, reach the child before his evil tendencies\nhave crystallized into habit.\nIn connection with this ideal truancy department there should be organized\na friendly Visitors' Association, similar in its work and scope to the Juvenile\nCourt Committee of the city of Chicago. Such an organization would be\npowerful in looking up home conditions; providing for changes of environment when necessary; assisting, when poverty is the cause; bringing to justice\nthose who contribute by word or*act to the delinquency of children; and giving\ncounsel to the vast army of incompetent mothers and careless fathers in the\nhomes from which come 80 per cent, of the truancy cases in our cities.\nThe modem city is a very new development in the history of the human\nrace. So rapid has been the growth of titles in America, that we have not\nlearned to adapt our lives to the new conditions. As a nation we have been\nmoney-mad, the great flow of humanity toward the centers of population\nhaving been caused chiefly by one desire — to get rich. In this national struggle for money we entirely forgot the needs of childhood and have allowed conditions todevelop in every city in the land for which we are now paying a fearful penalty.\nWe forgot that children must play and so forgot to provide playgrounds;\neven the schoolmen who should have interested themselves in the matter\nfailed to act sanely and so we find most of our city schoolhouses erected on\ngrounds so small that no place to play can be provided without paying a large\nprice for the needed space. We have been prone to look upon education as\nsomething that could be entirely acquired by the study of books. The character-building influences of the playground have been overlooked.\nAnd while I am speaking of character-building influences, I will quote from\na paper read a few years ago by Thomas Chew, of Massachusetts, an experienced worker with boys, before the \"International Workers with Boys\":\nNational history affords many illustrations of what I mean by the influence of environment. The female birds are often the color of the leaves of the trees in which they nest.\nMany insects are the color of the plants on which they feed. We know that nature's\nendowment of these qualities was for the protection and preservation of these birds and\ninsects. Boys take on the color of their environment for the same reason. The boy\nliving under bad moral and physical conditions lacks the incentive to be good. The\nright examples are not there. What's the use ? Who cares? Why should he make himself\na target for the ridicule of his companions — become a \" sissy boy \" ? If a clean face or a clean\ncollar makes him conspicuous, add a little dirt and all is well. If morally clean, swear\na little, smoke a little, and the job is done. He is then fit for membership in the gang.\nHe has conformed to his surroundings just as your boy or my boy would have done.\nThe rooms of these tenement districts are small, the buildings are crowded together\nand there is no place for the children to play but the street or the alley where they at once\nbecome violators of some law or ordinance. If you a(}d to this description a dismal, dirty\nrailroad station, a freight yard, a few coal docks, and then people the district with the\nunfortunate poor, a large percentage of intemperate people, and a sprinkling of immigrants from southeastern Europe, you get some idea of hundreds of districts where character of the wrong]kind is made.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRUANCY:\n\nCAUSES\n\nAND\n\nCURES\n\n219\n\nAll sociological workers agree that it is environment that makes boys\nbad. Then why punish the boy ? What we should do is to strive to correct\nthe environment.\nEnvironments which make for the development of bad character should\nnot have been allowed to become a fact in our cities. That they are here is\nour misfortune.\nThat they remain is our disgrace.\nIf such conditions are to be remedied, help must come from outside. I\nknow of no agency so capable or so well equipped as the schools. The school\ntouches the daily life of the unfortunate children of these districts. It should\nreach and influence also the parents and the homes of these districts.\nBefore any steps can be taken to correct some of the causes which I have\nmentioned, the school department must be provided with adequate legal tools\nwith which to work. For reaching the negligent parent, Wisconsin has one\nof the best laws enacted by any state. It provides that any person having\nunder his control any child between the ages of seven and fourteen years shall\ncause such child to be enrolled in and attend regularly some public, parochial,\nor private school during the hours and period when the school in which the\nchild is enrolled is in session. Children between fourteen and sixteen years\nmust also attend school in the same manner unless the child is regularly\nemployed at home or elsewhere. The penalty is a fine of from $5 to $50, or\nimprisonment until such fine is paid.\nMore than 80 per cent, of truancy is the result of indifferent or negligent\nparenthood. There are many parents who make no effort to keep their children in school regularly. In the past they relied on a truant officer to get the\nchild in school and keep him there.\nUnder our present law, as administered in the city of Milwaukee, all that\nhas been changed, and negligent parents are being taught that they have some\nresponsibility in the matter of the school attendance of their children.\nIn case of an unexcused absence parents are notified, on a blank provided\nby the truancy department, to call at the schoolhouse and explain. The main\nprovisions of the law and the penalty are printed on these notices. In more\nthan 75 per cent, of cases this notice is sufficient and no further trouble is\nexperienced with the children of that family.\nIf no satisfactory explanation is made, or if the school principal suspects\ndeceit, the chief truant officer is notified. On receipt of this notice the parents\nare at once ordered to call at the truancy department and explain. Accompanying this order is a brief copy of the law printed in four languages — English,\nGerman, Italian, and Polish. This order usually brings a prompt response.\ncauses of the\nAfter talking with the parents and learning something of the\nI\nWhen indifferchild's absence, a course of action fitting the case is taken.\nence, orintemperance, or careless neglect is the cause, parents are warned that\nthey will be arrested and brought into court if further truancies occur.\nMany fathers and mothers who had not the time or the inclination to look\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nchildren in school after having been brought to court and warned that a continuation oftheir indifference would result in the maximum fine of $50 being\nimposed.\nThere are many cases that are not. so easily settled. The widowed or\ndeserted mother of a family who is forced to work away from home to provide\nfor her flock is often compelled to keep one child of school age at home to care\nfor the house and the younger children.\nIn times of depression the head of a large family may be thrown out of\nemployment and cannot purchase proper clothing for his children.\nThe father of ten or twelve children finds difficulty in providing nourishing\nfood, sound clothing, and a decent house for his flock on an income of $10\nor $1 2 per week, and is forced to keep a child of school age at home while the\nmother goes washing or scrubbing to piece out the family income.\nIn these cases the aid of a Child Protective League or a Friendly Visitors'\nAssociation would be of great value to the truancy department. Such a society\ncould, as cne remedy, provide the mother with work which she could do at\nhome. In localities where the number of ** little mothers\" is large, a day\nnursery could be organized. In such localities I urge the establishment of day\nnurseries in the school building. Here the small children of a family could be\nbrought by the little mother and cared for under the same roof with herself.\nThe day nursery could be used as a training school for nursemaids. Girls\nwho have reached the age of fourteen years, and who must go to work, could\ntake a short period of training in this room in the care of children and thus\nfit themselves to perform the duties of nursemaid in a competent manner. A\ntraining of this kind would be of immediate benefit in providing wholesome\nemployment for these girls and a permanent benefit in keeping many from\ntaking up factory or sweat-shop work — lines of employment that totally unfit\ngirls for domestic work and people our cities with the vast army of incompetent\nmothers.\nIn some cases there are physical defects in the child that need the attention\nof a physician or surgeon but the parents cannot afford to pay for such services.\nA medical department in the public-school system would be of great benefit.\nWhere a medical staff is not maintained, help may be secured from a children's\nfree hospital, a visiting nurse / association, or from many practicing physicians\nwho, as in my own city, are always most kind and helpful when called upon to\nassist the truancy department.\nIf investigation shows that parents are unable to control their children and\nkeep them in school and if a warning is not heeded, the child is given a report\ncard which he must bring to the truancy office once each week showing his\nattendance and deportment. This report system has proven very successful\nin this class of cases. I have had boys, who fully realized the power of the\ngang ove them, come to me voluntarily and ask for a report card that they\nmight have a defense against the arguments of their companions who urged\nthem to \"skip.\" These companions are usually boys over fourteen who have\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRUANCY:\n\nCAUSES\n\nAND\n\nCURES\n\n221\n\npermits to work but are temporarily out of employment and for whom it is\ndiflScult to provide. The return to school of such boys will frequently disrupt\nor disturb a whole class, the boy having become entirely weaned from the\nschool atmosphere. To care for such boys the truancy department has constituted itself a boys' labor bureau to secure employment for such boys as\ncannot find it for themselves.\nOur law compels children between fourteen and sixteen to attend school\nunless regularly employed. We therefore have all children who quit school at\nfourteen reported to the truancy office. A list of these children is forwarded to\nthe factory inspector who checks off the names of those who receive permits to\nwork and returns the list to the truancy office. All children whose names are\nreturned as not having permits are at once returned to school.\nThis is of great importance in the case of boys. City boys between fourteen\nand sixteen will develop character of the wrong kind very rapidly if left to\nwander aimlessly about the streets, becoming in a short time the dangerous\nyoung ruffians who fill our reformatories, workhouses, and jails. Most girls\nwho leave at fourteen do so to assist with the housework at home and so are not\nin so much peril as the boys.\nIn cases where it seems inadvisable to return boys of this class to school\nand where employment in the city cannot be secured, places to work on farms\nare secured. At first thought it would appear that such a scheme would 1 e a\nfailure. City boys who know nothing of country life or farm work are likely\nto be looked upon with suspicion by the average farmer. My experience last\nyear leads me to believe that thousands of truant and troublesome city boys\ncan be improved, if not cured, of their evil tendencies by this method. Last\nApril I inserted an article in all the weekly newspapers of the state of Wisconsin outlining my plans. The result was 462 applications from farmers for boys.\nBefore August i I had placed 208 boys in farm homes that had been investigated and recommended as suitable places for the boys. Farmers not only\nadvanced railroad fare but were willing to pay the boys from $8 to $12 per\nmonth. Of the boys thus sent out, 150 did well; about 100 returned to the\ncity in September and entered school or secured work; 50 have permanently\nadopted country life. Of those who returned to school very few have given the\ndepartment any trouble this year.\nThese boys were lifted from the most pernicious influences into the wholejSomeness of the country, and the majority responded to the change splendidly,\n'his year I hope to get places for fully 500 boys.\nIt is a most sacred and patriotic duty which the schools owe to our wayfward and truant boys. Most of the misery and degradation of the next half:entury will be the result of the -acts of those who are now such children. Every\n)ower, every influence possible should be brought to bear to prevent them from\n[drifting into the so-called reformatories and industrial schools.\nEmployment\na country home far removed from scenes of vice and degradation is preferable\nany reform school, no matter how well conducted.\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "222\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nInstitutional life is not normal life and so children reared and trained in\ninstitutions are not normal. It should be possible for every child in this great\nChristian land of ours to have the benefits of a home and home training. The\nreform-school boy rarely develops into a model citizen and the brothels of our\ngreat cities are filled with graduates from industrial schools for girls.\nThe city of Chicago with its parental school can care for only 300 boys.\nThe school is a well-conducted training school and its records show wonderful results. Such schools are useful and no doubt very much improve the boys\nsent to them. But they would be much more uesful if their paroled boys were\npermanently removed from the old pernicious environment. I do not believe\na boy should be sent to a parental or truant school until all other agencies\nhave failed.\nI have taken some very bad delinquents from the very threshold of reformatories, sent them to wholesome farm homes, and seen their whole natures\nchange. From their being most intractable, cigarette-smoking, profane, little\nliars, on the street, I have seen them develop into wholesome, earnest, hardworking boys. If not too thoroly saturated with the vice of the slums, the\nboy responds to a pure environment as readily as he did to the impure.\nI entered the truancy work in Milwaukee believing that a truant or parental\nschool of large dimensions was needed. I have come to believe in a much\nsmaller school and am almost convinced that for nearly all cases of truancy\nthere is a better solution than commitment to a parental or truant school.\n//.\n\nWHAT SHARE OF THE BLAME FOR THE INCREASE\nTHE NUMBER OF TRUANTS AND INCORRIGIBLES\nBELONGS TO THE SCHOOL?\n\nJULIA RICHMAN,\n\nDISTRICT\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nCITY, N. Y.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNEW\n\nIN\n\nYORK\n\nThe British premier, Balfour, once said, \"There are three kinds of lies:\nlies,\nlies, and statistics; and of the three, statistics are the most\nmisleading.\"\nAll earnest, honest investigations furnish corroboration of this statement.\nOne usually can make figures prove anything, notwithstanding Sergeant\nBuzfuz' dictum that ** Figures, gentlemen, figures don't lie.\" One usually\ncan make figures prove anything; but for the preparation of this paper, my\nattempt to get data from various sections of the United States failed altogether\nto prove one thing; viz., that there is an increase in the number of truants and\nincorrigibles. These data, however, proved something else: they proved\nthat, until recently, truancy records and statistics were carelessly and feebly\ngathered everywhere; that they are still carelessly and feebly gathered in\nmany cities, towns, and counties; and that comparatively few cities or counties\nare properly equipped with a truancy bureau, or even with a sufficient number\nof truant or attendance officers. The inability to prove that there is or recently\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nBLAME\n\nFOR\n\nTRUANTS\n\nAND\n\nINCORRIGIBLES\n\n223\n\nhas been an increase in the number of truants and incorrigibles makes it\nnecessary to change the topic to a new form: What share of the blame for the\ncontinued existence of truants and incorrigibles belongs to the school ?\nTruancy and incorrigibility are closely interrelated; they are almost\ninterdependable. Occasionally a truant behaves himself when he is in school;\noccasionally an incorrigible child (by that I mean the chronically troublesome\npupil) attends regularly; but, on the whole, the chronic truant is lawless when\nin school, and the chronic bad boy plays truant when he can. Therefore,\naltho the writer clearly understands that each of these phases of school life\nrequires special treatment, the limitations of a single paper compel a general treatment of the entire subject. The same limitations compel a neglect\nof the girls' side of these vexatious problems. The troublesome boy up to the\npresent time has demanded the full attention of all concerned; but waywardness among girls is alarmingly on the increase, due to decreasing chivalry\namong men, parental negUgence, the pleasure-seeking tendencies of the age,\nand the influence of those who find greater compensation and excitement in a\nlife of sin than in a life of toil. Is it to our credit that little or no scientific\ntreatment of this condition has as yet been undertaken by the school ?\nIndefinite and unsatisfactory as are most truancy records, where the work\nhas been systematized there is general agreement as to the causes leading to\nchronic truancy, and as to the general conditions which make the problem.\nMost investigators and educators lay the heaviest share of the blame to\nunfavorable home conditions. Summarized into four groups these conditions\nappear to be:\nT, Subnormal Physical Conditions, including mal-nutrition; defective vision, hearing\nor mentality; organic weaknesses; throat and nose troubles; the cigarette habit; and\nsexual depravity.\n2. Ineffixient Parenthood, under which class must be enrolled the negligent, the\nindifferent, the incompetent, the intemperate, and the discouraged mother or father, or\nboth; the deserted wife; the wage-earning mother; and the unsympathetic, often brutal\nstep-mother or step-father.\n3. Degraded Parenthood, including not only parents who are themselves offenders\nagainst the law, but also parents secretly in league with the delinquent child in order to\nshare in the profits of his illegal occupation or even of his criminal acts.\n4. Vicious Associates, particularly the influence of the young loafer beyond school age.\n\nWhat share of the blame for these conditions belongs to the school ? A\nboy writing a composition on pins used the following sentence: \"Pins have\noften been known to save people's lives.\" The teacher challenged the statement by askijig ''How ?\" to which the boy replied, ''By their not swallowing\nthem.\" By a similar line of reasoning some share of the blame for these\nadverse conditions belongs to the school, for its not trying to remove them,\nin part, at least.\nSubnormal physical conditions are at last receiving general recognition\nfrom school and health authorities, and no blame for their prevalence now\nrests upon the school except in those communities where medical aid has not\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "224\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n{Chicago\n\nyet been sought to relieve the situation. Some blame must continue to rest\nupon the school, as long as badly lighted and poorly ventilated rooms, unhygienic furniture, and poor text are permitted to add to physical defects in children. To what extent the schools must in time provide proper food for underfed and badly nourished children cannot here be discussed.\nInefificient parenthood is one of the heaviest curses resting upon our country.\nWhen parents of this class are foreigners or those who for other causes never\nattended our American schools, no real blame for their inefficiency belongs\nto us; but might not our evening schools have been made to reach out to help\nat least some of them ? If, however, it were found that an appreciable number\nof these social failures had been our school children in the past, can we honestly\nthrow the full blame for their shortcomings upon economic conditions, the\nhousing problem, and immigration ? Let us go a step farther. Is the school\ntoday training the children of the inefficient parents in such a way that when\ntheir turn comes they will be less inefficient ?\nExcept in so far as the degraded parent and the vicious associate were at\none time school children whom the school failed to help, no direct blame can\ncome to us for their pernicious activity. But some, yes, much blame must\never fall upon the teacher who fails to discover when any one of her pupils\nis subject to vicious influences; who, having made the discovery, fails to\nattempt to rescue him therefrom; who, having made the attempt, fails to\nfind out if the influence of the school is sufficient to counteract the evil from\noutside; and who, when all else has been unsuccessfully tried, fails to invoke\nsome agency outside of the school to remove the child from his surroundings\nin order to give him a chance to develop in righteousness.\nThere are reasons other than these which lead to lawlessness in our boys.\nIn such reports as deal with the problem there is a general agreement that\ntruancy is most prevalent during the years from eleven to fourteen inclusive;\nahnost all declare that the third and fourth years of school life show the critical\nperiod; and many find among little boys of six or seven years of age a tendency\nto play truant. Our own experience in New York confirms these general\nviews.\nThe simplest of these problems is that of the truancy among little boys\nunder eight. One or more of four general causes will account for this phase.\nFirsts Some children acquire the street habit before they are regularly entered into\nschool.\nSecond, School has been held before the troublesome little fellow at home as a place\nof terror. \"You wait till you go to school. They'll make you mind,\" is no unusual argument on the part of weak mothers.\nThird, School work under some teachers is not sufficiently attractive to appeal to\nthe child who finds more attraction on the streets.\nFourth, Compulsory-education laws rarely require attendance of the child under\neight.\n\nWhat share of the blame for these conditions belongs to the school ? Or,\nbetter still, what can the school do to remove or lessen these causes ?\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nBLAME\n\nFOR\n\nTRUANTS\n\nAND\n\nINCORRIGIBLES\n\n225\n\nThe first cause can be removed by creating a public demand for more\nkindergartens and more day nurseries. The community that allows its children\nunder the age of six to find their own occupations in crowded city streets, or\nin rooms neglected by wage-earning mothers, is sowing the wind which will\nyield a whirlwind harvest of wayward boys and girls. More nurseries, more\nkindergartens, and more supervised playgrounds must be our cry, as well as\nthe cry of those outside who are trying to secure these benefits for our little ones.\nThe second cause can be removed best by personal appeal or at mothers'\nmeetings. Parents must be led to see the folly of using the school as a means\nof home discipline.\nThe school must assume the full blame for the unattractiveness of its own\nwork. Teachers must be held responsible for the keeping of children in school.\nIf work which appeals to some children fails to appeal to all, the teacher must\nnote this, and must plan something specially attractive to keep the interest\nand good will of the little fellow who seems bored. The majority of children\nget on in spite of the dulness of routine work; but the others, the special or difficult cases, must have special work, or the school must take the blame for its\nfailure to meet their needs.\nThe varying demands of different compulsory-education laws makes it\ndifficult to generalize in reference to the fourth cause. Whether the best\nyears to be included be eight to fourteen or eight to sixteen, or seven to fourteen or sixteen must be decided elsewhere ; but for this point the school must\ncontend that after a child has once been admitted, whether at seven, or six,\nor even five, attendance on the child's part be made compulsory except when\nfor cause the parent decides to keep him at home. The law in some states\ndefines truancy as a failure to attend school, making no differentiation between\nthe parent's offense in keeping the child at home, and the child's offense in\nremaining away from school without the parent's knowledge. It is this latter\nform which the school and the school alone must check. Many a chronic\ntruant of twelve or fourteen acquired the habit as a little fellow. If the school\nwould have fewer chronic truants in the future it must look out now for the\nunauthorized absences of the little boys, and must see that they are placed\nunder teachers who can make school so attractive that the street will by comparison lose its charm.\nStatistics show that the greatest number of cases of truancy and incorrigibility occurs among boys from eleven to and including fourteen years of age\nand in the third and fourth years of school. The severest indictment of school\nmanagement appears in this last statement. Why should boys of twelve,\nthirteen, or fourteen be in the third or even the fourth year of school ? Assuming that boys enter the first year of school at the average age of eight (in congested cities the average is much lower) why should they not be out of the\nfourth year by the time they are twelve, and out of the sixth year at fourteen ?\nWe can never again accept as a justification, \"Because they do not know\nenough.\"\nThe over-age child is the most important problem in the school;\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "226\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthe over-age child is the cause of most of the other serious problems. Some\nschool authorities think they have met this problem when they push the child\nahead. Pushing ahead complicates the situation for the boy who does not\nknow the work of the lower grades. It is not a high grade of class he needs,\nbut a class of boys of his own age and his own feeble intellectual powers.\nSpecial classes, special schools, picked teachers, abridged and amended and\nattractive courses of study, including definite, vocational work: these are\nthe means for solving the most vexatious discipline problems in any school.\nIf such measures are not universally applied to the control of truancy, who is\nto blame ?\nThere are psychological influences, too, that are contributory to the waywardness ofthe boy between eleven and fourteen. He is neither baby nor\nlittle boy, nor yet a big boy. Under inefficient parents, he has lost his fear\nof home control, and his early fear of school control is disappearing. He feels\nhis strength developing and with its development comes the desire to test it\nagainst the strength of another, to match his will against another's. Is not the\nschool to blame that our teachers never seem able to understand that the\npsychology they studied in order to pass an examination which admitted them\nto the profession is here needed? Applied psychology means more than a\ncredited course at a university.\nTwo other important phases of the problem need consideration. What\nthe Germans call die Wanderlust is a considerable factor. It is no uncommon\nthing for a boy to spend hours and days in aimlessly wandering about the streets\nor parks. Innocent enough at the start, the situation grows complicated before\nlong. He meets other boys, idle wanderers like himself. He meets a bigger\nboy who boasts of his achievements which challenge the admiration of the\nlittle fellow. The worship of the big boy by the little fellow is his unconscious\nway of expressing the hero-worship, which, if properly directed, is one of\nGod's most inspiring forces. Before long the gang-leader becomes his hero:\nHero-worship first, then moral weakness, later brute fear — sometimes caused\nby physical force, sometimes by immoral sexual control — attach him to the\ngang and its leader; by this time ordinary school influences have lost their\npower to reclaim him. A special class or a special school, the best teacher,\nattractive manual and physical work, and special concessions may help, in\nmany cases even cure. Who is to blame that few school systems have established the right kind of day class or school for these boys ? One special school\nin New York, established three years ago, from an enrolment of over 500\ndelinquents shows 49 per cent, of absolute cures. Why should these boys,\nhalf of whom were cured in this day school, have been sent to a custodial\nschool ? Furthermore, is it not better to teach a wayward boy self-control\nwhile surrounded by temptation? The weakness of the custodial school is\nthat it removes the boy from temptation and from normal conditions of living.\nThe absence of temptation is no proof that it can be resisted. The willingness to conform to institution regulations is no guaranty of fitness to\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nBLAME\n\nFOR\n\nTRUANTS\n\nAND\n\nINCORRIGTBLES\n\n227\n\ncope with trying home conditions. The custodial school, whether truant\nor parental, should be reserved until after the special school has failed to work\nreform.\nOne other phase of the question — to my mind one of the most important\nand at the same time one of the least recognized — is the improper characterization of the boys' acts.\n\" He is a bad boy \" may mean so many things. In the eyes of some teachers\na boy is \"bad\" if he talks repeatedly to his neighor. The boy who has a fight\nwith another boy is ''bad.\" The boy who does not study his lessons is \"bad.\"\nThe boy who goes to a moving-picture show is \"bad.\" The boy who throws\nink across the room is \"bad.\" The boy who \"answers back\" is \"bad.\" The\nboy who rifles the teacher's desk is \"bad.\" The boy who disobeys school\nrules is \"bad.\" \"Give a dog a bad name and hang him\" should now read:\n\"Give a boy a bad name and ruin him.\"\nAll school types of \"badness\" need classification. Many of them under\ncareful classification would no longer be considered \"bad.\" A boy's wrong\nacts are often due not so much to the deliberate choosing of wrong after he\nknows right, but to the lack of any sense of right or wrong. Children's so-called\n\"badness\" is due to wwmorality oftener than to immorality. Until a boy's\nmoral nature has been roused and developed, it is absurd to think that one\ncan find the basis of appeal in theoretic ethics or right for right's sake. Who\nis to blame when blind, unquestioning obedience to short-sighted, arbitrary\nschool rules is made the basis of a child's conduct and reputation ?\nWhen children go thru school learning nothing except what can be given\nto hundreds simultaneously, in classes so large that undue emphasis is laid\nupon order and quiet, who is to blame if the majority leave school with morals\nthat alarm those interested? Go thru the list of \"bad boys\" in your school\nor your town. Classify their offenses. Is immorality or unmorality responsible? If the latter, what share of the blame for this condition belongs to\nthe school ? In the process of training, is not the ethical development of a\nchild as much the school's affair as his intellectual advance? If so, why\nconsider a boy hopeless or degenerate because he commits a moral offense ?\nDo we consider him intellectually hopeless or defective because of his errors\nin spelling or arithmetic ?\nLet us now leave the many other factors which contribute to juvenile\ndelinquency and give a little thought to the way the truancy problem is being\nmet.\nA few, but only a few, cities report great advance in the control of\ne to the fact that school authoritruancy. This advance is due in a large degre\nI\nties are paying more attention to the entire problem. Larger appropriations\nare being secured; more and better qualified attendance or truant officers\nare being employed ; a special superintendent or agent is often assigned exclusively to the truancy department; compulsory-attendance and child-labor\nlaws are being more systematically enforced; parental schools are increasing\ntheir capacity and improving their management; special classes for mental\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "228\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ndefectives, or physical defectives, for recently arrived immigrants, and for dull,\nbackward, and over-age children are on the increase; children are being\nbetter graded; teaching is better; manual and physical training are made\nto exert a more wholesome influence; social forces aiming at the betterment\nof child life are co-operating more and more; and last, but not by any means\nleast, the delinquent is being treated as an individual and not as one of a class.\nTruancy and waywardness in children must Ipe regarded as moral diseases\nand must be dealt with scientifically.\nWhen a physical disease attacks an appreciable number in a community\nthe burden of investigation, research, and treatment is never left to the individual and average physician under whose care the patient comes. Boards of\nhealth, associations of prominent physicians, medical journals, university\nmedical schools, endowed institutions of medical research, all set themselves\nto discover the cause and best treatment for the control and prevention of\nsuch a disease. Have you ever read the bibliographical list of what has been\nsaid, done, and written by the medical world for the control of tuberculosis,\ndiphtheria, cancer, meningitis, or any one of a dozen other diseases ?\nEvery phase is studied, every primary, secondary, or auxiHary cause is\ntraced, analyzed and made the subject of further special investigation. Every\nform of treatment, curative or preventive, is tested. Every method of enhsting\nnot only professional but general sympathy, support, and co-operation is\nemployed.\nExamine the records of the National Education Association. Among\nthe many hundreds of addresses made under its auspices, how few, how depressingly few papers were prepared in the interest of these school diseases. Here\nand yon, someone has worked out the problem locally. A few reports show\ntruancy under comparative control; a few records give in general terms the\nmode of treatment ; but at best such treatment is the expression of the personal\nattitude of one or another man or woman toward the evil. Such practice,\nno matter how successful in individual cases or places, can never of its own\nforce develop into a science. We need to study and imitate the methods of\nthe medical profession. Leading physicians from all over the civilized world\nmet in congress in Washington last September to discuss only one thing — the\nmost pressing problem in physical disease — the control and prevention of\ntuberculosis. The danger to the morals of the community from the spread\nof truancy and other forms of juvenile delinquency is greater and more farreaching than the danger to the health of the community from the spread of\nthe white plague. Let us study and imitate the methods of the medical profession. Let us demand that a regular or special conference or congress of\nthe National Education Association be held, devoted exclusively to the\nproblem of the delinquent, both boy and girl. Let us call together all who\nare striving with success to cope with the situation, not only school workers,\nbut social workers and court officers. Let us take the best from all that can\nbe brought together and formulate with wisdom the best mode of scientific\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nBLAME\n\nFOR\n\nTRUANTS\n\nAND\n\nINCORRIGIBLES\n\n229\n\ntreatment. Let us not wait until those outside of school take the matter in\nhand. Let us leave it no longer to chance inspiration to deal with our wayward\nchildren. What good can come to the child from throwing the blame on the\nhome, the parents, the economic conditions, or the street influences? The\nmore adverse the outside conditions, the more need of effort on the part of\nthe school to rescue the child. Are not the home and the shop and economic\nconditions responsible in a great measure for tuberculosis? Does that fact\njustify the hospital or the physician in giving up an incipient case as hopeless ?\nThen what right has the school or the teacher to give up the case of the wayward\nchild as hopeless? Waywardness is a disease, and only when all scientific\nand sympathetic means have been exhausted without result should a child\nbe placed in a correctional institution.\nThe successful treatment of tuberculosis is psychic as well as physiologic.\nSo, too, must the treatment of juvenile delinquency be considered. The\nphysician impresses the patient with faith in his recovery. So, too, must the\nteacher impress the child. She must have faith in him, a faith so wholesome\nthat he will learn to have faith in himself. She must encourage so that her\nencouragement will spur the weakest to effort. Oh, the effect of a tender word\non a parched and starving little heart! Cases of individual rescues effected\nby a kind word crowd upon me.\nDominick, the Httle Italian, the terror of three successive schools, who\ntoday is not only a fine lad, but who has reformed several other boys, changed\nfrom a lawless, defiant misdemeanant to the pride of the class — how? By\na teacher who said to him, \"I think you are trying today, dear.\" Poor little\nchap! He told his teacher frankly that it was her calling him \"dear\" which\ndeveloped in him a determination to please her.\nThe insolent, defiant Irish boy, driven from room to room, who today is\nworking steadily — respectful, law-abiding, ambitious — what worked his\nreform? A teacher, who in reply to the principal's question, \"Well, how is\nTom doing in here?\" looked at the class in line and noticing that Tom\nwas standing up straight said, \"Oh, he's going to be all right. He's the\nbest stander in the class.\" And Tom, poor Tom, the first time he had\never been the best anything, took heart, and worked for further commendation.\nIkey, the little Russian boy, in rags which almost fell from his poor, thin\nlittle legs, what changed him from an ugly Httle outcast to a boy who tried,\nreally tried to do what was right ? A clean suit of clothes, a warm bath, and\na daily glass of milk, given by a teacher who sensed the boy's needs.\nHave you read Owen Kildare's account of the effect upon him of the first\ngentle touch he had ever felt ?\nSeldom in his life as a child had anyone said a kind word to him. One day when\na strange woman patted him on the cheek he almost cried with the joy of it.\n\"With a light pat on my cheek and one of the sunniest smiles ever shed on me,\"\nhe says of the incident, \"she put a penny in my hand.\nShe was gone before I realized\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nwhat had happened. Somehow I felt that were she to come back I could have said to\nher: 'Say, lady, I haven't got much to give, but I'll give you all me poipers, me pennies,\nand me knife if you'll do that agen.' \"\n\nGo back to your schools. Pick out your so-called worst boys. Find out\nwhether heart-hunger as well as stomach-hunger may not be one of the symptoms of the disease. There is not a teacher in all our broad land who would\nknowingly let a child's body starve to death for want of physical food. Why\nshould any child's heart or soul be allowed to starve to death for want of a\nlittle sympathy and affection ? Bodily starvation, at its worst, can only end\nin death ; soul starvation, at its worst, ends in a hateful, ugly, defiant, lawless\nattitude toward authority, which not only ruins the starved one but brings\ndisaster to the social order. Does not some blame belong to the school if its\nteachers fail to feed these starving souls ?\nWhat then can the school do to lessen its share of the blame for juvenile\nmisdeeds? Its powers are of two kinds — preventive and corrective. As\npreventive measures the school authorities must provide —\nProper medical inspection.\nJudicious grading.\nAn attractive course of study tending to make children useful to the community in\nwhich they live.\nClasses sufficiently small to permit the teacher to give individual help and inspiration\nto all her children.\nVocational training at the age of twelve for all children classed as \"difficult cases.\"\nFree use of shops, gymnasia, and baths, even in primary grades.\nIn congested districts free use of school playgrounds after school hours.\nProper entertainments and amusements given in school buildings to offset lowgrade amusement halls.\nIndividual, scientific diagnosis of each child's moral defects as well as of his physical\ndefects.\nCity relief to the destitute in the form of scholarships to school children.\nA post-certificate class for boys and girls, over fourteen but under sixteen, licensed\nto work, but out of employment.\n\nAs corrective measures the school must provide —\nSpecial industrial classes.\nSpecial industrial day schools.\nSpecial school and home visitors.\nA sympathetic probation system before children become criminal.\nAn efficient truancy bureau.\nAn effective magistrate's court.\nAn industrial parental school.\n' Close affiliations with children's societies and juvenile courts.\nImproved child-labor and compulsory-education laws, which shall compel the attendance at school of boys and girls between fourteen and sixteen licensed but unemployed.\n\nMuch has been done and is now being done by school authorities to check\ntruancy and juvenile delinquency. I wish I might be able to record that the\nbest that is being done has come from the unaided efforts of the school. There\nis a keen professional jealously in my heart at the thought that Jane Addams\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nBLAME\n\nFOR\n\nTRUANTS\n\nAND\n\nINCORRIGIBLES\n\n231\n\nof Chicago, Ben Lindsey of Denver, John Gunckel of Toledo, and others\nwho have achieved so much in their fight for our children are not public-school\nteachers. Is there anything that they have achieved that we might not have\ndone had we directed our best efforts along the same lines ?\nSome of the same professional jealousy rises at the frequent thought\nthat many of the finest men and women now graduating from our colleges\nenter settlements and other forms of philanthropic social service in preference\nto becoming public-school teachers. Can any field be found that offers more\nlimitless potentialities for the best civic and social service than the public school ?\nIs it not time for college presidents and college professors in the department\nof sociology to make that point clear to undergraduates ? Is there not more\nhonor in serving God and the state thru the rearing of moral citizens, for a\nsalary paid by the state, than attempting to do a limited amount of similar\nwork for a stipend begged from a philanthropist ? I have no quarrel with the^\nsettlements or other social movements; in fact I owe much inspiration to some\nof their fine work. But my heart feels sore at the thought that they are\ndoing much that we might have done, yes, that we should have done. And if\nwe had done these things with the facihties at our command might not, nay,\nwould not they have been better done ? Is there no soreness in your hearts\nat the thought that among two hundred delegates to the Conference on the Care\nof Dependent Children held last month in Washington, the teacher was a\nnegligible quantity, and the National Education Association was not officially\ninvited to send a representative? Is it possible that the President of the\nUnited States believes that the school people have no interest in the subject ?\nLet it never be imagined that in the system outlined in this paper I am\nattempting to offer an educational panacea. Governor Hughes recently said\n\"political mischief will exist under any system.\" So, too, will educational\nmischief exist under any system; but it is our business to make the system\nthe best possible, and to put into the hands of our teachers weapons which\nthey can most readily use in the crusade organized for child-rescue.\nChild-rescue is our duty; child-ruin is our shame. The best way to keep a\nchild from doing something bad is to set him to work doing something good. It\nis our duty to find the something good. It is our shame if the child chooses\nthe something bad. We have too long laid the emphasis upon the merely\nintellectual side of school work. A child's soul cannot be reclaimed by means\nof the multiplication tables or long division. Shall we never learn that lesson ?\nIn the great struggles of our nation is it intellect or principle that will win ?\nBut a few days since, the whole country, indeed the whole civilized world,\njoined in a tribute to the memory of that prince among men, Abraham Lincoln.\nWould intellect alone have given him his marvelous power ? Was it not rather\nthe principle back of the intellect that made him the leader and the conqueror\nof his time ? The inspiration of his acts puts new stimulus into the acts of\nthose, for the preservation of whose country he laid down his own precious\nlife; the inspiration of his words puts new life into the thoughts of those who\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nwould serve God and country. Let me reverently, as one who treads on holy\nground, lay before you my final plea, couched in some of his own immortal\nphrases:\nTwo score and twelve years ago our predecessors brought forth upon this\nplatform a new Association, conceived in earnestness, and dedicated to the\nadvancement of the profession of teaching and to the promotion of popular\neducation. Now we are engaged in a great civic struggle testing whether the\ninfluence of the school is strong enough to combat those adverse forces, bom\nof immigration, economic conditions, parental neglect, municipal corruption,\nand industrial inequalities which tend to degrade standards of American\ncitizenship. It is not for us to evade the issue. It is rather for us here to\nrededicate this Association to the cause of delinquent childhood, and to place\nthe teacher at the forefront of the battle against ignorance, inefficiency, vice,\nand crime. Let us here highly resolve that the school, under God, shall be\nconsecrated to the making of the best citizens, into whose keeping may safely\nbe committed the Martyred President's sacred trust: that government of the\npeople, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.\nTOPIC:\n\n/.\nARTHUR\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMORAL\n\nDEERIN\n\nIN RELATION\nBUILDING\n\nENTHUSIASM\n\nTO CHARACTER\n\nIN THE\n\nCALL,\n\nDISTRICT\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nTWO\n\nPICTURES\n\nOF THE\n\nMAKING\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nCREATIVE\n\nHARTFORD,\n\nCONN.\n\nSPIRIT\n\nWhether or not the greatest pictures remain unpainted, I do not know.\nIt is, I judge, something of a human trait, however, to paint pictures. I have\nnever painted a picture in my fife, but among those I purpose to paint sometime Iwill mention two:\nThe first shall represent the strange-visaged, humorous, altogether delightful Socrates. He shall be seen late at night turning a dark corner on his way\nhome. He is set upon by certain convivial young men dressed as Furies,\nfresh young guys, we should say, minded to banter him. The picture shall\nrepresent him, wholly undisturbed, deliciously ironical, tender, cheerful, even\nenthusiastic, as he discourses to those jesters learnedly on various matters,\nespecially on temperance. The face of our Socrates shall reveal his generous\nsimpHcity, ample courage, charitable magnanimity, infinite patience and goodwill. As he stands there in the gray of the early morning, he shall appear the\nepitome of the man perfectly at peace with the world, lost in the glory of his\ncreative spirit. In this most commonplace environment our Socrates shall\nrepresent the true teacher on the intellectual plane, enjoying to the full the free\nplay of his moral enthusiasms.\nThe other picture will be different. This scene shall be placed before a\ntemporary theater at one of the German fairs of two centuries ago. The\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMORAL\n\nENTHUSIASM\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nMAKING\n\n233\n\npersons are to be a theater manager, an actor, and a theater poet. They shall\nbe seen to be arguing about the kind of play that should be produced. The\nmanager, mercenary, pleads for the box-oflfice ; his interests are in the receipts.\nThe player, debonair, thinks only of pleasing the crowd. The poet, high\nbrowed, insists that what glitters is only for the moment, that it is the genuine\nonly that remains unlost to posterity. It is this poet who shall hold the center\nof this picture. His form and gesture shall command attention. His words\nshall speak little of the receipts or of pleasing the multitude. His face shall be\n. touched by the light of the morning, and his message shall be of the harmony\nin the poet's life. His very poise and presence shall breathe forth rhythm,\nconsecration, spring blossoms along the loved one's path, garlands of honor,\nOlympus and the gods. This poet must teach of that life which is a beauteous\nentity expressing emotionally conceived ideas on a high plane — the epic life.\nGoethe conceived it necessary for us to be in sympathy with this poet before\nwe enter upon the mystery he unfolds in Faust. It is this poet who shall personify the ideal teacher on the emotional plane, sane but forward looking,\nmusical,\nTremulous, impressional,\nAlive to gentle influence\nOf landscape and of sky.\nAnd tender to the spirit-touch\nOf man's or maiden's eye.\nOUR\n\nONE\n\nBASIS\n\nFOR\n\nAGREEMENT\n\nNow whether we view life in its utmost intellectual aspect as typified by\nSocrates, or in this emotional phase as expressed by the poet, the great\nfact is that l?fe centers normally and enthusiastically in a creative, synthetic\nenjoyment which I call moral enthusiasm. It is the intellectual moral\nenthusiasm in Socrates, it is the emotional moral enthusiasm in the poet, it is\nthe heterogeneous moral enthusiasm of humanity that has brought forth all\nof the full flower of life we know. And because moral enthusiasm is the\nsupreme fact of life, it is therefore the all-important product of our schools.\nNothing less than this conception can suffice when we seek for the unity in our\neducational philosophy.\nSimple human relationships, playing, sympathizing, discovering together,\ndefeats, conquests, things seen, things longed for, things done,\nsensations sweet,\nFelt in the blood and felt along the heart,\n\nthese are simple things, but they are the large things that make hope possible\nfor us. Out of these arises the will to go forth and to do. Therefore, the\nimportant purpose in the educational process will be seen always to transcend\nthe industrial or commercial, civic or disciplinary, informational or utilitarian\ninterpretation. It will include all of these interpretations, but it will surmount\nthem. When the specialist in \"information,\" the specialist in \"accuracy,\" the\nspecialist in \"obedience,\" the specialist in \"self-control,\" the specialist in\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\n\"health,\" the specialist in the \"practical,\" the specialist in \"culture,\" the\nspecialist in \"character,\" have all had their last word, their common basis for\na mutual agreement will be phrased in terms of ethical or moral enthusiasm.\nBEGINNINGS\n\nOF\n\nMORAL\n\nENTHUSIASMS\n\nWhile all of us are more or less conscious of creative moral enthusiasms\nwithin, but few can remember much of their genesis.\nTo be sure there stands out the mother's influence around one's earliest\nconceptions and endeavors. The lad develops high resolves out of his mother's\nministering affections. The sources of noble behavior flowing from a mother's\nlove are rightfully remembered as of most sacred purity.\nBut there are other sources of moral enthusiasms. Practically all of you\nwill probably insist that you learned to read when very young, perhaps that\nyou received Uttle aid from the process in the schools. You may agree at\ntimes with Teufelsdroch that of that insignificant portion of your education\nreceived from the schools, little need here be said; but that early reading\nexperience aroused certain enthusiasms of some moral significance.\nYou will recall little friendships, big in your boyhood eyes. You may\nsmile as you remember yourself, a boy of ten, seriously in love with a comely\nmaiden a little older. You may tell the truth and say that you loved her with\nsuch intensity that you dared not look her in the face. You may add that\nforever after you have found it easy to understand the meaning of the Hebrew\nteaching that man cannot see God and live. From that time you date the\ndawn of the Byron, the Burns, the Heine aspiration in -you.\nYou are convinced that self-reliance came to you from strange little conquests— that crude threshing-machine you built, with which you threshed\nyour family crop of beans; that circus you launched with the aid of some\nsmaller boys, a few stray cats, and a neighbor's calf. You remember boys\nwho whipped you roundly and refused you entrance to the \"gang\" till you\n\"Hcked\" somebody in turn, which you finally did, to your profound selfrespect and gratification. You recall playing truant that you might wander\nin the woods, tease the birds and squirrels affectionately, or, perchance, that\nyou might smoke cigarettes or chew tobacco with less than indifferent success.\nLittle enthusiasms for Mother Nature, a larger reverence for discipline at\nhome, a more critical interpretation of what is pleasurable, what painful, arose\nfrom some such complex experiences.\nOnce you stole a cent from your grandmother and bought — ^it was a\n\"Jackson-ball.\" That \"Jackson-ball\" was fine candy, and you enjoyed\nit immensely. But in bed that night you felt the awful pangs of remorse and\nthe darkness was unbearable. You must tell someone or die. In the small\nhours of the early morning you went and confessed upon the breast of your\ngrandmother, to the great consolation of your spirit. You have done few\nfiner things than that since.\nYou remember that you learned to split wood, to harness a horse, to husk\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMORAL\n\nENTHUSIASM\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nMAKING\n\n235\n\ncorn, to trap woodchucks and other beasts. Against your mother's wishes,\nyou learned to swim. In your own judgment you became the best ball-player\nin town. You organized a debating club of great importance. You thought\nit pleasant to stand well in school, and to hear the kindly words of approval\nfrom your teacher or parents. You grew proud at times of your own knowledge\nand intellectual power, perhaps too proud. You saw visions of certain future\nadvantages, and thought you ought to plan for their realization. You heard\nhonor, duty, and righteousness praised, and resolved more or less manfully to\nbe noble, faithful, and decent. You saw a gentle courtesy in some sincere\nsoul, and you went forth to emulate that. The voice, dress poise of one you\nrevered set you to improving your own speech, appearance, manners. You\ncaught a few glimpses of the pageantry in books, and a realizing sense of the\nideal swelled in your breast. The patience and sympathetic kindliness in\nyour home, the public spirit of the neighborhood or town life, the Sundayschool and church point of view, music and other arts, the day school with its\nco-operations, its history and literature — these also began their influences\nearly. They are with you now, and they will continue forever. These are\nalso very little things, but they indicate in a measure some of the beginnings\nof those moral enthusiasms which arose in your boyhood life.\nTHE\n\nENLARGEMENT\n\nOF\n\nMORAL\n\nENTHUSIASMS\n\nThen came hero-worship, with all its fine unfolding of enriching enthusiasms. In your younger manhood you were not much interested in causes.\nYou preferred at that time action and personality. You came in touch with\nthe heroes of history, and they began their socializing influence in your life by\ninterpreting you to yourself. Moral enthusiasms developed in you then\nbecause of the inpouring of those larger lives molding the world worthily in\nthe past. You were led by these subtle spiritual forces to a finer heroic selfhood.\nFor example, you came in touch with the Norseman, and he became\nidealized before you. You saw yourself adventurous, fearless, wild. You\nsaw the skald in you. Your heart would pour forth sagas to the undying ages.\nThe gerfalcon and werewolf and berserker attracted you. In your thinking\nyou became a corsair and followed the sea-mew and cormorant in their flight.\nYou drank \"Skoal!\" to the spirit of valor in your life and in the heart of the\nrace.\nYou looked upon the mound-builders. You became a toiler. You felt\nyour own aboriginal weakness. In a blundering way you conceived of yourself\nperpetuating the memory of your ancestors. You thought of protecting yourself from your enemies. You realized the interest you had in your meal, your\nbody-thirst. But when Columbus came on the scene your industry increased,\nyour courage arose, your perseverance became inflamed anew. You saw in\nyou power and persistence. You became willing to risk for the faith you\nheld. Your soul would up and out.\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nPerhaps you read of Buddha and of the genuine peace he offers to onethird of humanity. It may have been Zoroaster, Confucius, or some other\nsincere seeker after the light. Since knowing any of these, bigotry has been\nintolerable to you.\nYou learned, as others have done, certain stock things about our Socrates —\nthat he lived in Athens; that he did some service for the state; that he retired\nto private life; that he was not noted for his beauty; that he stayed out late\nnights; that he had quite a bit of trouble with his wife; that he taught a\nnumber of his personal friends; that he got into dispute with the authorities;\nand that he was executed. But upon closer relations with this greatest of the\nSophists, you were led to catch the scholar's enthusiasm and to respond to the\ncall of patriotism.\nHe aroused you to go forth joyfully, to know, even to die.\nYou learned of Charlemagne. Then you felt the soldier rise in you, the\nthirst for power. Your thoughts were thoughts of empire. A romantic\ncolor also tinged your horizon. Indeed, you stood uncovered before the outward-reaching arms and the forward-looking eyes of the Christian religion.\nYou may have sat at the feet of Francis, sweet Saint of Assisi. If so, your\nsoul was warmed by the heart of that ''little, poor man of God.\" You beheld\nin him a life tuned to the Orphic lute of love. You learned to bend your knees\nin sincerity and to look up in reverence to the worship of an ideal. You\nlonged to go forth and to realize this ideal upon earth.\nYou may have contemplated Leonardo da Vinci, infinite and forever\nquestioning; if so, you became lost in wonder before this greatest mind of all\nminds. You returned to your little tasks humbly, but refreshed and inspired\nby his tremendous example of the potential in a human life.\nIt may be that Giordano Bruno awoke you, stirred you to honest action,\nmade martyrdom possible for you, strengthened you for the inevitable struggle\nof Ufe.\nGoethe touched your spirit with his magic wand, and the storm and stress\nof his early life found sympathetic response in the struggle of your own youth.\nHis later writings sounded for you the cry of humanity. Since knowing him\nyou would that you yourself might soothe the wounds of the world with the\nmusic of some song.\nYou heard of Charles Darwin. Your first information about him was that\nhe was the author of the theory that man has descended from the monkey.\nYou learned that Darwin has rarely been highly thought of by the ministers.\nBut the more you examined the great work of this man, the more you became\nable to rise above suffering, the more you sat in his study and learned the value\nof little things.\nAnother man touched the orbit of your life. You looked upon his rugged\nhomely face and you became aware that you are an American citizen, proud,\nglad that you are one among this splendid, dawn-crowned people. You felt\nyourself triumphant in the poverty, simple sincerity, native humor, and farseeing intelligence of our Atlantean Lincoln. .\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMORAL\n\nENTHUSIASM\n\nIN THE\n\nMAKING\n\n237\n\nPerhaps, finally, for some years you shared the general conception of\nRalph Waldo Emerson. You conceived of him as Hving in Concord, and\nwriting prose that can be read backward as well as forward. You have heard\nhim called the Yankee Plato. You learned that for some reason he has been\ncalled a poet. But with the passing of the years, and upon closer contact with\nthis serene, lofty, yet uneventful Hfe, you beheld that he supplemented Buddha's asceticism in you with a fulfilling enrichment, your Socratic rationafism\nwith an added insight, your longing for something of Charlemagne's imperial\nsplendor with an enriching simplicity, the sweet self-abnegation of your\nFranciscan moments with an affirmation of this present world, Leonardo's\nmany-sided interpretations of your various aspirations with a music of a cosmic\nunity. You found that Bruno's zeal for martyrdom, having no attraction for\nEmerson, had therefore less for you. The storm and stress in Goethe lost\ntheir appeal to you as you walked with Emerson. Darwin's careful researches\nin science settled into saner categories for you as you paralleled them by the\nside of this man's persistent researches in the depths of the human spirit. If\nAbraham Lincoln represents the practical hemisphere of your interpretation\nof the last century, Emerson certainly reveals the ideal. Looking upon him,\nyou aspire to incarnate your faith and philosophy in a consistent, rational,\nbeautiful Hfe. Emerson easily becomes, therefore, the apotheosis of your\nhighest self. You come to feel at last that you know him, that he is your poet\nindeed, an incarnation of what you long to be, a Pyrenean spring of overflowing creative moral enthusiasms.\nCERTAIN\n\nIMPLICATIONS\n\nIn some such ways, most briefly drawn, we see our moral enthusiasms\nin the making. These incitements touch and arouse one, not so much by their\nappeal especially to one's imitative instincts, to one's vanities, to one's intellect,\nto one's emotions, to one's voHtions alone, as by their permeating, molding,\ntransforming influences within one's total personaHty.\nOur day presents little cause for despair. Moral enthusiasm is still working among men across the world. The remarkable movement toward a\nnational temperance in America; the effective anti-opium laws and other\nreforms of China; the rich spirit of fraternity among our American republics;\nthe unprecedented co-operative behavior of European states; the onward\nreaching strides toward a higher civilization in Africa and the Orient; the\nhopeful dawn of a larger vision of International brotherhood; our splendid\nawakening, following the heroic rush of our Titan Roosevelt — these all indicate\nthe unmistakable upward climb of humanity.\nTo be sure we have much yet to do. With one among every ten persons\nof our large urban centers buried at public expense; with ten million paupers\nfestering among us in this land of plenty; with one among every seven of us\ndoomed unnecessarily to death from tuberculosis; with one and one-half million children laboring in pursuits to the detriment of the nation; with 50 per\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ncent, of our people property-less; with churches, industries and schools trying\nto solve their problems separately and often in opposition to each other; with\ncaste distinctions and class estrangements unhappily reappearing in the thought\nand practice of our folk; with corporate injustice in many quarters inviting\nsocial disaster; with hazards of industry increasing; with laborers turning\ninto machines and fingers losing pride in the perfection of their products; with\nour blatant emphasis upon petty programs — with these pressing upon us we\nneed not fear that opportunities for moral enthusiasms to play their part are\nlacking. To abate our depressing poverty, to lessen the evils thrust upon us\nby our sudden industrial crises, to promote a more equitable distribution of the\nproducts of honest toil, to establish larger and better organized bodies of facts,\nto hold up the hands of the various leaders striving for a perpetual peace among\nthe nations, every possible help is needed. To such appeals the schools must\nbring an ardent, intelligent, and worshipful spirit; not programs and systems,\nbut insight and devotion.\nThe aim of education is to create a clean physical dynamic, to develop from\nthis a practical intellectual ability ending in a moral enthusiasm for the service\nof man.\nA government commission tells us that the main reasons for being out\nof work in America are inability, inefficiency, and unwillingness. The only\nhope in such a situation is that by some agency there may be aroused a larger\ndevotion to ideals, an increased moral enthusiasm.\nThus that picture of the intellectual Socrates begins to blend with that picture of the emotional poet into another and larger conception. As the pet\nschemes of man advance and pass to their fall, moral enthusiasm is seen to\nremain, working its miracle of gradual upward human growth, blending our\nfaiths in a total personality, an ''Uebermensch.\" The task of the public\nschool is to help in the perfection of this ''Beyond-Man.\"\nIn our fitful attempts to do this we have turned this way, we have turned\nthat, but at the last we come reverently back to the teacher:\nHonest beacon throwing light across\nSavage age, barbarian misery,\nGuiding civic strife to human peace,\nOpening the minds of coming men\nTo the starward reach and march of man.\n\nThat nation is safe whose teachers transcend mere instruction and training, and rise to their work in humility as they ignite the divine spark in other\nlives by the touch of their own fine enthusiasms and generous loves.\nThe spirit of the Lord is upon me, because He anointed me to preach good tidings\nto the poor: He hath sent me to proclaim release to the captives, and recovering of sight\nto the blind, to set at liberty them that are bruised, to proclaim the acceptable year of the\nLord.\n\nIs it not in this fine enthusiasm that we shall find the hope and opportunity\nof the public school ?\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\n//,\nMRS.\n\nELLA\n\nLYMAN\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nCABOT,\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n239\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\nMEMBER\n\nOF\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nSTATE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nThe question: Shall moral training in public schools be given directly or\nshall it be given indirectly ? arouses controversy. Would you have definite\nclasses in ethics, or the moral influence of good teachers? I answer: Both.\nIf you are asked when hungry whether you will have bread or butter you would\nsay bread, but you would get far more satisfaction out of bread and butter.\nSo it is, I believe, that direct ethical instruction supplements the pervasive\nmoral forces on which we all depend for life.\nMany papers on moral training argue thus: How excellent is the indirect\nmoral training of sloyd, literature, and an inspiring teacher. Therefore let\nus have no direct ethical teaching. I argue : Because of the excellence of moral\ntraining thru sloyd, literature, and an inspiring teacher, let us make its\nresults more sure. Let us re-enforce this indirect moral stimulus by a direct\nand special training in learning to think directly, sympathetically, and decisively on questions of right and wrong.\nIt is often asked : Why should ethics be taught in a cold-blooded way as a\nset lesson ? Is not the indirect influence of devoted parents and teachers far\nbetter than any direct teaching can be ? Is not work well done a more valuable\ntraining than flawless knowledge of right and wrong? To which I answer:\nCertainly J but why not both ? We improve in character largely in three ways :\n(i) by imitation of noble people whom we love and who trust us: (2) by\nresponsibility sturdily shouldered; (3) by learning to think directly, sympathetically, and decisively on questions of right and wrong.\nImitation and chosen responsibility, these two spurs to righteousness, secure\nimmeasurably greater good than we can get by direct teaching. But no one\nwho has ever lived has doubted the motor force of friendship and responsibility\nin upbuilding character. Therefore I shall speak of them here no more. It\nis delightful to speak of that about which we agree. It is profitable to speak\ntogether of that wherein we differ.\nI shall then speak of direct teaching of ethics in schools as enforcing and\nsupplementing the far more important moral training which comes thru\nreverence for people and thru loyalty to any chosen task. The direct\nteaching of ethics aims: (i) to open the eyes of the morally blind; (2) to clear\naway moral confusion; (3) to forestall moral vacillation. Can a course in\nethics result in thus training pupils in sympathy, in truthfulness, in loyalty ?\nLet me illustrate from actual experience.\nFirst: Many wrong acts are due to moral blindness or, in milder cases, to\nmoral myopia rather than to intentional brutality. The cruelty of a child who\npulls a fly to pieces and the cruelty of a gossip who pulls a neighbor to pieces\nare not deliberate delight in pain. They mean shortsightedness to pain. In\nmy older classes with girls of the high-school age I take up questions of\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nunconscious cruelty and try to train them in sympathy and in open-mindedness.\nWe discuss for example the famous couplet:\nI do not like you, Dr. Fell;\nThe reason why I cannot tell.\n\nThis sentiment has often been accepted as valid and even commendable. \"I\neither like a person or I don't and that's all there is about it.\" But how about\nDr. Fell himself ? Is he fairly treated ? If he is sensitive to public opinion\nis he likely to become mellow and genial under the influence of this unreasoned\ndislike ? It is very likely to turn out that he's a good kind of fellow after all,\nand that what we disliked was his table manners or the cut of his beard rather\nthan the man himself.\nDr. Fell is sufficiently aloof to discuss freely. He will, however, recall to\nthe minds of the class someone whom they have disliked and thereby injured\nwithout a cause. I remember now, with repentance, a girl at school whom\nall of us undertook to dislike and despise simply because she had very pale\neyelashes, sticky hair, and a submerged voice. We endowed her with every\nwickedness; we spoke coldly and shunned her in spite of her somewhat cloying\ndesire for our society. I dread to think how she may have suffered from our\nunconscious cruelty. She didn't die young, however; she married and lived\nhappily ever after. Girls and boys have at times an icy brutality. Yet it\nmelts when the warmth of understanding touches it. It is not hard-heartedness, it is unawakened imagination. As you speak, \"Why I never thought of\nthat side of the question,\" they say and a new look comes into their eyes.\nA watchful teacher, a loving mother, would of course tell her child how\nunkindly he was treating a comrade if she realized it. But children who are\nhaving a hard time are often dumb sufferers. The teacher does not know of\nthe unconsciously inflicted cruelty. By arousing sympathy we may anticipate\nthe difficulty and by encouraging imagination dispel cruelty.\n\"A man to be greatly good must imagine intensely and comprehensively,\"\nShelley said in his \"Defense of Poetry.\" \"Is this true?\" I ask my older\ngirls. And they all see the point — they have grown to realize that to be truly\nsympathetic one must be capable of putting himself vividly in another's place.\nI lay stress also on the doctrine that we must not judge any act without\nknowing the facts of the ca§e. . \" See that man ! He has sat on the bank all the\nmorning throwing pebble after pebble into the water. How lazy he must be.\"\n\"Is this a fair judgment ?\" I inquire. And at the end of a warm discussion,\nI tell them how Turner the artist did that to watch the surface of the water in\nmotion and learn how to paint its sheen and color. \"A child is walking quietly\nalong the sidewalk. Suddenly a rough-looking man seizes her and pushes her\ninto the gutter. Is he cruel?\" Of course every one answers yes, at first.\nBut no — a mass of ice is about to fall from the roof above the child's head.\nHer assaulter turns out to be her protector.\nIn teaching, of course, every good teacher passes from examples to principles. Thru such examples as these we elicit the fact that we can judge\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n241\n\nno act on sight, for every act is open to a good or a bad interpretation. The\neager energy members of my class show in pointing out possible good motives\nfor acts that at first sight look selfish makes me feel sure that they will not in\nlater life condemn unheard. \"The special part of this ethics course which\nstands out in my mind as important,\" writes one of my pupils, *'is that on right\nand wrong judgments. It makes me realize how little right we have to\njudge people from appearances. There are so many sides of people's characters that we don't half consider or appreciate.\"\nSecond: Direct training in ethics helps to clear away moral confusion and\nto develop sound and sincere thinking. There are many grades of confused\nthinking; it varies from the truly pitiable muddle of a well-meaning mind to the\nexpert juggler in words with a wink in his eye. But even in its mildest form\nconfused thinking is moral degeneration. At its worst, confused thinking is a\nweapon of self-defense when we know we are wrong. The grafting insurancecompany director, the blackmailer of trusts, the briber of legislators, are confused in elementary moral thinking. Some of them are experts in the art of\nself-delusion and scatter darkness around themselves as the inky cuttle-fish\nconceals himself in the pitch blackness of his own elaborated fluid. Many\nare simply misled or confused. And is it possible that this deplorable condition\nof deliberately or unconsciously confused thinking extends to many of us\nhighly respectable people, doctors, teachers, and ministers who are not yet\nfound out publicly ?\nCan anything be done to stop the spread of the disease of moral confusion ?\nI answer decidedly, yes. Most of all by indirect moral training thru constant contact with people of morally crystal clearness, thru training in\nexact science, thru the bearing of open responsibility; but also, I am convinced, thru direct training in definiteness and accuracy of thought about\nright and wrong. With my younger classes of girls of twelve to fifteen, I take\nup very elementary cases to bring out the difference between sound and confused thinking.\n\"What is the difference between a poor excuse for being late at school and a\nreal reason for being late ? Give an example.\" Out come examples of oversleeping ordilly-dallying as contrasted with the unavoidable fact that the cars\nwere blocked. \"An excuse is hollow; a real reason is stout and whole.\"\n\"An excuse is a method of concealment; a good reason is its own justification.\"\nSo write my girls. One deUghtful girl of twelve explained, \"This morning I\nwas late but I had a real reason. When I went upstairs after breakfast to feed\nmy animals, my very favorite guinea pig, Christopher Columbus, was so sick\nthat he could hardly stand up. I had to stay and make him comfortable, and\nso I was late to school. But the teacher said it was a good reason.\" Echoes of\nthe difference between poor excuses and good reasons resound for several\nweeks. \"Today I have no reason for being late, only an excuse. I didn't\nknow what time it was, but then I ought to have found out.\"\nWith older pupils I take up more complicated cases illustrating the tendency\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nof any selfish person to deceive himself or herself. \"I am traveling from New\nHampshire to Boston with a large number of bundles and am delighted to\nsecure an extra seat on which to deposit them. Gradually the car fills up and\nall who pass by look wistfully at my seat. If I continue to keep my parcels on\nit by what arguments can I pretend that it is right ?\" We bring out together\nall the half -conscious sophistry that clings like a burr to selfishness. \"There\nmay be seats farther on; if they want the seat they can ask for it; it would only\ncrowd anyone to sit with me; it is really more comfortable for her to stand.\"\nEveryone in the class realizes that these excuses are weak subterfuges; for,\nas one girl said, \"Such sputtering people deceive themselves.\"\nBy the path of excuses and sophistry, people pass onward to disastrous\nproneness for telling lies in words that are literally accurate. We need a far\nhigher standard of truth among us. I believe that early training in the full\nvalue and the real meaning of truth-speaking will help to keep us mentally\nclear from corroding self-deceit. In my lessons on truth I ask the question:\n\"If by saying what is literally accurate we intentionally give a false impression,\nis it any less untrue than if we told a direct lie ? Which seems to you the\nworse?\" \"Prevarication,\" writes a thoughtful girl of seventeen, \"is taking\nrefuge behind truth. It is like the Indian method of shooting from behind a\ntree.\n\nIt is better to be honest in your dishonesty than not to be honest at all.\"\nIt is important for our whole nation that truthfulness shall be recognized\nas the conscientious effort to convey the accurate impression, and that all\nintentional misleading of another by word or silence shall be clearly marked\n\"lying.\" We need a pure-truth law as much as a pure-food law. Confused\nthinking is shown not only in the tendency to self-deceit and sophistry but in\nthe trick of turning attention off the main issue: \"Whoso doeth the truth\nCometh to the light that his deed may be made manifest.\"\nI am convinced that many glaring crimes and endless cankers of the soul\nare due to lack of the trained will to face the full light of truth, and even more\nto perplexed thinking. An Irishman in my city, to help a stupid friend, very\nkindly passed the civil service examination for him, swearing falsely of course,\nand forging his friend's name. He was found- out and sentenced, but the\nbody of public opinion among his set excused and even commended him\nbecause his motives were kindly, and on being released from jail he was\nbanqueted and re-elected to the legislature. I think there was real confusion\nof thought in this case, and that this confusion will continue to disgrace our\npolitical life until we can bring the growing generation to see that kindness to\nan individual is not to be put ahead of truth or of loyalty to the laws of the\nnation.\nIn my classes I take up among other examples a rather extreme, but to them\nintensely rousing, one which I found quoted from a German newspaper. \"An\nofficer is sent out to arrest a thief. As the thief sees his pursuer coming, he\nstarts down a side street and across a frozen river. Just as he is landing on\nthe opposite bank, he hears a crash in the ice and realizes that the officer has\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n243\n\nfallen thru. Turning back at once the thief dives and at the risk of his life\npulls the officer out. Ought the officer then to arrest the thief or to let him\ngoI?\"take up this highly dramatic tho somewhat improbable case because\nit is eminently discussable, because it is sufficiently remote not to suggest a\nnagging personal application, and because, nevertheless, it definitely exemplifies the general principle that obedience to law, loyalty to one's duty, must be\nput ahead of individual kindness or gratitude. Almost invariably some members of the class will stand up hotly for letting the thief go. As I came away\nfrom my class this winter after defending the duty of the policeman to keep\nhis oath, arrest the thief, and help him later in every possible way, I heard\n\ntwo girls murmur to one another, \"Poor thief; it might embitter him for life.\"\nBut a week or two later one of them said, \"1 have entirely changed my opinion\nabout the question of arresting the thief. Now that I have thought more\nabout it and have discussed it with wise people I see that I was wrong.\"\nExamples such as these illustrate a fragment of the effort that can and\nshould be made thru direct ethical teaching to train our future citizens to\nthink straight. \"To think is the moral act,\" writes Professor James. Especial y, would\nI\nadd, to think clearly and impartially in spite of temptations to\nsophistry. This power to think does not come without training and it is rare.\nChesterton says: \"Our long comfortable words save modern people the toil\nof reasoning. Long words go rattling by us like long railway trains. We\nknow they are conveying thousands who are too tired or too indolent to walk\nand think for themselves.\"\nAgain, direct training in ethics leads thru thoro and decisive thinking to thoro and decisive action. Every teacher knows two types of\nunhappy pupils. The first I call the June-bug type. He blurts ahead, he hits\nthe ceihng, comes down hard on the ground, is desperately sorry, and will never\ndo it again — at least, not till next time. He has the confirmed habit of acting\nfirst and thinking afterward. The second type I may call the unfledged-robin\ntype. He is hesitant; his wings flutter as he stands on the edge of the nest\nclinging to inaction. Such a person sees difficulties in every decision made\nand regrets in all he has done.\nType one is not easily reformed and he undoubtedly learns more by becoming deeply interested in football or sloyd and finding out what thoroness\nmeans in these fields than he does by thinking. Yet the less severe cases of his\ntype (and the disease is more common than measles and far more recurrent)\ncan be helped by training in thoro thinking on questions of right and wrong.\nWith girls I ask: \"Describe the conscientious and the unconscientious\nways of practicing a piece of music? What are the principal differences?\"\nThey all know. With boys the question would take a different form. \"If\nyou were elected President of the United States and had to decide whether or\nnot to give the Filipinos an independent government, how should you go to\nwork to make a decision ?\"\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nBy questions such as these I start the consideration of the meaning of\nthoroness in thinking. I then go on to examples near at hand, \"If you\nhave a hard piece of work to do, will thought about it make you do it faster or\nslower in the end? Give an example.\" The range of examples is often\namusing: Baking cake; Admiral Dewey making plans at Manila; a difficult\ninterview; putting out a fire; Christmas shopping; a boating accident. We\ndiscuss every example brought up, and find out in just what ways thought\nbefore action helps us to remember the flavoring in the cake or the feelings of\nthe irritated friend in an interview. After we have discussed questions of this\nkind, I give detailed and graphic examples of persistent and decisive thought :\nDarwin's study of his specimens, or Grenfell's facing of the situation when\nadrift on an ice-floe helps to bring before the class the vividness of an embodied\nideal.\nI spoke of a second type of pupil, the one who hesitates and vacillates in\nthought and action. There is a widespread idea that such pupils will be hurt\nby the study of ethics. My experience is exactly the opposite. Such students\nare puzzled by thinking because they don't know how to think. But they are\nbound to think anyway; therefore show them how to think straight and when\nto stop. If a child can't be kept from deep water, teach him to swim. If a\ngirl can't be kept from deep thinking, teach her to think well and decisively.\nA strong impulse can't be crushed, it must be guided.\nI am often astounded to find that a sensitive girl in my class has been\ntroubled and puzzled for years over questions of truth-speaking, the right\nchoice of work, or the proper ways of spending money. She has been puzzled\nand troubled because she had not power enough to work out the problem once\nfor all. It is common, I find, for such a girl to trouble herself deeply over the\nold Hedonist idea that all her acts are selfish. She defines a selfish act as one\ndone for yourself, because you want to do it, and then blames herself for doing\neverything selfishly. One of my class this winter wrote in her paper on selfishness, \"It is hopeless to think of this question too long for it brings you to the\nopinion that everyone' is selfish — which, of course, cannot be true. I have\npuzzled over it so many times that I can't wait for next Monday for you to\nclear it up.\"\nNow this tangle can he cleared by a true definition of selfishness, and often\nwoiTy put aside and happy thought installed in its place. I insist on the difference between thinking and worry. Thinking goes straight ahead but worry\ngoes round and round in a circle. It is never right to worry. We discuss and\ncondemn the vacillation in Hamlet. We distinguish acts that should always\nbe instinctive like the movement of our feet in running downstairs, and acts that\nneed the guidance of thought as when we must make an important decision.\nFinally, I ask the class to give examples of the occasions when we ought to\nstop thinking.\nIt comes out about like this:\nWe should stop thinking: (i) when no new evidence is at hand; (2) when\nthe subject is trifling and thought about it wastes our time; (3) when we need\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMUSIC\n\nAS\n\nA MORAL\n\nINFLUENCE\n\n245\n\nrest; (4) when we find ourselves arguing falsely; (5) when our ideas go round\nand round instead of going ahead; (6) when it is time to.act.\nLet me sum up what I hope I am doing in these ethics classes. I hope\nthat I am making, as it were, a museum of interesting and practical examples\nof right and wrong action and bringing them before my class in a living way.\nEvery example I take is chosen as remote enough not to have in it the element\nof preaching, and yet such that a parallel case may at some time in his life\nmeet the student. Indirect moral training helps us to face a certain accidental\nnumber of experiences well; direct ethical teaching anticipates a difficult\nproblem and anticipates it at a time when it can be looked at without passion\nor friction. My hope is that by getting a stronger grasp on sympathy, truth,\nand loyalty my students will be more ready to meet the crisis of their lives.\nTo sum up: My experience convinces me that direct training in ethical\nthinking among students of the upper-grammar and of the high-school grade\ncan and does free them in three ways: (i) by enlightening moral blindness;\n(2) by clearing away moral confusion and sophistry; (3) by overcoming moral\nvacillation. Certainly a large proportion of wrong-doing is due not to wilful,\ndeliberate desire for evil, but to lack of sympathy, lack of clearness, lack of\npersistency and decisiveness. Clearly then the teaching of ethics is worth\nwhile if experience proves it to develop sympathy, truth, and loyalty. Here in\nChicago, in 1893, you welcomed the nation to the great exposition with the\nwords: \"Ye shall know the Truth and the Truth shall make you free.\" The\nstudy of ethics in its deepest meaning is a search for liberating Truth.\n///.\n\nMUSIC\n\nWILLIAM\n\nL.\n\nAS A MORAL\nTOMLINS,\n\nNEW\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nYORK\n\nCITY,\n\nN. Y.\n\nA man may express in music his noblest emotions but it never will tell a\nmiser's love of gold. Real music vitalizes as nothing else can. Even a brass\nband will transform the hurrying, jostling crowd on a busy thorofare from\nwork-a-day to holiday life. All faces brighten, all steps become buoyant.\nNo orator can move an audience as does the simple song of the singer. The\nnerve-tensioned are let down. The downhearted are lifted up. All are equalized, brought to normal life and brotherhood. But why is it so short-lived ?\nWhy does it come and go so quickly ? Listen ! All that was once known of\nelectricity was the lightning flash; in less than a second after, all was darkness\nagain; few people saw permanent good in it. But now — well, it has changed\nthe face of the world. The young generation will find it hard to realize how\npeople ever got along without electricity.\nAs in electricity, so in music ! We have not learned half its uses. Many\nsingers only think their songs, and their voices lack heart. Other singers have\nsentimental voices; they feel so much, but they have no fiber, no will. No\none would think of turning to them for help. Then there is the voice that only\nwills; the voice dominant to harshness; manhood without brotherhood.\nAll\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthese voices are incomplete. The voice of true individuality must express the\nallness of life, must have in it the overtones of heart and head and hand.\nMany years ago I had the felicity to discover in music and song a \"new\nforce in education.\" I found that the voice-vibrations of the singer were not\nrestricted to emotional expression, but included all the powers of mind and\nbody and spirit. I discovered that the engendered powers, instead of being\ndissipated in performance to ''vivify\" an audience, were capable of being\nreflexed on the singer's self; an enduring energy that did not pass with the\ncessation of the voice-vibration, but, dynamo-like, stored itself for future\nuse — a sort of auto-activity.\nWith this good news I went to the music profession, to the school supervisors, and finally to the school teachers who, from their companionship with\nand knowledge of the individual child, as I am now convinced, are best able,\nunder the guidance of their music supervisors, to handle my work. In doing\nthis I have reduced the exercises to simplicity and, I trust, to the unity of\ntruth. All this has taken many years of work, but these years will have been\nwell spent if it should prove that this new music force, energy, call it what you\nwill, is a factor in the solution of the great problem which faces school men\ntoday. It is to this problem and its solution, and especially the part that\nmusic and song may play in it, that I wish to direct your attention.\nTwo questions face school men today: First, how to develop in our youth\nmorals, respect for authority, a sense of social responsibility; in a word, character. Second, how to find out what occupation in life each pupil is most fit for —\nindustrial, commercial, professional — that he may be prepared accordingly.\nThese questions are embraced in one general proposition — a dual one;\nviz., that life, expanding by leaps and bounds, has reached world-wide proportions; and that to meet this allness of life-at-large, all the powers of the individual must be aroused.\nHe must live the larger life in the larger way.\nThese powers are roughly classed as outer, inner, and innermost: The\nouter powers: the physical body and the senses; the inner powers: mind,\nheart, and will; the innermost powers: spirit.\nThese powers must not merely be aroused; they must be developed, must\nbe co-ordinated by use, unified in a common purpose — in a word, related to\nlife-at-large.\nThis relationship is threefold: egoistic, altruistic, and cosmic. It stands\nfor manhood, brotherhood, all-fatherhood; and there is not a problem, large\nor small, in your life or mine, that cannot have light shed upon it by this one\ngeneral analysis: what is due to myself, to my brother, and to God.\nWhen life-at-large was on a small scale the physical powers were allsufficient: to be strong of body, swift of foot, keen sighted, sharp of hearing,\nfull of prowess. But, with the rise of community life the inner powers came\ninto action and the body physical became subject to mind and heart. In all\nthis there was a correspondence between the developing outer life and the\nevolving inner life.\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMUSIC\n\nAS\n\nA MORAL\n\nINFLUENCE\n\n,\n\n247\n\nNowadays, when life-at-large has developed beyond community boundaries,\nit is time for the individual inner life to evolve correspondingly. And if, as\nappears, it does not do so, we should look for the cause of the trouble and, like\na good gardener, seek to aid nature in restoring equilibrium.\nWhile the process of the ascent of life is, in the main, gradual, there come at\nwide intervals great and rapid changes in which life-in-the-aggregate assumes\nwider aspects to which life-in-detail must adjust itself. At such times there is\na transition-confusion like a house partly dismantled for necessary enlargement.\nWe who regret the passing of the old-fashioned parental authority and the\nlack of unquestioning obedience in the child, may do well to consider the\npresent confusion as preparatory, perhaps, to a new kind of obedience — selfmonition, self-control, self -responsibility, and thru these, greater self-realization.\nBut at the present time, there is a confusion worse confounded, not due\nsolely to transition, and for which we must account in some other way. Our\nUfe as individuals is not only out of harmony with life-at-large, it is in false\nrelation with itself. We are not only out of balance with the world, we are out\nof gear. To come from the general to the particular, the individual intellect\nhas been expanded to world-wide interests and the feelings have not; on the\ncontrary they have been suppressed, held down near to the narrowed lines of\ndomesticity.\nThis being the cause of the trouble, the remedy lies in enlarging the scope\nand breadth of the feelings to cosmic relations, or at least relations corresponding to the scope and breadth of the mind. This constitutes the problem confronting the schools today. To solve this problem will supply that missing\nlink, in default of which our relations are circumscribed, in default of which we\ncan never be ourselves, can never feel the content of completeness, individuality, the creative Hfe — in short, character. We can never show what we are\nand, therefore, what most fit for in working out our own welfare, as also the\nworld's welfare.\nHow then to enlarge the feelings: It cannot be done by extending the altruistic relations to cosmic proportions, to feel for Asiatics as we do for kindred,\nneighbors, friends, whose hands we clasp in ours and into whose eyes we look.\nTo find a solution to our problem, we need look but a moment to the source\nof the feelings and their growth in the past, their rise and progress. In primitive life, man's needs were few and simple, and based on the desire for life, and\nthe recognition of the value of life, its preservation, expression, and progression. All of these were based on the simple proposition to get food, get raiment,\nget shelter. With the rise of social life came altruistic feeling — the give-andtake of life.\nWith the further rise to cosmic life, a new arid larger feeling came: viz., to\ngive, with no thought of to get, and with no thought of give-and-take. This\nuniversal life is based on giving one's self and there is this difference between\nit and all lesser forms, that, while in the lesser Hfe one must first have in order\nto give, in the larger life one must first give in order to have. To give a loaf\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\n,\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Chicago\n\nor a blanket, one must first have it, and to give half of these is to lose that\nhalf; but with love, honor, loyalty, truth, one must give to have, and the more\none gives, the more one has. These then are the universals, the imperishables\nwhich forni the cosmic life.\nSo then, as railroad systems and steamship routes traverse the highways\nof the physical world, and as the international postal service and wireless\ntelegraphy form great highways of the world for the transmission of ideas, so\nthese noble causes are great highways which join men's feehngs in a world-wide\nunity.\nProfessor Royce says that when a man is joined to a noble cause in a spirit\nof loyalty, in regard to which cause all that he is and has he counts as nothing\nin the scale, that man is joined to every other man who bears that cause in the\nsame manner and degree; and he might have added with truth, no matter on\nwhat other continent, or in what century the other men live.\nThis, then, is the full scope of my feelings:\nFirst, the egoistic life — to get. In some things I must be fair to myself,\nelse am I not honest.\nSecond, the altruistic life — the give-and-take of mutuality, of social life.\nThird, the cosmic life — to give; to give one's self; to sacrifice.\nNor will it serve to compromise on some given point of view for all three\nof them.\nThey are on separate planes, three in one — a unit, and yet distinctive.\nNow, as to school children. We assume that they have the first and second\nplanes. Now how shall they get the third, the cosmic plane ?\nFirst, what great cause in life can a little child espouse? What can he\nuphold with all his strength? Second, what can he give of himself in the\nfurtherance of his ideal ?\nAs to the first, there is his appreciation of the value of life, with all its richness of health, of powers of body and mind, of his senses, his companionship\nwith his playmates — ^in a word, his sense of the joy of life. As to the second,\nhe can give himself in his own breath.\nIV,\nJOHN\n\nW.\n\nABERCROMBIE,\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF\nTUSCALOOSA,\n\nPERIL\n\nTHE UNIVERSITY\nALA.\n\nOF\n\nALABAMA,\n\nIs there an American peril ? Of what does it consist ? There is a danger\npeculiar to our country, and it consists of the spirit of lawlessness. Disregard\nfor law, man-made and God-given, is widespread.\nLAW\n\nAND\n\nLIBERTY — TYRANNY\n\nAND\n\nLICENSE\n\nAll good government is based upon law and liberty, and thru a proper\nblending of these two elements is the best development attainable. Each is\nan essential element, and each has its counterpart, for law may be perverted\ninto tyranny, and liberty may degenerate into license.\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nPERIL\n\n249\n\nObservance of law promotes orderliness, but excess of liberty leads to\nlicense. Law and liberty are the handmaids of civilization, while tyranny\nand license are relics of barbarism.\nHuman nature, lower human nature, rebels against law and abuses liberty;\nbut, thanks to an all-wise Creator, there has been implanted in man, side\nby side with his lower nature, a better self, which, if properly cultivated,\ndevelops into a controlling force in life. And one of the most marvelous\ncharacteristics of the human mind consists of its ability voluntarily to set\nup for this better self a high standard, and strive to attain it. When the better\nself rules, law and liberty are exalted; when the lower nature prevails,\ntyranny or license is enthroned.\nAmerica was settled by those who sought escape from injustice on other\nshores, and it is not surprising that, from the beginning, there has existed a\ntendency to stress individual liberty, and to minimize the importance of law\nand its orderly execution. That tendency has found its way into all the affairs\nof life, and as a result the country is drunk from very excess of Hberty.\nOnly now and then, only here and there, has law been emphasized to the\npoint of tyranny.\nPREVALENCE\n\nOF\n\nLAWLESSNESS\n\nThe evils of unrestrained license are visible everywhere — in business and\nsociety and church and state ; but the most alarming phase in which the spirit\nof lawlessness manifests itself is that of homicide. The frequency, the recklessness, and the impunity with which human life is taken should bring shame\nand fear to every patriotic citizen.\nIn no other civilized country is life so cheap. In pagan Japan, even, it\nis valued ten times more highly. For each million of population we have\nannually about eight times as many homicides as Belgium, about nine times\nas many as France, about twelve times as many as England and Wales, about\ntwenty-five times as many as Germany.\nWith ten thousand homicides yearly, and with a like number killed by\nrailroads, factories, and mines, this is indeed a land of reckless human life.\nAnd how many of these are the victims of greed ? Cf license ? of lawlessness ?\nLAX\n\nLAW-ENFORCEMENT\n\nWhat is being done to remedy tlie situation ? It is common knowledge\nthat murderers are rarely punished adequately. If the accused be wealthy\nor influential, and the victim be poor or unknown, acquittal or Hght punishment ispractically certain. If the slayer be of the negro or other colored race,\nand the slain be a white person, no matter how worthless, conviction or lynching is the usual result. Seldom, except when equal slays equal, is impartial\njustice administered. What a sad commentary on our boasted civilization!\nLaxness in law-enforcement is limited to no state or section, and the increase\nin murderous crime grows at a bewildering rate. Everywhere we have excess\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "2SO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nof liberty, unbridled license, barbaric lawlessness.\nBoth by retail and by\nwholesale do we kill. If this spirit is not checked, the country is doomed.\nTHE\n\nLYNCHING\n\nEVIL\n\nReference has been made to lynching, and therein lies the most alarming\nfeature of homicidal crime. At first, for justification, the \"usual cause\"\nwas assigned; then, murder and other felonies; then, misdemeanors and\ntrifling offenses; then, mere race membership. Negroes have been lynched\nbecause they were negroes. Worse than that, they have been taken from the\nofficers of the law, even from the temples of justice, and murdered. And this\nhas been done when legal conviction and punishment were certain and\nimminent.\nAt first, lynching was infrequent; now, it is frequent. Then, only negroes\nand uninfluential white men were the victims; now, people of character and\nstanding without regard to race are executed. The mob spirit, whether it\nmanifests itself in the \"night riders,\" the \"white-cappers,\" the \"race riot,\"\nthe \"black hand,\" or other form, is no respecter of persons.\nAnd the lynching evil, like other forms of homicide, is confined neither\nto section nor to state. One is constrained to wonder if the court is to, be\nsuperseded by the mob; if self-government is to prove a failure; if the result\nis to be complete anarchy — a drifting back into the darkness of barbarism.\nPOPULAR\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\nJEOPARDIZED\n\nThat there must be a reversal of the tendencies of the times is clear, for\npopular government is jeopardized, civilization is in the balance. The masses\nmust be made to realize that lynching, however great the provocation, is\nindefensible; that it degrades and brutalizes all who participate, even all who\nwitness or condone; that crime is not a preventive but a producer of crime;\nthat lawlessness begets greater lawlessness; that hatred and revenge breed\nhatred and revenge.\nOfficers of the law must be made to realize that yielding to the mob is\ncowardly, criminal, traitorous; that it is better for the lives of many lynchers\nto be taken, if necessary, in a successful effort to enforce the law, than that a\nsingle life, even that of the most depraved criminal, should be sacrificed to\nthe mob.\nOh, for a copious outpouring of the spirit of honesty and fearlessness in\nthe execution of the laws of the land ! Not till then will the highest function\nof government — the protection of human life — be fully established.\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nNEEDED\n\nA proper attitude toward lawlessness is not possible except thru the\nprocesses of education. Only thru the cultivation of mind and heart can\na people be advanced in civilization, and prepared for the highest form of\nself-government.\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nPERIL\n\n251\n\nThis training should begin in the home, for it is there around the hearthstone and the mother's chair that lessons of love, truth, obedience, and fidelitycan be best inculcated. The homes of the land should be the birthplaces of\nthat incorruptible character, that stalwart patriotism, and that unfailing\ncourage, so necessary in governments where the people rule.\nBut the home is failing in this important duty. The father is engaged\ntoo strenuously in the race for wealth and power to perform the duties of fatherhood; the mother is too busy in the equally strenuous social life to meet the\nresponsibilities of motherhood.\nIt is obvious that, under existing conditions, we cannot look to the home\nfor the training which will prepare adequately for citizenship. The undisciplined child grows into the lawless citizen. The lawless citizen is the liar,\nthe swindler, the thief, the grafter, the robber, the ravisher, the lyncher, and\nthe murderer.\nCan this training be given by the church ? Is the church giving it ? While\nI have an abiding faith in the efficacy of the work of the church, I see little\nhope of speedy and adequate relief from that source, since only a small minority\nof the people are reached, and they only one hour per week.\nThe Sunday school is a great institution, is performing a noble service,\nand is one of the most elevating of agencies, but who will assert that it is providing the necessary moral training for all the people ?\nWhat about the press ? Newspapers wield a mighty influence, and that\ninfluence is usually in the right direction. The press is a great educator,\nand is powerful in its advocacy of the supreme importance of law and order,\nbut it does not reach adequately the citizen at the most impressionable age.\nTHE PUBLIC SCHOOL\n\nTHE ONLY\n\nHOPE\n\nSo, for an effective check upon lawlessness, we must look to something\nbesides the agencies mentioned. What is that something ? It is the school.\nTo the school, especially the public school, must we look. Upon the teacher\nin the school must we rely. It is the teacher's work to apply correct thinking and patriotic acting to the solution of perplexing problems, to erect\nhigh ideals and build up to their full stature, to nourish and direct and preserve\nthe public. Knowledge is power, and an educated conscience is its only safe\nguide.\nThe children\\of the land, rich and poor, farm and factory, white and colored,\nnative and foreign-born, all must be taught to obey the Golden Rule. The\n\ni\nk\n\nTHE\n\nmeaning of the command, \"Thou shalt not,\" must be so impressed that it\nwill never be forgotten or disregarded.\nAlong with mental and physical development must go moral culture.\n*'Thou shalt not lie,\" \"thou shalt not steal,\" \"thou shalt not kilV and all\nthe other \"thou-shalt-nots\" must be inculcated so systematically, so persistently,\nso effectively, that proper regard for the rights of others shall become a fixed\nprinciple in the life of every man and woman.\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCOMPULSORY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nNECESSARY\n\nThe lawless rich and the anarchistic poor must be placed upon' the same\nplane in the administration of justice. To that end, preparation for citizenship\nmust begin in infancy and continue thru school life. To that end, also,\nevery child must be required to attend school an adequate length of time.\nIf it is the state's duty to provide schools, equally is it the state's duty to\nsend its children to the schools. Shall the state sacrifice the citizen and\nendanger its own stability and efi&ciency by permitting children, thru the\nneglect or cupidity of unnatural parents, or thru the avarice and inhumanity\nof grasping corporations, to grow into manhood and womanhood, dwarfed\nin body, mind, and soul ? Such a policy is suicidal.\nAs a remedy, then, for the evils which beset us, I would prescribe for everybody education of the right kind — education of body, mind, and conscience,\nwith special emphasis upon the last mentioned. To that end I would have\ngovernment — city, county, state, and national — to make the utmost endeavor.\nCONCLUSION\n\nI would not have you believe me to be a confirmed pessimist in my views\nas to the country's future. I am not. Beyond the storm-clouds I see sunshine. Great crises are necessary to develop what is best in a people.\nAdequate leadership has never failed to materialize when the country's\nsafety has been imperiled. Such leadership is now preparing for action.\nAlready there is noticeable a general awakening of the public conscience.\nWe will solve every perplexing problem, overcome every threatening\ndanger, remove every blighting evil; and in that great work the teacher will\nperform not the least important part.\nTOPIC:\nI.\nWM.\n\nTHE\nH.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nNECESSITY FOR DEPARTMENTS OF HEALTH\nWITHIN BOARDS OF EDUCATION\n\nMAXWELL,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY,\n\nN. Y.\n\nI am asked to answer the question: Should medical inspection of children\nin public schools be conducted under the direction of the school authorities,\nor under the direction of a co-ordinate branch of the city government — the\nBoard or Department of Health.\nI answer unhesitatingly that the medical inspection of school children, as\nfar as it refers (o preventing the spread of contagious disease, is properly the\nduty of the Board of Health because that department alone is clothed with the\npower of« quarantine. So far, however, as medical inspection deals with\nphysical defects and with building up the constitution of children thru\ntheir school-work, it will be most efficiently conducted under the supervision of\nthe school authorities.\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHEALTH\n\nBODIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nBOARDS\n\n253\n\nIn giving reasons for this conclusion, I shall inquire, first, what is the\nfield of work for the physician in the school, outside of the detection of contagious disease; and I shall, in the second place, show that from its very nature,\nit is best performed under the direction of the school authorities.\nI. The conditions of modern city life tend to produce or to intensify\nphysical defects in children. The most conspicuous of these conditions are:\nLack of exercise, city children seldom having to walk more than two or three\nblocks to school, and having little work to perform about the home that would\ndevelop the muscles and breathing capacity; crowding in poorly lighted and\npoorly ventilated apartments, which results in various forms of tuberculosis;\nlack of space for free play; lack of interesting occupation outside of school\nhours; excessive noise; lack of sufficient sleep, owing to noise and excitement;\ninsufficient or unwise feeding, tea or coffee and bread being the principal\narticles of diet in the tenement house; uncleanly habits of person, owing to\nlack of bathing facilities and to lack of knowledge of the need of soap and\nwater. These conditions tend to produce various forms of nervousness,\nlowered vitality, defective eyesight, defective teeth, and growths in the nose\nand throat which restrict respiration and drive the child into reckless mischief\nand defiance of authority. Hygienic conditions in the school, tho better\neven in the oldest and poorest school building than in the average tenement,\nhave not tended to alleviate troubles generated in the home and in the street,\nand in some cases even tend to augment them. The crowding in the tenements has led to the erection of enormous school buildings, which are also\ncrowded, for in no other way can children in the congested neighborhoods\nreceive the benefits of education. Sitting several hours a day at a desk\nincreases such diseases as curvature of the spine, and often produces faults\nof posture which the physical exercises of the classroom and the gymnasium\nbarely avail to counteract. Defects in eyesight are certainly aggravated by the\nwork of the classroom. In short, tho the school is doing what it may with\nits present resources — by physical training, by games, by athletic sports, by the\nmaintenance of recreation centers — to neutrafize the evil effects of urban life\nupon children; yet these resources are inadequate becaues they do little or\nnothing for those children who are suffering from physical defect. They\nare admirable and necessary for those children who are naturally healthy and\nvigorous; but what a farce it is to urge the boy who is weak thru the\ninsufi&ciency or unfitness of his food or who cannot breathe properly because\nof adenoid growths in his throat, to participate in relay racing or cross-country\nrunning! The conclusion is inevitable: the urban school can do but little for\nthe child suffering from physical defect or weakness engendered by modern\nurban life until the defects are removed or the weakness strengthened ; therefore its resources should be augmented by the establishment of a Department\nof Hygiene vested with power to discover physical defects in children and to\ncompel parents and guardians to apply the proper remedies when they will not\ndo it of their own accord.\n\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "254\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\n2. That medical and surgical knowledge has reached a perfection which\nenables its practitioners to co-operate in the education of children is a fact not\nrecognized by the general public but nevertheless true. It is only within the\npast generation that medical science discovered the laws according to which\nbabies should be fed and tended. It is only during the past generation that\npreventive medicine, formerly employed only against smallpox, typhus, and\nplague, has- been extended to combat malaria, yellow fever, and tuberculosis.\nIn olden times the province of the physician was generally regarded as confined to the treatment of the sick; today that province has been extended to\ninclude those measures that are necessary to prevent those who are well from\nbecoming sick and to remove the seeds of disease. Some of the problems\nwhich the physician equipped with the resources of modern science may help\nus to solve are the following:\na) Problems of posture. — The physician is needed in the school to advise as to the best\nmethods of counteracting bad habits of posture that lead to malpositions of the spine with\nresulting interference with respiration, circulation, and digestion — results which, under\nexisting conditions, seem inseparable from long hours of sitting,\nb) Problems of vision. — There are thousands of children in the school who cannot\nprofit by the school-work because of defective eyesight. Reports from the Department\nof Health seem to indicate that 6 or 7 per cent, of the children who enter the lowest grade\nsuffer from some kind of defective vision. As children progress from grade to grade the\nproportion of them who are so afifected constantly increases until, in the highest grade, it\nis estimated that not less than 40 per cent, are afflicted with some form of eye trouble.\nc) Problems of nose and throat. — These troubles are constantly on the increase. Only\nin a small percentage of cases are they, tho easily corrected, removed. Scarcely any\nprogress has been made in the discovery of the cause of these troubles, and yet they do\nmore than any other physical defect, except deficient eyesight, to cause trouble in school.\nThere are nose and throat specialists in abundance, but few who have made an exhaustive\nstudy of the specific conditions found in the schoohoom and yard.\nd) Problems of nutrition and growth. — ^There is a well-founded belief, after all due\nallowance has been made for sentimental exaggeration, that there are many children who\nfail to profit, either in whole or in part, by their education, because their bodies are not\nnourished. Even if it were now possible to provide at cost price a wholesome mid-day\nmeal in all city schools, the problem of instructing parents in the feeding of children\nwould still remain. This can be accomplished only thru a well-organized corps of\nmedical experts and nurses.\n\n3. A Department of Hygiene is necessary because teachers stand in constant need of the skilled physician's advice in the treatment and training of\nchildren. Particularly is this so in the case of nervous disturbances to which,\nas we all know, city children, because of the conditions of urban life, are\npeculiarly liable. The teacher should not be required to shoulder all of this\nresponsibility. He is entitled to expert advice that will guide him in managing\nthe child's school-work so that it shall not augment, if it does not remove, the\nphysical trouble. Again, the whole question of school work, as it stands\nrelated to fatigue, calls for the counsel of the medical expert. Some children\nare so constituted as to stand without injury five hours of work in school and\none or two hours out of school. For other children this amount of work is\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHEALTH\n\nBODIES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nBOARDS\n\n255\n\nruinous. Questions of this kind — questions which involve more of medical\nskill than of pedagogical knowledge — can be conclusively settled only by a\ntrained medical expert after consultation with a skilled and experienced\nteacher. They certainly ought not to be, indeed they cannot be, settled by\nthe teacher alone. In the families of the rich these questions are settled —\n— at least sometimes — by the family physician; but we have to deal with tens\nof thousands of families that have no family physician and little sense of the\nphysical dangers of childhood or the duties of parents. In order to enable\nthe child of the poor man and the child of the neglectful rich man to have equal\nopportunities, as far as education goes, with the child of the duty-understanding, and the duty-obeying, well-to-do parent, a Board of Education should\nprovide that expert medical advice regarding the school-work of children of\nwhich every teacher stands in need.\n4. The influence of such a department is needed, in addition to the influence\nof the teachers, to give to our enormous alien population new ideals and new\nhabits in the rearing of children and in establishing among them American\nstandards of living. It is generally admitted that the public school is the most\npotent influence we possess in converting the vast hordes of foreigners who\nannually come to our shores into self-respecting, self-supporting American\ncitizens. I would be the last to minimize or disparage this influence. It\nhas wrought wonders in training children to intelligence, efficiency, and civic\nduty. Even in this very matter of establishing higher standards of living,\nthe modern school, with its example of good housekeeping, with its orderly\narrangement, with its lessons in sewing and cooking for girls, and in manual\ntraining for boys, to say nothing of the other subjects in the curriculum, has\naccomplished very much. And yet it will not be able to do its perfect work\nuntil we have a Department of Hygiene, equipped to detect the evidences of\ndisease and of improper living, and clothed with the necessary power to enforce\nits counsel among ignorant or negligent parents. If half a dozen parents in as\nmany different parts of a city were fined or imprisoned for failure, after repeated\nwarnings, to provide their children with necessary eye-glasses or to have\nadenoid growths removed, the example thus set would do more lasting good\nthan any amount of preaching on the subject. Every time a foreign parent\nis persuaded or compelled to do something for the improvement of his child's\nhealth, he moves a step nearer the American standard of living.\n5. The establishment of a Department of Hygiene, under the direction\nof a Board of Education, would be both a direct and an indirect saving in\nfinancial expenditure.\nRecent investigations have shown that there are in all 'city schools a large\nproportion of over-age or retarded pupils. Deferring entrance to school until\nthe age of eight or nine, too frequent transfers from school to school, and\nremediable physical defects are doubtless responsible for a considerable part\nof this retardation; but the most potent cause, I feel reasonably certain, will,\nin the last analysis, be found no other than low vitality, chiefly physical, which\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "256\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nprevents the student from taking proper advantage of the opportunities of the\nschool. How to strengthen these weak natures, how to stimulate this sluggish\nflow of life, is the most difficult problem today in the schools. If it is ever\nsolved, it will be solved by the teacher, the physician, and the school nurse,\nworking in cordial co-operation. If, thru such efforts, all or nearly all children\ncould advance thru the grades at the normal rate of progress, the saving would\nbe enormous every year — certainly a sufficient amount to maintain all necessary\ntrade schools.\nSuch being the work physicians may do in school, I submit that they should\ndo it, indeed that they can only do it effectively under the direction of school\nauthorities.\nIn the first place, we should wrong ourselves if we did not raise our voices\nagainst another city department obtaining jurisdiction over work that is purely\neducational in character.\nIn the second place, dual authority and responsibility in a school — that of\nthe school authorities and that of the health authorities — always have resulted\nand always will result in confusion and inefficiency.\nIn the third place, the accomplishment of the results desired requires\nexperts; and experts in school-work are not developed by health authorities.\nPreventive medicine, as applied to the conditions of school life, is still in\nits infancy. It cannot develop into a science until there is a considerable number of physicians who will devote their time and energy to making themselves\nspecialists in this particular branch of therapeutics. The young inexperienced\nphysicians who are sent to our schools by boards of health are not specialists\nalong this or any other line; and, being frequently changed, will never have an\nopportunity of becoming speciafists. It is only when physicians are held to\na strict responsibility by the school authorities; it is only when the results of\ntheir work are measured by results in the classroom; it is only when they are\nretained for years in this service, that we may expect to develop experts in school\nhygiene.\nIf anyone doubts the statement I am making — that the young men just\nout of college who are sent by boards of health into our schools to examine\nchildren are not experts in school therapeutics — he has only to read the analysis\nof the work performed by the physicians of the New York Board of Health\nwhich was recently made by the Bureau of Municipal Research. One statement will sufl&ce. Examining the same children one inspector found that\nthirteen children were suffering from pulmonary disease, another inspector\nfound only two; one inspector found twenty-eight children suffering from malnutrition, another only ten; one inspector found seventy-two children suffering from defective vision, another one hundred and one. Two inspectors\nexamining different children in the same school, where conditions were as nearly\nas possible uniform, reported results ranging as greatly as between 32 per cent,\nand 92 per cent. Examining in different schools one physician reported 100\nper cent, defects; another 18 per cent. The disagreement among doctors is\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n257\n\nproverbial; but such disagreements as these are possible only when the work\nis done carelessly and without a sense of responsibility to constituted authority.\nIs it any wonder that the Bureau of Municipal Research reached the conclusion\nthat ''physical examinations as conducted have been far from uniform and that\nsome plan must be devised for standardizing them\" ?\nThe obvious reasons for this deplorable waste and insufficiency are that the\nphysicians were young and inexperienced, that they never had the opportunity\nof becoming experts in their work, and that the Board of Health had not the\ninclination or the ability, while the Board of Education had not the authority,\nto hold them to a strict accountability for their work and its results.\nBut the crowning reason for placing this work under the supervision of the\nBoard of Education is that the work of mind-training is so interwoven with\nthe work of physical training that the work of the teacher and the work of the\nphysician cannot be disassociated without loss to both.\n//.\n\nTHE\nGEO.\n\nPLAYGROUND\nE. JOHNSON,\n\nAS A FACTOR\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nPITTSBURGH,\n\nOF\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nPLAYGROUND\nPA.\n\nHYGIENE\n\nASSOCIATION,\n\nScarcely twelve months ago, the whole country was shocked at a disaster\nto school children, so horrible in its details that men in distant cities wept in\nstreet cars as they read the account in their morning papers. Everywhere\nschoolhouses were immediately inspected and hundreds of thousands of\ndollars were expended in alterations and fire escapes. Since then, in the city\nof that sad disaster, and in every city of equal size, many times that number\nof children have perished, and scarcely a comment has been raised. It would\ntake four disasters like that at Cleveland every school day in the year to keep\npace with the march of death among the school children of our land.\nDuring the coming year more than one hundred thousand school children\nwill end their young lives, the bloom of babyhood scarcely yet faded from their\ncheeks, and tens of thousands of Rachels will mourn for their Httle ones and\nnot be comforted.\nDuring the next ten years millions more will lay the foundations of weak\nconstitutions to succumb to some great white, black, red, or yellow plague\nbefore life's meridian has been reached.\nTo those who rejoice in the living, Dr. Hutchinson's cheering declaration\nthat \"it isn't so very dangerous to be alive\" will bring its reassurance, but to\nthose who mourn for the dead, it will lend an added pathos. The unnecessary\nloss is the hardest to bear. And this loss, inconceivably great as it is, is largely\nwithin our power to prevent. For not only is it not so very dangerous for a\nchild from five to fifteen to be alive, it is the natural and easy thing for him\nto remain alive, if he has a fair chance.\nThese are the years when the life forces are at the flood. It is as if Nature\nat this age endeavored to repeat in each young life the observance of the Pass-\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "258\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nover and had sprinkled upon the gateposts of these ten hopeful years the sign\nof immunity that the Angel, of Death, seeing, might pass by. We often congratulate ourselves that the years that constitute the school age for the great\nmajority of children arc the years when the death-rate is lowest. And yet\nthe aggregate preventable loss thru death, in these most favored years, is\nenormous, and the sad processions that follow abandoned hopes to the grave\noutnumber in the aggregate the armies of the world.\nBut there is another and far more serious loss than this. It is not the\ndeath-rate during the school age, however great or small, that is the significant\nthing for us. The significant thing is whether in these years of Nature's\nsmiles strength or weakness is being laid by for future years. We are learning\nmore and more clearly every year that our skulking foe, the microbe, of whatever tribe, strikes when a man is down. Patiently he bides his time, gathering\nhis forces in secret until the time to strike. No better illustration could be\ngiven than that of tuberculosis. According to Newsholme, only three children\nin 10,000, from five to fifteen years of age, die of consumption, but from\nfifteen to forty-five, more than one person in four dies of this dread disease.\nSpeaking along this line. Dr. Tylor says:\nIt would seem highly probably that the increased death-rate of girls at eighteen and\nthereabouts, from consumption and other diseases of relatively slow action, is the culmination of an attack begun at thirteen and fourteen. If we are to diminish this death-rate,\nwe must fortify the girl against the period of greatest weakness when she is most likely to\nreceive hospitably the germs of fatal diseases. To accomplish this we must not wait\nuntil the twelfth or thirteenth year but meet the difficulty in childhood.\n\nHuber, also, in his work on Consumption says:\nThere is the long period of latency in which, if the child be well natured, and if he live\nhygienically, he will be likely to overcome such tendency to disease as he may have begun\nlife with.\n\nWhen at some future time posterity looks back upon the conditions that\nprevail in our day, it will behold no darker picture, no more disgraceful thing\nthan our weak surrender of our children to sickness and death. What excuse\ncan then be offered for the fact that, even in this land, more than one-half\nof all the children bom into the world die before they have reached man's\nestate; that 70 per cent, of school children suffer some physical handicap,\nmore or less serious, at the very threshold of life's opportunities; that our\nschools not only do not fortify the children against known enemies, but actually\nbetray them, in their innocency, to their deadly foes ?\nTo the American School Hygiene Association belongs the great credit of\nan organized effort to free us from this national error, but may I present the\nhumble claim that the advocates of the playground offer the most promising\nsingle means for its accomplishment.\nFrom amoeba to man the essential conditions of life and health have\nbeen few and plain.\n\nThru all the ages of that slow ascent, but with varying\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n259\n\nemphasis, these have been food, air, sunshine, exercise. Upon the supply\nof these, in proper kind and amount, depends the health of amoeba, worm, fish,\nbird, dog, or man.\nOmitting the first of these for obvious reasons, let us consider the importance of each of the others in school hygiene and the office of the playground\nin supplying them.\nAir. — The playground is the only place where a school child gets air in\nthe proper amount and kind, the only place where he obtains full and complete\naeration of the blood. A despicable fraction of schoolrooms have standard\nventilating apparatus, and the rooms that have do not always adequately\nbenefit thereby. I have personally tested a score of schoolrooms almost under\nthe shadow of the capitol of a state that has the best of existing laws, and\nfound the supply of air to equal the standard in only two of the rooms and in\nsome it fell to less than one-fourth of that amount.\nBut could ventilation be perfect in a schoolroom, there could not be the\nsame aeration of the blood of a seated, studying child as of a child on the playground. There must be the exhilaration of joyous exercise, the quickened\nheart beat, the deepened breathing, the full chest of sustained effort that drives\nthe air to the very apex of the lungs, to meet the needs of the growing child.\nThe schoolroom may be made less and less objectionable, but so long as it\nremains a schoolroom it cannot escape the imperative need of the playground\nas a factor in school hygiene.\nAs you well know, it is not only the lack of oxygen but also the presence\nof organic poison in exhaled air that makes ventilation so important. It is\na fact noted by biologists that all animal life excretes a poison destructive to\nitself. This is as true of the single-celled animal as of higher life. Bacteria\nmay thrive luxuriantly for a time in culture media, but if they are not transferred tofresh culture media, they pass into a period of lessened activity and\nfinally die poisoned by their own excretions. A child's body is an accumulation of a vast number of cells each of which, by its very functional activity,\nlikewise excretes products so poisonous to itself and the system generally that\naccumulation beyond a certain limit results in death.\nNature has gradually placed more and more emphasis upon this cleansing\nprocess. If you trace the evolution of the vital organs from the single cell\nto man, you will find a general increase in the number of the excretory organs.\nThe newer organs have developed as supplementary to the older, and altogether\nthey form a co-operative system, a weakness in any part of which places an\nadded burden on the rest. Nature here gives us no uncertain hint as to the\nneeds of the child. Playground activities, as those in the school cannot do,\nnot only purify the blood thru the increased activity of the lungs in the pure\nair of out of doors, but stimulate the healthful activity of all the excretory\norgans, preserving a well-balanced system.\nSunshine. — \"Where the sun does not go, the doctor does\" is an Italian\nproverb, quoted by Kotelmann.\nTry as we may, we cannot get the sun\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nsufficiently into all our schoolrooms, and if we could we would shut it out again\nas soon as we let the children in to study, because we say it hurts their eyes.\nWhere, then, shall the children bathe in the sunshine as they need, but on\nthe playground ? We do well to debar contagious diseases from the schools,\nbut let fly over our children's clothing myriads of baccilli and the most malignant perish in a short time in the joy and the sunshine of the playground. Few\ndisease germs have been discovered that can survive even for one hour the\nstreaming sun on the face of a laughing child.\nYou remember the experiment with the tadpoles. They were placed\naway from the sunlight for thirty days, and during all that time ceased to grow.\nReturned to the sunlight, they resumed their growth, and advanced farther\nin one day than in all the previous thirty. Placed once more away from the\nsunUght, and then returned to normal conditions, they grew to stunted froghood. Just such an experiment society tried with babies in the dark rooms\n6f New York's tenements, and every baby, almost without exception, born\nand kept in those rooms died. But when Jacob Riis smashed the walls and\nthe light of heaven streamed in, the babies began to live.\nIn our cities and larger towns everywhere, we are still repeating, in a measure, the same experiment, and place our children like the unfortunate tadpoles\nin darkened homes, narrow, shaded, and smoke-enveloped alleys, and schoolrooms into which the sun seldom or never enters, nay, often in schoolrooms lit\neven in the middle of the day by natural or artificial gas. Bring to these\nlittle ones medical inspection, examine their eyes, remove their adenoids,\nprotect them from measles, and all the rest, but shall we not add a playground\nwhere, for a part of the day, they Inay bathe in the sun as God Almighty has\nsaid they must, if they live ?\nExercise. — I have just examined the indexes of two famous books on school\nhygiene, and in them was no such word as exercise. But exercise is life, and\nthe absence of it is the sure sign of death. By exercise came evolution.\nExercise shaped the body, determined the vital organs, built the brain. By\nexercise the child takes possession of his inheritance from the race. To him\nit is the past, the present, and the promise of the future.\nBut that exercise no man can dictate, no teacher devise, no scholar fully\ndefine. It comes forth unbidden from the child, declares his nature, discovers\nhim to himself, defines his relation to his mates, shows him the world. It is\nhis play, it is himself. Can the school alone do this, be this? In the long\nprocess in which exercise shaped the body and built the brain there was determined for all time the path by which the child must come into his own. In\nthat shortened process we call childhood, every faculty, every power, every\norgan that fails to receive its due exercise shrivels, and health by so much\nsuffers and by so much the man becomes less a man. It would require a\nbook to speak in full of the exercises of the playground that meet the needs\nof health, physical, mental, moral, aesthetic, social health, fpr all these are\nelements in the health of the body, as we all have come to understand.\nBut\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n261\n\nin many respects, in the very nature of the case, these exercises are impossible\nin the school, they are possible only on the playground.\nOnce upon a time the citizens of a certain city really believed what I have\njust been trying to say, and when the question arose as to whether they should\nbuild a great public school or open a playground it was decided to open a\nplayground. Now it came to pass, in the course of years, that the citizens\nof that city advanced so far beyond the rest of the human race, that, in all the\ncenturies since, the nations that have gone on building schools and neglecting\nto open playgrounds have not been able to catch up with them even to this day.\nThis is fact, not fancy. At seven years of age the Athenian lad entered\nthe palaestra, which was essentially a playground. All the first and better\nhalf of the day was spent in gymnastics, dancing, games, and play. In the\nafternoon there was singing, some writing (the beginners wrote in the sandbox or in sand strewn upon the ground), some reading, all in the open air,\nand then came a long period of play again. Such was the schooling of the\nGreek lad up to the age of ten or eleven, and it did not differ essentially up\nto the age of sixteen except in the severity of the exercises. And yet, the world\nhas not ceased to marvel at the results of the Greek education. It produced\nthe highest type of man, physically and intellectually, that the world has ever\nseen, which Galton says was as far in advance of the modern Englishman as\nthe modern Englishman is in advance of the native African. In physical\nbeauty, courage and patriotism, in philosophy, literature, architecture, and\nart, the Greeks have been the unsurpassed models of the ages anc^ are still\nthe inspiration of our schools today. But they placed the emphasis upon\nhygiene, exercise, games, and play, which we neglect, if not ignore. They\ncared for the strong, and sometimes left the weak to perish. We care tenderly\nfor the weak and often leave the strong to perish.\nThis is fact, not fancy. In the state where I had the privilege of acquiring\nmost of my experience in educational work, a child to obtain the best educational advantages must be bUnd, deaf, feebleminded, incorrigible, or a truant.\nThen he is given exercise, playgrounds, gymnasia, baths, fresh air in abundance, gardens, and playshops. The great majority of normal children get\nalong the best they can without them. And now in Pittsburgh they have an\nopen-air school for children with a tendency to tuberculosis. So consumption\nseems to be another of the list of ills, one of which a child must have in order\nto enjoy the best educational advantages. I am not disapproving of this care\nfor the weak. I believe in it with all my heart, but this we should have done\nand not left the other undone. There are thousands and thousands of children\nin the regular schools of Pittsburgh who have no place to play, no recess, no\nreally fresh air to breathe, little sunshine and less genuine life-giving exercise.\nWe have reversed the order of importance in education as it was observed\nby the Greeks. The Greek education was essentially a playground education,\nand the education most nearly approaching it today is that supplied by the\nplaygrounds of America. To that classic demonstration of the educational\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nvalue of the playground has been added in our day an avalanche of testimony\nfrom biology, physiology, anthropology, psychology, and sociology. Of the\n$10,000,000 playgrounds of Chicago, President Roosevelt says, \"They are\nthe greatest civic achievement the world has ever seen,\"\nTo sum up:\nFirst, we do not take good care of our children.\nSecond, we need to improve our care along four lines, namely, better food,\nbetter air, more sunshine, better exercise.\nThird, in the very nature of the case, the playground alone can adequately\nsupply the last three of these to the child.\nFourth, this is no new experiment. We have the classic playground along\nwith classic literature, architecture, and art.\nFinally, just as we have awakened to the fact that the school provides\nbut a small fraction of a child's education, that environment, which includes\neverything that comes into the child's experience, is teaching him every waking\nmoment of the day (perhaps every sleeping hour of the night, if we agree with Dr.\nWorcester) so we have come to understand that the activities of the school provide but a mall fraction of the exercise necessary for the health of a child in this\nlarger meaning. In the long process of the race have been tried and found\ngood, have been refined and passed on, every organ and instinct with which\na normal child is born, and some yet higher function, some yet nobler conduct,\nshall spring from their roots. Not in the school but on the playground can\nthese deep instincts of workmanship, imitation, rivalry, co-operation find their\ntrue and genetic expression, and build more stately mansions in the soul,\nas the swift seasons roll. These instincts calling from the deeps of the child's\nnature are not voices calling him astray, or to delay his upward progress. They\nare the voices saying to him and to the race:\nBuild thee more stately mansions, Oh my soul!\nAs the swift seasons roll.\nLeave thy low-vaulted past\nLet each new temple, nobler than the last,\nShut thee from Heaven with a dome more vast,\nTill thou at length art free,\nLeaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea.\n\n///.\n\nTHE EVIL INFLUENCES OF SCHOOL CONDITIONS\nUPON THE HEALTH OF SCHOOL CHILDREN\nWOODS\n\nHUTCHINSON,\n\nM.D., NEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY, N. Y.\n\nWe are proud of our system of education, and we do well to be. But everything human has imperfections in it, and there are spots even upon the sun.\nUpon me has been thrust the ungracious function of pointing them out. I\nyield to no one in my admiration of the results of our magnificent free system\nof public education from kindergarten to college; from country school to cam-\n\nr\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nON\n\nHEALTH\n\n263\n\npus. But I wish to raise the question: How far are these triumphs the results\nof these methods, and how far are they achieved in spite of them ?\nI am in no sense a pessimist — I don't believe that our educational system\nis producing physical degeneration of the race for the simple and sufficient\nreason that I don't think that the race is deteriorating, but on the contrary,\nis steadily improving, physically. But I will say that while the school is not\nbreaking down the health of the child, that that is thru no fault of the school,\nwhich is doing its best in that direction, but on account of the toughness and\nirrepressibleness of the young human organism.\nThe aim and object of the school is of course purely mental — the training\nof the mind. With this, we, as physicians, have no right to interfere. But\nwhen it becomes necessary for the purpose of the child's mental education to\ntake his body into custody and hold it in confinement at hard labor for twothirds of his working day, then the physician has a right to be heard. To such\nan extent has this schoolroom sentencing of children to an educational treadmill gone, that it has actually become necessary for us to choose between a\nchild's education and his health. Instead of education being a harmonious\nscheme for promoting the entire development of the child — body, mind, and\nmorals — it has become a systematic effort to promote his alleged mental\ndevelopment, with a disregard for, and often at the sacrifice of, health and\nmorals. This standard has been set, not by the teacher but by the community.\nOur present educational system is an inheritance from bygone ages — a\nsurvival of discredited ideals, and represents iht crystallization of the conservatism and mental inertia of the last ten generations. We would be ashamed\nto do business as our fathers and grandfathers did; to fight with their weapons,\nto work with their tools, to travel, to send messages, to write as they did ; and\nyet, we go back to the old college because our father and grandfather did before\nus. We worship the sacred trinity of the Three R's; we cherish their ridiculous and antiquated spelling; we study our languages in the fossilized state\nby certain paleontological rules which we term grammar, naturally choosing\nfor preference, for such purpose, chiefly those that have been dead for centuries.\nIf you want to see ancestor-worship and the adoration of totems in full\nswing in the twentieth century, go into a schoolroom. What has this to. do\nwith health? Simply that in order to exalt the mind, it has been thought\nnecessary to despise the body, and the basal spirit of our education today\nhas still as profound a contempt for the body and its needs, as that of any\nflagellant or ascetic. As much as the schoolroom can be got to do is to concede to the body such opportunity as it can get for development in the intervals\nbetween the serious work of education. Naturally, the subjects studied upon\nthis principle of education are the needs and activities of the mind exclusively ;\nthose of the body being politely ignored, or taught in the most superficial and\nparlor-like fashion. Great improvement has been made in these respects\nof late years, and a certain smattering of real facts is taught in many of our\nschoolrooms, but the modifications have been chiefly in detail, and the under-\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nlying principle remains unchanged. The child is still practically taught to\nexalt and worship his mind and to ignore, if not actually despise, his body as\nsomething animal and degrading.\nWhile we may bound every country in Europe, and draw its coast line and\ndescribe its rivers, we are unable to describe any portion of our anatomy\nintelligently, except such scraps of it as are left uncovered by the clothing;\nand even if we could describe it, it would be considered highly improper to do\nso in public. Ignorance and prudery are the fruitful mother of both disease\nand indecency. Both are fostered by our present system of education. Dirt,\ndisease, and despising the body always go hand in hand.\nThe next hygienic defect of our system of education is that it takes little or\nno account of the inherited powers and growth tendencies of the child, but rides\nas ruthlessly across them as any Juggernaut. It takes no practical account\nof the fact that the child's mind tends to grow and develop just as naturally\nand inevitably as his body does. It will not for a moment believe that the child\nof the twentieth century, born of literate parents, would learn of his own accord,\nyes, grow, to read, to write, and to cipher almost as certainly as he learns to\nwalk, to climb, and to swim. Little or no attempt is made to adjust instruction\nin the acquirement of these powers and accomplishments to the age at which\nthey tend, naturally, to develop. Keep a child healthy and growing and answer\nhis questions, and he'll have little need of formal education.\nA certain adult standard of information and accomplishment is set up.\nThen the child's school life is divided into fourths, and he is required to attain\none-fourth of this adult standard at the end of the first quarter, one-half at\nthe end of the second, and three-fourths at the end of the third. It takes the\nchild's measure and proceeds to fill him up at the rate of so many pints, or\nquarts, per year. The result is that two-thirds of the time and labor expended\nin our schoolrooms is wasted in endeavoring to teach, at great pains and with the\nproduction of much stupidity in both child and teacher, things which he would\nlearn of his own accord from two to four years later, if he was only let alone.\nThe trouble with our schools is not that they teach the child too much,\nbut that they teach him so little in proportion to the outrageous amount of his\ntime that they waste. Two-thirds of our purely mental drill and disciplinary\ntraining in the schoolroom is as ineffective and as irrational as trying to develop\na flower by massaging its petals instead of tending its roots.\nThe next defect of our school system is that it confines the child too exclusively to talking about things, reading about things, and writing about things\ninstead of doing things. Considered purely as a system of mental training,\nfew things could be more absurd and ineffectual. We speak frequently 'of the\nwritten word, the printed word, the spoken word as \"the tools of the mind.\"\nSuppose we were to deal with the tools of the body after the same fashion, say\nin a class in carpentry. See, children, here is a saw — s-a-w. Let us write it\non the blackboard. It is derived from the Latin, serratus — notched or toothed;\nhere are the notches.\nIt is, as you see, of an oblong shape and presents an\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nON\n\nHEALTH\n\n265\n\noval-shaped aperture at the wooden end, into which I can thrust my hand,\nhence this is known as the handle — h-a-n-d-1-e. Let us write that upon the\nboard. Already familiar to you in the phrase: \"Touch not, taste not, handle\nnot the unclean thing. \"\n''Can you give me a sentence in which the word 'saw' occurs?\" \"Seesaw, Marjory Daw !\" \"Very good !\" \"Remember that you must distinguish\nthis from the past tense of the verb, 'to see' — frequently, but most incorrectly\ngiven as 'seen.' I hope none of you will ever be guilty of this vulgarism.\"\nAnd so on, ad infinitum, instead of, \"Here's a saw and a hammer and some\nnails. Get to work and make a box!\"\nWe should develop the tools of our minds, not by reading about them and\ntalking around them and writing all over and around and across them, but\nby using them on something we are interested in and can understand. Our\npresent system of culture is chiefly occupied with teaching children to express\ntheir ideas — without giving them any ideas to express. Its primitive prototype\nwas a Pharaoh of Egypt when he demanded bricks without straw. From a\nphysical point of view, lessons and formal instruction in reading, in writing,\nin spelling, and in arithmetic, are not only unnecessary but absurd. The\nrational method of teaching them is to put the children at work at something\nwhich they are interested in, and can understand; then urge them to talk,\nwrite, and figure about it, correct their mistakes and set them a good example.\nThis is Nature's Royal Road to real learning.\nIn short, the ideal school of the future should be about one-fourth book\nwork or schoolroom, one-fourth workshop, one-fourth garden and one-fourth\nplay. \"But,\" objects someone, \"this would deprive education of all disciplinary value. \" President Eliot spitted that heresy, and pinned it to the wall\nfor all time, the other day, in the statement: \"You cannot train a child for life\nby teaching to it what it hates.\" The best preparation for success in life is\nnot to teach a child to work, whether it likes it or not, but to teach it to love its\nwork, to take a joy and a pride in learning and doing. This, the unspoiled\nyoung of the human species is ready and eager to do, if he is only given a\nchance to grow into it naturally. Our present method of forcing things down\nhis throat, months and years in advance of his appetite for them, indeed of his\nability to digest them, serves simply to disgust him with the whole process.\nIt has long been the complaint of practical men that the school did not\nfit children for life, and practical men were right. The principal aim of the\nschool is yet the production of that ornamental, but rather useless, creature\nknown as a \"gentleman and a scholar. \" The ambition which it drills into its\ngraduates is that they should be superior to others, instead of being of service\nto the community. The aim is to train professional men and clerks, rather\nthan business men, craftsmen, and scientists. Small wonder that it is so\nutterly unsuited to the natural requirements of the child and of the age, that\nfrom 25 to 40 per cent, of its pupils are from two to three years behind\ntheir grades before the twelfth year, and that there is a perfect rush to escape\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nfrom its prison walls after the age of twelve — in other words, as soon as\nthe child begins to think for himself.\nIt is not necessary to choose between culture and efficiency, between\nmind and body, between intellect and morals. All are part of one great whole,\nand all interdependent. If our schools will simply push forward to their full\nlegitimate conclusion the magnificent movements which they have already\nbegun in the direction of manual training, gymnasia, trade schools, school\ngardens and school playgrounds, reducing the hours of confinement in the\nschoolroom to less than two hours a day and developing the whole child,\nsymmetrically, instead of just the brain bulb at his upper end, the real millennium of health, of happiness, of personal righteousness and civic devotion will\ncome, without our having to go to heaven to get it.\n\nIV.\n\nFRANK\n\nA PLEA FOR THE SYSTEMATIC ANNUAL AND UNIVERSAL EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN'S\nEYES, NOSES, AND THROATS\nALLPORT,\nPROFESSOR\nNORTHWESTERN\n\nOF CLINICAL OPHTHALMOLOGY AND\nMEDICAL SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nOTOLOGY,\n\nIn presenting a paper on the eyes and ears of school children the magnitude\nof the subject should first be considered in order to emphasize its importance. •\nThere are in the United States about 20,000,000 public-school children or\nabout 20 per cent, of the entire population. These children average 150 days\nin school each year.\nThere are nearly 500,000 public-school teachers in this country.\nAbout $850,000,000 are invested in public schools, and about $440,000,000\nare annually expended for keeping these schools in useful operation.\nThere are in the United States about 300,000 blind people, supported by the\nstate at an annual expense of about $15,000,000. Most of these people would\nnot have become blind if their diseases had been detected early in life.\nIt has been recently ascertained in London that whereas it only costs £4\nor £$ per annum to support a normal child, it costs about £2^ per annum to\nsupport a deaf child.\nAbout 50,000 American children are annually removed from school on\naccount of physical inability to continue at work. A large proportion of these\nchildren suffer from some eye or ear defect.\nAbout 8,000,000 school children suffer from some eye defect, and about\n8,000,000 from some ear, nose, or throat defect. In other words, about 16,000,000 children, or 80 per cent, of the entire public-school population, suffer from\nsome eye, ear, nose, or throat defect, which more or less retards their school\nprogress, and a vast majority of these diseases could be cured or relieved if\ndetected and placed under proper medical supervision. Dr. F. J. Mann,\nof Poughkeepsie, inspector of schools, recently found that every truant in that\ncity had some radical defect of the eye, ear, nose, or throat.\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nEYES, NOSES,\n\nAND\n\nTHROATS\n\n267\n\nIf the foregoing statements are true, and I believe they are, then the subject isone of great magnitude and one quite worthy of the careful consideration\nof sociologists, educators, school and health boards, physicians, parents, and\nlawmakers. The vast amounts, of money invested in school properties and\nannual budgets cannot be well expended unless the children are in a proper\nphysical condition to receive presented instruction. Unless children receive\nand absorb presented instruction they do not become properly educated.\nUnless children are properly educated they do not become useful citizens, and\nare apt to develop idle and criminal tendencies and become financial and moral\ncharges upon the state. The logical conclusion, therefore, is, if it is deemed\nadvisable materially to mitigate idleness and crime, and to increase the ranks\nof self-respecting and self-supporting men and women, then educate them, and,\nif physical defects hamper their educational progress, then eliminate, as far as\npossible, such physical defects, and allow the children at least the physical\npossibility of absorbing the beneficial opportunities of our public schools.\nThere is much to be said concerning the specific and intimate connection existing between a child's general health and his studies, but as my portion of this\nsymposium refers only to the eyes and ears of school children, I shall be compelled tolimit myself to this phase of the subject, remembering, however, that\nthis topic is by no means restricted in its character for, with the exception of\nmental capacity, nothing is so essential to the acquirement of an education as\ngood sight and hearing. A child who cannot see well at a distance is debarred\nfrom participation in the important blackboard and other distant demonstrations which play such an essential role in modern educational methods; a\nchild who cannot study without headache or fatigue soon forms a great distaste\nfor books and acquires habits of idleness, with all its entailed consequences,\nwhile a child whose vision is generally impaired by cataracts, corneal scars,\nintra-ocular diseases, etc., becomes almost a hopeless proposition so far as a\ndecent education is concerned. The difficulty which a deaf child undergoes\nin the effort to acquire an education must be apparent to everyone, while a\nchild with discharging and foul ears is not only in danger of death, but is an\ninfective menace to the entire school.\nChildren of this kind, with serious eye, ear, nose, or throat defects, find\nthemselves at great disadvantage in their school. Owing to their physical\ninfirmities they cannot easily take advantage of presented instruction, and,\nconsequently, fall behind their fellow-students, are thought to be stupid, idle,\nor vicious, are punished for their retarded progress, become discouraged and\nlose interest in their work, become truants, form bad associations, easily\ndrop into pauperism and crime, and undoubtedly form the major portion of\nthe inmates of reform schools, jails, penitentiaries, and charitable institutions.\nIt must, therefore, be admitted that education is one of the strongest factors\nin the lessening of poverty and crime, and that to education we must largely\nlook for the upbuilding and development of strong, resolute manhood and\nwomanhood which must ever be the hope and promise of the nation's succeed-\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ning generations. Is it then asking too much of educators and lawmakers to\nsee that the physical condition of children is such as to render easily possible\nthe absorption of the educational offerings of our public schools, for without\nsuch physical capacity it must become difficult or impossible to uplift the\nchild, mentally and morally, and to take advantage of the country's immense\nexpenditures in the interest of education and, higher still, to take advantage of\nthe great opportunity extended to our public schools, of turning out each year\nyoung men and young women well adapted and equipped for the great battle\nof life and for the general improvement and betterment of our fatherland and\nits conditions.\nOur public schools are a public trust, not in the offensive sense of the word,\nbut they are a trust confided by the people to certain officers into whose hands\nare intrusted the welfare of our schools and their pupils. These officers\nvoluntarily assume their duties; they undertake to manage the schools in\ntha best interests of the children, the people, and the nation. They require\nattendance and establish meeting-places where they stand in loco parentis\nand where the children pass the major portion of their waking hours. They\nshould, then, not be satisfied with the mere extending forth of knowledge to\nthe young and budding mind, but should accompany it with all the solicitude\nand care extended to fortunate children by loving and watchful parents, for\nit must be remembered that many children in our public schools are fatherless\nor motherless or. Heaven knows, might better be, and will receive all the love\nand kindness they are likely to know behind the portals of our public schools.\nI should not be misunderstood as criticizing our schools or of accusing its\nofficers of neglect or carelessness, for such, believe me, is not the case ; enormous\nstrides have been made along these and all other lines during the last few\nyears, but much remains to be done and it is to be hoped and believed that the\nsame degree of energy and enthusiasm that has already inspired the accomplishment ofso much good work in the past will be the means of accomplishing\nthat work in the future, which must be the aim and ambition of all those having\nthe best interests at heart of the children, the schools, and the nation.\nThe systematic physical examination of pupils by medical school inspectors\nand the efficient co-operation of school nurses are among the greatest advancements that have ever been made in the direction of improving the physical\ncondition of school children; enormous benefit has resulted therefrom. Their\nlabors, however, can be greatly heightened by delegating to the school teachers\nthemselves the practical examination of the eyes, ears, noses, and throats of\nthe children. Fortunately, this is a field that can be efficiently covered by the\nteacher, for, while after the examination the teacher will not, and should not\neven try to make a diagnosis, sufficient data will have been obtained to enable\nher or him to know that the child has passed either a satisfactory examination,\nor has some defect which shall be diagnosed and treated by the physician to\nwhom the case becomes ultimately referred. This examination consists in the\nascertaining of a few simple facts as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nEYES, NOSES,\n\nAND\n\nTHROATS\n\n269\n\n1. Does the pupil habitually suffer from inflamed lids or eyes?\n2. Does the pupil fail to read a majority of the letters in the number XX line of the\nSnellen's test types with either eye?\n3. Do the eyes and head habitually grow heavy and painful after study ?\n4. Does the pupil appear to be \"cross-eyed\"?\n5. Does the pupil complain of earache in either ear?\n6. Does pus or a foul odor proceed from either ear?\n7. Does the pupil fail to hear an ordinary voice at twenty feet, in a quiet room, with\neither ear?\n8. Is the pupil frequently subject to \"colds in the head\" and discharges from the nose\nand throat?\n9. Is the pupil an habitual \"mouth breather?\"\nIf an affirmative answer is found to any of these questions the pupil should be given\na printed card of warning to be handed to the parent, which should read as follows:\nCard of Warning\n\nto Parents\n\nAfter due consideration it is believed that your child has some eye, ear, nose, or throat\ndisease for which your family physician or some specialist should be at once consulted.\nIt is earnestly requested that this matter be not neglected.\nRespectfully,\n\nIt will be observed that these cards are not obligatory in their character and\nthat they leave the choice of a physician with the parent. If the matter is not\nattended to the teacher or the school nurse should take the matter persistently\nin hand and endeavor to persuade compliance with the plan. The examinations should be made early in the school year, say, in September, in order to\nbring the idea to completion and watch the results before the end of the school\nyear. To this end it is urged that a certain early date be set aside each year\nfor these examinations, and that nothing shall be allowed to interfere with\ntheir performance. It is recommended that each teacher examine the pupils\nin her own room, not only because she is familiar with the children and their\ncomplaints, but because it subdivides the work, so that it does not become\na strain upon any one person; the results can be handed to the principal who\nshould retain them for future reference. I advise that a certain early date in\nthe fall be set aside for these examinations, and inasmuch as a schoolroom\nrarely contains more than forty pupils, and that each examination can be easily\nmade in five minutes, an entire room can be examined in a few hours. In this\nway an entire city, no matter how large, can be easily finished in less than a\nday's time, and the benefits which must follow are bound to be enormous.\nThe expense is slight, as all that is necessary is the Snellen's test-types with\nteachers' instructions attached, together with the warning cards to parents and\nvery simple record blanks. A city like Chicago, for instance, can be annually\ntested at an expense which should not exceed $500 per annum, a truly insignificant amount, when one considers the great benefit which must inevitably\nfollow. Teachers do not need to feel their incapacity to make these tests, for\nthe questions are of the simplest character, and yet, when analyzed, will be\nfound to be so comprehensive in character as to detect at least 90 per cent, of\nserious eye, ear, nose, or throat defects.\n\nNeither is it a tax on a teacher's time\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "270\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nor patience, for the tests are perfectly easy to make, can be done in a few hours,\nand the great benefit which will follow, in transforming apparently stupid\nchildren, who cannot see or hear well, into ordinarily bright children, will\namply repay the teacher for what little work she has done and, by such transformations, will inevitably and greatly lighten her future labors. This plan,\nwhich I proposed years ago, is now in quite general use thruout the United\nStates, and has been indorsed by the American Medical Association, by most\nof the State Medical Societies, Boards of Health and Education, and is a law\nin Vermont, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. I here give the Vermont law,\nwhich is the best one that has yet been passed :\nSection i. The State Board of Health and the Superintendent of Education shall\nprepare or cause to be prepared suitable test cards, blanks, record books, and other needful appliances to be used in testing the sight and hearing of pupils in public schools, and\nnecessary instructions for their use; and the Superintendent of Education shall furnish\nthe same free of expense to every school in the state. The superintendent, principal,\nor teacher in every school during the month of September in each year shall test the sight\nand hearing of all pupils under his charge, and keep a record of such examinations according to the instructions furnished, and shall notify in writing the parent or guardian of every\npupil who shall be found to have any defect of vision or hearing, or diseases of eyes or\nears, with a brief statement of such defect or disease, and shall make a written report\nof all such examinations to the Superintendent of Education as he may require.\nSection 2. The State Auditor is hereby directed to draw his order on the State Treasurer for such sums and at such times as the Superintendent of Education, with the approval\nof the State Board of Health, may require to carry out the provisions of this act. The\ntotal expense under this act shall not exceed Six Hundred ($600) Dollars in any biennial\nterm ending June 30.\nSection 3. This act shall take effect July i, 1905.\n\nA similar law will probably be passed this winter in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio,\nColorado, North Dakota, California, and other states. It should become a\nlaw in every state in the Union, for these examinations should be compulsory\nin character and every school child should participate in its benefits. (May\nI beg for the assistance of this society and the profession of this state, in securing the passage of this law at Springfield this winter ? Senator Charles Billings\nhas the matter in charge.)\nIn conclusion, and bearing directly upon the subject, not only of a child's\ngeneral health, but also of his ocular condition, I desire to protest against the\ntoo frequent intellectual forcing of children, to satisfy the ambition of the child\nhimself, his parent, or his teacher. This process becomes particularly objectionable when it occurs as it frequently does during the period of adolescence,\nwhen the nervous system of the child is often taxed to its utmost, and when his\nstudies and indoor confinement should be reduced to a minimum. It is at this\ntime that we frequently see not only generally broken-down children, but also\nchildren whose eyes are often in an extremely troublesome and sometimes\ndangerous condition, and it is at this time that extra care and solicitude must\nbe maintained that the seeds of general and ocular invalidism be not planted.\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nEYES, NOSES,\n\nAND\n\nTHROATS\n\n271\n\nDISCUSSION\nHerbert Dana Schenck, Consulting Ophthalmologist to the State Department of\nHealth, Brooklyn, N. Y, — No systematic examination of the vision or hearing of the\nschool children of the state of New York has been undertaken in spite of the fact that it\nis more than a century since effects of school life upon children's eyes were pointed out by\nBeers. In 1867 Cohn made an extensive study of the effects of school life, particularly\nupon the sight, and since then an increasing number of physicians have reported upon the\ndefects of sight, hearing, and obstructed nasal respiration upon school work. Dr. Allport,\nof Chicago, having done a large work along this line.\nThe past ten years has witnessed the institution of these examinations in the large\ncities of the state, beginning with New York City in 1897, followed by others of the first\nand second class. No systematic effort, however, for examinations, and no effort at all\nfor an annual record of the condition of the sight, hearing and nasal operations has been\nmade by even the most progressive cities. Almost no cities of the third class and, with\none or two exceptions, none of the villages of the state have made any examinations at\nall of the sight or hearing.\nThe New York State Department of Health took up the consideration of this subject\nsoon after the present commissioner, Eugene H. Porter, A.M., M.D., was appointed four\nyears ago, and, after a careful survey of the field, determined to make an effort to have\na test made by the teachers. At a conference of the health officers in the fall of 1906\nthe matter was presented, and, after consideration by the conference, enthusiastically\nadopted.\nAs the health officers of the state were unanimous for having it made uniform thruout the state, a plan, essentially that in vogue for ten years in Connecticut, for four years\nin Vermont, and for the last two years in Massachusetts, where the examinations are\ncompulsory, was adopted.\nThe reasons for having the examination made by the teachers were:\nFirst, for reasons of economy. It does not cost the school district one cent, as the\nstate furnishes the cards, blanks, and directions for making the examinations.\nSecond, it is prompt and causes little disturbance of the school routine, as one day,\nor, at the most, one and one-half days will suffice for the teachers to make the examination\nin their own rooms. It is the only plan thus far suggested that combines promptness\nwith completeness.\nThird, the method is accurate enough to give parents notice that their children have\ndefects that interfere with their school work, and to enable them to seek competent professional advice thru their family physician. Parents should shoulder the responsibility of correcting these defects in the physical equipment of their children. In every\nvillage there is enough Christian charity for the well-to-do to help the less fortunate when\nnecessary.\nFourth, in the large villages and smaller cities competent inspectors to make this\nexamination are few, and in the smaller villages and country districts there are none.\nIn the former it has been found that an inspector hardly finishes the work during the\nschool year. The children, too, are less liable to become nervous and make blunders\nwhen the examination is made by their own teacher rather than a stranger.\nBecause we had no compulsory law and lacked the moral support and active cooperation ofthe State Department of Education, it was determined to confine our efforts\nthe first year to the incorporated villages.\nThe test cards, directions, proper blanks for reports, etc., were sent out in October,\n1907, for the examination of the children in the 446 incorporated villages of the state.\nOf these 425, or over 95 per cent., made the tests. The correspondence necessary to\nhave them made in many villages was conducted almost wholly with the school principals. Many of them thought the examination unnecessary; some that it was imprac-\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ntical; others that they could not spare the time; and still others that it was merely a whim\nof some reformer. It was a curious fact that in quite a number of villages the trustees and\nschool boards were in favor of the examination but had not sufficient force or energy to\ncompel their teachers or principals to make it. Several such wrote that they had directed\nthat the examinations be made, and were surprised that they had not been, but no reports\nwere ever received.\nOne of the criticisms of the plan was that the teachers were not compeHent to make\nthe test, none of the critics having investigated the experience of the states where these\nexaminations had been held successfully for several years.\nThe number of pupils examined in the 425 villages was 105,767. Of these, 100,722\nhad only their vision tested; 5,045, being under seven years of age, had their hearing\ntested, and the condition of their noses and throats recorded. This part of the examination was very defective — only 184 villages reported an examination of those under\nseven years of age.\nThe number of children examined varied greatly in its relation to the population\nof the village. In the smaller towns it went to almost 50 per cent, and in the majority\nran from 16 per cent, to 25 per cent. In the larger villages, that is, those having a population exceeding 2,000, the proportion varied between 7 per cent, and 12 per cent. The\ntests were very much better made, reports better prepared and more promptly returned\nin the smaller than in the larger villages where the superintendent or supervising principal was opposed to it or took no pains to see that it was carefully done.\nAbout 38 per cent, of the pupils whose vision was tested were reported as defective.\nThis was probably a larger proportion than the facts would justify, due to the inexperience\nof the teachers, the nervousness of the children, or possibly to improper lighting of the\ncards because of not following carefully the directions sent out by the department.\nThere were 10,332 reported with defective hearing, a little over 9 per cent. This\nis probably somewhat below the percentage usually found, due to the inexperience of the\nteachers in not having any personal instruction in making the tests. There were 10,232\nreported to be subject to earache or having a discharge from one or both ears. Most of\nthese were found in higher grades, showing the defects of the examination and that the information was gotten by the teachers from a subjective instead of an objective examination.\nThe teachers reported those suffering from \"frequent colds in the heads\" or those\nwho were \"mouth breathers\" as about 38 per cent, of those examined, which was excessive\nbecause, as noted above, the teachers got their information apparently from questioning\nthe children and not from observation.\nFrom 371 villages and towns 22,548 reports were sent to the parents; 55 villages sent\nnone so far as their reports indicated. In some of the villages undoubtedly a large number\nof reports in excess of those required were sent the parents, but it is better to err on this side\nrather than that the parents of any child with a defect of the eyes, ears, or nasal apparatus\nshould not be notified.\nIn spite of its defects, which were not large considering the newness of the tests and\nthe want of proper personal instruction as to how to make them, the intent of the examination was fairly well met.\nThe examinations will be more carefully made as soon as the public can be brought\nto feel the necessity for them, and the teachers have instruction given them in the teachers*\ninstitutes, in the normal schools, and in the training classes. When the teachers are properly equipped to make this examination the public will be much more rapidly convinced that the tests only mean to show wherein lie some of the physical defects which\nlessen the capacity of their children for work. A law making it compulsory to have them\nannually made, as in Connecticut, Vermont, and Massachusetts, will undoubtedly hasten\nthe time when school authorities, principals, teachers, and parents would take up the plan\nseriously as a part of the general school curriculum and systematically and carefully carry\nit out.\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nDIGNITY\n\nOF VOCATION\n\n273\n\nThe New York State Department sent out blanks nine years ago inviting the schools\nto make this test, but only received a few reports. Our examination in 1907-08 would\nhave been passed over in the same way had we not followed up the first circulars with\nadditional letters and pressing circulars asking that the tests be made. Some were not\nmade until late in the spring. When school principals generally appreciate the necessity\nof these tests, the public will speedily conclude that they meet a real defect in the presentday education, and the opposition of those who are uninformed or opposed to any advances\nor changes of educational methods will be overcome.\n\nTOPIC:\n/.\n\nTHE\n\nKENYON\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDIGNITY OF VOCATION AS A FUNDAMENTAL\nIDEA IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\n\nL. BUTTERFIELD,\n\nPRESIDENT OF STATE\nAMHERST, MASS.\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe concrete purpose of the movement for industrial education, as I understand it,is to secure an extension of our scheme of public education, so that it\nshall include that form of schooling for our youth which will fit them for the\npursuit of those occupations of life which are connected with the industries.\nIt is a phase of vocational education. Consequently the principles which should\nbe applied to the training of youth for the callings of life generally must, in the\nmain, apply to the development of industrial courses and schools. Doubtless\nwe have not yet fully worked out these principles of vocational education. We\nare confronted by many serious questions.\nFundamentally, in the schooling of youth, what relation shall we establish\nbetween the school and life? Shall the school prepare for life or for only\na part of it ? To illustrate : Every man has to work to earn a living. His\nleisure hours are few and their occupations are subsidiary. His thought and\nenergy are absorbed by his vocation. Now shall the schools emphasize his\nvocation or his leisure ? Again : All true education idealizes the human spirit,\nand consequently places the development of the man above the training of the\nworker.\nBut to what degree can we separate the man from his work ?\nThe last question raises several others: If we seek to school the worker,\nshall we train first the man, on the principle that by properly training a man\nwe best train a worker ? Or shall we follow the training of the man by a special\ntraining of the worker ? Or shall we train the worker primarily, assuming that\nan efficient workman will be an efficient man and member of society ? Or can\nwe show that one's work and one's personal growth and social usefulness are\nall in some way so intimately related that we can best develop a man thru\nhis work, and consequently can train man and worker together ?\nI am not going to try to answer these fundamental questions specifically.\nBut this paper is written under the conviction that preparation for vocation\nproperly followed does arm the man; that it does educate the individual; that\nit does enlarge the spirit. One reason for this conviction is its necessity. If\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "274\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\na preparation for vocation is not educational, or if vocation does not develop\nmen, then the vast majority of men can never be educated, because the vast\nmajority of men must begin work fairly early in life, and must toil all their lives.\nBut if the training for vocation is actually to have this large educational value,\nit implies that vocation itself is to be a large part of life — intrinsically and inherently, and not merely because of the hardships of a changing industrial order,\nor because of any other accidental causes. Hence it is vital that we shall first\nfind the place of vocation in the normal life of the average man, before we can\nproperly develop the training for vocation, or appreciate the definite educational\nvalue of the vocational course of study. We must recognize at the outset the\ngenuine dignity of any legitimate vocation, and the educational value, the\ncultural value if you please, of an adequate preparation for the adequate practice of a legitimate vocation.\nLet us then try to answer briefly such further questions as these: What does\nvocation mean to the average man ? What part does it play in his life ? What\ndoes it signify as a factor of personal development and of social duty ?\nI. Vocation is the only means of livelihood for most men. — This is not a\nminor fact, it is a prime fact. Labor is necessary for individual sustenance.\nIt is also a fundamental individual obligation. It is absolutely requisite in a\nstrong social organization. Men must work. Each man must work. But\neach man ought to work at the thing which he can best do, and he ought to\nwork at his best at the thing which he can best do. Vocation as a means of\nlivelihood is not a thing to be abhorred. It is not a thing to be despised. It\nis a part of a normal man's life. In fact, it is the larger part of a man's life.\nMoreover, we must cease to discriminate between the dignity of various vocations as a means of livelihood. It is mischievous to permit the growth of\nsentiments among youth that seem to dignify certain vocations and to place\nothers under the ban. It is wrong morally ; it is harmful socially; it is disastrous politically. If democracy means anything, it means the dignity of the\nwork of the man who works for a livelihood, provided what he does is serviceable and is well done.\nII. It follows clearly that, as vocation is essential to livelihood, it is therefore\nessential to family life. — But more than that, the type and success and quality\nof a man's vocation determine to a very great degree the quality and success and\ntype of his family life. The man inevitably brings to his headship of a family\nthe results in character, in efficiency, in outlook, that are produced by his daily\ntoil. The home and the work react each upon the other; practically the work,\nor the vocation, is the more active partner.\nIII. Vocation is the chief means of social service for most people. — Doubtless the majority of workers toil for the definite financial reward that comes to\nthem. At the same time, in our complex scheme of industry, with its increasingly minute divisions of labor, a man's vocation is his method of helping to\nsupply human wants, of rendering some service to his fellow-men. It is a\nbeautiful ideal to hold before us that sometime men will enter upon their toil\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nDIGNITY\n\nOF\n\nVOCATION\n\n275\n\nwholly in the spirit of service. Nothing would more quickly revolutionize\nindustrial society than for men to follow their vocations primarily as a means\nof service, and secondarily as a means of livelihood or reward. Probably any\nsteps which may be taken toward the realization of any such distant goal must\nwait on the development of a new idea of the dignity of a man's work in life,\nas a means of expressing a spirit of social service. Indeed, I believe that this\nnew view of vocation will be achieved almost wholly thru the schools, by\nadequately preparing youth for the proper vocational experience.\nIV For most men vocation is the chief means of culture. — We emphasize,\nand rightly enough, the need of training men, of giving youth a \"liberal\"\neducation; we seek to determine the \"cultural value\" of certain subjects.\nBut when we consider the actual situation that confronts the great majority\nof men, even of those trained in the schools, we must admit that vocation is for\nthis great majority the chief element in their mental and moral growth. The\ncharacter and quality of vocation influence a man's life by determining to a\ngreat degree his social and moral environment for the larger part of his waking\nhours; by fixing to a large extent his point of view as to his individual, social,\nand political interests and duties; by influencing powerfully his intellectual\ntastes and capacities; by limiting to very rigid bounds the extent of his leisure,\nand in some measure governing the use of that leisure. Finally, vocation is\nfor most men the chief means of self-expression for their ideas and for their\nideals.\nWe must consider the duties of citizenship, the avocations of men, what one\nought to do with his leisure, the use of libraries, and the development of taste\nfor proper reading; but the practical fact is that the vast majority of even\nintelligent men find themselves hedged in by the limitations of their vocation.\nThey also find their chief outlet for spiritual and intellectual power thru\ntheir vocation.\nThis brief statement of the place of vocation in life shows that the facts of\nlife dignify vocation, and inevitably suggests the dignity of an adequate preparation for vocation, partly that men may be properly trained for their vocation,\nand partly that by means of proper training, vocation may still further be\ndignified and enlarged, not merely as a means of productive efficiency, but as\na means of personal growth and social service. Too commonly we think of\nthe added practical efficiency of the worker, and of the desirability of manual\nskill in our economic life, as the chief arguments for industrial education. All\nthis is good, but it is not adequate. Vocational education — industrial, commercial, or professorial — is adequate only when it shows the personal and social\nrelationships of vocation, when it makes vocation the core of sound personal\ngrowth and proper social service. Adequate schooling for vocation will\nbroaden and dignify vocation as well as give industrial efficiency. We cannot\nafford to magnify industrial efficiency at the expense of personal growth or of\nsocial service; nothing will do more to idealize the vocation than a proper\ncourse of training for vocation.\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "276\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nI have said that we must show to the youth the relationships of vocation.\nLet me take a few moments to illustrate this from the field of argicultural\neducation. The most primitive agricultural practice was, perhaps, an American Indian, pushing a stick into the ground, and depositing in the hole a kernel\nof maize. It is still possible for an ignorant man, on a fairly fertile piece\nof land, to raise a sufficient amount of food to meet the actual wants of himself\nand his family, and to have a little surplus for the purchase of a few things\nwhich he or his family cannot produce. But the time is rapidly approaching\nwhen this will be a very difficult thing to do. Even now, only a high degree of\nskill and intelligence can secure from the soil a reward which the intelligent\nman thinks is necessary in our modern civilization. It therefore becomes not\nonly possible but necessary, in training a man for efficient industrial life on the\nland, to broaden his knowledge not only of his special business, but of the\nlarger interests of life. Thus he becomes both an efficient worker and a\ntrained man. His vocation gains the dignity that belongs to it. He must, for\ninstance, on the technical side, develop manual skill of a fairly high order; for\nthe good farmer is a skilled worker. As a producer, he must understand the\ngreat natural forces that govern the production of plants and animals. He may\nnot be, and need not be, a scientist, but he works constantly with at least some\nof the materials that go to make up the sciences of chemistry, of physics, of\ngeology, of climatology, of zoology, of botany, of animal and plant physiology,\nof bacteriology, of entomology. In the breeding and feeding of plants and\nanimals, he is dealing at first hand with the very fundamentals of scientific\nknowledge and inquiry.\nOn the business side, there is not only demanded a knowledge of ordinary\nbusiness methods, but the farming industry is constantly at the mercy of great\neconomic forces — railroads, market conditions, and the competition of great\ncombinations of capital. The well-trained farmer will know something of the\nhistory of agriculture, of the development of world markets, of the methods of\nsuccessful co-operative buying and selling, and of the relation of his business\nto the great economic questions of transportation, taxation, and the tariff.\nIf the farmer is trained for leadership in the community, he comes on the\nsocial side into direct contact with the great problems of education and organization. He deals with forces that may make or unmake our rural civilization.\nThus if we are to fit a young man adequately for the proper pursuit of the\nbusiness of agriculture, we are obliged to give him an education that teaches\nin some degree, at least, the various relationships of his vocation, both personal\nand social. Now if he really gets the training just outUned, and if he actually\nfollows his vocation in the light of these larger relationships, is he not liberally\neducated ? What can be more broadening for the average man of slight\nleisure ? What is more conducive to sound culture than that out of his immediate daily environment the man shall gain an appreciation of that environment? What order of life for the average man could minister more\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n277\n\ncompletely to his personal growth than the pursuit of a vocation in this\nfashion? What could better help the man who toils into a fuller social\nservice ?\nOf course in this discussion of vocational education, we will be confronted\nby the query: In thus emphasizing the dignity of vocation, do you not make\nvocation co-ordinate with life, and preparation for vocation co-ordinate with\npreparation for life ? I do not think so. Vocation admittedly has its limitatians. Vocation ought not to be all of life. There ought to be leisure — a\nnoble river of life springing from great intellectual and spiritual fountains\nthat are unsullied by the debris of toil. But what I plead for is the recognition of the part which vocation actually does play in life, and its undeveloped\npossibilities for personal growth and social welfare. Pedagogically, we must\ndiscover and apply the educational values of an adequate preparation for a\nbroad personal and social functioning of vocational experiences. Then why not\ngive preparation for vocation the proportions which vocation is finally to take ?\n.We sometimes hear slurs about ''bread-and-butter education.\" Such criticisms are superfluous. The constructive thought is that vocation is not\nmerely bread-and-butter-getting, but it is life. True, it is not all of life, but\nit is a large part of Ufe as it is actually lived by real men.\nIt is said that Wendell Phillips once remarked: \"The best education in the\nworld is that got by struggling to get a living.\" But we have said, \"We will\nfirst train men, then we will train workers.\" Should we separate these ideas ?\nPractically we have failed to a large degree in the first purpose, simply because\na man's work is a part of the man. So far, we have almost entirely failed in\nthe second purpose, because the boy has not waited for us to get thru with\nthe process of training him as a man, according to our ideas of what that training should be. So we have had no chance to train him as a worker.\nWe are yet inclined to treat preparation for life as something different\nfrom preparation for vocation, and education for vocation as something apart\nfrom general education. In some way, we must co-ordinate these things. We\nmust fuse them. Preparation for vocation must bear somewhat the same relation to schooling as vocation bears to life. Let us then determine the place of\nvocation in actual life and its further possibilities. Let us dignify vocation\nas the first term in industrial education.\n//.\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n' OF UNIVERSAL\nEUGENE\n\nDAVENPORT,\n\nA PHASE\n\nOF THE\n\nPROBLEM\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDEAN\nOF COLLEGE\nOF AGRICULTURE,\nILLINOIS, CHAMPAIGN, ILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nRightly or wrongly, for good or for ill, we are committed to a policy of\nuniversal education, a policy whose wisdom, I believe, has passed the stage\nof discussion among thinking people.\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nhope to become universal if it does not touch and benefit all classes of men,\nand all legitimate branches of their activity, both industrial and non-industrial,\nvocational and non-vocational. Indeed, universal education means exactly\nwhat it says — the education of all sorts of men for all sorts of purposes and\nin all sorts of subjects that can contribute to the efficiency of the individual\nin a professional way or awake and develop the best that was born into him\nas a man and a human being.\nLooked at in this broad way, industrial education does not differ logically\nfrom any other form of professional training that requires a large body of\nhighly specialized knowledge. Nor do industrial people, as such, necessarily\nconstitute a class by themselves, but are men Hke other men, who love and hate,\nwho earn and spend, who read and think, and act and vote, and do any and all\nother acts which may be performed by any other citizens. Now all of this\nleads me to maintain the thesis that industrial education is not a thing apart\nbut is only a phase, albeit an important phase, of our general system of universal education, a thesis that is the more plausible when we remember that all\nmen need two educations — one that is vocational and one that is not ; one that\nwill fit them to work and one that will fit them to five. When we remember\nthat there is less difference between industry and occupation than we once\nassumed; when we remember that 90 per cent, of the people follow industrial\npursuits and will continue to do so ; when we remember that all major industries like other essential activities must go on in the future as in the past, even\ntho every man in the community were a college graduate, and when we\nremember that it is for the public good that these major industries be\ndeveloped and occupied by educated men, surely this position is not unreasonable.\nAll parties are agreed these days that in order to secure a fair degree of\nefficiency in some way some sort of specialized instruction should be given\nin industrial pursuits. The old apprentice system has passed away and\nthe work of instruction for industrial efficiency seems to be thrown upon the\nschools. It is a new problem and they appear not to know quite what to do\nwith it. It is perfectly clear that industrial education calls for new and different\ncourses of instruction from those designed to fit for non-industrial pursuits,\nand the question is whether these constitute a part of our public-school duty\nor whether the peculiar educational needs of industry and of industrial people\nmay be left to take care of themselves. In discussing industrial education,\nas with all other forms of education, it must always be remembered that\nwe are dealing with the man as well as with the craftsman, and I use the\nterm craftsman in its broadest sense to cover the work of the lawyer as well as\nthat of the farmer.\nAnd this man — what of him ? Surely he is a factor in the case. He is\nsomething more than a farmer or a doctor or a lawyer, or else he is something\nless than a man. His education is not to be limited by the demands of his\nvocation.\nWe have too many of that kind already in all prof essions — a kind-\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n279\n\nof museum of educational parrots that go thru their daily stunts, each considering himself highly educated and all other men at best merely trained.\nYes, the man himself, the human element in the case — he must be educated.\nAnd if he be truly educated he will first of all be trained in some profession —\nno matter what — and he will, second of all, be trained outside of his profession\nso that he will be bigger than the means whereby he earns his bread and butter:\nand this applies to all men of all vocations, for there is no such thing as a learned\nprofession except in the sense that all the major activities are learned.\nAnd so I lay down the proposition that whether the education be industrial\nor otherwise vocational, it is but a part, tho an essential part, of the education of a man, and that all these specialized forms of vocational instruction are\nbut different phases of our great problem of universal education, to which\nwe as a people are committed.\nLike all great purposes actuating the masses of men the development of\nthis idea of universal education has been a growth. It began with the conviction that in justice to the individual and in safety to the state, all men of all\nclasses should possess at least the rudiments of learning, and the first step\ntoward a complete system of universal education was the free public school\nwherein the child of the rich and of the poor alike, whether genius or dullard,\nmay learn to read and to write and to reason, which after all are fundamental\nto all education. And so it is that our elementary education is universal in\nthe sense that it applies to all the children of all classes of people and without\ndiscrimination.\nThis marked a new epoch in the life of industrial people, because hitherto\nthe policy of the world had been to keep working-folk ignorant in order that\nthey might remain contented with the hard lot to which Providence had presumably assigned them; because, forsooth, must there not be hewers of\nwood and drawers of water? So were laid the foundations for a system of\nuniversal education — universal in the sense that it applied to all men — affording not only the rudiments of learning but opening a highway even to the college and the learned professions, and many escaped thereby from a hard life\nof toil.\nBut no scheme of education is truly universal or can hope to become so\nuntil it not only touches and uplifts all classes of men but also touches and\nuplifts their industries as well; for it is not expedient that men should desert\nindustry as soon as they are educated, but rather that they should remain and\napply their education to the development of the industries, that the people may\nbe better served and the economic balance of things be not disturbed by the\nevolution of an educational system aiming to become universal.\nThe need of attention at this point became evident especially to industrial\npeople, and on July 2, 1862, Abraham Lincoln affixed his signature to the most\nfar-reaching bit of federal legislation ever enacted. I refer to the land-grant\nact whereby there was provided for each state of the union ''at least one college\nwhose leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nstudies, .... to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture\nand the mechanic arts .... in order to promote the liberal and practical\neducation of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of\nlife.\" Here we have the whole scheme not only of industrial but of universal\neducation in a nutshell — a Hberal and practical education without excluding\nscientific and classical studies: what a text for an educational discourse !\nBuilding on this broadest of educational foundations most of the states\nhave established industrial education on a new basis, and some of them have\nso combined and interwoven it with other forms of education that none can\ntell where the one leaves off and the other begins. These are the great state\nuniversities whose lead in this respect is being rapidly followed by institutions\nnot on the land grant foundation, until now we can truly say that on college\nlevels today industrial education is not a thing apart, but is an integral portion\nof the great educational effort by which the people of a commonwealth seek\nboth to educate all classes of men and at the same time develop their resources,\ntheir industries, their occupations, their Uterature, their art, and their activities\ngenerally.\nThis is universal education in its fullest sense.\nOur elementary education, therefore, is universal in a sufficient sense, and\nour university education is rapidly becoming universal in its broadest sense,\nbecause here all subjects are studied and taught and all occupations and industries are represented and made to flourish in a common atmosphere of higher\neducation.\nBut as yet we have no system of secondary education that can be called\nuniversal and until the matter is settled, and settled right at this point, our\nsystem is weak at its most important level, because it is our secondary education that touches our people during their formative period and that really\nreaches the masses in such a way as to be truly universal in extent.\nI say that our secondary education is not yet universal. True, the high\nschools are open to all who have finished the grades, but they do not offer to\nmost classes of people that instruction which is a preparation for life and\nwhich the needs of the times and the impulse of the people demand.\nThe high schools took their cue originally from the old-time academies\nwhich were training-schools for classical colleges. Since then primary education has become universal because it involved nothing but opening the schools\nto all the people free of tuition. The education of the colleges has become,\nor is rapidly becoming, universal because the people demand that the benefits\nof higher education shall not be limited to a few favored occupations and those\nwho follow them — all upon the ground that such a course would be pernicious\nbecause against the pubHc welfare.\nThe same influences are beginning to work in our high schools, which are\nmoving in the wake of the colleges, it seems to me, in a way that is wholly\ncommendable, and that needs only to be accelerated and not retarded.\nThe high schools are schools of the people and in response to their demand\nthey have added to the old-time classical courses those in modem science,\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n281\n\nin manual training, in household science and, indeed, many are now adding\nagriculture, stenography, telegraphy, book-keeping, typesetting, and a list\nof vocational courses almost too long to be mentioned, all without prejudice\nto, but vastly to the enrichment of, the old-time courses of study.\nSo the high schools are rapidly following in the lead of the colleges and if\nmatters go on as they are now drifting in some of our best schools, it will\nnot be long until, in response to public demand and common-sense, we shall\nhave a complete system of universal education in the largest sense of the term\nand of all grades from the elementary schools upward, in which men and\nwomen of all kinds and preferences will be able to get that education which\nwill not only fit them for life but fit them to live. In the name of progress let\nthis good work go on.\nThere are but three influences, it seems to me, that can interfere with the\nproper evolution of the high school. They may be outlined as follows:\n1. The movement in certain quarters for separate industrial schools — agricultural\nschools in the country and trade schools in the city — quite independent from the highschool system which is assumed to be indifferent if not antagonistic to industrial life.\n2. The attitude of a few remaining exponents of the old idea that schools should\nteach nothing that by any possibility could be put to any manner of use.\n3. The difficulty involved on the part of the high schools in adding not only to their\neducational purpose but to their courses of study, their equipment, and their teaching\nforce, with sufficient rapidity to meet the new demands and mold the whole into an educational unity without such delay as shall make the claim seem true that after all the high\nschools have no real desire to serve the people in their industrial activities, but will do no\nmore than is necessary to half satisfy what they regard as an irrational public demand.\nThus the high schools are put at disadvantage at this most difficult period in their evolution, particularly as teachers are yet to be made even while these new ideals are to be\nfitted into and made a part of our permanent educational policies.\n\nNow these considerations are worth reviewing at the present juncture,\nbecause what the high schools need is time, and this is the element in the\ncase least likely to be afforded. The activity of certain educators in favor\nof separate agricultural schools of one kind or another, and what I am bound\nto call the selfish influence of certain commercial interests demanding city\ntrade schools to teach that sort of handicraft which will produce skilled workmen in the shortest possible space of time and best enable us to meet foreign\nor other competition in manufactured articles — this activity and this influence\nseem ready to sacrifice almost anything for immediate results. This American\nedition of the German peasant school idea is a most dangerous because a most\ninsidious and powerful menace to the right development of the American high\nschool, which is or may be the most unique educational institution on earth,\nand which will constitute, if it can rightly develop, the key to the advantageous\nposition which America ought to occupy both socially, politically, and economically, and which she can occupy if she is far-sighted enough at this point and\nat this time.\nIf present tendencies can go on unhampered, it will not be long until every\ncommunity can have its high school which will reflect with a fair degree\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nof accuracy its major industries and do it, too, in the light of the worid's knowledge and of the world's ideals. Such schools will turn out men and women\nready to do the world's work and to think the world's thoughts as well as to\ndream the world's dreams and share in its ambitions. If we combine our\nenergies we can have such schools in America wherein every young man and\nevery young woman can secure an education that is at once both useful and\ncultural, and that, too, within driving distance of the father's door. If we\nunite our educational energies we can do this but we cannot do it in separate\nschools. .\nWe can combine the vocational and the non-vocational in our high schools\nif we will and each be the better for the other. On the contrary, if the arts\nand crafts and industries are taught in separate schools the following results\nare inevitable:\n1. There will be as many different schools and as many different forms of education\nas there are different forms of industry, with little of mutual sympathy and nothing of\ncommunity of purpose,\n2. The vocational future of the individual will be decided not by intelligent choice\nbut by the accident of proximity to one of these schools or the exigency of earning power.\n3. If industrial education is given only in industrial schools, then the high schools\nwill lose forever their hold upon the masses, for 90 per cent, of the people are industrial\nand always will be, and boys will follow occupational instruction. This will reduce the\nhigh schools to the teaching of girls and the work of preparing for college and they will\nlose forever the influence upon American life which they might exert by molding the\nideals of the masses as they instruct them in their industries.\n4. The separate industrial schools will always be inferior to what the high school\nmight be, for, being established to serve special ends, they will naturally attain those ends\nby the most direct means possible: indeed they must be almost exclusively technical or\nelse resort to an amount of duplication and expense that would hardly be tolerated by\ntheir patrons.\n5. The products of these schools would be successful from the narrowest business\nstandpoint; but unsuccessful from the larger point of view: they would be trained rather\nthan educated.\n6. Such schools would force boys to choose their calling or indeed have it chosen\nfor them at a very early age, and without much opportunity for intelligent choice. Once\nchosen, however, the decision would be final. The results, however, would highly satisfy\nbusiness demands which are ever ready to sacrifice the man to his eflSciency.\n7. If members of the several vocations are to be educated separately the education\n- will not only be hopelessly narrow and needlessly expensive, but, what is even worse, our\npeople will be educated in groups separately, without knowledge of or sympathy with each\nother, producing a stratification of our people that is not only detrimental to society but\ndangerous if not fatal to democratic institutions. Such schools will, however, draw\nthe masses and have all the surface indications of success.\n\nSo, all things considered, I most earnestly advocate the taking over of our\nindustrial education in all its forms into the existing system of secondary schools,\nseeing to it that one-fourth the time of every pupil is devoted to something\nvocational, something industrial, if you please, and no industry is too common\nfor this purpose. It is the common things of life that are fundamental and it\nis thru them'that we teach life itself.\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n283\n\nIt is not necessary to bring all occupations and industries into our schools ;\nsome are not well adapted to our academic conditions, but it is necessary\nthat we bring in a goodly variety of what may be called the major activities,\nindustrial and non-industrial, in order that life shall be taught in a variety\nof its forms and that the boy shall have a reasonable chance for choice.\nTrade schools, would you have them ? By all means, but I would have\nthem as a part of the secondary school system. Agricultural schools ? Yes,\nbut as departments of the high school. Cooking schools? Yes, and more:\nI would have schools of household affairs, but I would have them as integral\nparts of the high school. Schools of stenography and typewriting? Yes,\nbut I would not disconnect them from the high school any more than I would\ncut off from womankind the girl who needs perhaps for a time, perhaps always,\nto earn her own money.\nIn brief, there is no class of occupation that is followed by large masses\nof people that I would not bring into the high school and teach as fully as\ncircumstances would permit, and I would compel every student to devote not\nless than one-fourth and not more than one-half his time to these occupational\nlines.\nI have said that a second influence operating to restrain the high schools\nfrom moving in this matter as fast as conditions require is the remnant of an\nold academic belief that the purpose of schools is to ''make men,\" whatever\nthat may be, as distinct from making men ready for life. These are they who\nwould teach nothing that could by any means be put to any sort of use. With\nthem education is a luxury, not a necessity, a kind of holy thing that evaporates\nor in some way loses its essence when put to common uses or into the hands\nof the masses of men.\nThese be they who are always careful to speak of industrial education as\n\"training,\" using a term whose meaning is understood from its frequent application to horses and dogs.\nNow to such let me say that the thing which all men everywhere now\ndemand, whatever their vocation or means of livelihood, is not training merely\nbut education, and they mean by that such contact and intimacy with the world's\nstock of knowledge as shall first of all develop the industry, and second, but\nnot secondarily, develop also the man.\nThinking men now know that, education or no education, culture or no\nculture, whatever the grade of civilization we may evolve, certain fundamental\nindustries must still go on. Moreover, they know that if these fundamental\nindustries are to be well conducted and our natural resources developed, then\nthese activities must be in the hands of capable men; yes, of educated men,\nfor industry, like every other activity of man, is capable of development by\nmeans of orderly knowledge and trained minds.\nThey know, too, these thinking people, that men of capacity cannot be\nfound to develop these fundamentals except they may also themselves partake\nof the blessings of life and the full fruits of our civilization.\nThey know that\n\nk\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthe days of the hewers of wood and the drawers of water, as such — condemned\nto a life of drudgery — are over on this earth wherever civilization exists, and\nthat education, like religion, must somewhat rapidly readjust itself to new\nconditions and prepare to help the common average man to lead a life that is\nboth useful to the community and a satisfaction to himself.\nThe aristocracy of education, like the aristocracy of religion, whereby a\nfew were saved at the expense of the many, is over, and education, like religion,\nmust help the common man to meet and solve the common issues of life better\nthan they have ever been met and solved before — hence industrial education;\nhence vocational education; hence universal education.\nThese good people who shy at the term industrial education are remnants\nof a past condition when educators and others entertained that old-time and\ncurious conception of industry, whereby industrial people were assumed to\nbe uneducated and were by common consent assigned a social position of\nnatural inferiority, as if a farmer or mechanic, for example, acquired by his\ndaily life a kind of toxic poison that not only destroyed his better faculties but\nwas likely to exude and soil or injure others.\nLet me call the attention of these good people to the fact that whatever\ntheir social status the industrial people hold the balance of power politically\nand socially, for they constitute 90 per cent, of the population, and that for\nall practical purposes and in the last analysis they are the people, and their\neducation, whatever it is to be, will really constitute our system.\nThe colleges learned long ago that to meet modern needs they must afford\nevery man two educations: one intensely technical to meet his business needs\nand make him an efficient member of society but which would tend to narrow\nhim as a man; the other non-vocational, which has no money-making power,\nbut whose effect is to liberalize and broaden the man by attracting his interests and widening his knowledge outside the field wherein he gains his livelihood.\nNow the high schools must learn the same lesson and the sooner they do\nso the better for all interests. Therefore these high schools that are introducing the industrial are developing in the right lines. The high schools are not\npreparatory schools for college. They are pre-eminently the schools wherein\nthe people are fitted for life. Where one man is educated in college, twenty\nwill get all their preparation in high schools. The high school, therefore,\nis the place wherein the boy shall find himself to the end that if he goes to college he will have, upon matriculation, exceedingly clear ideas about what he\nintends to do, and if he does not he can go out from the high school at once\nand take some useful part in the world's work. The large number of highschool men, even graduates, who have no plans and, more than all, no fitness,\npreparation or inclination for any sort of useful activity, is a pathetic and a\ndangerous fact — pathetic because so much good material has been wasted;\ndangerous because the high schools must either change their ideals and introduce the industrial freely, or the industrial masses will find other schools of\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n285\n\ntheir own that will meet their needs as they have been met on college levels\nbut as they have not yet been met in secondary grades where the masses go.\nNow the colleges have learned that it is not necessary to absorb all the time\nof a student in order to turn out an efficient man vocationally. Much less\nis it necessary in secondary schools. On college levels, from one-half to twothirds of the student's time suffices for the vocational, and when we learn better\nhow to teach, results can doubtless be attained with still less, leaving a generous\namount of time for the pursuit of non-vocational and therefore of liberalizing\ncourses, for the effect of a course of study, whether narrowing or broadening,\ndepends less upon the subject matter than upon the attitude of the student\nand the purpose for which he takes the course. Chemistry is a professional\nstudy to the prospective farmer, while to the journalist or the lawyer it is\nnon-professional and liberal.\nIf we will honestly take into our high schools, as we have taken into our\nuniversities, all the major activities, splitting no hairs as between the industrial\nand the professional, for no man can define the difference, so imperceptibly\ndo they shade the one into the other — if we will take them all into the high school\nas we have already taken them into the universities, and carry them along\ntogether, the vocational and the non-vocational side by side, day after day,\nfrom first to last, so the boy is never free from either, then will all our educational\nnecessities be met and we shall have gained a goodly number of substantial\nachievements, prominent among which I would mention the following:\n1. One-fourth of the time of the boy or girl could be devoted to vocational work in\nclassroom or laboratory thruout the course.\n2. This would turn out every boy with some skill in some branch of the world's work,\nand do away with that large and growing number of young high-school graduates who are\nfitted for nothing and are good for nothing in particular.\n3. It would attract the attention of the boy to self-supporting activity before he loses\nhis natural ambition by too much schooling with no initiative.\n4. It would turn out girls with some training in household affairs, and those who\ndesired it in such occupations as women follow for self-support.\n5. It would vastly uplift most occupations and all of the more ordinary industries\nby bringing into their practice the benefit of trained minds and methods.\n6. It can do fill this and still leave three-fourths of the time for the acquisition of\nthose non-vocational lines of knowledge which all men and women need, because they\nare human beings getting ready to live in a most interesting world.\n7. In this way, we should have a single system of education under a single management, but giving to all young men and women really two educations: one that is vocational, ,\nfitting them to be self-supporting and useful, the other non-vocational and looking to their\nown development.\n\nExpensive ? No more so than to have it done in separate schools, surely.\nIt will be done somehow, and the only question now is, will the high schools\nreally rise to their opportunity and secure thru themselves a real system of\nuniversal education, or are they to lose their chance and we to have in the end\nnot a real but only a patchwork imitation of a system of universal education ?\nI am perfectly well aware that all this will be held by some as a lowering\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nChicago\n\nof Standards and a degrading of education by commercializing it. Against\nthis conclusion I protest most emphatically. Does it degrade a thing to use\nit ? Does it degrade religion to uplift the fallen or to sustain the masses of\nmen from falling ? Is education a luxury to be restricted to a few favored\nfortunates or is it a power to uplift and sustain and develop all men ?\nAre you afraid to educate the ditch-digger ? Is the education of the gentleman too good for him ? Are the facts of history too profound or the satisfaction of knowledge too precious to be common property of man ? Does it make\nmy satisfaction less when it makes his more, or are you afraid that he will\nclimb out of the ditch if he is enlightened ? There is no danger of that. I\nhave dug ditch and laid tile every month of the year and that since I was a\ncollege graduate, and I am ready to do it again. I am ready to do my share of\nthe world's work: yes, of the world's dirty work. It was Colonel Waring\nwho cleaned up New York City. It was the educated engineer who made a\nsanitary Cuba. The educated man does anything that needs to be done to\nget results. It is the uneducated or the badly educated who fails to comprehend the eternal balance of things.\nI desire to call attention to one more phase of our problem, to what may\nbe called our leisure asset. There are two leisure classes, one few and unimportant, the other large and important. The first consists of the idle rich\nwho by accident were born after their fathers, and who intend to live a parasitic existence, paying for their needs with other people's money. They are\naltogether useless. It matters little how they are educated and the sooner\nthey die off the better for the world. They do not think: they do not act:\nthey only vegetate and glitter. The wealthy who do not belong to this class\nare too busy for leisure.\nThe other leisure class is the great industrial mass, who, after all, own and\ncontrol about all the useful leisure in the world. The minister has no leisure.\nThe teacher has no leisure. The lawyer, the leader everywhere, has no leisure.\nWhat he does he does under pressure and because he must.\nBut the farmer, the craftsman, the industrialist generally, labors only in\nthe daylight hours and for a portion of his time. What he does with the balance of his waking energies is of the utmost concern. Here is 'the great racial\nasset, both social and psychical; both economic and political.\nIf. this great mass of men, constituting all but the degenerates, can be\nproperly educated, the racial asset of their leisure moments will in the end be\ntremendous. It is this mass, and what it thinks and does in its leisure hours\neither blindly or intelligently, that will ultimately fix the trend of our development and the limits of our achievements. It is better that they be educated\nand educated broadly.\nMoreover, it is out of this mass that leaders arise, and if their education\nbe sound, then will our leaders be wise and safe. You cannot maintain any\nmore an educated aristocracy. There will be but one aristocracy and that\nwill be the aristocracy of personal achievement, and if we do not want the\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n287\n\nworld entirely commercialized we must so merge our industrial education into\nour general system as to have in the end not a mass of separate schools with\ndistracting aims and purposes, but a single system of education catering to\nall classes and all interests. It is the only influence that will preserve a homogeneous people.\nIn thus amalgamating the vocational and the non-vocational, I would like\nto say a word for what might be called the parallel system as distinct from the\nstratified. That is, I would have a boy from his first day in the high school\nto his last have to do with both the vocational and the non-vocational. I would\nhave him every day take stock of things vocational in terms of world values.\nI would have him devote a full fourth of his time to what will bring him earning power, to be used for that purpose if he needs it, and to give him an independent spirit if he does not need it. Every man is a better man if he feels\nthe power to earn his way, whether he needs to do it or not.\nDo you say that this will so cut into his time as to prevent his getting an\nall-round education ? Then I will say that he will never get an all-round education any way: that the most he knows at forty will be learned out of school and\nthat the business of the school is to give him a good start.\nI beg, too, for a reform in the idea that a course is framed mainly for the\none who graduates. If the vocational and the non-vocational are properly\nparalleled the course is good from whatever point it is left, and whenever abandoned ithas taught the student the proper balance between industry and life :\nbetween the means and the ends of life.\nAll this will take time because it means to some extent the readjustment\nof ideals, the addition of new courses of study and of new materials and\nmethods of instruction. It means the making of a new class of teachers who\nmust largely train themselves by a generation of experience. It means the\nmaking of a more complicated system of instruction than has ever been undertaken— a system as complicated as American democratic life.\nBut it is worth the while for nothing better is possible. It is easier, of\ncourse, to short-circuit the matter by assenting to the separation of industry\nand education, but no race need hope for supremacy nor for the evolution of\nits best till it combines industry and education, which belong together in the\nschools as they do now and always must in life.\nSo' I say to the high schools — Do not wait for approved courses of study,\nnor for the production of skilled teachers. Go ahead and do the best you\ncan. An honest effort is half the battle, and it is worth more now than it\never will be again. Do not hesitate till methods are marked out. If you do\nthat, you and the cause are lost, for the separate industrial school will surely\ncome. We know the ideal — an educated American in all the activities of\nlife. Let us go ahead and produce him and mend our methods later on.\nEducation is no longer a luxury. It has become a necessity for the doing\nof the world's work. It is no longer for the edification of the few; it is for the\nsatisfaction of the many. And whether we regard it as industrial or non-\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "288\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nindustrial; as contributing to the efiSciency of men or to their elevation in\ncivilized society; however this or any other educational problem is regarded\nthey are all but phases of our general and stupendous problem of universal\neducation, in the working-out of which there are as yet no models for the\nAmerican secondary school.\n///.\nELMER\n\nINDUSTRIAL\nELLSWORTH\n\nEDUCATION\nBROWN,\n\nAS A NATIONAL\n\nUNITED\nSTATES\nWASHINGTON,\nD.\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nC.\n\nINTEREST\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nThere can be no doubt that industrial education, is needed to perpetuate\nthe prosperity of our industries. This aspect of the case has been widely\ndiscussed, and may simply be taken for granted here.\nThe point to be chiefly emphasized at the present time is that the great,\ndominant need of the United States as regards education is the same now that\nit has always been. It is the need of a body of citizens who are free, thru\nintelligence and self-control. The main business of American education for\nthe future as in the past is the training of our people to genuine freedom.\nAnd that means a training to intelligent self-direction in the paths of righteousness. We still believe that such training is possible, and that it is worthy of\nour best endeavors.\nDoes this imply that special training for the industries is unimportant?\nFar from it. New wine may not be put into old bottles, but old wine must\noften be put into new bottles. The old spirit of our education must pass over\ninto new forms of education to meet our present needs. In dealing with this\nnewer education, we must have due regard for sameness and due regard for\ndifference. Let us speak of difference first. There is danger that our new,\nindustrial education will be made so like the older education that its distinc tive\nvalues will be lost. If we are not exceedingly careful, that will be the result\nwhere industrial courses are organized in the old schools. We may get simply\nthe old book-and-laboratory education masquerading as industrial education.\nSuch a fiasco is by all means to be avoided, even if we have to make new schools\nin which the new training may fully establish its differentia.\nLet us next take account of unity. If we can fully secure the requisite\ndifference, there is great gain in having the new courses organized iri close\nconnection with the old. We emphasize thereby the unity of our people in\nall of their classes and employments. But if the new training must to some\nextent go into separate schools, let us by all means keep those separate schools\nin the closest spiritual connection with our general system of education. The\nspecial schools need such connection and the general system needs it equally.\nA technical training which produces mere manual skill is not what we want.\nWe want a technical training that shall educate. If our trade schools seek\nonly to cultivate skill, they will not contribute to the improvement of our\nindustries; they will simply turn out superior machines for a stationary\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n289\n\nindustry. On the other hand, if our general education does not eventuate in\nskill, it will give us a scholastic class, who can only look helplessly on the progress ofan industrial life in which they have no part, as Sir Percival in the castle\ngazed upon the procession of the Holy Grail.\nThe bond of unity between general culture and training for a trade is the\nlater development of our conception of general culture. We are familiar with\nthat form of culture which takes one out of the limitations of daily life by means\nof ideas and associations which are remote from daily life. This is the liberal\nor classical culture in its various forms. Such culture is everlastingly justified;\nand a training which has no power to lift the learner out of the pit of present\nsense and experience can be only a truncated and inorganic fragment of an\neducation. Where vision fails the people fail. But that higher culture, too,\nis only a part, and it may make for a painful isolation of its possessor. Now\nwe are finding ways of bringing out the spiritual interest, the world-ideas and\nworld-sentiments, which are latent in the plainest everyday life. When we\nhave gone farther and have made every common environnient yield up its\ninherent educational values, then the connection between scholastic culture\nand the trades will be confirmed and realized.\nShould the state concern itself with industrial education as herein set forth ?\nI think it will be under the necessity of so doing in some measure, both for the\nsake of its industries and, still more, for the sake of its citizenship.\nShould the national government have a part in the undertaking ? That is\na more difficult question, but the answer may still, I think, be in the affirmative.\nThe nation cannot be indifferent, it cannot but have the liveliest interest, where\nboth its industries and its citizenship are concerned. From the beginning it has\ncontributed to the furtherance of education in the states, largely by grants of\nlands, but in the case of the agricultural and mechanical colleges by annual\ngrants in money. This policy has been abundantly justified in its results. Its\nextension to schools of a somewhat different grade or character would be so\nslight a change that it could not be called a departure from our governmental\ntraditions.\nBut any far-reaching measure in this direction should be taken with due\ncare and foresight. It should not be taken at all if the matter can be adequately cared for by the several states. In any case it should not be taken in\nsuch a way as greatly to disturb the various state systems of educational administration. Acareful examination of those systems, as related to the proposed\nplan for national subventions, should be undertaken, and the federal government should proceed in the matter only in such way or in such ways as will\nstrengthen the hands of the state educational authorities.\nMany interests, other than governmental, are profoundly involved in the\nindustrial education movement. They must be considered in all fairness, but\nfrom the public and national rather than any private point of view. We cannot direct the industrial education in rural schools simply to the end of keeping\nyoung people on the farm. Young people in the country should have their\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nfair chance for any honorable career, in city or country. But country life,\ntoo, should have its fair chance to make its legitimate appeal to these young\npeople as well as the life of the city.\nThe point of view of the employers of labor must be carefully considered,\nfor the wisdom which the direction of great industrial concerns may have\ntaught. But we must not permit industrial education to be directed solely\nto the increase of production. That would be to subordinate citizens to industries. Broad-minded employers are among the strongest opponents of so\nshortsighted a policy.\nThe point of view of organized labor must be carefully considered However much objection there may be to the methods of any particular labor organizations, itis plain to see that organization is better than disorganization on\nboth sides of the industrial world. Here again the public good is the supreme\nconsideration. We cannot willingly permit the policy of trade-unions to\nkeep any number of our young citizens permanently barred from preparation\nfor some honorable manual occupation. On the other hand, we cannot\nwillingly permit industrial schools to be directed to the disorganization of\nlabor. The relation of school training to apprenticeship in industrial education calls most urgently for fair and thoro investigation and for many and\nvaried adjustments.\nAnd now, just here, we come to the main purpose of this paper. The\nnational problem of industrial education must be solved by a co-operation of\nindustrialists, politicians, and educators. But the chief burden of the solution\nwill be carried by one or another of these three classes. The men of business and the men of politick' wield tremendous forces and bear tremendous\nresponsibilities. They are entitled to the respect which these circumstances\ncommand. But it is of the utmost importance to our national life that our\neducational profession shall be found worthy to take the lead in determining\nthe course of our industrial education. The public will be guided by our\nbest judgment in this matter, if it shall clearly appear that the school men and\nwomen are the ones who take the broadest, fairest, most genuinely progressive\nview of our position and our needs; if they make some approach to unanimity\nin their attitude toward the newer proposals, which shall not be simply an immovable and unintelligent conservatism nor an equally ill-considered stampede in\nthe new direction; if they devise wise and practicable plans for new undertakings, not asking large outlay for hasty ventures, but standing vigorously\nfor well-thought-out plans of improvement. If these characteristics shall be\nmanifest in the teaching profession of this country in the face of the present\nsituation, the solution of the problem of industrial schools will be an educational\nsolution. And that, from the point of view of national interests, is devoutly to\nbe desired.\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIV.\nJESSE\n\nOUR\n\nGETTING\nD.\n\nBURKS,\n\nINDUSTRIAL-EDUCATION\n\nOUR BEARINGS\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nTEACHERS\n\nBEARINGS\n\nON INDUSTRIAL\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\n291\n\nEDUCATION\nALBANY,\n\nN.\n\nY.\n\nThe industrial-education craft has steered a devious course during her\neventful voyage. Twenty-five years ago she was flying the flag of manual\ntraining at her main mast. Against headwinds, thru heavy seas, sometimes, apparently, with faulty chart and compass, her pilots have brought her\nthru — somewhat battered and scarred, but still seaworthy. She has lately\nbeen dry-docked, scraped, and painted; equipped with twin propellers and\nturbine engines; provided with a new figure-head; renamed; compassadjusted; and now flies the pennant of industrial education.\nThat she is the same old craft will be evident, however, to anyone who will\nread the specifications of the old vessel and compare them with those of the\nrepaired and re-christened ship that has so recently and so gallantly put out to\nsea. To one accustomed to the uncertainites of tacking against headwinds in a\nsailing vessel, and of drifting idly on a calm sea, waiting for favoring breezes,\nthere seems to be magic in the resistless headway that our ship is making under\nthe driving force of her engines. If only her course be true and her charts trustworthy, there can be little doubt that the newly launched craft will bring us\nsurely and speedily toward our home port. The perils of the sea are numerous,\nhowever, and not always to be anticipated. Like the watchful mariner, we\nshould seize every opportunity for determining our exact position by getting\nour bearings on a light, a point of land, a barren rock, a fixed star, or the sun\nitself.\nWithout pursuing further this fanciful figure, let us examine directly some\nof the bearings of the present national agitation for industrial education. It\nwould certainly be hazardous to make any single statement designed to give\nthe present attitude of the country at large toward industrial education and\nmanual training. It is possible, nevertheless, for us to find some fairly definite\nindications of a few tendencies, and to examine very briefly the significance\nof these tendencies in the general educational movement of today.\nThe past few years have seen the organization of divisions of industrial\neducation within state education departments; the establishment of independent commissions on industrial education, of national and state associations\nfor the promotion of industrial education, and of a national commission on\ncountry life. The need of industrial education has been emphasized again\nand again by the Uijited States Commissioner of Education, by many leading\nstate and city superintendents, by the governors of numerous states, and by\nthe President of the United States in at least two of his messages. It has been\nvigorously urged by manufacturers' associations', labor organizations, associations for civic betterment, charity organizations, and political parties. State\nlegislatures have passed favorable laws and periodical publications have given\nto the industrial-education propaganda a degree of publicity and support that\nthey have rarely accorded any similar public movement.\nVarious teachers'\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CHcago\n\nassociations have given increasingly large attention to the question and the\nManual Training Department of the National Education Association has\ngiven over its programs almost wholly to its consideration. A new department of technical education has been organized. The general programs\nof the Association and of its Department of Superintendence have given\nmuch time to the subject and many speakers of high ability have discussed\nits social, economic, and educational bearing. In short, we have had almost\nall of the possible accompaniments of a system of industrial education except\nindustrial schools; and doubtless we shall have a plentiful supply of these in\nthe very near future.\nThere are, in the United States, about one hundred\" and fifty schools of\nsecondary grade which may properly be designated manual-training or industrial-training schools. Of this number, thirty are public high schools and are\nknown variously as manual-training high schools, technical high schools, and\nmechanic-arts high schools. Most of them give from five to nine hours a week\nto manual, technical, and industrial instruction. Some give as little as four\nhours, and a few as much as twelve hours a week to such instruction. Six\nof the thirty schools report that they give all of their time to technical, industrial, and trade instruction, which indicates that these schools may be dealing\nin a serious way with genuine vocational problems and may be called industrial\nschools in the sense attached to that term in current discussion. In general,\nhowever, it may be said that high schools of the manual-training type are\ndominated by the same purpose that controls ordinary high schools and that\nthis purpose is distinctly not vocational unless we include attendance upon\ncollege among the vocations. It may confidently be asserted, furthermore,\nthat, w;ith the exception of the new Cleveland high school and possibly one\nother, there does not exist today in the United States a public secondary\nschool that, with strict accuracy, should be termed a technical high school.\nOf the thirteen hundred city-school systems in the United States, almost\nexactly one-half have introduced, somewhere in their curricula, various forms\nof constructive activity known as handwork or manual training. In about one\nhundred and fifty of these cases, handwork extends thru all of the grades\nof the elementary school, and in about one hundred cases it is given in the high\nschools. In some cases handwork is given in the kindergarten only; and\nbetween this extreme and the other extreme of manual training in every grade,\nthere are all possible differences in practice.\nWhile, on the whole, the manual-training movement, has had a salutary\neffect in directing attention to the right relation between theory and practice in\neducation, it is nevertheless true that handwork in the schools is still mainly\nabstract, isolated, impractical, and unsocial in character. It is very largely\nlacking in rational content and therefore in educational worth. As \"busy\nwork\" and relaxation, it no doubt performs a function of some value. The\nvery name \"manual training,\" however, is suggestive of a discredited psychology. With a few gratifying exceptions, handwork is a fungus growth on an\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nOUR\n\nINDUSTRIAL-EDUCATION\n\nBEARINGS\n\n293\n\notherwise ill-proportioned and misshapen curriculum that needs not so much\nto be pruned and trained as to be uprooted and replaced by a more vigorous\nand more productive plant.\nTo put the matter positively, the great educational need at this point is for\nus to recognize in our practice what many of us profess to accept in theory —\nthat constructive handwork is an indispensable means of developing intelligent\nideas, sympathetic appreciation, and executive efficiency in relation to the\nindustrial side of human society. \"Manual training,\" in other words, should\nbe replaced by the intelligent study of the constructive, industrial factors of\nsocial progress.\nIt should be noted that the kind of study here proposed might as properly\nbe termed ''industrial education,\" as the training for skill in industrial vocations that is everywhere now being so vigorously demanded. It may indeed\nbe doubted whether, without a basis such as that suggested, industrial education can be saved from the isolation, the unsocial and even anti-social tendencies with which the present curricula have been charged.\nA few weeks ago I was inspecting one of the largest manufacturing establishments inNew York state, which had recently organized a school for apprentices, provided it with a thoroly modern equipment, and placed in charge\na well-educated man of high ideals and practical ability. Here, I thought, I\nhad found an enterprise that might have something to teach the schools concerning their effort to meet concrete social needs. The master-mechanic to\nwhose initiative this school was due told me, however, that he had serious\ndoubt as to the practical value of his apprentice school. He thought he would\ndirect the teacher to use the machines for demonstration purposes only, as the\nboys spent too much time ''figuring out how to get a piece of work set up and\nhow to get the thing done.\" \"These boys,\" he said, \"will work all their lives\nfor our company and we want them to do things our way. We don't want the\nboys to draw; we want them to read drawings. We don't want them to figure;\nwe want them to read figures. We don't want them to boss; we want them to\nbe bossed.\" And he might have added, we don't want them to think but to\nbecome automatic machines.\nThe objection of this master-mechanic was to any system of training that\ndevelops initiative and independence. While his view is certainly not that\nof the most far-sighted manufacturers who are joining in the cry for industrial\neducation, his attitude does represent a somewhat common tendency to regard\nindustrial efficiency as the sole standard by which to measure the value of industrial education. There is need for a resolute stand against every attempt to\nexploit the efficiency of the rank and file in the interest of private greed.\nEducation must never lend itself to any movement that ignores the fundamental truth, that to make a life is of greater consequence than to make a living.\nBy every proper means, education must seek to rectify the standards of industry\nitself and to promote a genuinely social consciousness among our people.\nThe ideals of industrial, as of all other forms of education, can be stated,\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nthen, only in terms of social intelligence, social appreciation, and social service.\nAny attempt to isolate completely the problems of industrial education must\naccordingly fail; for society is essentially organic, and every truly social problem is shot thru with a thousand threads of social complexity. In all of its\nessential qualities, therefore, industrial education, in common with education\nof every other type, must conform to the great underlying needs of men and\nwomen composing a human society.\nTo say that industrial education introduces no fundamentally new principles, and that every important principle applicable to industrial education\napplies also to education in all of its aspects, is not, however, to overlook the\nnecessity of working out in detail the application of such principles to the peculiar requirements of those boys and girls who are looking toward industrial\nvocations. A few general ideas will here be suggested which should help us\nto keep our bearings in making this appUcation.\nFirst, it is important that we make a clear distinction between elementary\nand secondary education. Neither in our thought nor in our practice have\nwe thus far drawn this distinction with sufficient clearness, but have merely\nassumed that during the period of early adolescence the minds of boys and\ngirls are sufficiently \"mature\" to warrant them in entering upon the study of\nLatin, algebra, geometry, and the various other subjects prescribed for admission to American colleges. From this point of view, elementary education is\nsimply that uniform course imposed upon all boys and girls who have not yet\nentered upon a college-preparatory course. I am sometimes disposed to\nthink that, if we had the courage to face the truth, we should be compelled to\nadmit that the present function of the elementary school is to eliminate 65 per\ncent, of its pupils so that the secondary schools shall not be overcrowded; and\nthat the function of the latter, including the manual-training high schools, is\nto eliminate all of the residue who do not readily run into the mold handed out\nby the colleges.\nI would propose the following as a rational as opposed to a purely formal\ndistinction between elementary and secondary education. In the early stages\nof mental and social development, the similarities of children, for educational\npurposes, are more significant than their dissimilarities. This is the period of\nelementary education, when children may properly participate in a relatively\nuniform regime. When differences in taste, capacities, and ambitions become\nmore significant for education than Hkenesses, whatever may be the arbitrary\nand external organization of education, the secondary stage in the development of boys and girls has de facto begun. Obviously this period begins at a\nmuch earlier point than is recognized in our present educational practice.\nThe difference between elementary and secondary development is thus primarily a matter of mental and moral variation; not a mere matter of convenient\narrangement. Differences in abilities and in interests will always demand\ncorresponding variations in form of activity. If we persist in our inexcusable\nfailure to provide such variations during the last years of our so-called elemen-\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nOUR\n\nINDUSTRIAL-EDUCATION\n\nBEARINGS\n\n295\n\ntary course, when individual differences appear with unmistakable and increasing force, we may expect boys and girls to continue, as they now do, to seek\nin the more tolerable occupations of street, factory, shop, office, and mercantile\nhouse, the kind of interests for which they feel an instinctive tho vaguely\ndefined need.\nIt should be clear, then, that industrial education is properly but one constituent ofan organic system of secondary education. Like the various other\nmembers of such a system, industrial schools should be designed to meet the\nspecific needs of a well-defined group of children who by reason of common\ninterests, common capacities, and common opportunities, are looking toward\na common vocation.\nIt is surprising that, in the current discussion of industrial education, no\nmore strenuous protest has been made against the early specialization that is\nclearly involved in the proposed program. At the risk of seeming to set up\na man of straw, I shall notice very briefly some important considerations in\nthis connection.\nThe arguments against \"early specialization\" were first brought forward\nwith great vehemence in the discussion of the \"elective system\" in colleges,\nthat loomed up so large on the educational horizon a generation ago. They\nnext appeared in the debate concerning the introduction of elective courses\ninto our high schools. While the ultimate outcome of this contest is no longer\ndoubtful, the voice of protest has not yet been altogether quieted. The old\nfamiliar arguments are still urged against wider opportunity and greater freedom for pupils in high schools. We may expect these same arguments to be\ndirected in turn against every effort to extend the elective system backward\nto the logical beginning of the secondary stage of education.\nThe outcome of the struggle between rigid prescription and free election\nmust eventually be the same in all three of these fields, for the conflict is really\none and not three. The question is whether human beings who differ widely\nin native gifts and acquired tendencies shall be forced to pursue a single conventional course of training, or have the privilege of choosing a course that\nwill equip them not only for the worthy use of their leisure but for the intelligent\npursuit of their vocations. Life itself is from the beginning an elective process\n— each individual selecting from the complex whole of experience those elements that accord with his native and acquired interests and rejecting those\nelements that serve no useful purpose in his life.\nIn a very real sense, then, it is a condition and not a theory that confronts\nus; for an elective system is already firmly established even in our elementary\neducation. One of the alternatives open to a pupil is to continue in the single\ncourse offered by the schools; the other is to withdraw from school and, without\nadequate preparation, to enter at once upon some low-grade vocational pursuit\nthat offers little educational advantage and a meager wage. The question is\nnot, therefore, whether we shall extend the privilege of election to pupils now\nin the elementary schools, but whether by introducing courses for industrial\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nand domestic training within the school, we shall widen the field within which\nelection may be made.\nA rational system of secondary education must provide not only for the\ntraining of special capacities but for making children conscious of their individual abilities. One of the most serious weaknesses of the present organization of education is that the range of experience provided for in the schools\nis so narrow that many of the latent powers of children are not stimulated to\nactivity. In order that a child may be placed in position to make proper\nchoice of a school course and ultimately of a vocation, it is often essential\nthat means be taken to ascertain what are his native capacities upon which\nsuccess in every undertaking must very largely depend. These capacities\ncannot always be determined with reference merely to the desires of parents\nand of pupils or to such general advice as teachers and principals of schools\nare commonly qualified to give. Teachers must be equipped to recognize,\nto search for, and to interpret the evidences of special aptitude. This will\nnecessitate a fuller recognition than is now given to the influence of heredity\nupon mental and moral traits and a more vital and practical view of genetic\npsychology than is yet widely prevalent.\nThe whole argument for vocational training is of course open to the familiar\ncharge that it is basely utilitarian. As to the charge that such training is utilitarian, why should not the answer be what the common law terms ''confession\nand avoidance \" ? Such training is utilitarian ; but why basely so ? Most men\ndevote more than half of their waking hours to their vocations. Are their\nlives necessarily on that account basely utilitarian ? Our war for independence had its origin in a question of taxation. Was it for that reason a basely\nutilitarian struggle for selfish ends? Almost every great national policy\ninvolves some matter of industry or commerce. Is our national life therefore\nunworthy of our loyal affection ? The intellectual and moral progress of the\nrace has always been in large measure dependent upon material and commercial prosperity. Are the achievements of the human spirit on that account\ninsignificant or base ? As a people we profess a beUef in the dignity of work.\nShall we hesitate to exemplify our belief by making it possible for every man\nto find his work and in his work to find a worthy means of enlarging and completing his life ?\nV.\n\nTHE\nJOHN\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nW. WITHERS,\n\nOF THE\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nCITY\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nTRAINING-SCHOOL\nCOLLEGE,\n\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nIt is becoming more and more apparent that teachers' training-schools\nof our larger cities must come to occupy a new position and exert a new and\ngreater influence on public education in the future than they have in the past.\nUnder present conditions the old city normal with its well-known limitations,\nits narrow and restricted conception of its own sphere and functions, must give\nplace to the new city college of education with higher ideals, improved facilities.\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF CITY\n\nTRAINING-SCHOOL\n\n297\n\nand increased capacity for service. We are needing, in fact, a new type of\ninstitution devoted not merely to the training of teachers, but to the improvement in every possible way of the city-school system to which it belongs.\nSix training-schools for teachers, located in our five largest cities, are\ncharged with the tremendous responsibiUty of training teachers for the public\nschools of nine millions of people, or about one-ninth of the total population\nof the United States. These six schools are being operated at an annual\nexpense to the public of less than $350,000; while over against them 253 other\nnormal schools, public and private, operated at an annual expense of more than\nseven millions, are endeavoring to take care of the other eight-ninths of the total\npopulation. From this it is obvious, first, that these six schools are by far the\nleast expensive training-'jchools in the country, considering the work which\nthey are expected to do, and may therefore justly demand, if necessary, much\nmore liberal financial support than they now receive; and, second, that the\nposition which they occupy is one of the greatest strategic importance in the\nimprovement of American education. Their opportunities are indeed unique;\nbut these opportunities carry with them great responsibihties which, up to the\npresent time, have not been fully met, chiefly because the larger place which\nthese schools should hold in city education has not been sufficiently appreciated\nor even clearly understood.\nThe human mind, whether collective or individual, is so constituted that it\nthinks only when it faces a new situation which compels it to think. So long\nas our great cities could, by paying better salaries and ofi^ering more frequent\nopportunities for promotion, entice away from the surrounding smaller cities\nand towns a sufficient number of their best teachers to supply a large part of\ntheir own annual needs, the possibiUties of the city training-schools were\nnaturally overlooked. But conditions have changed and this general attitude of indifference cannot longer be maintained. Every large and rapidly\ngrowing population tends to draw into itself the smaller cities and towns in its\nvicinity. From 1880 to 1890, for example, 792 townships in. Illinois actually\ndecreased in population, while Chicago during the same decade jumped from\n500,000 to more than a million. In the case of those smaller cities, which by\ntheir industrial activity and favorable location are able to hold their own\nagainst this depopulating tendency, larger salaries than formerly are now being\npaid, so that when the difference in preparation and cost of living is taken\naccount of, these salaries compare favorably with those of the larger cities in\ntheir vicinity. Hence the available external supply of teachers trained by\nexperience in the smaller towns is at present wholly inadequate and constantly\ndiminishing not only in numbers but also in desirability.\nThe necessity thus forced upon us of depending more exclusively on our\ncity training-schools leads to a new interest in them and affords an opportunity\nto enlarge their functions and assign to them a more important place in public\neducation.\nWhat in reality should these schools be expected to do ? What forms of\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nservice can they, by their nature and the peculiar relation in which they\nstand to the public-school system as a whole, more economically and efficiently\nrender than any other existing or possible agency ? These are questions which\nit is well worth our while to consider.\nIn attempting to answer I shall maintain, first, that a new and higher type\nof institution is needed — an institution which, as such, shall unquestionably\nstand at the head of the city-school system because it deserves to hold that relation; second, that no expense should be spared in securing for this institution the strongest faculty that can be had; and third, that it should discharge\nas efficiently as possible the following functions: (i) the selection and training\nof new teachers — this is its primary function; (2) the maintenance of a department including a summer school for the benefit of those teachers,, supervisors,\nand principals who are already employed in the city schools; (3) the scientific\nstudy of education.\nIf these three kinds of work are to be undertaken at all something more\nthan the ordinary city training-school is required; and if they are to be well\ndone it is evident that the institution that does them must be in a position to\ncommand the good-will, the confidence, and respect of the entire city-school\nsystem; it must in other words be able to exert a continuous professional\ninfluence that is everywhere felt and welcomed.\nThese results can best be realized only (i) when the college of education\nranks at the head of the city-school system, and its president stands in a direct\nrelation to the city superintendent; and (2) when the members of its faculty\nare recognized as superior men and women in character, scholarship, and\nspecial fitness for this kind of work. I mean by this, men and women who\nindividually combine the best university education with good sense, skill in\ninstruction and considerable experience in city-school teaching and supervision.\nNeither scholarship without practical experience nor practical experience\nwithout adequate scholarship will serve the purpose.\nOn the one hand the aggressive university-trained man or woman who\nhas ideals of what the city training-school ought to do, but who has had little\nexperience in elementary work, is apt to be regarded by the average school\nprincipal as visionary and incapable of looking upon actual school conditions\nwith a right judgment of values. The gulf between the two is often too great\nto admit of mutual confidence and respect. If the majority of the trainingschool faculty are men and women of this type the school will almost certainly\nfail to secure the general sympathy and co-operation so essential to enable it\nto do its most satisfactory work. The serviceableness of the training-school\nwill be very seriously impaired if the principals and teachers of thf city are\ngenerally inclined to speak of its work in disparaging terms.\nOn the other hand, the peculiar limitations of the man or woman of successful experience, but of narrow vision and meager scholarship, are too well\nknown to call for extensive comment here. The point of view in this case is a\ndifferent one, it is true, but the want of perspective is apt to be even greater\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF CITY\n\nTRAINING-SCHOOL\n\n299\n\nthan before and is usually combined with much less adaptability and capacity\nfor growth. What is needed, I repeat, is a well-balanced combination of\nthoro university training, general good sense, and extensive experience in\nelementary city-school work. This combination is somewhat rare, to be sure,\nbut it should be secured if possible, no matter what it may cost.\nWhat I have said up to this point will doubtless be readily accepted as\ntrue provided we may make the assumption upon which it is partially based,\nnamely, that the city training-school should be expanded into an essentially\nnew institution that should undertake the three kinds of work I have suggested.\nBut the propriety of making this assumption may itself be doubted.\nIn dealing with this aspect of the subject, I shall base the argument chiefly\nupon two matters of fact: (i) the present and prospective demands upon\npublic education in our American cities which make imperative the more careful selection and better training of teachers and principals; and (2) the peculiar\nsituation of the city training school which makes it possible for it to undertake\nthe scientific study of education under more favorable conditions than can be\nfound elsewhere.\nThe kind of teacher needed in our public schools, and therefore the manner\nof her selection and the character of her training, all depend upon the nature\nand quality of the work which she is expected to do. To ascertain what this\nwork is, it is necessary to inquire what ought to be expected of the city pubHc\nschools at present, and what important changes in their scope and character the\nfuture will likely require. For our present purpose, however, it is not necessary\nto attempt to treat this question exhaustively. Only certain general tendencies\nand requirements need to be noted.\nIn the first place it has been for some time the prevailing tendency to define\neducation in terms of equal opportunity and social efficiency, and to describe\nthe socially efficient individual as one who gives back to society in some form\nof useful service the equivalent of what he takes from society in the maintenance and enjoyment of his life, who does not interfere with the legitimate\nefforts of his fellow-men, and who consciously devotes his leisure to further in\nsome legitimate way the progress of society. As a formal statement of the\naim of education this is excellent, even if it has been somewhat overworked of\nlate. It makes the individual find his own self-realization not in a selfish end,\nbut in the good of society. It furnishes a movable and adaptable standard\nwhich is applicable anywhere, to any kind of society, and at any time. It\nasserts that no man may be regarded as socially efficient, and therefore as\nproperly educated, who is in any sense a parasite upon society, who makes\ndemands upon his fellow-men for which he renders no equivalent return. It\nexcludes the rich tramp no less than the poor tramp from the ranks of the\nsocially efficient and the properly educated.\nThis tendency to emphasize the social function of education is significant\nof the growing consciousness that as a people we are rapidly passing from a\nfrontier, highly individualized state of society to a new and more complex con-\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "300\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\ndition of social existence; and that the most crying need of the present is that\nof modifying and adapting old and persistent individualistic ideas and practices\nto the new conditions of life in our great, overgrown, and congested American\ncities. Industrial education, which lately has occupied so much of our thought,\nis one important aspect of this larger problem.\nThe recent emphasis upon the notion of social efficiency in education has\nits chief value, then, in the fact that it sets our thought to work in the right direction. The student of education today must be a student of sociology. Most\nof the problems that trouble us lie in this direction and are of recent origin.\nThe remarkable industrial and economic development of the last fifty years has\nthrust upon the educator, as it has upon the statesman, problems of education\nand of government that both are at present unable to solve. Industrial\ndevelopment, before all else, is setting the pace and marking the course of our\ncivilization. General public education must follow this movement; it cannot\nbe expected to lead it. Perhaps its principal function is rather to economize\nhuman energy and suffering in the rapid transitions and adjustments that have\nto be made. Never before were people called upon to face such complex\nindustrial, economic, and social questions as those which confront us today;\nand never was there a time when the people in general were more incUned to\nlook to public education for help in the solution of such problems. We may\ntherefore reasonably expect to see very considerable changes in popular education during the next few years if the public schools are to continue to merit\nthe confidence and support of the people.\nA brief study of the causes which shall lead to these changes will help to\ndetermine what new demands are likely to be made upon the selection and\ntraining of teachers.\nThe two important steps in the complete economic development of a people\nare adequate production and just distribution. The first of these we have\ntaken, the second we have not, but are trying to take. Up to the beginning, and\nwell on to the middle of the nineteenth century, the world's work was done\nby the muscles of man and beast. If it was desired to increase the product, the\nnumber of mouths to be fed and backs to be clothed were also increased. In\nother words every increase in production meant a corresponding increase in the\ndemands made upon production. Under such circumstances it was impossible for the world to grow rich and the great problem of society was the problem of poverty.\nThru the appUcation of inventions to steam and electricity all this has\nbeen changed. Nature's forces have been made to supplement human muscles\nand the productive power of the world has been multiplied many fold. The\nproductive efficiency of the United States, at present, is probably double that of\nthe world at the opening of the nineteenth century. Consequently wealth\nis increasing at a wonderful rate. Many in this audience have seen the total\nwealth of the United States increased fifteen fold and the per-capita wealth\nfourfold in their lifetime. According to the treasurer's report of 1850 the total\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF CITY\n\nTRAINING-SCHOOL\n\n301\n\nwealth of the United States was $7,000,000,000. In 1904 it had grown to\n$107,000,000,000 and was at that time greater than the combined wealth of\nGreat Britain and France, next to the United States the richest nations in the\nworld. From 1850 to 1890 the daily increase in the wealth of the United\nStates was $4,600,000; from 1890 to 1900 it was $6,400,000; and from 1900\nto 1904 it was $13,000,000 per day. If half this rate of increase is kept up,\nthe wealth of the United States one generation hence, say in 1940, will equal\nthe combined wealth of the world in 1900. Wholly apart from the debilitating influences which luxury may have upon the strength and vigor of a\npeople, this great accumulation of riches evidently places a strain upon the\ninternal moral and social relations of our people.\nThe problem of society is no longer the problem of poverty, nor is it\nfundamentally the need of the more rapid and skilful production of wealth;\nI do not say the latter is not desirable. I am not of those who are inclined\nto be frightened at the great and rapid accumulation of our national wealth.\nI am only saying that this question is not fundamental and that from the\nstandpoint of public education it may largely be left to take care of itself.\nThe great problem of the present, on the economic side, is the problem of a\nwise and just distribution of material wealth, and on the side of pubHc education itis the conservation and more perfect maturing of all that is strongest\nand best in our national life and character while this distribution is going on.\nA glimpse at the economic problem and its bearing upon the possible\nrealization of the foregoing ideal of public education will be instructive.\nIn ancient times the three great powers of society, wealth, government, and\neducation, were lodged with the few; the many were ignorant and practically\nenslaved. Society was then in a condition of stable equilibrium. Upon the\ncoming of democracy the power of government was transferred from the few\nto the many; and in order that democracy might succeed it was necessary\nthat education should also pass over from the few to the masses. But education, byincreasing man's knowledge of himself and the world, also increases\nhis wants, his capacity for enjoyment, and therefore his demand for those\nthings which money can buy. Along with this goes inevitably also the evergrowing consciousness that wealth, both in its origin and its nature, is\nessentially social; it depends upon society and vanishes absolutely if society is\nindividualized or destroyed.\nOut of this growing general consciousness of the social nature of wealth\nsprings inevitably the conviction which ultimately ripens into a popular\ndemand, that wealth, the third great power of society, should not be concentrated ina small number of men, but that its benefits also must somehow pass\nover to the many. If this popular demand is not satisfactorily met there will\ninevitably exist socially a condition of more or less pronounced popular discontent and social unrest. As a nation we are facing such a condition today.\nWhile education and the power of the ballot now reside with the people, wealth\nin its vast accumulation has become concentrated more and more.\nThere are\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nseveral men in the United States who are individually more powerful, because\nthey control more wealth, than any sovereign in the old world ; and one trust\nalone controls more power because it controls more wealth than all the expenditures of the United States government put. together in a year. Is there much\nwonder, then, that men with a clear understanding of the social nature of\nwealth, who are out of employment and see their wives and children starving\nin the midst of the greatest abundance the world ever saw, are inclined to\nstrike at the social order which maintains these conditions ?\nThis, then, is the great problem of society at present, a problem that is comparable inimportance with the great struggles for religious liberty and popular\ngovernment. It must be solved; and in due time it will be solved. But\nwhether or not the practical solution, when it is obtained, shall prove to be\nrational and just and therefore satisfying and permanent, a public education\nwhich is itself social in spirit, and which places a right emphasis upon social\nvalues and social relations, must largely determine. But when the solution\nis obtained, no matter how gradually it may come, another problem of education will be made by it increasingly prominent.\nI mean the problem of leisure.\nOne obvious result of a juster distribution of wealth would be a shortening\nof that portion of the day which must be devoted to labor and a corresponding\nincrease in the time which may be given to leisure. But how shall this leisure\nbe spent ? As a matter of fact it will be spent in gratifying desires of one sort\nor another. But what of these desires ? If they are of a low order, primitive,\nunaesthetic, and unethical in character the result can hardly be otherwise than\nindividually and socially degrading. Our great cities are devoting large sums\nof money to public education, but often they find it necessary to spend quite\nas much on the various agencies which are designed to keep men and women\nfrom using their lesiure to the detriment of society.\nThe situation is complicated also by the fact that in the phenomenal growth\nof American cities the individualistic ideals, customs, and practices of country\nlife have gone with the people from the country to the city and haven't yet, as\na rule, been sufficiently modified to permit of proper adaptation to the new conditions. Consequently, with us, the art of city life and government has yet to\nbe learned.\nUnfortunately we may, in general, depend very little upon the educative\ninfluence of modern occupations to aid us in this matter. For while modern\ncommunication and transportation and world-markets are demanding a\nbroader life, and in themselves are tending to produce more liberal views of\nsociety and of the world, occupations have been narrowly specialized and\nsubdivided so that at the very time when in a democracy like ours the demand\nfor liberal culture, many-sided interests, and knowledge of social conditions\nand needs is greatest, the existing industrial methods tend to reduce these\ndesirable qualifications to a minimum. The grinding, unvarying, monotonous\nsort of working period which minute subdivision of labor imposes is of very\nlittle educational value and must in some way be balanced .by a broader social\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF CITY\n\nTRAINING-SCHOOL\n\n303\n\nand spiritual life. As the world's work becomes more exact and narrowing,\nthe leisure of life, and especially the part which may be devoted to education,\nmust be utilized to bring the necessary variety and breadth of experience which\npersonal happiness, general good- will and intelligent co-operation require.\nThat we may not depend upon the home life of the modern city to give\nmuch assistance in this direction is also a fact too well knovm to call for comment. Itis patent to all that the home as an educative institution, in the sense\nthat many of us enjoyed and profited by in our childhood, is out of the question\nin the great city of today. Not only are the occupations gone in which the\nchild could formerly participate with great profit to himself, but woman\nherself is also tending at present to follow these occupations out of the home\ninto the business world. One-seventh of the adult female population of our\ncities already belongs to the wage-earning classes. This fact tends to lessen\nthe educative value of the home in another and more serious direction. For\nthis reason the influence of the best, most intelligent and refined women that\ncan be had is needed more than ever before in the lower grades of our public\nschools.\nI have thus indicated briefly some of the questions that confront the great\ncity today. The catalog is incomplete, to be sure, but I have not aimed at\ncompleteness. My purpose, as you will recall, was simply to point out in a general way the place which public education must come to occupy among the\ngreat forces which affect the progress of society; and to discover as far as\npossible what new demands are likely to be made upon city education and\nconsequently upon the selection and training of teachers.\nWhat then are the conclusions to which we are led ? Let me state them as\nbriefly as possible. First of all it is, I think, perfectly clear that our cities will,\nas time passes, make increasing demands upon their public schools. For they\nmust now look to the schools not only to supply, so far as they can, a sort of\ntraining that was once afforded by the home and the occupations of the people;\nbut also to furnish a kind of education that is more perfectly adapted to meet\nthe new industrial and social conditions to which I have referred. Already\nthe past few years have. seen many new kinds of service undertaken by the\npublic schools in some of our cities, and the future will undoubtedly add others\nto the list.\nIt is evident therefore that the city-school system cannot undertake a more\nimportant work than the training of teachers. It is also evident that the time\nrequired for this purpose must somehow be extended, and the work itself\nmore efficiently done. Better methods of instruction, greater practical skill\nin teaching and class-management, thoro and accurate knowledge of all\nthe subjects that make up the curriculum, and the ability to see the whole\ncourse of study in proper perspective and with a right judgment of values, are\nall of course extremely important. But owing to the great variety of subjects\nnow included in the grades and also to the fact that the training school is\ngenerally expected to prepare the students to teach in any grade below the\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "304\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nhigh school, this aspect of the general preparation of teachers requires more\ntime than is at present usually allotted to it.\nAgain, certain other qualifications that are equally desirable under present\nconditions need to be more strongly emphasized. Among these I would mention first, the spirit and personal power of the teacher. These are mainly\nsilent but extremely potent influences which are always at work on the life\nof the child. They are largely dependent, of course, on the good health and\nnatural attractiveness of the teacher and are therefore, for the most part, beyond\nthe control of the city training-school except in the exercise of its selective\nfunction. For this reason the training-school should be left absolutely free in\nthe exercise of this right to select, both in accepting or rejecting applicants who\nhave the nominal qualification required for admission, and also in dropping\nthem after they have been admitted, when in the judgment of the faculty it is\nbest for the schools that this should be done.\nBut in so far as the spirit of the teacher comes from a clear consciousness of\nthe meaning of life and of the far-reaching social significance of the work she is\ndoing, and in so far as it expresses itself in her attitude toward those for whom\nand with whom she must work and in her desire to count for something in the\nlife of the world, it is to a very considerable extent under the control of the\ntraining-school. Such a spirit comes in part, of course, from the intellectual\ngrasp of the moral and social meanings and values of public-school work which\nthe teacher is able to secure thru the help of the training-school. It is\nderived even more, however, from close personal touch with the members of\nthe faculty and from continually absorbing that spirit of honesty and of service\nfor the very joy of it, that should pervade the whole atmosphere of the trainingschool from the principal even to the janitor.\nScarcely anything can be more important than that such a spirit as this\nshould be made to characterize every school and every schoolroom in the city.\nIt means more for society than any lessons learned from the course of study.\nIt is, as I have said, a silent force that is always at work on the life of the child,\nan influence that abides and affects profoundly his subsequent attitude toward\nhis fellowmen and his judgment as to what is worth while in the life of the\nworld. Recent developments in the psychology of imitation reveal to us the\nremarkable extent to which this is true. On the other hand, certainly nothing\ncould be more detrimental to social efficiency of the school than that the child\nshould encounter there, as he too often does at home, that other spirit which is\ncharacterized by the effort, organized or unorganized, to do as little as possible\nand compel society to pay for it as much as possil^le.\nAnother much-needed qualification is adaptability. I have already said\nthat one of the principal functions of public education is to economize human\nenergy and suffering in the rapid transitions and adjustments that now-a-days\nhave to be made. But if the public school is to be a satisfactory instrument\nof adaptation it must itself be adaptable. It is of course naturally and properly\nconservative, but it must not be too conservative.\nSomeone has said that the\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendfence]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF CITY\n\nTRAINING-SCHOOL\n\n305\n\npublic-school system, in its relation to industrial and social development, is like\na freight car hitched to a locomotive by an elastic coupling. During periods\nof great prosperity society pulls away from its schools and must then come to a\npause before the latter can catch up. The cause of this lack of adaptability\non the part of the schools lies chiefly in the fact that the teacher, thru longcontinued service in the same grade and room and perhaps under the same\nsupervision, becomes so completely adapted to this narrow environment that\nshe does her work almost automatically. She loses interest in many other things,\nmeets no new conditions which require thought, and in time comes to regard\nany new demand as an unjustifiable hardship. When this condition is\nreached mental growth and adaptability are practically impossible.\nIf this result is to be avoided provision must be made to encourage further\ngeneral and professional study on the part of teachers after their appointment.\nThis duty naturally devolves upon the city training-school and calls for the\norganization of a department which shall offer courses to be given after school\nhours, and on Saturdays during the school year, and in a special summer school.\nThis work should be so planned as to set before the teacher a definite and\ndesirable objective and should be offered entirely under the direction and control of the training-school, or college of education, as I prefer to call it. None\nof it should be made compulsory, nor should the teacher be encouraged to take\nit by any definite promise of promotion or increase in salary. Whether it shall\nor shall not be taken should be left in every case to the voluntary choice of the\nteacher.\nThe courses offered in any subject should be so grouped as to give, when\ntaken together, a certain unity and system in the treatment of it. If the completion ofa group should require certain courses which cannot be given by the\nfaculty of the college, these courses should be offered in the summer school and\ngiven by someone either within the school system or out of it, who may be\nespecially well qualified for this purpose.\nAll subjects in which courses are offered should bear more or less directly\nupon some phase of city education. The satisfactory completion of any group\nof courses should carry with it a certain amount of credit toward a college or\nuniversity degree, to be determined by the nature of the courses which compose\nthe group. By this arrangement teachers would be given an opportunity to\nwork toward the attainment of a college degree without the necessity of discontinuing their teaching, except for a final year or two's leave of absence at\nsome university. The way would thus also be opened for teachers in the\nelementary grades to look forward to the possible attainment of a high-school\nposition if they so desire.\nIn planning the work of this department the interests of high-school teachers\nand elementary-school principals should also be provided for. Both of these\nclasses of men and women are subjected to certain conditions which, as such,\nk\n\nare not conducive to further growth.\n\nR'\n\ndevotes most of his time to the study and teaching of a single subject and often\n\n1\n\nThe high-school teacher, as a rule,\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nto a year or even a half-year of that subject as outlined in the course of study.\nMoreover he is constantly dealing with minds less mature than this own.\nThis latter statement is also true of the grammar-school principal. In his\nown little worid his will is supreme ; and his judgment, law. He usually is, and\nought to be, held responsible for the work of his school, and should be given\nliberty which is commensurate with this responsibility. He is therefore an\nexceedingly important factor in city education, the man \"behind the gun,\" as\nit were. But, unfortunately, in such an environment, he loses the stimulus and\nthe profit which come from the frequent clashing of equal minds, and after\na time may even become the most rigid and least adaptable element in his\nentire school.\nIt is obvious then that the courses which are planned for principals should\nbe mainly of the seminar type. The professor in charge should confine himself\nchiefly to outlining the course, assigning the work, presiding at the meetings\nand stimulating the discussions. The papers, as a rule, should be prepared,\nread, and freely discussed by the principals themselves.\nSuch work as this is also of great profit to the college itself, for it keeps the\nfaculty in close touch with those who are vitally interested in the work of its\ntraining department. It brings about a mutual respect between the principals\nand the faculty, and by placing a proper emphasis upon the practical aspect\nof the training of teachers, gives to this work the sanity and balance which it\nought to have. Indeed, whatever may be done to bring about a hearty co-operation in the training of teachers, between the faculty of the college and the\nprincipals of the schools, should, in general, be warmly commended.\nAfter three years of careful study of the St. Louis plan which makes certain\nprincipals of the city, in reality, members of the faculty of the Teachers College,\nand holds them responsible for a large part of the observation and practice\ntraining of the students of the college, I am convinced that it is a most excellent\nplan in almost every respect. On the whole, I am inclined to believe that the\nbest possible division of the usual two years' course which is given to the initial\npreparation of teachers would be as follows: one year under the local faculty\nof the college; one-half year of observation and practice in all the grades of\ncertain grammar schools chosen for this purpose and having not more than\nfour students assigned to each school; and a final half-year at the college. The\npractice half-year should, of course, be properly supervised, and thruout the\nwhole course theory and practice should be vitally related.\nI come now to speak a few words in closing, concerning the third important\nfunction of the city training-school — namely, the scientific study of education,\nespecially of the problems of city-school teaching and administration. There\nis, it seems to me, every reason why this study should be undertaken and no\nvahd reason why it should not. In the first place the city training-school has\na more vital contact with actual school conditions than any other existing institution; every type of city-school problem is concretely and directly accessible\nto it. Furthermore, it is the only agency within the city-school system that can\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintenaence]\n\nEMPLOYMENT\n\nOF UNTRAINED\n\nTEACHERS\n\n307\n\ndevote to such problems the careful and detailed study which their solution\nrequires. The superintendent of schools in our larger cities is coming to be\nlargely an administrative officer, who must, of course, see the larger questions\nof administration and instruction but cannot be expected to give the close\nexpert and detailed study which the minor problems require. Therefore, the\ncity training-school can and ought to be equipped to assist the city superintendent inthis important work and to this end it should be able to command the\nservices of the best educational experts that the country affords. The city\ntraining-school has indeed a unique opportunity to advance the interests of\neducation at large and should not any longer be allowed to shirk the reponsibility which this opportunity imposes upon it.\n\nROUND\nOF STATE\n\nTABLES\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nTOPIC:\n\nIS THE EMPLOYMENT OF UNTRAINED TEACHERS\nTHE CAUSE OR RESULT OF LOW SALARIES?\nI\nDAVID\n\nFELMLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNORMAL,\n\nILL.\n\nThere are concomitant phenomena in physical science, in biology, and in social life\nso reciprocally related that it is often difficult to tell which is cause, which is result. Any\nincrement of one is accompanied by an increment of the other.\nHas the strongest weed in the patch become such by having more than its share of\nair and sunlight ? Or did it overtop the others in the struggle for sunshine because it was\nat the start the strongest ?\nIs drunkenness the cause of misery, or misery the cause of drunkenness ?\nIs a morbid mind the cause or result of certain pathological conditions ?\nThe question before us seems to belong to the same class.\nSurely when wages are low few will go to the expense of professional training. It\nseems equally clear that when untrained teachers are acceptable, the abundant supply\nwill keep wages at the general level paid to unskilled labor.\nThere is no profit in discussing the question unless we can find a way out of the circle.\nAt the outset of this discussion let us consider the present conditions of supply and\ndemand as aJBfecting salaries. Most of the teachers of the United States are young women\ndrawn from what are sometimes called middle-class families. Such families are the staunchest supporters of our public schools. Their girls attend regularly and unless of poor health\nor with a marked disinclination to study press on thru the high school. At graduation\nthe young lady is eighteen. Her assistance is not needed in the work of the household.\nShe feels that she ought to do something toward her own support. Her associates have\nbeen schoolgirls and teachers; she knows comparatively little of employments outside\nthe school. She is fond of books and of school life. She resolves to become a teacher.\nShe has little difficulty with the county superintendent's examination. She is willing to\naccept almost any salary, which while she is living with her parents will suffice for her\npersonal expenses. So long as school boards are willing to employ these fresh graduates\nof the home school, who are expecting only a few years of teaching before marriage, there\nwill always be a large supply available at low salaries. Those who fail of early marriage,\nor are soon brought to the necessity of complete self-support, largely abandon teaching to ,\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n' [Chicago\n\nbecome bookkeepers, responsible saleswomen, expert stenographers and secretaries,\nor trained nurses. Under these conditions salaries become low and stay low. If they\nare raised, it is not in accordance with business principles, i. e., with the law of supply and\ndemand. It is rather in accordance with what we may call political principles, the cause\nthat operates in raising the salary of aldermen, congressmen, and presidents. Teachers'\npositions soon come to be regarded as political plums, to be obtained by pulls and influence.\nThe supply of candidates exceeds the demand. In the case of public office, when the\nsalary is excessive in view of the qualifications required and labors, responsibilities, and\nvexations which the office entails, public-spirited men who would seek the office as an\nopportunity for public service disappear from the field, leaving it to the self-seeking and\nmercenary. Similarly, if teachers' salaries are raised without requiring better qualifications,\nwe simply attract to the ranks a class of teachers who love the salary more than the work.\nBut suppose without raising salaries employers demand better qualifications. This\nmeans that the high-school graduate must spend one or more years in normal school or\ncollege usually away from home. Some cannot afford the outlay, some will not afford\nthe time and money. Of the girls described above, only a few who are strongly attracted\nto teaching and can afford the expense will obtain the training required. Consequently,\nexcept in the immediate vicinity of state normal schools and other institutions that traiA\nteachers, the supply of teachers will not meet the demand.\nIf this analysis is correct the only way out is thru simultaneous legislation, raising\nsalaries and the standard of qualifications.\nIn practice, it may be necessary to adopt a salary schedule based upon professional\npreparation ; or even to enforce the requirements of professional preparation rather leniently\nuntil a body of trained teachers is produced. Better wages at once will start young people\nto the training schools and will also enable our present corps of teachers to take time off\nfor further preparation. It will check the outflow of promising teachers who see in the\nprofession little prospect of satisfactory income.\nA few years ago I attended a school officers' meeting in Piatt County. \"Teachers'\nSalaries\" was the question for discussion. Nearly all the school officers present (and the\nmeeting was well attended) spoke on the question. There was complete unanimity of\nopinion to the effect that teachers' wages in Piatt County should be at least $10.00 a month\nhigher all around. But the meeting was almost equally unanimous in believing that the\npresent teachers were getting all that they were worth. The county superintendent\ndeclared it was useless to raise qualifications without better salaries, because in that year\nhe had refused certificates to only two candidates while two years before he had refused\nforty-three. He was obliged to level his examinations to the qualifications of existing\ncandidates. Consequently the opinion prevailed that wages should be put up at once,\nfor without such raise in wages young people could not be induced to prepare for better\nteaching nor could the existing body of teachers afford to go to summer schools or adopt\nother means of professional improvement. Several years ago a minimum-salary law was\nadopted in Indiana providing minimum salaries proportionately to the credit upon the\ncertificate. It was hoped that the increased pay for better prepared teachers would produce\nsufficient improvement in their quality. But the law favored better academic scholarship\nrather than better professional preparation. As a consequence it could not be seen that\nthe improvement in the quality of teachers was commensurate with the increase in salaries.\nAccordingly, two years ago the law was amended by inserting a requirement for a term\nof attendance upon some professional school.\nII\nV.\n\nL.\n\nROY,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nPARISH\n\nOF\n\nAVOYELLES,\n\nMARKSVILLE,\n\nLA.\n\nThis question assumes not only that there is an immediate connection between the\nsalary and the efficiency of a teacher, but also apparently that the sole cause or result of\n•low salaries is to be found in the employment of untrained teachers.\nBut it requires brief\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEMPLOYMENT\n\nOF UNTRAINED\n\nTEACHERS\n\n309\n\nconsideration of our subject to discover that there are other causes for the low salaries too\noften paid our teachers. Among such causes may be mentioned the relative wealth or\npoverty of a district, county, or state; the want of a progressive spirit among district and\ncounty boards in some quarters; and the failure on the part of parents fully to appreciate\nthe worth of an education. For instance, we may reasonably expect that the rich farming\nsections of Illinois or the wealth of our large cities will better remunerate their teachers than\ncertain parts of our Southland or of the West, where the amount of property per inhabitant\nis small.\nThis assumption is based upon all other quantities in the equation being equal.\nWe must also concede that, even if we assume low salaries to be a result of the employment of untrained teachers, they cannot be the sole result of the presence of such teachers\nin our schools. We may argue, for instance, that low salaries place a damper upon the\nefficiency of all teachers, whether trained or not; that such salaries thwart the growth\nof teachers; and that they tend to paralyze the whole system.\nThe business of employing teachers is not exempt from the law of competition. First,\namong school boards or other agencies employing teachers, there is often a lively competition. With increased and better means of travel, teachers do not object to employment in\nplaces very remote from their homes; in fact, today many do not hesitate to take up\nwork in distant states. Thru the writing of many letters, the applicant succeeds very\neffectually in emphasizing this competition to his own advantage. But such competition\nextends beyond this narrow sphere; for it frequently sets the school board against the\nbusiness house, the bank, and certain crafts. If with less training than is required of a\nteacher, obtained at a smaller outlay of time and money, the young woman can fill a position as clerk or stenographer at the same salary as the teacher, she will gravitate in the\ndirection of the store or the office. When low salaries persist in a state or section, men\nand women leave school work because other lines may offer better pay. The result of\nall this is to reduce the number of men and women devoted to the education of our youth.\nContinued low salary commands poorer and poorer service; and low salaries again become\na direct cause of inefficiency in the schools.\nThe above are immediate effects of low salary, but it operates in other ways, which,\ntho perhaps less direct, are not less effective in bringing into the teacher's calling\nuntrained material. When the young man or woman who is pursuing a course at college\nor at the normal school casts about to choose his life work, he is attracted to teaching or\nrepelled from it, other things being equal, according as to whether salaries are relatively\nhigh or low. If salaries are low, the schools suffer in two ways: First, the supply of\nprospective teachers is reduced, and the law of supply and demand operates. Teachers\nbeing scarce, either salaries must rise or school boards must not be too exacting in their\nrequirements. The first alternative works to keep salaries from falling below a certain\nminimum; the other, to admit into our schools a class of young persons wholly unprepared\nfor the important work of the teacher. Second, the expectation of a low salary by those\nwho determine to teach puts a discount on proper preparation. While in such cases there\nmay be a measure of training, it often proves wholly inadequate.\nAside from the tendency of low salaries to reduce the amount of training in teachers\nin the manner already indicated, the same result obtains in another direction. The most\nefficient means at the command of school authorities for keeping up a progressive spirit\namong the great body of teachers, and for training the young teacher, lies in our great system of summer normal schools, state institutes, county institutes and association meetings,\nand state conventions of teachers. Along with this comes attendance at higher institutions during the summer vacation or during the school year on leaves of absence. Ordinarily there is no lack of a desire on the part of our teachers to secure the training offered\nby such institutions; but low salaries are a fruitful cause of the failure of many teachers\nto get the training. After paying for board, clothing, and other necessary expenses during\nthe year, they find themselves wholly unable to take advantage of the summer training\nschool.\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "3IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nMainly, therefore, in four ways low salaries result in the employment of untrained\nteachers: First, because quality of service bears a direct ratio to remuneration in any line\nof activity; second, because competition exists among school boards and between school\nboards and other agencies employing the services of men and women; third, by failing to\nofifer the prospective teacher such inducements as will enable him and urge him to secure\na proper training before entering the schools; and, lastly, by not providing for the wellmeaning but untrained teacher already in the service sufficient financial means to take\nadvantage of training schools and gatherings provided for teachers.\nI have also examined the other side of the query, and have attempted to determine\nin what ways, if any, the amount of salary is affected by the teachers' training.\nIn any system of schools, whether county or state, where the average teacher may be\nsaid to be untrained, there can be no doubt that such lack of training exerts an influence\nto keep salaries low, or to keep salaries from a natural increase. And it does this in several\nways or thru several channels. First, it operates thru the patrons of the schools. The\nuntrained teacher being less efficient, other things being equal, than the untrained teacher,\nthere cannot be that demand on the part of patrons for increased remuneration for the\nteacher's service that there would be in the case of the trained and competent teacher.\nNo experience is more certain than that the efficiently trained teacher, operating thru the\npatrons, tends to raise salaries; nor that the poor teacher fails to create a demand on the\npart of the parent for better salary. Any salary, the patron justly says, is large enough\nfor such a teacher.\nA body of untrained teachers will lack the initiative and the spirit essential for success\nin any demands for increased salary. Lacking the consciousness that better service alone\ncan command better salaries, they likewise lack the conviction that there is any justice\nin their petition for better wages; and hence they fail to create the sentiment for the better\nremuneration of teachers.\nI take it then, that primarily the employment of untrained teachers is a result of low\nsalaries; but that, in a secondary manner, the employment of such teachers is also a cause\nof the generally low salaries paid teachers thruout our country.\n\nTOPIC: THE REORGANIZATION OF THE LIBRARY OF THE\nBUREAU OF EDUCATION WITH A VIEW TO MAKING IT\nAN AGENCY FOR EFFECTIVE CO-OPERATION WITH\nPEDAGOGICAL LIBRARIES THRUOUT THE COUNTRY\nELMER\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nBROWN,\n\nUNITED\nSTATES\nCOMMISSIONER\nWASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nI can best present this subject in the form of a memorandum prepared by Mr. William\nDawson Johnston, the present librarian of the Bureau of Education. Mr. Johnston,\nsince he assumed the direction of this library, on September i, 1907, has accomplished one\nof the most notable performances in library reorganization which are recorded in our\neducational history. The collection has been stripped to an effective working basis by\nthe transfer to other libraries of upward of 58,000 pieces, including more than 23,000\nbound volumes. The remaining collection, more than 62,000 bound volumes and nearly\n1 50,000 pieces in all, has been put into shape for wide and convenient use, its cataloging\nhas been carried forward and largely assimilated with that of the Library of Congress,\nthe bibliographical service has been extended, arrangements have been perfected for the\npreparation of catalog cards in education to be printed by the Library of Congress, and\nso made available for the use of libraries everywhere, and the classification and binding\nof documentary materials, serials, and other pamphlets has been rapidly advanced.\nThere have been distributed for your examination copies of the bulletin of the Library\nof Congress giving an account of the printed catalog cards in education which are now\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nOF THE\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n311\n\noffered under the arrangement which I have mentioned, and a select bibhography of the\nfeeding of school children, which is presented as a sample of the current bibliographical\nservice.\nThe memorandum of the librarian is as follows:\nFrom the point of view of the librarian the work of the library is fundamental. Our\nfirst task is to find out what educational information already exists in books and periodicals,\nand make it more available. This involves (i) the collection of a comprehensive pedagogical library in the Bureau and the building-up of good libraries in every center of research;\n(2) the proper cataloging of these collections; (3) and the publication of bibliographies.\nI have discussed these forms of service in my report as librarian of the Bureau for the year\nended June 30, 1908, and in an article in the December number of the Educational Review.\nI may be allowed here to recapitulate what I have said at greater length in those places.\nWhile the library of the Bureau, like other pedagogical libraries, must secure all the\nimportant current literature of education, its distinctive task is to collect works which\nare not to be found in other collections — voluminous serial publications which few institutions can afford either to purchase or shelve, precious educational incunabula, and rare\neducational pamphlets.\nMaterial of this character should obviously be preserved in the library for reference\npurposes only, but other works in the collection may be lent upon the usual terms of interlibrary loans. I attach less importance, however, to its function as a circulating library\nthan to its function as a clearing-house for the exchange and distribution of educational\nliterature. The building-up of good pedagogical libraries in the different centers of\nresearch thruout the country is as important as the collection of a great pedagogical library\nin Washington. The Bureau library may assist in this by completing important sets of\ndocuments well-nigh useless because of their fragmentary condition, by distributing\nprivately printed monographs, and in many other ways. More important still, it may\npublish full information with regard to current publications relating to education. Without such information the intelligent development of our pedagogical collections is impossible; with it their development will become not only intelligent but rapid. Librarians\ncollect more readily the literature which is best described and indexed, partly because it\nis easier to collect it, and partly because it may be made more useful.\nThe bibliographical service of the library will involve making known what is in the\nlibrary by any author or on any subject. This is done by printing the catalog cards and\ndistributing them to certain depository libraries which undertake to preserve and file them,\nand to such institutions and individuals as may subscribe for them. The bibliographical\nservice will also involve the collection of information as to what educational literature\nexists in other libraries, incorporating this information in a union catalog of pedagogical\nlibraries, and publishing the most useful parts of it in the form of union lists. It will\ncomprehend, too, the indexing of sets of serials. These catalogs, lists, and indexes will\naim at completeness of information regarding the book or class of books described.\nOther bibliographies, however, will aim to record simply the most important literature of a subject. The annual bibliography of education, for example, will describe only\nthe best books and articles on education which have been published during the year, and\nthe reference lists sent out in either printed or manuscript form will include only the most\nimportant old or recent works relating to the subject of the list.\nIn this bibliographical activity European nations are far ahead of us. The collections\nof the Musee Pedagogique far surpass ours, and such bibliographical records as are prepared\nthe Italian Ministry of Public Instruction and in the Zentralstelle fiir Dissertationen\nmd Programme at Leipsic are utterly out of the question with our small staff. If our\n)llections are to be made as valuable as the great European collections, our book fund,\n?hich is at present only $500, should be increased at once, and if our bibliographical records\ntre to be made as useful as theirs, our library staff, which now numbers nine, must be\nilarged two or three times.\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "312\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nThe objects of the service of the library to state and city superintendents may be\nsummed up briefly as follows: (i) To collect and make accessible all laws, reports, and\nother publications issued by state or city authorities or of interest to them; (2) to issue\nlists of these publications in book and card form with a view to making them better known\nand more useful; (3) to answer any questions presented by letter or otherwise regarding\npublications of these offices or of interest to them.\nIn fine, as the plan of the statistical division of the Bureau is to be a clearing-house of\nstatistical information, so the plan of the library division is to become a center of bibliographical information, especially regarding the most recent publications of value to school\nofficers.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nTOPIC: INDUSTRIAL\nO.\n\nI. WOODLEY,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\nEDUCATION\nSCHOOLS,\n\nPASSAIC,\n\nN.\n\nJ.\n\nOne of the chief functions of the school is to explain and interpret the civilization in\nwhich we live. It is important that pupils be led to understand the ideals of the present\ncivilization and life, so that they will do the things and live the life that contribute to\nindividual and national growth and prosperity. It follows, therefore, that the present\ncivilization should determine and govern the curriculum of our schools. The past had its\ncivilization and its schools, and some of this civilization and some of the instruction of\nthe schools is still of value and therefore is retained as part of the present life and instruction.\nThe chief purpose in studying the civilization of the past is to secure material with\nwhich to compare and determine the true worth of the civilization of the present. Another\nreason for studying the past is to discover what is permanent in national and individual\nlife and what things are only of local and temporary interest and importance. A third\nreason is to learn the laws that govern the development of the individual and the state, and\nto ascertain the general tendency of government.\nIf all this were better understood, it would lead to such a modification of our curriculum\nas would give more emphasis to the present, using from the past only those contributions\nwhich have present value. The correct interpretation of the present and its tendencies\nis, then, of vital importance, and is really one of the fundamental questions of education.\nThe terms \"education by adjustment,\" \"social efficiency,\" \"character,\" and other stated\neducational ends have no special content until there is a clear understanding of the values\nof the various units by which our civilization is measured.\nIn the primitive life of the American Indian, the question of subject-matter of a child's\neducation was a comparatively simple one to solve. The simple mode of living made each\ntribe, in a sense, independent. The demands upon the individual were few, and these he\nlearned to meet almost without conscious effort during a childhood which had ample opportunity to observe everything connected with Indian life.\nEvery advance in civilization has added to the interdependence of man, and has thus\nincreased the difficulties of the schools by making necessary the introduction of subjectmatter outside of the experience of the pupils. This interdependence has become so\ngreat that it is now impossible for one to know thru experience everything that enters\ninto modern life. Many important things cannot be learned thru normal childhood experience and hence must be learned in other ways. This fact explains the necessity for the\nmodern school, with its overcrowded curriculum which requires years to complete.\nIf the theses which I have already stated are accepted, then another, which is a corollary\nof these, must also be accepted. The relative importance of the various subjects in the\ncurriculum should be determined by the amount which they contribute to the correct inter-\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n313\n\npretation of modern life. All subjects that do not contribute largely to this end should have\nno place in the overcrowded curriculum of today. If all sentiment could be laid aside,\nand the subject-matter be determined by this thesis and by the new psychology, the schools\nwould more fully justify their cost.\nIf the present civilization were more generally understood, and if there were more\nuniform conceptions of its requirements, there would exist a more homogeneous people\nand a more uniform and active spirit of nationalism than is now the case. If this condition\ncould be secured, the civic, social, and industrial units would be standardized; and people\nin all stations would live more contentedly and harmoniously than they do now with their\nwidely different views and their different conceptions of values. The proper appreciation\nof social, industrial, and political units of value is of primary importance; and, in my\njudgment, should be one of the constant elements in all phases of life and educational work.\nIf these units were made standard in the school curriculum it would contribute more directly\nto the unity, prosperity, and progress of the state.\nThe early years of school life should be devoted to the consideration of those subjects\nthat will enable students to understand and appreciate in some measure the units of modern\ncivilization, that they may be prepared to take their places in the home and community\nlife. This foundation equipment is also a necessary preparation for all vocations. A\nlarge percentage of pupils leave school before reaching the seventh grade in order to begin\nthe inevitable struggle for a livelihood. They usually become the laborers, the operatives,\nthe servants, and the underpaid clerks. If they have gained some understanding of the\nunits of modern civilization and some appreciation of the essentials of manhood and womanhood, life to them need not be the cheerless and hopeless existence which it too often is to\nthose engaged in menial employment.\nTo the schools we must look to give much of this preparation, and if they meet our\nexpectation by rendering this important service, they will be a great influence in furthering\nnational unity. If, however, they determine growth solely by objective tests, ignoring\nsubjective results in the individual, they will continue to fail at a vital point. Where pupils\nare obliged to leave school before they have received this important preparation for life,\nsupplementary evening schools should be provided which would have for their main purpose the consideration of the life of the people as it manifests itself outside working hours.\nThese special schools would be concerned with man as a citizen, as a husband, as a father,\nrather than as a bread-winner.\nThere comes a time when the individual must leave school and enter upon a hfe-work.\nFor those who enter upon this life-work at an early age the organization of society is such\nthat the majority will continue upon the same industrial and social plane as that upon\nwhich they begin. Comparatively few rise above it. Those who leave school early should\nunderstand this, and should also recognize the fact that the doors to professional life and\nresponsible industrial positions will be closed to them.\nFrom the pupils who continue into the upper grades and the high school there must\ncome all of the professional men and the great political, civic, and industrial leaders of the\ncountry. These years of school life, therefore, become the choosing period — the time of\nselecting a life-work. At this stage of growth and progress, young people should have\nsufficient knowledge of themselves and of life to give intelligent consideration to this\nmomentous problem. If they do not have sufficient data to do this intelligently, the schools\nhave failed to present important subject-matter. A close study of the modern curriculum\nshows that it still contains much from the past that is of present use as well as some things\nthat are of little value.\nIn the past the vocation of an individual was in a measure determined by the conditions\nIfinto which he was born; but at the present time each person is usually free to choose for\nlimself. In order to meet the requirements of the complex civilization of today, this\n|choosing of a vocation becomes a most vital and perplexing question.\nPersonally, I regard the seventh and eighth grades as the most critical period for\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nhere boys and girls must choose either to enter high school or to go out into uncertain work.\nIn order to help them in this choice, they should be given much specific information about\nvocations and the special requirements for their successful prosecution.\nAt this choosing period it is essential that teachers should have a wide outlook upon\nlife, broad scholarship, and an abundance of genuine human sympathy. Academic or\nobjective tests should be secondary to subjective tests, or what the individual reveals of\nhimself. An entire life should not be put in jeopardy by a percentage mark. During\nthis sensitive period, teachers should have the advice and encouragement of principals and\nsuperintendents who can supplement their scholarship with sympathy so that all, working\ntogether for the boys and girls, may develop hopes, arouse ambition, and create active\ndesires for useful and serviceable lives.\nThe school man should know the specific demands of the different vocations much\nbetter than he usually does. If educational leaders gave more attention to the requirements ofour professional and industrial life and less to abstract psychology and theoretical\npedagogy, they could render more practical service the schools would be more effective,\nand would merit even in larger degree than now the support and confidence of the citizens.\nIt would be helpful if pupils at the critical period could have vocational life presented\nto them by persons representing the different vocations. The doctor, the lawyer, the merchant, the manufacturer, and others can give very much valuable and useful information,\ndrawn from their own experiences, that would be of great value to those who are undecided\nabout their life plans. They can present the advantages and disadvantages of their work,\nthe kind of preparation required, and the kind of personality likely to be successful. We\nare giving such a course of lectures in our high school this term, and it promises to be of\ngreat value to both teachers and students. Each speaker gives two lectures. In the first\none he presents the positive or attractive side of his work and in the second the negative or\nunattractive side, with a summary of the personal elements necessary to insure success.\nThis information will enable the young people to give the matter of a vocation more intelligent consideration than would otherwise be possible.\nThe pupils of the grades below the high school have four possible courses to consider:\nthey may leave school and begin to earn a livelihood; they may enter the high school and\ntake an academic course with no special motive but that of graduating; they may decide\nto pursue a course that leads to professional life; or they may choose that which leads\nto an industrial vocation. Having determined upon the general vocational course, the\nstudent should have every opportunity for its continuous prosecution.\nIn all courses, however there should be two common elements and the distinctive vocational element. The first common element includes those subjects that prepare for political,\nsocial, and community service. The second is a study of the material world thru some\nform of constructive manual work. Manual training in part supplies this element. If it\nwere richer in information it would satisfy it entirely. The information which comes thru\nmanual work is just as important and vital as that which comes thru history and science,\nand therefore this subject should be continued as an informational and interpretative subject in all courses. If it is continued, it will more and more become a means of establishing kinship between different classes. Manual training is, in a way, a link between the\nindustrial and academic or professional coup'ses, and this link should not be broken.\nFor the professional and commercial vocations the high school should provide those\nsubjects that will lead to special college and professional courses. This is of particular\nimportance in those states in which the colleges require an academic degree for admission\nto the professional courses. Twenty years is a long time to give to preparing for a vocation which, in the average case, does not continue much longer than the period of preparation. If the high school can help to shorten this period, a practical service will have been\nrendered.\nThe industries which are to receive special emphasis should be determined by each\ncommunity, and there may be communities where there is no demand for industrial work\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n315\n\noutside of manual training which, in some form, should be taught in all schools. Such\ncities are of course residential suburbs. In these any special demand for industrial work\ncan be provided in the special schools of the greater city near.\nIn much the same way as the subject-matter of the school is drawn from the civilization, the nature and character of the industrial school should be drawn from the local\nindustrial life. In a mining city, the industrial school should prepare for those positions\nin the mine that require intelligence and skilled labor. For example, the industrial work of\nthe high school at Calumet, Mich., is determined in large part by the copper mines there.\nThe work represents the mining requirements so completely that boys clearly perceive the\nvalue and importance of each step and eagerly strive to master the difl&culties. Even from\nthe high school, they go well prepared for responsible and efficient service at a good wage.\nThe condition or situation is now fairly before us as expressed in terms of demand\nand also in terms of the inadequate provisions for meeting it. In the past .children had a\nshare in the actual work of the home. Boys shared in the occupations of the father and\nthus gained concrete experience by which to interpret the instruction unconsciously but\npositively given in the home life and environment. Today conditions are different. Children have little material experience by which to interpret the work of the school, and thus\nmuch of it is abstract and unintelligible to them, because dissociated from actual experience.\nWhen it is remembered that the real stability and wealth of a state or nation depend\nupon its ability to produce useful and finished material things, and that our educational\nsystem does not in any adequate way prepare for such production, we may well give consideration to the question of industrial education. Shall we depend upon men brought\nfrom foreign countries to do our industrial work or shall we give such instruction as will\nprovide for its being done by the intelligent and trained workmen of our own country ?\nShall American brains and industry produce the great variety of products which are possible\nand for which we are already famous thruout the world ? The demand for skilled labor\nis urgent and imperative. The home life cannot meet it. The schools could if they were\nreorganized so as to make the meeting of this demand a positi'we aim. This should be\ndone, no matter what the effect is upon educational creeds and theories, or the theoretical\nopinions uttered by men who have gathered their knowledge of material things and of\nindustrial life, not first-hand by direct contact with them, but from fireside investigations\nof figures furnished by statisticians.\nWhen provisions have been made for instruction that will prepare for citizenship and\ndevelop useful manhood and womanhood, then provision must be made for instruction\nthat will fit one for a vocation.\nHaving decided to give special attention to vocational work in the high school, we\nmust lay aside our educational conventions and the old faculty psychology, and with these,\nsome of the things for which they have been responsible. We must recognize that intensive\nvocational study and work are as positive in making moral and intellectual fiber as any\nother studies in the course, and that they are also as positive in producing real culture and\nmanhood as any of the subjects that were pursued in the schools of the past. Fully believing this, I am convinced that approximately one-half of the time of the high-school course\nshould be given to vocational preparation rather than to learning those subjects which are\ncontinued because of sentiment or because of a wrong conception of values.\nTo determine what the vocational subjects should be and to ascertain what portions\nof these subjects should be considered, we must go to representative men of these vocations for advice and assistance. Realizing this, I am holding a series of conferences with\ngroups of men representing the various professions and industries. I am meeting the doctors, the lawyers, the manufacturers, the engineers, the merchants, and other groups\nseparately in order to discuss education with them in terms of their own experiences. I\nam trying to come to some agreement with them upon certain educational propositions\nand to this end I am conferring with them in order to ascertain their point of view regarding the proper preparation to meet the demands of the present civilization.\nThe pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "31 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nf essional leaders and the industrial leaders must help us. We should be willing to let some\nthings go in order to make room for what these practical men recommend. The present,\nnot the past civilization, the practical demands of present life, rather than the dictations\nof the colleges and universities, must determine the course of study for our schools. The\nhigh school must have an added motive. To its diploma and to the university and collegeentrance requirement must be added an active purpose to prepare for citizenship and\nvocational duties. This motive is reasonable, the demand is urgent, and school workers\nand students should give it first consideration. If this is done, the bread-winner of every\nvocation, and the schools of every rank, will work together to produce a more homogeneous\nand loyal citizenship, and thus contribute to the happiness of the people and to the development and perpetuity of the State.\nI.\n\nCONDITIONS\nA.\n\nC.\n\nWHICH DEMAND INDUSTRIAL\nELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\nTHOMPSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTRAINING\n\nAUBURN,\n\nN.\n\nIN\n\nY.\n\n[An Absiraci]\nPlans for reorganizing the school system from top to bottom so as to lay a more practical\nfoundation for the industrial life in which the great majority of pupils will find their vocation are everywhere in the air.\nFormerly, when a substantial part of our population was in the country, boys received\ninstruction in nearly every trade that contributed any article needed in the home or about\nthe farm. President G. Stanley Hall says that boys brought up on a farm a generation\nago were taught the rudiments of at least seventy trades.\nNow a large majority of the children live in cities and villages. Few of them are given\nany responsibilities or duties to perform at home; consequently in the interest of industrial\nprogress it is clearly the duty of the school to give a manual education which shall be most\neffective to this end, an(i since a very large percentage of the children never reach the\nhigh school this education must begin in the elementary grades.\nVocational or educational. — Shall the general aim of our industrial* training be to\nteach the essential elements of all manual occupations, or to teach expertness in one special\nmanual dexterity or trade ? Is it the business of the school to teach the pupil how to\nmake the one-hundredth part of a shoe during eight hours of the day, or to teach him how\nto live the other sixteen hours ? This is the question squarely put.\nBefore we abandon the wisdom of experience in order to embrace some new form of\neducation let us be sure that the new will tend to make a man at the same time that it\ntrains a mechanic. In this rapidly changing age trades and machines become obsolete\nin a generation.\nAfter these have passed the man lives on.\nThe most practical industrial education, in my opinion, is that which will teach children to think and make them versatile so that they will be able to adjust themselves to a\nchanging environment. Any form of education, whose chief aim is to teach trades at the\nsacrifice of academic work, will be disappointing in its results.\nOf this I have no doubt.\nThe child. — We must remember in planning the industrial course for grammar\ngrades that it must be adapted to children fourteen years old and younger. Children of\nthis age cannot tell what vocations they will follow, and neither their parents nor anyone\nelse can decide for them. In many foreign countries the child follows the vocation of\nhis parent naturally and without question. In this country it is the exception for the boy\nto pursue the father's trade.\nI presume that thruout this country not over i per cent, of children in the elementary\ngrades will follow the vocations they might choose today.\nAgain the needs and natural development of the child must be considered. Children\nuse the larger muscle groups earlier than those concerned in finely adjusted movements.\nTo attempt the teaching of a special dexterity or trade to young children might result in a\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n317\n\nspecialization of the smaller nerve and muscle centers long before their natural time of\ndevelopment and render the teaching ineffective.\nThe course. — An important element in determining the character of our industrial\neducation should be the demand of the industrial world. In all industrial pursuits the\nreal demand is for efl&cient workmen capable of planning and inventing new designs and\ndevices.\nAt the present time in the pubHc schools of my city there is a very complete course in\nmanual training for both boys and girls of the first nine grades. This work is directed by\ntwo supervisors and three supervising teachers. The aim of our course is not to teach a\ntrade or special dexterity but to teach the dexterities which underlie all manual pursuits.\nThis is accomplished by teaching means of expression thru the education of the hand\nin producing useful articles from coarse fibers, yarns, cardboard, wood, Venetian irorf, etc.,\nand later by teaching the girls domestic science and art and the boys the proper use of fifty\nor more hand tools, requiring a high degree of muscular control, in making such useful\narticles as the pen-holder, hat-rack, bread-board, tabouret, etc.\nThis kind of work, in my opinion, is the best industrial training for grammar grades.\nIt quickens ability in self-expression and power of individual initiative, and it leads up very\nnaturally to the high-school work in advanced sewing and cooking, chemistry of foods,\nmarketing, textiles, sanitation, heat, light, ventilation, fuel, laundering, hygiene, care of\nbabies, general nursing, accounts and business forms, domestic architecture, gardening and\nI\n'\n\ngeneral floral culture, etc., for girls; cabinet-making, pattern-making, forging and metalwork, machine-shop work, freehand, architectural, and mechanical drawing, electricity and\nsteam, industrial chemistry, applied physics, heating, ventilation, sanitation, etc., for\nboys.\nIn this line of training are the essential elements of many trades which may easily be\ncarried to a more complete development. One great advantage of this course is that it\nteaches the child to look ahead and to be more thoughtful; that results must be considered before action. Careful planning, exact measurements, accurate work impress\nupon him the importance and the habit of carefulness, patience, and accuracy, and the\nmoral lesson of truthfulness and justice inspired by the perfect square, tight joints, and\nperfectly matched parts cannot be overlooked. Since a defect may be readily observed\nby both pupil and teacher, deception cannot readily find a place. It is impossible to substitute sham for honest endeavor.\nI sincerely hope that we shall keep our industrial courses on a high eduational plane.\nThey should bear the same relation to trade instruction that liberal academic work bears\nto professional study. If any line of work can be demonstrated to be of greater practical\nvalue in making our children better and more efficient men and women, we will not be slow\nto adopt it.\n\nII.\nJOSEPH\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nM. FROST, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nIN HIGH\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMUSKEGON,\n\nMICH.\n\nIt is not necessary, nor does our time permit us, to discuss the psychological reasons\n^^ for giving every child a peep into the broad fields of activity of the present civilization,\n^B That this must be done in the grades is admitted, if parents and teachers are to exercise a\n^m proper care in seeing to it that the child does not get into the wrong course. A child may\n^K^ greatly change between the ages of seven and twelve. His intellect, or his motor character^H|istics, may become stronger or weaker as he grows older. Therefore, his course, up to\n^^■the time of his entering high school, must be such as will enable him, with the aid of parents\n^^Kand teachers, to make the right choice of a high-school course in which he must specialize,\n^^■and in this way prevent misfits in vocational lines.\n^^B\n\nI agree with the writer of the preceding paper \"that the present civilization shall\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "31 8\n\n-\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nway a link between the industrial and the academic and professional courses.\" Realizing\nthis, we have endeavored in our school to readjust the courses to meet present needs.\nBelieving that there is no hard and fast rule, or any written law, whereby we may have\neight years in grades and four years in high school, we have divided our schools on the\nseven- and five-year plan, that is, seven years for the grades and five years for the high\nschool. In the eighth, ninth, and tenth grades we require one and one-half hours of manual\ntraining of each pupil every day. In the eleventh and twelfth grades the manual training\nis optional. The result is that more than 90 per cent, of the pupils take manual training\nduring the entire course. Three academic studies per day are required for the first three\nyears and four for the last two years, unless manual training is taken. The above plan\nenables us to give the academic work usually found in a high school, and also one and onehalf hours of manual training per day for five years.\nWithout exception, we believe the high-school teachers feel that the academic work is\nbetter done, by reason of the fact that the manual training relates the work more closely to\nlife than it appears to be in high schools where there is no manual training, and further,\nto many boys to whom a purely academic course does not appeal, it makes the course seem\nworth while. By beginning the academic work of the high school in the eighth year, we\nare for the present trying to take care of the pupils until such time as the university readjusts\nitself to the demands of those who have not devoted the entire time of the course to purely\nacademic work. The child does not know at the outset whether he wants to go to college\nor not. We want to make it possible for him to secure with no difficulty entrance to tl^e\nuniversity, and, at the same time, we wish to take care of his real needs.\nAll the boys in our high school are given bench work, turning, joinery, cabinet -making,\nfoundry, forging, machine-shop practice, elementary printing, freehand and mechanical\ndrawing. The girls, cooking, elementary sewing, emergencies, household economics,\nlaundry, dressmaking, millinery, art needle-work, freehand drawing and applied art,\nincluding pottery, metal, and leather.\nBy reason of the instruction of manual training the attendance at the high school has\nincreased from\n9.47\nto 10.9\nto 14. 1\nto 19 . 1\n\nper cent, of total enrollment\nper cent, of total enrollment\nper cent, of total enrollment\nper cent, of total enrollment\n\nin 1899 ^^^ 1900,\nin 1902 and 1903,\nin 1905 and 1906,\nFebruary i, 1909,\n\nthus doubling the attendance in 9 years and this, too, in spite of the fact that the total number\nof school age in the city has decreased from 7,814 in 1900 to 6,583 in June, 1908. In fact,\nthe work is so attractive that nearly 50 per cent, of each graduating class return to the high\nschool for postgraduate and normal work.\nManual training, similar to that which we have, can be done in any small city, altho\nin equipment we are especially favored. An extensive equipment is not necessarily required.\nDoes not the record of a doubled high-school attendance in nine years prove that the\nextra outlay for manual training is worth while ? The annual cost of the manual training\nin our high school (which numbers 710), including the instruction of 250 pupils from the\nseventh grade and 35 normal students, is about $22,000.\nGraduates of our high school and manual-training school are now teaching manual\ntraining in Columbus, Cleveland, Minneapolis, Cincinnati, St. Joseph, Mo., and other\ncities, and many are holding responsible and well-paying positions with manufacturing\nconcerns.\nSeveral of our graduates have received from one-half a year to a full year's advanced\ncredit in the technical schools and in the engineering departments of the universities. This\nsaving of time is an important factor.\nYou cannot tell what a boy can really do by the percentage he receives in some academic\nstudy, but you can find out whether he can do things after a few years' training in the shops.\nIf education means what the word signifies, then certainly in our system we should so place\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n319-\n\nthe boy that he will be able to find himself. The mass of those in our public schools will\nhave to do things. Why then should we hesitate to get them to doing things as soon as\npossible ?\nIn our schools we give a few industrial courses in an elementary way only. These are\nprinting, pattern-making, cabinet-making, machine-shop practice, electrical construction,\nmillinery, dressmaking, and the art crafts — pottery, metal, and leather.\nThe son of a man who has never earned more than $1 .50 a day, who can start in a\nshop at $1.75 or $2 a day upon graduating frojn high school, does not need any further\ndemonstration of what education has done for him, without reference to any further benefit\nthat he receives from his training.\nIt will not be out of the way to say that we have a standing offer from one of the\nmanufacturing companies in our city to take any high-school graduate who has had the\ncourse in electrical construction, and whom we will recommend, and give him a job at\n$1 .75 per day. But above all, if the training our boys and girls receive has done no other\nthing, it has dignified labor in their estimation. They no longer have contempt but rather\nadmiration for the man whose hands and clothes are soiled in the pursuit of a worthy\nindustrial calling.\nLast summer a graduate of our high school, an excellent student in academic work,\nas well as in domestic art and science, who is now attending one of the large, fashionable\nboarding schools, was giving a porch party for two young ladies who attend the same\nschool.. One of the high-school boys, known to all of the local young ladies present at\nthat party, drove by the house on a load of gravel, which he was hauling for a local cementconstruction company. Did these young ladies turn away their heads when they saw the\nyoung man coming? They called out \"Hello, Charlie\" with just as much fervor as if\nhe had been dressed in dude clothes, and he raised his hat with as much dignity as he\nwould a silk tile. This is but one of many similar instances I might relate to indicate the\nchange of feeling that has come over boys and girls in regard to manual labor.\n\n///.\nCARLETON\n\nINDUSTRIAL\nB.\n\nGIBSON,\n\nTRAINING\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nGA.\n\nThe chairman has requested me to describe briefly the work of an industrial high\nschool established in Columbus, Ga., known as the Secondary Industrial School.\nThe aim of the institution is to prepare the youth of that city and vicinity for intelligent\nand efficient sei;vice in industrial life. The term \"industrial life\" is taken to include commercial activities as well as manufacturing interests. It is a trade school, and more;\nit is an academic trade school of high-school rank. This means that the essentials of a\nhigh-school course are given and a trade is taught. Under the head of essentials are\nincluded the usual high-school studies in mathematics, English, history, and science.\nNo foreign languages are taught. There has never been any intention of teaching young\npeople a trade without giving them good academic training, for this starts a young person\nin life with immediate earning power, but with an earning power that is very Hmited. The\naim is to give that culture, intelligence, and mental acumen which carry the skilled mechanic\nor trained accountar^J on to unlimited earning power.\nThe equipment represents an investment of something over $100,000, much of which\n.was donated by individuals and corporations interested in the creation of such an institu\ntion. The land and several thousand dollars were given by a public-spirited citizen who\nhas an especial interest in this type of education. The school was built without any very\nlarge bequest, without the issue of bonds, and without any very unusual appropriation from\nthe municipal government. Not in the slightest degree, however, is the school recognized\nas the peculiar property or interest of any individual, corporation, class, or faction of the\npeople. The entire city looks upon it as its property, as its institution, and the people are\nunited in their belief in its usefulness and in their determination to support it generously.\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nIt is a school of the people, maintained by the people, and for all classes of people.\nIt is not recognized as a school for artisans, nor a school of the leisure class seeking some\nfad. Within its student body are found the sons and daughters of the well-to-do, working earnestly and industriously side by side with the children of the dollar-a-day man.\nThe people of all classes living in such industrial atmosphere have come to realize that the\ngreatest opportunities for service to mankind, usefulness to society, and bread-winning\noccupations lie in industrial pursuits. Those who enter the school necessarily do so with\na purpose more or less definite. The organization requires the pupil on entering to select\none trade or industry, to which, in addition to the academic subjects required of all,\nhe shall apply himself thruout the entire course. The plans followed embrace some\nrather unique features. The session continues thruout the year except the month of\nAugust. The hours of the school are the ordinary working hours, from eight to four,\nwith thirty minutes' intermission.\nThe traditional Saturday holiday is eliminated.\nUnder the supervision of the city superintendent and management of the board of\ntrustees, the school is also supervised by an advisory board of five experts representing the\nleading industries and commercial interests of the city. The requirements for admission\nare sound bodies, fourteen years of age, and education in common-school studies thru\nthe sixth grade of the elementary schools. The candidate for graduation, having completed\nthe academic and industrial training, is required to spend at least two months in factory,\nshop, or business establishment, without compensation, and make daily reports to the\nschool on eflficiency. Reports also come weekly from the foremen over such workers.\nThe unusual length of session has several advantages. First, it reduces or practically\neliminates the great waste in education thru loss of time in a youth's life. Second, it\nutilizes in an economical and business-like way the educational plant without loss of\ninterest on the investment thru idleness and disuse. Third, it gives opportunity for a\nyoung man or a young woman to concentrate his or her educational efforts into a few years.\nFourth, it offers more than twice as many hours of school work per year as the ordinary\nschool working under the traditional nine-months' session, thus enabling the student to\naccomplish in the three years of the course what would ordinarily be accomplished in six\nyears. This brings him thru his high- and trade-school training before the average\nboy is more than half thru his high-school course. The graduate is prepared for useful service, has good earning power, or training fitting him for entrance into a technological\nschool, which, however, is not the primary aim of the school.\nWhile the hours of the school day may seem, in the light of traditional school work,\nto be rather long and to work a hardship upon pupils, the interspersing of shop-work,\nor industrial training, thruout the day, giving relief from the constant nerve-tension\nrequired in the purely academic work, and the serving of a wholesome hot lunch in the\nschool at midday, remove the possibility of detriment to health. This lunch is prepared\nunder the direction of the domestic-science department.\nAt first some pupils coming from the other schools find it a little diflScult to adjust\nthemselves to the earlier hours, but the graduates of the school never find any difficulty\nin adjusting themselves, the morning after graduation, to working hours. One of the\nmost admirable features of the whole school is the splendid spirit of interest, activity, and\nsympathetic industry manifested thruout the faculty and student bq^y. All are wholesome, alive, energetic, and ready for anything that comes up for the good of the school.\nThe advisory board, made up of persons generally recognized in the community as\nleaders in the several industries and commercial activities, not only serves to keep the industrial work of the school of a thoroly practical nature, but also to link the school closely\nto the industrial establishments of the community. It is to be noticed that the state of\nNew York has embodied this feature in its recent law providing for trade schools.\nThe requirements for admission in age and scholastic advancement seem to have\nmet with favor on the part of those who have later taken up the organization of trade and\nindustrial schools.\nFourteen is quite early enough for a boy to start upon his trade training,\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n32I\n\nfor he then comes out into industrial life at a minimum age of seventeen. The average\nage is somewhat above this, and yet, if the age is put much above fourteen, many are lost\nentirely to all such school training.\nIt is the aim at all times to be closely in touch with the actual industrial occupations.\nIn the shops nothing is produced for the scrap-pile. All work is carefully done from the\nstudent's drawings and usually from his own blue prints. Every product has an economic\nvalue which cannot be divorced from the educational value of the process. The products\nare the property of the school, and if sold, the fund is converted into raw material to be used\nby other boys who are to become economic units. Excursions are made to shops and\nindustrial establishments for observation and discussion, but always with a view to making\nthe next product more valuable or the manipulation of the machine more effective.\nThe student, having completed the course of academic and industrial training laid\ndown in the school requirements, is placed, by the school or an advisory-board member, in\nsome position for which he has fitted himself. Without pay he conforms to all the requirements of the establishment, thus giving his real efficiency a practical test. Falling into the\nworking hours of the institution, whether it be a cotton mill or a bank, he touches elbows\nwith his fellow-workers and gets an insight into the human side of industrial life that no\nschool can give him. He sends to the head of his school department daily reports on\npunctuality in attendance, persistence thruout the day, promptness in executing tasks,\nreadiness in interpreting drawings and orders, relationship to fellow-workers, and the\nnature and amount of work done.\nThus far the school has had no difficulty in placing its student workers, and has had\nthe intelligent and sympathetic co-operation of business houses and industrial establishments. This plan not only tests the pupil's real efficiency, but puts him where he may be\nsure of a job if he proves his worth. Coming from his overalls in the shop at the close of\na day's work he may receive his diploma (in dress suit, if he please) and return to his\noveralls the next morning. Under the industrial ideal of this nation the typical American\nis the one who can wear overalls as gracefully as he wears a dress suit.\nThe graduation exercises of the first class to go out from the school presented some\nunique and interesting features, which were expressive of the aims of the school. It consisted of nine persons, three from the dressmaking department, two from the machineshop, four from the business-training department. There were no orations or essays,\nfew flowers, and little music. After a plain, direct statement of the ideals of the school\nby one of the young men, the three young women representing the dressmaking department measured, drafted the pattern, cut, fitted, and made a dress on the stage, from cloth\nwoven during the session in the textile department. After making the dress, the young\nladies retired, and one of them returned, wearing the dress, and in it she received her\ndiploma. A simple statement of the advantages of dre.ssmaking as a bread-winning occupation, an explanation of the system of drafting, and of the processes involved in making the\ndress were made by one of the young ladies.\nAfter the dress was cut, other departments of the school were represented in the graduating exercises while these girls at one end of the stage were making music with the sewing machine and plying their nimble fingers. The graduates from the business-training\ndepartment astonished the audience with the rapidity of their business calculations, took\ne, and turned off good, businessdictation from teacher and from citizens in the audienc\nI\nlike letters. A lawyer surprised them by stepping upon the stage and dictating a long\nlegal letter, which was promptly reproduced without an error. Most of the graduates had\n\npositions the day after their graduation. All of them had' good positions within less than\nsix weeks, and that, too, in the summer of 1908, famous for retrenchment in working forces.\nThe trades or lines of industrial training offered by the school are, for the girls, millinery, dressmaking, and business training; for the boys, carpentry, pattern-making, machinEvery course extends over three full years\nist, business training, and cotton-mill work.\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nto academic work.\nThis applies to business training as well as to shop-work.\nThere are\nno ten-week courses to turn out clerks and artisans without any academic training.\nEvery boy is required to take mechanical drawing thruout his course, and every\ngirl must have thoro training in home economics. As the probability is that at least\n80 per cent, of the young women graduating from the school will some day have the care\nand management of a home, and as all of them will have more or less to do with the making\nof a home, considerable importance is attached to thoro training in home economics.\nThese studies include plain, fancy, and dietetic cookery, house-cleaning and decoration,\nsanitation, marketing, planning meals, and the intelligent and economical management of\na home in a broad sense. Such training of future home-makers will contribute indirectly\nto the increased industrial efficiency of the workers who will come from these homes.\n\nTOPIC: THE\nI.\n\nQUALIFICATIONS\n\nMILTON\n\nC. POTTER,\n\nWARD-SCHOOL\nAND\n\nFUNCTIONS\nPRINCIPAL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nPRINCIPAL\nOF THE\nDISTRICT\n\nWARD-SCHOOL\nNO.\n\n1, PUEBLO,\n\nCOLO.\n\nThis paper will deal with the subject in two parts in the order of the five-minute\ndiscussions which are to follow it. The expanded title then reads, \"The Qualifications\nand Functions of the Ward-School Principal.\" While the nature of his functions must\nlargely determine what his qualifications should be, we will follow the order of the discussions and begin with his qualifications.\nStatements of general truths sufficiently qualified assure comparative safety to the\npreaching pedagog. The writer will try to screw his courage to the point necessary for\nexplicit statement. While his remarks will not glitter they will not be generalities. Last\nmonth a dozen ward-school principals were asked to hand in their statements of a principal's\nqualifications. The elderly ones argued for maturity as a necessary qualification; the\nyounger ones felt a certain enthusiastic energy to be a requisite in any principal; the female\nprincipals recognized the peculiar service of a woman in a principalship; the men found\nthat male principals could do very many things never accomplished by women principals;\nthe college people found academic culture to be indispensable and the normal graduates\nconsidered a grasp of definite methods as of the very greatest importance.\nNeither age nor sex, culture nor pedagogical training, experience nor health can,\nhowever, have the bearing upon a principal's efficiency that is exercised by his disposition\nand character. Under the strain of meeting hundreds of different spirits in parents, teachers,\nand children day by day a principal's original stock is apt to show itself anew even thru\nthe strongest established character. * It is therefore well to hear something from a candidate's boyhood home in making up the list of qualifications for so important a position as\nhat of principal.\nIn the list of a principal's mature characteristics, congenial good-fellowship must be\nplaced high. Whether with the parents, the pupils, or the teachers, his willingness to meet\nupon the level and to share all good things will determine his influence. Then his teachers\nwill grow genial, with him and with others, because he has been congenial.\nKindly note this passage in a recent letter from a city superintendent, an educational\nstatesman:\nSociability among congenial souls who dream dreams and see visions, who give and\ntake, in the process of reducing such dreams and visions to the language of common\nmortals, and who harbor purposes that transcend mere selfish and immediate personal\nexpediency, enriches life for them. This is one means toward the production of moral\ncharacter in our schools. This moral character is a fugitive, sometimes a vagabond thing,\nyet it is a most real thing and constitutes a conscious and imperative end. It is not to be\nproduced by mere incidental teaching; it is not a mere by-product; it is the big thing after\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nWARD-SCHOOL\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\n323\n\nall. It must be deliberately promoted in a somewhat informal manner. Neither school\nmachinery nor courses of study will avail much. It means, when we learn and our school\nauthorities in any large sense learn it, that our teaching corps must be composed of men\nand women who are big in character. Such men and women are irresistible in their influence upon the character of the young people with whom they associate and it matters little\nwhether they are conscious of their gifts and method or not — indeed their bigness is very\nlikely to consist in a large measure of transparent simplicity. The character of such\npeople is something larger than the Sunday-school thing so many people think of. It is\ncharacter in the sense of men and women who succeed, who excel, who out-compete rivals,\nwho make the world go, who ask no quarter, who hold a good-sized globe of the world as\nit is in everyday engagements and conditions in their hands — it is the character and influence of men and women who are independent of their profession, who share nothing of\nthat cowardice which springs from a sense of dependence upon a particular position, who\ncommand something of others wherever you place them.\nPrincipals of this character are qualified for real service. Your great superintendent\nbecomes so because of them — because he has gathered them and held them about him.\nWhile physical analogies are usually useless in the moral world, the old analogy that unlike\nattracts and like repels is peculiarly false in this field. Your petty superintendent retains\nlike principals about him — obsequious, lip-loyal, cowardly, mechanical. It requires a\ngreat, generous soul to command the service of ward principals of personality, simplicity,\nintegrity, courtesy, courage, kind hearts, and simple faith. Such are the principals, and\nsuch their qualifications, desired by every genuine superintendent of schools in America.\nThus do we consult our own interests no less than our own dignity.\nFurther qualifications for success, which are to be developed by a ward-school principal\nafter election, must be established in the performance of his functions, the discussion of\nwhich will constitute the second half of this paper. Those functions must be of organism. They are not a compilation of imposed duties. The school is a growth. It performs a vital service. No invention can safely devise his duties and impose them upon a\nschool principal. That the same is true of the teachers gives rise to one of the principal's\nchief functions.\nVital intellectual and professional influence with teachers is possible to ward-school\nprincipals in a degree unattainable by most superintendents. The substitution, by many\nprogressive superintendents, of ward-school round tables for the general city meeting of\nall teachers arises from a recognition of this fact by superintendents.\nThat superintendent, who goes as an honored guest into a building meeting and sits\nwith the others under the chairmanship' of the principal, has found a fulcrum for his own\ninfluence which will move his little educational world to higher endeavor and finer feeling\nthan can ever be realized by his talking down to them from the factitious pedestal of his\nlittle brief authority. What one of us would not wish to exercise the authority of clear\nthinking and matured judgment over the minds and hearts of teachers, rather than the\nauthority of accidental position ?\nMoreover, silent listening without opportunity for expression seldom if ever generates\nthought, and even where the unusual opportunity for general discussion is given in a general\nmeeting there too often results but the desultory display of unabashed wordiness. The\nthoughtful, the perplexed, the timid, sit quietly in such a gathering, whereas their greater\nfreedom in the small meeting often results in almost electrical clearing of the atmosphere.\nMany most capable superintendents are poor platform performers. Even when they\nare very convincing public speakers, their monthly entertainments are comparatively\nbarren of results because of the suppressed reaction of its utter absence among the teachers.\nAside from general meetings by grades, the general city assembly is coming to be used more\ninfrequently, and then only for general administrative or social purposes. As chairman\nof cultural and professional meetings among his teachers, then, the principal will find an\norganic function developing itself. It is true that many teachers talk promiscuously in\nsuch meetings, and generally behave in a manner the manifestation of which among their\npupils would be inconsistently but romptly put down.\nThe practice of the social ameni-\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\nties will gradually prevail, however, if the principal recognizes his function. The stronger\nhe is, the less he will say, and the more his teachers will say — but they will say it one at a\ntime, and each one will have his opportunity and will be listened to by all the others.\nSupervision is perhaps the principal's most generally recognized sphere of usefulness.\nIt is here given a secondary position because it must be admitted that very few teachers\nare materially bettered in personality or methods by means of inspection. A teacher's\nsuccess or failure must be very largely achieved alone. But the wise teacher will lay hold\nupon the strength to be found in the verbal suggestions or model lessons of the principal.\nIf he ignores this co-operating agency he should not be surprised at the final administration\nof unpleasant correctives. Intelligent, respectful disagreement is not contempt of authority.\nBut silent perverseness most certainly is.\nIn so far as supervision is to result in expressed approval it is important that the latter\nshould be not too often showered upon one teacher — for the sake of all the interests concerned. Encouragement is doubtless an important function of the principal but it must\nbe distributive, most often indirect, usually thru the medium of the children, not\nspoken in the schoolroom. By praising the worthy work of the children in class, or by\ncongratulating special ones in the office or on the school grounds, or by calling special\nwork to the office, or by special displays of work, a principal may avoid compromising the\nteacher's influence by overt patronage. Disapproval must be an individual matter, never\nbefore the school. For the best results it must be plain, but it will always be the last resort\nafter ample suggestion or direction and complete discussion of the teacher's reasons for\nhis own way. The principal's official recommendation to the superintendent for the disposition to be made of teachers the following year will be strictly in accord with these\nprivate conferences.\nThe judicial function of the ward-school principal comes into play most often with\nthe pupil affairs of his school. No greater compliment could be paid a principal than that\nso often rendered by pupils, willingly placing their differences in his hands for adjustment.\nThe creation of a healthy public opinion in his school depends upon his judicial treatment\nof matters of general discipline arising upon the premises. Schoolroom discipline will\nbe handled by the teacher if that teacher expects to retain his influence with the pupils.\nHe will thus get best results; except when the child thinks he is unfair.\nFinally, there is a great field of usefulness open to the ward principal in the shape of\ncommunity influence. The gang controls the daily life of boys. Unless the principal can\nbe one of the gang he may as well despair of leading them. There have been grade principals with ample opportunity for games, parties, and group construction work who have\nbeen content to circumscribe their activities by the official requirements of a short school\nday in a large school building. Others, with nothing to start with, have looked to the board\nof education not at all, but have established and animated cross-country races, basket-ball,\nsmashball, carpenter shops, Friday-evening parties, and Saturday excursions. Those\nprincipals are present in times of sickness and trouble. They are remembered at times of\nsuccess and rejoicing. Their places cannot be easily filled. Community influence is a\nmatter of slow growth. No pre-election qualifications can fit another to take the place of\none of these. The measure of their service is something other than the requirements of\ntheir employers. Their functions have grown upon them out of the necessities of the living\norganism which they have cultivated.\nII.\n\nHOW\n\nCAN\n\nTHE\n\nWARD-SCHOOL\n\nB.\n\nNELSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nE.\n\nPRINCIPAL\nOF\n\nCITY\n\nBE OF MOST\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nRACINE,\n\nSERVICE?\n\nWIS.\n\nA live young teacher returned from a term's work in a new locality and expressed herself freely on her likes and dislikes in connection with the new position. She had not\nmentioned her new principal and was reminded of that omission. *'Oh, the principall\"\nsaid she, \"Why, do you know, I hadn't thought of him, because in my experience I've\ncome to think of the principal as the man who hands out the chalk.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nWARD-SCHOOL\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\n325\n\nA wide-awake teacher may frequently find in her experience just such a principal.\nHe may be the man \"who hands out the chalk.\" He may be a man who looks after the\nmachinery, the routine of his school, or he may be a man who hands out living and original\nideas in suggestions or directions. He may be a live wire or he may be like that same\nwire with the current cut oflf, just as we superintendents may be. Possibly his position\ntempts ease and retirement a Uttle more earnestly than does a superintendency, because\nof his peculiar responsibilities and surroundings. It is therefore important that he shall\nhave a few more nerves and a little redder blood, a little more native ability than the\nordinary mortal.\nMost of the fault that I have found principals heir to, I believe are due to the system.\nWe are inclined these days to charge all shortcomings, all faults, to the \"system.\" Boards\nof education require him to do many things within the abilities of untrained help. Regular\nclasswork, bookkeeping, compilation of reports, handling of school supplies can better\nbe done by cheaper assistants. Principals are hindered from doing their best work because\nof a multitude of \"chores\" which they are called upon to do. They are the custodians of\nthe supplies. Often they are compelled to be merchandising agents selling pens, pencils,\netc. They are compelled to be the disciplinarians and peacemakers in their schools. The\nprincipal is the local truancy officer and supervising janitor. He is the clerk, the physical\ndirector, and the visiting nurse. A hundred positions he must fill, it seems to me, besides\nbeing the one thing he ought to be — an inspiring force in teaching, an expert in method,\nan authority on educational matters and a leader in his community, a crystallizer and\norganizer of community interests and activities.\nI would furnish him with clerical help removing the necessity of $300 services on a\n$1,500 salary. I would have him review the teacher's outlines and plans out of school\nhours as the teacher prepares them. I would have him observe the application of these\nplans during school hours. I would have him remain out of the office and in the rooms\nand elsewhere as much as possible.\nI want him on the playgrounds during play-hours to direct by suggestion the equally\nimportant education of the child thru play. He should know the course of study in its\nbroadest sense, so that he can work toward the elimination of much of the waste in recitations. He should plan his teachers' meetings with care and should guard against permitting\nthem to become discussions of routine and commonplace. His position assumes professional skill. His meetings should demonstrate that skill.\nAbove all he should show patience in improving the work of each teacher. His great\ntask is to make his teachers competent, effective, better each week and each month. He\nshould insist upon a live professional spirit in the teacher. He must, therefore, demonstrate in his activities an acquaintance with every modern educational movement.\nSmall schools have been his stumbling-block. Here he is primarily a teacher, not a\nprincipal. No school in any city large enough should have a school of less than twelve\nrooms. In such a school and in larger schools he should not teach unless it be in manual\ntraining or in some other capacity where no woman fills the bill. Where there are small\nschools he should have charge of several of them and should give his whole time to supervision. He should persistently visit all teachers and observe the teaching of all subjects. His visits should be prompted by and made with a definite purpose, a definite\nobject.\nHe should regularly visit all other schools in the system, bring to his own schools the\nbest he finds, correcting his own work by the standard of the best found anywhere else.\nI shall not have deep regrets if the women continue in the grades but I want a bighearted man's influence touching the life of every boy in the school, especially those in the\nupper grades. I am willing to be content with female teachers if I may still have big,\nwholesome, earnest men as directing forces in the schools.\nI would have a principal supervise from sixteen to thirty-two teachers and I would\ninsist upon supervision.\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CUcago\n\nFinally he can be of greatest service by working with, not against, the school administration. His influence will be most wholesome when his teachers realize that he is in sympathy with the superintendent and the board of education. Loyalty is essential to both the\nemployer and the employed. Success is possible only under sympathetic co-operating\ninfluences.\n\nTOPIC- THE PROBLEM\n\nI.\nH.\n\nV.\n\nHOTCHKISS,\n\nOF SLOW PUPILS— HOW\nTHEM\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nGRADES\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOF\n\nAKRON,\n\nTO HANDLE\n\nOHIO\n\nMost pupils who are known as slow are not deficient in mentality but are literally\nslow intellectually. This slowness is sometimes, but not often, general. It is usually\nalong a certain line, or lines, of school work. It is sometimes an appearance rather than\na reality.\nAmong the causes for slowness in pupils are these: (i) lack of language power either\nto understand or to express, or both; (2) timidity; (3) laziness of mind, or body; (4)\nbad habits of study; (5) wrong ideals; (6) the substitution of words for ideas; (7) lack of\nopportunity caused by absence, by poor school facilities, by foreign birth, etc. ; (8) moderate mental deficiency.\nThe dominant idea of every public-school system should be — the best educationally\nfor every child in the schools. This idea places the emphasis upon the individual rather\nthan the mass, and views the mass as a collection of individuals each of whom retains his\nindividuality. In order to be an effective force in a system of schools this idea must do\nmore than secure mere passive assent: it must be a vital force impelling everyone connected\nwith the schools to discover the needs of each individual and, having discovered his needs,\nto serve them.\nThe discovery of individual needs cannot be left to chance. The machinery of the\nschools should provide for it at definite times, by definite means, and for a definite\npurpose.\nOften, the only record made of the failures of pupils is that made at the end of the year\nupon the promotion reports filed with the principal or the superintendent, and of these\nmeager records no use is made. The teacher does not know how her work in this particular compares with that of others; principals do not know how their buildings compare;\nsuperintendents and boards of education know nothing definite of the output of their plans,\nmake no comparisons, form no judgments, devise no means. The end of it all is, children\nfail and fall back; fail again and fall back; and finally fall out.\nThe following is suggested as a method of making the school machinery discover\nslow pupils and, of more importance, of making everyone in authority realize his responsibility in this work.\n(i) Every principal should be a supervising principal and not a classroom teacher\nwith a few added duties.\n(2) The principal should keep in his office a record of every pupil admitted to his\nbuilding from other schools. This record should contain all items of available information touching the abilities of such pupils. This information should be given to the roomteachers to whom the pupils are assigned and both principal and teachers should give\nspecial attention to these pupils.\n(3) The principal should particularly charge himself with the duty of discovering the\nindividual needs of his pupils as he visits the rooms day by day.\n(4) Every teacher should understand it to be not only her privilege but her duty to\ncall the attention of her principal and superintendent to the weakness and peculiarities of\nher pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSLOW\n\nPUPILS\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nGRADES\n\n327\n\n(5) At the end of each month, each teacher should enter in a book provided for the\npurpose her estimate of the powers of each pupil in the several studies pursued, together\nwith certain other items of information touching attendance, application, conduct, and\nhealth. These books should be left in the principal's office for examination by the principal and superintendent. The teacher should also file with the estimate book, upon a\nform provided for the purpose, her explanation of the causes of failures. These estimate\nbooks and special reports are preserved by the principal from year to year.\n(6) At the end of each semester, each principal should submit to the superintendent a\nreport of promotions of pupils, by teachers and grades, for his building. This gives the\nnumber promoted by each teacher in each grade, at the end of the semester, and the\nnumber failed; the number promoted within the semester, and the number demoted within\nthe semester. These reports are combined in tabular form by the superintendent and a\nreport for the entire city is sent back to each building for study and comparisons by teachers\nand principals.\n(7) From time to time principals report to the superintendent the numbers, by grades,\netc., of pupils in their several buildings that are falling behind, and are receiving special\nhelp.\nThese reports are discussed in principals' meetings.\nThese several give reports valuable information. Their greatest purpose, however,\nis to emphasize the necessity of serving individuals rather than classes; to compel the school\nsystem to find out those who need special treatment and help; and to place upon superintendent, principals, and teachers a sense of the responsibility of each in this enterprise.\nThe first duty, then, of school administrators is to seek out, inspire, encourage, and\nplace the stamp of approval upon those who are great inspirers of youth. The second\nprovision for the proper care of individuals is smaller classes. The power of even a great\nteacher becomes too thin to be effective when it is spread over 50, 60, 70, or more\nchildren.\nWe know the difficulties in providing schoolhouses and teachers in sufficient numbers\nto serve adequately rapidly growing school populations. On the other hand, I am convinced that we superintendents have failed to do our full duty in this important matter.\nPresident Jordan says, \" The public will step aside to let pass the man who knows where\nhe is going.\" The wise, discreet, honest, and courageous superintendent will reduce the\nmaximum average of pupils per teacher from 60 or more to 35, and later to a smaller\nnumber.\nThe essential is that there should be greater elasticity in classification and gradation\nof pupils if slow children are to be reached. Recent investigations and reports show that\nthe \"lock-step\" is not yet smashed.\nThe fourth suggestion for helping slow pupils is, a greater and more systematic use\nof what has been called the study-recitation. This is a class exercise in which the teacher\nleads the class in their first attack upon the lesson. It is the exercise so admirably described by Dr. Frank McMurry at the Louisville meeting in 1906. It is the exercise that\nshould expel from every school the one who, tho called teacher, is really a scaling-machine\ncalling pupils, one after another, to \"stand and deliver\" and marking them up to promotion or down to failure.\nThe supreme need of the schools today, and especially of the high schools and colleges,\nis teaching: more direct, more discriminating, more sympathetic teaching. Teaching\nhere does not mean perpetual talking by the teacher. It does not mean the \"development\nexercise,\" much exploited in former years, in which the principal thing developed was the\nteacher's vocal powers. It does not mean the exploitation of impossible theories, wonderful mechanisms, and mysterious devices. It does mean leading pupils to go directly to the\nessential and fundamental ideas of the lesson; to seize and interpret these ideas to themselves in terms of their previous thinking, both in and out of school; and to give these\nideas intelligible and adequate expression. The time and the occasion for the principa\nexercise of this teaching power are in the study-recitation.\nThe daily time given to the mastery of a given lesson might usually be divided into\nthree portions as follows: (i) the study recitation; (2) the silent, individual study by the\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "328\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chicago\n\npupil; (3) the final recitation, when the pupil discusses, in class, the lesson that he has\nprepared in the study-recitation and in the silent-study period.\nAmong the ends to be accomplished by the study-recitation are three: (i) It should\nhelp the pupils to know: (a) which are the great points in the lesson; (6) how to connect\nthese with facts already learned; (c) how to determine their bearing upon the general\ntrend of the subject; {d) what helps should be used in preparing the lesson and just how\nto use those helps; {e) what constitutes a mastery of the lesson and a passable recitation\nupon it. (2) It should develop in the pupils correct methods and habits of study. (3)\nIt should afiford the teacher an opportunity to know the powers and attainments of each\nof her pupils with respect to the lesson, and the subject, thereby suggesting lines of additional personal help.\nImagine, now, a comparatively small class under the leadership of a teacher of power,\nwho is especially solicitous for the weaker member and who plays upon him with all her\ninsight, skill, and tact, and you will realize how remote are the chances of an absolute failure.\nFifth, every teacher should provide a definite time in her daily round of duties when\nshe will give her personal help, suitable in kind and degree, to those who need it. For,\nafter all has been done that can be done in the way of class instruction, there will remain\nweak places. Bonds of sympathy and understanding have to be established. The weak\none has to be strengthened and encouraged; and the laggard has to be stimulated. In\nthis personal contact, one talking to one, with nothing intervening, the power and goodness of the teacher lifts the pupil to his best.\nFinally, altho the board, the superintendent, and the teacher have done their best,\nyet there remain some who are failing. The supervising principal should be charged with\nthe salvation of these. She is especially qualified for this work. She holds her position\nby virtue of her administrative ability, her teaching power, her professional zeal, her\nnobility of character, her rare tact, and her heart power. She is master of the subjects of\nstudy. She knows the course of study and has analyzed it, grade by grade, for its leading\nthoughts, times without number. She has advised every teacher concerning her daily\nplans and methods of work. She is acquainted with every pupil in her building and has\nbeen the adviser and friend of each from the day of his admission to the school. By visitation, by personal conferences with teachers, and by the formal reports of teachers filed in\nher office, she knows what pupils are failing, and in what particulars they are falling short.\nHer knowledge and experience enable her to know just what kind of personal help she can\ngive the pupil to place him on his feet and to enable him to run alone. Often one or two\nlessons will be sufficient; again, a series of a week or more may be needed. Whatever the\nneed, the principal supplies it. In the meantime the pupil goes right on with his work in\nhis class, continually gaining strength from his mates, his regular teacher, and his principal\nas special teacher.\nThe principal of a building of 25 (or fewer) teachers and 1,000 (or fewer) children can\ndo this work most effectively without neglecting any other important duty; and her other\nwork will be all the more effective because of this. Should the number of pupils in a building be too great, an assistant to the principal should be employed. This assistant should\npossess all the qualities of a great teacher and should work with the principal and under\nher immediate direction and supervision.\nThis method of aiding slow pupils seems superior to that of establishing special, or\nungraded, or delinquent schools, for several reasons. \"Give a dog a bad name and hang\nhim\" is an adage that holds with peculiar force in education. Whenever a child believes\nthat he is a failure he lives down to the belief. On the other hand a class, or an individual,\nwill measure up, within reasonable limits, to the best that is expected of them.\nChildren should be educated in school with their fellows and by their fellows. Many\nof a child's most valuable lessons are given by his schoolmates. When they leave school\nall will, with their fellows, assume their portion of the world's work. None will be removed\nto some small plat of earth that is circumscribed and labeled Dumbville.\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] SLOW\n\nPUPILS\n\nIN THE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n329\n\nThis method of aiding the slow pupil gives him all the benefits of class instruction\ntogether with the benefits of individual instruction. It brings him so close to his teachers\nthat he feels them to be his trusted friends. His interest in all that interests them is quickened. He feels himself an honored part of the school body and, because of his feelings, his\npowers to do and to be are doubled if not quadrupled.\nEvery recommendation already made in this discussion should be as valid for the\nhigh school as it is for the elementary school; and it will be so where the conditions of\nschool organization are identical. Most high schools, thruout all the four years of\ntheir courses, and a few grammar schools, thru the seventh and eighth grades, practice what is known as the departmental system of instruction, given by alleged specialists.\nA considerable experience, and much experimenting and thinking have convinced me\nthat the departmental system in the grammar grades and in the first year of high school\ns fatal to the slow pupil and vicious in its effect upon all pupils.\nWhen they enter the high school, children are young, immature, and dependent.\nThey still need the personal interest of a teacher who knows them thru and thru, who\nsympathizes with them, and who can give them the kind of help described.\nA class enters a high school where the departmental system is practiced. Their\nstudies, their surroundings, their teachers, and most of their mates are strange. They\nwork in seven or eight different rooms under as many different teachers. Do you wonder that the little fellows become discouraged and homesick? Is it strange that they\nshould long for some teacher whom they can call their own, to whom they can go freely\nwith their troubles, or who will seek them out to help them ? What happens ? In a\nshort time about all the slow pupils and many of the brighter ones have vanished.\nThe reasons for the failure of the departmental system exist in the system itself and\nin the ends that it is supposed to serve:\n1. It gives too many pupils to each teacher.\n2. It removes the teacher in space from his pupils,\n3. It forbids supervision and assistance during study.\n4. It centers the interest of the teacher upon the subject, rather than upon the learner,\nuntil the teacher often does not think of the child as a living, thinking, feeling, acting\nhuman being with manifold interests and powers; but rather as a receptacle for ever\nincreasing quantities of Latin, Algebra, or History.\n5. It prevents rational correlation and co-ordination.\n6. It magnifies the teacher's specialty in his mind to the exclusion of other studies.\n7. It leads each teacher to demand so much for his own subject that the pupil could\nhardly perform it if he were to give his entire time to it.\nIf you would save the slow pupils and many of the brighter ones who are almost\nsure to be lost, abolish the departmental system from all grammar grades and from the\nfirst year, at least, of the high school. Assign a proper number of pupils to a teacher\nand require him to take charge of that school, to teach them all the subjects requiring\nstudy and recitation, and to serve their educational interests in all particulars.\nThis plan is feasible, and thoroly practical. By actual use its superiority has\nbeen proved. In a high school that I know very well, this plan of organization was\nadopted seven years ago. Since that time the monthly enrolment has increased from\n500 to 1,050 while the enrolment in all the schools has increased but 40 per cent. As\nmany boys as girls have been in attendance; 19 more boys than girls have graduated;\nthere have been few failures and withdrawals in first-year classes compared with those\nof former years. The technical handling of subjects taught by first-year teachers\nis as eflScient as the handling of the same subjects by special teachers in the grades\nabove.\nThis discussion of methods of handling slow pupils may seem simple. It is simple.\nIt creates no new offices; it destroys nothing. It states in detail how the present school\norganization may be made to solve the problem of the slow pupil in an easy and efficient\nway.\nThe terms easy and efl&cient are used advisedly.\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "330\n\nNATIONAL\nII.\nE.\n\nS.\n\nSLOW\n\nDREHER,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPUPILS\n\nIN THE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\nHIGH\nSCHOOLS,\n\n[Chicago\n\nSCHOOL\nCOLUMBIA,\n\nS.\n\nC.\n\nAltho the work of the high school is more diflScult than it is in the grades, and\naltho slow pupils who enter the high school are more firmly fixed in their habits of\nthought and application than in the grades, I submit that the problem of handling these\npupils to the best advantage presents fewer difficulties in the high school than in the grades,\nand for the following reasons: (i) the admirable suggestions made by the two speakers\nwho have just preceded me are equally applicable to slow pupils in the high school and\nin the grades; (2) better teachers; (3) smaller classes; (4) a larger capacity for self-help\non the part of pupils; (5) elective courses of study and a greater variety of subjects.\nAssuming that my first statement is true, and that the reasons supporting it are valid,\nhow shall we handle slow pupils in the high school ?\nI. Experienced teachers, such as are usually found in high schools, can greatly simplify\nthe problem of slow pupils in the high school by persuading them on entering this school\nto select courses requiring a minimum of formal cultural subjects with a maximum of\nmanual and constructive work. This presupposes that a careful record of slow pupils\nshall be made during the last year of the grammar grades, as suggested by Mr. Hotchkiss,\nand placed in the hands of high-school principals and teachers at the close of each school\nyear, thus aflFording them an opportunity to do preliminary work during the summer.\nMany pupils who are slow and backward in all book studies will often show remarkable\nproficiency in drawing, sewing, domestic science, practical physics, manual training, shopwork, commercial branches, and kindred subjects, most of which are found in progressive,\nmodern high schools. With so great a variety of subjects from which to select, misfits in\nthe high school should be exceedingly rare, but for two reasons, some will occur: (i) the\nteachers will themselves make mistakes; (2) not all the slow pupils will follow the advice\nof their teachers, even when it is known that they are right. What then ?\nII. (i) Study periods can be used to advantage by the skilful teacher, who at this\ntime should briefly state the chief points of attack in the recitation for the benefit of the\nentire class, and then give special help to slow pupils. (2) Slow pupils should be given\nan opportunity to recite more frequently than bright ones. For them the judicious teacher\nwill select the less difficult parts of the lesson and so temper the questions as to make a\nfailure next to impossible. Thus encouraged, they will frequently do more difficult work\nin a satisfactory manner. (3) A sympathetic attitude on the part of the teacher will inspire\nthe most backward pupil to do his best, and no reasonable limit has yet been set beyond\nwhich a slow pupil may not go, if only he does his very best. (4) Strenuous personal efforts\nshould be made to secure the co-operation of the home. This is entirely practicable in\nhigh schools in smaller cities, and but few pupils will fail to make commendable progress\nwhen the school and the home are working together for the intellectual salvation of slow\nand ordinarily unpromising pupils. (5) Should all these methods fail to secure good results,\nindividual instruction must be provided for backward pupils, not necessarily for each\nindividual pupil, but for small groups of individuals who are deficient in certain subjects\nin common. Segregation of all slow pupils in the high school in one room with one teacher\ndoes not commend itself to me. When removed from their classmates and limited to the\nresources of one teacher the work will become dull and lifeless and the slow pupils will\nmiss the help and inspiration that come from the contact of slower with brighter minds.\nAn extra teacher or teachers for coaching slow pupils during school hours is unquestionably the best solution of the problem, but as the expense involved is prohibitive in\nmany small cities, this plan cannot be generally adopted. As suggested by Mr. Hotchkiss,\nhowever, the principal could instruct slow pupils for a few hours each day, and thus\napproximate the service that could be rendered slow pupils by an extra teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "k\n■\n\nTHE NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\n\nCONSTITUTION\nPREAMBLE\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions\nformulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational\nquestions; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its\ndiscussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds\nand reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis\nof opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object,\nto encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion,\ntogether with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require\nthe careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever\ngrounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite the\nfreest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions. Any\nmember making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the grounds\ntherefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council. It shall\nprepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Educational Association, setting\nforth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year, and placing before\nthe Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall embody in this report\na survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part of the\nAssociation. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number, committees representing\nthe several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the exchange of opinion\namong its members on such special topics as demanded the attention of the profession or\nof the public.\nARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from\nthe membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and, after\nthe first election, such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\n2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members — four members\nfor six years, two for four years, and two for two years, and the Council shall elect eight\nmembers — five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years; and\nannually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five\n\n■ ■ members, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (sec. 5), to serve six\nM:\nyears, or until his successor is elected.\nW\n3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with\nM\nthe annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any reason,\nm\nto fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by the Council.\nK\n4. The term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first\nm\nelection shall be arranged by the ExecutiveCommittee of the Council.\n\n■\n\n331\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "332\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nshall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill\nvacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nARTICLE II— QUALIFICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP\nAll members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National\nEducational Association,\nARTICLE\n\nIII— MEETINGS\n\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as\nthe meeting of the National Educational Association, and at least two days previous to\nthis meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the\nExecutive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary.\nA majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at\nany meeting, whether regular or called; but any less number, exceeding eight members,\nmay constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as\ndefined in this article.\nARTICLE IV— THE WORK OF THE COUNCIL\nThe Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council; also\nto conduct like investigations originating in the National Educational Association, or any\nof its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nAPPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL\nAND EXPERTS\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nIn the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers,\nit shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the\nCouncil or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— OFFICERS\n\nAt the annual election of ofiicers in 1904 the president of the Council shall be elected\nfor a term of three years, the vice-president for a term of two years, and the secretary for a\nterm of one year; and thereafter annually the vacancy caused by the outgoing officers\nshall be filled by the election of one person for a term of three years.\nIt shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the assistance and\napproval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting as shall\nrealize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized and exists.\nARTICLE VII— STANDING COMMITTEES\n1. There shall be four standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, a Committee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations.\n2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and\nof three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\nmay be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899.\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by\nselecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to\nconduct such investigations.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nOFFICERS\n\nAND^STANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n333\n\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\nthe report of any investigation which may be ordered by the National Educational Association or its departments.\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council\nand six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies\nmay be filled every year, beginning with 1899.\n5. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit at the next meeting a report on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year,\" in which a survey of the\nimportant movements and events in education during the preceding year is given. This\ncommittee heed not be selected from the members of the Council.\n6. The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine\nmembers, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled each\nyear, beginning with 1903. No proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educa- '\ntional investigation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the\nAssociation for an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted upon until such proposal\nhas been referred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations for report.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— THE\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Educational\nAssociation, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\nacter.\n\n2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \"round table\" charARTICLE\n\nIX— AMENDMENTS\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council, by\na two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provisions may be waived at any regular\nmeeting by unanimous consent.\nBy-laws not in violation of the constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the\nCouncil.\n\nOFFICERS,\n\nSTANDING\nOFFICERS\n\nCOMMITTEES,\nFOR\n\nJOSEPH SWAIN\nSwarthmore, Pa\nWILLIAM M. DAVIDSON. . . . Omaha, Nebr\nJOHN W. CARR\nBayonne, N. J\nEXECUTIVE\nThe\nWilliam T. Harris\nJames M. Greenwood\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\n\nThe\nLivingston C. Lord\nI. C. McNeill\nCharles H. Keyes\nJames M. Greenwood,\nAugustus S. Downing\nCarroll G. Pearse\n\nchairman...\n\n1909-10\nPresident.\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTerm expires in igio\nTerm expires in 1912\nTerm expires in 1911\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nPresident, ex officio, chairman\nWashington, D. C\nKansas City, Mo\nWashington, D. C\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nON\n\nTerm expires in 1910\nTerm expires in 1911\nTerm expires in 1912\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nPresident, ex officio\nCharleston, 111\nMemphis, Tenn\nHartford, Conn\nKansas City, Mo\nAlbany, N. Y\nMilwaukee, Wis\n\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nexpires in 1910\nexpires in 1910\nexpires in 1911\nexpires in 191 1\nexpires in 1912\nexpires in 1912\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n334\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON INVESTIGATIONS\n\nAugustus S. Downing\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nJohn H. Phillips\nNicholas Murray Butler\nWilliam H. Maxwell\nWilliam O. Thompson\nJames M. Greenwood, chairman\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\n\nAND\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nAlbany, N. Y\nMenomonie, Wis\nBirmingham, Ala\nNew York, N. Y\nNew York, N. Y\nColumbus, Ohio\nKansas City, Mo\nBoston, Mass\nWashington, D. C\n\nTerm expires in 1910\nTerm expires in 1910\nTerm expires in igio\nTerm expires in 1911\nTerm expires in 1911\nTerm expires in ign\nTerm expires in 1912\nTerm expires in 1912\nTerm expires in 1912\n\nMEMBERS\nElected by the Association\n\nElecUd by the Council\n\nterms expire in 1910\nJohn\n\nW.\n\nCook,\n\nDeKalb,\n\n111.\n\n♦Anna Tolman Smith, Washington,\nWilliam S. Sutton, Austin, Tex.\n\n^ David R. Boyd, Norman, Okla.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie,\nEdwin\n\nB. Craighead,\n\nCarroll\n\nG. Pearse,\n\n*Henry\n\nSnyder,\n\n♦Katharine\n\nNew\n\nWis.\n\nOrleans, La.\n\nMilwaukee,\n\nWis.\n\nH. Van\n\nB. Aswell,\n\nSickle,\n\nBaltimore, Md.\n\nNatchitoches,\n\nCharles\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nE. Chadsey,\n\nE. Sparks,\n\nState College, Pa.\n\n♦Paul\n\n♦Henry\n\nSuzzallo,\n\nNew\n\n♦Henry\n\nC. Morrison,\n\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.\nR. L. Jones, Nashville, Tenn.\n\nYork, N. Y.\nN. H.\nEXPIRE\n\nWilliam H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky.\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.\nI. C. McNeill,\n\nMemphis,\n\nE. Oram\n\nMillersville, Pa.\n\nLyte,\n\nTenn.\n\nA. J. Matthews,\n\nTempe,\n\nJulius\n\nGreensboro,\n\nW.\n\nI. Foust,\n\nT. Carrington,\n\n♦John\n\nJ. Doyne,\n\nAriz.\nN. C.\n\nterms\nThomas\nJohn\n\nA. Mott,\n\nRichmond,\n\nH. Phillips,\n\nInd.\n\nBirmingham,\n\nC. Van\n\nLiew,\n\nSt. Louis, Mo.\n\nZ. X. Snyder,\n\nGreeley, Colo.\n\nFlagg\n\n♦John\n\nChico, Cal.\n\n♦Ernest\n\nC. Moore,\n\nTopeka,\n\nMacomb,\n\nIowa City, Iowa\n111.\n\nYoung,\n\nChicago, 111.\n\n♦Jasper N. Wilkinson, Muskogee, Okla.\n♦William O. Thompson, Columbus, Ohio\nW.\n\nCarr,\n\nKans.\n\n111.\n\nBayonne,\n\nAlbert\n\nSalisbury,\n\n♦Grace\n\nC. Strachan,\n\n♦Carleton\n\nT. Fairchild,\nBayliss,\n\nE. Bolton,\n\nexpire in 1912\n\n♦Adelaide\n\nEdward\n\nPa.\n\nJohn W. Abercrombie, University, Ala.\nB. W. ToRREYSON, Little Rock, Ark.\n\n♦Sarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass.\nJames A. MacLean, Moscow, Idaho\nAlfred\n\nSeattle, Wash.\n\nBlewett,\n\nElla\n\nAla.\n\n♦Livingston C. Lord, Charleston, 111.\nJames H. Baker, Boulder, Colo.\nCharles\n\nB. Cooper,\n\n♦Jane Addams, Chicago, 111.\nD. B. Parkinson, Carbondale,\n\nLittle Rock. Ark.\n\nColo.\n\nMass.\n\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.\nNathan C. Schaeffer. Harrisburg,\n\n♦Frederick\n\nSpringfield, Mo.\n\nCambridge,\n\nin 191 1\n♦Frank\n\nBen\n\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nEsTELLE Reel, Washington, D. C.\n\nH. Hanus,\n\nDenver,\n\n♦Edwin\n\nConcord,\n\nLa.\n\n♦Brown Ayres, Knoxville, Tenn.\nRobert J. Aley, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\nJersey City, N. J.\n\nE. Dopp,\n\nJames\n♦James\n\nD. C.\n\nN. J.\n\nWhitewater,\n\nWis.\n\nBrooklyn,\n\nN. Y.\n\nS. Baylor,\n\nWabash,\n\nInd.\n\nB. Gibson,\n\nColumbus,\n\nGa\n\n♦John W. Olsen, St. Paul, Minn.\n♦Oscar T. Corson, Columbus, Ohio\n\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\nterms\n\nexpire in 1913\n\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N. J.\nAugustus S. Downing, Albany, N. Y.\nGeorge B. Cook, Little Rock, Ark.\nStratton D. Brooks, Boston, Mass.\nEdgar H. Mark, Louisville, Ky.\n♦Ida C. Bender, Buffalo, N. Y.\nHenry B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind.\n\n♦William\n\nE. Hatch,\n\n♦Bettie\n\na. Dutton,\n\nCleveland, Ohio\n\n♦William O. Riddell, Des Moines, Iowa\nA. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Utah\nReed B. Teitrick, Harrisburg, Pa.\n\n♦John W. Withers, St. Louis, Mo.\nThomas C. Miller, Shepheidstown,\n\nNew\n\nBedford, Mass.\n\nCharles\n\nH. Keyes,\n\nHartford, Conn.\n\n♦Andrew\n\nS. Draper,\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nClifford\n\nW.\n\nBarnes,\n\nLake\n\nForest, 111.\n\n♦Mrs.\n\nEllor\n\nC. Ripley,\n\nBoston, Mass.\n\n♦Mrs.\n\nEdwin\n\nC. Grice,\n\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\n\nFrank\n\nB. Dyer,\n\nCincinnati, Ohio.\n\nW. Va.\n•\n\nterms expire in 1914\n\n♦O. J. Craig, Missoula, Mont.\nDavid Felmley, Normal, 111.\nJohn R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.\n* Not piesent at Annual Meeting, 1909.\n\nWilliam M. Davidson, Omaha, Nebr.\n♦M. G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa.\nL. E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex.\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHONORARY\n\nMEMBERS\n\nElected by the Association\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S. C.\n♦Wales C. Martindale, Detroit, Mich.\nMrs. Ellen H. Richards, Boston, Mass.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal.\n*M. Bates Stephens, Annapolis, Md.\nJacob A. Shaw an, Columbus, Ohio\nJames W. Crabtree, Peru, Nebr.\n\n335\n\nElected by the Council\n*James E. Russell, New York, N, Y.\nO. S. Westcott, Chicago, 111.\n\n♦Julia Richman, New York, N. Y.\nMrs. Josephine Heermans, Kansas City, Mo.\nFrank Strong, Lawrence, Kans.\n♦E. C. Elliott, Madison, Wis.\nHomer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa\nterms expire in 19 1 5\n\nJohn MacDonald, Topeka, Kans.\nAlma L. Binzel, Provo, Utah\nC. O. Merica, Laramie, Wyo.\nS. L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minn.\nCharles McKenny, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nMiss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\nLewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, Washington, D. C.\nWilll^m H. Black, Marshall, Mo.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y.\nLuther L. Wright, Lansing, Mich.\nGeorge M. Philips, Westchester, Pa,\nEdmund A. Jones, Columbus, Ohio\nErnest E. Balcomb, Providence, R. I.\nJ. E. Burke, Boston, Mass.\n\n♦W. T. Harris, P.ovidence, R. I.\nW. R. Siders, Pocatello, Idaho\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nE. G. Cooley, Boston, Mass.\nH, J. Rogers, Albany, N. Y.\n\nHONORARY\nEdwin A. Alderman, Charlottesville, Va.\nEarl Barnes, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAlexander Graham Bell, Washington, D. C.\nD. Bemis, Spokane, Wash.\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R. I.\nRichard G. Boone, Los Angeles, Cal.\nAlbert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\nAnna C. Brackett, New York, N. Y.\nJohn E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nGeorge P. Brown, Bloomington, 111.\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nDavid N. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nP. P. Claxton, Knoxville, Tenn.\nOscar H. Cooper, Abilene, Tex.\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gorham, Maine.\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio\nCharles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N. Y.\nRobert E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn.\nJohn Dewey, New York, N. Y.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn.\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal.\nWilliam K. Fowler, Lincoln, Nebr.\nH. B. Frissell, Hampton, Va.\nR. B. Fulton, Miller School P. O., Va.\nCharles B. Gilbert, Englewood, N. J.\nAaron Gove, Denver, Colo.\nLewis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo.\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass\nW. N. Hailmann, Cleveland, Ohio\nG. Stanley Hall, Worchester, Mass.\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y.\nAlbert Ross Hill, Columbia, Mo.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Can.\nJames H. Hoose, Los Angeles, Cal,\nGeorge H. Howison, Berkeley, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Can.\nThomas Hunter, New York, N. Y.\nEllen Hyde, Farmington, Mass.\nEdmund J. James, Champaign, 111.\nCharles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn.\n♦ Not present at Annual Meeting, 1909.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nE. S. Joynes, Columbia, S. C.\nCalvin N. Kendall, Indianapolis, Ind.\nDavid L. Kiehle, Preston, Minn.\nWilliam F. King, Mt. Vernon, Iowa\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N. Y.\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa.\nFrancis A. March, Easton, Pa.\nGeorge H. Martin, West Lynn, Mass.\nCharles A. McMurray, DeKalb, 111.\nJesse F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal.\nWilliam A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass,\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\nWarren D. Parker, Pasadena, Cal.\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, Ohio\nJosiAH L. PiCKARD, Los Angeles, Cal.\nEdward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJames R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nJohn T. Prince, West Newton, Mass.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, Danville, Ky.\nWilliam D. Ruffner, Lexington, Va.\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis.\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa\nJ. G. ScHURMAN, Ithaca, N. Y.\nH. E. Shepard, BaUimore, Md.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nCharles R. Skinner, New York, N. Y.\nEuLER B. Smith, Athens, Ga.\nJ. Lancaster Spalding, Peoria, 111.\nHomer D. Sprague, Newton, Mass.\nLucLA Stickney, Cleveland, Ohio\nGrace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Nebr.\nJohn Swett, Martinez, Cal.\nA. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111.\nW. R. Thigpen, .Savannah, Ga.\nJohn G. Thompson, Fitchburg, Mass.\nL. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J.\nCharles F. Thwing, Cleveland, Ohio\nJulia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala.\nDelia L. Williams, Delaware, Ohio\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C.\nLightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nHarry K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Nebr.\nCalvin M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n33^\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDECEASED\n\nRobert Allen\nIsrael W. Andrews\nJoseph Baldwin\nHenry Barnard\nWlLLLAM N. BaRRINGER\nNewton Bateman\nWiLLLAM C. Bates\nReuben S. Bingham\nJohn T. Buchanan\nNorman A. Calkins\nJames H. Canfield\nAaron L. Chapin\nClara Conway\nJ. L. M. Curry\nN. R. H. Dawson\nJohn W. Dickinson\nLarkin Dunton\nJohn Eaton\nW. R. Garrett\nDaniel C. Oilman\nSamuel S. Greene\nJohn M. Gregory\nGeorge T. Fairchild\nDaniel B. Hagar\nR. H. Halsey\nJohn Hancock\n\n1894\n1888\n1899\n1900\nI907\n1897\n1909\n1902\n1908\n1895\n1909\n1892\n1904\n1902\n1895\n1901\n1899\n1906\n1903\n1909\n1883\n1898\n190 1\n1896\n1907\n1891\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nMEMBERS\n\nWilliam R. Harper\nWilliam D. Henkle\nEdwin C. Hewitt\nElnathan E. Higbee\nFrank A. Hill\nBurke A. Hinsdale\nIra G. Hoitt\nGeorge Howland\nJohn S. Irwin\nHenry N. James\nH. S. Jones\nThomas Kirkland\nAlbert Lane\nMerrick Lyon\nAlbert P. Marble\nJames McCosh\nCharles D. McIver\nThomas J. Morgan\nLemuel Moss\nM. A. Newell\nBirdsey G. Northrop\nTheodore B. Noss\nEdward Olney\n\n1906\n1882\n1905\n1889\n1903\n1900\n1905\n1892\n1901\n1901\n1900\n1898\n1906\n1888\n1906\n1894\n1906\n1902\n1905\n1893\n1898\n1909\n1886\n\nGusTAvus J. Orr\nFrancis W. Parker\nS. S. Parr\n\n1888\n1902\n1900\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nW. H. Payne\n\n1907\n\nSelim H. Peabody\nWilliam F. Phelps\n\n1902\n1907\n\nJohn D. Philbrick\nM. S. Cooper Poucher\nWilliam B. Powell\n\n1885\n1900\n1904\n\nZalmon Richards\nAndrew J. Rickoff\nCharles C. Rounds\nEdward R. Shaw\nWilliam E. Sheldon\nEdgar A. Singer\n\n1890\n1899\n1901\n1903\n1900\n1909\n\nJames A. Smart\nF. Louis Soldan\nJ. W. Stearns\nR. W. Stevenson\nThomas B. Stockwell\nEli T. Tappan\nHorace S. Tarbell\nCharles O. Thompson\nH. S. Thompson\nArnold Tompkins\n\n1900\n1908\n1909\n1893\n1906\n1908\n1904\n1885\n1904\n1906\n\nJames P. Wickersham\nS. G. Williams\nEmerson E. White\n\n1891\n1900\n1902\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Saturday Forenoon, July 3, 1909\nThe National Council of Education met in the Assembly Room of the Brown Palace\nHotel, Denver, Colo., and was called to order at 9:40 A. m. by President Joseph Swain.\nSecretary John W. Carr being absent, Robert J. Aley, of Indiana, was appointed Acting Secretary for the meetings.\nThe minutes of the Cleveland meeting were approved as printed in the volume of\nProceedings of the Association, for that year.\nThe introductory address of the president of the Council was presented by Joseph\nSwain.\nThe recommendations of President Swain were on motion referred to a Committee\nconsisting of: James M. Green, Henry B. Brown, and Charles H. Keyes.\nThe next item on the program was \" Report of Committee on Provision for Exceptional\nChildren in the Public Schools.\" As the chairman of the committtee, Superintendent\nJames H. Van Sickle, of Baltimore, Md., was absent, the introductory statement was\nomitted.\nSpecial papers were presented as follows:\n1. \"Care of the Deaf and Blind,\" by Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools,\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n2. \"Systematic Care of the Exceptional Child,\" by Miss Olive M. Jones, principal of\nSchool No. 120, Special, New York City.\n3. \"Provision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools of Chicago,\" by Frank\nG. Bruner, Child Study Department, Board of Education, Chicago, 111.\n4. \"Provision for Exceptional Children in the Schools of St. Louis,\" by Ben Blewett,\nsuperintendent of instruction, St. Louis, Mo.\n5. \"Provision for Exceptional Children in the Schools of Boston,\" Stratton D. Brooks,\nsuperintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n337\n\n6. \"The Next Step in the Investigation,\" Luther Halsey Gulick, Russell Sage Foundation, New York City.\nThe general discussion was participated in by Alfred Bayliss, I. C. McNeill, O. S.\nWescott, and C. G. Pearse.\n\"The Report of the Committee on Moral Training in the Public Schools\" was presented bythe chairman of the committee. Superintendent James M. Greenwood, Kansas\nCity. Superintendent Greenwood stated that much work had been done by individual\nmembers of the committee and that arrangements would be made for the publication of\nthese results and their distribution to members of the Council. On motion, the committee\nwas continued with instructions to make a report at the next annual meeting in a form\nsuitable for publication in the volume of Proceedings.\nThe following named persons engaged in the general discussion: Miss Alma L.\nBinzel, Henry B. Brown, James M. Green, James M. Greenwood, Charles H. Keyes, and\nWilliam H. Bartholomew.\nAt the Cleveland meeting in 1908, Charles H. Keyes was appointed as a special committee ofone to prepare amendments to the constitution that would bring that instrument\ninto harmony with the practices of the Council.\nHe reported as follows:\n1. Strike out of preamble lines 17, 18, 19, 20, and part of 21, beginning with the words,\n\"It shall prepare\" and ending with the words, \"the part of the Association.\"\n2, Strike out in lines 2 and 3 of Article III the words, \"and at least two days previous\nto this meeting.\"\nA motion was made and seconded to adopt the report. Another motion was made\nand seconded to postpone action on the report for one year and to have the committee\nfurnish copies of the proposed amendments to the members of the Council. After considerable discussion the whole matter was on motion laid upon the table.\nOn motion. Chairman Keyes was requested to submit in writing to the members\nof the Council the proposed amendment to Article III of the constitution.\nIn the midst of the discussion of the motion, \" It is the sense of the Council that the\npublished proceedings be considered the formal report,\" a motion to adjourn prevailed,\nand no action upon this motion was taken.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION. — Saturday Afternoon, July 3, 1909\n\nA \"Report of Progress of the Committee on the Culture Element and Economy of\nTime in Education\" was given by the chairman of the committee. President James H.\nBaker, of the University of Colorado.\nPrincipal William H. Smiley and Superintendent Charles E. Chadsey discussed the\nreport.\nAugustus S. Downing, first assistant commissioner of education of New York, read\na paper on \"What Industrial Education Means to the Elementary Schools.\" A spirited\ndiscussion followed the reading of this paper. The participants were : Wm. M. Davidson, E. E, Balcomb, E. A. Jones, J. A. Shawan, Ben Blewett, J. M. Greenwood, John\nW. Cook, Charles H. Keyes, C. G. Pearse, and John R. Kirk. The discussion was\nclosed by Mr. Downing.\nPresident Swain appointed as successors to Wm. T. Harris and Jesse F. Millspaugh on\nthe Committee on Membership: Augustus S. Downing, Albany, N. Y.; Carroll G. Pearse,\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nThe Committee on Membership as now constituted is:\nLivingston C. Lord, Charleston, 111.; term expires 1910.\nI. C. McNeill, Memphis, Tenn. ; term expires 1910.\nCharles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn.; term expires 1911.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo., Chairman; term expires 191 1.\nA. S. Downing, Albany, N. Y.; term expires 1912.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.; term expires 1912.\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "338\n\nNATIONAL\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nSESSION.— Saturday Evening, July 3, 1909\n\nUnited States Commissioner of Education, Elmer Ellsworth Brown, gave the \"Report\nof Committee on Co-operation with Educational Organizations in Other Countries.\"\nOn motion of Superintendent James M. Greenwood, it was agreed that the Chair\nshould appoint the committee recommended in the report and that Commissioner Brown\nshould be the chairman.\nPresident Swain appointed the committee as follows: Elmer Ellsworth Brown,\nNicholas Murray Butler, and James M. Greenwood.\nPresident John W. Cook, of the Northern Illinois Normal School, presented the\n\"Report on Educational Progress during the Year.\"\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— Monday\n\nForenoon, July 5, 1909\n\nA paper on \"Rural School Supervision\" was presented by State Superintendent\nNathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania. The speakers in the general discussion were:\nRobert J. Aley, state superintendent of Indiana; John MacDonald, editor of Western\nSchool Journal, Topeka, Kans. ; Thomas C. Miller, ex-state superintendent of West Virginia; A. C. Nelson, state superintendent of Utah; G. M. Philips, principal State Normal\nSchool, Westchester, Pa.; and T. A. Mott, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind.\nThe discussion was closed by Superintendent Schaeffer.\n\"The Adjustment of Our School System to the Changed Conditions of the Twentieth\nCentury\" was presented by President E. G. Cooley of D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass.\nThose participating in the general discussion were: James A. Mac Lean, president of\nthe University of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, principal of Township High School, Joliet,\nIII; Arthur H. Chamberlain, dean of the Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, Cal.;\nJames W. Crabtree, president of the State Normal School, Peru, Nebr.; Z. X. Snyder,\npresident of the State Normal School, Greeley, Colo., and John W. Cook, president of the\nState Normal School, DeKalb, 111. Mr. Cooley closed the discussion.\nUpon motion, the recommendations made by President MacLean in his discussion\nwere referred to the Committee on the President's Address.\nThe Committee on the President's Address reported as follows:\nTo the Officers and Members of the National Education Association:\nYour committee to which were referred the recommendations and inquiries of the\nPresident's address has given the same careful consideration and begs to submit the\nfollowing:\n1. That no committees be raised at this time to consider any new subjects unless\nspecially ordered by the Council.\nWe do recommend that one full section of the Council Meeting of 1910 be devoted to\nconsideration of the now completed report of the committee heretofore constituted by the\nBoard of Directors on \"The Place of Industries in Education,\" and that the Council request the Board of Directors to print and place in the hands of each active member of the\nAssociation a copy of this report.\n2. That the Council approves the present policy as to program.\n3. That the Council requests the President of the National Education Association to\nappoint a committee to co-operate with the United States Commissioner of Education in\nurging Congress to increase the appropriation to the Bureau of Education, in order that\nit may the better perform much-needed valuable work.\nRespectfully submitted\nJamel. M. Green, Chairman\nHenry B. Brown\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nCharles H. Keyes, Secretary\nSuperintendent J. H. Van Sickle, who was absent from the meetings on July 3, was now\npresent and began his discussion of President Baker's report.\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n339\n\nFIFTH SESSION.— Monday Afternoon, July 5, 1909\nThe meeting was called to order by President Swain at 2:30 p. m. The program was\nas follows:\nTopic: The Administration of Public Educational Systems: What Authority Should\nBe Vested in the State; What Should Be Granted to Subordinate Divisions; and What\nShould Be Left to the People ?\na) \"The Province of the Common People in the Administration of Public Education,\"\nby Homer H. Seerley, president of Iowa State Normal School, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nb) \"The Province of State Boards and State Superintendents in the Administration\nof Public Education,\" by Edwin T. Fairchild, state superintendent of public instruction,\nTopeka, Kans.\nc) \"The Province of Supervision of Counties and Cities in the Administration of\nPublic Education,\" by Charles H. Keyes, superintendent of schools, Hartford, Conn.\nd) \"The Province of State Educational Institutions in the Administration of Public\nEducation,\" by William O. Thompson, president of Ohio State University, Columbus,\nOhio.\nPresident Thompson was unavoidably absent, but the main points of his paper were\npresented by President James A. Baker of the University of Colorado. President Baker\nalso opened the general discussion.\nThe other participators in the general discussion were: Professor William S. Sutton,\nof the University of Texas; President W. T. Carrington, of the State Normal School,\nSpringfield, Mo. ; President John R. Kirk, of the State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.;\nChancellor Frank Strong, of the University of Kansas, and Frank A. Fitzpatrick, of Boston.\nThe discussion was closed by President Seerley.\nThe next matter on the program was the \" Report of the Committee on Resolutions of\nthe General Association.\" E. G. Cooley, the chairman of this committee, stated that he\nhad been unable to get the committee together to agree upon a report. Upon motion of\nCarroll G. Pearse, the Council expressed its appreciation of the efforts made by Chairman\nCooley and excused him from making a report.\nThe following committee report was presented and unanimously adopted by the\nCouncil:\nTo the National Council:\nYour committee on nominations and new members recommends the appointment of\nthe following members to succeed themselves: Miss N. Cropsey, of Indiana; Lewis H.\nJones, of Michigan; Elmer Ellsworth Brown, of District of Columbia; Wm. H. Black,\nof Missouri; Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York; Luther L. Wright, of Michigan;\nGeorge M. Philips, of Pennsylvania; Edmund A. Jones, of Ohio; Ernest E. Balcomb, of\nOklahoma.\nWe also recommend:\nJ. E. Burke, of Massachusetts, to succeed John G. Thompson for a full term.\nR. L. Jones, of Tennessee, to succeed P. P. Claxton, term ending 1910.\nD. B. Parkinson, of Illinois, to succeed Wm. C. Bates, deceased, term ending 191 1.\nA. J. Matthews, of Arizona, to succeed Theodore B. Noss, deceased, term ending 191 1.\nYour committee would also submit the following nominations:\nFor Vice-President, to succeed J. M. Green of New Jersey, Wm. M, Davidson, of\nNebraska.\nElmer Ellsworth Brown to succeed himself as member of the Executive Committee.\nFor vacancies on Committee on Investigations and Appropriations: James M. Gr enwood; Frank A. Fitzpatrick; and Elmer Ellsworth Brown, to succeed themselves for a\nterm of three years.\nRespectfully submitted\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman\nChas. a. Keyes\nJoseph\nSwain\nI. C. McNeill\nC. G. Pearse\na. C. Downing\nCommittee on Membership\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nUpon the request of President Swain, Frank A. Fitzpatrick spoke briefly and feelingly\nof Council Member, Superintendent Wm. C. Bates, of Cambridge, Mass. Frank A.\nFitzpatrick was requested to write for the Proceedings a brief appreciation of the life and\nwork of Wm. C. Bates.\nGeorge M. Philips was requested to perform a similar service with respect to Theodore B. Noss.\nThe Committee on the President's Address to which had been referred the recommendations ofPresident MacLean was not ready to report. By action of the Council\nthe committee was given power to act.\nPresident Swain thanked the members of the Council for their courtesy to him and\nthe promptness with which the program members had complied with the order of the Council to furnish the President with copies of their papers thirty days in advance of the meeting.\nNo papers will be excluded from the Proceedings because of failure to meet this requirement.\nAt 4:3s p. M., July 5, 1909, the President declared the Council adjourned.\nRobert J. Aley, Acting Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nPRELIMINARY\nTHE\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF THE\nSWARTHMORE\n\nCOUNCIL,\nCOLLEGE,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nSTATEMENT\nJOSEPH SWAIN,\nSWARTHMORE,\n\nPRESIDENT\nPA.\n\nOF\n\nThe program of the Council for this year is formed so far as possible in\naccordance with the action of the Council at th^ regular meeting last year.\nThe number of sessions is five. We are more fortunate this year than we\nhave been in recent years in being able to have the meetings of the Council in\nadvance of the general sessions and department meetings, thus permitting\nmembers of the Council to be free to attend other meetings during the week.\nOf the six committees which reported last year there were two, the Committee\non Industrial Education in Rural Schools and the Committee on Scarcity of\nTeachers, which presented finished reports and asked to be relieved from\nsupplementary reports this year. The four remaining committees report\ntoday. They are*.\nThe Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children;\nThe Committee on Moral Education ;\nThe Committee on The Culture Element and Economy of Time in Education;\nThe Committee on Co-operation with Educational Organizations in Other\nCountries.\nThe four new topics are :\nWhat Industrial Education Means to the Elementary School.\nRural-School Supervision.\nThe Adjustment of Our School System to the Changed Conditions of the\nTwentieth Century.\nThe Administration of Public Educational Systems.\nThese questions are selected from many excellent questions suggested by\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\n''STATEMENT\n\n341\n\nmembers of the Council to whom the President is greatly indebted. They\nare all living topics, worthy of special investigation by a committee of the\nCouncil. From suggestions that have come to me from many sources, the\ntime seems ripe for the appointment of one or more committees for such investigation ofone or more of the topics named, or of some special, phase of these or\nrelated topics. For example, there is a widespread interest in industrial\neducation or vocation schools. There is a great need for careful study of this\ntopic by the best committee obtainable. Many committees have been at\nwork in different parts of the country along this line, and such a_^ report as\nmight be made under the direction of a committee appointed by the Council\ncould not but add light to this important subject. Supervision in rural schools\nis greatly needing a ^better solution. The question of the administration of\npublic educational systems is a present issue in many states, and the adjustment\nof our sghool system to the changed conditions of the twentieth century is one\nof the most far-reaching questions, if not the most important, of all the educational questions of the day. I would suggest that the Council consider whether\na committee or committees should_^not be appointed especially to investigate\none or more of these topics.\nThe enlargement of the Council has made impracticable the custom of\nrecent years of placing all members of the Council present on the program for\nthree-minute speeches, if their names were not on for longer papers. There\nhave been three suggestions made to meet the difficulty: first, to reduce the\nshort speeches from three to two minutes and place all members present on the\nprogram; second, to divide the Council into two equal divisions and place\neach division on for short speeches in alternate years; and third, the plan\nfollowed this year. A postal card was sent out to each member not already\non the program asking whether it was his intention to be present at Denver.\nThese answers divided the Council into four classes: Those who said they\njvould be present at Denver; those who did not expect to be there; those who\nwere uncertain ; and those who did not answer at all. All of the first class were\nasked to make three-minute speeches. There was no following-up with second\ninquiries as in previous years.\nThe committees of the Council this year have been greatly hampered\nbecause there were no funds available from the National Education Association for the necessary expenses of investigation. It is to the credit of the\nvarious committees, however, that these committees have proceeded without\nfunds or have secured help, in some cases, from outside sources. The Committee on the Provision for Exceptional Children and Moral Education may be\nable to secure assistance from outside sources, and will report a plan for cooperation with outside organizations. The lack of funds to carry on properly\nthe needed investigation by the committees of the Council emphasizes the need\nof greater appropriation by Congress to the National Bureau of Education.\nIf this Bureau had ample funds so that a corps of trained specialists could be\npermanently employed and a large special appropriation made for educational\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ninvestigation, it would be possible for the committees of the Council, thru\nco-operation with the Bureau of Education, to^secure much better results.\nThe Congress of the United States has of late given indications of growing confidence inthe Bureau of Education. It has increased the salary of the Commissioner twice within the past two years, a very unusual proceeding, bringing\nthat salary up to five thousand dollars for the year 1909-10. It has added\none hundred thousand dollars to the appropriation for education in Alaska,\nmade a special appropriation of twenty thousand dollars to bring the annual\nreports of the office up to date, and added twenty-five hundred dollars to the\nregular appropriation for the annual report of the year 1 909-10. For the same\nyear it has made provision for the new office of editor of the United Bureau at\na salary of two thousand dollars, and for two additional clerks, making the\ntotal increase in the general appropriation for the Bureau for the coming\nyear seventy-two hundred dollars. At the same time the internal reorganization has increased its power to render practical services even with relatively\nstationary appropriations. This reorganization has largely taken the form\nof the building-up of a corps of trained experts in the library division and the\nrearrangement of the library collection for daily use, the revision of the\nschedules in use in the statistical division, bringing of the annual report up to the\nearliest practicable date of publication, the reduction of its size, and the revision\nof its contents, and the issuance of a bulletin containing timely educational\ninformation. Important working connections have been established with\nthe Library of Congress and the office of the Census. The Bureau has been\nbrought into unusually close relations with the educational officers of the\nseveral states and with education libraries thruout the country. On the whole,\nit has been prepared to make a progressively better use of its appropriations,\nand Congress, as is shown above, has begun to increase those appropriations.\nOn the other hand, the demands which are coming upon the Bureau are much\ngreater than can possibly be met with such slight increase of appropriations as\nhas thus far been made, even with most economical and efficient internal management. The disproportion between the work expected of the office and the\nresources provided for it is so great as to be positively grotesque. The National\nCouncil of Education, in particular, has need of much larger assistance than\nthe Bureau can render in the carrying-on of such investigations as it has been\nobliged to forego. for lack of funds. On the recommendation of the National\nCouncil a committee of five members of the National Education Association\nhas, during the past year, carried on an active campaign to secure the needed\nincrease in its appropriations. This committee was undoubtedly responsible\nin part for such increase of appropriations as has been secured during the past\nyear. With the effort it has made it is fair to expect that the same committee,\nworking in unison with the Commissioner of Education, can secure a much\nlarger increase during the coming year. It is greatly to be desired that this\ncampaign should be continued until the Bureau is put into a condition to render\nthe services which the educational interests require, as that need is viewed by the\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n343\n\nNational Council of Education. I recommend that a committee of the Council\nof the National Education Association be appointed to co-operate with the\nUnited States Commissioner of Education in urging Congress to increase\nlargely the appropriation to the Bureau of Education to enable the Bureau\nto employ more educational experts and conduct much-needed educational\ninvestigation.\nIn closing, I wish to present for your consideration the following:\nQUERIES\n1. Should there be any committee or committees appointed for thoro investigation of\nany of the new questions under discussion in the program of this Council ?\n2. What suggestions has the Council to make concerning the number and method of\nselecting members to be placed on the program for three-minute speeches ?\n3. Should the Council ask the President of the National Education Association to\nappoint a committee to co-operate with the United States Commissioner of Education in\nurging Congress to increase largely the appropriation to the Bureau of Education, and thus\nenable the Bureau to employ more educational experts to engage in much-needed investigation ?\n\nSUPPLEMENTARY\nPROVISIONS\n\n/.\n\nTHE\n\nCARROLL\n\nG.\n\nREPORT\nOF\nTHE\nCOMMITTEE\nFOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN IN\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nCARE OF THE DEAF AND BLIND IN\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MILWAUKEE\nPEARSE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS.\n\nI regret the absence of the chairman of the committee, who was to have\nmade the preliminary statement for this discussion.\nThe report of the committee was made one year ago, and not a great deal\nof work has been done since that time. No funds of the association have been\navailable for meetings and the work of the year has been carried on chiefly by\ncorrespondence.\nThe committee, in beginning the consideration of this question, divided all\npupils into two classes — children who are normal and those who, for any reason,\nare non-normal.\nMany non-normal children are unfit to attend public day schools and must\nbe educated by private instructors or kept under institutional care. But there\nare several classes of children whose departure from the normal type is not so\ngreat but that they can and ought to receive their regular education in the public\nschools, attending regular classes so far as possible, and meeting and mingling\ndaily with the other children of the school. This plan permits them to remain\nin their homes where they enjoy home privileges and receive the care and\ntraining which only the home can give. They are saved from that separation\ninto a special class which tends to render them unable to mingle comfortably\nthruout their adult lives with the average people about them, and does much to\nkeep them from forming a class apart, dependent upon special conditions and\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "344\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nadvantages for their self-support and perhaps dependent upon special means\nof communication with each other. Their dependence upon this special means\nof communicating their thoughts has also a very powerful influence in keeping\nthem separate, both in feeling and in fact, from the people about them.\nI have been asked to speak chiefly about the schools for the deaf and the\nschools for the bUnd conducted in connection with the public day schools in\nthe city of Milwaukee.\nMany years ago the Wisconsin Phonological Society organized a day\nschool for deaf children. These children were able to live in their homes, come\ndaily to school as other children did, and receive there that special form of\neducation which enabled them to learn the art of speech, and also the art of\nreading the lips of those who spoke to them so that they might not only speak\nto other people but understand what was said to them by others.\nThe pupils in this school were taught wholly by the so-called \"oral\"\nmethod. They were not taught to communicate with each other in any other\nway, or allowed to depend upon any sign or manual language for communication among themselves. They talked to each other as they did to hearing\npersons.\nSome years later, the legislature of Wisconsin passed laws by which the\npubHc school board of Milwaukee was authorized to take charge of this school\nfor the deaf as a part of the public-school system. The state at that time\nallowed from its public funds the sum of $ioo for each child in average daily\nattendance in such school for the deaf. This money was paid by the state\ntreasurer to the treasurer of the school district of Milwaukee. Additional\nlegislation has provided that other cities in the state may establish these day\nschools for the deaf when a sufficient mmiber of such children of school age\nare found in the community. The amount contributed by the state for the\ninstruction of such children has also been increased, and for several years past\nthe sum of $i 50 per year has been allowed for each child in average daily\nattendance, and paid by the state to the school district maintaining such a\nschool.\nThese deaf children in Milwaukee, and usually elsewhere, are brought\ntogether into a centrally located school, where the peculiar methods necessary\nfor their instruction can be employed without disturbing other pupils or classes.\nThey can in this way, too, be better classified and more advantageously taught.\nThe day school for the deaf in Milwaukee now enrolls about eighty pupils.\nThese children use the same textbooks, recite the same lessons, and complete\nthe same work in the various elementary grades that the children in the regular\nclasses complete. Somewhat more attention is paid to manual training and\nphysical culture.\nUpon completing the studies of the eighth grade, the pupils of the school for\nthe deaf are, at graduation time, able to speak from the platform, render\ndeclamations, read their graduation essays, converse with visitors, and otherwise take part in the exercises of the day.\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n345\n\nA number of them, after completing the eighth grade, have entered the\nhigh school. They are gathered into one of the high schools where a teacher\nis provided who acts as their helper in their studies; but the children recite\nto the regular teachers in the regular classes with hearing pupils.\nFor several years the need of a day school for blind children, similar to the\nday school for deaf children, has been felt in Milwaukee. Some two years\nago, the Board of School Directors by vote decided to establish such a school\nas part of the public-school system. In November of 1907, this school was\nestablished with seven pupils. In a little more than a year and a half the number of pupils in attendance has increased to twenty-five and the number of\nclasses to three.\nAt the session of 1907, the Wisconsin legislature passed an act authorizing\npayment by the state, to each school district maintaining a public day school for\nthe blind, of the sum of $150 for each such child in average daily attendance\nin public daj- schools for the blind. The classes for the blind in Milwaukee\nare conducted under this law; and one other city in the state — Racine — has\norganized a public day school for the blind.\nThe pupils are brought together in centers in different parts of the city.\nRooms in the public schools are fitted up for their use and special teachers are\nprovided for the classes. Special facilities are furnished in these rooms in the\nway of \"slates\" and typewriters on which the children write their lessons,\nand such other materials as are needed.\nThe point system of letters is used, the American Braille being the system\nselected.\nThe children study in the special room, under the charge of their teacher;\nbut at recitation time they go to the different classrooms, according to the\ngrade of advancement, and recite in the classes with children who see, taking\ntheir part in the recitation in turn, reading or spelling or solving the problems in\narithmetic or answering the questions in geography. They play with the other\nchildren at recess time, the children who can see taking great interest in them\nand showing a willingness to help and care for them.\nThe blind children usually come to the centers on the street cars, altho a\nfew are brought in conveyances by their parents. Sometimes the children are\nput upon the nearest street car by the parents and are put off by the conductor\na block from the school, walking that distance by themselves. At the close of\nschool, they are put on the car by some child who can see, and are put off by\nthe conductor at the point nearest home. Sometimes a child, living near the\nhome of the blind child, becomes a guide. He takes his blind companion to\nthe car, gets on with him, rides to the school, takes him to the room where he\nbelongs and enters the regular classes of the same school as a pupil, being\ngiven a permit to attend outside of his own school district. In the evening he\ntakes the blind child home. Sometimes this little guide is paid by the parents\nof the blind child ; sometimes the service is merely a labor of love.\nWithin a year from this time (July, 1909) blind pupils will be graduating\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nfrom the eighth grade, having done the regular grade work up to that point.\nSome of these are planning to attend the high school where a teacher of the\nblind will probably be assigned for their special help. They will, however,\nrecite in the regular classes, as the deaf children in the high schools now do.\n//.\n\nTHE\n\nSYSTEMATIC\n\nMISS\n\nOLIVE\n\nJONES,\n\nCARE OF THE\nCHILD\n\nPRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC\nNEW YORK, N.\n\nSCHOOL\nY.\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\nNO.\n\nI20,\n\nSPECIAL\n\nThe subject of the exceptional child is one of growing interest to the country\nas a matter of civic need. There is no argument needed to prove that the state\nmust provide education for every child, to render him self-supporting and as\nintelligent as possible in his relations as a citizen of a self-governing republic.\nIt is now fairly well recognized that a purely intellectual education, universally administered, does not accomplish this end. Instead, it sends some\nchildren out poorly prepared for life and citizenship, and filled with a hatred\nof the law which has kept them in school — two influences destructive of the\nrespect for law, which is a basic element in self-government and our democratic\ninstitutions, without which we shall need an armed force to secure obedience\nto law.\nThe effect of this educational failure upon our civic needs is also to be\nestimated in geometric proportion. It has finally come to be known that there\nare exceptional children, incapable of adaptation to ordinary courses of study,\nordinary methods, and ordinary school conditions.\nSince the recognition of the need is general and the classification of types\nis accomplished, there remains the task of meeting the need by providing educational instrumentalities adapted to the training of each type of exceptional\nchild, so that all may reach the end of the highest possible social and civic\nservice.\nThat is my subject today: \" The Systematic Care of the Exceptional Child.\"\nA careful investigation for four years, by correspondence, by discussions in\ninterviews, and by personal visits to the schools of the four largest cities in the\nEast, makes inevitable the conclusion that altho everybody is busy, teachers\nare devoted and earnest, and much money is being spent, it is nevertheless\nunorganized labor. It is ill-directed energy, and lacks system and co-ordination. My plea, then, is that the first steps in systematic care of the exceptional\nchild must be systematic study and dissemination of the knowledge acquired\nfrom study and experience.\nIn ihopes that the Council will give its committee power and means to\ninvestigate, co-ordinate, and organize what is being done or can be done for\neach type of the exceptional child, including the mentally defective, the delinquent, the physically disabled, I venture to make some suggestions for such a\nstudy.\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n347\n\nFirst: The causes which have differentiated from the majority these children called\nexceptional. Some of these causes we speak of very glibly; but who of us knows just how,\nor why, or to what extent any one of them is responsible, or in what way any one of them is\nremediable or removable ? Certainly filling institutions with defective children and\nprisons with delinquent youths will not remove the causes, nor is it an economical way of\nremoving the evil results. These children are not necessarily institution cases, and to\nplace them in an institution is a great wrong. They do not get along well in the ordinary\ngraded classes, of course, because the teacher must consider the good of the majority, and,\nhaving large numbers to care for, she cannot spare time to give such children individual\nattention, even if she is capable of dealing with the problem. But in all cases, they need\nthe active positive help of a good teacher, in surroundings that are as nearly normal as possible; and they need to be made self-dependent, not shut out of the life of the home, but\nmeeting the buffets of the world as evidenced in miniature in the life of the street. I am\nglad to find I am sustained in this opinion, which has always been my belief, by the findings\nof the recent conference on dependent children, at Washington.\nWhat is the use, then, of knowing in a general way that delinquency or defectiveness\nis in the majority of cases due to this, that, or the other cause, unless we know, or can find\nout, specifically, the relation between the cause and the effect ? What we want is a systematic, statistical study of each, in the manner of some of the recent investigations of the\nRussell Sage Foundation, the causes needing investigation being, in the order of their\npresent apparent importance: (i) home surroundings: lojv, degraded homes; povertystricken homes; unhappy homes, constant strife; lack of parental care and control thru\nmisunderstanding, indifference, negligence, despair; step-parents; (2) street influences:\nfagins; gambling; small candy stores, with slot machines, indecent postals, and back rooms\nfor lounging; smoking; (3) personal characteristics: physical condition; nutrition; personal peculiarities of appearance or temperament; (4) psychological influences: the \"inbetween\" age; ages and grades of school life; individuality in development; (5) heredity\nand prenatal influences; (6) social influences: housing; neighborhood conditions; racial\nhabits, traditions, etc.; religious training.\nSecond: Terminology. The lack of organization in our work with the exceptional\nchild makes itself evident in our careless terminology. For illustration, in no two of four\nlarge cities — Boston, New York, Baltimore, and Washington — does the term \"ungraded\nclass \" mean the same thing. It seems to me that an important, if not vital, factor in organization of our work with the exceptional child is the arriving at some agreement as\nto terminology.\nThird: A study of the subsequent career. This should include a study of the child's\nemployment and his later character; a study of ways and means by which knowledge of\nthe subsequent career may be discoverable, and illustrations and statistics to verify the\nvalue of the special, individual care given the exceptional child.\nFourth: Records and reports. In this, as in terminology, there seems to be little or\nno uniformity. The data of reports made in one city, or even of schools in the same city,\ndo not have any resemblance in completeness; and the records of schools, institutions, and\ncourts do not coincide or give any indication of the correlation there must be in their work\nif we are to give systematic care to the exceptional child, particularly the morally exceptional.\nFrom study and comparison, we must arrive at plans for record-keeping and a knowledge\nof data on which to base methods of treatment and care.\nFifth: The curricula and methods of teaching. The systematic care of the exceptional\nchild must mean definite, actual, specific teaching and training, according to an organized\nplan of exercises, with methods and materials intended for the correction of specific faults\nand needs. And it must be just as definitely organized and specifically taught in physical\nand moral training as in intellectual or in manual training.\n\nL\n\nPhysical training. — In my own work, and according to beliefs and theories\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "348\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\njustified by four years of actual experience with almost six hundred exceptional\nboys, I give first rank in importance to physical training. The physical training of the exceptional child should be in charge of a special teacher, who must\nhave a thoro knowledge of the relation between his exercises or games and the\nchild's physical defects, and a good working knowledge of physiology and anatomy so that he can recognize the defects and the signs of their improvement or\ndeterioration. There should be close correlation between the work of the\nteacher in physical training and the reports of examinations by a physician.\nThe teacher must remember that the exercises are to be definitely corrective,\neither for the development of what is defective, or for the removal of developed\nerrors. In addition to the corrective exercises in physical training, there\nshould be planned a course in hygiene and simple physiological facts bearing\non moral prophylaxis. I do not mean a graded course of instruction, but one\narranged to teach the dangers of specific errors and defects. This is not\nonly needed, but is accepted, with good effect, by the older boys of the morally\nand physically exceptional types.\nMoral training. — Just as essential is definiteness in systematic planning for\nmoral instruction of the exceptional child. I do not mean preaching, or lessons\nlabeled ethics, or moral instruction of any kind which makes known to the\nchild that he is *' being done good.\" If you know Edward B. Lent's \"Being\nDone Good,\" you will appreciate the applicability of the phrase to the child\nwho is aware that he is being taught or preached at to be \"good.\" Yet to the\nteacher the work should be conscious and definite in course and method.\nAgain I do not mean one that is graded by years and school terms, but a course\nof instruction systematically planned, to be corrective of specific immoralities,\nand unmoralities, and to be used by any and every teacher who finds need.\nThe method to be employed includes the telling of stories and the conducting\nof discussions somewhat after the fashion of Mrs. Cabot's \"Every-Day\nEthics.\" It should closely, but tactfully, bear upon some recently committed\nwrong-doing — tactfully, because it has an evil effect upon a young sinner to\nmake him adorn a tale and point a moral.\nThe chief sources of moral training for the exceptional child are the establishment ofhabit and the use of preventive means. Beguile him into doing\nright; into coming to school regularly; \"jolly\" him; \"bluff\" hun. After a\ntime the thing he has been led into doing becomes a habit, and, after all, most\nof us are good or bad because of habits established years ago, and probably\nunconsciously.\nThe various exercises to be used, the habits to be trained, and the wrong\ninterests and habits for which right ones are to be substituted, the privileges,\nforms of reward and commendation — all these must be systematically planned\nand systematically adhered to. It seems to me that in the planning of these,\nand of a course in ethics such as was earlier indicated, we have a fruitful field .* L\nfor study and investigation, as well as report and suggestion.\nMamujl-industrial training, — The next most important phase of work\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n349\n\nwith the exceptional child is the manual-industrial training. I have\nhyphenated the term because the training must be both manual and industrial.\nIt must train for the trades, and it must give manual ability. We have had\nthe manual without the industrial, and it is just as possible to reverse the\nsituation. Therefore this word of warning.\nThe reasons for this phase of the work need no enlargement to teachers of\nany experience with the exceptional child. Since he will not and cannot 3deld\nhimself to the intellectual culture that has so long been our ideal, we must\nsubstitute that which does appeal, partly because of his natural interest and\ncuriosity, partly because of its motor element, and partly because of the utility\nhe sees in it.\nWhat we do need is information, and classification of the forms of work,\ntypes of exercises available for school use in each, the methods of presenting\neach, and the values of each — all specifically related to the various types of\nexceptional children. Have we not here a subject of prolific interest for investigation ?\nBesides definite planning, several other points must be kept in mind in\nregard to the manual-industrial work: (i) The articles made should be of real\nsize and selling value; (2) the child's special interest, once discovered, should\nbe developed even to the exclusion, later, of some other form of manual work;\n(3) the teacher must aim for accuracy of accomplishment, but we must remember that these are exceptional children. The piece of work which may fall far\nshort of perfection, as a completed article, may yet represent the highest kind\nof success as indicating the activity and development of the child.\nIntellectual training. — Finally, we reach the consideration of the amount\nand kind of intellectual training to expect of the exceptional child. The course\nof study must be a flexible one, and should contain, as absolute requirements,\nonly the essential subjects, and even of them, only the essential, elementary\nfacts. The teaching of geography, nature-study, and science should be in\nrelation to and in connection with the materials used in manual-industrial\nwork. The methods to be employed will necessarily include group work and\nindividual instruction. The proportion of time to be devoted to these various\nphases of work, in a school day of five hours, is: one-fifth physical training,\nhygiene; two-fifths manual-industrial training; two-fifths intellectual and\nmoral training.\nPlay and recreation activities. — The systematic care of the exceptional child\nincludes an interest in and investigation of his activities outside of school hours,\nand the planning of some kind of provision for them, so that the effect of days\nof hard teaching will not be destroyed in one afternoon or evening of evil companionship. The usual provisions for children outside of school hours do not\nmeet the needs of the exceptional child. Either they fail to interest him, and\ntherefore he ceases to attend, or he is troublesome and refractory and in consequence issent out from the settlement and club. Hence the systematic\n<iare of the exceptional child must include planning for the employmejit of\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "350\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nteachers and the arrangement of playground and recreation activities after the\nschool hours have ended, under other teachers possibly, but all under the guidance and direction of the one responsible principal or teacher in charge of the\nschool or class.\nWith this brief statement of these most important phases of the systematic\ncare of the exceptional child, I close.\n///.\n\nABNORMAL\n\nCHILDREN— THEIR CLASSIFICATION\nAND INSTRUCTION\n\nFRANK G. BRUNER, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT\nAND PEDAGOGIC INVESTIGATION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS,\n\nOF CHILD STUDY\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\n{An Abstract)\n\nWhat constitutes an abnormal child is, at least in a gross way, rather\ngenerally apprehended. But even if we are partial to scientific niceties, we\nmay accept as fairly inclusive De Moor's statement that \"the abnormals are\nthose who are afflicted with anything whatsoever that unfavorably afifects their\nlives in relation to the social mediimi in which they live.\" Under this rubric,\nthen, are included the deaf, the blind, the crippled, the mentally defectives, and\nthe mental aberrants, those handicapped by sensory or constitutional defects,\nand those children whose home and social environments have been such as to\nhinder a symmetrical physical development or mental and social growth.\nThe blind, deaf, and cripples. — ^The problems offered in the teaching of the\nblind, the deaf, and the cripples are severally unique in themselves, and\nextremely specialized. In the instruction of the first two classes, the blind and\ndeaf, specialized forms of methodology and school exercises are necessitated,\nsuch forms as are effective in circumventing the sensory handicaps under which\nthese children labor.\nWith crippled children, only such modifications in the orthodox curriculum\nseem necessary as are required to meet the peculiar individual needs of certain\nof the children; physical exercises for paralytics, attention to the comforts of\nthose who are tubercular, etc. If taught in public day schools, some provision\nmust also be made for their transportation to and from school.\nThe subnormals as to mentality. — The problems with regard to the teaching\nof children of subnormal mentality are intricate and vexing, and these are the\nones with which we shall concern ourselves here chiefly. To project educational instnmientalities for classes of children so widely distributed on the\nmental scale as the idiots at the one end and those only slightly retarded at the\nother, and to order an efficient methodology for each class presents a problem\nnot easily encompassed.\nWere all kinds of mental abnormality but manifestations of different degrees\nof mental retardation or delayed maturity, as Sequin, Ziehen, and others hold,\nor were the arrested development symmetrical for the different mental functions in all individuals, instead of extremely eccentric, as typically occurs,\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n351\n\nschool exercises might be outlined which could be graduated quantitatively\nto the different levels of mental ripening. The educational regime suited\nto the several grades would thus need to differ in degree only, and not in kind.\nBut instead of one agent or factor being responsible for mental defect, the\nnumber recognized is manifold. Some children are consequently found to be\ngood in perception, others in memory, others in power of attention, others in\ninitiative and practical invention, but strikingly deficient in other lines.\nAgain there is prevalent, even among those deahng intimately with mentally\nafflicted children, the misconception that they naturally divide themselves into\ntypes or groups and that in each type the children possess certain exclusive\nmental traits and physical signs which easily differentiate them from those of\nanother type.\nBut type and homogeneity as applied to the mentally defectives are largely\nspeculative and theoretical terms. If employed at all, the term type must be\nunderstood to refer to some point in the curve of the general distribution of\nchildren, only, a level which has been arbitrarily restricted in its connotation\nand extent to serve some practical end solely. There is no such thing as a\nwell-marked limen that separates the normal from the subnormal, or one class of\nthe exceptionals from another. Scientific investigation has shown that the\nmind of the normal child differs from that of the idiot not altogether in the\npossession of certain mental qualities, which the latter lacks, but especially in a\nrelatively more complete development of the mental functions, and particularly\nthose of the higher order, on the part of the former as compared with the latter.\nTo suggest a uniform system 01 school exercises for children of all degrees of\nsubnormality is therefore obviously both unpedagogic and unpsychological.\nWere a pedagogical procedure to be ideal, therefore, it should seek to adapt\neducational agencies to the psychological individuality of each particular child.\nBut such is perhaps still far from possibility of attainment in the present\nuntrained and unspecialized state of our teaching force. The same pedagogical\nends can be reached approximately, however, if the special teacher can be\ngiven expert guidance. A systematic and scientific classification of the children\nunder the special teacher should be made, and she might be given a cataloged\naccount of the predominant mental traits and capacities which are characteristic\nof the several mental levels discovered, and the school exercises that are best\nadapted in each to stimulate and promote a wholesome intellectual and social\ngrowth.\nAbout as much as may with reason be expected from our teachers themselves isthat they be adaptable, alert, enthusiastic, and that their training has\nbeen such that they are able to suit educational exercises so as to conform to the\nneeds of a few types or classes of children which have been selected and defined\nfor them. Our teachers, in fact, ought to be pedagogs, and not psychologists.\nIndeed, I believe that the possession of a true scientific instinct and insight\nlargely unfits a teacher for the most effective instructing. A cold, deliberate,\nanalytical way of looking upon the child and his mental equipment cannot but\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\ntend to smother and extinguish that kind, patient, sympathetic, persevering\nspirit which should permeate all teaching. And with those unfortunately\ngifted, above all others, sympathy, with an active enthusiasm, is the magic that\nbegets in them a spirit of co-operation, personal initiative, and self-expression —\nthe keys to their mental unfoldment. But our best teachers, almost uniformly,\nare crying for a more serviceable classification of those whom they must teach.\nThere is a considerable number of historical classifications of subnormal\nchildren, but they have been projected for the most part by those whose\ninterests lay in removing pathological defects or grouping patients for custodial\nand hospital purposes, so, unfortunately, they do not answer well for educational ends.\nFor pedagogical purposes the point of view obviously must be dominated\nvery largely by the character and degree of the mentality of the children under\ntreatment. A classification should take into account a child's capacity for\nmental activity, his adaptability to social influences, his efficiency in responding to novel and untried experiences, the tenacity of his purpose, the span of his\neffort, the character of his attention as regards fluidity or stability, his spontaneity, his ability to render judgments of relative quantity, his capacity for\nabstracting qualities or dealing with general relations, his facility in reading\nmeanings into situations, and his susceptibiHty to training thru symbolic\nlanguage, that is, his possibility of instruction thru the orthodox school media.\nBut no matter how elaborate and inclusive the mental analysis which a diagnostician may make, it is not how the mind habitually or overtly functions\nwhich must form the criterion as to a child's pface in the intellectual scale, bu\nhis possibilities for improvement under training, and hence his future promise\nof social adaptability and service.\nWith the above in mind, I shall offer a classification of children which has\nproven to be fairly practical and effective from the viewpoint of public-school\ninstruction. I shall also add certain pedagogical agencies which have been\nemployed in training the several classes, and which have served not only to\nprevent further arrest but to stimulate growth, activity, and social adjustment.\nTime fails me to outline and demonstrate, even in brief, the distinctive\ntests and methods which are employed to measure the degree of maturity of a\nchild's various mental functions, and the individual child's place in the general\ndistribution of children of the same age. We shall have to content ourselves, therefore, with a limited catalog of the mental traits which scientific tests\nand observations justify us in attributing to the several typical groups.\nFor indicating classes and types we are rather unfortunate in possessing no\nsatisfactory terminology. Such stock names as idiot, imbecile, subnormal,\nand backward refer to inadequate, indefinite, and, indeed, antiquated divisions,\nwhich have wholly outgrown their historical functions and value. Some of\nthe terms require clarification and elaboration; the use of the others should\nbe wholly abandoned.\nFor instructional purposes it has been found practicable to divide sub-\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "■\nK.\n■\n\nCouncU]\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n353\n\nnonnal children into the following groups or mental levels: Beginning with\nthe lowest and proceeding upward we have: (i) tiie idiots of the first and\nsecond degree; (2) the imbeciles; (3) the infantiles, comprised of the higher\norder of the imbeciles and the lower levels of the t3^ically retarded; (4)\nthe typically retarded children; (5) the pedagogically backward; and (6)\nthe morally abnormal.\nIdiots of the first and second degree. — ^With these children and the next class\n— the imbeciles — the public school is not concerned. The idiots belong to the\nlower perceptual levels, and indeed, some are even lacking in power to accumulate sensory and perceptual experiences. Attention is fluctuating or absent.\nThe memory and imagination are defective, and there is discovered an aknost\ntotal absence of abstract ideas or ability to transfer experiences from a given\nsituation to others somewhat comparable. Language is normally imperfect,\nfrequently monosyllabic, and sometimes absent. This defect comes about not\nonly by reason of the absence of ideas but also thru lack of motor control.\nThe education of the idiots must proceed largely along the lower planes of\nhabit, and particularly with reference to the formation of the large, gross,\nmotor habits. Some may be taught to pursue extremely simple occupations,\nto care for their bodily necessities, and to look after their own personal hygiene.\nOthers are too low to be taught even such simple habits. Results of instruction\nin the orthodox school instrumentalities, too, have been almost invariably\nnegative. This class of children calls for institutional provisions, i. e., custodial\ncare and surveillance.\nThe imbeciles. — At this level, perception is active but superficial and inaccurate; attention is still fluid; memory, poor; imagination, unclear but frequently active. The imbeciles are normally in possession of a sufficient number\nof concrete ideas, but they possess little abifity to generalize their experiences.\nLanguage is fairly complete, but mechanical, words being devoid of content and\ninherent significance. They are lacking in ideals or motives for behavior, are\nnot dominated by ultimate ends or purposes, are insusceptible to moral influences, and are not guided by reason. Frequently they may be taught to read\nand write, but this training proves to be superficial and impractical. ■ They\ncan be made to learn the simpler trades and occupations, and to direct their\nconduct when it has been trained into habitual channels. Their minds differ\nfrom the normal child, not in the absence of certain traits, but only in a relatively lesser development of the higher functions.\nMorally, moreover, imbeciles are unstable and unreliable; hence they are\ninstitutional cases and call for custodial care.\nThe infantiles — comprised of the higher orders of imbeciles and the lower\ngrades of the typically retarded. — These are children who are found to be fairly\nacute perceptually, especially in apprehending such concrete sense impressions as possess elements of personal meaning.\nThey are able to carry simple\nmeanings in terms of symbols, and consequently can be taught to read, write,\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\never, is very mechanical and their apprehension of meanings, as gleaned thru\nprinted symbols, is limited to simple sentences that relate to familiar common\nexperiences. They do not, of course, comprehend abstract number or moral\nprecepts. They are predominantly sensori-motor, that is, experiences are\nreacted upon directly, and most impressions pass over immediately into some\nform of motor activity. Their interest, too, lies chiefly in manipulation and\nin the dramatic, and it is from these dominant traits in their mental make-up\nthat successful teaching takes its cue. The activities which have been found\nmost successful in arousing mental response consist of diverse forms of motor\nexpression, such as dramatic games, physical-culture exercises, manual tasks,\nand the ordinary social duties. This type of children is being successfully\ninstructed in special classes in the regular schools, and at the age of sixteen\nthey find employment, for the most part, where with some sympathetic direction they are able to earn a livelihood. They rarely, however, become independent social individuals.\nThe typically retarded. — These are children whose gross anatomical structure appears to be perfectly normal at school age. Neither are there apparent\nany overt evidences of anything that would differentiate them from the ordinarily normal child of the school. But their whole life-history, almost invariably, gives indication of arrest. Walking and speech are acquired later than\nnormal, and the secondary reflexes function automatically, often until the\nage of five or six. Altho the larger fundamental muscles appear to be under\ngood control at school age, so that the child usually stands and sits erect and\nwalks well, the secondary peripheral muscles show a striking lack of maturity\nand co-ordination.\nThe mental development in the t3^ically retarded is ordinarily found to be\nfairly symmetrical. Indeed, looked at from the viewpoint of their psychological and physiological ages, instead of their chronological, their mental activities\nare well balanced and normal. They must be thought of as children much\nyounger than their years and bodily proportions would indicate. Fortunately\ntoo, unless still further depressed and retarded by a pedagogical regime suited\nto the more matured, the typically retarded children grow into relatively normal\nadulthood. They become socially and economically independent, and hence\ntheir training logically should come under regular public-school provisions.\nThe educator's task lies in determining the age-level, in each instance, which\nthe retarded child has reached, and then adapting for him a modified form\nof the school exercises which children of that age normally pursue. But by\nreason of their mental divergences, extreme reticence, and frequently mercurial\nor sluggish attention, due largely to faulty home training, they demand such\nspecial school facilities as are provided in what are known as subnormal class\ncenters, where, with a limited membership, the teacher finds opportunity to\nstudy their individualities and appeal to their several personal interests.\nBackward children. — The backward are children whose physiological\ndevelopment has been normal, but who are pedagogically retarded. Their\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n355\n\nmental traits and functions when tested by ultra-school devices are found not to\ndiverge significantly from the average of their ages. Yet they are unadaptable\nby reason of a paucity of well-grounded habits and attitudes, such as children\nin school normally acquire. The pedagogical regime suited to train them\nefficiently, however, need not differ from that normally obtaining in other\nregular classes, except that the methods should be modified so as to appeal\nto maturer interests. These are the children who congest the lower grades.\nOne or another of the diversity of functional disorders which particularly\nafflict growing children depletes their vitaHty, consumes their energy, and\nshuts them off from the great wealth of sensory experiences and communicable\ninformation to which the child not so handicapped is heir, and the inevitable\nresult is that these children are unable to articulate normally into classes with\ntheir fellows. They fall behind, lose interest and enthusiasm. In consequence they become either truants and incorrigibles or dullards, depending\nlargely upon their temperaments and social heritage.\nCoaching classes have been found serviceable in handling these cases, as\nhave also school organizations so elastically conditioned that children of varying mental attainments may progress thru the school course at different rates\nof movement. Such a coaching program as obtains under the Batavia system\nought also to prove valuable.\nMorally abnormal. — With reference to this class, little can be said. Not\nenough is accurately known of the complexity of mental functioning or the\npeculiar aberrant traits which the morally unsound exhibit to suggest any\ndeparture from the orthodox methods of treatment which these classes ordinarily receive. May I add, however, that we are attempting to collect data\nwith regard to delinquent children in Chicago which we hope will throw some\nlight upon the corrective treatment necessary to bring them back to normal\nsocial habits of life.\nFrom the foregoing it is quite apparent that a classification of children\nis far from simple. Indeed it is a matter which calls for specific and expert\ntraining along the lines of children's normal mental unfoldment, as well as\npeculiar skill in tracing such divergences in mental functioning as may occur\nby reason of sensory handicaps, and lesions arising from diverse afflictions\nand abnormalities due to peculiarities of inheritance and eccentric development. Itis a task, indeed, which only the psychologist specially trained in\nthe mental abnormalities of children may hope successfully to encompass.\nIV.\nBEN\n\nPROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS OF ST. LOUIS\n\nIN THE\n\nBLEWETT,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nST. LOUIS,\n\nINSTRUCTION,\nMO.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nI was asked by Superintendent Van Sickle to say what I could in ten minutes about the history of these schools in St. Louis.\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe necessity for the establishment of these schools was emphasized in St.\nLouis as it had been in other places thru the conditions forced by the adoption\nof a law compeUing attendance.\nIn June, 1906, Superintendent F. Louis Soldan discussed in a report to the\nBoard the new problems presented thru the natural action of this law, and made\nrecommendations covering the care of defective children and defining the scope\nof that term.\nThe report of the Committee on Provision for Exceptional Children, made\nto the Council at the Cleveland meeting in 1908, gives Superintendent Soldan's\nplan for housing the schools for these children, the selection of their teachers,\nand the mode of transportation of the pupils.\nDuring the school year 1906-7, it was necessary to make preliminary investigations to ascertain the number of children who should be thus taken care of\nand to decide the location of the schools. At a meeting of the principals, the\nsuperintendent explained what was proposed and, subsequently, blanks in the\nfollowing form were distributed to the principals to be used in making reports\non the individuals:\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS OF ST. LOUIS\nprincipal's\n\nreport\n\non\n\n\"defective\"\n\nCmLDREN\n\nNote. — Principals will consider the receipt of this blank a request to examine carefully and personally every \"defective\" case in their school and to send a report within three\ndays.\nThey will use one of these sheets for each pupil on whom they desire to report.\nIf, after proper inquiry, the principal finds that there is no case of this kind in his\nschool, he will state so in this blank and return it promptly.\nThe term \"defective\" as used in this case applies to children that are neglected by\nnature and constitutionally incapacitated for the ordinary studies, but may nevertheless\nbe able to profit by instruction that is specially adapted to them. Imbecile or mentally\nunbalanced children require the watchful nurture of an asylum and cannot be benefited\nby school instruction.\nPrincipals will find a full discussion of this matter in the Proceedings of the Board of\nEducation, June, 1906, page 596.\nSchool.\nDate\n190\nTo the Superintendent of Instruction:\nI herewith submit the following report on one of the pupils of this school whom I\nconsider \"defective\" in intelligence.\nName of pupil\nAge\nyears\nmonths.\nParent's name\nResidence\nOccupation\nHow long has the child been in your school ?\nHow long in any other school ?\nIn what grade is he at present ?\nHow long has he been in this grade ?\nNumber of room ?\nName of teacher ?\nFor what reason do you consider him a \"defective\" child, in the sense of the definition\nabove ? (Give brief description of the child, noting appearance and special traits\nwhich show him to be a \"defective.\")\nHave you any information as to the special cause of his defects (such as defective vision,\netc., previous or present disease, etc.) ?\nIs the child simply backward or slow, but nevertheless able to do the ordinary work in\nreading, arithmetic, geography, etc., if enough time is given to him ?\nWhat part of the ordinary school work is he, in your opinion, unable to do ?\nConduct of the child while in school ?\n\nThe first report, made in October, 1906, showed plainly that there had been\na great variation in the standards of estimate applied by the principals.\nEvi-\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n357\n\ndently some pupils were included who were capable of carrying on successfully\nthe work of the regular schools, and some were omitted who should have been\nincluded.\nThe total number reported from the entire city was 231.\nIn the principals' meeting at the opening of school in September, 1907,\nthe superintendent discussed the nature of the variations in the reports and\ngave typical cases in illustration of the kind of children that should be selected.\nSome of these types were thus outlined in a subsequent report to the Board:\nEXAMPLES\n\nOF\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nMENTALITY\n\nIn order to give an idea of the nature of the cases for which provision is to be\nmade in the special schools, I select some characteristic examples from the lists\nreported last month. For obvious reasons, the following statements do not\ncontain the name of the child. A given name is selected at random to show\nwhether the child is a boy or a girl. The items opposite each name, however,\ndescribe actual cases.\n1. Anna. — Age: 13 years, 6 months; attended school £013 years; advancement: ist\ngrade; conduct: inoffensive; general character: lacking in intellectual powers; cannot\ntell name of parents.\n2. Clara. — Age: 12 years; attended school for 4 years; advancement: ist grade;\nconduct: source of disturbance to other children; general character: seems to have no\nmental power.\n3. Frank. — Age: 12 years; attended school for 6 years; advancement: 3d grade;\nconduct: stubborn and troublesome; general character: learns a little in abstract arithmetic-but cannot retain it.\n4. Minnie. — Age: 12 years; attended school for 5 years; advancement: 2d grade;\nconduct: inattentive and careless; general character: five years in ist grade and does not\nknow as much as beginner.\n5. Harry. — Age: 10 years, 7 months; attended school for 4 years; advancement:\n2d grade; conduct: good; general character: no understanding of values and numbers.\n6. Fred.— Age: 9 years, 5 months; attended school for 3^ years; advancement:\nist grade, third quarter; conduct: untruthful, disobedient, and torments other children;\ngeneral character: lacking in memory and reasoning power.\n\nDuring the month of September, 1907, a second report was called for and\nafter it was carefully checked over the number of cases was reduced to 181.\nA further canvass during the years 1907-8 and 1908-9 seems to warrant the\nconclusion that the number of such children in St. Louis is from .3 to .5 of\nI per cent, of the registration for the year.\nOn January 13, 1908, three of these schools were opened.\nEach was\nK\nlocated in a detached six- or eight-room private residence which had been\nM\nrearranged to accommodate two classes of fifteen pupils each, and to provide\nH\nlodging for the woman employed as caretaker and attendant.\nIn September,\nB\n1908, three additional schools of the same character were opened. There now\nK\nremain about ninety of these children unprovided for.\nH\nThe report of Superintendent Soldan made to the Board in November,\n^E 1907, gives the following principles as determinants in the course of study:\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "358\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSPECIAL\n\n[National\n\nSCHOOLS\n\na) The instruction of children of defective mentality requires a departure from the\ncustomary work of the ordinary schoolroom. Progress must be largely individual. The\neducation of the defective child in method and form is totally different from that of his\nnormal brother or sister. There can be, as a matter of course, no fixed course of study in\nreading, writing, and arithmetic. No set task can be laid out for him, nor should he be\nexpected to keep step with others. The schools should be so arranged that each child can\nlearn as much of the studies of the ordinary school — reading, writing, and arithmetic — as\nhis mentality allows and no more.\nh) The training of the hand thru easy work, and thru occupations similar to those used\nin the kindergarten should have a large share in the education of these children. Subnormal children are, as a rule, interested in the work of their hands, and their intelligence\ndevelops thru their occupation.\n,\nc) The tone of the special school should be bright, cheerful, and encouraging; games\nand physical recreation should alternate with work.\nd) The care of the health of the children should be made a prominent feature. The\nspecial schools should be visited regularly by a medical officer. The teacher should make\nhygiene and child study the subjects of her own reading and study.\ne) Above all other considerations, the teacher arranging the course of education for\nthese children should bear in mind the great purpose: to make them useful for life. Any\ntalent for a useful occupation which the child manifests should be made use of and developed\nin his education.\nTYPICAL\n\nREPORTS\n\nON\n\nINDIVIDUALS\n\nSome of the things we are accomplishing can be illustrated by three typical\ncases. In each case I give the memoranda of the medical adviser and the\nschool record of the pupil's progress measured at intervals of six months. The\nrecord is given in the form of the blank provided for that purpose.\nCASE\n\nNO.\n\nI.\n\nSPECIAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nNO.\n\n2.\n\nVISUAL\n\nDEFECT.\n\nII\n\nYEARS\n\nOF\n\nAGE\n\nWas admitted to Special School No. 2 by transfer from the Washington School, first\ngrade, first quarter, March 2, 1908. Family history shows that his parents died when he\nwas quite young and he was committed to an orphan asylum. He was about two years of\nage when his mother died. She died from a spinal disease — I am of the opinion that it was\ntubercular. He has two brothers and two sisters, all living and in good health. Had\nmeasles and scarlet fever when an infant. Recovery from those diseases was complete.\nHis history other than this was negative.\nA physical examination was made by me when he entered the special school. The\nonly physical defect that I could discover was a very serious visual one. I interviewed the\naunt, getting the family history, and pointing out to her the serious condition of his eyes and\nthe urgent need of expert treatment. This advice was acted upon at once. A proper\nrefraction was made and glasses were adjusted. The teacher noticed a marked improvement in his work at once, which continued, and at the end of thirteen months he was transferred back to the grade school from which he came, and his principal and teachers say\nthat he is an average pupil.\nCASE\n\nNO.\n\n2.\n\nSPECIAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nNO.\n\nI.\n\nNEURASTHENIA.\n\n9 YEARS\n\nOF\n\nAGE\n\nEntered Special School No. i on January 13, 1908. Had never been in kindergarten\nor school before. His birth was premature, but was normal. Attempted to walk when\nthree years of age. Made sounds with his voice at two years of age. At this time he was\nnoticed to be very nervous and excitable, and when anyone spoke to him he became very\nnervous, his arms and hands flying about. This nervous condition continued. When\nhe entered school eighteen months ago he had to be aided by someone in walking.\nJust\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR EXCEPTIONAL\n\n359\n\nCHILDREN\n\nSPECIAL SCHOOLS\n\nFOR INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nRecord of Progress of Case No. i\nDate: October 23, 1908\n\nSchool: Special No. 2\nName of child:\nDate of birth: February 3, 1898 .\nDate of admission: March 2, 1908\n\nFrom Washington School\n\nWriting\n\nReading\n\nNumbers\n\nHandwork\n\nAt time of\nadmission\n\nCould read\nvery simple\nsentences\nfrom board\n\n6 months\nafter admission\n\nCan now\nread very\nnicely in\nFirst\nReader\n\nWrites very\nwell now\n\nExcellent\nfor a ist\ngrade boy\n\nImproving\n\n12 months\nafter admission\n\nReads well\nand has\n\nGood\n\nExcellent\n\nVery good\n\nFair\n\nSight so defective that\nhis writing\nis poor\n\nVery poor,\n\nIntelli-\n\nCharacter\nduct\nand Con-\n\nGood\ngence\n\nGood\n\nHealth\nGood.\nfective\n\nReturned to Washington\n\nGood\n\nGood\n\nSight deGood.\nImproving\nSight is\n\ngained\npower\n\n18 months\nafter admission\n\nGeneral\n\nSchool, Janua\n\nGood\n\nGood\n\nGood\n\nry 29, 1909\n\nbefore entering school he was operated on for adenoids. After this operation his appetite\nwas much improved; he rested better. When he first entered school his nervousness was so\nmarked that he had to be fed with a spoon. He could not hold a piece of chalk or a pencil,\ncould not sit still, or could not play games, run, or jump. At this time his nervousness is\nmuch improved. He can sit still; not nearly so nervous; can walk by himself, and runs\nand plays games with the other children; does some little number work; recites memory\ngems. He speaks so anyone can understand him and is much better than when he entered\nschool. All in all, he has improved at least fifty per cent. With the proper care his case\npromises much.\nSPECIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nRecord of Progress of Case No. 2\nDate: February i, 1009\n\nSchool: Special No. i\nName of child:\n\nDate of birth: September, 1899\nDate of admission: January 13, 1908\n\nReading\n\nWriting\n\nFrom Madison Kindergarten\nGeneral\nNumbers\n\nHandwork\nInteUi-\n\nAt time of\nadmission\n\nAbsolutely\nnothing.\nNo control\nover body\n\nNo use of\nhis hands\n\nNo idea of\nthem\n\n6 months\nafter admission\n\nReads from\n\nWrites a little. Has\nimproved\nvery much\n\nNos. 1-12.\nCan count\nthru 12\n\n12 months\nafter admission\n\nReads from\nbook and\n\nWrites\nwords from\ncopy and\nmemory.\n\nNos. to 100.\nReads and\nwrites\nthem\nimprovement\n\nblackboard\n\nblackboard.\nSpells\n\n18 months\nafter admission\n\nWonderful\n\nNothing.\nCould not\nuse his\nhands.\nAlmost\nhelpless\nBeginning\nto control\n\nVague\ngence\n\nstands\nUndercentrates\nVery\nand con-\n\nCharacter\nduct\nand ConA slight\nremove\ninfancy\nfrom\nVery\n\nmuch\n\ncapable\n\nNervous and\nfeverish\n\ncontrolling\nproved in\n\nHas improved\n\nHas imvery\nprovedmuch\nin strength\n\nHealth\n\nous and\nMischievnee\ncurious\n\nand endura\nim-\n\ngood will\ncontrolling\nHas\nim- proved in\nnervous\ntwitching\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n360\nCASE NO.\n\n[National\n3.\n\nSPECIAL SCHOOL\n\nNO.\n\nI.\n\nMALNUTRITION.\n\nII YEARS\n\nOF\n\nAGE\n\nEntered Special School No. i on January 13, 1908. His family history was hard to\nobtain. He is an illegitimate child of a feeble-minded mother, and his condition was a\nsimple case of malnutrition. All his organs normal. His environment is very bad. Since\nentering school he has been fed at least one substantial meal per day by the teachers and\nhas improved wonderfully. It is the intention of his teacher to recommend that he be\ntransferred to the grade school from which he came.\nSPECIAL SCHOOLS\n\nFOR INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nRecord of Progress of Case No. 3\nSchool: Special No. i\nDate: February i, 1909\nName of child:\nDate of birth: 1899\nFrom Madison School\nDate of admission: January 13, 1908\nReading\n\nWriting\n\nAt time of\nadmission\n\nCould write\na few\nletters\nthis\nschool\nA beginner in\n\n6 months\nafter admission\n\nRead from\nboard and\nfrom book.\nSpeUs\n\n12 months\nafter\nmissionad-\n\nReads from\nbook and\n\n18 months\nafter admission\n\nKnew a few\nwords\n\nWords\nprovingim-\n\nWriting of\nstories fair\n\nspells\nly wellfairHas improved very much.\n\nNumbers\n\nHandwork\n\nKnew very\nUttle\n\nCould\nnothingdo\n\nNos. 1-12\n\nLearning to\nweave\ning\n\ntions\ncombina-\n\nWeaving\nNos.\nin hundreds.\nAdd— less\nand mak—timesdivided.\nCurious, seek s information\n\nGeneral\nIntelliVague\ngence\n\nCharacter\nduct\nand ConGentle\nand\nobedient\nGaining\n\nHealth\nNot the\nbest.\nLack of\nfood\nImproved\n\nning to\nstand\nBeginunder-\n\ndence.\nLazy at\ntimes\nconfi-\n\ntrates\nConcenand\n\nAble to\nhold his\nown in\nall cases\n\nAlways well\nsent\nNever ab-\n\ncapable\nquite\n\n'\n\nThe cost per pupil per year for teachers, books, supplies, and incidentals,\nincluding rent, has been $1 30 . 00.\nAt the end of the year and a half of experience we know very definitely that\nwe have helped most of the pupils to a healthier, happier life. We know just as\ndefinitely that we have been only feeling our way, and that there must be a\nmuch closer diagnosis of the individual case by one specially trained to see\nthe defects of the mind and the physical causes of these defects; if we are to\nbe at all sure that our plans are intelligently shaped. I do not believe, however, that because it is impractical for a city school system to maintain an\nequipment that Dr. Witmar has found necessary for the treatment of the limited\nnumber of pupils in his care, that the cities are unwise in undertaking the\nwork.\nWhat we do even with our inadequate preparation for this highly specialized\nwork is worth what it costs both in money and thought because of the good it\nactually does the defectives, and because of the relief it affords the ordinary\nschool classes.\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nV.\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\nPROVISIONS FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS OF BOSTON\n\nSTRATTON\n\nD.\n\nBROOKS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBOSTON,\n\n361\n\nIN THE\nMASS.\n\nIn considering the necessity of providing for the separate instruction o\nexceptional children, it is customary to base the claim upon the rights of\nthese children to receive suitable instruction and upon the benefits accruing\neventually to the community from the proper education of such children\nIt is probable that equal emphasis should be given to the benefits accruing\nto the regular classes from the removal of exceptional children therefrom.\nThe nervous strain that two or three such pupils may cause a teacher is\nenormous, and their presence consumes energy and vitality that could with\nmuch greater profit be given to the other children in the room. The nervous\nshock to young children caused by the presence of epileptics, for example,\nis highly detrimental, and even with milder cases of physical peculiarity the\nimitative habits of children are likely to produce conditions from which\nnormal children should be protected. Even when there are no noticeable\nphysical pecuHarities, the proper instruction of the large groups of children\nusually assigned to one teacher is possible only when the whole group is\napproximately of the same degree of mental alertness. The fundamental\nbasis of school administration as it now exists is the proper gradation of\npupils and this is impossible so long as the exceptional children must be\ninstructed in the same classes with the others. It is unfortunate that limited\nfinances or scarcity of rooms should render it necessary that the highest degree\nof efficiency should be prevented by the presence in any room of a few pupils\nwho cannot profit from the instruction suited to the majority.\nIn Boston extensive provision is already made for exceptional children,\nas outlined below:\nA. The Horace Mann School for the Deaf. Excellent provision is made\nfor deaf children in the Horace Mann School. This school also admits pupils\nfrom outside of Boston for whom the state pays the tuition. Provision for\nblind and crippled children is made in excellent private schools not connected\nwith the public-school system. A Parental School is maintained by the city,\nbut it is not in charge of the School Committee.\nB. Special Classes for Defective Children. Several special classes have\nbeen maintained and more should be established as soon as suitably trained\nteachers can be secured. A special medical expert examines the children\nwho are recommended by the principals for admission to these classes. Only\nimprovable cases are accepted. Children too defective to profit from the\ntype of instruction presented in the public school are taken care of privately\nor by the state institution established for that purpose.\nEspecially trained teachers are employed in these classes and the number\nof pupils is limited in each class to fifteen. The course of study is exceedingly\nflexible and is especially full of motor-training elements.\nMany pupils\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "362\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nhave been returned to the regular grades. Many others, who have made\nsmall progress in the acquiring of knowledge, have, however, established\nmoral habits and acquired physical control sufficient to make them eventually\nsafe, self-supporting members of the community.\nC. Disciplinary Classes. Two such classes have been established under\ncharge of teachers especially qualified for this work. Not to exceed twenty\npupils are assigned to each teacher. Only pupils whose records are such as\nto justify sending them to the parental school are assigned to the disciplinary\nclasses. These classes, and the juvenile court, have caused a very marked\nreduction in the number of pupils committed to the parental school. The\nsuccess of the disciplinary classes has been very marked. With scarcely\nan exception pupils whose school work and behavior, under ordinary conditions, has been valueless to themselves and detrimental to their classmates\nhave become, in the discipHnary classes, interested in their work and therefore obedient and punctual. The success is based upon the sympathetic\npersonal attention of the teacher to each pupil under conditions that differ\nfrom those of ordinary school almost wholly in the reduction of the number\nof pupils assigned to the class. These classes serve to demonstrate how much\nbetter the schools could be made if it were possible to have fewer pupils per\nteacher.\nD. Ungraded Classes. In each district at least one ungraded class is\nauthorized. In some districts where a large number of immigrant children\nare learning to speak English several such classes are conducted. These\nclasses differ from regular classes primarily only in the fact that a smaller\nnimiber of pupils is assigned to them (thirty-five). The instruction necessarily\nmust be adapted to the conditions in the class and the course of study is\nmodified to suit these conditions. The purpose is to give special help to\nthose pupils who need it and to return them as soon as possible to the regular\ngrades.\nE. Summer High School. In the summer high school opportunity is\ngiven to secure additional points or to supplement the work of the regular\nschool sufficiently to enable the pupil to secure a passing mark. By this\nmeans pupils of exceptional abifity may be able to shorten their high-school\ncourse by a year, and pupils who have failed to pass some part of their work\nduring the year may make it up in the summer with the result that they will\ngraduate in four years instead of five. From the point of view of economy,\nthe summer high school will undoubtedly reduce the total school expense by\nenabling many pupils to finish a high-school course a year sooner than they\notherwise would.\nF. Children in 111 Health. Ill health is undoubtedly the chief cause of\nretardation. The amount of instruction that is wasted because it falls upon\ndeaf ears or is spread before blind eyes or is presented to children of impaired\nvitality is too great to estimate. By far the larger share of those pupils found\nin the classes previously discussed are there primarily because of some impair-\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n363\n\nment of health. The great task for the schools should be not to establish\nspecial classes for those physically defective, but rather to prevent and correct\nthese physical defects and enable the children to remain in the regular grades.\nTo this task Boston is giving a great deal of attention. Eighty school physicians, under the board of health, make daily investigations of all cases of\ncontagious disease. Thirty-four school nurses are constantly employed in\nfinding and correcting all forms of physical defects. The entire department\nof school hygiene is giving its attention to improving the health of the children.\nEvery pupil is examined each year by the teachers for defects of eyesight and\nhearing. As a result of all these agencies thousands of children, who would\notherwise have been unable to profit by the instruction offered, have had\ndefects interfering with their education corrected or removed and are easily\ndoing the regular required work of the schools. All of these efforts have\nincreased the total cost of education, but to a far greater extent have they\nincreased the total product of the schools.\nG. Outdoor Classes. A special problem directly connected with the\ngeneral problem of the health of school children has been the outdoor class.\nIn January, 1909, the Park Commission granted to the School Committee\nthe use of two rooms and the roof of the refectory building in Franklin Park,\nand an outdoor class was opened there on January 18, 1909. The October\nprevious the School Committee had at the request of the Society for the Prevention and Control of Tuberculosis furnished a teacher for the children\nattending a camp conducted on Parker Hill by that society. The children\nattending this camp were transferred to the new school and the Society for\nthe Prevention and Control of Tuberculosis continued to conduct the medical\ninspection and to furnish proper nourishment at a nominal charge paid by\nthe children.\nNo pupil who has reached a contagious condition is admitted. In fact,\nit is probable that owing to the instruction in the open air and the careful\nmedical examination, there is less danger of contagion in these classes than\nthere is in the regular classes. A careful medical examination of each child\nis made by an expert every second week. The children who have attended\nhave shown marked and rapid improvement in health and a very large percentage ofthem were returned to the regular classes as cured.\nThe question of a permanent arrangement for the management of children\nof tubercular tendencies is manifestly one of the most important ones needing\nimmediate solution. The serious economic waste that may be prevented\nby saving the lives of these children is so great that the expenditure of all the\nmoney needed is justified. Evidently the problem is one in which the co-operation of the School Committee, with some agency of the city directly charged\nwith the care of health, is necessary, whereby medical inspection, including\nsuitable food when needed, may be supplied outside the School Committee\nfunds, leaving to the School Committee the task of supplying suitable instruction. Such an arrangement is now under discussion by the Board of Trustees\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof the Consumptive Hospital and the School Committee. The City Council\nhas approved the expenditure of a portion of the funds devoted to the use of\nthe Board of Trustees of the Consumptive Hospital for the purpose indicated above.\nH. Fresh-Air Rooms. Quite apart from those children who are properly\nhospital cases and those children who are suitable candidates for outdoor\nclasses, the schools should do something for many hundreds of aAaemic and\nsickly children for whom the conditions in overcrowded, and especially in\noverheated, schoolrooms are unfavorable. The Schoolhouse Commission\nhas been requested to provide each new building with fresh-air rooms, so\narranged that the heat may be shut off and the room filled with fresh outside\nair and flooded with sunlight. - In these rooms pupils who would benefit\nfrom more fresh air may be seated with slight additional administrative\ndifficulty and with no additional cost.\nIn this connection also it should be emphasized that teachers as a rule\nenjoy a higher temperature than is good for the children, and undoubtedly\nmany rooms are kept overheated to the very great injury of both health and\neducation of the children. Fewer colds and other illnesses, better discipline,\nand better work will result from a uniform temperature below seventy degrees\nthan from one above.\nTo wait until fresh-air rooms in new buildings are supplied in every\ndistrict would be to postpone the benefits of fresh-air instruction for some\ngenerations. Much can, however, be done under the present conditions.\nThe possibilities in any school are illustrated by an experiment conducted\nduring the present year by the principal of the Prescott School.\nWith the advice and assistance of the school physician and nurse, about\ntwenty children, who were thin, pale, anaemic, and repeatedly absent, were\nseated during pleasant weather in a cozy corner of the school yard, with\nportable desks, and under the charge of a special assistant. The regular\nwork of the classroom was carried on in this outdoor class. This arrangement relieved the most crowded rooms, and worked a most phenomenal\nchange in the condition of the children who are in this fresh-air class. The\naverage gain in weight in a month was over three pounds for the whole class —\nsome showing a gain of ten and eleven pounds. The regular teachers of\nthese children have remarked, with much surprise, upon the sudden appearance of unsuspected mental alertness, interest, and voluntary effort.\nSuch an arrangement can be readily made in any school. Its success\nis materially increased if each child is furnished at recess with a glass of hot\nmalted milk. Suitable arrangements have been made in the Franklin School\nwhereby this nourishment is^furnished at a nominal charge of ten cents per\nweek, paid by the children.\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nVI.\nLUTHER\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSTEP IN THE\n\nNEXT\n\nH. GULICK, RUSSELL\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n365\n\nINVESTIGATION\n\nSAGE FOUNDATION,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK, N. Y.\n\n[An Abstract]\n\nThe term ''exceptional children\" puts into a single category many kinds\nof children. That is, it is a classification by difference. Children are classified\nin this way because they differ from the normal.\nThe specific phase of the subject which is of interest to us is this: To what\nextent and in what ways is it the function of the public-school system, as such,\nto discover and provide for the education of exceptional children.\nThere does not appear to be any great difference of opinion as to the\nnecessity for the discovery of these children — the blind, the deaf, the tubercular, the verminous, the moral perverts, the semi-truants, the feeble-minded,\netc. — because they form a great drag upon and a menace to the progress of the\nregular work. The accomplishment of this result involves, first of all, skilled\nmedical inspection in co-operation with the observation of teacher an^ principal.\nThere is also an increasing experience tending to show that, inasmuch as\nthese children when adults should, and largely will, live among normal people,\nit is an advantage to have their education as far as possible conducted\namong normal children. Exceptions must be made of course in the cases of\nthose who are so perverted or defective mentally or morally that it will always\nbe a danger to the state to have them at large.\nTo bring about the desired action by the public schools it is necessary to\neducate public opinion. Thus we must have public meetings in our several\ncommunities, and see that they are adequately reported in the press; secure\nthe co-operation of the medical associations, the bar associations, the charity\norganizations, the women's clubs, and all organizations interested in civic\nwelfare. An active, persistent campaign of this kind in which the real conditions and needs are set forth will result in such appropriations and ordinances\nas will permit the work to be done.\nThe very term exceptional implies that the exceptional child needs exceptional treatment: first, for the sake of the rest of the children; second, for his\nown sake; third, for the sake of the community; and that it is the function of\nthe public school in large measure to provide such education.\nDISCUSSION\nI. C. McNeill, superintendent of schools, Memphis, Tenn. — In discussing the excellent paper which has been presented by Miss Jones, it is perhaps worth while to recall\nthe fact that delinquency is frequently an induced condition. Parents and teachers often\nmake delinquents of children by failing to observe the fundamental things and processes\nincident to growth and development. They make children hate books by forcing them to\nread before an interest in reading is aroused. By rushing them into arithmetical or grammatical analysis before their development warrants it, they are made to dislike the subjects.\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nPermanent aversion to school is the legitimate result of putting children at work on studies\nthey are not mature enough to apprehend. The method of presentation, however, often\ncounts for as much as maturity. Some teaching is so unscientific and consequently so\nspiritless that it would make most any child delinquent. \"The attempt to put high-school\nbranches into grammar grades or intermediate studies into primary grades gives the result\nthat Dr. B limber found in the training of Toots, who, 'when he had whiskers, left off having\nbrains.' \"\nThe best students of delinquents, so far as I have been able to get in touch with them,\nsay that in the solution of the treatment of exceptional children there is need of the co-operation of medical and educational science. Most states have institutions for feeble-minded\nchildren. These institutions are conducted by people who are trained scientifically for\nthe duties they assume. It happens, however, that for minor cases, such as suffer from\nslight physical defections, or for those who vary from the human type only to a small extent,\nthe burden of caring for them is put upon the public-school teacher, who has had little\nopportunity to build a philosophy of education which will cause the children of the low\nclasses of mentality and morality to move upward into higher classes. Too often we find\nthat delinquent children drag down the ordinary schools without receiving the expert individual attention which they so imperatively need.\nTheVriter of the paper justly insists that instruction is not the primary element in\nthe education of abnormal children. Educative agencies must look continuously to the\ncare of the physical and the emotional, as well as to the intellectual side of education. I\nquite agree that consistent regimen in mental exercises, in habits of life, in acts, sleep, etc.,\nare all to be considered in the treatment of exceptional children.\n\"Society suffers from elements which are unstable, erratic, shiftless, and inefficient.\nThese elements corrupt morals, lead to irrational modes of living, and swell the hosts of\nthe helpless and criminal who become the real burdens of society. Unless the delinquent\nclasses have the benefits of the kind of education which is adapted to their peculiar needs\nthey grow up among us and recruit the army of people who never fit anywhere. They fill\nthe poorhouses, the prisons, the asylums, and the slums.\" They produce and reproduce\ntheir kind and bring about a feeling of social unrest, which is growing in this complex age.\nMr. Morrison, who made a splendid study of juvenile offenders in England, has contributed items of great value for all who are interested in bettering social conditions. He\nfound in his investigation of hundreds of cases of children and youth that had to be put into\nreform schools or houses of detention or correction that in a large majority of instances the\nparentage was extremely unfortunate. He found that the children of unhealthy parentage*\nthe offspring of those who were not normal in their bodily structure, are liable to inherit\ndefective physical organization and have some corresponding mental twist which will be\nrevealed in excessive selfishness or in a lack of mental foresight. He found, too, that the\noffspring of criminals are liable to become criminal because a large percentage of criminals\nare biologically imperfect animals, and because the atmosphere of the criminal home or\ncommunity has a tremendous downpuU. He also came to see most clearly that it is\nextremely unfortunate for the child to have a weak-willed father or mother, or both. A\nfailure on the part of the home to exercise even and forceful discipline is a moral sin which\nhas put the curse of Cain and the stamp of Satan upon many a promising boy or girl. The\ntremendous force of this study is worthy our most careful consideration. When we realize\nthat the child of the wanton woman and the brutal, but healthy, father has a much better\nchance in life than has the child of the saintly, but feeble, mother, and the puny, but righteous, father we see the necessity of proper stress being put upon the physical end of education.\nWhen we realize that criminal parentage on either side puts a taint upon the character of\nthe infant thru the unseen and subtle influences that come from the suggestions in the\nenvironment of criminal homes, we face one of the great problems of humanity. Again,\nwhen we realize the baneful working of uneven discipline, growing out of weak-willed,\ninefficient parental government, we stand in the presence of another great problem.\nHow\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n367\n\ncan we impress fathers and mothers and teachers with the idea that weak and vacillating\ngovernment of children blasts their lives and makes them candidates for the ranks of the\nignoble ?\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON MORAL TRAINING\nTHE PUBLIC SCHOOLS:\nA REPORT OF PROGRESS\nTHE HOME\nJAMES\n\nM.\n\nGREENWOOD,\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nCHAIRMAN\n\nIN\n\nLIFE\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nKANSAS\n\nCITY,\n\nMO.,\n\n[An Abstract]\n\nEach exact science is based upon certain elementary principles, to wit, the\nmathematical, physical, biological, and other sciences, and it is thru the mastery\nof a few definite fundamental truths that the learner comes to a clear and unquestioning recognition of the abstract principles constituting any science; in\nthe moral sphere the child at first has no intuitions of the abstract principles\nof right and wrong, but as he grows in knowledge, the time is reached that when\nhe witnesses an act he feels it to be right or wrong, and he further decides that\nit is a good or bad act. It is from this norm, branching out in two different\ndirections, that the child begins his crude generalizations on moral questions.\nAs a result of this process of mental thinking and acting, a philosophy of conduct isestablished that becomes as valid to him in the moral sphere as are the\nfundamental principles of any other science to the student engaged in the\npursuit of any particular department of learning. Thus a constant repetition\nof virtuous acts grows into habit, habit develops into character, character\nmakes conduct, and conduct is the greatest part of active life in conformity\nto one's nature.\nAs a practical science, moral education, or ethics, relates to all kinds of deeds\nand habits of doing which concern one's self in relation to others, whether they\nbe in small or large groups. It is a matter of the highest importance that a\nchild at home should be trained into habits of right behavior in order to get\ncontrol of himself before he enters school.\nHow shall morals be taught ? There are many different ways of going at this\nsubject which will produce satisfactory results. The first lesson, however,\nshould be that of obedience, beginning with home training. Character is\nlargely made or unmade in the home life and what issues from it. Enumerating habits that should be taught to children at home and in school.\nMaking children over — heredity and environment. The teacher must deal\nwith human nature in its crude state and as it comes to school.\nThe school life and school habits still further emphasized. Why are children sent to school ? What the community life in the school represents. How\nit is related to the higher life. Good teaching a moral force. Testing the\nmoral judgments of children on practical experiments as they arise in school\nwork — a most valuable exercise.\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nMoral training in school and how it can be done — illustrated and teaching\nby contrast.\nA duty to work. Adherence to purpose and the choice of a special calling.\nAll actions should have a moral basis for their background.\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Alma L. Binzel, principal of Normal Training School, Brigham Young\nUniversity, Provo, Utah. — To ask and to answer questions about moral education is comparatively easy; the transformation of ideas into anything like general practice constitutes\nthe great difficulty.\nSince the time of Plato the three aspects of the moral phase of the educative process\nhave been variously stated, but in essence they are similar, for his terms of \"noble birth/'\n\"habituation,\" and \"rationalization\" mean respectively \"influence of good environment,\"\n\"formation of right habits of behavior,\" and \"instruction concerning the moral basis of\nall action.\"\nIn actual practice, difficulties set in at the very outset and continue to the end.\nIn how many homes today are the daily, hourly acts and attitudes of the parents fit\nmodels for the young to imitate ? In how many homes is there the sympathetic but persistent holding of the children to carefully chosen lines of action until they are established\nas habits ? In how many homes is there, when the occasion calls for it, clear and definite\ninstruction as to the why of commendation or condemnation of motives and actions ? Substituting the word \"school\" for \"home\" in the above questions might bring us somewhat\ndifferent returns, but would they be much more satisfactory ?\nIt is one thing to say that \"children should form, in the home, the right habits\nof behavior;\" it is quite another matter to set the influences at work to approximate that\nresult more universally. It is one thing to suggest that the school must not only supplement\nthe home training but often counteract it; it is another matter to produce the \"satisfactory\nresults\" suggested by the previous speaker so long as ethics is neither a prescribed nor an\nelective subject in the majority of training courses of each succeeding year's crop of teachers.\nGranted that \"good teaching has a positive moral value;\" that \"many school subjects\nhave a vital ethical content,\" and that, here and there,* well-organized courses in ethics are\nalready established while in still others intelligent experiments are being carried out —\ngranted all this, is it not true that the school world is slower than it should be in taking hold\nof the matter? The conscious direction of the educative process is the business of the\nschool, but in the matters of moral training procrastination seems to be its policy, for year\nafter year there are turned out those who soon are to become teachers either in the home\nor the schoolroom without any special training for the work.\nI believe that there is available, at the present time, a body of literature upon moral\neducation that should come into the experience of young people so that they may become\nmore thoughtful concerning matters of conduct.\nWith the younger children this work should be done thru the medium of oral presentation and thought-provoking discussions. At least two fairly definite lines of work should\nbe carried on: one, the so-called incidental teaching growing out of the problems involved\nin the children's actual behavior and in the literary and historical subject-matter which\nconstitutes part of the regular school course; the other the presentation of ideals of conduct,\nof ethical standards or principles which, thru discussion and illustration within the comprehension of the children, will sensitize, make thoughtful, and hence prepare for occasions\nwhich teachers, intelligent concerning growing child nature, know will be certain to arise.\nThis sometimes so-called \"formal\" instruction in morals meets, among those who have\nusually depended upon the incidental teaching, with opposition; among those who have\nexperimented with it, with approval. Granted that the schools without it have been a force\nfor moral upKft of people, there, still remains the question whether they would not be more\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n369\n\neffective with it. Why in this branch of human experience should we hesitate to look at\nchildren's possible near-future motives and acts ? Confinement to that which has already\nhappened is limiting in this, as in other subjects of vital interest to growing individuals.\nThat the incidental teaching alone is insufficient cannot be denied when we stop to\nrecall how many home and school teachers of children possess hazy, indefinite ideas of the\nmoral principles; who are not sensitive enough to distinguish between the conventionally\nand the truly good in practice. Take, for example, obedience. How many teachers and\nparents see the good of obedience to the child's self as a higher one than obedience to their\ncommands and wishes ? How many of them realize that in a seemingly great act of disobedience there is only that which is recognized as the highest and best that self can conceive ? Luther's break with the church, or Elizabeth Barrett's refusal to yield to the whims\nof her father illustrates the point in question.\nAgain, how many teachers and parents have clearly in mind that the fine art of truthspeaking involves consideration by the speaker of his own intention regarding the conveying\nof an impression and the attitude of his listener ?\nIt is just because these and other fundamental moral ideas are hazy and indefinite\nin many grown-ups today, that those of us who have experimented with both the so-called\nincidental and the formal lines of work feel that the one supplements the other, and that\nuntil we of the school-world take up this matter in greater earnestness and open-mindness\nwe must be open to the charge of ignoring our opportunities.\nHenry B. Brown, president of Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Ind. — One of the\ngreat problems which educators must solve is not whether morals shall be taught in our\npublic schools — practically all concede this — but how shall they be taught ? So closely\nare moral training and religious training connected that when we speak of teaching morals\nin the public schools we think of teaching religion in the public schools; and some who are\nignorant of the real functions of religion take it to mean theology. The teaching of theology— not religion — was really what caused a suspension of moral, or religious, training\nin the public schools.\nNot many years ago when the divisions in the various religious bodies were more\nmarked than they are now, the particular doctrines — not religion — of a church were taught\nThis finally became so repulsive that for a time teachers were afraid to speak of religion or\nmorals in connection with the schools lest in some way they might give offense. The difficulty was not in religious teaching, but in doctrinal teaching. Real moral training, or\nreligious training, was forgotten in the fanatical zeal for the furtherance of some particular\ndoctrine.\nThat the product of the public school, or college, or university, is not nor ever will\nbe all it should be, yet that pupils do come out of the public school, college, or university with less of moral training each succeeding year, cannot be questioned. Fraternities,\nGreek-letter societies, Y. M. C. A.'s, and Y. W. C. A.'s have gotten too far from their\noriginal purpose and usefulness and are becoming mere social organizations. Formerly\nthey were powerful factors for the good of the school with which they were connected.\nNow too many of them are originators of a factional spirit — \"sowers of discord among the\nbrethren.\"\nThe same spirit as is found in the colleges and universities prevails in the public schools,\nchildren being imitators. The result of the high-school fraternities or societies has been\ndisorder to such an extent as to destroy government and thus destroy the usefulness of the\nschools. Many a president of a university or superintendent of a public school has spent\nsleepless nights trying to discover some remedy for this disorder, when he should have\nbeen giving his mind rest for the exacting duties that necessarily come to him daily.\n• I am not saying that the public schools are so corrupt, nor am I saying that secret\nsocieties should be abandoned, but I am saying that they should go back to their original\nprinciples and that for which they were established — the uplifting and upbuilding of charac-\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "370\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nter among themselves and the schools. I am not a pessimist; I have great faith in the\nyoung people and their organizations, and I believe when the educators do their duty the\nyounger generation will not be slow in becoming helpers and guardians of the peace and all\nthat goes to the betterment of humanity.\nThe Y. M. C. A. is too rapidly becoming a rich-man's club. The unfortunate, the\nweak, those who need help, are not welcomed. Those who can already take care of themselves and who perhaps do not need the Association are the ones who are sought after and\naccepted, and given the \"first seats\" in the public places. In the early history of our popular games — ^football, baseball, tennis, etc. — fair play and honesty were requisites; and so\nlong as these were dominant features the games were respected and those who engaged in\nthem were considered the most fair and honorable among their fellows. They were chosen\nbecause of their honesty in their studies and it was not uncommon to hear the remark that\nthe member of the football team had an average of higher credits than any others in\nthe school. Gradually, however, these elements dropped out and now it is a question\nith many of our universities, colleges, and public schools whether these games shall be\ntolerated. I am not arguing against athletics, but am saying that if these games shall\ncontinue, those who engage in them must return to the original idea of fairness and\nhonesty.\nWe are responsible for this low standard of morals. Whatever we may think about it\nwe cannot evade the responsibility. We assume the positions as superintendents, presidents, and teachers and we must assume the attendant responsibility. If we are unwilling\nto do this we should step aside and give place to those who will do so. No one who seeks\na position should complain if the duties connected with the position are exacting — he accepts\nthem by accepting the place. The man who is elected to a position of trust and then complains because of the hard work is not worthy of the place.\nMorals and religious training, while they may have different sources, are yet in a measure co-ordinate and must be taught in the public schools — \"taught,\" I mean all the word\nimplies. The teaching of morals must not only be permitted, but it must be required, and\nno course of study should be complete without having as one of its subjects the teaching\nof morals; and the course must be marked out and followed just the same as in other subjects. We are accountable for the future value of the children to society. We mold their\ncharacters, and whether these children grow up to men or women of beautiful or hateful\ncharacters depends upon us. We cannot shirk the responsibility. We are already, I\nbelieve, ready to assume this responsibility and it should not be deferred longer. This\nAssociation by its own actions has put itself on record as being ready to assume any responsibility that comes to it. Every day the children are getting farther and farther away from\nus. The movement is at hand and, like all other great movements, the people will take hold\nof it and, when they do, its purpose will be accomplished. The great convention at London formulated an outline for the progressive teaching of morals in the public schools.\nScarcely has there been, during the past few years, an educational, religious, or any other\ngreat gathering where this question has not been prominent. The child must have moral\nprinciples instilled into his very nature and at the most receptive period if he would retain\nthem. People are rapidly becoming educated in this matter and let us help them to see\nthat what we want to teach in the public schools is not theology, but the princples of morals,\nor religion — sincerity, truth, honesty, unselfishness, charity, neighborliness, and hosts of\nother things which make for character and good citizenship.\nI am not opposed to theology or Christianity. Christ said, \"I am the truth,\" and\nagain he said, \"The truth shall make you free.\" In other words it shall cause us to stand\nagainst temptation. It shall place us all, morally and religiously, in the proper light before\nthe God who rules all things and always gives safe direction.\nJames M. Green, principal of the State Normal and Model Schools, Trenton, N. J.—\nIt is conceded by all that good character is the highest result of education, therefore any\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n371\n\nmodification of our educational system that will bring an increased result in good character\nis to be desired.\nAll discussions of morals, ethics, religion, and so forth, are confronted with the fact\nthat there is no settled definition of what constitutes either of these qualities. Morality\nto one person does not mean the same thing that it does to another. Religion to one person\ndoes not mean the same thing that it means to another. The strong denominationalist\noften means by religion his own peculiar creed, and is willing to condemn anything that\ndiffers with his view as irreligious. I think, however, all will agree that the essence of\nmorals or religion is a quality of mind, is really an attribute of mind, and expresses itself\nin an attitude toward subjects of whatever nature. It is a serious question whether or\nnot we can lay out a graded series of lessons, the object of which is to produce an attitude\nof mind toward all problems.\nIf we are to teach the children that certain things are right and certain things are wrong\nwe must first determine ourselves what things are right, and what are wrong. When we\nundertake to do this we find that the problem is difficult; for instance, as moral questions — •\nShould the truth be spoken at all times ? Should one person ever strike another ? The\nanswer to such questions as these depends upon motives, and depends upon them in such a\nway that it seems impossible to answer the question correctly or in a reliable way excepting\nas related to an incident. If a person, for instance, were about to step in front of an\napproaching car it would be quite right to strike him back, or if he were about to inflict\nan injury on an innocent person weaker than himself, it would be right to strike him unless\nan officer could be brought to arrest him.\nI am acquainted with a number of men who have been concerned for some time with\nthe question. What is religion ? Is it a rule of life, or a form of worship ? If it is a rule of\nhfe, how is it determined ? Is it done by the Bible alone, or by following the light of\nthe best we have, either thru divine teaching or the writings and teachings of men ?\nThe old-fashioned conception of a school was that there were certain things that children needed to know, such as the art of measuring or number; the art of correct speaking;\ncertain elementary rules or laws of social organization, as developed in what was termed\nhistory; certain rules of hygiene; certain social conventions, etc., and that these things\ncould be learned best and most economically by gathering the children together in the school\nin a copartnership. W^hen the children came together incidents of moral instruction would\narise; for instance, one child would impose upon another by taking from him his book or\nslate. This would be the occasion for his correction — the incident of the moral lesson.\nThe child would be corrected and perhaps told that he was wrong, but not given a theory\nof ethics. He was led to see that what he did if done by others would make all unhappy.\nOut of this incidental instruction was built up or collected the material that served later\non as the basis for formal ethical teaching.\nI confess I yet have the feeling that this is the truest way. It is quite likely that many\npeople have been neglectful of exercising as much of the means of self -development on the\npart of the children, such as the formation of sanitary organizations, little self-government\ngroups, and so forth, as they might, and yet even these formations would seem best as suggested byincidents rather than by prearranged plan.\nIn glancing over Dr. Greenwood's arrangement for grades, I am impressed with the\nlanguage; for instance, for the second grade, where the children are presumably six years\nold, we find: \" No. 4, Truthfulness. Meaning of truthfulness; ways persons can tell truth\nor falsehood; training; correct statements; measuring to find out truth; not guessing at\n. answers to questions; teachers should make it easy for children to tell the truth.\" Please\nbear in mind that this is for children of the second grade, that is, six years old. Again;\n\npass and collect materials; help janitor by folding\nErase blackboards;\nHelpfulness.\nk\"\nseats; how children may be helpful at home and at school; how they may help to keep the\ncity clean.\"\n'^Patriotism.\nFlag salute.\"\nThese things do not sound to me like lessons for six-year-old children.\nThey sound\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nto'me'like the composition of one who had set out to compose the things that should come\ninto a^moral^life somewhere.\nI am under the impression that the schools of the past have done more than any other\ninstitutions to build up the moral character of the country. I am of the opinion that the\nschools of the future can do more than the schools of the past have done. It seems to me\nthat this greater work is to be done rather in finding more essential things to be taught than\nin a graded scheme of morals. For instance, science is bringing to light, thru the aid of\ninvestigation and study, social practices that need correction — practices on which the schools\nhave been largely silent. Wherever evils of this nature are demonstrated to be of sufficient importance to receive the attention of the public, they should be brought into the\ncurriculum at some place or in connection with some subject.\nThe schools have been almost silent on fundamental questions of economics — I mean,\nthe elementary schools. This was but natural, as the knowledge of the elementary principles of economics was not at all common, but as learning is increasing it is coming to be\nthe case that many teachers are sufficiently familiar with elementary economic problems\nto teach them — the problems, for instance, of the tenement district, or the spending of money\nfor things that do not bring a productive return.\nIn the very nature of things, all matters of this kind must come into the curriculum at\nsome appropriate place and in some appropriate way, but as pupils below the grade of the\nscience of these subjects are so much dependent on incident for their understanding, I\nam very doubtful of the success of a formal graded series of lessons.\nWilliam H. Bartholomew, principal of Girls' High School, Louisville, Ky. — Moral\ntraining cannot be dispensed with in the methods which are employed in the instruction\nand training of the youth. The lack of fair dealing in trade and the absence of moral\nmotives in the performance of professional and social obligations indicate that t^ie moral\nendowments of our youth must, from this time forth, receive such an impetus and strength\nas will change the present status of moral indifference and neglect.\nThe foundation upon which all moral training must rest is authority, and such authority must be free from errors of any kind. It must be inspired by infinite love, which\noperates according to the ability of the individual and for his betterment. The commands\nof such a Being are not dogmatic but they are natural and reasonable, and he who is exercised thereby finds the same to be superbly true. Obedience to all His commands is the\nbeginning of moral training. Loyal respect to His commands at once establishes a universal standard which applies equally to the rich and poor, the high and low, and removes\nthe many standards which men have set up.\nThis divine standard is subject to no variations but it is the same yesterday, today,\nand forever, for its Author is omniscient and omnipotent.\nTherefore, He directs men into\nthe way which leads to those high moral standards of excellence which are approved by.\nGod and men.\nThis doctrine should be faithfully taught, for without its acceptance characr\nter is weak and unreliable in the midst of temptations.\nDr. McCosh said, in treating the conscience — \"the moral faculty in man\" — that it is\nnot infallible, but that it looks up for light, and it sees that there is such a light. Hence, it\nfollows that all moral training which excludes divine wisdom will have a sandy foundation\nand its dissemination will sow the seeds of disintegration in the hearts of men which cause\ntheir moral ruin.\nMy exhortation is the recognition of the necessity of taking God into our confidence\nin our efforts to train the wills of our children so that they may grow into stalwart, moral\nmen, reverencing God and loving their fellow-men. We should lay hold of every opportunity to emphasize by example the beautiful and useful principles of right thinking and right\nliving, or in other words follow the Golden Rule.\nThe survival of the unfittest should be our slogan, that is, the training of the unfittest\nto that high and honorable degree of citizenship by which they will love to exercise with\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nCULTURE\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n373\n\nconscientious fidelity its duties and responsibilities. \"Not by might nor by power but by\nmy word,\" saith the Lord.\nAs to the direful results which will follow our failure to impress the doctrine of moral\ntraining, I am reminded of the story of the snake-charmer who possessed a boa-constrictor\nwhich for some time he controlled; but upon a certain occasion before a large audience\nthe boa became unmanageable and wound itself around the body of the charmer and\ncrushed him to death. So it will be with our beloved country. If we do not control the\nvicious tendencies of our boys, they will be crushed to death by their relentless fury.\nGod forgive us, lest we forget I\n\nREPORT\n\nJAMES\n\nOF PROGRESS BY THE COMMITTEE ON\nCULTURE ELEMENT AND ECONOMY OF\nTIME IN EDUCATION\nH.\n\nBAKER,\n\nPRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY\nBOULDER,\nCOLO.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOLORADO\n\nLast year a preliminary report was made on \"The Need of an Investigation\nof the Culture Element and Economy of Time in Education\" with the conclusion that, judging from the facts and opinions gathered, such an investigation would be warranted; and the Council adopted the recommendation and\nincreased the committee to five members.\nThe committee is as follows:\nJames H. Baker, president of the University of Colorado, Chairman.\nJames H. Van Sickle, superintendent of Baltimore schools.\nWilliam H. Smiley, principal of Denver High School, East Side.\nHenry Suzzallo, professor of the Philosophy of Education, Teachers\nCollege, Columbia University.\nAlbion W. Small, professor of sociology, the University of Chicago.\nLast year by error the subject was printed on the program, ''The Culture\nElement in Education;\" this year it reads \" The Culture Element and Economy\nof Time in Education;\" next year it will probably read \"Economy of Time\nin Education;\" and the next year (for it will probably require two or three\nyears to complete this report) it may read \"The Reorganization of American\nEducation.\"\nThe printing of the material for the use of the committee, which was\ngathered last year, was delayed for various causes and has been available not\nmore than two or three months, hence we can only report progress. The work\nof the committee is divided as follows: Superintendent Van Sickle makes a\npreliminary investigation of the problem as related to elementary education;\nPrincipal Smiley takes secondary education; President Baker, the college as\nrelated to elementary and secondary education, and to the other departments\nof the university; Professor Suzzallo, the view of the \"philosophy of education;\"\nProfessor Small, the sociological view, relating the whole subject to the just\ndemands of our civilization today. Each member of the committee places\nthe printed material in the hands of a number of coworkers selected by himself and invites their co-operation in furnishing facts, experience, and opinions.\nAfter the report from each member is in the hands of the chairman, a report\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof the committee as a whole will be formulated for discussion and final conclusions.\nI may as well state frankly the thesis which is in mind (you will recall that\nyou humorously offered a price to learn what was in my mind on this subject).\nIt is this: That in the entire period of general education two years can be\nsaved, without loss of anything essential in culture, efficiency, or charactermaking — this thesis to be proved or disproved. The majority of the opinions\nreceived last year expressed such views as these: ''Sweep away all rubbish;\"\n\"abolish mechanical methods;\" ''do not try to teach everything that is good;\"\n\"make a distinction between first-rate subjects and facts and tenth-rate;\"\n\"do not teach all subjects, disciplinary and inspirational, aclike.\" • May I\nrepeat here the summary in last year's report on waste and methods of saving\ntime in elementary education, since we cannot impress these views, the subject\nof our investigation, too often:\nTime is wasted by —\nLack of medical inspection of school children.\"\n\" Unmotivated and ineffective reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography.\"\n\"Covering unimportant and unpractical topics.\"\nNeedless multiplication of the subjects taught.\"\nHopelessly expending energies upon non-essentials.\"\n\"Scattering of pupil resources.\"\nRoutine practice, odds and ends, 'fads and frills' generally.\"\n\" Lack of great, strong, enthusiastic, educated teachers.\"\nLack of enlightenment regarding the ideals at which education aims.\"\nTime can be shortened by —\nMore careful pruning of the elementary program of study.\"\n\"Making distinction between first-rate facts and principles and tenth-rate.\"\n\"Casting out worthless rubbish.\"\n■Not trying to teach everything that is good.\"\n\"Sticking to the elements of the subject.\"\n''Pruning and vitalizing subject-matter.\"\nConfining period of elementary education to mastering the tools of education.\"\n\"Not overemphasizing military and political details in history.\"\nPutting less time on formal reviews.\"\n'Not teaching content studies with the method suitable to the formal subjects.\"\n'Fitting the course of study to the individual.\"\nFollowing social and concrete interests.\"\nUsing industrial or manual training to vitalize academic instruction.\"\n■Teaching children relations of what they are doing to ends that they desire to reach.\"\nSeparating the brighter pupils destined to a profession and securing concentration\nand continuous progress.\"\n\"Introducing secondary-school work in the higher grades.\"\nBeginning the study of foreign languages, elementary algebra, constructive geometry,\nand elementary science, thus saving one or two years of the high school.\"\n\nOn the question of teaching all subjects by the same method in the high\nschool may I quote from the resolutions of the High-School Conference held at\nthe University of Colorado last spring. The points are very pertinent to our\ninquiry:\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nCULTURE\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n375\n\nWhereas, The various studies of the high-school curriculum fdiflfer in respect to the\npurpose for which they are taught and to their functions, and\nWhereas, The usual practice in high schools now is to teach all subjects without any\ndifferentiation in method with respect to function and purpose, be it\nResolved, That it is the sense of this body that such a differentiation in method should\nbe made; that certain studies should be taught intensively to the end of producing definite\npowers and abilities; and that content subjects should not be taught with the methods\nsuitable to formal subjects, but should be taught to the end of inspiration, producing equivalent results with a smaller expenditure of time and energy; and that this may be done,\nbe it further\nResolved, That it is the sense of this body that the present unit system, with its insistence upon mathematical measurement of inspirational result, and its tendency toward\nmechanization of method, is unsatisfactory, and that some modification is desirable.\n\nSuperintendent Van Sickle and Principal Smiley will make reports of\nprogress at this session. I will close by referring to the line of inquiry I am\npursuing for the college. Since we need to keep clearly in mind the subject\nof the inquiry, I will quote from last year's report the scheme advocated by\none-half to two-thirds of the correspondents replying to our questionnaire.\nThis scheme is as follows:\n1. To end college work with the sophomore year but allow four years as now for the\nA.B. degree.\n2. To let university work — work that gives scientific power — begin at the junior year\nwith groups leading to the various professional degrees or the Ph.D. degree, the last two\nyears of college counting toward those degrees.\n3. To require two years of college for admission to all professional schools.\n4. To complete the professional work or Ph.D. work in two years more or six years\nafter college entrance.\n5. To let the college do the first two years of the professional work instead of allowing the professional school, as now in many cases, to do the last two years of college\nwork.\n6. To consider the possibility of advantageously building the engineering school upon\nthe first two years of college.\n\nIt must be remembered that since the early New England college we have\nadded nearly eight years to our period of general and special education, that\neight years are given to high school and college with much repetition of subject and method, and that these facts, with others, call for a re-examination\nof our whole plan of American education. In the University of Colorado the\nfaculty have spent two years in reorganizing the College of Arts' courses and,\nwhile there are no new elements, perhaps the scheme of organization is somewhat different from any found elsewhere. We regard unlimited election as a\ndemonstrated failure. The first two years of college, while giving the student\na choice between classics, mathematics, and various sciences, require certain\nsubjects, such as English, literature, history, economics, psychology. In the\nlast two years the student must elect some group that will give a more definite\nknowledge of something — to the end of efficiency, and strong character, without loss of culture — rather a deepening of culture by better methods. These\ngroups include in the last two years the following:\n\nI\n\nI. Division of Letters: 6 groups.\nII. Division of Sciences: 7 groups.\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "376\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIII. Division of Philosophy: 3 groups.\nIV. Division of History and Economics: 2 groups.\nWith the same general purpose in view, but elaborately carried out, the College of\nCommerce and the College of Education have been established.\nV. Division of Commerce, organized as the College of Commerce: 4 groups as follows:\n(i) Banking; (2) Manufacturing: (3) Journalism; (4) Trade, Transportation, Consular\nService.\nVI. Division of Education, organized as the College of Education: a professional\ngroup, and groups corresponding to those of the College of Liberal Arts.\nHere may also be noted the arrangement for obtaining two degrees in six years by\ncrediting courses in the professional schools as a substitute for the groups and electives of\nthe last two years — an extension of the group system.\nVII. Engineering Subjects: equivalent of two years.\nVIII. Law Subjects: equivalent of one year.\nIX. Medical Subjects: equivalent of two years.\n\nTo show the trend of thought in this country, and as a contribution to our\ninvestigation, I quote from the report of the committee of the National Association ofState Universities on \"Standardizing,\" the report being unanimously\nadopted:\nPresent tendencies point, in our opinion, then, to a definite differentiation in the work\nof the college at the close of the sophomore year toward university work in the real sense.\nIf these views are just, we suggest the following formulation of principles underlying the\norganization of such an institution, and we may define the standard American university\nto be an institution —\nWhich offers in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences two years of general or liberal\nwork completing or supplementing the work of the high school;\nWhich offers a further course of two years so arranged that the student may begin work\nof university character leading to the Bachelor's degree at the end, and reaching forward\nto the continuation of this work in the graduate school or the professional school.\nIn recommending that university work begin with the junior year of the college and\nthat the professional schools be based on the first two years of college, the report is in line\nwith present tendencies. It is in accord with the growing belief that the work of the last\ntwo years of college should be organized into groups that aim at more definite results, and\nlead to greater efficiency. But this is only the first of many problems. We are facing\nquestions of the time beyond the junior year for attaining the Ph.D degree, of adjusting\nthe scheme of counting the last two years toward both arts and professional degrees, of\nthe place of the A.B. degree, of the age when the period of general education should end,\nand of a possible reorganization of elementary and secondary education. But these questions are not ready for solution and hardly belong to the work of the committee at the present\ntime.\n\nNow may I prophesy regarding the next step in the revision of the period of\ngeneral education ? When the elementary schools, and the high school, and\nthe first two years of the college, by economy of time, material, and method, can\naccomplish as much or more up to the junior year than is now accomplished\nup to the end of the senior year, the last two years of college will be made to\ncount toward graduate and professional degrees and two years in the whole\nperiod of general education will be saved; and all professional courses will be\nbuilt on the first two years of the college. I cannot, of course, predict that the\ncommittee will finally reach this conclusion in their report, for this is a vital\npart of their inquiry.\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nCULTURE\n\nELEMENT\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\n377\n\nTHE NEED OF AN INVESTIGATION OF THE CULTURE\nELEMENT AND ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION\nAS RELATED TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS\nWILLIAM\n\nH.\n\nSMILEY,\n\nPRINCIPAL\nDENVER,\n\nOF EAST\nCOLO.\n\nSIDE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe response to my request for a critical examination of the material\ngathered by President Baker for his preliminary report in 1908 has been most\ncordial and generous. Again, no uncertain note is sounded as to the timeliness of such inquiry, as to the necessity of a new definition of culture, as to the\nwaste and retardation that affects educational progress at different stages,\nand as to existing causes for the same. During the year, the chorus of dissatisfaction with the results of our educational system from the lay- world, as well\nas from members of our own profession, has grown louder and louder. The\nDepartment of Superintendence, at its meeting in February last, showed its\nrespect for the weight of such criticism by devoting the larger part of its time\nto the discussion of \"The Elimination of Waste in School Work;\" \"The Relation of the High School to the Community and the College;\" \"The Articulation of the Higher Institutions with Secondary Schools,\" and \"Vocation\nTraining in Its Relation to Industrial Education \" — all topics of vital importance to this investigation.\nWithin the last few weeks we have heard A. Lawrence Lowell, the new\npresident of Harvard, declaring\nNo member of a faculty is satisfied with the respect in which scholarship is held by\nthe great body of college students today;\n\nand Woodrow Wilson asserting\nThere has been a growing disposition to look upon a university as a finishing-oflF school\nfor young men, a sort of varnishing room, where a young man may be coated, more or less\nthinly, with a veneer and polish, and hung up to dry and be admired and looked up to by\nhis fellows as one who merely has been thru college;\n\nand further:\nThe University, so far as the faculty is concerned, does not control in any vital educational way the measure of student thought that it must control in order to fulfill its purpose.\n\nIt augurs well for the future that the whole educational world is sitting up\nand taking notice of such outspoken frankness with no trace of smug satisfaction, but facing with serious concern its tremendous task of shaping educational institutions to the complex need of this vast democracy.\nPersonally, I have been convinced for years that, even under most favorable\nconditions in both school and college, the deadly inertia of the indifferent or\nthe weak, from lowest grade to highest, has been paralyzing to scholarly\nstandards both in the teaching body and in the student body. Consequently,\nI view with satisfaction the turning of the tide of sentiment toward the problem\nof discovering and saving the scholar, and of finding and providing for others\neducational paths that lead to efficient activities. I venture to predict that\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nvocational training is bound to be the educational sieve that will give just opportunity to all classes of students, and bring them earlier to self-responsible,\nefficient use of such capacity as by inheritance they may possess.\nThere is a consensus of opinion that time can be saved both in the elementary and in the high school. Superintendent Kennedy, speaking of the\nelementary school — but his words in my experience apply just as truly to the\nhigh school — says:\nThe elementary course might be shortened from one to two years, not so much by cutting the curriculum as by getting work done.\n\nSeveral emphasize the fact that the children of the elementary school should\nsecure the habits that are the tools of education, and that the complaint of\nlack of accuracy and power of concentration is probably just. If this be true,\nit means, as we all know, slow, laborious, inefficient work in later years.\nAt the period of adolescence nearly all that the schools have given the child is sloughed\noff, except habits; they remain to help or hinder as the case may be.\n\nSo says Principal Armstrong of the Englewood High School of Chicago,\nand he suggests a division of the educational period into four typical schools,\nwith which suggestion others, who believe in an earlier beginning of the secondary-school period for the sake of securing a more economic use of time, substantially agree. His division of the earlier years would be as follows:\n1. The play-type or kindergarten (5 to 7 years old).\n2. The motor-type or elementary school (7 to 12 years old), where habits are to be\ntaught.\n3. Intermediate-type (12 to 14 years old).\n4. Secondary-school type (14 to 18 years old).\n\nPerhaps Principal Armstrong's wisest suggestion, the outcome of his\nexperience, is that regarding this intermediate type of school:\nChildren at twelve to fourteen should be isolated from the younger and from the more\nmature pupils, in order to accord them proper environment for their peculiar condition.\nI believe this can be done in all our city schools by creating an intermediate school that\nwould include the eighth grade and the first year of high school. I would not have them\ntaught in separate buildings remote from the other sex, for then the social influence would\nbe lost. The result, so far, is the general feeling of all concerned that pupils and teachers\nunderstand each other better than before. One-fourth more boys return to school than\nformerly, and the scholarship of the boy is greatly improved.\n\nThe domination of college-entrance requirements as hampering the efforts\nof the strongest teachers by forcing them to keep everlastingly before students,\nas a standard, a quantitative covering of ground, regardless of quality of performance, isfrequently referred to. President Atkinson, of the Brooklyn\nPolytechnic, declares that a man should start on his professional course by the\ntime he is twenty; at least, he should be no older than twenty-one.\nHe says:\nI used to think that our secondary-school instruction was becoming more real, more\nindividual, less mechanical. The great increase in college requirements the past few years\nhas, however, prevented real reform. The secondary school needs a freer hand if it is to\ndo efl5cient work of real culture value, which will develop responsible character.\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCULTURE\n\nELEMENT\n\nAND\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\n379\n\nThe colleges ask for trained and efficient power in the students we send\nthem. There are very few high-school principals who do not believe that we\nwould send forth a better product if we felt freer to lay our own emphasis upon\ntopic and method of work, unfettered by the formal, quantitative minuteness\nof the present specification of units. I sincerely believe that the teacher should\nhave an absolutely free hand in the use of, at least, a third of the prescribed\ntime; but under present conditions of quality of student, and quantity of\nprescription, the ground in most subjects cannot be covered by the average\npupil, except in a most superficial and unsatisfactory way.\nThe weight of argument in my correspondence is overwhelmingly against\nthe vocational or technical training of secondary-school students in separate\nschools, for fear of circumscribing opportunity in even the slightest degree, of\nforming classes, and thereby abandoning true democracy. Dr. William S.\nSutton, of the Uijiversity of Texas, declares\nShould the Council help to settle sanely the problem of the place and function of vocational studies, various plans for peasantizing the common schools vi^ould no longer find\ninfluential advocates and more than one educational leader would be induced to revise his\ntheory and change his practice.\n\nThe source, however, from which came a communication that seemed to\nme to have the broadest, fullest, and freest conception of the possible unity of\nour national education, was the University of California. May I, therefore,\nbe pardoned, if I seem to slight the valuable contributions of many others,\nby extended quotation from Dr. Lange's striking sketch of the Californian\nsituation :\nThe question is no longer, Shall the high school live unto itself? but, How shall it\nlive with its neighbors on either side ? Of what sort must the interschool railway be that\nall may travel for their health, some to the end, others to intermediate terminals, always\nwith stopover privileges ? Education must become more continuous, not mechanically\nbut organically. The sixteen or more grades of our school system must come to stand\napproximately for as many adaptations to unbroken growth. The educational edifice\nerected by the nineteenth century still resembles too closely an irregular pyramid of three\nboxes, the tops and bottoms of which are perforated in order that the more acrobatic pupils\nmay vault from the known into the unknown, and their teachers above and below may\nexchange maledictions. The twentieth century cannot accept this arrangement as finak\nThe structure as seen from the outside may well remain intact; but the provisional tops and\nbottoms inside must be refitted, if not removed. Now, one essential in preparing for this\ntask is to realize that adolescence begins at least two years earlier and ends about two\nyears later than the inherited accidental high-school period. Divested of artificial meanings,\nsecondary education is seen to cover not less than eight grades instead of four. Another\nessential is, of course, to act on this insight. A high-school section is a physiological\nanachronism until its circumference is extended to include teachers of the upper grammar\nand of the first two college grades.\nThe very heart of liberal culture, from the viewpoint of democracy, demands nowadays\na trinity of developed senses — a vivid historic sense, the scientific evolutional sense, and a\npractical economic sense. It implies that neither those who can and will prolong their\nschool careers, nor those who must cut them short, should be deprived of the chance to get\nand keep in active, intelligent, sympathetic touch with the work and the workers of our\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\n380\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nJ ION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[National\n\nfarms, our industries, our commerce. Accordingly, no high school is fully adequate in its\ncultural purposes until it has a department of agriculture, or of commerce, or of the mechanical and domestic arts, a department accessible not only to the incurables but to every student, adepartment in charge of teachers every whit as broadly and thoroly trained and as\ncivilized as those of other departments — ought to be. Sweetness and light in overalls is a\nperfectly feasible and very effective combination. That society commits suicide which\ndoes not furnish the means whereby the boys and girls, who for any reason cannot go far\nbeyond the grammar grades, may become trained, self-supporting, self-respecting workers.\nIn the interest, however, of both the individual and of the common weal, our educational expansion must be guided by three principles: First, no technical school must be\nso narrow in aim and scope as to cheat the pupil out of his heritage of race culture\nas embodied in language and the institutional achievements of his people. Second, no\ncultural high school must be allowed to become so narrow in aim and scope as to deprive its\npupils of the opportunity of acquiring the economic sense and of finding themselves and\ntheir fellow-men by many-sided doing, related directly at some point or other to the business, or the tigriculture, or the industries of the nation. Third, other things being equal,\nthe surest guarantee of living together in the bonds of peace and of advancing together on\nthe road of national destiny is the coeducation of all sorts and conditions of young people,\nand the longer they can be kept together the better for them and the general welfare when\ntheir turn comes to constitute the people, the state.\n\nIn closing, I would add that, just as the university is now organizing groups\nof subjects with a central core that leads with definite aim to vital concrete\nend, so should high-school administration seek to vitalize the purposes of its\nstudents around diverse interests that quicken ambition, and invite that kind\nof initiative which we teachers know to be the best and surest way of opening\nstudent eyes to the foundation value of some forms of abstract knowledge\nwhich in their blindness, at times, they so desperately shun. We need have\nno fear of the loss of culture when high schools shall be thus organized and\nthus administered.\nTHE\nAUGUSTUS\n\nMEANING\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\nELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\nS. DOWNING,\n\nFIRST ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER\nALBANY,\nN. Y.\n\nOF\n\nTO THE\nEDUCATION,\n\nThe widespread discussion of industrial and vocational education, at public\nexpense and under public control, justifies us in assuming that the traditional\ncourse of study for liberal education in the elementary school is to be seriously\naffected. Leaders in education have persistently combated any tendency to\nregard the primary function of the elementary school to be that of directly\nfitting the child to earn his livelihood. They argue that it is at the best difficult\nto get for large numbers of people even the beginnings of cultural education,\nand they are determined to see a conflict between the purpose of the old and\nlong-established program of studies and that of the proposed program. President Butler to my mind cleared the air and concisely stated this phase of the\nquestion when he said, \"It will be a grave error to set vocational training and\nliberal training in sharp antagonism to each other. The purpose of the former\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n381\n\nis to pave the way to some appreciation of the latter, and provide an economic\nbase for it to rest upon. The equally grave error of the past has been to frame\na school course on the hypothesis that every pupil was to go forward in the\nmost deliberate and amplest fashion to the study of the products of the intellectual life, regardless of the basis of his own economic support.\"\nThe corollary to his statement is that industrial education must not crowd\nout, or narrow, the opportunities for liberal training, nor must the pursuit of\nliberal education hinder or disqualify the pupil for a practical, every-day,\nindustrial vocation. Our problem is that of making the most effective adjustment possible between industrial training and liberal training. In the solution\nof the problem we are bound to recognize that there are several groups of children within the larger group or school, and that the aim of education is to give\nto each of these several groups the training which will render that group efficient as citizens, as producers, and as men and women of culture, within such\nmeasure as may be both possible and practicable. Our schools must move\nalong the lines of educational democracy in the sense that they must provide\nequal educational opportunities for all; that they must consider the interests\nand needs of an army of pupils who must and will remain in the home or enter\nthe industries at the end of the elementary-school course, as well as the interests and needs of those who can and will complete a part or all of the course\nin the secondary school before becoming wage-earners, and of whom many\nmay and will go on thru the technical school or thru college before taking up\ntheir life's work. The curriculum of the elementary school now lays chief\nemphasis on the subjects of greatest cultural value. It leaves out of account\nthe probable future of the pupil. Based on principles assumed to be democratic, imakes\nt\nno distinction of mental capacity and proclivity, but offers and\ncompels the same preparation to those who are to go into the comftiercial and\nartisan world as to those who will go into the professions. None of the studies,\nas presented, touches, in any direct way, the industrial environment of the pupil,\nnor do the subjects, except in certain parts of the work in arithmetic, concern\nthemselves directly with problems which appear concrete and useful to the\npupil whose bent of mind is vocational.\nThe large number of pupils leaving the elementary schools before completing the course may be found chiefly in two classes — those whose mental equipment renders it difficult for them to finish the work as at present arranged for\nthe higher grades, and those whom stress of economic conditions at home or\nnatural bent toward a vocation impels to go to work at the earliest possible\nmoment. Unless the curriculum of the elementary school can be so readjusted\nas to provide definite vocational interest and meaning before these children\nreach the compulsory attendance age limit, they will leave the school without\ntraining or insight in any of the things which make for a wise choice or successful pursuit of any occupation.\nThe readjustment of the curriculum does not mean, as some have said,\ntrade teaching in the elementary schools. Trade teaching to immature chil-\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ndren is out of the question; but it does mean preparatory vocational work\nfor those whose interests must be met at this point in their school Ufe in\norder to have them see the advantage to be gained by remaining in school.\nKept in school thru interest in vocational training, they will unconsciously\nbe receiving more of the liberal education which in itself failed to arouse their\ninterest.\nThis preparatory vocational training will be established as a new and\nseparate unit in the public-school system, to be carried out by those who have\ndefinite knowledge of vocational needs, with a specific interest in the form of\ninstruction to be given. ,Such schools will be planned to perform a particular\nservice, and in no case will vocational work be introduced under conditions\nwhich would merely be incidental to the general curriculum, tacked on and\nloosely articulated with the regular course of study. Vocational subjects\nwill be the center and core of the teaching in these schools. Instruction will\nbe so direct and valuable that its participants may count upon the knowledge\nacquired as an immediate asset in securing them a shortened apprenticeship\nin a shop or store, and a speedier advance in wages.\nIt is interesting to note that a few schools like the Manhattan Trade\nSchool, which started out to be exclusively vocational in character, developed\nsupplementary work in the study of art, science, and economics, which is, for\nthe type of student concerned, very effective as a means of liberal education.\nThis correlation will never be possible in a system of education where the\nvocational training refuses to recognize any responsibility along lines of liberal\ntraining, and where liberal education refuses to recognize any responsibility\nfor vocational training.\nEntrance into these preparatory vocational schools will be open as elective\nin the school system in those cities where there has been marked defection in\nthe sixth and seventh grades, and the courses will be offered to those pupils\nwho might choose to follow its curriculum rather than that of the grades as at\npresent arranged.\nThis plan for vocational preparatory training does not mean new buildings\nexpensively equipped; it means simply the setting apart of one or more rooms\nin the present school building, or the renting or purchase of some unoccupied\nshop or factory, and then manning this school with sympathetic, qualified\nteachers, and equipping it with such tools and appliances as the best interests\nof the community shall require. In this school in small towns and in these\nschools in large towns, will be gathered the disaffected, restless boys and girls,\nimpatient for something to do, and here they will work with their hands and\nstudy and learn to think on concrete applications of abstract principles which\nhitherto have not been understood to be related to anything but examinations\nfor promotion to a higher grade where there was more study of more unapplied\nprinciples, and so on to the end of the course where others had arrived, helpless\nto do and hopeless of finding that to do of which they had even a slight, but\naccurate, knowledge.\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n383\n\nIn interpreting the meaning of industrial training to the elementary school,\nI assume that the compulsory attendance age shall be from seven to sixteen;\nthat the first six years of the school life of the child shall be given unreservedly\nto the fundamentals of a general education as expressed in the rudiments of\nknowledge and of hand skill; that in the seventh and eighth years vocational\ntraining and liberal training shall be correlated; that between the two, after\nthe sixth year of the course, there will be permitted a constantly varying amount\nof time and energy, as local conditions may warrant, but that the vocational\nstudies shall be pursued side by side with studies which lead to a Uberal education. With the most liberal allowance of time to vocational studies, even\nwhen predominance is given to some specialized form of industrial training,\nthere would always be reserved to the pupil not less than one-third of the time\nfor cultural studies to the end that his training shall not relegate him to a class,\nbut shall keep him in sympathy with the general interests of society and of the\nstate.\nFor boys, courses of study will naturally be framed with reference to those\npreparing for an industrial career, or for commercial life. In rural communities a third course might be arranged for those who would follow a career in\nagriculture. The courses of study for girls are of equal importance, but for\nlimit of time I will consider only the course of study for those boys who will\nenter the industries.\nAssuming that the course of study of the first six years has contained its\nfair proportion of manual work, the seventh and eighth years will lay added\nemphasis upon hand skill. With this handwork there will be offered related\nlessons in English, geography, history, physics, arithmetic, and drawing.\nThe demands of industrial Hfe and not a traditional school course will determine the nature of the shop work. Since in any occupation which these boys\nwould follow eight hours of labor would be required, six hours of instruction\neach day is none too long a time for them in school — the program of study to\nbe so arranged by alternating theory and practice as to avoid the work becoming fatiguing. All study will be under direction in the schoolroom, and recitations will be mainly for the purpose of instruction and training in method of\nstudy, and will not be for mere quizzing. Related subjects will be correlated\nand grouped under one main subject in order to unify the work to the highest\ndegree.\nThe school day will be divided into longer periods in order to avoid the\ndissipation of attention and energy as now obtains in the elementary schools\nby many subjects and many periods. Applications will be taught before\ntheory, and the pupil will learn only the essentials of subject-matter.\nOn the academic side the subjects, in the order of their importance, will\nbe English, mathematics, science, history, and geography; on the practical\nside, drawing, shop-work, and laboratory practice. English will include the\ntopics of Uterature, reading, composition, grammar, speUing, and penmanship.\nMathematics will include arithmetic, algebra, and geometry.\nScience will\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "384\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ninclude elementary physics, with emphasis on mechanics and electricity, and\nelementary chemistry. History and geography will go hand in hand, with\nemphasis on the social and industrial development of the United States, United\nStates history and civics, industrial history, and economics.\nThe meaning of industrial education to the elementary schools will reveal\nitself in the modification of the teaching of every subject. English and mathematics will serve to illustrate this.\nThe course in English will be such as to develop wholesome tastes for practical people, and will train to plain and forcible expression, both oral and\nwritten, of thought concerning the things that are of real interest. In literature, boys will read to learn, and to do this with understanding and with\nappreciation.\nThey will learn to read and to discuss a book.\nIn mathematics, the source of problems will be the laboratory and the shop,\nsupplemented by problems from outside industrial life. In arithmetic the\npupil will be taught decimal equivalents of workshop fractions, approximate\nand check methods, ratio, proportion, percentages, four-figure logarithms,\napplied to multiplication and division, and various pocket-book formulae.\nIn algebra he will learn symbols and fundamental processes, the substitution\nof numerical for literal values, and to interpret simple workshop formulae.\nIn geometry he will learn measurement of areas of plane figures by reducing\nto equivalent triangles and rectangles, to use instruments in making simple\nconstructions, and the geometry of simple solid figures.\nThese radical changes in teaching in schools equipped for industrial training will have a healthy reaction on the whole elementary-school system, from\nthe lowest grade to the highest. There will be more attention to essentials,\nmore concrete application of principles, an awakening of teachers to the capabilities oftheir pupils, and clearer insight into the possibilities of directing their\nlives aright. There will be a vitalization of all the elementary schools. Those\npupils who are so fortunate as to possess the real desire for knowledge for the\nlove of knowledge, and are able to satisfy this desire, which leads to what the\nworld calls culture, will reap as rich benefits as do those who from choice or\nforce of circimistances are denied the liberal education.\nWhat industrial education means to the elementary schools may therefore\nbe summed up as follows:\nT. A more careful grouping of children with reference to their capabilities\nand proclivities.\n2. A more sane and democratic arrangement of courses of study.\n3. A new unit in the school system — namely, the vocational school.\n4. A more cordial feeling of inter-responsibility between liberal training\nand industrial training.\n5. A closer unification of all the work of the elementary course.\n6. A longer school day with longer and fewer periods.\n7. Better teaching of subjects by careful distinction between the essential\nand the nonessential.\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n385\n\n8. An awakening and clearer insight of teachers into the possibilities of\ntheir work.\nIn a word, industrial education means to the elementary school its complete vitalization.\nDISCUSSION\nE. E. Balcomb, State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla. — Industrial education will \"bring out\" the quiet, timid little giri who has had to stand at the foot\nof the class notwithstanding all of her patient effort. She has been too timid and frightened to express herself. She has ideas in her little head and she may excel in work with\nher fingers, because this work may be wrought out quietly without embarrassment. This\nwill rescue her school life from a daily torment and make of it a real joy and delight.\nIt gives modes of expression to a boy who is slow or awkward in his spoken and written\nwork. I have seen many cases where a boy turns with joy from the intellectual task,\nwhere he is considered by common consent to be a laggard, to the self-expression thru the\nindustrial work.\nThe fundamental principle to be borne in mind in all educational work is that as far\nas possible the school work and the life-work shall go hand in hand — the brain and the muscle, the mental and the manual. This can be accomplished only thru a combination of\nthe ordinary school work with the industrial phase.\nI agree in the main with the paper and the discussion that has been given, I believe in\nindustrial education in all the grades and vocational training in the upper grades for those\nwho need it. But I am opposed to vocational training beginning at the end of the sixth\ngrade. Neither the teacher nor the parent should decide for life what so young a child shall\nbe. The child himself at so tender an age is certainly not mature enough to make an\nirrevocable decision as to the calling in which he will spend all of his days. This is a more\nserious matter than many people realize. A boy in the sixth grade determining to become\na blacksmith, a carpenter, or a shoemaker! He may have the rest of his life in which to\nregret it. I wish to repeat that I am opposed to putting the choice of a profession too low\nin the grades. I see nothing in the industrial work suggested that would not be good general\ntraining for any child.\nEdmund A. Jones, state commissioner of common schools, Columbus, Ohio. — I\nwish to thank Dr. Downing for his able paper and for the full and clear statement he has\ngiven us in reference to what is being done in the state of New York along this line.\nThe paper read by Dr. Draper at the Cleveland meeting awakened a great deal of\ninterest and caused some comment. I became so much interested in this subject that, in\nNovember, I visited some of the eastern cities for the purpose of studying the industrial\nproblem. I spent some time at the Department of Education in Albany, visited the Springfield (Mass.) Technical High School, the Lowell Textile School, the office of the Massachusetts Industrial Commission in Boston, and several of the best manual-training, technical, and trades schools in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New York.\nI was deeply impressed with the importance of the work that was being done in other\nstates and, upon my return to Ohio, I made an earnest efifort to secure the appointment\nof an industrial commission, representing the different interests involved, for the purpose\nof making a thoro investigation of the educational and industrial conditions of the state,\nand making such recommendations to the General Assembly as, in the judgment of the\nCommission, would best meet the wants of the youth and the industrial needs of Ohio.\nUnfortunately, or fortunately perhaps, the legislature was not in favor of commissions.\nBut while we failed in this attempt we secured the enactment of a law which provides that\nany board of education may establish and maintain manual-training, domestic-science,\nand commercial departments; agricultural, industrial, vocational, and trades schools, and\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nkindergartens in connection with the public-school system and pay the expenses of establishing and maintaining said schools out of the public-school funds.\nFor three or four years the University of Cincinnati has offered co-operative courses\nin engineering. The university and many of the manufacturing concerns of that city have\nbeen working together to produce better workmen and better men. These courses are very\npopular and a large number are constantly on the waiting list.\nOne year ago a splendidly equipped technical high school was opened in the city of\nCleveland, with an enrollment of between eight and nine hundred pupils. This school has\nno college preparatory course. All pupils who expect to enter a college must attend one\nof the other high schools. Of the number enrolled, it was found that more than four\nhundred would not have attended any other school, but would have finished their school\neducation at the close of the eighth year in the grammar school, I am especially interested\nin these four hundred pupils, and in the much larger number who leave our schools before\nthe completion of the elementary course.\nThe report of the Massachusetts Industrial Commission showed that twenty-five\nthousand children in the state of Massachusetts between the ages of fourteen and sixteen\nwere not in school. Of this number, five-sixths had not completed the grammar-school\ncourse; one-half had not finished the seventh year, and one-fourth had not completed the\nsixth year. It was clearly shown that a large number of these boys and girls would have\nremained in school if the work had been so planned as to prepare them for greater industrial\nefficiency and to insure them a larger wage upon leaving the school.\nWe have one class of graduates from our grammar schools that enter our classical\nhigh school with a collegiate course in view. Another class enter our technical high schools\nwith a view of becoming superintendents of workshops and factories and directors of workmen. Between these two there is a much larger class that must ever be the real wage earners in field and office, shop and factory. I believe these boys and girls have a right to a\nlarger share of our attention.\nSome eliminations can be made from our elementary course of study without loss to\nanyone. Much of the work in arithmetic, geography, drawing, and even in history can\nbe given a stronger trend toward the industrial activities of the community. Our schools\ncan be open more hours in the day and a greater number of days in the year for the benefit\nof these pupils.\nAt least some of the work that is now being done by correspondence and private\nschools should find a place in our public-school system.\nWe are living in an age of intense industrial and business activity. The lines of work\nnow open to those who leave our schools are very different from what they were a quarter\nof a century ago.\nWe cannot change these things if we would. It remains for our public-school system\nto adapt itself to existing conditions. In the solution of this most important problem I\nam sure this National Council of Education will render most efficient aid.\nJ. A. Shaw AN, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio. — We have all served our\ntime at \"elimination\" and \"simplification.\" Both are necessary; but I am willing to\ngo one step farther and include another term in my creed — \"differentiation.\" In fact\n\"segregation\" is bound to come whether we will or not, and I am not afraid of that term.\nAny segregation of five or six hundred American boys or girls must be essentially cosmopolitan. In life, men do not quibble about class distinctions. What they want is a job, and\nschool is a preparation for life.\nThe most pressing problem today is— what to do for the boys or girls who must earn\ntheir living by the sweat of their brows. I am glad to see that this Council is seeking a\nsolution for this problem. As educators we should solve it. But if we do not solve it,\nit would not be surprising to see in a very few years an industrial system of education paralleling the cultural system of today.\nMy sympathy has ever been with the cultural.\nBut\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n:\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n387\n\n5\n\nas we note the large number of overgrown pupils, whose only fault is a lack of interest in\n\"book knowledge,\" held in the lower grades by the compulsory school law, one must pause,\nand reflect. Here is a great mass of good material out of which good American citizens\nmust be made. The gentleman from New York has suggested the method — a separate\nschool, partly industrial and partly cultural. The industrial will give an appetite for the\ncultural, but the latter must be reduced in amount, which can be done by segregation alone.\nThe little bill to which the gentleman who preceded me referred, and which was\nrecently passed by the legislature of Ohio, makes it possible for any board of education in\nthat state, which has the money and the disposition, to establish such a school. Acting\nunder that law the board of education of the city of Columbus at its last meeting resolved\nto set aside a building in the central part of the city from which the school population had\ndrifted away and to use it for an industrial and trade school. For the coming year, the\nschool will confine itself to printing and woodwork which is fundamental in the trades.\nThe universal use of the individual motor simplifies the equipment for the latter purpose.\nIt is the intention to run this school for twelve months in the year, with such evening\nsessions as may be found necessary. The attendance is to be voluntary with such suggestions as may seem wise to those who are old for their grades, i. e., the retarded and disinterested. To such the cultural alone does not appeal and it is manifestly unfair to send\nthem out unprepared to meet the responsibilities of life or to make an honest living.\nThe school will give an opportunity for those who are compelled to leave school at\nfourteen to attend a part of the day or at night and further fit themselves for a self-reliant,\n^\nindustrious life.\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. — It has given me\nmuch pleasure at this meeting, as it did at the Cleveland meeting, to see the question of\n\"industrial\" or vocational education discussed at the sessions of the National Education\nAssociation. By discussion here and elsewhere, and by experiments of many kinds, we\nshall solve this problem and work out the correct system of industrial education as part\nof our pubHc-school system. I cannot but be impressed, however, by the thought that this\nquestion will be solved, not necessarily because we are discussing it. It has already been\ntaken up, and is being considered most thoroly and aggressively by other organizations.\nOne of the most vital educational gatherings it has been my privilege to attend was held\nin Chicago a year ago last winter, under the name of the \"National Association for the Promotion ofIndustrial Education.\"\nBut I consider it most unfortunate that, at the first meeting of that association, the\nformer president of a great university, a man who is sometimes spoken of as the leading\ncitizen of the nation, advanced the idea that the time has come for the schools to separate\nthe children into classes before they have completed their elementary school work, and that\nthe school or the teacher should decide which children should be devoted to industrial\nemployment and set to learning trades. The echo of this pronouncement has done much\nharm. I cannot bring myself to believe that in our country, with our social and industrial\norganization, anyone has a right to say which child shall be trained for a mechanic, and\nwhich one shall be a lawyer or a merchant. Perhaps in Europe with its stratified society,\nsuch a plan may be practicable; but in America, with its free movement of individuals from\none stratum of society to another, and from one employment or vocation to another, no\nsuch plan is practicable or will be tolerated.\nIndustrial education with us can mean only opportunity. We cannot by prescription\nsay to this boy, \"Because your father was a day laborer, you must be a mechanic,\"\nor \"Because your father was a blacksmith, you must be a blacksmith.\" Our educational\nsystem now furnishes opportunity; and when vocational training is added to the system,\nvocational training must be an added opportunity, and this only.\nI have been impressed by the fact that most of the so-called \"industrial education\"\ntalked about in this discussion has been not \"vocational\" or \"industrial\" education at all\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbut merely manual training. Placing thirty boys at benches to work at joinery is not\n\"industrial\" — in the sense of vocational — training, unless each of these boys is being\ntrained to be a carpenter and joiner. Even if the man who instructs them is a practical\ncarpenter and joiner, it does not make the training \"industrial education\" or \"vocational\ntraining,\" unless each of these boys is fitting himself to work at the carpenter trade.\nI do not believe we should in the public schools put boys and girls of twelve or thirteen\nyears at the work of preparation for some trade. Their general education should continue\nuntil they have finished the grammar-school period. Specialization before the end of the\ngrammar school seems out of place. Children of this age are not sufficiently matured in\nbone and muscle or in nerves to begin vocational work; nor is the maturity of judgment\nsuch that the child is fitted to work at a trade or should, at this time, make a choice of the\nvocation or employment which he will follow. By allowing or requiring children to choose\nand begin preparation for a vocation at this stage of their education we should be using\nunseasoned sap wood, which ought to be allowed to mature before putting it to the stress\nof vocational employment. Colts are sometimes run as two-year-olds, but this practice\nis not generally considered sportsmanlike in the best sense, and it is noticeable that those\ncolts who are run as two-year-olds seldom make high-class records as four- or five-year-olds.\nWe should so shape the education given in our elementary schools as to develop in the\nbest way the boys and girls who attend them, and to turn out capable, well-disposed American citizens. The work of fitting boys and girls for vocations, particularly for mechanical\nvocations, should be delayed until after the elementary or grammar-school period has\n''\npassed.\nI wish to say that what I said previously in the discussion was said after an\nacquaintance of some years with one of the most successful trade schools in this country,\nand that the statements I made were, to some extent, the outgrowth of experience in connection with that school.\nI believe it unwise to put boys and girls of elementary school age at the preparation for\nspecial vocations. Our social and industrial organization, as well as the physical condition\nof pupils at that age, render it inadvisable. I do not believe this Association should pronounce itself in favor of such a plan.\nIt was no doubt proper a generation or two ago for boys and girls to work with their\nfathers and mothers at the family vocation, learning the elements of that vocation in their\ntender years. They worked under the care of those who had the deepest affection for and\ninterest in them. They were taught those things which they could, at that age, properly\nlearn and they were allowed to do only those parts of the work which they could do. without\ninjury. But sending boys and girls to work for other people in factories or shops, without\nthe oversight of their natural guardians, is unwise and will too often prevent the best ultimate development of these young people. And the public schools cannot attempt to determine their vocations; nor should we give them a training to send them with defter fingers\nat an early age into the shops and factories. We should study the best future interests\nof the boys and girls, not how they can be quickest fitted to enter the shop or factory and\nearn a small weekly wage. The best future citizen is the ideal; not the more skillful boy\nor girl operator of the loom or spindle or sewing machine.\n\nREPORT\nELMER\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON CO-OPERATION WITH EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN OTHER COUNTRIES\nELLSWORTH BROWN,\nEDUCATION,\n\nUNITED\nSTATES COMMISSIONER\nWASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nOF\n\nThe Committee on International Relations of the National Council having\nasked me to prepare a report for presentation at this meeting, I beg to submit\nthe following statement and recommendations:\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nWITH\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n389\n\nAt its meeting in Los Angeles in 1907, and again at Cleveland in 1908, the\nCouncil discussed, in a preliminary way, the desirability of some concert of\naction as between the National Education Association and similar societies in\nother lands, particularly in the consideration and discussion of educational\nquestions of an international character. The advantages of such a program\nhave been set forth, together with the obstacles it would undoubtedly encounter.\nThe ends to be gained are sufficiently great and obvious to render it desirable\nthat some definite steps be now taken toward their accomplishment. But\nthe actual difficulties and the doubts as to the best procedure are also so obvious\nand so great that it would not seem wise to commit the National Education\nAssociation to a definite policy in the matter until preliminary overtures have\nbeen made to some of the leading foreign societies whose co-operation is desired.\nIt is accordingly recommended that the National Council at this meeting\nappoint a Committee on International Correspondence; that this Committee\nbe instructed to enter into communication with representative educational\nbodies of other lands, with a view to learning whether they would regard the\nprogram here referred to as practicable and desirable; and that the Committee\nbe further directed to report the results of such correspondence at the next\nmeeting of this Council.\nWhile such a Committee should be given the largest possible discretion\nin the preliminary correspondence, and the instructions proposed above are\nprobably sufficient, the following additional suggestions are offered:\nWe may suppose that at the outset but Uttle more can be done than secure\nan agreement between two or three societies in as many different countries\nthat at their meetings of a given year they will discuss some one or more designated topics; that the views set forth in such discussions shall be communicated\nby each of the co-operating societies to all of the others thru its committee of\ncorrespondence; and that such reports shall be considered by the several\norganizations at their meetings of the following year.\nA desirable extension of this arrangement would be that of having a representative ofone organization visit one or more of the others, by previous\narrangement, and give a personal account of the course of the discussion in\nthe society of which he is a member. Such international visits, even apart from\nany general plan, have been a source of much profit and enjoyment at several\nmeetings of our own National Association.\nAs an indication of a possible course of these discussions, the following\ntopics are suggested for the first year:\n1. What culture materials are now available for common use in the elementary and secondary schools of all nations?\n2. What culture materials of any given nation are to be regarded as necessary to the cultivation of its proper sense of nationality, and, therefore, as\nnecessarily and permanently distinct from the culture materials appropriate\nto the schools of other lands ?\n3. In the case of educational materials which are identical or closely com-\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "390\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nparable in the schools of different countries, what norms can now be established as representing the attainments that may fairly be expected of students\nrepresenting ordinary scholastic conditions, at certain transition points or\nterminal points in the school curriculum ?\nThese topics raise, in different forms, one question .of vast significance.\nIt is the question: How much of international accord in educational concerns\nis now desirable and attainable ? I cannot resist the conviction that the time\nhas come for a serious consideration of this question. Some better ways should\nbe devised by which any people may learn whether it is in agreement with the\nbest educational practice of the world. Any nation may for reasons of its\nown break sharply with the educational practice of the rest of the world; but\nin such a case it has nothing to lose from a fair examination of the reasons\nfor such variation.\nAn additional question presents itself, closely connected with those which\nhave been enimierated: What are the best things that any nation has to set\nbefore other nations as its contribution to a better world standard in education ?\nThis is, in reality, the question that has been foremost in the educational\nexhibits and congresses of the occasional world expositions which have been\nheld during the past half -century. It may be guessed that a continuous effort\nof the nations to understand one another educationally, in the way that has\nbeen suggested in this report, might give gi;eater coherence and effect to these\noccasional conferences and exhibitions.\nIt can hardly be doubted, moreover, that a continuous and concerted effort\nto understand one another educationally will foster mutual respect and good\nwill among the nations. Such a result is, indeed, the highest practical outcome\nto be hoped for from the procedure which this report contemplates. If the\nplan that is proposed shall be successful, it will in effect be nothing less than a\nsubstantial contribution to the effort to secure the peace of the world thru a\ngood understanding among nations, and the fostering of international justice.\nOne of the practical difficulties of the program that has been outlined\narises from the fact that the educational societies of other lands are not comprehensive ofall grades and types of education as is our own National Association. Itis not always easy to say what is the organization in any given country\nto which our overtures would most appropriately be made. A selected list\nof such societies, however, has been prepared, which will be placed at the disposal of the proposed committee if such a committee shall be constituted by\nthis Council.\nTHE\nJOHN\n\nW.\n\nPROGRESS\nCOOK,\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nFOR THE\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF THE NORTHERN ILLINOIS\nSCHOOL,\nDE KALB, ILL.\n\nYEAR\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nOrdinarily the progress in education is so gradual that it is quite difficult\nto select events that mark epochal changes. A clearer view here and a practical advance there attract the attention of those who are responsible for the\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\n391\n\nmanagement of educational afifairs. That which at first seems theoretical\nand incapable of practical application slowly finds its way into the schools and\nmen wonder why it was not always there. Usually these instances of progress\nare isolated and individual. They need to be greatly multiplied before they\nattract the attention of the general public and awaken such popular sentiment\nin their favor as to be incorporated into systems and thus to attain something\nlike universality.\nExisting laws constitute a frame which often places a grave limitation upon\npossible progress. Individual schools are frequently found that are far better\nthan the statutes authorizing them. A general progressive movement is impossible, however, under an antiquated and repressive system. Making a full\nallowance for the conserv^ing effect of tradition, it is still a matter of constant\nsurprise to see the public clinging to a system whose only merit is that it was\noriginally introduced when something was necessary in the way of organization\nand the school authorities knew of nothing better.\nAs general legislation reflects the sentiment of the people more accurately,\nperhaps, than any other social phenomenon, and as modifications of existing\nlaws are necessary to any free growth along many lines of progress, the legislation upon educational subjects for the past year furnishes an interesting topic\nfor study.\nIn this particular, as well as in several others, what we know in this country\nas ''The South\" has made notable progress within the last twelve months.\nKentucky has recently set a mark for other states to move toward in the establishment ofa county system which promises to be elastic enough to furnish\nfree scope for local initiative, and centralized enough for efficient administration.\nPer contra, Illinois clings to her old clothes as if the fashion of this world were\nincapable of change.\nIn several of the states educational commissions, provided by the general\nassemblies of two years ago, have been very energetically engaged in codifying\nexisting statutes and proposing marked modifications of venerable systems.\nThe Kentucky advance is mainly due to such an arrangement. In some of\nthe other states, however, and notably in Illinois, the work of these commissions\nhas not met the approval of the legislatures. Their labors have not been\nfruitless, however, for never before have educational questions been so thoroly\ndiscussed by the lawmakers of the country. It is confidently believed that\nthe next sessions of the general assemblies will accomplish in the most conservative states what has been done in those most ready for progress.\nA most notable movement in the South is directed toward the establishment\nof county high shools. In some of the states provision has been made for at\nleast one in each county, while in others four times as many are authorized.\nThe state appropriations vary greatly, but the minimum is about two thousand\ndollars. When the localities are ready to make their offering the state authorities give them a hearing. The superiority of conditional appropriations,\n\nI\n\ndependent upon the amount raised by local taxation, is abundantly demon-\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nstrated, and the unconditional state-aid scheme is now regarded by many of\nthe wisest educational men as a curse rather than a blessing. Support of\nschools by local taxation is new to many portions of the South. Such a policy,\nhowever, has had a remarkably rapid development and is destined soon to\nbecome universal. Notable campaigns have been conducted in the interests\nof the extension of that method of maintaining the instrumentalities for popular education. The South lost a great propagandist for that cause in the death\nof the lamented Dr. Mclver. Conditional state aid is proving to be a great\npromoter of this necessary movement. It is the old story over again: people\nvalue what they have to pay for. Alabama has had no state high schools, but\nunder her new law forty-seven counties have applied for assistance. The\nlaw requires at least five thousand dollars and five acres of land from the\nlocality. Thus far the minimum local offering is eight thousand dollars, and.\nin one instance it has gone as high as fifteen thousand.\nAgitation has begun in Arkansas for a similar law. Florida has forty-five\nsenior high schools, sixty-five junior high schools, and forty rural graded schools\nin her forty-six counties as an outcome of the law of 1907. The localities must\nbear three-fourths of the expense of maintenance ; forty of the fifty-nine counties of Louisiana have approved high schools. Mississippi has a plan for state\nassistance to county agricultural high schools. Virginia recently appropriated\ntwenty thousand dollars for two years to begin the establishment of chairs of\ninstruction in agriculture and domestic science in one high school in each of the\nten congressional districts. Kentucky has recently made provision for one\nor more high schools in each county and the statute seems most admirable in\nits details. Indeed, wonderful things have been doing in that state; one of\nthe most interesting is a recent \"whirlwind campaign\" for the toning up of\npublic sentiment and bringing it to bear upon the state legislature. It seems\nto have had the desired effect.\nThe citations made must suffice to illustrate the more recent development\nof secondary schools in the South. It requires slight reflection to see the\nbearing of this movement on schools of all grades. On one side they will\ncontribute richly to the attendance at the universities from a class heretofore\nunable to bear the expense both of preparatory and university tuition; on the\nother hand, they will furnish a growing contingent of more liberally educated\nteachers for the elementary school, and it is a wise scheme for each section of\nthe country to utihze its own people as instructors. The profound significance\nof this movement cannot be overestimated.\nMore and more it is becoming apparent to the public that the best way to\nmake a good school is to hire a good teacher. Everywhere the movement is\non for the improvement of the teaching body. Utah strikes a keynote for the\nnewer states in declaring that after 1 910 no one will be admitted to the examinations for teachers' certificates who has not had four year of high-school\neducation, or its equivalent. Teachers who have already served three years\nin the state are exempted from this requirement.\nPressure is brought to bear\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\n393\n\nupon the students in the state school of education to remain long enough to\nobtain a degree, diploma, or certificate by enforcing a forfeiture of free matriculation in the event of their faiUng to do so.\nWisconsin is now in the van of the western states and, indeed, of all of the\nstates, with two or three possible exceptions, in furnishing schools for the professional training of teachers. Her eight state normal schools give her the\nfinest showing when compared with her population. She is an undisputed\nleader with the county training school- Her recent legislature provided an\nincrease of four upon the twenty now in operation, and Superintendent Gary\nwrites me that there will soon be a county normal training school in every\ncounty in which there is not a state normal school. At first the state normal\nschoolmen were apprehensive that these schools of lower grade would diminish\nthe patronage of the higher institutions. Events have demonstrated the\ngroundlessness of their fears. They have proven to be excellent feeders\ninstead. They have done more than all previous efforts combined for the\nbetterment of the teaching in the country schools of the county in which they\nhave been established.\nThe idea of attaching a normal department to high schools is by no means\na new one, as New York has long utiHzed such educational agencies for the\npreparation of teachers. The province of Ontario regards such an arrangement as one of its most satisfactory devices for that purpose. Indeed, it is\nsomewhat surprising that it has not been more generally utilized. Nevada\nis the latest state of which I have knowledge to make such a provision, her\nlegislature having authorized, at its last session, the establishment of normal\ntraining schools in connection with her county high schools.\nThe commonwealth of Virginia has been making such notable progress\nlatterly as to make it a trifle difficult to keep run of her achievements. Reference has been made to her encouragement of the teaching of agriculture, domestic economy, and other manual arts; but it was not stated that the last legislature\ndoubled the appropriation for high schools, the number of which has now been\nincreased to three hundred and twenty-five, and also made an appropriation of\nfifteen thousand dollars for a normal training department in twenty high\nschools.\nIn further illustration of the movement for a better teaching body, it is\nworth while to mention the liberal policy adopted by the Pacific states, and\nsome others, in giving to graduates of state normal schools in other states the\nrecognition accorded to the graduates of their own normal schools. Upon the\nrecommendation of the administrative officers of such institutions, the departments ofpublic instruction have awarded state certificates to graduates seeking\nemployment in their communities. In consequence of such recognition, and\nattracted by the liberal salaries offered, large numbers of superior young men\nand young women have left the Mississippi Valley states and have thus given\nto the West a splendid reinforcement in the way of a superior teaching body.\nState Superintendent Chamberlain, of Idaho, writes that they endeavor to\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nemploy only normal graduates for their rural schools. In what happy contrast issuch a condition with that of my own state, where last year there were\nseveral thousand persons teaching in her district schools who had received no\neducation beyond that furnished by substantially the same schools as those\nin which they were teaching! The question of good schools is mainly one of\nsalaries. \"Good money\" will get good teachers, and the far West is reading\na lesson that the country at large would be wise to regard.\nThe appropriations for state normal schools are steadily increasing. Where\nit was a struggle a few years ago to induce legislative bodies to furnish reasonable, or even meager, support, and then in such a half-hearted way as to put\nsuch schools in the category of public beggars, the appropriations are now\nliberal and are made as a matter of course. The normal-school principal no\nlonger hangs about the corridors of the capitol, seeking his opportunity to win\nhere and there a convert to his cause. Special committees, having his affairs\nin hand, call him when he is needed for their instruction, and it is by no means\nan unknown occurrence to increase the amount for which he asks on the ground\nthat from the standpoint of the committee it is inadequate.\nIn even a superficial study of educational conditions nothing is so transparently apparent as the effort everywhere to make schools \"practical.\" The\nage is so preponderatingly industrial, and the youth of the country manifests\nsuch an ardent desire to prepare for lucrative employments, that the demand\nupon the school for help is tremendously in evidence. We have found at last\na complete negation of the old classical tendency as a dominating influence\nin the school. It would be an easy matter to occupy all of the time allotted\nme with quotations from letters upon this subject written by the leading educational officials of the country.\nSecretary Martin, of Massachusetts, writes: \"Thru the efforts of the State\nBoard of Education there has been during the last year a stirring of public\ninterest in the matter of teaching the arts of country life, especially agriculture\nand domestic science. Under the term of 'industrial education' there has been\nmore newspaper discussion of education than I have ever known in the past.\nStraws indicating the general tendency are the establishment of a High School\nof Commerce and the Girls' School of Domestic Arts in Boston and the opening of a Department of Business Administration in Harvard University.\"\nState Superintendent Cook, of Wyoming, writes: \"There is a marked\ndisposition on the part of many of the schools of the state to make their high\nschools preparatory schools for 'life' rather than for college.\"\nSuperintendent Fairchild, of Kansas, writes: \"Forty-three high schools are\nnow giving instruction in manual training; twenty-three high schools are\ngiving instruction in agriculture; the state university has extended the list of\nsubjects accepted for entrance to include courses in business, manual traniing,\nand agriculture. Fifty thousand dollars was recently appropriated to establish\nmanual training in a hundred high schools in the state.\"\nJ \"The present legislature, by appropriating $160,000 for the establish-\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\n, PROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\n395\n\nment of four agriculutral schools, has taken the first decided step in this direction,\" writes State Superintendent Cook, of Arkansas. He adds, ''There is\na growing and active sentiment to emphasize the practical training in\nhigh schools rather than preparatory training for college.\"\nBut I have made quotations enough. It is the ever-present note in all\nreports of educational conditions. My theme is ''The Educational Progress\nof the Year.\" It is possible that not all of my hearers will regard these facts\nas falling under that caption. I shall not agree with them. They point with\nunequivocal significance to the belief in the possible efficiency of the school,\nand with quite unerring precision to the place which it is to fill among the social\nforces of this country. They say, in effect, our future is bound up with the\nwork of the teacher. To him we are to look for the solution of our main social\nproblem, and we, the people, will so equip the school that it shall splendidly\nachieve its superb function.\nNotwithstanding the continued urbanizing of our people, there is a clear\nnote sounded which is full of cheer for the rural school. Does it indicate a\nrefluent wave from the city, a growth in school sentiment among the farmers,\nor both ? Oregon reports an advance of 50 per cent, in ten years in the salaries\nof teachers of country schools. It is not an unusual occurrence for school\ndirectors to offer sixty dollars a month in the little schools of northern Illinois\nwhere an enrollment of twenty is rather remarkable, and where eight or ten\nis a famiHar number. The hope of the country really lies in the consolidated\nschool, and when farmers like John Swaney, whose name has become a household word to those especially interested in such schools, are willing to devote\nsome of their surplus money to its endowment we shall have educational conditions inrural life that are quite ideal. A fine building, seventeen acres of\nland, an agricultural experiment station under the direction of the state university, conveyance of children to and, from school, first-class teachers, a community thoroly awakened because of the chances for its children — these are\nconditions that are radiant with promise for the country child.\nAnd now permit me to summarize as I approach the limit of my time.\nThe universities are crowded as never before. Short courses for farmers'\nboys and girls are becoming familiar attachments to farmers' institutes. Boards\nof supervisors are willing to make appropriations for this purpose, as is indicated\nin my own locality where they freely voted three hundred dollars to bear the\nexpenses of a five-day course in the normal school where the county farmers'\ninstitutes are held. Specialists are to come from the university and the boys\nand girls are to have a week of the best instruction that can be afforded them\nin subjects connected with rural life. A few years ago these supervisors were\nscoffing at scientific farming. The state universities continue to add pedagogical departments, Vermont being one of the latest, and completer facilities\nin all departments are a part of the current news, Minnesota especially having\nmade notable additions recently. The free textbook movement is on the gain;\ncompulsory laws are more efficiently enforced, the people evidently coming\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nto the idea that they are beneficial instead of being an abridgment of personal\nliberty. Pensions for teachers are coming, Colorado furnishing an illustration of recent action by state legislatures. From Texas to Idaho comes the\nannouncement of larger authority for those in immediate charge of the schools,\nand a warmer interest in education on the part of legislative assemblies.\nMaine has doubled her state tax and now distributes a half-million\ndollars more than Illinois; has increased the minimum number of weeks that\ntowns must support schools by 30 per cent. ; has established a new normal\nschool; passed a medical inspection act, and adopted a number of other\nimprovements each of which scores an advance upon present conditions.\nThe news from the provinces is equally encouraging. While I have no special\nmessage from the Philippine Islands, Superintendent Babbitt, of Hawaii,\nwrites most encouragingly with regard to educational advance. The schools\nhave never been so well housed; no public school is without a school library,\ngreater progress having been made in the current year than in any previous\nyear. An increase of sixty-nine thousand dollars in the school budget makes\nan upward movement in teachers' salaries possible. Consolidation is making\nsome progress and the general outlook is, in all ways, brighter than ever before.\nCommissioner Dexter, writing from San Juan, reports school matters as in an\nextremely prosperous condition on the island, the teachers being the best\npaid in any country, the average for the seventeen hundred being fifty-three\ndollars per month. As Commissioner Dexter is to be present at this meeting,\nsome surprising announcements may be expected with regard to education in\nPorto Rico.\nIt is evident that there is no diminution in the sociological ferment that has\nbeen agitating society for the last few years. The conviction is deepening\nrather than weakening that the leading function of the school, so far as our\nindustrial population is concerned, is to, aid them in acquiring the greatest\nefficiency possible in earning their living by furnishing specific instruction in\narts and crafts; by inculcating habits of cleanliness, industry, and sobriety; by\npreparing the girls to cook well, to maintain hygienic homes, to serve well\nin all of the employments to which they may aspire. In some localities there\nis a strong protest against any other additions to the curriculum. From the\nliterary side it looks as if the three R's might be restored to something of their\nearly predominance.\nDoes this indicate a sharp social cleavage in the schools ? If so it is not an\nadvance. Must those who seek for their children what we have been accustomed to call a liberal discipline depend upon private enterprise to supply the\nmeans for it? That the trade schools are headed this way seems beyond\nquestion; that they will be something more than trade schools is equally\nbeyond question. The traditions favorable to liberal education will not be\nwithout an influential word in the final determination of our educational\npolicy if such a determination shall ever be final. Some forecast of what\nis to be is foreshadowed in such wise projects as the Rochester Factory\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n397\n\nSchool; meanwhile, the ranks of the reformers are rapidly filling and all seem\nto be astir.\nThis report would be very incomplete without some brief allusion to the\nremarkable activity of the magazine people, as well as the daily and weekly\npress, in discussing educational questions. The Bureau of Education is\nlaying upon our tables such riches as never were as a result of its discriminating\ninvestigation. Educational Ufe everywhere seems to be full of energy. When\nChina determines to discarci the old examination system, to which she has\nclung for centuries, it is obvious that even the sleepy contingent of the Orient\nhas been invaded by the modern spirit. What may we not look for in the\nnear future as the outcome of the educational agitation of the last twelve\nmonths ? Evidently the day of the schoolmaster is at hand.\nAltho not immediately germane to this discussion, I cannot forbear a brief\nreference to a recent event that interests all educational people everywhere.\nThe distinguished teacher who, for so many years, has held his calm preeminence, has at last retired from the field of his fruitful labors to sit among\nhis sheaves. The eyes of the educational world are turned with fond devotion\nto the seat of the ancient university over whose affairs he has presided so long\nand with such distinguished success. May the afternoon of his beautiful life\nlinger long and lovingly to the close. Charles Eliot, President Emeritus of\nHarvard University, will continue to be President Emeritus of that vast multitude who have so long looked to him as a leader in the educational advance\nof the modem world.\nTHE\nNATHAN\n\nC.\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHAEFFER,\nSTATE SUPERINTENDENT\nINSTRUCTION,\nHARRISBURG,\nPA.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nIf you wish a mess of trout, you must first catch the fish. If you desire\nsatisfactory supervision of rural schools, you must first secure an efficient\nsupervisor. The hook and bait by which you can catch him is an adequate\nsalary. On no other hook can you hold him for any length of time. Strong\nmen are made in the country, but they are apt to gravitate toward the cities.\nIn rural communities with urban conditions the problem of school supervision can be solved without much difficulty. In such communities there is\nenough taxable property to provide the revenue necessary to pay adequate\nsalaries to those who supervise as well as to those who teach. Money always\nattracts talent. The choice of an educational expert as superintendent and\nthe employment of the teachers whom he selects after personal inspection of\ntheir work, will, in no long time, result in good schools.\nIn sparsely settled districts the solution of the problem is more difficult.\nGood schools can never be made cheap, and if the state does not provide for\nthe major portion of the superintendent's salary, the schools become top-heavy\nwith supervision. No amount of supervision can atone for lack of teaching\nability in those who have charge of the schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nTo give the rural schools some degree of supervision the ofl&ce of county\nsuperintendent was created. In the West where the superintendent has charge\nof less than one hundred schools, the supervision may be comparatively efficient ;\nbut in the more thickly settled counties of the East, where the superintendent\nhas the oversight of from three hundred to more than a thousand schools, and\nwhere he cannot visit each school more than once a year, or even once in three\nyears, the supervision becomes very superficial and unsatisfactory. Says\nCommissioner Draper: ''All who have any understanding of our schools see\nthat their excellence depends upon the quality and closeness of the 'supervision,' and all who are familiar with the schools of New York know that there\nis no school supervision in the rural districts of the state, in the sense in which\nthe really capable men and women of the schools now use the term.\" How\nmany of us are obliged to make a similar confession with reference to the rural\nschools under our jurisdiction !\nIt is well to keep in mind the difference between the functions of a superintendent and those of a supervisor. The duties of the former are largely\nadministrative, whilst supervision has to do with methods of teaching, habits\nof study, and the adaptation of the curriculum to the needs of the pupil and\nthe community. Next to health, the most valuable possession of the child is\ntime. By the highly refined methods which have grown out of so-called development lessons, the instruction is sometimes given as if the pupil had the years\nof Methuselah in which to grasp a single idea. To prevent the waste of time\nand effort on the part of both teachers and pupils, to bring the skill, the experience, the wisdom, ahd the spirit of a good teacher to bear upon all the work\nof the school, to prevent the retardation and elimination of pupils as they pass\nfrom grade to grade, and to give the community an adequate return for all the\nmoney extracted for school purposes from the purses of the taxpayers — these\nare legitimate functions of the supervisor.\nBoth the superintendent and the supervisor should aim to create educational\nsentiment. The schools cannot be made better than the people want them to\nbe, nor can their efficiency lag much behind the demands of public opinion.\nFarmers' institutes, mothers' meetings, graduation exercises, county and local\ninstitutes, and other public gatherings furnish splendid opportunities for the\ncreation of educational sentiment. The creation of a demand for good schools\nis fundamental in all educational progress. Public addresses should be supplemented byvisits to the homes of those who are the leaders of thought and\naction in the school district.\nIn the next place, the superintendent or supervisor should endeavor to\nmake the teachers happy in their work. The best progress is possible only\nwhere pupils and teachers are happy in their work; where the school is the\nplace to which the children like best to go; where pupils, parents, and teachers\ncherish the sense of something to be achieved, and where they realize the function of the school as a factor in the uplift of humanity. The worst service\nwhich a supervisor can render is to give the teachers a bad conscience with\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n399\n\nreference to their work. This robs them of all joy in teaching, deprives them\nof sound sleep, makes them nervous and unfit either to govern or to associate\nwith children, and defeats the chief purpose for which the schools were\nestablished.\nIn the third place, the people of the rural districts should be made to think\nand feel that their boys and girls are just as good and deserve just as much and\nas good schooling as the boys and girls of the cities; and further, that it is\nimpossible to have good schools anywhere without paying for them. The\naverage country man is a reformer. He wants legislation that will make the\nother fellow pay the taxes. Sometimes by giving his children poor schools he\ntaxes his own flesh and blood in order to lower the taxes on his own acres and\nhis neighbor's property. Avarice of this sort is best overcome by appealing\nto the ambition which fathers and mothers naturally have for the future success\nand welfare of their children.\nIn the fourth place, the superintendent or supervisor should be famiHar\nwith the educational problems which spring up with each step of progress.\nConsolidation of schools is a big step in advance. It raises new questions of\nsanitation, government taxation, and transportation.\nI close as I started, by laying emphasis upon the supreme importance of\nselecting the right man or woman to supervise the schools. In no other direction isit so easy to fool the people. Ask the average taxpayer, ''How does the\nsuperintendent earn his salary ?\" The reply may be, \"By following a vigorous\npolicy of doing nothing.\" Usually women are more painstaking than men\nin matters of detail, but recently I heard of a woman superintendent who gave\nevery applicant a license to teach, praised the work in every school, had a good\nword for everybody, and it was almost impossible to dislodge her from the\noffice of superintendent, altho no results were visible from her visits and her\ninspection. Tenure of office should depend upon the results achieved. A\nquestion of primary importance is, therefore, the question of the selection of\nthe superintendent. Shall he be elected by popular vote ? Where popular\nelection has resulted in the choice of the driver of a beer wagon as superintendent, or in the election of a person so illiterate that he could not pronounce a\ncolumn of words accurately, the people say that the selection of a superintendent by popular vote is the way not to do it. Shall the superintendent be\nappointed by the state board of education? When the superintendent thus\nappointed continues to practice law or to serve as vice-president of a bank or\nin some other exacting vocation, it is positive proof that poHtics has crept into\nthe state board of education. My own preference is election by the school\ndirectors or trustees, ratified by the issue of a commission based upon academic\nand professional qualifications. But so long as human nature is frail, no\nmethod of selection is entirely free from mistakes. Above all things, we need\ncolleges of education manned by faculties who know schools as well as books;\nwho know practice as well as theory; who have common sense enough not to\nspend their time and energy by soaring into the sky and searching for data\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwhich have absolutely no bearing upon the education of the child and the\nefl&ciency of the schools.\nHence, if you wish satisfactory supervision of rural schools you must provide adequate revenues, a reahn of activity for the supervisor that does not\nmake supervision a physical impossibility, and above all you must find a supervisor who can create educational sentiment, who can make pupils and teachers\nhappy in their work, who can get and save and wisely apply the money of the\ntaxpayer, and who can bring to bear upon the schools the wisdom, the experience, the skill, the scholarship, and the common sense of a first-class educational\nexpeit.\nDISCUSSION\nRobert J. Aley, state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. — I\nam in hearty agreement with all the points in the splendid paper by Superintendent\nSchaefifer. I desire to emphasize and view from a somewhat different angle a few of the\nsuggestions.\nThe supervision of rural schools will be better when it is closer, when teachers are\nbetter prepared and better paid, and when the public reaches that stage of development\nthat it really wants better schools. These three points are so intimately connected that no\none of them is independent of the others. The complete realization of any one of them\nwill carry the others with it.\nCloser supervision requires smaller groups of teachers than are now placed under the\ndirection of one man. No one man can properly supervise more than fifty or sixty teachers\nif they are scattered over several hundred square miles of territory. The county superintendent with from one hundred to five hundred teachers under his care, and with a great\nmultiplicity of clerical duties to perform, can do but little effective supervising. He needs\nassistants, well trained and well paid, who will devote their entire time to the direct work\nof supervision. These assistants should be responsible to the county superintendent and\nwork under his direction. They should have control of from thirty to sixty teachers, the\nnumber depending upon the topography of the country, the density of the population, and\nthe amount of school consolidation that has taken place. These assistants and the superintendent should work with the teachers in about the same way that similar work is carried\non in a good city system.\nSupervision of this sort would make it possible to improve the school work in every\ndetail. The course of study could be administered properly and made to do all that it is\nintended a course should do. Any desirable forward movement could be carried thru\neasily. The beginning teacher could be directed and many failures turned into successes.\nThe pedagogy and schoolroom practice of the entire teaching force could be greatly\nimproved.\nDesirable uniformity in all important things could be brought about easily.\nSupervision of this sort could be brought about without disturbing present organizations or laws. In my own state in quite a number of instances school townships have united\nin the employment of supervisors of music, art, and manual training. These supervisors\nwork under the direction of the county superintendent. The results attained in all these\nsubjects under this plan are nothing short of marvelous. A similar plan for general supervision could be easily arranged. That results of the greatest value would follow such a\ncourse no one need doubt.\nBetter preparation of teachers and better pay are inseparably linked together. We\ncannot have the first without the second and we ought not to have the second without the\nfirst. In several states laws are in force placing a premium in pay upon preparation.\nThese laws also make entrance to teaching more difficult than heretofore, by requiring\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n401\n\ncertain scholastic and professional standards to be met. These laws are meeting with\npopular favor. They are filling the schools with teachers of higher grade. Another result\nof the greatest importance is that more strong and promising young people are looking\ntoward teaching as a career. This tendency will increase if the pay is made better and a\nsufficiently high preparation required to give to teaching the tone of a profession.\nBut what has this better preparation and better pay to do with supervision ? It has\nseveral important things to do with it. Such teachers feel the need of help and direction\nfrom those above them. They realize that economy in teaching can come only thru a wellorganized and properly directed system. They know enough to feel the need of supervision\nand they have the courage to demand it. When the schools are filled with such teachers,\nbetter prepared county superintendents will follow as a necessary corollary. Teachers\nwho are in the business to stay will be so thoroly enthusiastic that the community will be\nimpressed with the need of better things.\nThat much depends upon the sentiment of the community is well known to every\nexperienced educational worker. The people will not be driven to have good schools.\nPermanent good schools are never any better than the community wants. Any advance\nmovement is largely lost unless the community is rapidly educated up to it.\nSupervision is not possible where the prevailing feeling in the community is against\nit. Its values must be exploited. The citizens must be taken into the confidence of the\nschool officials and must be shown the great return that will come to the community if the\nschools are made better thru supervision.\nEvery teacher and school official who feels the need of an improved system of ruralschool supervision should join in an effort to make all patrons aware of its importance.\nThe subject should be talked about. It should be written about. At all parents' meetings\nand school entertainments at least one short, crisp speech should be made on this subject.\nThe American parent prizes his child and is willing to make sacrifices for his welfare.\nThe tactful teacher who wins the respect of the child need have but little trouble in securing\nthe enthusiastic support of the parent for any reasonable school need. If the teachers\nwill inform themselves thoroly upon this subject, they can do much to better their own condition bybringing about a system of closer supervision.\nWherever conditions are favorable, supervision will be greatly aided by school consolidation. The consolidated rural school with five to ten teachers becomes an object-lesson\nto a much larger territory than that of its patrons. In large areas of our country physical\nconditions are such that complete consolidation is impossible. In these regions the only\nhope for improvement is in closer supervision. We must have it in order that we may do\njustice to the children.\nClose supervision will unite the teachers in common movements; will multiply greatly\nthe power of the individual teacher; will save directly and indirectly present waste in the\ndaily work of the school; will make the teacher happier and more joyous thru co-operation,\nand will greatly increase the general culture that will come to every child.\nJohn MacDonald, editor of Western School Journal, Topeka, Kans. — The county\nsuperintendent can supervise his schools a great deal easier in these days than he could\nhave done twenty or more years ago. In those days, there were no telephones nor rural\ndelivery. If trouble came up in a district it was a slow process to get into communication\nwith the center of disturbance, and the superintendent probably would be obliged to go\nout eight, ten, or more miles to confer with officers and teachers. Now, he can settle nearly\nall difficulties thru the telephone without leaving his office; also can do much of his supervisory work. Probably, under these modern conditions, the number of schools placed\nunder the superintendent is not too great.\nThe rural school has been the Cinderella of our system. Her proud city sisters have\nlooked down upon her with contempt.\nBut now the country school is receiving attention.\nOne day when the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools was in session in Chicago,\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthe members, after half a day of discussion of rural-school imperfections, were feeling particularly \"blue.\" They had been taking the testimony of eighteen experts from various\nparts of the country, and the information given was of a depressing character. I interrupted the work of the committee to ask this question: \"How many of you members of\nthis Committee, and of you who are here by invitation, received the rudiments of your\neducation in the rural schools ? \" Every hand but one went up and the exception was\nAlbert G. Lane, who was educated in the city of Chicago.\nIf the country school can do so much, hampered as it is by manifold imperfections,\nwhat could it not do were maintenance more adequate and supervision more systematic ?\nA. C. Nelson, state superintendent of public instruction. Salt Lake City, Utah. —\nIt is impossible, in the time assigned me, to discuss and emphasize, as I should like, the\nmany excellent suggestions brought out in Superintendent Schaeffer's address and by\nSuperintendent Aley's paper on rural-school supervision. This subject is of such great\nimportance that, however we may be curtailed for a want of sufficient time to discuss it in\nits most important aspects, the National Council of Education has acted wisely in making\nthis phase of our school work a prominent feature of the deliberations of this meeting.\nExpert school supervision is of comparatively recent date in this country. The origin\nof the office of city superintendent does not reach far back into the history of our educational\ngrowth, and even now each year gives us a clearer and a better defined idea of his duties.\nBut the question, the need of school supervision in cities, is now definitely settled and in\nmost of our large cities adequate skilled supervision is supplied.\nTo anyone familiar with the conditions of our rural schools, the necessity for a better\nand a more extended supervision of them is so apparent that no argument is needed. It\nis very evident that the county superintendent, however active he may be in the discharge\nof his duties, cannot render the schools under his charge the supervisory aid which they\ndemand. His schools are, in most instances, far too numerous, his teachers too large\nin numbers, and the area of the territory embraced in his county is too great.\nUntil something can be done to relieve this condition and to reinforce the work of the\ncounty superintendent, our rural schools will suffer a lack of efficiency. Perhaps no better\nservice can be rendered to our school at the present time than to assist in the solution of this\nproblem. One feature which makes the question under discussion somewhat difficult\nin its solution is the fact that its need is not sufficiently apparent to the layman or school\npatron to receive such co-operation as is indispensable to administrative school improvem2nt,\nas well as to other phases of educational growth. If better and more extended rural-school\nsupervision were forced upon us wholly as an external sociological demand — such as industrial education — all that would be necessary would be a just recognition of such requirement\nfollowed by a proper educational adjustment — such adjustmentas would satisfy the demand.\nBut its solution is more difficult, tho to the school official acquainted with the needs of\nrural-school improvement its importance is no less apparent.\nAnother cause which retards the bringing-about of a sufficient supervisory force for\nthe rural schools is, in my opinion, the present administrative organization of the social\nschool unit — the old traditional township or the school-district unit.\nOf recent years we have done much toward consolidation of schools, but our consolidation has been chiefly one of transportation of pupils to larger school centers where pupils\nmight have the advantages offered by the graded schools. This is commendable and it\nhas been fruitful of excellent results, but there is a phase of school consolidation that affects\nschool administration which will do much toward the solution of the problem under discussion. The administration of the traditional school unit is too conservative and in too\nmany instances incapable of adjusting itself to the demands for more extended and more\neffective supervision. This phase of consolidation, let me emphasize, concerns itself with\nschool administration. Under the present administration of the school-district unit, the\narea embraced in the territory of the district may be too large or too small for effective work\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n403\n\nin supervision — too large, so as to render it inconvenient as a working unit; too small to\nmake it possible to provide sufficient revenues. A readjustment of the school unit and of\nthe organization of the school board would do much toward the solution of our problem.\nThe changes here advocated are not theoretical only, but, in my state, actual practice has\ndemonstrated their value. Instead of the traditional school board, provide one consisting\nof five members who are to have jurisdiction over a school unit large enough to employ\nfrom one hundred and fifty to two hundred teachers. This board should have power to\nlevy a uniform local tax sufficient to assist in maintaining schools and to employ an efficient\nsuperintendent and a corps of competent supervisors. The work of these supervisors\nshould be done under the direction of the superintendent, and it should be sufficiently\nextensive to cover all phases of the common-school curriculum.\nIn our school methods and our school curriculum there may be danger of \"standardizing\" our work too much, but in our rural-school supervision there is at present a woeful lack of a well-defined plan of operation.\nG. M. Philips, principal of the State Normal School, Westchester, Pa., and secretary\nof the State Commission which recently prepared a new school code for Pennsylvania. —\nThe Commission which prepared a school code for Pennsylvania during the last two years\nhad, as perhaps its most insistent problem, that of closer supervision of the rural schools.\nPennsylvania is peculiar in having many very populous counties. One county superintendent now supervises about fifteen hundred schools; two others supervise from eight\nhundred to nine hundred schools each; half a dozen more, over six hundred each, and\nmany from four hundred to five hundred each, and these larger counties cover an area of a\nthousand or more square miles each. The Commission planned that a county superintendent who had from one hundred and fifty to three hundred schools should have one assistant\nsuperintendent. When he had from three hundred to five hundred teachers, two assistants;\nwith from five hundred to eight hundred teachers, three assistants, and for every additional\nfour hundred teachers, or fraction thereof, one additional assistant. The Commission\nrealized the inadequacy of this but felt that no more could be secured at present. The\nCommission further recommended that these assistant superintendents should be appointed\nby the county superintendent for a term of three years, with the approval of the officers — •\nfive in number — of the County School Directors' Association, a standing body authorized\nby law.\nThe minimum salary to be paid was twelve hundred dollars, and this was to be paid\nout of the state treasury as our county superintendents are paid. The triennial convention\nof school directors of the county might increase the number of assistant county superintendents, or authorize the appointment of county directors of music, manual training, etc., at\nthe expense of the county — that is, their pay must come out of the state appropriation for\npublic schools to the county; and in the same way this triennial convention might increase\nthe pay of these assistant county superintendents. The duties of the assistant county\nsuperintendent were defined in the code, but they were subject to the control and direction\nof the county superintendent.\nThe governor felt obliged to veto the act providing for this new code because of the\nmutilations which were made in it during its passage thru the legislature and afterward,\nbut it is to be hoped that the whole code, and especially this feature of it, may bear fruit in\nthe near future.\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nADJUSTMENT OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM TO THE\nCHANGED CONDITIONS OF THE TWENTIETH\nCENTURY\n\nEDWIN\n\nG.\n\nCOOLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF D.\n\nC. HEATH\n\n& CO.,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nMost educators appreciate the fact that there must be changes in our system\nof education to suit the changed conditions of the time, and some, like Rousseau, are for absolutely turning the car around and heading it the other way.\nThese reformers seem to think that the farther we get from the paths of our\nfathers the surer we shall be of doing the right thing for their sons.\nIn discussing some changes in our scheme of education I wish to disclaim\nin advance any sympathy with the reformer who would destroy the present\nscheme of education simply because it is an old one. I have too much respect\nfor the wisdom of others, and too little confidence in my own judgment, to be\nwilling to take this responsibility.\nEdmund Burke in his essay, ''Reflections on the French Revolution,\"\nsays:\nInstead of casting away all our old prejudices, we cherish them because they are our\nold prejudices, and the longer they have lasted, and the more generally they have prevailed,\nthe more we cherish them. We are afraid to put men to live and trade each on his own\nprivate stock of reason, because we suspect that this stock in each man is small, and that\nindividuals would do better to avail themselves of the general bank and capital of nations\nand of ages. Many of our men of speculation, instead of exploding general prejudices,\nemploy their sagacity to discover the latent wisdom which prevails in them. If they find\nwhat they seek, and they seldom fail, they think it more wise to continue the prejudice with\nthe reason involved than to cast away the cost of prejudice and to leave nothing but the\nnaked reason; because prejudice with its reason has a motive to give action to that reason\nand an affection which will give it permanence. Prejudice is of ready application in the\nemergency. It previously engages the mind in a steady course of wisdom and virtue, and\ndoes not leave the man hesitating in the moment of decision, skeptical, puzzled, and unresolved. Prejudice renders a man's virtue his habit, and not a series of disconnected acts.\nThrough just prejudice his duty becomes a part of his nature.\n\nAs men of affairs, we should, while attempting to explode general prejudices,\nalso, as Burke says, employ our sagacity in discovering the latent wisdom which\nprevails in them, which has given them their utiHty and permanence. We\ncannot afford to lose the advantage of a steady, continuous course of action.\nWe must not hesitate in the moment of decision, ''skeptical, puzzled, and\nunresolved.\" We must not propose changes merely for the sake of change —\nfor the sake of a passion for new things. We must recognize the virtue there\nis in the old; must endeavor to discover the latent wisdom that is contained\ntherein. In proposing changes we should hold fast to the old, while making\nsuch modifications as the changing interests of society demand.\nI shall not attempt in the brief time given this paper to discuss the problem\nof universities — the problem of higher education. I shall confine my remarks\nto the work usually done in the elementary and secondary schools. I do this,\nfirst, because I regard these as the schools of the plain, common people; and\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCHANGED\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF TWENTIETH\n\nCENTURY\n\n405\n\nsecond, because my experience has been confined almost entirely to this class\nof school work. What I have to say on the subject of secondary and elementary education will be based upon some direct practical acquaintance with the\nproblems of such education. My opinions on the subject of higher education\nwill be of less interest to the public than those of educators who have been more\ndirectly concerned with the work of the college and the university, and whose\nexperience will enable them to speak by the book. I shall assume that the\nschools are, at the present time, in a general way adjusted to the wants\nof society; that they conform to a large degree to its demands; that the school\ndoes put at the disposition of its pupils what has been accomplished in past\nages; that the schools are attempting to give to their pupils an opportunity\n'Ho acquire the social heritage of truth and ideas resulting from the laborious\ninvestigations and profound meditations of all past ages.\"\nI should certainly not wish to change this. My purpose would be to extend\nit. The schools of the past have not tried to extend these opportunities to all\nthe children. The leisure-class theory of society has dominated the educational\ntheories of the school. The privilege of acquiring the social heritage has been\ngiven to certain selected members of society who were planning to follow the\nprofessions. While we have talked glibly about giving every boy a chance to\nbecome president of the United States, everyone knows the chances of this\nhappening are only one in several millions. These chances hardly justify\nkeeping the training of all children along the lines that seem likely to profit\nthe few. Such a theory of opportunity as this can hardly be called democratic. Afairer one must be substituted for it. A system of schools that\npermits an increase in the number of the exploiting class can hardly claim\nto be democratic, when we recall the percentage against the great mass ever\nrealizing any advantages from it.\nLester Ward, of Brown University, in arguing for a really democratic\nsystem of society, says:\nThere is no use in talking about the equalization of wealth. All the discussion about\nequal rights is utterly hollow. All the ado made over the system of contract is surcharged\nwith fallacy. There can be no equality and no justice, not to speak of equity, so long as\nsociety is composed of members equally endowed by nature, a few of whom only possess\nthe social heritage of truth and ideas resulting from the laborious investigations and profound meditations of all past ages, while the great mass are shut out from the light that\nhuman achievement has shed upon the world.\nThe equalization of opportunity means the equalization of intelligence, and not until\nthis is obtained is there any virtue or any hope in schemes for the equalization of the material resources of society.\nThere is not much hope for any permanent social reform so long as society consists\nof two classes — an intelligent or well-informed class, and an ignorant or uninformed class.\nof intelligence\nThere is too much truth in the dictum that intelligence will rule. Inequality\nI\nnecessarily results in the cleavage of society into an exploiting and an exploited class. If\nthere is no way of equalizing intelligence, social reforms in this direction seem out of the\nquestion.\n\nMr. Ward's contention is that the difference of intelligence of classes,\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nso called, as classes, is immense; but that it is not due to differences in intellect\nor natural powers, but is due to differences in education; that it is the result\nof the fact that the achievement of the race has never been transmitted to\nmore than a small fraction of the race. Our educational problem, he urges,\nis to reorganize the schools and society so that the heritage of the past shall be\noffered to all. This will mean not merely the transmission of the ordinary\nacademic knowledge offered as a preparation for certain select professions, but\nthe offering of what the race has achieved in science, in art, and in the industries, so that each member of society shall be able to secure the nutriment best\nadapted to his growth and development. This will mean an organization of\nthe schools that will offer to all, at such times and in such places as are most\nconvenient, a schooling that will enable them to grapple most successfully\nwith the problems of life.\nI cannot refrain from adding still another quotation, which seems to me\nto characterize fairly the situation in the past. Professor Veblen, of Leland\nStanford University, in his Theory of the Leisure Class says:\nOur school systems should become really democratic in their aims, in their administration, in their spirit. If they become really democratic in their aims, they will not, as at\npresent, aim at giving the children of the poor an opportunity to acquire an education that\nwill fit some few brilliant, gifted children to become members of the class above, while\nneglecting the cultivation of the homely gifts of the classes of society as unworthy.\nPresent ideas of education have been based upon the notion that manual labor means\nweakness, subjugation, and inferiority. Education for the purpose of increasing efficiency\nin productive work has been regarded as unworthy of the free man. The leisure-class\ntheory of education seems to be based on the notion that only non-industrial occupations\nwere worthy, using \"industrial\" in the narrow sense.\nThe coercive utilization of man by man, rather than the utilization of nature, or,\nrather, man's non-human environment, was regarded as a worthy aim, and training that\nwould develop him for war or for the professions was regarded as a worthy ideal. The\ntraining of the muscles that would prepare for exercise in war was regarded as the proper\nthing; while the training of the same muscles in some useful trade was looked upon as\ndegrading and lacking in cultural value.\nThe same general principles develop in the selection of studies for training the\nintellect.\nThe training of the moral nature incidental to these views was inevitable.\n\nThese statements, while they do not describe every system of schools, seem\nto me to characterize fairly well the present situation. Much has been done,\nand is being done, to modify the situation described by Mr. Veblen. We are\nceasing to regard industrial occupations as degrading, and the popularity of\nthe industrial sides of our elementary and secondary school work is proverbial.\nDr. Dewey says:\nWe are beginning to recognize the change in our social situation that overshadows\nand even controls all others — the industrial one — the application of science, resulting in\nthe great inventions that have utilized the forces of nature on a vast and inexpensive scale;\nthe growth of the world-wide market as the object of production; the vast manufacturing\ncenters to supply the market; the cheap and rapid means of communication and distribution between all its parts. The face of the earth is making over, even as to its physical\nform.\nPolitical boundaries are wiped out and moved about as if they were indeed only\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCHANGED\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF TWENTIETH\n\nCENTURY\n\n407\n\nlines on a paper map. Population is hurriedly gathered into cities from the ends of the\nearth. Habits of living are altered with startling abruptness and thoroness. The search\nfor the truths of nature is infinitely stimulated and facilitated, and their application to life\nmade not only practicable but commercially necessary. Even our moral and religious\nideas and interests — the most conservative because the most deep-lying things in our nature\n— are profoundly affected. That this revolution should not affect education in other than\nthe formal and superficial fashion is inconceivable.\n\nThese industrial changes have already made a profound impression upon\nour educational thought. Technical and industrial schools of a college grade\nare numerous. Manual-training high schools are common. Manual-training\nwork in the grades is almost universal. We are endeavoring to supplement\nthe three R's with the three H's, and already one can perceive a fundamental\nchange of attitude on the part of the public toward the problem of the schools.\nWe recognize that the three R's are only practical because they can be turned\nto use. We feel the necessity for the cultivation of the hand because of its\ndirect practical utility in meeting the problems of daily Hfe. We regard it as\na mistake to think of the work of the school as a matter of teaching the child\nonly the ordinary academic subjects. We are endeavoring to take into a'ccount\nthe work of the home and its relation to the work of the school in making\navailable the results of the culture of the race. The modern schoolmaster\nmust provide physical training and manual training, as well as training in the\nthree R's.\nAt the present time the schools are compelled to undertake a large amount\nof training for life that was formerly done in the home. The growth of our\ngreat cities has rendered impossible the kind of training given to every child\nin the old-fashioned New England home. The child must learn to use his\nhands in the school of today. In the school he must acquire habits of industry,\nself-reliance, and efficiency. The modern home can face no such responsibilities.\nIn the schools of the twentieth century I believe we shall continue to offer\nthe child eight years of general education, not perhaps along the identical\nlines now followed, but carried on under the ideals of broad general preparation for living — not for specifically making a Hving. In other words, I do not\nbefieve that we shall inflict a trade upon a child during the time of his attendance at the elementary school. We shall not decide for the child the Hfe work\nin which he will be most efficient and most happy. The common community\nschool, as the Germans call it, will occupy itself with problems of general\nculture, general education, general transmission of the culture of the race, and\ngeneral training to develop the power to utiUze the material at the disposal\nof the race. This means careful training of the whole boy. This means the\ndevelopment of the power to use the printed page; the development of the\n[power to use the simplest elements of mathematics; the development of the\npower to use the hand in connection with the use of the brain. It will mean\n[instruction in the simplest facts of nature-study, history, geography, and\niterature. No child should be robbed of an opportunity to acquire this power\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nand this culture by an over-anxiety to fit him for some particular groove in\nwhich he is to move for the rest of his life. On the other hand, when the\ntime comes at which the ordinary boy or girl must decide the question of\neither preparing for the high school and college and a profession, or of engaging\nin some commercial or industrial work, when he so decides the school authorities should give him every assistance in their power, and should give the boy\nwho chooses commerce and the industries as much, and as efficient, assistance\nas they do to the boy who remains and fits for the college and professions.\nThe school authorities should give him an opportunity to secure a training\nthat will make better carpenters, tailors, and clerks, as well as better members\nof the professions.\nSuch schools must be carried on at such times, and in such places, as will\nmeet the convenience of the children. We shall need to* add to the ordinary\nhigh school of today the workingman's high school, or continuation high\nschool. We should organize these continuation schools with special reference\nto the needs of the class of young people who are compelled to enter on their\nlife woVk at fourteen, furnishing them from eight to ten hours of instruction\nper week as will be of service to them in earning a living — instruction and\ntraining that will make them less the slaves of the machine to which they\nnaturally become attached when they enter a shop. The instruction given\nin these schools must be in closest relation to the work of the shop. Such\nschools will continue to give practical training in the use of the mother tongue,\npractical training in mathematics, practical training in drawing — which is\nregarded by the Germans as the grammar of the industries — as well as training\nin hygiene and the elements of civics. Such schools will consider the problem\nof making citizens as well as mechanics.\nThese continuation schools may be run in the evening, to meet the conditions of the stronger and more energetic young people who are employed\nduring the daytime. The experience of Europe, however, has shown that\nonly the stronger and more energetic young people can profitably use the\nevening continuation schools. Work done in the evenings is done under\ntrying conditions, and these schools are usually run only during a small\nportion of the year.\nAs ordinarily carried on in our country, under the name of evening schools,\ntheir funds are curtailed whenever the money is lacking. For some reason,\nwe have seemed to believe that the young people who are compelled to attend\nthese workingman's high schools have not the same claim upon the school\nsystem as those who are able to remain and attend the day high school for\nthe full four years. We seem to be ready to care for the fortunate youth who\nis able to remain in school until he is eighteen years of age, giving him instruction that will fit him for the professions, with ajl the advantages of our splendid\nhigh-school equipment. We seem to grudge the poor boy, who is compelled\nto go to work, the opportunity to attend an evening school for more than four\nor five months. There is little justice in this. Such schools should be run\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCHANGED\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF TWENTIETH\n\nCENTURY\n\n409\n\nthe year around, and should give as good opportunities to the young people\nwho wish to attend them as are given to the day-school pupils in our high\nschools.\nEven this, however, will not do justice. As was stated before, the experience of other countries has shown that the evening continuation school cannot\nentirely do the work. The boy who has put in eight or ten hours in the shop\nor store is not in a physical condition to do school work in the evening. Only\nthe stronger and more energetic will go on. We must maintain voluntary\nschools, open in the evening, for young people to attend. We must, however,\nrely mainly upon day schools of the same sort which vdll offer opportunities\nfor eight or ten hours per week for young people between the ages of fourteen\nand eighteen. This work should be made compulsory, and the responsibility\nfor attendance should be placed not only upon the youth himself, but upon\nthe parent and employer. Such regulations are not a matter of theory, but\nrather of fact, in the larger part of Germany and some parts of France and\nEngland. It has seemed clear to the men who have been in closest touch\nwith the work that the day continuation school must become a large factor\nin the problem of educating the youth of our land.\nFew realize the force of the argument for this enlargement of our school\nopportunities. In a speech before the Society for the Promotion of Industrial\nEducation, at Atlanta, Congressman Davis, of Minnesota, made the following\nstatement:\nThere are eighty-two million people in the United States. Thirty-two million of these\nare breadwinners. Of these thirty-two million, one million are merchants, heads of business, etc. One million are professional men. Thirty million of the thirty-two million\nare bread-winners whose work is mainly with their hands.\n\nThe thirty million are the people about whom we should be most concerned.\nChanging the illustration a little: In 1900, seven out of every eight children\ndid not continue in school after their fifteenth birthday. This means that\n87 per cent, were going forth into their life work with very scanty schooling,\nwithout any opportunity to participate in the culture of the race. This means\nthat the typical American child of the day has only received the training\noffered by the first six or seven grades of our public schools. The greatest\nneed of the day is an opportunity for our youth to continue this training up\nto the age of eighteen. The greatest educational need today is so to organize\nthe schools that they will continue the training of the young worker who is\ncompelled to leave school, for any reason whatever, at the age of fourteen,\nuntil early manhood. Such schools will be truly the high schools of the workingman, and the only high schools that will ever be available to him.\nIt will be necessary in some cases to establish independent schools to carry\non this continuation work. The experience of Germany has shov^oi that\nevery city should be supplied with a number of thoroly equipped schools which\nshall devote their entire energies to the training of the youth who have entered\nupon commerce and the industries.\nIt will be necessary to supply these\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "4IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nschools with specially trained teachers — teachers who are thoroly trained on the\ntechnical side and who have received, in addition, careful preparation for the\nwork of teaching. These schools must be as well built and as thoroly equipped\nas any other kind of school, but must introduce more of the shop element\nthan is desirable or possible in ordinary schools.\nWhile these independent schools should be maintained and managed by\npractical and trained supervising officers and teachers, it may not be desirable\nto separate them entirely form the ordinary schools. In some cities in Europe\nthe continuation work is carried on in the same building that is devoted during\nother portions of the day to the instruction of the ordinary pupil. It is thought\nthat some of these continuation pupils, in direct touch with the teachers and\npupils engaged in ordinary school work, will be enabled, thru some fortunate\nturn in their situation, to re-enter the ordinary school work and finish the\nordinary course of instruction.\nThere seems to be some difference of opinion among educators as to the\nmaintenance of the independent industrial schools. This difference of opinion\nis also prevalent in America. The majority of educators have seemed to\nbefieve that the two sorts of work should be carried on together. The practical\ndifficulties in the way, however, seem to me to be almost insuperable. Experience in many cities has shown that it is extremely difficult to carry on, in the\nsame building, under the same general supervision, parallel courses so entirely\ndifferent in character, without one or the other suffering. On the whole, I\nshould favor the maintenance of a number of independent schools, leaving\nthe problem of determining how far such schools shall be independent to be\nsettled after years of experience.\nIt is evident that I have not touched upon a large number of subjects\nengrossing the attention of educators at the present time. I have intentionally\nleft out the discussion of a large number of incidental questions, hoping to\nconcentrate the discussion upon what I regard as the fundamental feature of\nthe changes demanded by present conditions — that is, a fuller recognition of\nthe demand upon our school system for instruction and training that will fit\nfor commerce and the industries. I shall not be surprised if I am criticized\nseverely for the narrowness of the scope taken by my paper. I hope, however,\nthat what has been said will serve to emphasize the necessity of recognizing a\nfundamental change in the conditions facing us in the present century.\nDISCUSSION\nJames A. MacLean, president of the University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho. — Nineteenth-century education dealt with the adjustment of the school to the individual pupil\nand with the adjustment of the different parts of the school system to one another. Twentieth-century education will deal with the education of the individual as a future member\nof various social, economic, and political groups and the adjustment of the school to its\nenvironment.\nThe individualistic tendencies of the nineteenth-century education have been emphasized by an educational science based chiefly on psychology.\nThe twentieth-century\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCHANGED\n\nCONDtTtONS\n\nOP TWENTIETH\n\nCENTURY\n\n411\n\neducation will require the socialization of educational theory and the addition of educational\nsociology to pedagogics.\nIn the twentieth century the uniformity of curriculum that is required by the national\nand state environment may still be preserved, but a variable element will be introduced\nfor the adjustment of the school to its communal environment. The point of view suggested\nhere may be found helpful in relation to the following educational problems:\n1. The present education toward citizenship is utterly inadequate for the solution of\nthe political and economic questions that a complex civilization brings. The adjustment\nof the school to the national environment will result in the improvement and extension of\neducational activities for the promotion of a better citizenship.\n2. There is now no systematic instruction in standards of conduct in the ordinary\nrelations of life. The adjustment of the school to its social environment should include\nthe instruction in practical ethics required by twentieth-century civilization.\n3. The rural school is a case of failure in adaptation to environment.\n4. The standard high school is a case of partial failure in adjustment to environment.\nThe economic changes that mark the last fifty years are almost revolutionary in character. The distribution of the population according to occupation and according to residence\nin city or country is completely changed; the distribution of the social income is greatly\nchanged; and the distribution of family budgets of expenditure is changed. For the pupil,\nlife's whole outlook has been altered. In the end all social institutions, including the school,\nmust depend on the underlying economic organization. The system of local self-government in matters educational permits the adaptation of the school to its environment, and\nthe responsibility of socializing the school rests entirely with the schoolmen.\nJ. Stanley Brown, principal of Township High School, Joliet, 111. — The mere\nstatement of this question is an acknowledgment that the school curricula must keep pace\nwith the changes brought about by the complexity of our national life. We have abundant\nevidence that there are legitimate demands which at present have to be satisfied by certain\ntype forms of education not found in the present public-school system; and it seems to\nus that, if the public-school system is to do its greatest service, we must take cognizance\nof the work which these other institutions are doing, and ask ourselves the question: How\ncan we meet these newer demands which are now being met in many cases by institutions\nrun for revenue only, and not privately endowed institutions ?\nThe fact that the International School of Correspondence, the American School of\nCorrespondence, and other similar institutions are adding to their enrollment many thousands of students, largely from the laboring population, who are beyond the legal school\nage, is to me of broad significance. The vacation school is not enough; the evening school\nwith its present development is not enough. We must have something more distinctly akin\nto the courses of study offered by the types of institutions I have mentioned, and this work\nmust be done thru the pubUc-school system. It seems unjust, it certainly is unfortunate,\nthat these thousands of young men and young women, older men and older women, who\nhave been thrust into the wage-earning class before they had opportunity to get the training\nwhich they evidently wanted, should now, after they have passed the legal age, find it necessary to pay extravagant amounts of money for tuition in order to secure the training necessary to put them in line for promotion in the kind of work which their experience has shown\nthem to be naturally adapted to do.\nEvery great manufacturing center in smaller city and large must very soon make provision at public expense for the men or women, whose training is to them insufficient, to\nget a broader training at such times during the day or evening as shall be possible for them\nwith little or no interference with their present employment. This action would, in my\njudgment, be one of the primary adjustments of our school system to meet the changed\nconditions of the twentieth century.\nIn general, we find two opinions on questions of this sort: One says, \" Give the people\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwhat they want; the other says, \"Lead the people to want what they ought to have.\"\nThe former is cheap, temporizing, unsatisfactory; the latter is defensible, sane, and its\nown defense. In order to accomplish the latter all the best elements of society must be\nunited, and when so united, every new demand made upon the public-school system will\nmean that it will be met because it has come not from the lower stratum of society, not from\nthe higher stratum of society, but from a combined resultant of the two working together\nfor common good.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, dean of Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, Cal. —\nGreater changes have taken place in the economic and industrial development of the country in the past ten years than in any other like period in the history of the world. In theory\nthe school system has changed so as to meet these conditions, in part at least. In point of\nfact there is no one of our human institutions but has undergone a greater and more farreaching change than has the school. It is true that certain schools have struck an entirely\n\"new gait,\" and in any system of schools there are to be found men and women who are\nputting into practice ideas that a few years ago would have been radical and would have\nbranded these teachers as heretics. For the most part, however, and among the rank and\nfile the country over, the practices of today are quite similar to those in vogue in the times\nof our fathers. Even where methods and ideals differ from those of the past, they are\nquite as far from squaring with the present-day needs as was the case formerly. Indeed it\nis almost safe to say that notwithstanding the fact that the present-day school is far in\nadvance of what it was fifty or one hundred years ago, still, in many ways, the school of\ntoday does not meet the needs of today as fully as did the school of past time meet the needs\nof its own day and generation.\nThe life of the home has undergone a great change. It has been warped and twisted,\nand too often, especially in the cities, the home has been displaced by the place of abode\nsimply. Our methods of communication, of transportation, of supplying our daily wants,\nof homekeeping, are so unlike those in force a few short years ago as to be hardly recognizable as steps in a mighty evolution. Even the church militant, regardless of sect or denomination, isa new church. In all walks of life and in all ways we find this last century a new\ncentury. And the school, which should, in fact, blaze the trail, will, if it fails to take stock,\nto mark down shopworn goods, and fill its shelves with new and up-to-date materials, find\nitself in the position of a camp follower instead of the standard bearer.\nWhat must the school do to meet these changed conditions ?\nFirst: the school must set a higher moral standard than it has done in the past, since\nneither the home nor the church offers sufficient opportunity for moral instruction, even\namong those who have real homes or who attend church. We are coming to recognize\nthat education which does not consider, both in theory and practice, moral instruction as\nthe chief end of school training, is only partial and a farce.\nSecond: each grade or year of school work must aim to round itself out; it must not\nsimply prepare for another grade or year of school, which the boy or girl may or may not\nenter. The year at school which is of account mainly as it prepares for the next year above\nshould no longer be tolerated. Conditions must be studied. The aim and abilities of the\nindividual and his environment are to be considered. Conditions must be such that whenever the student is forced to discontinue his school work, he may find his schooling a usable\nquantity. All schools should be preparatory schools — preparatory to the life of today and\ntomorrow, rather than preparatory to another school, as superficial as the one below it.\nThird: because manual training is essential and because the schools must meet present\nonditions, we must, in a rational way, industrialize the curriculum. Most of our so-called\nindustrial education is no industrial education at all. Manual training schools are, for the\nmost part, meeting the conditions little better than did the well-regulated Latin schools; and\nthe manual training offered in the grades is \" tacked on\" to the curriculum rather than\nbeing an intrinsic part of it. The industrial side of schools is yet to be developed, and the\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCHANGED\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF TWENTIETH\n\nCENTURY\n\n413\n\nindustrial and commercial development of the country demands a real industrial school.\nA curriculum made up piecemeal of subjects fastened to it is similar to a farm wagon held\ntogether with bits of rope and leather and bailing wire. The only safe way is to build\nfrom the foundation.\nAll of this points to the necessity for a clearer conception of the meaning of education\non the part of school people generally, better-trained teachers, increased salaries, less politics among schoolmen, a closer touch of the latter with the affairs of actual life, and a higher\nmoral standard thruout the profession.\nJ. W. Crabtree, president of State Normal School, Peru, Neb. — I indorse every\nword of Mr. Cooley's paper. I want to lay emphasis on only one point growing out of his\ndiscussion. That which will facilitate the adjustment of our school system to present-day demands more than any other one thing is to loosen the grip of university, college, and normalschool committees on high-school affairs. Public-school men are greatly hampered not\nby accreditment, but by the license that college committees often take as a result of accreditment — that of making courses of study for high schools and that of dictating methods and\ndevices to be employed in teaching high-school subjects.\nIt seems to be assumed that the members of college faculties are broader-minded, better-balanced men, that is, that they are men more capable of deciding questions pertaining\nto the nature and scope of school work. But is it not true that the college professor has\nvery often stepped direct from graduate student into the faculty, a life-tenure position which\nhe can hold whether he possesses exceptional ability or not ? Is it not also true that the\npublic-school men in the best places have gone thru a refining process, having had their\nabilities tested and passed upon at every one of a series of promotions, and that the weaker\nmen have been weeded out all the way along the line ? Is it not true that this refining\nprocess of the public schools places a class of men of rare attainment and extraordinary\nability in charge of these schools, and is it not a further fact that college faculties could be\ngreatly improved by filling vacancies with scholarly men and women who have passed\nthru some such refining process as that of the public schools ? Then again, is it not true\nthat the work of these schoolmen puts them into very close touch with the home and the\ncommunity, enabling them to see school interests in their interrelation with all other\ninterests ?\nOur school system as we are building it is a shaft growing higher and more imposing\nevery decade. It is composed of four sections: (i) the foundational, representing the\nfour years' kindergarten and primary work; (2) the next section above representing the\nfour years* intermediate and grammar-grade work; (3) the lower of the upper half representing the four-year high school; and (4) the upper section representing the four-year university, college, and normal-school work.\nThis shaft is said to resemble at the present time the leaning tower of Pisa, in that the\nsections are placed on each other in such a way as to place the center of gravity almos t\ndirectly over the edge of the wide base.\nIf a perpendicular is erected at the middle point of the base it will be observed that\nthe uppermost section lies wholly outside of it; in other words, it will be seen that the\nuniversity, college, and normal-school division is farthest out of line. Instead of\nshifting their section and placing it squarely in the center, with the high school as a\nfoundation, many professors insist on tryipg to slide the high school over still farther out of\nplumb.\nSome of these men act on the theory that this great shaft is attached some way or other .\nat the apex to the heavens, that their section carries the weight of the entire shaft, and that\nto loosen their hold on the high school means that the rest of the structure will fall to the\nearth and be broken into pieces.\nBut, gentlemen, this shaft of the public schools, as emphasized in Mr. Cooley's paper,\nrests on a solid foundation.\nThe university, college, or normal-school professor can loosen\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[NatiomJ\n\nhis grip on the high school without the slightest danger of the rest of the structure's falling\nto the earth and being broken into pieces.\nIn conclusion, permit me to summarize as follows:\n1. The problems of the high school must be solved mainly by those actually engaged\nin that phase of educational work.\n2. In revising courses of study, public-school men should not be hampered by any set of\nentrance requirements or by any set of rules of accreditment arbitrarily made out by college\ncommittees.\n3. The uplifting inspirational influence of the college on the high school does not come\nfrom overbearing and arbitrary control.\n4. The one thought to be held in mind, whether shaping a course of study for primary\ngrades, high school, or college, is that the basic purpose of the school is not to further the\ninterests of any institution or any man, but it is to promote the welfare of youth and to\nenhance his chances of being a useful member of society.\n5. It is much easier and very much more pedagogical for the college to build its courses\non the foundation laid in the high school than to make arbitrary courses and require high\nschools to prepare for them.\n6. That which will facilitate the adjustment of our school system to present-day\ndemands more than any other one thing is to free the high school from the dictation of\ncommittees of the higher institutions, which condition has come upon the school system\nas an unwelcome and an unnecessary result of a wise system of accreditment.\nZ. X. Synder, president of State Normal School, Greeley, Colo. — The adjustment\nof our school system to the changed conditions of the twentieth century is the main proposition. The particular phase of the subject assigned to me is, \"Are the Public Schools\nAdjusting Themselves to the Changed Conditions?\" The first inquiry is. What are the\nchanged conditions that are found operating in twentieth-century civilization that have\ngrown out of the nineteenth century ? (i) Division of labor in all industry, trade, commerce,\netc. ; (2) specialization in every line of human endeavor; (3) intense competition and rivalry\nin all activities; (4) skilled workmen demanded all along the line in the narrowest lines\nof effort; (5) the supremacy of the scientific method in our lifetime; (6) the elimination\nof the apprenticeship system by various causes, preventing people from having the opportunity to develop and become productive along lines particularly adapted to them; (7)\nnational supremacy depends quite largely on industry, trade, and commerce; (8) the use\nof machinery in the manufacture of most of the articles used in life; (9) the necessity of\nbecoming a producer earlier in life, growing out of the value of time; (10) the demand in\nlife for more comforts and the gradual change continually of comforts into necessities; (ii)\nwhile the complexity of life requires division of labor and specialization, yet the general\nunderstanding takes a wider range: (12) just as the collective life expands, the individual\nlife necessarily must, and vice versa.\nThe second inquiry is. Should our public-school system adjust itself to these changed\nconditions? (i) Here I think and believe with LaBon in his Psychology of Peoples that\nthe institutional life of a people grows out of the soul of that people — out of their civilization; and that the best expression of the individual is found in his collective life — in the\ninstitutional life of that people — in his home, in his civic relation, and in the arts, sciences,\nand industries of his time and civilization; (2) general feeling of something wrong.\nThe third inquiry is. Has our public-school system adjusted itself to these changed\nconditions ?\nI think it will not be successfully questioned if we say it has not adjusted itself to the\nconditions. The obstacles in the way seem to be: (i) the static condition of prejudices;\n(2) the adherence to the fallacy of the dogma of formal discipline; (3) the adherence to and\nworship of the antiquated Platonic or classic conception and practice of culture.\nThe fourth inquiry is, how to adjust our public-school system to twentieth-century\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n415\n\nconditions, (i) Free the system and the minds of the people from the classic conception\nof culture and the belief in its efficacy in the intellectual salvation and social standing of\na man or woman; (2) free the system from a mechanism whereby the educational unit\nabove dominates the unit below; (3) Have the system sufficiently elastic at any point to\ngive the individual an opportunity to express himself along the lines of his power, his bent,\nand his industrial and economic relations to his family, community, and country; (4) be\ninterested as much in having the great mass live better and be more efficient in life, as we\nare interested in the few that we push up to the high school and college; (5) construct\nand adjust the system along the lines of health, industries, manners and morals, and patriotism; (6) introduce vocational and trade schools into the public-school system all along\nthe line.\n\nTHE ADMINISTRATION\n/.\n\nTHE\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\nPROVINCE\nOF THE\nCOMMON\nPEOPLE\nIN\nADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION\n\nHOMER\n\nH.\n\nSEERLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT OF STATE TEACHERS\nCEDAR FALLS, IOWA\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe province oj the state. — In the United States of America the poh'cy,\norganization, management, and support of * elementary and secondary education isassigned to the several states, it being assumed that the national government has neither relation to, interest in, nor authority over the same. It is\ntrue that the national government has made large grants of lands to many\nof the states to encourage and develop public education, but it has never been\nassumed that there was any responsibility on the part of the state regarding\nthe expending, the preserving, or the employing properly of such munificent\nendowment, it being suppposed that it was the business of the people of the\nstate to demand an accounting of their officers for their stewardship. As a\nconsequence of this policy, every individual state has originated and developed\nits own system of schools in accordance as its people have seen best, much of\nthe initiative being conferred upon the people of each local community and\nmuch of the success of the enterprise depending solely upon their enthusiasm,\nfaith, and liberality, as well as their comprehension of the problems involved.\nIn fact, before the state systems had found their way into constitutions, laws,\nand administrative management, schools founded and supported by the\ncitizens of the more progressive local communities were in existence. The\nstate systems, when established, were given control of certain functions in\norder to co-operate in assisting the local communities to conduct the work\nthus inaugurated to better advantage, rather than to assume the conduct\nof the schools that existed, or to claim the right to dictate their policies,\ntheir spirit, or their standards. It is thus truly determined that the American\ncitizens of every original colony and the founders of every new territory and\nstate have, on their own accord and from their own conception of civic\nneeds and of economic aims, provided in a public way for the education of the\nchildren of the common people of every local enterprising community.\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "41 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\nWho originated public schools? — ^This fact thoroly understood develops\nthe further fact that free, universal education of the masses was not the origination ofsome philanthropist who sought to enlarge the welfare of the common\npeople; nor of some far-seeing publicist who realized the great result to the\npeople as a whole that would come from the establishing of the common school\nfor the specific benefit of the state as an organized plan of government; nor\nof some religionist who deemed this plan of public work to be the way to\ninsure public morals and higher standards of living; nor of some scholarly\nteacher who felt the impulse to use his knowledge for the benefit of others and\nat the same time secure personal support thru the business for himself and\nfamily; nor of some generous-hearted statesman who sought protection for\npatriotism and liberty thru the spread of intelligence and thru training the\nyoung by the means of a universal system of education that would guarantee the\nfuture; nor of some remarkable man of affairs who had a vision of the wealth\nand the progress of the centuries to come, and thus sought to conserve\nthe economic and business capability of the future citizens of the enlarging\nnation. The most wonderful of all is the fact that this great plan evolved\ngradually and continuously from the thought, the study, and the experience\nof the people themselves. Thus k was that Massachusetts received the idea\nof free public education from the immediate need of those who found it necessary to rely upon their own resources and ingenuity when they settled in the\nwilderness. In similar ways did popular education have a beginning in New\nAmsterdam, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and other colonies, each\nworking out the problem for itself with little if any knowledge of the plans,\nundertakings, or purposes of neighboring colonies. In every case, the local\ncommunity was the initiator of the new civilization, and the success, prosperity,\nand enlargement that followed in every one of these state school systems\nhas continuously and chiefly depended for more success and for more definite\nimprovement upon local energy, local enterprise, local pride, local standards\nand ideals for all real progress and development.\nThe result oj development. — ^The American plan of education is a development from the simple to the complex — progress, expansion, and opportunity\ndepending almost entirely upon the popular conception of the true value\nof liberal education, the importance of scholarship, and an investigating mind\nto the enlargement of every individual's chance for power and place. Out\nof these conceptions of individual benefits have come the broader conceptions\nof public needs which, being accepted and adopted as a sensible public policy,\nestablished the primary and elementary schools, then the classical high schools,\nand lastly the technical high schools. The popularity of each of these movements can hardly be fully realized even by the most careful and thoughtful\ninvestigator because th6y are the fundamental applications of democratic\ninitiative .and of common conclusions concerning the actual needs of the\nmasses. Where general legislation has occurred it came in answer to public\ndemand that it might give permanency to ripe conclusions, thus making per-\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n417\n\nmissive to all communities a public work at public expense that had been\nfound by experiment to be important for the benefit of all, thru the success of\nthe few. This permissive legislation has brought great development, since\nby a gradual evolution new undertakings became a necessity, new tests were\ncommended to those less progressive or less inventive and finally the practice\nof special endeavors became so nearly universal that they were transferred\nto statutes and to constitutions. In this movement, democracy has worked\nout deliberately and completely its own salvation to the surprise of all who\ndo not regard the mass of men as capable of self-government. It has accomplished a work among the people of the whole country that surpasses any\nother system that could have been devised by experts, or originated by ofiicials\nwho were selected by the state to organize and conduct matters without regard\nto the acceptance or the comprehension of its plan as a whole by the common\npeople. The capability and the confidence of the popular will of the masses\nhave been fully shown in the building of schoolhouses, in the voting of large\ntax levies for the support of the schools, in the election of school boards that\nare fully prepared to represent the interests and the welfare of the people,\nand in the co-operation and sympathy shown with teachers and superintendents\nwho conduct the work with authority and consent. All these things are\nevidences of a progress that means more than the education of the pupils\nof the schools alone, or of the training of the teachers in public service, or\nof the development of school boards, since the vast majority of the people\nthemselves have, thru this system, obtained valuable and healthy opinions about\npublic education, have acquired settled views that are sane and reliable about\nthe curriculum to be taught, the proper kind of teaching and the discipline\nto expect of a school. The people have acquired thereby a training in political\nleadership and in initiative that is the most marvelous outcome of the application of democratic principles of government among men. The reality of\nthese things cannot be appreciated by one who is not in touch with the masses\nand who, thru aristocratic notions or solitary development and training, does\nnot know that the common people are entirely competent to manage such\ngreat affairs properly and intelligently, if they are given an opportunity to\ndevelop their powers and capabilities as citizens in the great school of experience.\nImportance of democratization. — ^Wherever pubUc education has made the\nmost real progress in the United States there democratization has been the\nmost completely employed, since real progress is to be judged by the effect\nupon the masses and not by the reports of experts upon the reaching of technical or school standards. Wherever the poUcy has prevailed that the conducting\nof public schools requires that the people rule, and demands therefore that the\npeople must know the truth about educational work, and that the leaders must\n■L help the people to the opportunity to be educationally intelligent, there an\n^& ideal condition approximately exists, and there the prospects for the future\n^B are on the largest scale and the factors of accomplishment possess the greatest\n\nm\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "4i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\npromise. Wherever the endeavor is undertaken to make the people a large\nfactor in all things possible to be conferred upon them, from co-operation in\nthe home with the teachers to control thru a popular election of the policies\nof developments to be carried out, there popular education is based upon a\nreality, and the chance for a proper appreciation of the importance and character ofeducation for the children is absolutely established. Take the American community where the patrons of the schools have very little authority\nthat they can exercise, where they are passive recipients of state or national\nbeneficence, where teachers and financial support are not dependent upon\npublic appreciation and favor and majority indorsement, where the course\nof study is too holy a thing to be submitted to public consideration and rectification, where the management is supreme in its own way and depends solely\non its own opinions and judgment, and there will be found to exist a school\nsystem that degenerates into a mechanism developing decided conditions\nthat naturally and properly produce dissatisfaction, growing distrust, and\na consequent abandonment of appreciation and sympathy. Take the American school where the people's voice is not heard in local educational afifairs;\nwhere the people's opinions as to their needs are not determined by themselves; where rules, regulations, and laws are the work of experts; where\ncommissioners are assumed to be the best makers of policies and the dictators\nof plans; where the people are assumed not to know enough to have a prominent part in their own affairs, and there can be found tendencies developing\nthat will eventually require a monarchal form of government to control the\nacts of the patrons of the schools in order to compel their children to remain\nin school and secure the minimum educational qualifications that are assumed\nto be essential to citizenship.\nCentralization of power. — In the last three decades notable changes have\noccurred in many of the states whereby the consolidation of authority has\nbeen made and its use conferred upon officials removed from the people.\nThese movements have been so gradual that they are scarcely perceptible\nfrom year to year; but a study of a period of years will establish the fact that\npeople are continually losing and the experts are continually gaining. There\nare numerous types of these modifications but for practical purposes but\ntwo of the more prominent are mentioned here :\nI. There is a constant enlargement of the authority and discretion of\nstate educational officials. They are given functions and powers that relieve\nthe service of the people and their immediate appointees, the school boards.\nThis is done either by expanding the services and duties of state boards or\nof state superintendents. In every case it means the loss of power and influence of those directly associated with the work and the magnifying of the\ninfluence and dictation of the expert and the professional educator. The\nfarther removed such officials are from the reach of the common people, the\nmore they are indifferent to the claims of democratic leadership and the\nless they care for the co-operation and the sympathy of the masses.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n419\n\nnatural result of such a policy has been the increase of arbitrary standards\nof determining results, and a loss of popular enthusiasm and universal intelligence concerning educational endeavors. As a matter of course, there is\nreasonable response in the beginning to the requirements of the new order\nof affairs, giving these experts and dictators much to show in statistical results;\nbut it should be remembered that their dependence at present is upon a people\nthat have been trained for public service and that the new method will not\ntrain the coming generation to any equivalent degree. The education and\nthe training of a free and a reliant people depend upon their having an\nopportunity to test and use their capabilities to the fullest extent. Arbitrary\nstandards are not substitutes for a genuine living interest; passive submission\nis not equivalent to experienced action; ready acceptance of the plans of\nauthority without thoro investigation is not a thoughtful, valuable method of\nprocedure. Wherever expert control prevails, highly organized systems are\npossible because formalism takes the place of popular spirit, regulations and\nrestrictions are substituted for cordial co-operative endeavor, examinations\nand records are regarded as evidences of progress and improvement, rather\nthan the realities of the attainment of self-control, individual responsibility,\nand personal enthusiasm among the pupils. Having nothing to be responsible\nfor ruins the efficiency of a democracy, because the mere fact of classifying\nthe people as incompetent to act lessens the capability already possessed, and\nthe transfer of responsibility from those originally possessing it destroys even\ntheir chance for development and improvement.\n2. There is a growing tendency to accept the domination of college influence in the conduct of public-school activities on the notion that these managers\nof higher education are particularly well qualified to decide correctly the\nproblems involved. This dictation aims in a friendly and persuasive way\nto decide the formulation of the courses of study, the number and variety of\nteachers that are needed, the special kind of scholastic and training qualifications the teachers should possess, the equipment and accommodations that\nshould be furnished, the number of months and years that work should be\nmaintained in each branch in the course of study in order that the graduates\nof these public schools may be received by these colleges on the face of the\nstatements made by their principals. For all this conceding of supremacy to\nthe college point of view, these public schools are granted the honor of being\nprinted on the accredited list and of publishing to the world the distinction\nthus conferred. While, in fact, this assumed authority is more implied than\nreal, yet it has had the effect of largely granting what is demanded, as ambitious\nteachers and school boards enjoy the compliments thus bestowed and are\nproud of the honorable mention that is thus obtained. By these combinations\nof colleges into associations and these separate associations being united\ninto still higher associations, an educational trust has been formed that controls\nmore men of influence, more work of the public, and more capital of the people\nthan any other business combination has been able to bring to pass. Out of\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthis plan of co-operation has grown up the system of standards and of quantitative measurement of everything educational, so that quality is almost entirely\nignored and differences in personal capability and accomplishment are not\nregarded. It is true that quantitative standards are easy to determine, compared to qualitative standards, yet it seems regrettable that an education is\nmeasured by years, by exercises, by pages in a laboratory* book, and by so\nmany lectures, quizzes, and examinations. Quantitative ideals determine\nthe fitness of teachers by the degrees they have obtained; they decide courses\nof study by the attainment of so many points; they define diplomas by units,\nand they designate scholarship by time spent rather than by degree of qualifications shown.\nThis whole procedure is based upon the fallacy that the chief business\nof educational work is to prepare pupils to undertake higher educational work,\nthat the high school is maintained to fit its pupils to enter college, and that\nthe function of the public school is always that of getting boys and girls ready,\nnot for life, but for higher education. At the same time it is true that the\nmass of pupils that are in these high schools are never to enter college, and\ntheir own personal capability and future prospects are such that such an\nundertaking would be against their best interests. Altho most of them will,\nand rightly should, turn their attention to the industries, yet the teachers in\ncharge, because of the training they have had and because of the ideals they\npossess thru their education, are in complete sympathy with college notions\nof what constitutes the most successful life, and are entirely opposed to the\ncareers that the most of their pupils are destined to follow. In the eagerness\nto get credit for sending boys and girls to college, it is too commonly forgotten\nthat the masses of those being taught are destined for careers that should\nreceive much different attention than the preparation for the standard college\nrequires. It has been too long accepted that preparation for college and\npreparation for life are one and the same thing.\nThe need for a preparation more practical. — Just such influences as these\nare against the best interests of the masses, since the people demand a more\npractical education than is now given and they are not mistaken as to the\nreality of their need. The claim that the schools are conducted simply to\ngive discipline of mind and preparation for more advanced speculative study,\nrather than to give training for industrial and business careers, is not acceptable at this time. The masses realize the need for the boys and girls to learn\nhow to make an honest living for themselves and their future families, and\nthey are not impressed by results that are not real and productive. They\nare not willing to spend time, money, or energy in following a leadership that\nconcludes that the common people do not know what they need and are not\ndeserving to have their real needs recognized. Civilization depends upon\nboth the scholar and the worker for its magnificence; but while it might\nget along without the scholar, it can never continue without the worker. For\nthat reason elementary and secondary education should be conducted for\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n421\n\nthe many rather than the few, and the spirit and function of higher learning\nis not necessarily the spirit and the function of public education for the masses.\nThe hope of America depends upon the intelligence, the capability, the\npracticability, and the power of the individual men that combine to make\nup the body politic. It is such as these that register the majorities on election\nday; that decree the degrees of prosperity of our great industrial enterprises;\nthat determine the success of our national existence by the power of democracy;\nthat decide the destiny of liberty and independence. It is in our great cities\nthat national dangers are said to lurk and that the conditions threaten the\nfoundations of society; and yet right here educational management is\nmonarchal, repubUcan principles are not tested, the popular will is unknown,\nand the value and importance of free institutions are unrealized. It is true that\npublic prosperity in American institutions depends upon the popular election,\nthat the use of the franchise is necessary to good, reliable citizenship, and\nthat without it the populace are not being trained for American responsibility\nor opportunity. Any other method is un-American in that it recognizes the\nclasses and overlooks the masses. It is for these reasons that the power of\nthe people needs to be kept up to the maximum, that the conducting of popular\neducation should be their direct interest and they should be constantly trained\nto choose wisely and well. It is for these reasons that the dictator and the\nexpert should not be developed on this soil at the expense and the judgment\nof the common man. It is for these reasons that the education of the masses\nin and out of school is the most important service to accomplish, since only\nby that means are they able to be effective in protecting liberty, spreading\nintelligence, and preserving righteousness. On such conditions being realized\ndepend not alone public success but also public happiness. On such principles\nbeing accepted and enforced by the leaders of our people in the attempted\nenfranchisement of the common people from superstition and ignorance\ndepend the perpetuity of free institutions and the greatness of national life.\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam Seneca Sutton, dean of the Department of Education, the University\nof Texas, Austin, Tex. — President Seerley is to be congratulated upon his vigorous\ndefense of the fundamental doctrine that the freedom of the individual and the freedom\nof the local community should be kept sacred by a people living under a democratic form\nof government. The grounds for his contention were succinctly stated some years ago\nby our ambassador to Great Britain during the Cleveland administration. In an address\ndelivered before the Edinburgh Philosophical Society that minister declared that \"the freedom of its individual members is the essential basis of the freedom of the state;\" and that\n\" the individual freedom of man's mind and soul is the instrument by which the world, under\nthe very laws of its origin and progress, has been raised from brutality and barbarism to its\npresent state of civilization.\" From a psychological standpoint the principle might be\nstated thus: Self -activity is the universal, fundamental law of human progress. Perhaps\nthe greatest objection that can be advanced against the theory of government, as outlined\nio Plato's Republic, is that he forgot this all-important principle which requires self -activity\non the part of the individual units composing the larger civil unit known as the state, and\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "422 '\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nintrusted the entire management of affairs to philosopher-rulers — the aristocratic few who\nhad reached the stage of insight into pure being.\nI am delighted at the evidence President Seerley has given of his rock-ribbed faith in\ndemocracy, for nothing is likely to bring more joy to the heart of a Texan than to meet a\ndemocrat from Iowa. Speaking seriously, I believe that the members of this Council are\nsuflBciently in sympathy with the overruling tendency of modern life to agree cordially with\nPresident Seerley in his protest against enfeebling the spirit of personal and local development; for, if history teaches us any lesson at all, it is that all forms of aristocracy, being\ninimical to the distinctly human element, reason, should not be tolerated in the organization\nand administration of modern systems of education. A less polite way of stating the same\ntruth could be framed in these words: \"The man who favors aristocracy, like the man who\nsays there is no God, is a fool,\" for his policy does not rest upon a rational basis. The idea\nthat man resists subjection to continuous external regulation was in the mind of the wag\nwho remarked that the Puritan's idea of hell is that it is a place where everybody attends\nto his own business.\nWhile the principle of personal liberty is thorol/ sound, yet there are limits to its application. Individu£j,l liberty does not imply that one is to exercise it unrestrained or that he\nis to enjoy, as it were, the freedom of the wild ass of the desert. Liberty is not absolute\nindependence; but it is a right to be manifested in conformity with rational law, civil and\nsocial. The individual is under bond to consider his obligations to the social groups with\nwhich he is identified, as are those groups to leave inviolate the sacredness of his own individuality. Likewise, the idea of local self-government may become so strongly emphasized\nas to destroy the bonds of the larger social units which are necessary to the protection and\nthe development of the local unit itself. Certainly, in the organization of the school system\nin any state of the American Union, a canon concerning which there can be no question\nis that the system is to be a state system; for surely the state, that is to say, all the people\nco-operating with one another, is responsible for the organization and maintenance of the\nelementary, as well as of the secondary and the higher, schools. The school in any local\ndistrict does not belong to that district exclusively; it has been established by the state,\nand is subject to the laws of the state, which is interested, primarily, in the development\nof a high order of citizenship and manhood thruout her entire territory. A public school,\nI repeat, is not a local institution, and any system of organization which does not recognize\nthe interest of the state in every one of her public schools, and which does not recognize the\nduty of the state to see to it that her interest therein is properly safeguarded and properly\nrespected, will inevitably be wanting in that unity which is absolutely necessary to rational\nprogress. Any school system in which the principle of unity is not recognized, or in which\nit is but feebly recognized, will result in a multiplicity of systems, each more or less antagonistic to the other, thereby defeating the purpose of the people, who, in the constitution\nand the laws of their state, have declared there shall be one system only.\nI fear that President Seerley, because of his devotion to the rights of the individual,\nhas fallen into two errors. The first one of these errors is that the gradual enlargement\nof the authority of the superintendent of public instruction or of the state board of education\nis a movement which is leading in the direction of educational autocracy, which will reduce\nthe local school ofl&cers to a state of educational peonage, and which will, finally, destroy\nthe affection of the people for their own schools in their respective communities. So far\nas I am informed, there is not a state in our Union that is today suffering, or that in the\nnear or the remote future is likely to suffer, from vicious interference with local rights on\nthe part of state educational authority. Certainly, of all the sections of the American Union,\nthe South has furnished the highest evidence of loyalty to the political doctrine of local\nself-government, and yet she is rapidly learning the great lesson that local self-government\nis by no means inconsistent with state sovereignty. We in the South are beginning to\nrealize the fact that the local community and the state at large have their proper function^\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n423\n\nand that as civilization increases and becomes more complete the functions of each may\nvary. The ward of a city has a right to its existence; the municipality likewise has its\nfunctions; but surely he would be a brave, not to say a foolish, political economist, that\nwould put the county and the state, and even the nation, out of business. One of the greatest problems in human history has been to devise ways and means whereby man can maintain his freedom and at the same time be loyal to institutions to which he owes allegiance,\nand whereby strong and efficient institutions may so function as not to encroach upon the\nrights and destroy the individuality of the rank and file of its membership. In the history\nof the world, the founding and development of the American republic is perhaps the most\nnotable example of an attempt to solve the difficult problem above briefly described. The\ntheory upon which our government is built gives a large place to the idea of local self-government, but it also leaves room for the exercise of rights and the discharge of obligations\nwhich belong to higher political units.\nWhat I believe to be a second mistaken judgment of President Seerley is that the\nAmerican state university is inspired in its work by the ideals of the trust — and by the ideals\nof the wicked trust, at that. Here again my observation and my information lead me to\nentertain an opinion directly contrary to that presented by President Seerley. Certainly,\nin the South, as well as in other states of our country, the policies of state universities have\nbeen democratic in the highest degree. In all the southern states during the last ten or\nfifteen years there has been waged a continuous campaign in behalf of popular education,\nand in that campaign university regents, university presidents, and members of university\nfaculties have made large contributions in the way of time and service and money. From\nVirginia to Texas, university people have been preaching the gospel of democracy. They\nhave repeatedly urged that the school system in any state is one system, and that the several\nphases of that system are not only important, but also necessary to the welfare of the people.\nThe universities, because of the fact that each stands at the head of the school system, have,\nwithout apology, exercised the functions of leadership; but they have by no means regarded\nthat leadership in a democracy means vassalage to the led. The universities today understand that leadership implies intelligent and consecrated service, and, with no hope of\nreward or fear of punishment before their eyes, they are determined to persevere in the\ndischarge, in every honorable and practicable way, of the duties of educational leadership.\n\nII.\n\nTHE\n\nEDWARD\n\nPROVINCE\n\nT.\n\nOF STATE BOARDS AND STATE SUPERINTENDENTS IN THE ADMINISTRATION\nOF\nPUBLIC EDUCATION\n\nFAIRCHILD,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nTION, TOPEKA, KANS.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUC-\n\nAltho forty-two states and territories have some form of educational board\nand state functions, and every state and territory has a state superintendent,\nthere seems to be nowhere a definite and agreed statement as to the proper\nfunction and province of these agencies. It would be well indeed if the whole\nscope and function of these educational factors were thoroly studied and\na wise agreement arrived at. Perhaps the majority of opinion holds that the\nsuperintendent should be an executive, while the board of education should\nbe largely advisory in its operation. In practice we find that the duties and\npowers of the state superintendent range from the purely mechanical, or the\nmerely perfunctory, to the most complete and almost autocratic power.\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "424\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[NaUonal\n\nState boards of education also are found to differ widely in the authority\nimposed and the duties assigned.\nFrom such experience as has fallen to the speaker, and from such study\nas he has been able to make, the following conclusions are submitted:\nThe superintendent of public instruction should be appointed, preferably\nby a state board of education which is itself, as neariy as possible, a permanent\nbody.\nThe superintendent should be an executive officer with large powers of\ninitiative.\nHe should be clothed with ample authority to carry out and enforce.\nHe should have time and means at his disposal to make an exhaustive\ninvestigation of all educational problems and conditions within the field imder\nhis control.\nHis duties and certain authority should extend to the higher institutions,\nas well as to the elementary and secondary schools. It should be his duty\nto come into the closest possible touch T^ith the teaching body and with the\nstudent body, in order that he, of all persons, may know intimately their\nneeds and stand as their advocate before the people.\nHe should be executive and constructive.\nHis relations to the state board of education and to the law should be\nsuch as to insure to him much freedom of action and full opportunity to propose, to de\\'ise, and to direct.\nHe should have large power, and yet his usefulness and eflficiency may be\ngreatly advanced by sharing certain authority and responsibility ^ith others.\nIt is his pro\\-ince above all things to be a helpful and sympathetic coworker,\na wise and loyal friend, an encouraging and inspiring leader.\nTo him is given the opportunity of the widest acquaintance with all classes\nand conditions of people. The opportunities afforded by his position are\ngreater than are enjoyed by any other educational officer. The problems\nto be solved are more varied, and the means of solution more ample than in\nany other field of educational activity. It is the superintendent's task to\nseek by every means at his command to unif\\* all the educational forces of the\nstate, to labor in season and out of season for solidarity on the part of educators;\nto urge constantly the truth that in the rural school, the secondary school,\nthe college, and the university there is but one common aim — the best possible\ntraining for citizenship.\nThat a state board of education may render the greatest possible ser\\-ice,\nit seems desirable that such a body should be permanent in character. The\npolicy obsen^ in certain states of providing by law or constitution that the\nheads of certain of the institutions of higher instruction shall be members of\nthe state board of education, and p^o^•iding further that certain other members shall be selected from designated school departments, seems to work well\nin practice. It is doubtful whether a s)*stem that proWdes for the appointing\nof all the members is either a safe or a wise one. Further, experience seems i\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n425\n\nto demonstrate that the state board should be composed largely of educators.\nBecause of the dignity and character of its personnel, a state board of\neducation thus composed would be most effective in establishing and in\nsustaining public sentiment in favor of the highest and best things in education. Among the problems that may well be committed to such a body are\nthe following:\nThe state board should be authorized and required to formulate courses of study\nfor all classes of schools; to prepare examination questions and examine manuscripts\nof all applicants who aspire to teach in the pubhc schools; to formulate rules and\nregulations for the distribution of all state taxes levied for school purposes, and to\nestablish standard requirements for the various classes of schools benefiting from such\nfunds: to fix the basis of promotion, and to determine the standard of accrediting the\nwork in the grades, the secondary schools, the colleges and universities, and to provide\nrules and regulations for the inspection of all accredited schools; to inaugurate plans\nand advocate measures for the betterment of the school system; and when additional\nlegislation is necessary to assist in formulating the needed enactments, and in securing\ntheir passage.\nWith a view to correlating and unifying the work of the various departments of\neducation the state board may with great propriety and profit arrange conferences of\ncollege presidents, of superintendents of schools, of principals of secondary schools, of\ncounty superintendents, and boards of education. These boards might also be clothed\nwith power to establish standards of quaUfications for county superintendents.\nAn important function and one that may properly come within the province of the\nboard is the authority to determine the unit of school organization, and to advoca.e by\nevery means in its power the enlargement of such unit to a point equal in extent to the\ncountry.\nA further important duty that might well be committed to such a body is full authority to organize and to direct the policy of teachers' institutes.\nFurther, the whole question of the requirements as to kind and character oi school\nbuildings, rules and regulations relating to fire protection and sanitary provisions should\nbe placed in charge of the state board.\n\nWhile some of the suggestions just made may seem to be away from, rather\nthan toward, popular government, yet it is in full harmony with the trend of\nevents today. City government by commission is rapidly extending and\nhas proved to be the most efficient, the most speedy, the most economical,\nand perhaps the most satisfactory disposition of a vexed public problem that\nhas yet been tried. Certainly it is a decided step toward centralization, and\nis at wide variance with the usual conception of popular government; nevertheless, results show that it is the best type of popular government in that\nthe interests of the people are securely guarded, and inefficiency and extravagance are largely eliminated.\nIt is this principle that we would apply to the management of our schools.\nNo system, as a whole, could be devised that is more extravagant, more\nwasteful, or less efficient in securing direct results than the system in vogue\nin this country with relation to the management of our schools. We have\nan army of over 5oo,cxx) teachers, managed by another army of over 2,5oo,ocx3.\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "426\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nofficers — a condition of affairs that insures extravagance, represents a vast\namount of wasted energy, and renders certain a disastrous lack of unity and\nco-ordination. If, then, such powers as have been suggested could be placed\nin the hands of state boards of education and of state superintendents, might\nwe not confidently expect that the business of our schools would be conducted\nwith much of the dispatch, the authority, and the intelligence displayed by\nthe commissioners in city government ? Might we not hope for an improvement in the kind and character of our schools such as the fondest enthusiast\nand the most ardent well-wisher does not now dream to be possible for a\nhundred years to come ?\nUndoubtedly the powers and duties of state boards of education could,\nwith great profit, be extended in practically all of our states. Above all, it is\nthe province of such boards to be leaders in educational thought, the rallying\npoint for schoolmen, and the center of school initiative. It might well be\nthe fixed policy of every state to increase in every way the legitimate field\nof activity, and the dignity and importance of state boards of education. The\nstate superintendent and the state board should be the court of last resort to\nwhich the public may with confidence come for wise and timely advice, and for\nthe clear expression of the best and latest thought on all matters educational.\n///.\n\nTHE FUNCTION OF COUNTY AND CITY BOARDS AND\nSUPERINTENDENTS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\nCHARLES\n\nH.\n\nKEYES,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nHARTFORD,\n\nCONN.\n\nThe strongest advocates of extreme centralization in government must\nadmit that, in the practical and efficient administration of public education,\nfour fields of authority must be occupied by local officials. The teacher, the\ncurriculum, the school plant, and the school finances must be largely if not\nentirely subject to the control of local boards and superintendents.\nThe most important duty falling upon those charged with the administration of schools is without doubt that of selecting suitable teachers. The\nutmost the state can do profitably in this field under our American system of\ngovernment is to prescribe the minimimi qualification with which a teacher\nmay enter into the service of her schools, and possibly certify to some higher\ngrades of professional equipment for this work. We shall, I think, all heartily\nagree that the state shall fix the standard for the certification of persons as\neligible to teach in her public schools; but the appointment and the assignment of teachers to any special set or system of schools must be left entirely\nto the local superintendent and board. This further implies the power to\ndetermine the salaries of teachers beyond a statutory minimum which the\nstate may fix for all teachers toward whose wages the state makes any contribution from the public funds. The minimimi salary laws which have\nbeen enacted in a few of our states do not undertake to fix the recompense of\nteachers in any particular city or town. They simply declare that the board\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n427\n\nvested with the authority to determine salaries shall not fix any below the\nstatutory minimum for the state. Niggardly boards in some localities will\npersist in interpreting the minimum limitation as a fixing of salary; but the\nfact remains that the local board must accept this responsibility. If it chooses\nto say, ''We will establish salaries at the lowest figures the law permits,\"\nit has that right; but it cannot evade responsibility for the determination.\nThe local authority must also have the right to exact for its service qualifications additional to those prescribed in the common certification law of the\nstate. To meet special conditions, to realize certain high aims for its schools,\nto warrant life and growth in its teaching force, local authority should always\nbe vested with power to require for its service more than the minimum qualifications.\nThe supervision of the teaching force of the city or town must of course\ndevolve on the local superintendent. So to help and guide a teacher as to\nenable her to do her own best work in her own best way is the function of\nthe local supervisor to whom her work is daily accessible. But here again\nco-operation with central authority may be important. The character of\nthe teaching acceptable as preparation for the colleges, normal schools, or\nother higher institutions supported by the state is a proper subject of consideration bysupervisors representing the state and its higher institutions.\nSo intelligent and sympathetic co-operation between state and local superintendents ^often\ns\nabsolutely essential to the most effective development of\nlocal school systems. »\nIn the matter of curriculum the state may prescribe the subjects which\nmust be taught in all its schools. It has even undertaken to prescribe in\nsome states the course of study which must be followed in all its common\nschools; but the utmost sanction such prescription may have, lies in the wisdom\ng,s a body of school doctrine. It becomes in any case advisory rather than\nmandatory. In cities and towns the right to reshape and add to such courses\nor to originate entirely new curricula must be within the authority of the local\nsuperintendent and committee. In the exercise of this authority, they are\nagain prevented from enacting a course of study requiring less in quantity or\nquality than the general statute prescribes.\nThe limits of the school year may so largely determine the quantity of work\nto be done, that the authority vested with power to fix these limits must always\nbe free to shape the curriculum. Material resources and industrial conditions\nmay enter to demand variations in varying communities. Hence it will\nalways be wise to leave this power with local school authorities.\nThe effectiveness of the course of study depends in a large measure upon\nthe provision of the material conditions of its successful administration. The\nlocal officials alone have the right to furnish the books, maps, charts, apparatus,\nand supplies necessary or desirable in carrying the course of study into effect.\nThey hold the community purse, and it is unwise to place in any other hands\nthe shaping of the curriculum. These allied functions should never be usurped\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nby the state but should be left to the local committee and its supervising\nofficers.\nHere again it must be borne in mind that whenever schools of the local\nsystem are designed to articulate their work with that done in higher institutions supported by the state, it is important that local supervision shall be\nreinforced by constructive criticism emanating from representatives of the\nstate and its institutions. It is this co-operation between state and local\nsupervision that has built up the best secondary-school systems of the country.\nThis has been done by state and local officials in some instances. Minnesota\nand Wisconsin furnish good illustrations of this mode. Again it is the result\nof joint work done by representatives of state universities and secondary-school\nofficials. California and Michigan give us the best illustration of this method.\nIt is also brought about by the intellectual and moral force of a higher institution not recognized by statute as having any relation to the local school.\nMassachusetts furnishes us the best example of this method of reinforcing\nlocal supervision of secondary schools.\nSome states have wisely seen fit to prescribe thru their state boards of\neducation or health, or both, common requirements as to the ventilation, heat,\nlighting, sanitation, and safety of school buildings. But the complete power\nwithin these prescriptions to determine the character and arrangement of\nschool buildings, fix their cost and location, subject to the popular approval\nof the community, should always be vested in the local officers. \\n no other\nway can communities be educated to a proper responsibility for the provision\nof suitable school plants in which to educate a promising citizenship.\nControl and maintenance of the school plant in keeping with the fundamental state regulation for health and safety is a function that must be discharged exclusively by local boards. The responsibility for poor or inadequate\nschool buildings, or for good ones unsanitarily kept, must always be shouldered\nby the community; and accordingly the function of control and maintenance\nof the school buildings and grounds should always devolve upon the local\nauthority.\nFinancial administration of the communit/s schools, subject on the one\nhand to a reasonable state exaction as to adequacy, and on the other to popular\ncontrol of appropriations, is a fourth function that must always be vested in\nthe local boards. This board alone can fairly and intelligently fix the tax\nrate for current expenses. Upon this board should devolve the duty of\napportioning the school revenues among the four great occasions of expenditure: (i) instruction and supervision; (2) books and educational supplies;\n(3) maintenance and repairs of buildings and grounds; and (4) janitorial\nservice and supplies.\nThe exercise of faithful and intelligent control over these four items —\nteachers, curriculum, school plant, and school finances — ^by the board and\nsuperintendent, directly responsible to the community, will result in the\ndevelopment of an educational sentiment that can never be developed under\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n429\n\nstate control. It will be based on the knowledge and insight that come from\nservice, and will beget sympathy and interest. It will result in a popular\nconviction of responsibihty for schools and teachers not anxious for vainglorious leadership, but devoted to the highest service of the child.\nThus far in this discussion I have chosen to consider the board and superintendent inthe city or town as the only types of local supervision. I have\ndone this not because I am unmindful of the large school interests committed\nto county superintendents in many of our states, but because I believe this\nbody of officers is representative of a transition in our educational development. Town and joint district supervision must come with the increase of\npopulation and wealth and the advance of educational ideals. Intelligent\nlimits must be set to the territory and the number of schools for which supervision isexpected from a single officer.\nWhen this is done the supervisor of rural schools must stand in the same\nrelation to state supervision as does the city or town superintendent.\nDISCUSSION\nW. T. Carrington, president of State Normal School, Springfield, Mo. — One\ncannot take issue with Superintendent Keyes in any of his statements. He has presented\nwell the general principles upon which any statutes relating to school administration must\nbe formulated. There is not much to be said further than to agree that the function of the\nstate in the administration of school affairs must deal primarily with the minimum, and\nleave to the county and city the right and the duty to go farther in any or all of the mentioned fields of authority.\nIt must be remembered, however, that local school boards get from the state whatever\nrights they have in levying school taxes, in holding the community purse, in supplying\nproper equipment, in prescribing courses of study, in determining the qualifications of\nteachers, arid in fixing salaries and lengths of terms. It is, then, the duty of the state to\nprovide as nearly as possible equal school privileges for all the children of the state, and\nequal burdens of taxation for that purpose on all persons and subjects of taxation.\nTo accomplish these ends the state must direct local authorities what to do, and must\nso administer its laws relating to schools as to accomplish the desired ends. In doing this\nit would not be wise to discourage local initiative nor, on the other hand, to encourage\ninactivity or permit any community to do less than provide standard opportunities for all\nchildren under its jurisdiction.\nIn recent years there is a strong tendency to centralize capital. This makes it the\nduty of the state to bear a larger proportion of the necessary expenses in maintaining schools,\nto the end that school privileges and burdens of taxation may be more nearly equalized.\nThis duty of the state carries with it added responsibility in the supervision of schools.\nThe state school moneys should be apportioned to local school units more liberally, and\nproportioned to their needs, conditioned in every case on the district's maintaining the best\nschools possible considering its ability. This would make close state supervision of a\nschools necessary, but would in no way lessen the responsibility or authority of local school\nboards and superintendents. The state would then inspect and ascertain the tax rate, the\nlength of term, the qualification of the teacher, the salary, the curriculum, the school plant\nand equipment. Increased apportionments used as a premium on strong efforts to meet\nideal conditions, and decreased apportionments as penalties for weak efforts will tend to\nequalize conditions, but will not bring to all children equal opportunities nor equalize\ntaxation completely.\nCompetent state officials should be authorized to levy sufficient\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nsupplementary local tax within certain constitutional limitations to maintain high standards,\nwhen local authorities neglect or refuse to do so. The state should reserve to itself the\nright to remove a teacher who cannot or does not maintain ias high standard of work as\nshould be expected of the community, and to put someone in charge temporarily to bring\nthe work up to standard, should the local school officials neglect or refuse to do so.\nThis should not be considered centralized authority. The state would simply exercise\nthe reserved right when a local unit created by the state did not do all that had been\nassigned it to do. Such state supervision would not affect any community awake to the\ninterests of its schools. It would not prevent or discourage local initiative. It would\nhelp to standardize the school work in all weak districts.\nIn advocating the fixing of standards by state authority, it is not intended that it shall\nbe a leveling. Let there be mountain peaks of eflSciency in our work, heavens lighted,\nas it were, to which those in the valley may turn their faces for hope and inspiration.\nThere are two extremes to be avoided in localizing authority in school administration,\nOne is the inbreeding of low school ideals, a becoming self-satisfied and static; the other\nis a too frequent reshaping of courses of study and of policies, and the too frequent change\nin the personnel of the teaching corps.\nIf difference there be concerning the province of local school boards and superintendents, itis in the definition and limitation. By stretching Superintendent Keyes' minimum\nup to mean standard, we agree. Standard school work must not have frills or many of\nthe things that have recently been added for the avowed purpose of enriching, but it must\nhave all the essentials and look to results. Again I would have the larger unit have the\nlast say. In all matters, both large and small, that is the best government in which authority is least exercised. That is undoubtedly the best school system that has little need for\nsupport or direction from without.\n\nIV.\n\nW.\n\nTHE\n\nO.\n\nPROVINCE\nOF STATE\nEDUCATIONAL\nINSTITUTIONS IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC\nEDUCATION\n\nTHOMPSON,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nOHIO\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nOHIO\n\nThe right to administer is based on authority. Usually this authority\nis delegated by statute. This authority is therefore always to be defined by\nan interpretation of the statute. Usually these statutes are of a broad and\ngeneral character, leaving a large amount of discretion to be guided by intelligent judgment. Such delegation of authority is rather unusual, the reason\nbeing that most state institutions have been developed subsequent to the\ndevelopment of elementary education. Higher education is therefore looked\nupon as the outgrowth of the principles and methods employed in the more\nelementary forms of education. Historically, the higher education in the\nform of institutions under private control is practically contemporaneous with\nthe development of elementary education. These institutions, however, were\nnot regarded as a part of a system of public free education. The result was\nthat their position in elementary education was influential rather than authoritative. Subsequently, the development of state universities was in the\nsame general direction. These institutions were first regarded as a public\nform of higher education. Their correlation with elementary and secondary\neducation was slow, gradual, and in most instances without any general\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n431\n\nrecognition of their legal relation to the other parts of the system of public\neducation. At the outset, their position also was influential rather than\nauthoritative. There was some resentment of any effort to assume any\nright or authority to direct and control beyond their own area.\nThese institutions of higher education usually were given power thru the\ntrustees, or faculty, or both, to fix the standards for entrance, exit, or permanent\nenrollment as alumni. This control was complete as to the institution itself.\nThe result is that all these institutions have acted under their rights, as defined\nby the constitution or statute, and have proceeded to outline with definiteness\nthe area of higher education.\nAs these institutions have broadened their work, it became necessary that\nthey should do a considerable amount of elementary work in the subjects of\ninstruction. Secondary education could not lengthen itself beyond four\nyears, and this period was not adequate for even a beginning in all the subjects\nthat by common consent should form part of the education beyond the period\nof the secondary school. This has been true of work in modern languages\nand recently in- some of the work in the classic languages where the elective\nprinciple has been adopted in secondary education. It was almost universal\nin science a generation ago, and at this date the chief exceptions are physics\nand chemistry.\nThe situation referred to rendered a certain indirect control of secondary\neducation inevitable. The fact that the colleges set the entrance requirements\nmade it necessary for secondary schools to meet these requirements if their\ngraduates were to go on with higher education. This control, at the outset,\ncovered two points:\nFirst — The subject-matter of the secondary school.\nSecond — The amount required for entrance to college and therefore for\ngraduation from the secondary school.\nAs a result of educational conferences, in which the National Education\nAssociation has been the most active, there have been some changes agreed\nto by representatives of secondary schools and higher education. We are\nfamiliar with the discussion, if not contest, as to the source of control. There\nis a widespread belief that the secondary school should be complete in itself\nwith more emphasis upon its own mission as a public institution than upon\nit as a preparation for higher education. Indeed, this principle is stoutly\nmaintained as applying to the relation between the elementary school and\nthe secondary school. Secondary-school men have with some justice regarded\nthemselves as nearer the people and probably more competent to determine\nwhat secondary education should be than college and university men. Candor\nrequires us to admit that the doctrine of specialization as developed in our\ncolleges has narrowed the vision and probably chilled the s)mipathies of such\nmen in the matter of secondary education. The university professor, long\nseparated from popular education and intensely devoted to a limited area of\na given subject, is apt to ignore or neglect other forms of education while\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nhe develops a student who is entirely ignorant of education in its larger outlook.\nThe unportance of any study of education receives little emphasis in university\ncircles. A very small percentage of the modern university faculty has any\nintelligence upon the problems of education. They are usually experts in\ntheir own chosen subjects, but far from it in the field of education. The\nresult is that most of these men are not competent to administer any system\nof pubUc education. The development of universities has been in the interest\nof technical scholarship and the advancement of science rather than in the\npreparation of men either to teach or to administer. The assumption that a\nman who knows his subject is always able to teach it is not well founded, since\nwe are teaching students rather than subjects, and since the place of a subject in any educational system is a very different problem from the question\nas to the place of such a subject in the industrial or commercial or civic Hfe\nof the people. These conditions make even the indirect control of public\neducational systems by persons in charge of specialized education always a\nmatter of doubt and ^debate. The freedom of university education has left\nabundant opportunity for faculties to follow their own preferences in the\narrangement of courses of study. This is not always an assurance that these\ncourses will be arranged with a view of preparing men to teach in secondary\nschools, or of arranging them in such way as to allow the secondary student\nto make easy progress from the standpoint of his earlier preparation.\nManifestly, the administration of education is closely tied up with the\nquestion of revenue. While education is free, the machinery is expensive.\nThere is a manifest tendency on the part of specialists in education to require\na large expenditure for administration. This may be both necessary and\nwise; into that question I do not enter. I only call attention to the fact that\nthe limitation of revenues marks the limitation of what can be successfully\nattempted either in education or in the administration of it. The specialist\nis quite apt to say that he is not responsible for anything other than the promulgation ofa sound theory. It is his business to say what ought to be.\nHe deals with the ideal. Those in charge of administration must deal with\nthe real, and the most real of all problems is the financial one. At the present\ntime there is a widespread feeling in every part of the country favoring more\nextended education. There is an equally widespread distrust of our revenue\nsystem, coupled with the feeling that Uttle more progress is possible until\nrevenue reform has been inaugurated. Revenues are not usually under\ncontrol of those who administer. Persuasion is their privilege but not authority. The result is that the leaders in administering education are subjected\nto the will of those who hold the purse. This is probably a wise provision,\nbut one cannot resist the statement that intelligence in providing revenues,\nas matters go, is an accident rather than a purpose. Moreover, there is\nenough of unintelligent appropriation of revenues of education to furnish\nthe critical objector a good deal of argument in favor of economy and of\nlimiting the authority of those who administer.\nSo long as this condition\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEMS\n\n433\n\nremains, and it is probably permanent, those who administer education will\nfind themselves limited by the hard doctrine of necessity. Under these\nconditions it would seem as if the province of state institutions would be indirect\nrather than direct.\nDISCUSSION\nJames H. Baker, president of University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. — In the main\nI agree with the views of this paper, and believe that the influence of educational institutions should not be direct and authoritative, but indirect and co-operative. Since the principles of the subject have already been presented, I can do no better than to give one or\ntwo concrete illustrations: I may refer to one state where the State Board of Examiners,\nhaving most of the functions usually given to the so-called State Board of Education, is\nmade up of appointees of the heads of the state educational institutions, one for each\ninstitution, and other appointees selected from the superintendents and principals of public\nschools. The plan so far appears to work well and has the elements that make possible\na just balance of influence, opinion, and action, based upon a complete knowledge of all\npoints of view and of the interrelation between the schools and the colleges. In this same\nstate, the state university is accustomed to invite a high-school conference from time to\ntime to discuss from the high-school standpoint the problems of admission, etc., and this\nconference is not weighted with university influence or opinions. The charge that college\nprofessors, devoted as they should be to their specialities, eager for results in their own field\nof investigation and instruction, and emphasizing the importance of their own, have not a\nsympathetic understanding of public-school problems is not without foundation. But I\nbglieve that the tendency is to connect every college department with the broad interests\nof the state and of the schools, and that administrative officers are trying to bring about a\nhelpful understanding, by conference and co-operation, between college faculties and the\nschools of elementary and secondary grade.\nJohn R. Kirk, president of State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. — By custom the\nchief care of school superintendents has become the elementary school. The predetermining of the procedure in high schools is largely surrendered to examining boards or to university traveling agents, called inspectors. The latter engage in dictating who the high-school\nteachers shall be and what may be studied in the high school.\nThe universities seem gradually to seek the control of all education thru standardization. They would determine directly the limits of colleges and normal schools and thru\nsuch action control indirectly the elementary schools. For proof of these facts read the\nproceedings of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools.\nThe trend is to Europeanize American education. Avowedly the purpose is standardization. The universities set no bounds to their own functions and yet would hold\nthe colleges and normal schools within narrow limits. They would also define rigidly\nthe limits of secondary schools.\nVoluntary standardization based upon principles of democracy is desirable, but standardization bycentralized power is destructive of self-activity and self-respect. It tends\nto bring about castes in American education as the same exist in European education.\nThe dean of a university teachers' college recently stated that normal-school presidents and\nprofessors were not in the same class with university professors. Another such dean\nrecently told me that the girl graduates of his teachers' college held themselves to be of a\nhigher social class than those preparing to teach in elementary schools. Similar illustrations are abundant.\nAdministration thru the universities very strongly inclines high-school teachers to\niadopt university views and ways, to imitate the university professors in school tactics, and\n[to conform obsequiously to university requirements regardless of individual judgment or\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\neflSciency of public education. Many teachers at this time are attending university summer schools solely because, as they state, they cannot otherwise maintain themselves in the\ncaste which the university approves. Thus thru examinations, inspection, domination,\nand administration by universities we see self-respect destroyed, independence undermined,\ncentralization increased, personal initiative discouraged, and American education\nEuropeanized.\nAll this needs to be broken into. The poorest alleged teaching in our country is by\nuniversity professors. Only a small percentage of them can pass muster as skillful teachers.\nThey are lecturers, students, investigators, collaborators, men of lofty purpose, usually\nout of touch with the masses of himianity and unmindful of the fact that education is thru\nself-activity or personal initiative. The way of the lecture-room is the way of authority,\nalways bordering on dogmatism. Some days after the lecture its content is pumped out\nof the student by the \"exam\" or the \"quiz,\" usually requiring the reproduction of knowledge without much change in going thru the consciousness of the student.\nA typical inspector declared recently that if the university admitted students to its\ndoors, then the university must inspect and examine such students and prescribe what persons should teach them. While this man illustrates the unmistakable tendency toward\ncentralization in education, the fact is that the universities need inspection at least as much\nas the high schools do. The existing scheme should be turned half-way around. There\nshould be a new declaration of independence. If the universities will not modify their\nsomewhat arbitrary self-assertiveness and seek somewhat modestly to mend their own numerous defects, then the high schools, colleges, and normal schools should enter the arena\nand participate in the administration of education as much as the universities do. I do\nnot question anyone's motives. Some university men are among the best thinkers and\nteachers that we have. Some of them give form to human knowledge as no others can.\nSome make valuable discoveries. No university man, as such, ever did much to perfect\npublic-school administration. Those in concrete relation with public education understand its administration. No others do or can. The university professor by instinct,\noccupation, and isolation is usually incapable of appreciating the condition of education\nat large. He is, therefore, unfit for administration. Even the fact of working with\nquestionable efficiency for a little while in some public school never justifies the university\nprofessor in seeking to inject his ideas into education outside his own speciality.\nFinally, the tendency to castes in education should be counteracted. Only by the\nprinciples of democracy in education may we hope to preserve democracy in government.\nBut administration thru state educational institution means the substitution of monarchy\nfor democracy.\nIt is therefore to be avoided if possible.\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM\n\nIN MEMORIAM— THEODORE\nG.\n\nM.\n\nPHILIPS,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\n435\n\nB. NOSS\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWESTCHESTER,\n\nPA.\n\nDr. Theodore B. Noss, principal of the State Normal School at California,\nPa., since 1883, and a member of the National Council of Education since\n1905, died at Chicago during the winter meeting of the National Education\nAssociation of 1909. Dr. Noss was born at Waterloo, Pa., in 1852. He\nwas a graduate of the Shippensburg, Pa., State Normal School and of Syracuse\nUniversity, where he received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1883,\nand on several occasions spent considerable time in European study and\ninvestigation. He was a fine scholar, a thoro student of pedagogy, highly\nsuccessful as a teacher and as a school executive, enthusiastic in the cause of\neducation and in every other good cause, a man of the highest character,\nloved by all who knew him. His death is a great loss to the cause of education.\nWILLIAM\nFRANK\n\nA.\n\nC. BATES\n\nFITZPATRICK,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nWilliam C. Bates was born July 29, 1854, in Hingham, Mass.; died at\nCambridge, Mass., June 29, 1909. Educated in Hingham and Phillips\nExeter, he was graduated from Harvard College in 1877. He became successively superintendent of schools at Hingham, Canton, Easton, Lawrence,\nFall River, and Cambridge. Gifted with a charming personality, he combined rare tact with fine administrative qualities. Modest, loyal, faithful\nto every trust, he was an inspiration to his associates and a deHghtful leader\nin the community. Having climbed to the heights, he died when he could be\nof most service to those who believed in him, and to the cause of education\nin which he was ever a vaUant soldier.\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^Miss Mabel A. MacKinney, supervisor of public-school kindergartens, Cleveland, Ohio\nVice-President — Miss Luella Palmer, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.\nSecretary — Miss Caroline Sewall, director of kindergartens, Denver, Colo.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Morning, July 6, 1909\nThe Kindergarten Department of the National Education Association met in Trinity\nChurch. Miss Mabel A. MacKinney, of Cleveland, Ohio, president of the department,\npresided.\nThe session was opened with a violin solo by Miss Janet MacDonald accompanied\nby Miss Gertrude Stone. After a short welcoming address by the president, Elmer\nEllsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C, gave an\naddress on \"Preparation of the Kindergarten for Institutional Life.\"\nFrank B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio, read a paper on \"The\nPlace of the Kindergarten in the Public School System,\" and was followed by a second\npaper on the same subject by George M. Forbes, professor of science of education, University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y.\nA committee was appointed by the president as follows:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nMiss Alma Binzel, Provo, Utah\nMrs. Alma Oliver Ware, Yankton, S. Dak.\nMrs. Margaret Grabil, Fort Worth, Tex.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nMorning, July 8, 1909\n\nThis department met at Trinity Church, the president, Miss Mabel MacKinney,\npresiding. A delightful series of children's songs was sung by Miss Griffith, followed by\nMrs. Alma Oliver Ware, principal of kindergarten training school, Yankton, S. Dak., and\nMiss Alma Binzel, Normal School, Provo, Utah, who gave papers on \"To Accord with\nModern Educational Ideals, What Further Modification or Reconstruction of the Handwork of the Kindergarten and Elementary Grades Should Be Made ?\"\nA discussion of these papers by Miss Margaret Giddings, supervisor of kindergartens,\nDenver, Colo., and others, followed.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following names:\nFor President — Miss Luella Palmer, Teachers College, New York, N. Y.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Willette Allen, principal of Atlanta Kindergarten Normal,\nAtlanta, Ga.\nFor Secretary — Miss Lucy Ellis, principal of Phoenix Kindergarten, Phoenix, Ariz.\nThis report was accepted, and by unanimous vote the secretary instructed to cast the\nballot of the department ior the nominees.\nThe department then adjourned.\nCaroline Sewall, Secretary\n\n437\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "438\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nELMER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPREPARATION OF THE KINDERGARTEN\nINSTITUTIONAL LIFE\nELLSWORTH\nBROWN,\nUNITED\nSTATES\nEDUCATION,\nWASHINGTON,\nD.\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nC.\n\nFOR\nOF\n\nIn a paper before one of the affiliated societies yesterday I had occasion to\nrefer to one of our American ideals, to which I should like to refer once more\nin connection with the topic of this morning — that is, the ideal which leads us\nto take a well-balanced interest in the individual, on the one hand, and society\non the other. We refuse to be socialists merely and we refuse to be individualists merely. In a sense we are all of us both socialists and individualists.\nWe realize that men are to live a great part of their lives in institutions, but we\nbelieve that the most complete life is not lived in one institution alone, and we\nbelieve, moreover, that man does not live in institutions merely, but has, each\none, a place in the world apart from any existing institution — a fact of human\nlife which makes men creators of institutions and not merely their creatures.\nStill further, our institutional responsibility is to be kept alive all the way\nup and down, from the largest institution to the smallest group into which men\nenter for common purposes, and from the smallest group up to the widest\nreaches of social relationship. And this series narrows downward not only to\nthe smallest group but to the single individual, and widens upward thru influences which individuals have set in motion.\nResponsibility is to be kept at its highest pitch in our lives, as it will be,\nthru the realization of institutional relationships; and initiative is to be kept\nalive, as it will be, if individuals have freedom to remold and remake\ninstitutions.\nIn every institutional relationship each one of us is either a leader or a\nfollower. The craving to lead and the craving to follow are both of them\npresent within us. Both are wholesome in part and both may easily become\nelements of danger. The only safe institutional man is one who can stand\nalone. The man whose whole life is covered by the desire to lead or the desire,\nto follow, or by both of these in different relationships, lacks that one last\nelement which should make him most useful to human society.\nThe great word of the kindergarten is the word ** together.\" Let it not be\nforgotten that for the sake of a permanently safe and wholesome \"together\"\nwe must give due place to that other word '* alone.\"\nThis \"alone\" finds its place and its strength in the fact that it is necessary\nto the highest religious development. It means that that man only is a wise\nand safe leader or a wise and safe follower who can disentangle himself from\nthe temptations which beset both followers and leaders, and draw solitary\nstrength from springs beyond the hills and stars.\nBut having given due place to the spirit that can stand alone, because\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n439\n\nstanding in the society of the unseen, we may safely come back to that ultimate\nideal — the ideal of both the kindergarten and the nation, and of our personal\nlife — the ideal which is social and institutional.\n\nTHE\n\nPLACE\n\nOF THE\n\nI.\n\nF. B. DYER,\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nCINCINNATI,\n\nOHIO\n\nI shall discuss briefly the place of the kindergarten in relation to the development ofthe child, in relation to the home, and in relation to the school.\nThe young child is a bundle of impulses. Some of these impulses lead to\nacts which we consider wrong, and some to acts which we consider right. If\nthe good impulses are frequently repeated, the outcome will be a reaction that\nwill be habitual. At different times the instincts of the child ripen and the\nchild manifests certain tendencies; for example, at a certain time he has a\ntendency to walk, to talk, to sing, and many other activities. Before the\nimpulse comes to do these things, not much can be done to develop or train the\nchild in these matters, but when the tendency arrives, it should receive prompt\nattention.\nIt is the business of early education to afford wholesome conditions for the\ndevelopment of good tendencies, and either to starve out bad impulses by lack\nof suggestion, or to suggest and develop a reaction that is not harmful. To\nillustrate : the child at the age of two or three becomes conscious of the storm\nand feels a shock of surprise at a thunderbolt. If he looks about and sees the\nfamily greatly perturbed, he begins to scream. If this is frequently repeated,\nhis attitude toward the storm is one of terror, not to be eradicated by later\nteaching. If, on the other hand, when his consciousness of the storm first is\nmanifest, he looks about and sees the family serene, he gets an entirely different\nattitude toward the storm, and his emotion becomes one of admiration instead\nof fear. In like manner, most of the impulses may be diverted into wholesome\nreactions, if there is skillful suggestion at the proper time. From four to six\nis the most impressionable age of the child's existence. Then his interests are\nexpanding beyond the narrow confines of his home and he is becoming conscious ofnature and of society. The kindergarten comes at this age to guide\nhis interests, to give him the right mental attitude toward the world and his\nrelations to society, and to give him training in the formation of those habits\nwhich, as they accumulate, will largely determine character. We were told\nyesterday that there are two phases in learning a trade — instruction and practice. So with all habit-formation. We may say that every time we acquire\na habit we have learned a trade.\nIn order that the kindergartner may be expert in this training, it is necessary\nthat she have a knowledge of childhood, of its instincts, impulses, and tendencies, and of the laws of habit-formation, so that she may deal with children\nskillfully and speak with authority on such matters.\nShe must have a knowl-\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "440\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nedge of music, story, and nature on the instruction side, and of arts, games,\nrhythm and many means of manual expression, in order to practice the child\nand develop right habits.\nIf character-formation is the end of elementary training, the teacher must\nhave help, for not one-tenth of the child's first fifteen years of life is spent with\nthe teacher. Further, many of the child's tendencies and habits are pretty\nwell fixed before the child is six years of age. The importance of skillful\neducation of the child's early impulses has already been mentioned. The\nparents must come to understand that the fundamental institution is not the\nschool but the home; that the fundamental duty of the home is the training of\nchildren, and that a fundamental part of this training is the fixing of right\nattitudes and the development of right habits. The kindergartner is simply\nthe parents' assistant. It is essential that she be given time to visit all parents\nand secure intelligent co-operation on their part. They should be brought\nout, willy or nilly, to the parents' meeting, where they should hear trained\nnurses, physicians, dentists, and expert counsel on the training of children.\nMothers must be caught early. Eighty-five per cent, of our girls become\nhome-makers, and few of them have any conception of the duties of motherhood. Itis the duty of the kindergartner and the mothers' club to see that all\nyoung mothers are reached. In the city I represent, two afternoons a week\nare given to home visiting and over 5,000 visits were made in the past year.\nNo school has done its full duty by its children unless it has aroused homes to\na sense of their responsibility or acquainted them with the real meaning of\nintelligent co-operation in the training of children. In order to meet this need,\nthe kindergartner should be a trained social worker.\nThe time is too brief to discuss the relation of the kindergarten to the school\nfurther than to suggest that two afternoons a week the kindergartners assist\nthe primary teachers in games, songs, and occupations. Also, as the children\nprogress thru the grades, the teachers should join in the parents' meetings and\nbecome acquainted with the mothers. The old fear which parents and teachers\nhad of each other should be replaced by confidence and sympathy. The\nspirit of the kindergarten should permeate the schools and a mutual high\nregard of kindergartners and grade teachers for each other should be the rule.\nThus the kindergartens may become the welding place between home and\nschool.\nTHE\nII.\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nSCHOOL\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nGEORGE M. FORBES,\nPROFESSOR\nOF PHILOSOPHY AND PEDAGOGY\nUNIVERSITY\nOF ROCHESTER,\nROCHESTER,\nN. Y.\n\nMy theme suggests two questions to which I shall endeavor to give brief\nanswers: First, if the ideal of complete organic unity of the kindergarten with\nthe public school were realized, by what method should we determine and\ndefine its characteristic function?\nSecond, what hinders the immediate\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n441\n\nrealization of such complete organic unity and hoV can such hindrance be\nremoved ?\nThe answer to the first question is simple. If organic union of the kindergarten and public school were complete, we should define its function by\nprecisely the same method as that employed to mark the function of, say, the\nprimary grades or the grammar grades. We should look to the genetic science\nof the child to fix for us the impulses, instincts, and activities which appear or\nmature in each period, and to make us acquainted with the functions and laws\nof these activities for each successive period. L[pon this foundation we should\nbuild the correlated method and select the characteristic materials necessary\nto make this period yield its proper contribution to the ultimate ideal. This\nwould take the kindergarten completely out of its position as an institution\nsui generis, take it out of its disconnection and self-sufficiency and place it in\norganic relation to the whole, as its founder intended. The application of this\nmethod from various points of view — ^physical, social, moral — would serve\nto complete the characterization of each period. It would fix the characteristic problems which the kindergarten has to study and solve, and by the very\nnarrowing and defining of these make the study of the kindergartner more\nintensive and fruitful.\nThe difficulty which confronts us in dealing with the kindergarten is not,\nhowever, the defining of its function in the sense of which we have been speaking. Stated in its simplest terms, that is but one part of the general problem\nof genetic science; it requires the determination of the phenomena and laws\nof development, physical and mental, which characterize late infancy, and the\nmaking them the foundation of the corresponding educational process. The\nreal difficulty in determining the function of the kindergarten is not scientific,\nbut historical. It grows out of the relatively independent origin of the kindergarten and its consequent isolation from traditional educational institutions and\nagencies. The great task is to overcome this isolation and establish organic\nrelation, and this is but a part of the most^ vital problem of our day — namely, to\ninterpret the higher fife of man in biological terms, the task of getting a genetic\nand organic conception of the whole fife of the spirit, however expressed.\nIn the case of any institution we do not now expect to explain it adequately\nby finding its cause, but by working out the problem of finding its function\nand organic relations. We seek the end or purpose it serves in the individual\nor social economy. We are beginning to see that we cannot find the full\nexplanation of any phenomenon in either individual or social life so long as we\nview it only as the effect of certain causes. We must see it as an organ, in\nreciprocal interaction with other organs, and performing a function in that\nprocess of adjustment in which all development consists.\nThis is true of the kindergarten as an institution. We must find its function\nin the education of today. We must raise to clear and definite consciousness\nits purpose and organic relations in the total process of social adjustment which\nwe call pubUc education.\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "442\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nNow all causal interpretation is factual — i. e., it explains what is thru what\nhas been, while all functional interpretation is normative, it explains what is\nthru what ought to be — ^i.e., thru the end or ideal of which the existing is a\nmore or less perfect expression. It follows that we cannot become clearlyconscious of the functions of the kindergarten without equal grasp of the total\nend or ideal to the realization of which the kindergarten is to i](iake its\ncontribution.\nTo the formation of this norm or ideal of public education as a whole\nFroebel made profoundly significant contributions. His remarkable philosophic insight and intense interest in the practical problems of education enabled\nhim to express the vital truths of modern idealistic philosophy as fundamental\nprinciples of education. These truths are: first, that the divine life is immanent in nature and man, and education is but the conscious realization of that\nlife ; second, that the self is essentially an active principle and takes possession\nof the world thru this activity; third, that the cosmic process in the universe,\nthe historical process in society, and the life process in each soul is a continuous\ndevelopment to higher levels of appreciation and action; and lastly, that the\nfactors in the educational process are not independent elements arbitrarily\nbrought together, but essentially connected expressions of the life of a unitarybeing.\nThe educational ideal is being completely reshaped under the influence of\nthese truths, but the outworking of such an ideal in institutions can never be\naccomplished by philosophic formulation alone, however profound or adequate\nit may be, for genuine philosophy is never anything but an effort to interpret\nand unify an empirical content. Separated from this, its profoundest categories, itsloftiest ideals become only empty forms, than which nothing can be\nmore barren and helpless. The whole popular disrepute and distrust of philosophy can be traced to those who, severing the cable which anchors them to\nreality, have taken what has been wittily called the \"high priori\" road to the\nsolution of problems. Nothing is more pitiful than to see noble souls with\nsublime faith in the truth and power of philosophic conceptions, vainly endeavoring to use them as empirical guides and persistently hoping and believing\nthat, with some deeper insight or more comprehensive grasp of their empty\ncategories, they could penetrate the veil of that given reality upon the content\nof which and the order of which the profoundest philosophy cannot throw\none ray of light.\nNo department of public education needs to ponder this truth more than\nthe kindergarten, and the reason is found in its extraordinary origin. Froebel\nsucceeded in founding a permanent institution where Ratke, Basedow, and\nPestalozzi had failed, because he seized upon the one period in the development of the child which had not already been institutionalized, and so made\nproof against revolutionary change by centuries of tradition. Upon this\nperiod of infancy he brought to bear his philosophic conceptions in a genuinely\nrevolutionary way, but notwithstanding his knowledge of, and profound sym-\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n443\n\npathy with, children, and the rare practical intuitions which guided him, there\nwere serious defects on the empirical side. No sympathy and no intuition of\na single individual could hope to establish the empirical order of physical and\nspiritual growth in a child. Nothing but the most long-continued and thoro\napplication of the scientific method could solve this tremendous probleni.\nNor could the science of matter alone prepare the way. A science of life was\nneeded and the vast work of the fifty-seven years since Froebel's death, in the\nworking-out of the conception of organic evolution, has laid the foundation\nof such a science.\nThe irresistible sweep and transforming power of the conception of evolution as it advances into the life of society and the individual renders it epochmaking in the history of human thought. The genetic conception and method\nof child-study is one of its products, and to this we must look to fill the otherwise empty categories of self-activity, connectedness, and development with\na rich, concrete content.\n.Take for example the conception of self-activity. Genetic science has\ntransformed our conception of the self. The philosophic notion of an absolute\nself, projecting its activity by a sort of absolute inner initiative, is utterly untrue\nto the real empirical self. Analysis shows that the empirical self is one aspect\nof a unitary process, the other of which we call environment, each organically\nconnected with the other so that every action is a reaction, or perhaps better,\nevery new phase of development is an instance of interaction. It is impossible\nto exaggerate the influence of this rectification of our notion of self, and this\nwe owe wholly to genetic science. In the light of this truth we see that every\nhuman action is conditioned by heredity and environment, taking environment\nin the broad sense which includes all human as well as natural influences.\nThis truth compels philosophy to reinterpret from the ground up its doctrine\nof the freedom of the will; while its influence upon our view of the so-called\nbadness of the child, and the weakness, inefficiency, or criminality of the adult\nis nothing short of revolutionary. Instead of ascribing these defects to an\nabsolute activity or will of the self, we ask why these defects exist, and are\nincreasingly finding our answer in the physical and social conditions from\nwhich the self comes and in relation to which it develops. The slowly dawning\nconsciousness of this truth and its vast consequences in education, philanthropy, and jurisprudence are evidenced by our Judge Lindseys and Browns,\nour probation courts, the indeterminate sentence, the wholesome schools\nreplacing the prisons for our young delinquents and criminals, and the increasingly vigorous assaults upon foul tenements and deadly sweat shops and slums.\nThus must science help to reveal to us the full meaning of that self -activity\nwhich is to constitute the very soul of the educational process.\nIn like manner, did time permit, it might be shown how the other Froebelian\ncategories of development and connectedness are dependent for their concrete\ncontent and meaning upon the work of empirical science, and, in particular,\nhow empty and worthless they are for the teacher until science has discovered\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthe laws which determine the order of unfolding of the one and the fixed\ncoexistences of the other.\nDoubtless many of you are thinking that Froebel did not ignore the empirical factor, and this is true, but it is also true that he did not employ the scientific\nmethod in dealing with it. Froebel was not merely philosopher. In him the\ndeep-seated poetic and animistic instinct which makes all nature spiritual\nreached its climax of intensity and refinement. The infinitely varied moods\nand phases of nature presented subtle analogies to his supersensitive spirit,\norphaned and isolated as it was in boyhood, and thru these analogies he saw\nthe whole spiritual life revealed in nature in a purer 'and more perfect way\nthan in man himself. He thus endowed the sphere, the crystal, the tree, not\nonly with positive spiritual quaUties, but with power to impress them upon the\nsoul of the child. He thus ascribed to nature as original endowments that\nwhich was but the reflection of his own developed spirit. This is the key to\nthe semi-poetic symbolism which so largely influenced his choice and order of\nmaterials, a choice and order which rests upon no scientific basis. The saving\ninfluence was his practical sympathy with childhood and the rare insight which\nenabled him to see the significance of play, and select many appropriate forms\nof activity. Thus for him the problem of the empirical content was solved\npartly by an imaginative interpretation of nature and partly by the suggestions\nand intuitions growing out of a deep sympathy with childhood. In the development of the kindergarten this product of Froebel's semi-poetic imagination\nhas been confused with that genuine philosophic insight of Froebel's which\nreached and formulated the fundamental categories; hence the attempt to\nsolve the problem of empirical content by the symbolical method. This has\ngiven rise to the notion in the thought of many kindergartners that their institution occupied a permanently unique position; that it possessed in Froebel's\nteaching a complete philosophy and method adequate to the solution of all its\nproblems. Such a view, so far as it has prevailed, has tended to isolation and\na certain exclusiveness. It has erected barriers to complete unity with other\ndepartments of public education, and has retarded the whole-hearted appreciation and appropriation of the results of the scientific study of the child.\nIf this view be correct, it suggests that the most important step in the progress of the kindergarten toward its true place and functions in public education\nis to abandon completely the symbolical element in Froebel's teaching as having\nno practical bearing upon the development of the child. It is but another\nattempt like that of Ratke and Comenius, tho the most subtle and refined\nof all, to deduce a priori a method of instruction from analogies derived from\nnature. The true method is to be found in the thoro study of the laws of the\nchild's own physical and mental growth as revealed by the patient inductions\nof genetic science.\nThe kindergarten can never find or fulfill completely its proper function in\npublic education until it finally abandons the symbolic for the scientific method\nof working out its practical principles and selecting its materials.\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nHANDWORK\n\n445\n\nIt is sometimes said that all education from the most elementary up to that\nof the university should conform to kindergarten principles, and this is true\nin the broad sense, and it is also true that the kindergarten has exercised,\nespecially in this country, a powerful transforming influence upon all higher\neducation, but this is only to say that our educational ideals and educational\npractice are being molded by the great philosophic conceptions and scientific\nachievements of our time, and this general influence of Froebelian philosophy\ndoes not serve to determine the final function of the kindergarten in public\neducation. The truth is that just in proportion as these great truths and\ngeneralizations become principles of all education, just in that proportion does\nit become impossible to define the function of the kindergarten by reference to\nthem, just in that proportion must the kindergartner give up her missionary\nfunction and find her place and work solely in that limited sphere of the child's\ndevelopment over which it is given her to preside. She will fulfill her sole\nfunction in applying those universal principles, common to all periods of public\neducation, to the one period between early infancy and early youth. She will\ntherefore no longer represent in any unique way the permanent principles of\nFroebel. All public education vdll represent the principles of Froebel brought\ninto complete synthesis mih the generalizations of genetic science, and, as\none all-embracing organism, will endeavor to work out these principles in the\nmaking of the man and the citizen.\n\nTO ACCORD WITH MODERN EDUCATIONAL IDEALS, WHAT\nFURTHER MODIFICATION OR RECONSTRUCTION OF\nTHE HANDWORK OF THE KINDERGARTEN AND ELEMENTARY GRADES SHOULD BE MADE?\nI.\n\nMRS.\n\nALMA\n\nOLIVER\nWARE,\nHEAD\nYANKTON INSTITUTE,\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\nYANKTON,\nS. DAK.\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nThe ideal of any age, like the spirit of the times, is ot slow birth, and springs,\nnot as Minerva, full-grown from the head of Zeus, but rather, struggles into\nexistence conditioned by the needs and modified by the circumstances attendant\nupon, and prior to, its appearance.\nThis view Implies that the development of ideals is an evolutionary process;\nthat ideals change as the world advances and express the stage of civilization\nfrom which they spring.\nEach civilization has made its own peculiar gift to the world. We look\nwith interest and wpnder upon the pyramids and miunmies of ancient Eg)rpt,\nand pause to consider that those imperishable vaults, those dried and wrinkled\n^bodies, remain an enduring monument to tell us of the Egyptian idea of the\nimortality of the soul. For three thousand years the soul must wander, but\n[at the end of that time it will return to reinhabit the preserved and waiting body,\nithens gave to the world the ideal of beauty and harmony; Sparta courage;\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nRome power. The Hebrew nation presented an ideal of a righteous God,\nthe ideal set forth in a code of laws and impressed upon its children to\nbe handed down as a rich legacy to succeeding ages.\nBut no age could pass on its ideal unchanged; for with each succeeding\nstage of civilization new conditions arose out of which came a new point of\nview, transmuting any inherited ideal into its own, modified by the peculiar\nconditions of the age until so changed as to appear to be independent of any\nprevious influence. Thus the educational ideal must change and advance\nas conditions change and the world advances.\nIn an effort to realize its ideals each nation has had its own problems to\nsolve, and these have involved serious undertakings; as Spain in her effort to\ncarry out her idea of the colonization of the western world, or England in\nstanding for constitutional rights. America's national ideal of liberty and\nequal rights reached its culmination after years of growth and development:\nFreedom to do, the right to accomplish, with the ultimate purpose, citizenship.\nAmerican citizenship demands effort and calls for the best interpretation of\nthat freedom to do; and he who is doing the most to set forth this ideal is the\none who is living freely and fully, expressing his God-given powers for his own\nself-realization. For the germ of society still lies in the individual, and only\nthru the development of the individual may we hope to strengthen society and\nits ideals.\nAmerica's problem, then, is one of industrial freedom, a problem which\ncannot be solved by law, but must be worked out thru education. As needs\nand conditions give birth to any nation's ideals, so must the needs and conditions which brought forth our ideal of industrial freedom determine the method\nof solving this latter-day problem. Industrial freedom implies that each man\nor woman is able to earn his or her own living. In solving the problem, what\neducational factors are at work? what shall be the spirit of the educational\nsystem which shall meet it ?\nIt has long been an acknowledged principle that all educational training\nshould tend toward the formation of individual character, and our task is so\nto co-ordinate the educational factors as to build up character while working\nout this problem of industrial freedom. The strong cord of a well-developed\ncharacter, standing the test of strain and time, is twisted and spun of the three\nseemingly simple threads — feeling, willing, doing. Training for industrial\nefi&ciency takes care of the training for character in that it links up the doing\nwith the thinking thru the willing; for back of free will is choice, and the motive\npower of choice is interest. In our educational beginnings we seem to have\nleft out the thinking and the willing and to have depended upon the doing;\nand this is our great danger; for industry which does not call for individual\ninitiative, which does not develop will thru motive — choice — is drudgery,\nroutine, and leaves us still \"dumb driven cattle,\" bond rather than free. Free-J\ndom comes thru obedience to principles or laws. The freest man in civic life,\nthe freest man or woman in the industrial world, is that man or woman wh(\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nHANDWORK\n\n447\n\nfinds working principles which give purpose and guidance to all work.\nEducation must supply these working principles.\nThe educational factors in our problem of industrial freedom are the same\nold story of heart, hand, and head — or, feeling, doing, and thinking: First,\narousing the feeling of sympathy with and an appreciation of the value of work;\nsecond, the training of the hand to technical* skill, with a suflScient general\nknowledge to see the particular work in hand as a part of a larger work; third,\ndeveloping creative power, which will make work a joy and not a task. These\nfactors would tend not only toward individual efficiency, but would develop\nsuch a strength of individual initiative as must enrich the state. The student\nwho awakens to a sense of sympathy with the worker will also learn that in\ndoing the work it is more often the worker who is refined and polished and\nperfected than the finished material product. He will learn to set a value upon\nwork well done and gain a respect for technical skill which must prove a motive\npower to his own endeavors, as well as an open sesame to our great American\ncommonwealth.\nThis may seem beyond the kindergarten and primary grades; but as these\nmust wisely be a part of the educational system, they are the beginnings of\nwhat we carry on and work out in the upper grades. Today it is a recognized\nfact and has led to significant changes in the curriculum. For many years the\nkindergarten was simply the place to work off surplus energy, and in expending\nthis valuable power the child was allowed to follow the caprice of the moment,\nif thereby he found pleasure. This idea was the result of an unintelligent\ninterpretation of Froebel's ''follow the child's lead.\" We followed that lead\nuntil it gave us a will-o'-the-wisp chase, and seemed very near to an absolute\ndivorce of the kindergarten from the rest of the school system. There came a\ndemand for correlation under a practical and better working knowledge of\npsychology. Kindergartners began to understand more simply the action and\nreaction between mind and muscle, the building-up of right ideas which should\nbecome dominating principles, and an intelligent comprehension of the scope\nand limitations of imitation. We now know that the truest imitation which has\neducational value is not mere copying, but getting hold of that which lies back\nof an outward demonstration. To quote Froebel, \"No outer form can serve\nas a model; we must find the spirit.\"\nLet us consider for a moment the three factors which we find at work all\nthru the grades and see how they must influence the handwork of the kinderciation of its\nthe arousing of sympathy with work and an appre\nFirst, n.\nIgarte\nvalue. I will grant that much of the sympathy which one has found in kindergartens has run itself out into the veriest treacle of sentimentality. We need\ngood wholesome sentiment and plenty of it, but leavened with rationality, and\nthis latter ingredient suppHed, not in homeopathic doses, but spread on as\nthick as a child likes the jam on his bread.\nWe must discriminate in our praise of the child's work, lauding effort more\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthe work is only commensurate with what he has put into it of honest effort.\nVery small children feel this long before it is a matter of intelligent comprehension. Very recently a boy of six years came across the kindergarten room\nholding up his piece of work saying, \"Do you think this is very good?\" the\nexpression on his face indicating dissatisfaction. I felt no fear of discouraging\nhim by saying, \"Well, it is prejty good, but I believe you could do better.\"\nQuick came his answer, with scorn in his voice: \"Mary says it's fine, but I\ndon't think she knows, for I didn't try very hard.\" The work had not called\nfor effort, and young as he was, he felt it. In arousing sympathy for the worker\nlet us see to it that we, at the same time, develop the appreciation of the value\nof work.\nA child's natural activity is motive power enough to make him do things;\nhis imitative instinct will prompt him to reproduce the activities close about\nhim. This he should do. If this were all that were necessary we should not\nneed trained kindergartners. But education must come in to lead these\ninstincts into the best expression. If the higher grades work for character and\nefficiency along Unes of rational sympathetic relation to the world's work and\nan appreciation of honest labor, then we must work for this also. We cannot\nexpect the little child to have much technical skill; but, knowing that technical\nskill is a step toward industrial freedom, we can lay the foundation. In laying\nthis foundation we must keep in mind that as stones overlap in building, the\nline of cement which binds them together is unbroken and ever ascending. We\nspeak of each grade in school as separate and distinct, knowing that there is the\nconstant overlapping. The kindergarten begins the first-grade work thru\nconcentration and self-control; therefore technical skill finds its beginnings\nin the guided hand and in the kindergarten phase of attention which comes\nthru interest and is, therefore, involuntary. I have in mind the children five\nor six years of age; for children admitted to the kindergarten before that age\nare to find themselves in relation to society thru the community life of the kindergarten. And this is a stage invaluable to the little child, giving him opportunity\nto learn the great moral lessons of give and take, his own rights, and the rights\nof others. And yet even the youngest child is training toward technical skill\nwhen he learns the use of the scissors. Great effort he makes, with fingers\nrigid as tin soldiers and mouth drawn to a knot, as he responds to \"open —\nshut them\" in his effort to cut across a piece of paper; or, in the folding, when\nhe puts forth his best effort to make one edge come over and just fit the other\nside.\nTechnical skill is control plus accuracy; and we are only doing our part\nof the educational work for industrial freedom when we lay such a beginning\nas will give not only opportunity to do, but an appreciation fc)r accuracy.\nWhat is worth doing at all is worth doing well, even in the kindergarten.\nMost of our handwork in the kindergarten and primary grades has partaken\ntoo much of the nature of \"busy work,\" simply to occupy hands that otherwise\nmight be found idle and get into mischief. Thus \"busy work\" is used as a\n\nf\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nOF HANDWORK\n\n449\n\nhelp to keep out of reach of the wily, wicked one, but more, to relieve the teacher\nwho is either overworked and does not know what else to do, or, from lack of\nintelligent training, cannot plan to meet the needs of the growing child.\nRecently I visited kindergartens and primary grades in some of our large\ncities and found in a good neighborhood fifty-two first-grade children with one\nteacher and no assistant. When asked about her handwork the teacher in\ncharge confessed to the idea of \"busy work,\" also that she knew nothing of\nthe kinds of handwork which would prove educational, as she had had no training along that line. In another room there were fifty children, and again the\nuntrained teacher; but in her desire to give the children work eliciting interest\nthis teacher had accomplished much by way of occupation, but not such work\nas met the needs of the growing child. At the end of the first year the children\nhad made advance in words and numbers; but in handwork there had been\nadvance neither in a knowledge of the relation of the child's work to the world's\nwork, nor in the development of individual initiative.\nOur primary teachers have need of kindergarten training in handwork,\nand our kindergarten teachers training in primary methods. Never shall we\nhave the intelligent overlapping which makes education a continuous unfolding\nprocess from one grade into another until this is done. And I heartily indorse\nthe suggestion for one supervisor for both these departments and urge that the\nprerequisite for such a position be satisfactory training in each.\nWe have placed commendable emphasis upon spontaneity and self-expression, but have we done our full duty, in view of our modern educational ideals,\nwith the problem of handwork ? Are we so training the child that he will\nlearn the value of work; that he will respect and desire accuracy which comes\nfrom obedience of mind and hand to laws and principles ? From these will\ncome that creative power which is the highest factor toward freedom of the\nindividual, and becomes the very art of industry.\nSays Browning :\nIt is all triumphant art, but art in obedience to laws.\n\nWe can still have our spontaneous free play with material, and every opportunity for free expression; but at the same time give our handwork in such a\nmanner that children will not only get hold of some constructive principles\nwhich will develop a keener appreciation for accuracy and lead to creativity,\nbut principles which will be used in the grades and even in the manual training.\nCreative work, that which outers the divinity within, and makes us free indeed,\ncomes only thru power gained from knowledge of working principles, however\nsimple they may be.\nAnd for the little child these principles must be simple and yet clearly given,\nadvancing with his development both physical and mental. We respect the\nimmediate demands of each stage and yet bear in mind the overlapping continuous process, and begin in one that which will be carried on in the next —\n\"Tracing what must be, and what may yet be better.\" This is the only rational\nmethod whereby we run no risk of arresting development nor, on the other\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "450\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nhand, the danger of overstimulating the creativity. To illustrate: One form\nof handwork closely related to the world's work is the constructive. This is\nwith stiff paper of satisfactory colors and firm quality which has been introduced into many of the schools and given good results. We cannot forget\nthat while the teacher is working for process, the child is putting forth his\neffort for results.\nIn the kindergarten we give such work with this as introduces the principles\nof construction, the intersection of planes, \"based on the universal forms of\ngeometry and including the fundamental principles of all construction.\" As\nthe child plays with the two-inch forms in the Gifts, it is well to begin with the\ntwo-inch paper as the plane of the known solid; also that thru separation into\nparts he finds for himself the one inch, which is the world's standard of measurement. Giving the child the principle of intersection, by means of which surfaces are held together, is helping him to get hold of an inner constructive principle^— the dovetailing of the constructive world. \"All dovetailing, hinging,\nbricklaying, mortising, are ways of intersecting surfaces so that they hold each\nother together.\" Most of the forms made by man can be made by the child\nwith the cardboard thru intersection. The child is educated thru getting hold\nof the constructive principle, by finding and using that which makes.\nIn crowded first-grade rooms we cannot have the noisy construction work\nwith heavy materials, but this is a work governed by the same principles and\ngiving satisfactory results to the child, which will give him opportunity for\naccuracy and develop creativity. First, free-play with intersection of twoinch planes, not an indefinite surface, but a definite one; second, thru division,\nthe finding of the one-inch which is the standard of measurement, on to using\nany sized plane, but governed by the unit of measurement. Soon the child\nlearns the controlling principle, and launches out into relative measurement,\nand then he feels free and has a joy in creating which comes thru strength of\nvictory.\nPlease remember that this work goes into the grade room. I plan only to\nbegin it in the kindergarten, but to begin it so intelligently that there will not\nbe unlearning or beginning over, but unfolding and advancing. This same\nidea of getting hold of principles might be worked out thru any line of handwork, but the construction leads into all industrial work.\nAs the child gets hold of the principle of construction he ceases to be satisfied with mere copying of old forms, and reaches out to new expressions of skill,\nthe variety in result giving an added stimulus to further effort. This seems to\nsolve the problem of the \"busy work.\"\nI have here a few simple illustrations of this one particular line of work and\nshall be glad to discuss it with anyone wishing to see how it is one of the beginnings of technical skill, as also a rational stimulus to creative power.\nWithout these the individual is a copyist, but with them he becomes free\nindeed, for he has gained the spirit of work which lies in the working principle\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nII.\n\nPRINCIPAL\nOF NORMAL TRAINING\nYOUNG\nUNIVERSITY,\nPROVO,\nUTAH\n\nALMA\n\nL. BINZEL,\n\nOF\n\nHANDWORK\nSCHOOL,\n\n45 1\n\nBRIGHAM\n\nThe educational ideal of today can be found in the answers to the following\nquestions: (i) Who shall be educated? (2) What shall be the character\nof the institutions that educate ? (3) What shall be the results of the educative process ?\nThe ideal is that of the education of all individuals in institutions adapted\nto the respective needs of differing groups, to the end that every member of\nthese may realize the best for which nature has given . the endowment and\nwhich society demands. It is this ideal which has given rise to the special\nschools and classes for the subnormal, and which is changing the elementary\nschool so that it may minister as never before to the differing groups of which\nit is constituted. Where once we sighted but one goal — high-school life — today\nwe see several, prominent among which are two — domestic and industrial life.\nThese have made, and are making, their claims upon children of elementary\nschool age and capacities; hence the question: ''What shall be the character\nof the course of study so that reasonable preparation for high school, the\nindustries, and domestic life is available for every child ?\"\nStudies of elimination by grade and age show that the sixth, seventh, and\neighth grades retain the smallest percentage of pupils; show that children of\nthirteen, fourteen, and fifteen drop out in greatest numbers. What becomes\nof these ? According to the Report of the Massachusetts Commission on\nIndustrial and Technical Education, the place to look for these children is in\nthe ranks of unskilled labor. In Massachusetts less than 2 per cent, of the\nchildren who begin work between fourteen and sixteen are employed in the\nhigh-grade industries, and 98 per cent, in unskilled and low-grade industries. If entrance into these industries were merely the first step in\nvocational training, to be followed by succeeding steps involving more training\nand advancement, any great concern might be unnecessary. The textile\nmanufacturers assert, however, that \"the child who does enter closes behind\nhim the door of progress to a fair living wage.\"\nIs the ideal of an elementary school so attractive to children and so intelligible to parents as to check this early dropping out, with its consequent evils,\ntoo high a one to be attained in the fairly near future ? Upon every hand one\nhears of the necessity of making schools less school-like; of bringing the home,\noccupations, and school into closer relationship. By showing that books are\nnot the only important source of educative experiences, that theory and practice have been too widely separated, handwork has contributed a share toward\nvitalizing schoolroom procedure; but its achievements have been limited both\nin extent and character.\nOf the thirteen hundred and forty-eight school systems in cities of four\nthousand or more inhabitants, barely half have handwork courses and only\nabout one-ninth have the work in all the grades of the elementary schools.\nFor children in eight-ninths of the public schools there is, then, no immediate\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nprospect for that gradual preparation for domestic or industrial lines paralleling\nin amount that for later academic work.\nWhile it may be questioned whether a discussion of the extension aspect\nis in order here so far as terms \"modification\" or \"reconstruction\" are concerned, there can be no doubt of its being called for by the analysis of our\n\"modem educational ideals.\"\nThe comparatively slow spread of handwork both into new localities and\ninto the lower grades has its specific causes in the indifference of the public and\nin the traditional methods and preconceived notions of the school-world.\nGrowth of ahnost everything from the top downward is the outcome of the\ncommon tendency to undervalue the capacities of the earlier years. Necessary\nchanges in courses and equipment do not materialize because of failure to\nappreciate the importance and possibilities of beginnings. For instance, in\ndomestic lines, the food preparing and serving, and the cleaning phases are\npostponed until the later grades, whereas the sewing-room phases are introduced earlier. Is such an arrangement justifiable upon the ground of immaturity of the pupils ? It would seem not: First, because a number of experimental schools and kitchen-garden schools are demonstrating that the so-called\ndomestic-science work in the kindergarten and lower grades nets as good results,\ngrade by grade, as does the so-called domestic-art work; second, because questions put to grown-ups concerning the age at which their mothers trained them\nin the ways of the household reveal the fact that most of them were fairly proficient insimple cooking, baking, and cleaning at the age when most schools\nnow provide for the beginning of such work; third, because of data obtainable\nin communities where the much-lauded, old-fashioned home training still\nprevails. Questions were recently put to seven families in such a community;\nthey brought returns which suggest that both capacity and home claims would\nsupport a different arrangement than the common one. We all know that the\ndesire for assisting in domestic activities manifests itself early in the normal\nchild ; that the wise mother accepts the offers of help, encourages the child to\nlearn thru experimentation, imitation, and direct instruction, and gradually\nplaces upon the child the responsibility of the regular exercise of acquired power\nas its share toward the service which family life entails. If the character of\nAmerican housekeeping is to be changed, as we are led to believe it should be\nin the near future, training that will develop both intelligent maids and mistresses must be provided, and that early in the life of those who are now girls in\nthe lower grades of the elementary schools. Under-valuation of power, and\nignoring of the immediate as well as the slightly remote claims, must cease.\nThis is true not only in case of the girls but also in that of the boys for the lines\nof work they are likely to pursue. An investigation of work engaged in out\nof the schoolroom indicates that the demands of the ordinary handwork courses\nin schools do not begin to make the demands nor afford the training that the\nboys' home-work does. The same families are represented in the returns.\nWhile these investigations scarcely merit the term of studies because of their\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nHANDWORK\n\n453\n\nbrevity, the ideas they suggest may be helpful in a reconsideration of the handwork courses offered to boys and girls in school. Let us guard against unnecessary postponement and also against making demands that are beneath the\ndignity of the powers of those who are supposed to profit thru the courses\noffered. Unless we do so we cannot hope to counteract the prevailing tendency\nto drop out of school early for the purpose of engaging in what seems worthwhile activity.\nReverting to phrases used earlier in the paper, one might here ask whether\nwe are not overestimating for all but the larger cities the disappearance of\nopportunities for the old-fashioned training, and also whether a closer relationship between school and the home, farm, or workshop cannot be fostered by\na change in general plan of procedure.\nWould it not be possible in many localities to find and utilize activities for\na more effective training than the schools for a time will be able to provide ?\nThe school might give, in some cases, the theory whereas the home, farm, or\nshop might furnish the opportunity for practice. A wide range of activities\nmight thus be opened up. The scope of some might become vastly different for\nthey might be made to have the triple value of counting for school work, of\naccomplishing necessary work in a better manner, and of disseminating vital\nknowledge. Let me make clear my meaning. In a town where cows are a\nvery common possession and where their care falls largely to the growing boys,\nimportant lessons upon pure milk and method of securing it would be the\nschoolroom phase; its outcome would be the actual improvement of conditions\nunder which this common and important article of food is usually secured.\nTake for another illustration that frequently recurring kitchen duty, the\nwashing of dishes. \"What constitutes the economical and correct order and\nway of washing dishes and of caring for articles used in the process ? \" would\nbe discussed as a matter of class-work and again the practical work would be\ndone elsewhere, credit being given in accordance with prearranged plans\nun erstood by parent, teacher, and children.\nTo some the repetition involved might seem to detract from the educational\nvalue of such a scheme of co-operation. Dr. Meyer's article in The Psychological Clinic calls attention to the danger of knowing things without doing\nthings, not only in cases of children the development of whose tendencies are\ncharacterized by lack of proper balance, but also in others not so handicapped.\nHe urges that we spread among teachers and pupils a realization of the fact\nthat knowledge must be a knowledge of doing things, and next a knowledge\nready for doing things. ''It is lamentable to hear youngsters, encouraged\nby elders, refuse to do certain things becaute they already know how to do\nthem. When doing things becomes less attractive than knowing things, an\navenue for disappointment, if not for failure, has been opened up before the\n^m\nThe scheme of theory in the schoolroom and practice outside would hold\n^E for many lines of work; not for all. To some it may seem a very visionary\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\none, but the longer it is harbored, the more its possibilities reveal themselves.\nIn many localities it would, for some time to come, afford the only chance of\nintelligent preparation for domestic and other activities. Moreover, the\nby-products of such a scheme would be decidedly valuable. It would bring\nparents and teachers into frequent consultation, thus improving both the home\nand school phases of the educative process; it would check the growing tendency to unload upon the school the entire responsibility for the training of the\nfuture members of society. As someone said a year ago, ''The demands upon\nthe school system have multiplied from the comparative simplicity of the\nthree *R's' to include the three 'H's' and the three 'C's', to say nothing of the\nthree *B's' — the supplying of body, brains, and bringing-up.\" The Department of Women's Organizations, the International Congress for Home Education, as well as many other organizations, are bending their efforts for a cooperative study by the home and school of the serious problems connected\nwith education. If real progress is desired a beginning must be made with\neducation in the home. The suggested scheme of co-operation for certain lines\nof handwork might be an entering wedge for the reshifting of responsibilities\nand the actual, tho indirect, improving of the 'homes involved. The second\nby-product might thus be the valuable one of raising standards, so that given\ngroupSjWould actually rise to higher levels because oi more skillful and intelligent execution of the routine of daily labor.\nA uniform course of study should not be sought. While the general needs\nof life will give rise to a number of similar problems, the variance in activities\nof communities will furnish the individually unique ones, thus extending the\nscope of that which has gone by the name of handwork or manual training.\nSuggestive articles upon \"Poultry Raising as a School Occupation,\" ''The\nSchool Garden and Correlated Activities,\" and \"The Farm School\" have\nappeared recently. They show how handwork courses may outgrow the\ncharges of \"anti- and un-social,\" of \"isolated and impractical,\" of \"irrational\"\nand \"valueless in content,\" and become vital as immediate experience, as\nsocial training, and as preparation for industrial or domestic life.\nElasticity in course of study will prevent misadjustments similar to the\nfollowing: A certain suburb of a small city supplies the latter with most of\nits housemaids; the work of these is chiefly that of cooking, baking, and\ncleaning; their preparation for it is received in the homes, largely of a lowly\ntype. The public-school courses of the community offer art needlework and\nplain sewing as handwork courses; the housekeepers of the city continue to\ncomplain of the inefficiency of the maids whom they secure. Their protest\nis like that heard thruout the length and breadth of the land, and yet the public\nschools, in the main, are offering domestic-art phase first and domestic-science\nphase later, when parallel courses, or a reversal of the usual order, could be\narranged. The house, its care and cleanliness; food, its preparation and\nserving, would thus receive the attention which they merit because of their\nrelationship to well-being.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "k\n\nDepartment]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nHANDWORK\n\n455\n\nTo those who hoped for definite and well-articulated suggestions concerning handwork in the kindergarten and elementar>- school, this paper will prove\na disappointment. Its character is determined by two facts: first, the difficulty of finding a common starting-point from which changes should proceed;\nsecond, the necessity for elasticity in courses of study so that the needs of\ndifferent groups of children may be studied in connection with that which their\nrespective localities offer in opportunity, and demand in service, with reference\nto industrial and domestic life. Could we place in a kaleidoscope the six\nhundred and seventy-one school systems that offer some handwork, and turn\nthem about, we would find it difficult to determine the particular point from\nwhich modifications and reconstructions should proceed. Such an exhibition\nof the work would show formal work with traditional kindergarten materials,\nthe once popular busy work, the conventional sloyd exercises in some places,\nand, in others, the wide variety of materials used as mediums of expression,\nused in vital, social occupations, and constructive activities.\nThe handwork courses should be selected in the light of an aim that includes\nboth living and preparing for the earning of a livelihood; that seeks to make\nhuman beings, rather than good machines. Appreciation and execution,\ninitiative and independence, adaptability, and versatility, are essential in the\nmake-up of an intelligent worker. For the make-up of an enjoyer of leisure\nthere should be tastes that rise above the commonplace to the beautiful in\ncolor, form, and sound, whether in the work of man or nature, there should\nbe insight and responsiveness toward that which makes for comfort and\nhappiness of one's fellow-men, and, last but not least, there should be pursuit of\nthat which makes for physical health, even as the others make for intellectual\nand emotional well-being.\nHealth, wealth, and happiness for the individual; the quickened elimination of the ignorant, shiftless, discontented, and many of the dependent should\nbe the results of an educative process in which a far-seeing economy asserts\nthat beginnings are important; that the best must be provided at the time\nwhen the many can be reached, and, thru it, guarded from dropping into the\nranks to which the doors of opportunity and advancement seldom open.\nDISCUSSION\nMargaret Giddings, supervisor of kindergartens and first grades, Denver, Colo. —\nAny discussion of the handwork of the kindergarten or primary grades must, it seems to me,\ndeal rather with the use of materials than the selection of them, for there are certain materials\nwhich man, whether he be artist or artisan, has always used for means of expression. Froebel employed these for his so-called occupations and we are still using them in our modern\nkindergartens — plastic materials which may be molded or modeled, building materials,\nmaterials for wearing or sewing, paper, paints, and pencils. Are they not after all a heritage handed down from the experience of the race ? And are they not as much ours to use\nwith the children as they are man's to be used for his purposes of utility or decoration ?\nWhen we begin to discuss the use of these age-old ma'.erials and undertake to adapt thsm\nto the needs of the kindergarten and primary grades, \\^ e enter upon a subject so broad that\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "456\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nit has not only entered the kindergarten ranks, but is bound to be a point of dissension as\nlong as people have opinions and the power to express them.\nThe modifications, therefore, cannot come thru the arbitrary say-so of this person or\nthat, but must be based upon a scientific knowledge of the powers and needs of the child\nduring the different stages of his development — the same knowledge which should determine the selection of our stories, games, or play. The radicals among the kindergartners\nhave in the last few years endeavored to modify the materials to accord with an increasing\nknowledge of children and their development, and while they have not always been successful in their attempts, they have certainly accomplished much which is most beneficial in\nthe kindergarten cause. But there is still a long road for most of us to travel before we\nfinally modify them to that degree of simplicity and crudeness which is right and proper\nfor the handwork of children of kindergarten and first grades.\nDr. Brown spoke Thursday of the necessity of teaching man to stand alone, and I\nwondered then^ as I have many times before, if we were fostering this as much as we\nshould in our kindergartens. The only way to accomplish this, it seems to me, is to make\nall our work so simple, or in other words, keep it so well within the limited powers of the\nsmall child, that he can do it largely or entirely thru suggestion.\nOf course, I realize that there is danger in this side too, for we must not only supply\nhandwork but, to make it educational, we must provide for growth both in power of execution and in artistic appreciation, and a teacher must have good judgment as well as good\ntraining to insure this. Too often simplicity and crudeness, especially the latter, means\nto many teachers careless work and poor designs. Dr. MacVannel, in his scholarly paper\nbefore the International Kindergarten Union in April, made a fine suggestion when he\nurged that while we meet the child on the level of his instincts, interest^ and abilities, we\nshall look to it that we raise him to higher levels of efficiency and power.\nI believe that oui; games and play in the kindergarten need as piuch modification as\nour handwork. There is big work to be done here to bring them more within the real\ninterest of young children. The playground people are preaching the necessity for using\nthose games in which the children, the boys especially, are vitally and instinctively interested at the different stages of their development. How far do we follow this good counsel,\ndo you think ? I shall be glad also when we kindergarten people modify our kindergarten\nlanguage; when we shall have dropped our term \"occupations\" and adopted that used\nby all the school people, be it handwork or construction work. It will be a big step toward\nour closer co -operation and unity.\nI cannot close this discussion with a better statement than that made by Dr. MacVannel in the paper above referred to, \"The Materials of the Kindergarten,\" in which he\nsays that, \"The true factors in kindergarten education are: (a) the spiritual culture of the\nrace embodied in civilization; {b) the little children; (c) the teacher. In the largest and\ntruest sense these three constitute the materials of the kindergarten.\"\nThis is a good thought to leave with you, but remember that on the part of the teacher\nknowledge, judgment, and wisdom in fullest measure must determine her ability and her\n\nJ\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — James F. Chamberlain, State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nVice-President — Miss Adelaide S. Baylor, superintendent of schools, Wabash, Ind.\nSecretary — Miss Neppa Holliday, principal of Longfellow Evening School, Denver, Colo.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, July 6, 1909\nThe Department of Elementary Education met in Trinity Methodist Church at 2:30,\nthe president of the department, James F. Chamberlain, presiding.\nThe session opened with a cycle of songs rendered by John C. Wilcox, of Denver.\nThe president's address dealt with \"Progress and Needs in Elementary Education.\"\nJohn W. Cook, president of the State Normal School, DeKalb, 111., read a paper on\nthe subject, \"Does the Curriculum of the Elementary School Meet the Existing Needs?\"\nThe discussion was opened by Walter R. Siders, superintendent of schools, Pocatello,\nIdaho, and was continued by Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, principal of the Chicago Normal\nSchool, Chicago, 111.\nThe second paper of the afternoon, \"How Can the Curriculum of the Elementary\nSchool Be Enriched?\" was presented by Hervey B. Work, superintendent of schools.\nWheeling, W. Va.\nThis paper was discussed by William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Omaha,\nNebr., and John S. Welch, supervisor of grammar grades, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nUpon motion, the president appointed the following committee on nominations:\nR. J. Alev, Bloomington, Ind.\nW. R. Siders, Pocatello, Idaho\nS. L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minn.\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Afternoon, July 8, 1909\nThe department met in the Trinity Methodist Church and was called to order by\nPresident James F. Chamberlain.\nOtis B. Caldwell, associate professor of botany. The University of Chicago, presented\na paper on \"The Place and Practice of Nature-Study in the Elementary Grades.\"\nThe subject was then thrown open for general discussion.\nThe second paper of the afternoon, \"Application of the Household Arts and Sciences\nto the Work of the Elementary Schools,\" was read by Mrs. Ellen H, Richards, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.\nThe discussion of this paper was opened by Miss Rosa Bouton, University of Nebraska^\nLincoln, Nebr., followed by Miss Berry of the State Normal School, DeKalb, III.\nThe report of the committee on nominations was as follows:\nFor President — T. A. Mott, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind.\nFor Vice-President — John A. Welch, supervisor of grammar grades. Salt Lake City,\nUtah.\nFor Secretary — Margaret Canty, supervisor of grammar grades, Milwaukee, Wis.\nThe report of the committee was on motion accepted, and the secretary was directed\nto cast the ballot for the election of the nominees. The ballot was so cast and the nominees\nwere declared elected for the ensuing year.\nAfter the introduction of the president-elect, T. A. Mott, the department adjourned.\nNeppa Holliday, Secretary\n457\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "458\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nJAMES\n\nAND\n\nNEEDS\n\nF. CHAMBERLAIN,\n\nSTATE\n\n[Elementary\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nPROGRESS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nADDRESS\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLOS\n\nEDUCATION\nANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nWe are living in an age of wonderful material development. The last\ncentury has witnessed greater changes than have occurred during all of the\nremainder of the period of recorded history. This well-known fact is of very\ngreat importance in its relations to our educational scheme. Specialization in\nevery industry, changed methods of conducting business, new conditions\nattaching to home and community life, have made necessary new forms of\ntraining, new phases of knowledge.\nChanges in our school system have not kept pace with those in the material\nworld. Perhaps we sometimes forget that they cannot take place so rapidly.\nWood, stone, and other materials can be fashioned at the will of the worker,\naccording to his physical and intellectual power. These materials offer no\nintelligent response to the worker and no purposeful opposition. They have\nno receptive and no unreceptive moods. On the other hand, education is the\nresult of striving and growth from within, as well as directed effort from without. This growth is determined, in large measure, by the attitude and mental\ncapacity of the one being educated. There are certain functions belonging to\neducation which are elemental. These apply to all times and to all peoples.\nIn our rightful desire to bring about a more rapid adjustment between education and the affairs of life this should not be forgotten.\nVery much that is said and written concerning the public school has as\nits keynote lack of adjustment to conditions under which we live. Whatever\nour work in the broad field of education, we are all earnestly striving to answer\nthe question: How can the work of the school be made more practical, more\neffective, a greater power for good ?\nUpon the foundation depends the durability, the safety, the value of the\nsuperstructure. If, as we believe, education be the foundation upon which\nindividual, community, and national life must be builded; if success, whether\nviewed from a material or from a moral point of view, rests upon this, then how\nimportant that this foundation be securely and wisely laid.\nElementary education is the stone upon which our whole educational\nstructure rests. It is the opportunity offered by this division of the scheme\nof which the state says her citizens must avail themselves. Comparatively few\nof our people do take advantage of any other part of the system. If, then,, the\nstate has the right to demand of every child, as we all believe it has, an elementary education, it becomes the duty of the state to see that this education\noffers the largest possible opportunities. It must see to it that the school does\nits full duty in fitting the boy and the girl to become useful members of society.\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n459\n\nThat the school is not doing all that it can is a fact of which we are all\npainfully aware. Business men very often affirm that not only do the schools\nfail to provide the training which is essential to success in the world of affairs,\nbut that a part of what the schools give is a positive hindrance to progress.\nThis is a serious charge, and it should at least receive careful consideration.\nIn the days of our fathers a knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic\nmore nearly met the needs of life than it does at the present time. Our population was then largely rural. When the children were taken out of school to\nhelp support the family they usually worked upon the farm, and a living at\nleast could be secured. The conflict was with nature, not with man. The\ncongestion of population in our great centers has wrought a marked change in\neconomic affairs. Life under these conditions makes it absolutely necessary\nthat the children of the poor shall, at an early age, become wage-earners.\nThey enter the ranks of unskilled labor, they strive to become proficient in some\ntrade, or they take part in mercantile or clerical life. There is a fierce competition ofmuscle with muscle, and mind with mind, and the number not equal\nto the struggle is appalling.\nThis makes it evident that preparing the pupil for Hfe means far more\nthan giving him a cultural training. That elementary education which does\nnot make it possible for every boy and girl to acquire a training that shall be\ndirectly helpful to them in the great struggle to earn a living is not worthy of a\nplace in our system.\nBut it is not on the vocational side alone that the elementary school is\nfailing to do all in its power. Indirectly, at least, it often hampers the physical\ndevelopment of the child. Nothing can take the place of the proper amount\nof sunshine, fresh air, and exercise. We have no right to prevent the full\nexpansion of the bodily powers of the pupil by confining him under unfavorable\nconditions in the educational cell composed of the school seat and desk. We\nare just beginning to learn how this reacts upon the mental and moral life to\nthe detriment of both.\nThe keenness, alertness, discrimination, and judgment which have made\npossible the accumulation of vast fortunes in this country, were, in many\ncases, not acquired in the school, but rather on the street, in the store, or shop,\nin a constant struggle for supremacy. Interest and '' aliveness \" were born of\ndesire, of necessity, and thus were skill and power developed. Too often our\nschool exercises are not of the nature to call into play the full intellectual\npower of the pupil, and hence mental stagnation results.\nIn another, and this by far the most important way, our elementary schools\nfail to meet fully the needs of society. The rapidly changing industrial and\nsocial conditions require, more than ever before, dependableness, integrity,\nmorality, character. The possibilities of the moral life exist in every child,\nbut these possibiUties are not likely to become actualities thru formal instruction along this line. The school must, as far as possible, surround the pupil\nby conditions that make for morality.\nThere is a moral aspect attaching to\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "46o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nevery thought and act. In the performance of every duty, no matter how\nsmall, pupils should be held to the highest plane of action. In every relationship of child with child, respect for the rights of others, sympathy, and high\nideals should be inculcated.\nThe years that the child spends in the elementary school constitute the\nformative period of his life. What he is to become in later life is determined,\nin large measure, by what he is in school. Therefore, unless these years be\nspent in an atmosphere that encourages and demands the highest and noblest,\nthe experiences of later years are sure to bring reproach upon the teacher and\nthe 'school.\nWe know that conditions as they exist in the elementary school today do not\nalways permit of proper physical development. We know that the school does\nnot prepare the pupils to earn a living. We are still, to some extent, feeding\ndry husks to hungering minds, thus stunting intellectual life. Too frequently\nconditions do not develop high ideals and moral standards. What are we\ngoing to do about it ? Custom, tradition, is one of the heaviest clogs which\nhumanity drags from century to century. We should not hesitate to break\naway from educational practices that are time-honored if that be their chief\nclaim to honor. Changes in the curriculum of the school should be inaugurated,\nhowever, as a result of thoughtful study, and in the firm belief that something\nbetter has been found — not on the spur of the moment and in the spirit of\nexperimentation. With this animating our efforts, we shall certainly succeed, in the not-distant future, in bringing about a more complete adjustment\nbetween the work of the school and the actual affairs of life.\n\nDOES\nJOHN\n\nTHE\nW.\n\nCURRICULUM OF THE ELEMENTARY\nMEET THE EXISTING NEEDS ?\n\nCOOK,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDEKALB,\n\nILL.\n\nIn order to give an intelligent answer to this question, two other questions\nmust be considered: first. What are the existing needs? second, In what\nrelation does the curriculum of the elementary school stand to these needs ?\nOne of the functions of the elementary school is to prepare its pupils to\nengage most efl&ciently in the work of the secondary school. Rousseau's\nfamiliar remark that ''the school is life rather than a preparation for life\"\ncontains a truth that will always need emphasis. But in that period of human\nexperience that is essentially educative, one is not only living but is also preparing for more significant living. Because one aspect of truth has been so\nexaggerated as to be warped out of its proper relations it does not follow that,\nas a corrective, it should be so slighted as to be lost sight of altogether. He is\na poor teacher who is so engaged with the present as to lose sight of the future.\nIt may be answered that the best preparation for the future is to live up to the\nfull measure of the present, but such an answer is but juggling with words;\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDOES\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nMEET\n\nNEEDS?\n\n461\n\nthe significance of anything is determined in large part by that to which it\npoints.\nThere are certain studies that may be termed mainly instrumental. They\nare the tools with which the treasure-houses of knowledge are unlocked.\nSince the invention of the book, by which the limitations of time and space are\nsurpassed, the ability to read has been a condition of any extended information.\nIn the elementary school the larger part of the reading is for the purpose of\nlearning how to read; in the secondary school it is assumed that this art has\nbeen acquired. It is henceforward to be used for the purposes for which it\nwas mastered — for the acquisition of knowledge, or for some kindred object.\nThe curriculum makes ample provision for learning how to read. If the\npupil who enters the high school is not a good reader it is not to be charged\nto the neglect of the course of study, so far as the quantity of reading-matter\nis concerned. The failure must lie in poor teaching or in the choice of material.\nI am often an unwilling witness of slow and stumbling reading in the upper\ngrades of the elementary school. In the greater number of instances I have\nattributed it to the selection of material that is far too difficult for the pupils.\nIn our desire to introduce the young to what we call superior literature we\nhave put into the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades work that is suitable only\nfor the second or third year of the high school. There is but one way to learn\nhow to read and that is to read. The elementary school is not the place for\nhard reading lessons. The meaning must lie near the surface and must align\nitself with the experience of the child. It must be engaging and tempting and\nmust thus invite to that constant practice which is the only method of so\nacquiring an art that it is forgotten in the enjoyment of what it yields.\nNumber is another of the instrumental subjects. Its mastery involves\nperfect familiarity with a large number of facts. Several hundred number\ncombinations must take their places in the memory and in such a way as to be\ninstantaneously available. There must be such an association of question\nand answer that the former immediately suggests the latter. We have come\nto regard drill as obnoxious to the child and consequently as hostile to the allconquering doctrine of interest. There was never a greater mistake. Children love drill if properly conducted. They have not yet arrived at that stage\nof development in which reflection is the preferable employment. They can\nbe so treated as to discourage memorizing effort and thus make it abhorrent.\nIt is easier to guess at facts and call it thinking, and teachers often neglect to\nkeep certain instincts alive and functional because it demands on their part\na sort of work that does not feed their own intelligence.\nLet the curriculum unhesitatingly face the necessities of certain subjects\nand provide the kind of work that they demand for their free mastery. The\nword \"mechanical\" is feared by many teachers as the children dread the\n''bogy man.\" The central idea is all right but the error lies in throwing an\nindispensable thing away because it has been abused. I do not forget that\nhabit is the vanishing point of education, nor do I forget that certain habits\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "462\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nare necessary in order that education in other directions may proceed. Let\nus so far return to the customs of the fathers as to provide for a sufficient\namount of drill to make mechanical that which is at best poor in thought content, but which leaves one crippled and inefficient if not thoroly mastered.\nIs the transition from the elementary school to the high school too abrupt ?\nA study of high-school data shows the greatest falling off in the first year.\nPossibly the statistics were too limited in their scope to furnish a reliable\njudgment. They were suggestive of the idea that the pupils became disheartened because of the unexpected rigors of the new work. That there\nshould be a conscious entrance into a new realm I believe to be capable of\ndemonstration. Life not only seeks to be rhythmical but also to be epochal.\nIt is well worth while to make the transfer to the high school an event worth\nremembering. The change comes when the novel is especially welcome.\nWill some student, with the time and inclination, make a study of boys and\ngirls with respect to their view of the world within the last three months of the\nelementary school and the end of the first three months of the high school ?\nIt is doubtful whether any other similar period will exhibit so marked a transformation. But it is easy to make the promotion the leaping of a chasm.\nThere are no chasms to be leaped in the educational process. We must be\nable to run back as well as forward. The elementary school should anticipate\nthe high school by dropping here and there into the curriculum that which\nwill sprout ideas that become explicit in the later period. An appreciation\nof the doctrine of apperception will lead us to provide specific ideas for the\ninterpretation of high-school subjects. It is not forgotten that much the\nsmaller half — to use a Hibernicism — never reach the high school. So much\nthe greater need. Let not their appetites for more be neglected because the\nchances are against their getting it. Enough has been said to furnish a ground\nof criticism against the present curriculum in that it does not sufficiently look\nto the school beyond, or to the life independent of the school beyond.\nLet us return to the curriculum and examine it with reference to another\nfeature of the existing needs.\nWhat shall we say of it as an adaptation of employments for educative\npurposes to the needs of the child himself, in the several stages which he enters\nfrom the sixth to the fourteenth year ?\nIn many respects it has embodied the best intelligence of a large number\nof men and women who were freed from the authority of tradition and who\nwere fearlessly seeking the best available experience for children. I ought\nto have said in most respects. In spite of all that the free lances, in their\nirresponsibility, are saying, the curriculum in the great majority of schools is\nthe best thus far realized, and that is by no means small praise.\nPestalozzi summed up the whole science of pedagogy in three propositions:\n1. There is a natural order of development in the evolution of the mind of the child.\n2. There are employments exactly suited to the needs of the child in each of these\nsuccessive stages of his development.\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDOES\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nMEET\n\nNEEDS?\n\n463\n\n3. It is the office of the teacher to discover this natural order, the employments best\nsuited to occupy him at each of these periods of growth, and to put the two conceptions\ninto vital relations.\n\nThere has been an honest effort to follow the lead of the Swiss reformer.\nOur greatest trouble is with the earliest grades. I do not mean that we have\nour main troubles there with the children but with a certain class of parents.\nRealizing the economic value of the child on one hand, and the compulsoryschool law on the other, many regard as frills and fads all attempts to devote\nthe first two or three years of the school to a free and generous life. The\ncall for work from the beginning that shall tell directly and immediately upon\nthe bread- winning problem is heard on every hand. As against this call of the\nchild to the mills of toil, hear what a noble-hearted woman, who has spent\nthirty years of her gracious life with little children, has to say:\nToo much is now expected of children the first year. They should be allowed a\nyear and a half to do what is now expected of them in one, especially in reading, writing,\nand number. Much more time should be devoted to games, songs, poems, stories, and\nkindred occupations. It would be better to put off the reading and writing until the middle\nof the first year, or at least until the second term. Construction work should occupy more\nof the time of the children during the first three years. It should be largely carried on\nwith materials which the child will find in his home and he should be especially encouraged\nto do at home what he does in the school, thus prolonging the educative activities of the\nday and enlisting the interest of his brothers and sisters. The possibilities in this direction\nare not appreciated by teachers generally.\nIn construction work the dictation should be reduced to the minimum, and the children\nshould be encouraged in all ways to think themselves out of their difficulties. The child\nshould constantly be urged to notice what is going on about him out-of-doors. Industrial\nactivities should be studied, natural phenomena should be observed, the common life\nthat is all about the child should be made an open book for him to read. He should not be\naided at every turn but should be left to his own resources as much as possible. We\nbutton his coat and put on his rubbers and give him his pencil and open his book and\ncultivate in him constantly the spirit of dependence, because we love him and seem to\nwant to keep him a child.\n\nPerhaps it will be answered that these are not matters for which the curriculum isresponsible, but are the results of the cultivation of that newer spirit\nof humanity that came in with the reformers. But the curriculum may be modified in these earlier grades so that there shall be an intensifying of all of these\nparticulars suggested in the way of constructive work and the consequent\nrelief for which this teacher pleads. Thus the school will become more and\nmore a place in which the free and spontaneous life of the child takes the place\nof the conventional occupations that seem so foreign to his experience.\nI confess myself in warm sympathy with these suggestions. They touch\na responsive chord in all of our hearts. But it is being forced upon us that\nthe school must be relied upon to relieve the social tension so apparent in\nmany directions. We are continuing the urbanizing process with unabated\nvigor. In consequence, the industrial man of the city is like a soldier in his\ngarrison to whom supplies must come from a distant base of operation.\nHe\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "464\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nlives from hand to mouth and is in constant menace of a panic or a strike or\nof a cessation of his daily labor from some other cause. The young must\nexpect to help in the family support as soon as possible. They must be imbued\nwith habits of industry, must acquire notions of frugality, and must be started\nalong a line of manual occupations that make constant appeals to the exercise\nof high intelligence. They must see that schooling is the means by which\nthey are to get a leverage on the world. When the boy or the girl feels that\nevery day in the schoolroom yields an increment of power that makes him more\ndesirable in the eyes of employers, he is getting from the school what he has a\nright to claim. It is useless for us to cling longer to our old ideals without\nrecognizing the mighty changes that the industrial revolution has wrought\nwithin the last few years. The day of the common laborer is drawing to its\nclose, at least in the great majority of occupations. **How many common\nlaborers are there in this mill?\" I asked of the courteous foreman who was\nshowing me about a great mill. ''There are no common laborers in this\nmill,\" was his reply. \"All are skilled workmen. The derricks have taken\nthe place of the others.\"\nAnd how is the curriculum to be modified to meet the existing needs ? In\nmany ways, I am confident. It must be so changed that the school may still\nkeep its hands upon the boys and girls that have left at the end of the eighth\ngrade, or earlier, if the compulsory law has permitted it. Of all of the suggested plans the one put into operation in Rochester a few months ago seems\nto me the most suggestive and the most promising of good results. In effect\nit begins the specializing process quite early in the grades. It makes a study\nof every boy and endeavors to do the very best thing possible, so far as human\nsagacity can discover the best thing for him. It regards the probable demands\nthat will be made upon him in the industrial life that he will be most likely to\nenter.\nIt is quite probable that many of you have read the pamphlet issued by\nthe New York State Education Department on April i, of the present year.\nIt is A Description of Rochester Factory Schools. These schools are the result\nof an investigation of industrial needs in that city. The superintendents and\nforemen were asked to testify as to the deficiencies shown by the boys who\nsought employment under their direction. This was seeking expert testimony.\n''What can you suggest in the form of manual or mental training\" they were\nasked, \"that will increase the earning power of these boys and make their\npromotion more rapid?\" They replied and those replies were made the\nbasis of action. The board furnished the equipment and the factory schools\nwere launched. It is interesting to read the list of the teachers. It sounds\nmore like a faculty list in a polytechnic school than the names of a corp of\ngrammar-school teachers in a city school.\nDo the opening sentences of this paper conflict with the closing ? I cansee that they do. Preparation for further schooling is as necessary as\npreparation for vocation, for life should always be a school.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDOES\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nMEET\n\nNEEDS?\n\n465\n\nDoes the curriculum of the elementary school meet the existing needs?\nNo. What is to be done with it ? It is to be changed. How ? In whatever\nway is necessary to meet the conditions brought about by the industrial revolution. What about the cost ? It is to be materially increased. Will the people\nstand it ? They will demand it.\nDISCUSSION\nWalter R. Siders, superintendent of schools, Pocatello, Idaho. — I find myself in\naccord with the paper, and am desirous of adding emphasis to a few points. If \" education\nis but a phase of the social movement of the race,\" the answer to the question of the topic\nis to be found in a study of the social movement of the race.\nIt is not questioned that this is an industrial age; that material achievements and the\napplied arts of the industries command the attention and are the means of livelihood of the\ngreat majority of our people. The raising of food stuffs and the mining and production\nor raw materials are being put on a scientific basis. Machinery and scientific methods\nare being applied to the mine, to the forest, to the farm, and to the field in almost the same\ndegree in which they are applied to manufacturing.\nThe learning of trades and the applied arts by the apprentice system is largely a thing\nof the past. Specialization prevents the apprentice from learning the whole of a business,\ntrade, or applied art. The apprentice is cut off from higher usefulness because the specialized system of his apprenticeship does not afford the necessary comprehensive view.\nAs the reader of the paper has said, the majority of children are compelled to become\nwage-earners at the close of the elementary-school period, or sooner if compulsory education laws will permit.\nDoes the elementary-school curriculum recognize this ? Does it fit for a basic comprehension ofagriculture, of the trades, or of the applied arts ?\nThe elementary school should supply what the old apprentice system afforded and\ngive this training from a more scientific and comprehensive viewpoint. Manual training\nand domestic economy are but a beginning. Somethi similar to the Rochester factory\nschools will be demanded.\nEducation is not solely for ulterior purposes. The cultural side of education must not\nbe overlooked. One of the important functions of elementary education is to increase the\nhappiness and civic usefulness of the individual. The curriculum, as it stands today, has\nthe cultural side better cared for than the vocational side of education. A further enrichment of the curriculum must be made with a view to making better the cultural aspect.\nThe vocational feature will be new in the curriculum, but what of the curriculum as it\nstands ? Does it meet the existing needs ?\nAs has been pointed out, the elementary school affords the tools necessary to acquire\nknowledge, the subjects taught are a means to an end. The needs of the age are the ends\nin view. The ends attained by the elementary-school graduate do not seem to measure\nup to the needs of the age. The ends attained by the elementary-school graduate do not\njustify the means used in preparation. The faults are in subject-matter as well as in\nmethod.\nIn so far as reading fails to train to a ready comprehension of what is read, and both\noral expression and interpretation are faulty; in so far as writing passes beyond legibility\nand rapidity to ornamentation and flourish; in so far as arithmetic is laden with problems\nand computations of a past age, and fails in accuracy and facility; in so far as geography\nis confined to obsolete information, to the indentations of obscure coast-lines, to the rising\nand direction of flow of unimportant rivers, etc., instead of scientific reasons for geographical\nphenomena and valuable commercial information; in so far as grammar and language\ntraining is confined to intellectual gymnastics in parsing and analysis of classics which\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nchallenge the understanding of adults, instead of training for fluency and accuracy in\nlanguage as an instrument for ready communication; in so far as history glorifies war and\nis silent on the achievements of peace; in so far as manual training and domestic science\nare slop-work and not shop-work, not contributing to definiteness of knowledge and\nexactness in results; in so far as any or all of the work of the curriculum does not give\nmodern information, does not drill this absolutely into the individual until it is a reflex\npart of his make-up, does not fit him to understand the elementary problems of making\nhis livelihood, does not instill patriotism, altruism, and an intelligent appreciation of our\ngovernment: to that degree the curriculum does not meet existing needs.\nA survey of the needs of the age reveals that the present course of study is very considerably inadequate to meeting these needs.\n\nHOW\n\nCAN\n\nTHE CURRICULUM OF THE ELEMENTARY\nSCHOOL BE ENRICHED ?\n\nHERVEY\n\nB. WORK,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nWHEELING,\n\nW. VA.\n\nThe necessity for any enrichment of the course of study must lie in a present insufficiency in its organization to supply what is needed to educate the\nchild properly. The purpose of enrichment, then, is to supply what may be\nlacking to make education a more effective force in preparing the pupil for\nlife.\nThe course of study may be defective from any one or more of a number\nof reasons. It may be that it has not been developed as rapidly as the changing thought of the people would require; or that it has been constructed with\nreference to certain conditions of our time, while it has neglected others\nequally important; or that it has been shaped to attain but a partial end of\neducation, rather than the whole. In any event, the discussion must be the\nsame. The whole purpose of education is to be attained, and the point for\nconsideration is: how to adjust the course of study, both as a whole and in\nits parts, so as to attain in each case the maximum result.\nThe necessity for enrichment being assumed, the problem becomes one of\nmethod. How shall we proceed to enrich the course of study ? We know\nthat we want to do it ; can we find the means ? Can the present curriculum be\nchanged or modified in any way so as to produce the result sought, or must\nwe alter it fundamentally?\nThe idea implied in the phrase, \"enrichment of the course of study,\"\nis that the course of study lacks something which it ought to have, and that\nwhatever it is that is lacking can, in some manner, be incorporated into it.\nEnrichment implies the placing in the course of that which will make it better\nadapted to its purpose.\nNow the present curriculum may not have content enough, or it may have\ntoo much in some lines, and not sufficient in others. Hence, we may enrich\nby addition, by subtraction, by both, or by substitution. Enrichment implies\nchange. It is an attempt to supply what is wanting; to work a change by\nputting new subject-matter into the course so as to make it more vital. The\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nCAN\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nBE\n\nENRICHED?\n\n467\n\nentire question of enrichment involves the purpose of education, selection of\nmeans to attain that purpose, and the adaptation of the means chosen.\nWhat we have heretofore attempted by way of enrichment has been chiefly\nby addition to the original course of the three R's. We have added without\nunifying. We have filled up the years of the child's school life with a multitude of subjects until the course of study is so congested that we are seeking\nmeans of relief from its overcrowded condition. Is it the case, then, that our\nfurther discussion of enrichment must be regarded as a protest against the\npresent curriculum, a protest which cannot be met by any system of addition\nor elimination, but must be answered by substituting a new course of study\nwritten with entire disregard to the present course, but with reference solely\nto the nature of the child and the need he has for education ?\nWhat the child needs is development in relation to the best in his environment. As a physical being he must provide for his physical wants, and this\nmeans, in most cases, that he must be a manual worker; as an intellectual\nbeing his intelligence must be trained to do its best work under any and all\nconditions, and this implies mental discipline; as a moral being his feelings\nand emotions must be aroused and stimulated, right choice encouraged, and\nthe will to do right strengthened ; as a spiritual being, realizing his dependence\nupon a Divine Being, and drawing his highest incentives in all things from a\ndesire to please the Creator and Preserver of his life, his religious nature\nshould have full development.\nNow, these are the relations which obtain in the life of each of us. Ideal\neducation would aim at the highest possible development of the individual in\neach of them; practical education aims at getting the best out of each, but\ndoes not place the same emphasis on all. Practical education views man in his\npresent relations, and seeks to give him a training that will make him most\neffective in whatever he may do, here and now. The schools have mainly to\ndo with practical education. Their aim is character, or citizenship, or social\nefi5ciency, or whatever you may choose to call it. Manual, intellectual, and\nmoral ability are direct aims of the school; and spiritual power is an aim\nonly as it contributes to the perfecting of the other three.\nIf the previous statement be true, then the problem of the development\nof the course of study is so to select and arrange the subjects of study as to\ninclude those things that will most effectively contribute to the end in view;\nand the problem of enrichment is so to select and limit their contents as to\naccomplish that end and no other. As for myself, I do not believe that further\nenrichment will come so much from additions to the course as it will from a\nrewriting of the textbooks, so as to include in them for educative purposes only\nlive material. When, for example, we shall cease to view arithmetic as a\nbranch of mathematics, to be studied as a science in itself, but shall regard a\nknowledge of it as a part of the equipment of the efficient man, and shall\ninclude in our school work only such of its principles and processes as may be\nnecessary to accomplish that end, we shall have made one great step toward\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nproper enrichment. The same remark applies to the various other subjects\nincluded in the curriculum. We need elimination first that we may have\nenrichment.\nIt should be borne in mind that enrichment of the course of study has a\nparallel proposition, that is, enrichment of teaching. The whole problem\ninvolves these two things. The one is as important as the other. The best\ncourse of study in the world will be of little avail if it cannot be enriched by\nthe knowledge, the life, the experience, and the inspiration of the teacher.\nInspiration, guidance, and outlook ought to be the teacher's main contribution to the work of educating the child. The opportunities to offer these are\never at hand. The pupil can gather facts from a great many sources — the\nteacher is not necessary for that; but he is necessary to the novice in discovering the relation of the facts and the beautiful harmony that exists in all truth.\nThe only advantage which Mark Hopkins, seated on one end of a log, could\nhave over the student on the other was in the richness of his experience, and\nhis training in discovering the relation and interpretation of facts. The\nsame facts were about them both on every hand; study and experience had\ntrained the one to recognize relation; the other was being trained. The\nguidance of the more experienced would be of great value to the one of less\nexperience.\nGreat teachers always excel courses of study. So far as we know, Socrates\nhad no course of study, nor had the Great Teacher, but both grasped the true\nspirit of teaching, and it was the life they put into it that made them the\ngreatest teachers of the world. They were concerned with the things of Ufe,\nand their teaching took on the form of thought with which they were concerned.\nThey put into their teaching what they got out of life, and that made life more\nabundant for their fellow-men. The enrichment of teaching is as highly important as the enrichment of the course of study.\nTo enrich our courses of study, then, we need to put into them the things\nwhich will attain the fullest measure of the end that we are seeking. If we\nare seeking the upright and perfect man, we must put into the content of our\nstudies the things which will educe those qualities which we understand as\ngoing to form the upright and perfect man. If we want to make an artist of\nhim, in addition to having him upright and perfect, we must include those\nthings which are competent to evolve the artistic nature within him. Stating\nthe principle again, for the purpose of emphasis, the object sought in enrichment, in any line of school work, is more definite relation to the range of our\ndaily-life experiences. And the natural process of enrichment — the very\nnatural process — is the inclusion of such content in our studies as will most\neffectively produce that result.\nWith regard to what should be included in the course of study, I would make\nthe following observations:\nI. There ought to be, in order to construct a proper course of study, a general agreement as to what education is to do. So long as we are divided as to\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "pepartment]\n\nHOW\n\nCAN\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nBE\n\nENRICHED\n\n?\n\n469\n\nthe ends which education is to obtain, one urging one thing, and another\nsomething different, so long will the question of enrichment be unsettled; for\nwhat would serve for enrichment in one man's estimation would be useless\naccording to the other. We need to get together on the purposes of education.\n2. The time limit for direct instruction will require further readjustment\nof the present course. As the course is now planned to occupy the full time\nof the pupi), to enrich by the addition of any new material will require the\nelimination of something already in the course. This has been the principle\npursued to a large extent in all efforts at enrichment so far attempted. The\ntime limit is the inexorable factor of the whole thing. The real question is,\nhow much can we do in the time that we. have. Could that limit be removed,\nCould we be secure\nThat our lives would endure\nFor a thousand long years, as of old,\n\nthen we could put into the course of study all that we might desire. Perhaps\nwhen we secure 'that extension of life which the scientists tell us is coming,\nand the normal period of living is six score years instead of three score and\nten, we can lengthen the period of infancy correspondingly, and so provide\nto the full extent that training which seems so necessary to call forth in the\nchild the qualities of heart, head, and hand which tend to make him a fully\ndeveloped being of his kind. But we must accomplish the work within\ndefinite time limits.\n3. To my mind, in order to secure the proper enrichment of the school\ncourse we shall have to rewrite it in terms of Hfe instead of in the terms of\nspecial subjects. We are beginning to make progress in this direction.\nEvery act of study ought to leave a twofold result: (i) an item of knowledge, be it a fact or principle, which is in itself worth knowing at that time;\n(2) an increased power to repeat the same, or a like, act of knowing. These\nare the primary results. Other results may follow because acts of knowing\nfrequently arouse feeling and willing. Intellectual activities are rarely simple\nthings.\nThe material which goes into the course of study ought to^meet these conditions:\n1. It ought to be better adapted than any other material to secure the desired results.\nThis implies the most careful selection of all material with reference to its worth, or educative value,\n2. It must be chosen with reference to the pupil's ability to comprehend it. The\nmental ability of the child must condition the choice. There must be the fitness of time\nwhen the pupil shall undertake such work as is proposed. Here is implied, too, the proper\nsequence of material. The arrangement of the work must provide for continuity of subjects.\n3. The subject-matter should be chosen with reference to its interest for the child. It\nought to combine, if possible, inherent interest together with the quality of utility for\nfuture activity, or acquirement.\n4. It ought to be chosen with reference to its power to satisfy a real present need.\nMany things prove interesting which have no other special merit.\nOut of the vast wealth\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "470\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nof material available that selection should be made that wll best and most quickly put\nthe pupil en rapport with the best in his environment. Whatever else education does for the\nchild, it should cause him to understand the activities of his own place and time, and prepare him to do his part in them.\n5. As far as possible, the subject-matter of the course of study should be such that the\nchild will have a conscious motive for taking it up. This is, perhaps, but another way of\nsaying that we should omit all that is abstract or merely formal. As much as may be,\nthe material for study should be concrete.\n6. The material of the course of study should be chosen with special reference to\nunity and correlation. We are a people of analytic minds. We love to divide and classify.\nWe emphasize the value of each idea and develop it into a special subject which we would\nhave taught in the schools. We must seek to unify and concentrate. Time and results\nboth demand this.\n\nThese principles do not conform to the idea of formal discipline; nor do\nthey disregard it further than this, that for the means of mental discipline\nthey would substitute such knowledge as is immediately valuable to the pupil.\nThey would require us to choose for mental food only those facts which are\nof immediate interest both in themselves and in their anticipation of other\nforms of knowledge.\nThe old question of the relative value of subjects as disciplinary factors\nneeds no discussion here. The fact stands that when the mind is interested\nin any subject, thinking results; if it is not interested, thinking may still result,\nbut it will not take the direction desired. Thinking is incited by those things\nwhich interest the mind; hence the more things which can be included in the\ncourse of study, which appeal directly to the pupil's right interests, the greater\nwill be the amount of thinking caused, and, necessarily, the greater the intellectual power developed. For the purpose of arousing the interest of the\nchild, the concrete is vastly more valuable than the abstract.\nIn putting this emphasis upon the condition of interest, it is not to be interpreted as excluding certain exercises in drill work, as in number, in reading,\nin spelling, etc.\nThere will be a certain amount of drudgery in acquiring the mechanics of\nstudy which cannot be avoided. The child may not be able to see anything\nin this work thaj; is of immediate interest to him. We must explain as best we\nmay and encourage, but that is as far as we can go. For the rest we must\ndepend upon indirect interest and the spirit of obedience. The child must\nassume that we will not require him to undertake any work for which we have\nnot good reason. He comes to us as a child, with a child's motives and a\nchild's abilities, and we must put ourselves on his plane at the beginning, but\nwe must bring him to our plane at the end. And our plane is in the world of\nthings, the world of activity, the world of life, as we say.\nIn the past twenty-five years we have incorporated art, music, literature,\nhistory, manual training, domestic science, and business practice.. In the\ncourses which we now have there is material for the discipline of the intellect,\nthe training of the hand, and the instruction of the heart. We do not need\nmore material, so far as the number of subjects is concerned, but we need such\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNATURE-STUDY\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n471\n\ncontent in the subject-matter as will produce the highest results. And this,\nas I see things, is the way by which further enrichment will come.\n\nTHE\n\nPLACE\n\nOTIS\n\nW.\n\nAND PRACTICE OF NATURE-STUDY\nTHE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\nCALDWELL,\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nIN\nILL.\n\nThe place and practice of nature-study is to be determined by the benefits\nthat are expected to result therefrom. These benefits may be stated with but\na measure of assurance, since experience in using nature-study materials has\nbeen so divergent that differing values are assigned. Sympathetic comparison\nof results of these experiments will doubtless assist in defining the purposes\nthat we may reasonably expect to realize in and thru nature-study, but until\nthis is done more thoroly, argument relative to realizable purposes must be\nsomewhat tentative. This need not suggest discouragement, since persistence\nof experiment and of real nature-study enthusiasm is ample evidence of the\ngenuine educational vitality of the subject.\nThis vitality of nature-study in elementary education is probably due to an\naknost universal inherent interest in nature and an inherent investigative attitude of mind on the part of children; and on the part of teachers, a somewhat\ngeneral belief in nature-study: (i) as a means of continuing and rendering\nmore efficient this investigative attitude of mind so that thinking may be more\ndirect, comprehensive, and dependable and may be exercised upon something\nthat seems worth while; (2) as a means of concrete experience and first-hand\nproblem -solving which are essential to the enrichment of one's own activities\nand essential to interpretation of the thoughts and actions of others; (3) as a\nmeans of a larger and more constant enjoyment of nature ; (4) as a means of\nproper understanding of nature in relation to man's own problems — industrial,\nsocial, and economic. Children bring this nature interest with them when\nfirst they come to school, and in it the teacher may find the mainspring of\nmany important activities. It is the starting-point in the teacher's development of the other educational benefits just mentioned. Furthermore, this\ninterest has to do with materials that must be encountered in the world's\nwork, and thus it possesses the great value of education in connection with\nsome of the things with which the children and adults must deal. If education is for efficiency in social and industrial life, it would seem that education in and thru the life processes of plants and animals and the materials and\nprocesses of the earth upon which life depends is most logical. Also, if education is to develop high types of intellectual and ethical men, it would seem\nwell that the children learn early, in a practical way, such natural laws as the\nlaw of cause and effect in order that they may not unwisely depend upon\n\"side-stepping\" the results of causes that they have set to work. The inhibiting influence of a working knowledge of cause and effect is a possible and often\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "472\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\na real outcome of work in nature-study. There is no more economic result\nfrom nature-study than the proper method of thinking.\nNature-study has a large place in elementary industrial education, since\nmany of its materials and methods of work enter into our most important and\ninstructive industries. If the bases of general industrial life are well laid in\nnature-study and other elementary subjects that deal therewith, we shall\nhave the proper beginning of industrial education, and shall save both our\n•present school system and proposed elementary trade schools serious error.\nThe order of procedure in nature-study, considered independent of\nmethod of presentation, which we do not attempt to cover in this discussion,\nseems to me to be determined largely by two things: (i) the predominant\ninterests of children of the classes in question; and (2) the materials available\nwithin the immediate environment.\nIn grades one and two and possibly in grade three the dominant interest is\nin knowing what things are, and what they are doing, comparatively little\ninterest being had in how processes are working. Consequently it follows\nthat in these lower grades the end sought should be intelligent first-hand contact with nature for general acquaintance. \" The work may include factors\nsuch as observation and very general study of plants and animals, their names,\ntheir homes, the habits of old and young; the foods we eat, their sources, the\nnative plants and animals that furnished foods to primitive peoples; streams\nhills, valleys, lakes, rocks, action of water; group gardens for entire grade,\nand plants in window-boxes; insects of garden and field; the toad and his\nhabits; simple word or pencil description.\nIn grades four (possibly three) to six, the interests of earlier years are not\nlost, but there develops intense interest in how things are being accomplished.\nDesire for control and ownership of nature's materials becomes prominent;\ninterest in the human body is strong. Hence in these grades more intensive\nstudies are most useful, such as life cycles of insects, of birds, of plant life, and\nprocesses involved in growth of economic and wild plants; insect enemies of\nplant life, birds, and agriculture, the individual plot in the school garden with\nits personal ownership and its related nature and industrial interests. This\ngeneral study of plants and animals leads naturally to a study of general human\nphysiology and personal and group hygiene which comes efficiently into the\nsixth grade in many schools.\nIn the seventh and eighth grades interest in the preceding is retained but\nit now broadens into the larger features of nature — physical, chemical, and\nphysiographic forces, but not as separate sciences, the larger industrial aspects\nof the earth and of plants and animals. Problems such as may arise in the\nhome, in the community and in the industries are highly attractive; the origin\nand history of the domestication of economic plants and animals, the forests\nand forest influences, the lumber industry, paper industry, fiber industry,\nplant processes and the world's food, simple chemical experiments, simple\nmachines, electrical phenomena and apparatus, heat, combustion, steam;\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nARTS\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n473\n\nwater power, applied physics, chemistry and biology of the home and community.\nSuch a study of nature should better fit pupils to enjoy themselves, to be\nbetter, to go on with separate sciences, if such is to be done, in a meaningful\nway, and in any event better to use their abilities in doing whatever may be\ntheir part in the world's work.\n\nAPPLICATION\nELLEN\n\nH.\n\nOF THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS AND\nIN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\nRICHARDS,\n\nMASSACHUSETTS\nMASS.\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF\n\nSCIENCES\n\nTECHNOLOGY,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nThe earlier conditions cannot be restored, not even the home training can\nbe brought back, except on the farm and that, it is hoped, may be revived. The\ncity or suburban children cannot have the opportunity to pick up chips when too\nyoung to bring in wood; cannot stand by and hold skeins of yam, or go to the\nbarn and help feed the calves — all most interesting and provocative of endless\nquestions. They cannot go into the garden and pick berries or pears for\ndinner, learn how to avoid breaking the vines or how to judge the ripeness of\nthe melons.\nAll that is probably impossible for many, because it is not possible to give\nchildren of this age responsibility without oversight, and today's elders are\nloath and often incapable of giving oversight.\nBut while these circumstances over which apparently we have no control\npreclude much of the valuable outdoor work, food has still to be prepared,\ndishes need washing, and clothes must be mended, even if towels and napkins\nare no longer hemmed by hand. Rooms are still swept and dusted, beds are\nmade, and chairs and tables put straight. If the wise mother only realized\nthe value to the child of helping in such portions as are not too heavy, of being\na part of the life, she would let nothing stand in the way of using this natural\nmeans of development. But with foreign domestics whose idea is to get\nthe various duties over as soon as possible, and whose gift is ntt that of teaching, how is the child to grow into the normal ways of right daily living, unconsciously and effectively ?\nIf the parents continue to throw all the work of education on the school,\nthen the school must take the best means of fulfiUing the task. Has any better\nmeans ever been devised than the small daily tasks which differentiate men\nfrom animals? The care of the fixed habitation, the foresight needed to\nprepare the things for the family life in the weeks and months to come, the\nco-operation of all the members of the family toward one common end — all\ntend toward high human ideals.\nHow shall these ends be gained artificially by devices of the school ? For\ngained they must be, if civilization is to be maintained.\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nTo quote from Miss Bevier:\nThe home is so inseparably connected with the house, and our comfort and efficiencyare so greatly influenced by the kind of houses in which we live, much of interest and\nimportance centers in the study of the house.\n\nMoreover with the house, its evolution, decoration, and care may be associated\nmuch that is interesting in history, art, and architecture, as well as much that\nhas a direct bearing on the daily life of the individual.\nThe philosophers have struggled for centuries, each contributing, according\nto his experience and vision, what was the purpose of Hfe. America's thought\ncould be translated into the word efficiency. Yes, we might almost say she\nworships efficiency. If, then, efficiency is to be the goal, what are the means to\ndevelop it ? Efficiency depends mostly on good health, and to maintain this we\nmust first consider the physical aids — food, air, water, clothing and shelter,\nexercise and rest — and with this goal in view, must come also recreation,\nplay or amusement, and beauty to develop the mental and the spiritual. In\nrelating our scheme of work to this little house we will consider first the shelter.\nThe school has drawn the child away from the home. The school of\ntoday demands much more from him than the school of the early New England\ndays. It has taken the time that was formerly given to assisting in the duties of\nthe household; it has taken from the home the interest and responsibility\nthat were developed thru the co-operation in the family Hfe. School has taken\nthe place of home in the child's thoughts. In the morning the thought is of\nreaching school, not of the home duties that could lighten many a mother's\nburden.\nThe school, hurried with a curriculum that is wasteful of time and energy,\nlacking correlation in the studies, except in a few schools which are noted\nexceptions proving the rule, has little time to relate its work to the home as the\nkindergarten does in its morning talk; so there must come an intermediate\nstep in order that the school may emphasize the home life and industries, and\nthat a generation may grow up who shall have a knowledge of the daily needs\nof life.\nThe interest awakened in the school will surely react upon the home. It\nis like an expedition going out to make new discoveries to bring back the\nknowledge to their own land. The directive work of the school will thus\nbecome a practical realization in the home. Then the cycle will be complete,\nfor while the school has separated the child from his natural environment for\nmany more hours and weeks, it is sending him back better equipped thru\nknowledge and experience to fulfill his place there.\nThru what means shall we realize this. The children of ten or twelve\nyears of age have passed the ''make-believe\" stage of play; they want the\n\"real,\" but of their own kind and age. The little children have made and\nplayed with toys and foreshadowed the needs of the actual home — now the\ntime is here for the youth to have his demands, which are not yet the demands\nof man and manhood.\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nARTS\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n475\n\nAt the recent Tuberculosis Congress a sanatorium in England won a prize,\nand among the many good features presented was the graded system of work\nand the graded tools, beginning with almost child-like ones for the weak and\nunskilled, gradually advancing toward the normal as the strength and health\nof the man grew; and so it should be with the material we should give the children.\nAfter the toy stage a house about two-thirds the ordinary sized house may\nbe constructed. A room seven feet square is very livable for a child. Three\nrooms is a very good working plant — the kitchen and the bedroom, the diningand living-room combined. Both boys and girls may co-operate in planning,\nbuilding, and furnishing this home.\nThe plan of a modern house may be drawn, basing it on the knowledge\nof house architecture thru history, the modification necessary to site thru\ngeography, and the knowledge that science has brought in drainage, ventilation, and construction. The house could be built by the manual-training\nclass, or if that is not feasible it may be built by one of the firms making\nportable houses. At all events it can be painted .by the children, and this will\nlead to lessons on color, the use of paint and its composition.\nWhile the ''shelter\" is being constructed the child must be considering at\nthe same time the principles of caring for the home, for this would naturally\ninfluence the thought of furnishing. The simply furnished home means less\nphysical exertion, but not less beauty. The home planned and executed on\nscientific principles of hygiene and sanitation means a healthful home, a much\ncleaner home.\nThe shelter of the individual has been considered, now comes the immediate protection of the child — its clothing. It would not be quite practical\nin this little home to enter into the personal activities of bathing and dressing.\nA very large doll approximating the child may be used, one large enough so\nthat it can wear boots, stockings, etc., that are usually bought for the real child.\nAnd here can be taught the lesson in wise spending.\nThe right care of the body must be included among the necessities of\neducation. The teaching of the principles of hygiene should be closely\nrelated to the lives of the children. Correct habits, not rules, are the proper\nprevention for all sorts of defects. To secure and maintain a healthy body,\nhabits of cleanliness and enthusiasm for health must be inculcated. Such\nhabits can be readily impressed on the body while it is plastic in growing —\nthat is, while it is young — ^but they are acquired only with difficulty and by\nmuch thought in after years. Hence there is the greatest economy of time\nand energy in accustoming young people to habits of daily Hving which will\ngive them the best chance in after life — the chance to be \"healthy, happy,\nefficient human beings.\" Most of the teaching must be by indirect methods\n— illustrations — and so the doll may be used again to demonstrate and relate\nfacts about the daily Hfe.\nAn old Scotch writer once said, \"He that would be good must be happy,\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "476\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nand he that would be happy must be healthy.\" The great increase of disease\nfrom causes under individual control, such as that which is brought on by\nerrors of diet, points to a need for a more general education in this respect.\nThe food problem is fundamental to the welfare of the race. Society, to\nprotect itself, must take cognizance of the questions of food and nutrition.\nIt is necessary to give the child the right ideas on these subjects, for only then\nwill there be sufficient effort to get the right kind of food and to have it clean.\nRight living goes farther and demands the right manner of serving and eating\nthe food. The home table should be the school of good manners and of\ngood food-habits of which the child ought not to be deprived.\nIf all the foregoing principles have been developed, if the child has been\nled to see the joy of living thru these home activities, he will consider the home\nthe true shelter, the place where he can play happiest, rest easiest, study most\nearnestly, and express himself most honestly.\nHome economics stands for: (i) the ideal home life for today unhampered\nby the traditions of the past; (2) the utilization of all the resources of modern\nscience to improve the home life; (3) the freedom of the home from the\ndominance of commercial interests and their due subordination to ideals; and\n(4) the simplicity in material surroundings which will most free the spirit for\nthe more important and permanent interests of the home and of society.\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Rosa Bouton, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. — That an application of\nthe household arts and sciences to the elementary schools is greatly needed at the present\ntime is evident to all who give the matter careful thought.\nIn the poorer districts of our great cities, in the highlands of the South, and in the\nrural districts of the Middle West are many people who have not had the training in\nhousehold arts given our grandparents in old New England. Many of these people are\nincapable of properly performing the duties of the home, and therefore cannot give their\nchildren the training necessary to make them efficient home managers. Furthermore,\nconditions have so changed that educated well-to-do people give their children very little\ntraining in the performance of home duties. Today the sons and daughters of many\nwealthy and educated people are little better off than the poor and ignorant, so far as\nactual efl&ciency in the care of themselves and their homes is concerned.\nThe introduction of household arts and sciences into the schools is especially to be\ndesired because these subjects not only train the mind, but also the hand, to perform skillfully all kinds of domestic duties. At the same time they give useful information concerning all things that have to do with the home, and may accordingly be co-ordinated with\nalmost every branch now taught in the schools.\nThe children find real pleasure in doing the mechanical things, and if the teacher be\nwise in directing the efforts of the pupils, very excellent results may be secured in material\nthings, in addition to the training of mind and hand for future work.\nChildren can acquire skill in manipulation much more quickly than older people.\nFor instance, girls in the eighth grade can learn to mold bread or handle the needle properly\nwith much less effort than must be expended by the college young woman in acquiring the\nsame degree of proficiency. It is therefore a matter of economy of actual time expended\nto give this training to children in the elementarj' schools. Another factor to be considered\nis that each hour of the college student's time is of greater economic value than that of the\npupil in the elementary school.\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nARTS\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n477\n\nStatistics show that the majority of children do not continue in school beyond the\neighth grade. Hencp the great necessity of applying the household arts and sciences to the\nelementary schools in order that the greatest number be reached. Not only are the hands\nand the minds of the children trained, but their homes are improved, for into these homes\nthere passes the influence of skillful manipulation and economy of time, strength, and\nmaterial resources. Into the homes also go the higher ideals which the children have\ngained, together with a new realization of the dignity of manual labor and a respect for all\nthe work necessary to make the home comfortable and each member of the family well\nand happy.\nThe plan for applying the household arts and sciences to the elementary schools as\noutlined by Mrs. Richards seems to me admirable. It includes not only instruction in\ncooking and sewing, but the planning, building, finishing, and equipping of the house. It\nalso provides for training in the care of the individual and the house, the management of\ngeneral housework, and domestic financiering. The plan seems ideal and I heartily wish\nit might be made real in the elementary schools of our land.\nThere are two conditions absolutely necessary if the plan as outlined be made practical\nin any school: one is the securing of a teacher who has training, adaptability, and wisdom\nenough so to plan and execute the work as to make it effective ; the other is sufficient finances\nto make the building or the buying of the house possible.\nTo make the plan a success, practically each child must have definite things to do at\nsuch times as will not interfere with other school work. The efiForts of the pupils must be\nso directed that the results will be satisfactory to themselves and to their parents, and\ncommand the respect of people generally. Where instruction is to be given to large numbers, the arrangements of the time schedule would seem to be a difficult matter unless the\nwork be given largely by lecture and demonstration with only a small number working\nat one time. For instance, it would be a difficult problem to arrange for twenty or thirty\ndifferent pupils each to have an opportunity to help in the painting of the house or the\nfinishing of the floor. It is not an easy matter to train careless children to work neatly and\nwith exactness. To have the plan a success the work must be most carefully done and\nmust accordingly have close supervision.\nIn many communities public opinion has not yet been educated to demand a sufficient\nexpenditure to secure the requisite number of instructors to give as close supervision as\nshould be required where large numbers of pupils are to be trained. Neither are sufficient\nmeans available for the purchase of equipment and working materials.\nIn such places this plan cannot at once be worked out in its completeness, but a\nbeginning may be made in the introduction of some of the work with very little or no equipment. For instance, definite recipes with detailed directions for work may be given by the\nteacher in schools where no equipment has been secured. The pupils may do the cooking\nat home and report results to the teacher, and when practical bring some of the cooked\nfood for criticism. I know of communities in which this plan has worked most satisfactorily. Not only the pupils, but also the parents, became intensely interested in the\nwork. This is an excellent way in which to educate public opinion with a view to securing\nthe necessary finances to carry on the work with equipment. When people recognize the\nreal value and need of this work they are usually able to find means of supporting it.\nAnother practical method of bringing about a demand for this work is thru girls'\ndomestic-science clubs and exhibitions of their handiwork. Thirty-one counties in\nNebraska are organized for this work and exhibitions are held annually.\nIt has been said that, \" In its broadest statement, the problem of the world's economy\nis to develop and give scope to individual originality, the benefits of whose exercise are\nregistered in individual character as well as in objective results.\" Thru work in the household arts and science, scope is given to individual originality and results are registered in\ncharacter which are of far greater importance than the material results secured.\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "«\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^J. Stanley Brown, principal of Township High School, Joliet, 111.\nVice-President — S. A. Underwood, principal of Westport High School, Kansas City, Mo.\nSecretary — Ellis U. Graff, principal of High School, Omaha, Nebr.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, July 6, 1909\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Science Instruction in\nthe Assembly Room, East High School, with President J. Stanley Brown presiding.\nA paper was read by E. J. Townsend, dean of the University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.,\non the subject, \"The Status of the High School and Its Relation to Colleges and Universities.\"\nGeorge A. Cowen, head of science department, West Roxbury High School, Boston,\nMass., read a paper on \"The Aim and Methods of Science Instruction in Secondary\nSchools.\"\nThese papers were discussed by George B. Morrison, principal of McKinley High\nSchool, St. Louis, Mo., Lewis B. Avery, principal of High School, San Jose, Cal., Joseph\nMain, professor in the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn,, and W. H. Bartholomew,\nprincipal of the Girls' High School, Louisville, Ky.\nPresident Brown then announced the following committee on nominations:\nGeorge B. Morrison, St. Louis, Mo.\nClaude P. Briggs, Rockford, 111.\nE. E. Scribner, Ishpeming, Mich.\nThe meeting adjourned.\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Afternoon, July 8, 1909\nThe meeting was called to order in the Assembly Room, East High School, at 2:30\n'o'clock. The president's address was delivered by President J. Stanley Brown, principal\nof Township High School, Joliet, 111., on the subject, \"The Autonomy of the High School.\"\nThe second paper of the afternoon was read by Eugene Davenport, dean of the State\nUniversity of Illinois, Urbana, 111., on the subject, \"Educational Unity and Its Preservation While Meeting the Demands for Industrial Training.\"\nThe third paper, \"The Ethical Value of the Vocational in Secondary Education,\"\nwas given by Frank H. Hall, superintendent of Illinois Farmers' Institutes, Aurora, 111.\nThese papers were discussed by Edward C. Bishop, state superintendent of public\ninstruction, Lincoln, Nebr.\nGilbert B. Morrison, principal of the McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo., presented aReport of the Committee on Six- Year Course of Study.\nIt was moved and seconded that we express our appreciation for the large amount of\nwork and the success which has attended the work of this Committee.\nCarried.\nThe following oflEicers were then elected:\nMich.For President — David E. MacKenzie, principal of Central High School, Detroit,\nKy.\n\nFor Vice-President — ^W. H. Bartholomew, principal of Girls' High School, Louisville,\nFor Secretary — Ellis U. Graff, principal of High School, Omaha, Nebr.\n479\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nSESSION.— Friday Forenoon, July 9, 1909\n\nThe department met in round-table conferences as follows:\nA. — Physics and Chemistry\nThe round-table of physics and chemistry met in the Assembly Room of Trinity\nChurch at 9:30, under the leadership of George W. Benton, principal of Shortridge High\nSchool, Indianapolis, Ind.\nGilbert B. Random, teacher of physics, High School, Sacramento, Cal., presented a\npaper on \"The Recent Movement in Physics.\"\nThis paper was discussed at length.\nB. — History\nThe round-table conference in history met in the Assembly Room of the East Side\nHigh School, under the leadership of V. K. Froula, principal of Central High School, St.\nPaul, Minn.\nThe only paper presented at this round-table was by Principal Froula, on the topic,\n\"The Content and Method of High-School History.\"\nThe entire session following the reading of this paper was devoted to its discussion.\nC. — Mathematics\nThe round-table conference in mathematics met in the Sunday School Room at\nTrinity Church at 9:30 a. m., under the leadership of Herbert E. Slaught, associate professor of mathematics, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nThe following papers were presented:\na) \"The Illinois Syllabus on Algebra for Secondary Schools\" by Henry L. Rietz,\nassistant professor of mathematics. University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\nb) \"The Treatment of Geometry for Secondary Instruction\" by Earle R. Hedrick,\nprofessor of mathematics, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\nc) \"The Real Problem in Its Relation to the Teaching of Geometry and Algebra in\nSecondary Schools\" by James F. Millis, head of the department of mathematics, Francis\nW. Parker School, Chicago, 111.\nA discussion followed the reading of the papers.\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\n\nTHE\nJ. STANLEY\n\nAND\n\nEllis U. Graff, Secretary\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\nAUTONOMY OF THE HIGH\n\nBROWN,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\nSCHOOL,\n\nJOLIET,\n\nILL.\n\nFor years we have met in committees large and small, in conventions far\nand near, to discuss admission requirements to college. The high school in\nthese discussions has been a kind of shuttlecock to be knocked first in one direction, and then in another, and, willing or unwilling, it has been compelled to\nsubmit to the dictation of some unconstituted, unlawful, and, in many cases,\nself-appointed authority from without. The same authority has presumed\nto say what studies shall be taught; how much of each shall be taught; what\nthe character of the teaching shall be; and quite generally, even if indirectly,\nwho shall do the teaching. Now, all this has gone on for more than a quarter\nof a century in America in a public school, supported by the taxation of the\npeople I\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAUTONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n481\n\nIf one stood at some distance and perceived the actions now going on and\ncould see others proposed, he would be justified in condemning government\nby the people, by the majority, and would be pardoned if he thought he had\nsuddenly been transported to an oligarchy, and was not a citizen of this American democracy. Who has published the admission requirements necessary\nto enter the high school, and sent them to the lower schools with the statement\nthat none could enter the high school until these entrance requirements were\nsatisfied ? Do you know any such public high school's action ? And, if\nanyone dared do such a thing there would be such an upheaval as would put\nto shame the Messina earthquake; and yet this is what the colleges and universities have been doing to the high schools ever since I have known anything\nabout a high school. It is high time to call a halt. We ask no more from the\ninstitutions above than we grant to those below, i. e., to make our own courses\nof study to fit the needs of our constituents, to give the greatest freedom for\nthe development of the individual's greatest natural powers, and to have him\nreceived kindly by the higher institution when he has graduated from the high\nschool and is recommended for entrance to the higher institution. I am completely convinced that President Judson is right when he says,\nAny young man or woman who has graduated from a four-years' course in a good\nsecondary school, and, in the judgment of the principal of the school, is capable of doing\ncollege work, ought to be admitted regardless of what subjects he studied during those\nfour years, and without examination.\n\nIf one were to judge by the action of some of the college authorities, they\nare yet thinking that the college does not exist for the student, but the student\nfor the college; and when you come in contact with some of the departments,\nyou are constrained to believe the whole college exists for the purpose of supporting, defending, and propagating that department and not the reverse.\nSome men act as if the subject they teach were of greater importance than the\nschool or the student, but the only sane position to take in school and college\nis that the school is for the student, the teacher is for the student, the subject\nis for the student. And whenever we lose sight of these most fundamental\nconceptions, we abandon all worth any consideration.\nWe are come to the Rubicon. We have by rather slow processes of educational evolution reached a point where we, as representatives of the secondary\nschools of America, must proclaim autonomy for the pubic high school. The\ncontrol, the policy, the direction of the high school, must be from within itself,\nnot from without by some self-appointed, unlawfully constituted authority.\nWe have talked for years in our conventions about college and university\ndomination and have almost universally agreed that such domination is unjust\nand un-American because the whole student body must be subjected to the\nthing which, in truth, belongs to only a few. Shall the indefensible demands,\nmade upon the 5 per cent, of the high-school graduates who enter college, be\napplied to the 95 per cent, who do not go ? Shall we continue to permit tradition todiscriminate against '* up-to-date \" and outweigh it ? The high-school\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nprincipal gladly accepts the judgment of the teacher in the lower school when\nhe sends a group of boys and girls to high school with the statement, \"These\nyoung people have completed their elementary-school course and are prepared\nto go on with high-school work.\" He accepts them in good faith, too, not on\nprobation or under suspicion, nor does he ask them to stand in line for ten\nhours until some one individual has an opportunity to examine his certificate of\ngood moral character, to see where, when, and, of what parentage he was bom,\nto find out the business of his father, his nationahty, and if the appUcant is a\nyoung woman, to find out whether her mother belongs to the ''Daughters of\nthe American Revolution.\"\nI repeat, the principal accepts the judgment of the teacher in the lower\nschool without question. And, furthermore, when the principal needs an\nextra teacher and applies to the university or college ''Committee on Appointment of Teachers,\" he accepts without examination or condition the recommendation ofthis \"Committee on Appointment of Teachers.\" Now does it\nnot seem fair and just if the product of the lower school is accepted by the\nhigh school, and the product of the university or college is accepted by the high\nschool, that the product of the high school should be accepted by the college\nor university on equal terms ? If the public high school maintains its democracy, itcan never be conducted in the interest of a tape factory. The public\nhigh school wants a square deal; it wants the privilege of managing its own\naffairs.\nNow let us hear what some eminent educators have already said over their\nown signatures:\nIn the May, 1909, issue of the World's Work, Mr. James P. Munroe says:\nThe great body of secondary teachers should say to the colleges: \"For these many\nyears we have adapted our standards and our courses to your entrance requirements, set\nwith no knowledge and with no thought of what we could or ought to accomplish. Although\nwe have tried to carry on special courses for those pupils who were not to go to college, your\ndemands have really set the pace and created the atmosphere for all our schools. Our\nboys and girls have had to be single-molded to your arbitrary standards; in future, your\nstandards must be many-molded to our boys and girls. We propose to develop every\npupil in the way that is best for him alone; your work, like ours, must be diversified and\nhumanized to carry along the same process of development; therefore your examinations,\nor, better still, your standards of achievement to be determined otherwise than through\nexaminations, must be made wide in range and flexible in combination so that our boys\nand girls may keep their thoughts solely upon our requirements, not mainly upon yours.\nNot until they have thrown ofif the incubus of the present absurd college requirements\nwill the high schools be able to begin to work out the problem — the hardest in education —\nwhich is especially theirs. That problem is how to educate children to be true citizens and\neffective workers; for, in the four years of the high-school course, the great development\nout of irresponsibility into responsibility ought to have taken place; and the child, subject\nto others' wills and swayed by others' thoughts, should have grown, during those four years,\ninto the young man with his own will active, his own thoughts busy, his own powers\ndisciplined, ready and eager for the splendid fight of life. Until the high schools have begun\nto make themselves a powerful social force instead of a mill for examination-grinding,\nthey will fail to meet the real and crying needs of the community.\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAUTONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n483\n\nState Superintendent Gary, of Wisconsin, says in a recent paper:\nThe examination system for entrance to college means dry rot in the secondary schools.\n.... It is evident that the broader the road leading to the college door, the better for the\nboys and girls of the nation, hence the better for the nation. . . • . . There is not the shadow\nof an excuse for the domination of the high schools by the universities in any state in which\nthe high schools have been brought up to a fair standard of excellence, and in which the\nstate has come to see the necessity of making a system out of the schools of the state.\n.... The colleges seem to want only the intellectual cream of the country. This tendency\nis away from the democracy of intellect, and it is unfortunate, for the reason that at present\nour schools pay a premium on power to absorb and give out again the instruction received.\nThe student who is slow in maturing, or who is so original in his bent of mind that he finds\nit difficult to conform to the order of things that he finds around him in the schoolroom, has\nan uphill road to travel in getting thru the secondary school, and especially in getting into\ncollege. The aristocracy of intellect is the bane of many a higher institution of learning.\nThis would not be so bad if the precocious student always proved to be the best in the end\nand the most helpful to his fellow-men; but it often happens that he falls by the wayside\nin later life, while the student who did not make his mark in college becomes the benefactor\nof his race.\nTo make a college course useful in the way of preparing for efficient citizenship,\nexcept in the broadest and most general way, is not the ideal of the college or university\ntoday. This tendency and ideal the higher institution of learning forces down into the\nsecondary school. Such an arrangement forces all to take college-preparatory courses or\nforego college, as has already been stated. It brings utility courses into disrepute and disarranges the natural valuation that would otherwise be placed upon the various studies of\nthe high school.\nWhat we ask is that the universities shall release their grip on the schools of the state,\nand give them a chance to develop. They ought to be permitted to develop freely from\nwithin and not be forced into the Chinese shoe of college-entrance requirements.\n\nIn the May issue of Education, Superintendent Stratton D. Brooks, of\nBoston, says:\nThe decision as to admission should be based upon the unofficial or at least unsystematic judgment of the principal. By this I mean that no schematic arrangement of percentages or subterfuges or reports should take the place of the real judgment of the principal,\nbased upon daily contact thru four years of a secondary-school course, from which he concludes that the pupil will or will not succeed in the more difficult phases of college work.\nWhile for purposes of accrediting, some schematic arrangement may be necessary and some\nstatement showing that a certain number of hours have been devoted to history or mathematics may be unavoidable; yet what is needed is the personal element which causes the\nprincipal to write at the bottom of the report, \"This boy will, in my judgment, do college\nwork acceptably.\" This judgment should not be formal and perfunctory, or lose weight\nbecause it is a printed statement, or be concealed in an elaborate certificate; but it should\ncome directly from the principal himself in the full belief that such an expression of opinion\nis the full measure of his responsibility in the case.\nUpon the university is to come the responsibility for giving to the young men such\nconditions of instruction and such surroundings in influence and in companionship that\nideals of accomplishment shall be instilled, and that he shall be held to perform the tasks\nrequired Uy the university itself.\n\nDr. Edward L. Thorndike says:\nThe traditional entrance examinations do not prevent incompentence from getting\ninto college; do not prevent students of excellent promise from being discouraged, improp-\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nerly conditioned, or barred out altogether; do not measure fitness for college well enough\nto earn the respect of students or teachers, and do intolerable injustice to individuals.\n\nDr. John M. Coulter, of the University of Chicago, says:\nThe high school exists primarily for its own sake; and secondarily as a preparatory\nschool for college. This means that when the high-school interest and the college interest\ncome into conflict, the college interest must yield. It also means that the function of a\npreparatory school must be performed only in so far as it does not interfere with the more\nfundamental purpose of the high school itself. It also means that independent dictation\nby colleges, either directly or indirectly, must be changed to adaptation to what the high\nschools can do and ought to do, as determined by the high schools themselves. The high\nschool must be regarded as an autonomous, not a subordinate, institution\nWhat the universities need is not a specific kind of preparation, but a certain degree\nof intellectual development, a development which is usually much broader than that\nobtained from the average college preparation. I may be allowed to say, as the result of\nmany years of experience, that this average college preparation presents to the universities\nthe most narrow and unevenly trained material that can be imagined. Nowhere are the\nevils of specialization so apparent as in the entrance preparation demanded by many\ncolleges. If this specialization results in comparatively poor college material, its results\nmay be regarded as simply disastrous to the high school in its primary purpose. This is\nnot a plea for the multiplication of studies in the high schools, for one of their great weaknesses today is their tremendously congested condition. It is a plea for the relief of this\ncongestion by reducing the university demands, not in quantity, but in specific assignment,\nleaving the schools freer to exercise their own judgment in the selection of special subjects.\nThe time has long passed when any aristocracy of subjects has any right to claim the\nprivilege of standing guard over every avenue leading to a higher education. A ny student\nwho has successfully pursued a well-organized and coherent course for four years in a high\nschool should he able to continue his work in the universities. There are diflferences of\nopinion as to what constitutes a well-organized and coherent course, but it could be outlined by principles rather than in detail, and the schools themselves should be responsible\nfor its construction. A minimum of subjects and a maximum of time, continuous rather\nthan scattered work, a range broad enough to touch upon all of the fundamental regions of\nwork, methods that vnW secure precision in thought apd expression, contact with the life\nand work of the times in which we are destined to live, are certainly principles that are\nsufficient, but concerning whose details none should dogmatize, for they may well vary with\nthe teachers and with the local conditions\nLately the entrance examination system has now and then thrust itself upon my attention afresh. I do not know whether this ghost of a dead past stalks into your educational\nbanquets or not, but it is rampant in certain universities that rather pride themselves\nupon being haunted. A better scheme to show how not to do it was never devised. At\nthe present day it is peculiar to the Chinese theory of education, and that nation should be\nallowed its exclusive use. It is both barbarous and unscientific. I would make no serious\nobjection to its barbarity, if it were scientific, that is, if it obtained the information it seeks.\nWhat teacher does not recognize that the estimate of the ordinary examination must be\ntempered by knowledge of the daily work, or grave injustice may be done ? How much\ngreater the need of this tempering in the extraordinary entrance examination? If the\ntempering is necessary to obtain the facts, why not substitute the tempering entirely for the\nexamination ?— which means, of course, the substitution of the daily knowledge of the\nteacher for the ignorance of the university examiner. I wish no better evidence concerning\nthe intellectual equipment of a candidate for entrance into a university than the judgment\nof the teachers with whom he has worked, for I can get no better, nor any other half so\ngood.\nIt is strange that the universities are more concerned about their raw material than\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAUTONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n485\n\nabout their finished product. If they would be a little less sensitive concerning entrance\nrequirements, and a little more particular concerning graduation requirements, it might\nbe a better expenditure of energy. It has always seemed to me that the fine-meshed sieve\nis set at the wrong end of the university.\n\nNow these opinions are mainly from college and university men. They\nare not sectional; they are representative. They are the expressions of beliefs\nand opinions which have been slowly forming for years, and might not have\nfound expression during the year but for the equally significant fact that there\nis a growing demand from people outside the teaching profession, who have\na right to be heard, asking whether the public high school is meeting the needs\nof the community; whether the type of curricula common a decade or two\nago is as defensible now as then; whether the colleges and universities that had\nmost to do with determining the contents of those curricula are indeed as capable today of deciding what is best for these 800,000 adolescents attending\nsecondary schools as are the teachen in these schools who come in daily contact with them and know their abilities and ambitions.\nThe high school wants theoretical, practical, constructive, and interpretative\nautonomy. It does not propose to ask for bread and get a stone. The high\nschool wants peaceable autonomy extended to it by all the colleges, east and\nwest, north and south ; but we must have it, even if it has to come thru legislative enactment, state by state.\nAuthority must be commensurate with responsibility. When the high\nschool has authority to do what seems to it best for the community, it is\nglad to be responsible for its action.\nThe young people who develop naturally by assimilation of intellectual\npabulum will do their work when they enter college; those who are stuffed\nfor a temporary stunt at examination time need not be expected to do normal\ncollege work, no matter how good a showing is made on examination.\nWe are glad to admit the unbounded benefit which public education owes\nto the higher institutions of learning, and we would not detract one iota from\nthe most that is due; but when they assume the role of dictators of the plans\nand policies of the pubhc high school, they have transcended their powers.\nWe therefore urge all progressive high-school principals and teachers to stand\nas one person for the autonomy of the public high school.\nUNITY IN EDUCATION AND\nITS PRESERVATION WHILE\nMEETING THE DEMANDS FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING\nEUGENE\n\nDAVENPORT,\nDEAN\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\nOF\n\nTHE COLLEGE\nOF AGRICULTURE,\nILLINOIS,\nURBANA,\nILL.\n\nSTATE\n\nThe fundamental questions before educators today and the ones that are\nfraught with the most far-reaching consequences are those that arise out of\nthe issues of industrial education.\nThe rise of the common man and his insistence upon his rights to learning\nmean nothing less than universal education; and his further insistence that\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthis education shall be so given as to meet his everyday needs — ^this means\nindustrial education; for the masses are, always will be, and always should be,\nindustrial.\nIt is perfectly clear, therefore, that if the children of all occupations, industries included, are to be admitted to our schools, then these schools must fairly\nrepresent and prepare for all useful activities, even the most common industries,\nand if any industry is not adequately represented then will the children desert\nthat industry, the public will suffer at that point and universal education will\nbe to that extent a failure and a bar instead of a help to general advancement.\nNow the demand for universal education with its ill-defined corollary,\nindustrial education, caught us unprepared. We have maintained for a long\ntime well-established courses directly designed to fit for the three learned professions— law, medicine, and theology. They were strictly technical courses, as\nprofessional as are the modem courses in agriculture or engineering; but they\nhad been so long taught that we commenced to conceive of them as in some\nway fundamentally educative and we began to speak of them as general and\nfinally as cultural, assuming that this particular form of education is the kind\nthat everybody needs and wants. We therefore administered it in allopathic\ndoses for the infectious disease known as universal education, thus\" putting\nour excellent old machine to new uses for which it was never designed.\nNo wonder the machine creaked at the joints. No wonder the product\nwas often disappointing. No wonder that when the young man took those\ncourses, with a view to becoming an educated country gentleman, he turned\ninto one of the professions which the courses were especially designed to produce. No wonder that the son of the mechanic did the same. Then the\nfarmer said: \"Too much learning is dangerous; you must keep them ignorant\nor they will leave the farm,\" and the mechanic said: \"I see the point. It is\njust like any other machine : you feed the board in but the machine turns out\nthe box or the pattern it was set to make whatever the board might have been.\nIt may not be a good box, but it will be as near that as anything, and it is certain\nto be nothing else.\"\nAnd they put their heads together, these two, and this is what they said:\n\"The trouble is in the machine. The machine is all right for the purposes it\nwas made to serve, but what we need is a pattern of our own design,\" and in this\nway arose the technical schools and colleges both in agriculture and in mechanical engineering. These schools, being made to do a certain work and to\nproduce certain results, of course produced those results; that is, succeeded,\nand in succeeding they have proved that education is no bar to industry, providing the education is of the right kind, for men so trained do return to the\nfarm and the shop and succeed.\nIn this perfectly natural way has arisen the demand for industrial schools:\nfirst of college grade, resulting in the system of state universities; and now\nof secondary grade in the form of agricultural high schools in the country and\nof trade;^schools in the city.\n\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUNITYIJNJEDUCATION\n\n487\n\nThese later demands represent the same protest against using the old\nacademic courses for all purposes in the high schools as earlier arose against\nthe same academic blunder on college levels. The earlier protest resulted\nin the separate technical college which is finding now its best expression,\nstrangely enough, not where it stands alone, but where it exists side by side\nwith other courses of all sorts, and the question now before us in secondary\neducation is: Shall we add industrial courses in the existing high schools and\nthus preserve our educational unity in secondary education without retracing\nthe long and difficult road fought out by the colleges, or shall the high schools\nturn their backs upon the call for industrial training from the masses, as the\ncolleges once did, and thus force the establishment of separate industrial schools\nof secondary grade, sacrificing, certainly for a long time to come if not forever,\nall hope and possibility of anything like educational unity ? This is the question that is flatly before the educators of this country today; and we are very\nnear the parting of the ways in the matter, for affairs are moving swiftly and\nthe question must be answered soon and decisively or it will answer itself\nwithout much reference to higher educational ideals.\nIn the meantime it behooves our educators to do some pretty rapid thinking\nand execute some lightning-change acting to determine rapidly and once for\nall whether we want the separate school or whether we will extend our\nsecondary system as we have our college till it shall become truly universal.\nMy own preference is decidedly in favor of industrial courses in existing\nhigh schools and against the separate school. This is for reasons which I will\nbriefly set forth mainly along agricultural lines, partly because my own knowledge isbest in this field and partly because a definite proposition is before the\ncountry to establish a separate system of agricultural schools. I have elsewhere^ at considerable length given my reasons for opposing the separate\nsystem of schools and for advocating separate courses in existing schools.\nThese reasons I will here briefly summarize as follows:\n,\nI. Separate schools can never be so good. This is axiomatic for both\neconomic and pedagogic reasons. No school designed to minister to a single\nclass of people and to a single line of interests can ever be so well equipped in\nthe fundamental arts and sciences — in chemistry, biology, physics, history,\nliterature, economics, and the so-called humanities generally — no such school\ncan be so well equipped as can one designed to minister broadly to a variety\nof interests. Indeed, even if the attempt is made and a wide range of subjects\ntaught, these same subjects will of necessity be studied and taught from a\ncomparatively narrow standpoint.\nIn saying this, I do not overlook the fact that the separate agricultural school\nhas certain distinct advantages. They are the same advantages that are\nenjoyed by any school or other enterprise that undertakes to do a single thing\nwithout regard to its relations. Its advantages arise from the comparative\nI See The Next Step in Agricultural Education, published by the University; also\nEducation for Efficiency, published by D. C. Heath & Co.\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsimplicity of the contract it undertakes. It is a fact, of course, that any school\nfounded, manned, and equipped to do a single thing and minister to a single\ninterest gains much in directness by its simplified problem, and by the direct\nmethods it naturally employs. But it loses in breadth and relative values, as\nhas been indicated, and the best proof of it is that none of the separate schools\nyet founded offer as much even in science as the nearby high schools; and what\nthey achieve is industrial training rather than industrial education — the training\nof the operative rather than the education of the citizen.\n2. Separate schools will tend strongly to peasantize the farmers. To undertake to train the children of farmers in a system of inferior schools, such as these\nmust inevitably be, with little knowledge of and less regard for the affairs of\nother people — such an attempt, if it succeeds, will peasantize the farmers in\nAmerica more rapidly and more certainly than they were peasantized by other\ncauses in Europe generations ago.\nTo segregate any class of people from the common mass, and to educate\nit by itself and solely with reference to its own affairs, is to make it narrower\nand more bigoted, generation by generation. It is to substitute training for\neducation and to breed distrust and hatred in the body politic. Knowledge\nis necessary to a just appreciation of other people and their professions and\nmode f life; with this only can a man respect his own calling as he ought and\nlove his neighbor as he should. We cannot segregate and make an educational\ncleavage at the line of occupations except to the common peril.\n3. To educate the children of different classes separately is to prevent that\nnatural flow of individuals from one profession into another which is in every\nway desirable both from the public and the private standpoint. If the children\nof farmers are systematically put into schools where only agriculture is taught,\nmany a good lawyer and many a good citizen will be spoiled to make an indifferent farmer. Boys do not necessarily inherit the father's profession. In a\nvery large sense their natural faculties come from that common stock of human\ncharacters that constitute the heritage of the race, and the individual has a\nright to an education that is broader than the occupation and the narrow environment inwhich he was bom. True, he should be educated thru and to a\nlarge extent by means of his environment, because that is the compass of his\nown experience; but if we educate him within his environment, we dwarf him\nin the process, and we do not truly educate him.\nAgain, many a boy, city bom, has the instinct to get back to nature. He\nshould have at least a fair chance to do so. Because a girl is born in the country is no sign in America that she should be a farmer's wife; nor if she is bom\nin the city is it a sign that she should not. My plea is, in the name of commonsense and American citizenship, educate all these people together in one school,\nwith a curriculum varied enough to fit for more than one occupation and more\nthan one mode of life, to the end that a man may follow the occupation of his\nfather or may change it, as he pleases; but whether he follow or whether he\nchange he shall do so intelligently, and for a reason, and in either case he shall\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUNITY\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n489\n\nhave some knowledge of and sympathy for the occupation and the life of his\nneighbor.\nIt is said that if you give a bright boy a good education and broad associations, he will leave the farm, and the only way to keep him there is to train\nhim to be contented with a humble life. That false theory of education\nwas exploded long ago. Experience has abundantly shown that education\ndoes not necessarily result in taking people out of the country except when that\neducation is one-sided and faulty. I have no sympathy with the plan of keeping boys on the farm by the blindfolding process.\n4. Secondary schools devoted solely to agriculture would of necessity cover\nso much territory as to require the students to board and room away from home.\nThis for students of the high-school age is unthinkable. Every boy and every\ngirl in the early and middle \" 'teens \" should sleep every night under the father's\nroof, and this can be if a community establishes a single school capable of\ncatering to all its needs, and does not insist upon educating one class here and\nanother there, compelling long journeys to get to the right school. A single\nagricultural school in ten counties, or in five counties, or in one county — think\nof it!\nThe problem of secondary education is very largely the problem of the\nfourteen-year-old, and we should never rest easy till every farmer's boy and\ngirl may go to the nearest high school, and there find instruction not only in\nagriculture but in the other industries and professions which concern the community, and after having lived the day in an atmosphere broader than their\nown studies go home again at night to dream of what a great thing the world\nis, and to wake with an intelligent appreciation of the place in it which they\npropose to occupy.\n5. Agriculture not only needs contact with other interests, but they need\ncontact with agriculture. Everyone who has had experience with the introduction of agriculture into our state universities will bear witness that the\nbenefits of association are mutual.\nIn the university which I have the honor to serve, our agricultural students\nnot only get a training and a breadth of vision which they could never get in\nan institution devoted solely to their own interests, but their presence on\nthe campus is of distinct advantage to the other students. Their directness\nand their practical methods of work are wholesome to the institution, at least\nthey are so declared by the non-agricultural professors and students alike. In\nevery way, as I see it, much is lost and nothing gained by separating the students of different classes and educating them apart, each in the occupation of\nthe father.\nNor would I put all the so-called industries in one class of schools and the\nprofessions in another. In a large sense all study is professional, and in a very\nlarge sensfe^; indeed, it is also industrial. Some portion of the training of every\nindividual should be industrial, even manual, and another portion of the training of every individual should be distinctly mental, until habits of thought are\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "490\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nformed quite independent of material activity. For these reasons, which are\nfundamental, I would not separate industry from any of our schools. I would\nmake it an integral part of every curriculum, its proportion and character\ndepending upon the prospective profession of the individual; but above all I\nwould have the essence of all occupations, or at least of as many as possible,\nrepresented in the same school.\nMy point is, if all these subjects and professional points of view are offered\nin the same school with more than one avenue into life, then the opportunity\nis presented for the individual to acquire professional knowledge and skill\nwithout becoming narrow as a man. If farmers and lawyers and editors and\nengineers and artists and merchants are educated separately they will either\nhate or despise one another, or both; if they are educated together, each will\nacquire, besides proficiency in his own line, a sympathy for others that comes\nso easily with that partial knowledge and acquaintance thru daily association\nin the school age, and that comes with so much difficulty in any other way.\n6. To establish separate schools for agriculture is to injure the development of existing high schools. These schools are not \"city schools\" in any\nproper sense of the term. The great bulk of them are located in small towns\nand villages in a distinctly rural environment. To denominate all these as\n\"city schools,\" to be devoted solely to the interests of city people, is as absurd\nas it is unjust to them. These schools, like all others, have the natural right\nto minister to their constituency; but if now agriculture is to be put off into a\nseparate system of schools just because the high schools have not yet taught the\nsubject, then it will be easy, later on, to cleave off another industrial slice, and\nagain another until the remnant that remains will be suited to nobody's need,\nunworthy alike of the school and the community it was established to serve;\nand instead of an organized system of effective education we shall have an\nincongruous medley of separate and independent schools, each serving its\nlittle clientele in a narrow way without much regard to the public good — all\nof which is against the true spirit of universal education.\nThe American high school is a new institution. It has arisen from our\ndetermination to make education truly universal. Now, universal education\nmeans that all the people shall be educated, and in such a way that all the\nactivities necessary to a highly civilized race may develop and go forward.\nOnly a small percentage of the people will ever go to college and the experiment\nof universal education will he tried out in the field of the secondary schools.\n7. Separate schools in agriculture will check the extension of high schools\ninto country communities. High schools started first in the cities, it is true, but\nthey are making their way rapidly out into the country, a tendency that is to\nbe encouraged, more especially as they are showing a remarkable disposition\nto respond to their environment. If the interests are not divided it is entirely\npossible for any community, without going beyond driving limits, to throw all\nits energies into a school of secondary grade and make it capable of truly reflecting all its varied interests.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUNITY\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n49I\n\nThese modem schools must have a fair chance. They are new institutions;\nthey have hardly been in the field a half-century, and how they have grown !\nThere are literally hundreds of them that are giving a better education than\ncolleges gave a generation ago, and they have only commenced to serve the\npeople. If they have not yet solved all the problems and taught all the subjects\nthe people need, it is no sign that they cannot or that they will not, and they\nshould be given the chance. Every new addition to an educational institution\nnot only serves a new public need, but it enriches all that was before. All the\nmodern secondary school needs in order to serve us perfectly is men and money,\nand time to learn how.\n8. This demand that agriculture be taught in the public schools is but part\nof the modern movement for industrial education. Whoever has lived close\nto the great heart of the common people and has had his hand upon the pulse\ncannot fail to have felt the throbbings of this new impulse for more than a\ngeneration, or to have detected its first feeble flutterings a hundred years ago.\nAnd whether he has had his ear to the ground or not, whether he has lived close\nto the heart of things or away in the upper atmospheres, no man can now be\nignorant of the great fact that a change is coming over the spirit of the times\nregarding educational ideals; a change that is fundamental, and whose shadow\nor whose light, whichever it may be, is full upon us and can no longer be averted\nor ignored.\nThe American high school represents a form of secondary education that\nhas arisen, or more properly speaking is arising, to meet this new demand for\nuniversal education. Agriculture, and industrial education generally, have\nfound their true place in the universities. The next step is that they should\nfind their true place in our secondary schools, where, after all, our attempt at\nuniversal education will render its greatest service.\nAnd so reasons might be multiplied indefinitely, showing why it is wiser\nto go forward meeting our educational necessities together, but they would\nall be of the same general tenor: viz., that our educational problem is after\nall a single problem — complex, puzzling, and all that; but it is a single problem\nafter all, and we should stay together and solve it.\nThe new demand upon the schools is that they should not only picture life\nas it was in the past, but also as it is now; that they should assist the student in\nunderstanding modern life into which he must plunge, and whose responsibilities he must shortly assume. The student feels the right to demand that\nsome portion of his educational career and some part of his school curriculum\nshould be devoted to making application of the wisdom of the ancients and the\nphilosophy of life to the conditions of modern existence.\nWe cannot afford to break in two at any point; least of all can existing\nschools afford to see our educational effort divided. The logic of the situation\nis all against it. The new ideal is that education should fit for something\ninstead of fitting for nothing, and this ideal will prevail among a practical\npeople like ourselves.\n\nEducators can take hold of this natural bent for practi-\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ncal activity and cultivate it until as a people we shall be both efficient and\ncultivated. If they do not do this the efficiency will develop by itself and we\nshall all come short of our highest possibilities.\nTHE\n\nETHICAL\n\nVALUE OF VOCATIONAL INSTRUCTION\nIN SECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nFRANK\n\nH.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF ILLINOIS\nAURORA,\nILL.\n\nHALL,\n\nFARMERS'\n\nINSTITUTES,\n\nTo do useful things is moral. To do useless things, or to do nothing, may\nbe unmoral or it may be immoral. To do harmful things is immoral. I use\nthe words useful, useless, and harmful with reference to the effect of an act\nupon humanity as a whole.\nEarning is doing useful things. To earn, says the lexicographer, is to\n\"merit or deserve, as by labor or service.\" So earning is moral; always\nmoral; positively and unqualifiedly moral. It is, then, in a high degree praiseworthy to earn, i. e., to perform labor which entitles to a reward.\nEarning usually has a money value; it always has an ethical value. Earning usually — not always — results in acquisition. The thing acquired usually\n— not always — is money itself, or something that has a money value.\nThe amount a man earns measures half of him; what he does with his\nearnings measures the other half. The expenditure of what someone else has\nearned does not count, unless in the doing of that, he earns.\nNeither earning nor its reward always relates to material things; tho,\nRoosevelt tells us, these constitute the foundation without which no superstructure can be raised. He earns who contributes to human well-being.\nHis contribution may relate to the material, the intellectual, the ethical, the\naesthetic, or the spiritual. If he contributes, he earns. If he does not contribute, he does not earn. If he contributes more than he consimies and\ndestroys he is a public benefactor. If he contributes less than he consumes\nand destroys, he is a parasite. But whatever may be the nature of his contribution, he usually — ^not always — expects a material reward that bears some\nreasonable relation to the value of the service performed. This is as true of\nthe teacher and preacher as it is of the farmer and mechanic.\nFortunately every normal youth desires to acquire. Education should not\ndiminish this desire, but it should direct it— direct it toward acquisition by\nearning. ''The desire to get money without earning it,\" says David Starr\nJordan, ''is the root of all evil.\" The desire to get money by earning it seldom\nharms the one who entertains the desire, and never harms his neighbors.\nOrdinarily a love of learning is praiseworthy; but when this delight in the\npleasures of learning becomes so intense and so absorbing that it diminishes\nthe desire and the power of earning, it is positively harmful. Education that\ndoes not promote the desire and power to do useful things — that's earning — is\nnot worth the getting. Education that stimulates a love for useful activity\nis not simply desirable; it is in the highest degree ethical.\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nETHICAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF VOCATIONAL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n493\n\nBy far the greater part of what the average man earns comes thru his vocation. Itis true that one may contribute to human well-being in a religious way\nwithout being a preacher, in a political way without being a congressman, in\nan educational way without being a teacher — and such contributions are of\nuntold value; nevertheless, for all men the vocation is fundamental. Vocational efficiency limits the contributing power.\nA manhood ideal that does not include vocation as an essential factor cannot\npossibly be a high ideal. A character ideal that does not involve vocational\nefficiency is pretty nearly a negative affair — a zero that only has value when it\nstands beside a significant figure. The significant figure is the doing of useful\nthings.\nA citizenship ideal without the American home would be far from complete;\nand, as Button says, \"Vocation is the chief corner-stone of the home.\" That\nyoung man who is planning to become an efficient wage-earner, and to save a\npart of his earnings to make a home for himself and somebody's sister, is\nabout as safe — ethically safe — so far as plans for the future can make one so,\nas any young man in the community.\nFrom the time the boy is old enough to begin to think seriously about\nvocation and home-making — these are usually associated in the thought of\nthe normal boy — he should be encouraged and assisted in the proper solution\nof these thought-problems which will determine in large measure the character\nof his career and the outcome of his life-struggle.\n\"Blessed is the boy,\" says Jenkin Lloyd Jones, \"who comes early to a fife\npurpose, who knows what he wants to do.\" And \"Blessed is the man,\" says\nCarlyle, \"who has found his work; let him ask no other blessedness.\" And\nhas the school nothing to do in helping the boy to come early to a life-purpose;\nin helping the man to find his work; in thus bringing blessedness upon youth\nand manhood? Let Dr. Eliot answer: \"The perception or discovery of the\nindividual gift or capacity would often be effected in the elementary school\nbut more generally in the secondary; and the making of these discoveries\nshould be held one of the most important parts of the teacher's work.\"\nUnmeasured harm has been done by graduation-day orators who have\nencouraged our young men first to get an education, then find a vocation.\n\"It is dangerous,\" says Davenport, \"to attempt to educate a live boy with no\nreference to vocation.\" Wherein Hes the danger? In the fact that the lad\nwill not accept what you offer. There must not only be reference to vocation,\nbut the work must relate itself in some way to the particular vocation which\nthe youth expects to follow. Otherwise one of two things will happen: either\nthe boy will change his vocational plans, or he will leave school. Vocationcolored ideals have the strongest pull of all on the normal boy; and it's \"pull\"\nwe need to keep the boys in school. G. Stanley Hall says that 34 per cent, of\nthose who drop out of the high school do so from lack of interest. It is believed\nthat a very large part of this number could be saved to the school, saved to\nthemselves, and to society, thru vocational attractions.\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIndirectly, then, as well as directly, vocational instruction has ethical value,\nsince by it many boys will be kept longer in school than they otherwise would\nbe, and thus learn more of language, literature, history, and such other branches\nof study as mark human progress and promote the social uplift.\nTo secure great ethical value thru vocational instruction in the high schools,\nit is by no means necessary that these schools should become actual trade\nschools. It is only essential that the work shall in some small way relate itself\nto a great variety of industrial pursuits, just as it already does to a great variety\nof the so-called learned professions. G. Stanley Hall says, \"There must be\n[in the high schools] the germs and educative extracts of just as many trades\nand industries as possible.\" Germs and extracts of what trades and what\nindustries ? First, those that are carried on in the immediate vicinity of the\nschool; then, of any occupations that will appeal to the pupils as desirable\navenues to independence thru service — desirable opportunities for earning.\nSays Dr. EUot, \"A passion for service must fuse with a passion for knowledge.\" Fuse with it, not come after it. The truth is, the normal boy will not\naccept education unless it does fuse with his desire to do things. The Lord made\nhim that way and it is utterly useless for the modern educator to attempt to\nbuild him over — to reconstruct him in accordance with some pedagogical,\npsychological, sociological notion of what symmetrical manhood is. Symmetry will take care of itself if efficiency is provided for. Symmetry often gets\non its knees to efficiency. Symmetry may go hungry; but efficiency is well\nfed. Symmetry may be able to carry its own weight; but efi&ciency can do\nthat and much more. It can take care of itself and other people, too. Paraphrasing what some wise man has said, it is the highest art to give the effect of\nsymmetry by contributing to utility. \"Symmetrical manhood\" that cannot\nearn its own living is not symmetrical.\nPersonally I would rather send out pupils who are lop-sided and useful,\nthan those who are seemingly symmetrical and useless. A bent back is symmetrical ifa bent back is best adapted to carrying the burdens one ought to\ncarry. Symmetry takes second place ; efi&ciency, the first. And life-efficiency\ninvolves vocational efficiency. A man without a vocation is^more to be pitied\nthan \"the man without a country.\" . And the country of which he is an inhabitant is to be commiserated, too.\nThere seems to be a growing conviction that the results of schooling, from\nan ethical viewpoint, are quite unsatisfactory.\nThe president of a Y. M. C. A. in a city of 35,000 people recently told me\nthat the most troublesome young'men who frequent the Association rooms are\nstudents from the high schools. He said they seem to have no respect for other\npeople's rights nor for authority. And this in a city whose high schools have\nno superiors, and few equals. In these high schools, as in most others in cities\nof this size, the desire for athletic victory and social distinction seems to overshadow or leave in the background all effort to prepare for that kind of vocational efficiency which will promote positive contribution to human well-being.\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nETHICAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF VOCATIONAL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n495\n\nLet it be conceded that the schools must not be given credit for all the good\nthere is in the world, nor held responsible for all the evil. The simple question\nis, Are they doing their full share, all they ought to do, all they may be reasonably expected to do, in leading young people into cheerful obedience to moral\nlaw?\nMost people who answer this question at all will answer it unhesitatingly\nin the negative; but as to the method of improving the school work in this\nrespect, there will not be anything like unanimity. Some will say, put God into\nthe constitution and the Bible into the schools and the thing will be done.\nOthers believe that in addition to a formal recognition of our dependence upon\na Higher Power and a perfunctory reading of a scripture selection '' without\nnote or comment\" each morning, there must be regularly enforced religious\ninstruction; that the rewards for obedience and the penalties for disobedience\nshould be constantly held up to view. But since such a procedure would\nevidently involve sectarian teaching, many of the true friends of the public\nschool ask to have only such ethical and religious training as will be in accord\nwith the doctrines of all the churches. Then there are those who pay taxes\nand who have children in school who say that there must be no odor of church\nor Bible about it. The instruction must be purely ethical.\nThe writer believes that almost any rehgious instruction is better than no\nreHgious instruction, provided it can be administered without provoking an\nirrehgious spirit. But if out of it there are to come bitter discussions and\nunrighteous contentions, it were better that it be entirely omitted from the\npublic-school work and that the strictly ethical be substituted for it.\nBut what shall be the nature of the ethical instruction ? May we safely\ndepend mainly upon the effect of committing to memory literary gems and\ndidactic poems ? The danger is that they will exist in memory only; that they\nwill not become, to any large extent, a part of the pupil's life; that they will\nnot, in many instances, produce ''ideals that will stand the strain of weaving\ninto human stuff on the loom of the real.\"\n''Memory gems\" with ethical content, are, no doubt, of great value; but\nthinking about doing something that needs to be done, about doing it better\nthan it was ever done before, and whenever possible, the actual performance —\n\"the taking of the step from knowing to doing\" — these things are worth more\nin practical ethics than the mere memorizing of all the beautiful sayings of\nLongfellow, Lowell, Whittier, Bryant, or Emerson. Who is greatest? Not\nhe who memorizes most, but he who serves best. Let him who would be greatest among you be your servant; let him do something that needs to be done;\nlet him have a vocation, a calling, and attend to it. This is overcoming evil\nwith good; it is ethical training by displacement. It is filling the mind so full\nof thoughts of doing useful things that there will be little room for evil thoughts\nand little time for evil action.\nSays Fra Elbertus, \"A man is seldom more innocently engaged than when\nhe is honestly earning money.\"\nIt is quite as true that a man is seldom more\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nethically engaged than when he is honestly earning money. The following has\nthe advantage of brevity and covers the ground: A man is seldom more ethically engaged than when he is earning.\nEvery wakeful hour of a man's time should be spent either in earning or\nin getting ready to earn. Rest is to prepare for work; and recreation is for the\nsame high purpose. \"Work,\" says Dr. Vance, \"is the chisel that shapes\ncharacter and sharpens wit.\" And work suggests earning, and earning\nsuggests vocation. So thoughts of vocation shape character and sharpen\nwit — are ethical.\nThe goal of school life is useful activity. That this should be the goal is in\nthe interest of the state and of the student. In no other way can the community\nrealize on its educational investment; in no other way can the pupil secure for\nhimself the greatest good. It is a law as sure as that of gravitation that he who\ndoes most for other people, does most for himself. This again suggests useful\nactivity, earning, vocation.\nEliminate thoughts of vocation from student life and you emasculate it,\ndeprive it of its highest and most stimulating purpose, and take away that\nwhich is the most important incentive to effort, the very generator itself of\nvigor and virility.\nLearning to read and to write, acquiring knowledge for its own sake,\nenjoying the mental acquisitions made possible by an acquaintance with present and prospective religious delights, do not seem to result in improved moral\nconditions. Learning to do things that need to be done, acquiring knowledge\nto be used in contributing to the general good, being trained into habits of\nuseful activity, getting an education, information, wealth, and religion, in order\nthat one may give more to the community in which he lives — such exercises\nas these, with such a purpose in view, do promote material, moral, and spiritual\nwell-being.\n\"The boy who learns to work is on the road to salvation,\" is the legend that\nappears upon a periodical published at the Illinois Reformatory. \"Interest a\nboy in useful occupation,\" says Fra Elbertus, \"and you transform chaos into\ncosmos.\" If interest and skill in the doing of useful things are helpful in\nreformation, may they not be equally so in formation ?\n\"One monster there is in this world,\" says Carlyle, \"the idle man.\" But\nit is not work alone that is the panacea for much of the evil that is in the world;\nit is work with the purpose of contributing to some human need. Activity,\nwith selfish enjo)rments as the principal aim, will not give the most satisfactory\nresults. The enjoyments sought may be sensuous, intellectual, or spiritual\nand the results be disappointing. The aim must include a little more than the\nself. The self must be lost to be saved — lost in useful emplo)mient.\nAll approved vocations relate to human needs. All thoughts of vocation\nhelp to give purpose to educative effort.\nManual training, domestic science, agriculture, and commercial instruction\nare all suggestive of approved vocations. It is believed that each of these\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nETHICAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF VOCATIONAL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n497\n\nbranches of study and training has a distinctively ethical value; that each\nshould be given a place in the schools; and that in connection with these the\n\"germs and educative extracts of as many trades and industries as possible\"\nshould be introduced, to the end that a larger number of pupils may be induced\nto accept high-school work, and that a smaller number of those who graduate\nmay squander time in aimless or ill-directed activity, or in unwise and even\ndisreputable enterprises.\nDISCUSSION\nE. C. Bishop, state superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Nebr. — ^With the\nyouth, the choice of vocation is largely the result of environment. With the adult, forced\nby the demands of civilized life in the maintenance of a home, vocation seeks a favorable\nenvironment or, with the more enterprising, changes or attempts to change the unfavorable\nenvironment which may be his lot to a favorable environment.\nThe choice of vocation comes to the youth more from his environment, including all\nassociations and child experiences, than from inherent tendencies. The boy follows the\nvocation of his father, or steers clear of it, largely according to the probabilities and the\npossibilities he sees in such vocation. The farmer's son who sees only drudgery, selfdenial, social ostracism, and a struggle for bread in the farmer's life is liable to choose,\nrather than the farm, the life of the merchant, the mail carrier, the banker, the pawnbroker\nor other who enjoys some of the liberties and the returns for service which the boy's imagination pictures as self-satisfying. On the other hand, the farm boy who finds pleasure,\nmental stimulus, and soul satisfaction in the daily tasks; who enjoys the social privileges\nrequired for the proper development of his social nature; who sees a good measure of\nwhat the Creator has stored up in the earth, on the earth, and in the air for him who sees,\nhears, and touches- Nature; who sees for the future an outlet to his ambition, an avenue for\ndevelopment, a promise of home maintenance — :such environment leads to the selection of\na vocation which will develop in the boy, and continue in the man, that degree of ethical\nculture which will give us a contented and enlightened citizenship, a successful business\nman and an enrichment to all elements of civilization which he touches.\nThe same applies to the child of the carpenter, the miner, the lawyer, the preacher, the\nteacher, to the home of the common laborer, the business and the professional man. I do\nnot attempt to analyze effects of environment on the child in the society home of the man\nwho contributes little or nothing to the enjoyment, elevation, or material welfare of the\nrace, but who lives upon the product of others' efforts.\nWhat can the secondary school do toward training the child to an appreciation of his\nenvironment or toward the development of an attitude which will cause him either to seek\nright environment or change his environment to meet the physical, mental, or soul deeds of\nenlightened manhood ?\nThe course of training offered in the secondary school should be sufl&ciently localized\nto present to the child the realities and the possibilities of his environment, and at the same\ntime retain the necessary balance of general, cultural branches. This means that in the\nagricultural community, in the manufacturing community, the mining community, the\nfishing community, the lumbering region, the child will find thru his school duties an\ninsight into the home life which will lead him to know and to feel the beauty, the opportunity, the duty, and the rewards that come from an intimate acquaintance with all the good\nabout him.\nSuch education will assist the youth to a sensible choice of vocation, and will enable\nhim at an early age to utilize the means at hand all the way along for preparing himself\nbest to enjoy the vocation of his choice, and to enrich his vocation by the addition of early,\nearnest, devotion to it.\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "498\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThere may be inherent qualities in the youth which will lead him away from the vocation suggested and encouraged by his home community. If such be the case, as it often is,\nthe acquaintance with, and the best possible enjoyment while there of the home environment is ethical training of good degree which strengthens the youth in his application to\nwhatever vocation he may choose.\nI am not an advocate of turning our secondary schools into trade schools for the great\nbody of American children. I favor, first, the elimination from the secondary schools of\nall subjects which, when properly handled, do not contribute to the right ethical development, and the elimination of subjects which have been placed there for ethical culture\nalone, but which can be supplanted by other subjects of equal value in ethical training and\nwhich, in addition, bring to the child sane ideas of the beauty of nature, the field of literature, the artistic art in manual skill, and the dignity of all labor necessary to the maintenance of a home in a civilized community — a home where the good things of life are appreciated, demanded and secured by labor — labor with the hand, the eye, the intellect, and\nthe heart.\nTrade schools serve a useful purpose in providing for delinquents, defectives, unfortunates, and for bright, ambitious children who early choose vocations, and early seek\npreparation therefor, where at the same time they may receive the proper degree of the\nbroader education due every American child. But trade schools should not draw from\nthe secondary schools the great body of children who can be kept therein by the training\nwhich should give sufficient opening for the training of the home life in such a manner\nand degree that the child sees thru the home and its duties the means of development for\nthe fullest enjoyment of the larger life.\n\nTHIRD\nBY\n\nREPORT\n\nGILBERT\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE\nCOURSE OF STUDY\n\nON SIX-YEAR\n\nB. MORRISON,\nPRINCIPAL\nOF McKINLEY\nST. LOUIS. MO.. CHAIRMAN\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIn 1905 at Asbury Park the Department of Secondary Education voted\nto appoint a standing committee on Six- Year Courses. This committee consisted of Gilbert B. Morrison, chairman, Wilson Farrand, Edward Rynearson,\nJ. H. Francis, and A. B. Graham. That committee reported at Los Angeles\nin 1907 (see pp. 705-10 Los Angeles volume of Proceedings). The report was\nunanimously adopted, with the recommendation that the work be continued.\nThe new committee consisted of Eugene W. Lyttle, chairman, E. W. Coy,\nOliver P. Comman, T. A. Mott, J. H. Van Sickle, J. Stanley Brown, and John\nH. Denbigh. That committee reported at Cleveland, Ohio in 1908 (see pp.\n625-28 Cleveland volume of Proceedings). This report contained three\nessential features: First, a synopsis and an indorsement of the previous report;\nsecond, an outline of what should be expected of pupils at the end of the\nsixth school year — age twelve to thirteen, and third, a suggested list of studies\nfor pupils of the seventh and eighth grades. This report was also unanimously adopted with the recommendation that the work be continued. The\nnew Committee consists of Gilbert B. Morrison, chairman, E. W. Lyttle, E.\nW. Coy, J. H. Van Sickle, Oliver P. Cornman, T. A. Mott, and F. E. Bolton.\nFollowing is the report of this committee:\nFirst, the committee in reporting progress wishes to express a further\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIX-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\n499\n\nindorsement of the leading points and suggestions of preceding committees\non Six- Year Courses.\nSecond, the sentiment for the six-and-six division is growing. By an extensive correspondence thru private and circular letters we note that there is a\nfreedom of discussion and a hospitality in the entertainment of the idea of a\nnew division of the twelve years in the public schools, not noticed in former\ncorrespondence. Almost everyone who has given any expression seems to\nbelieve in some departure from the eight-and-four-year division, and several\ncities report these departures. In some cities six-year courses in the high school\nhave been in vogue for several years.\nSuperintendent Stratton D. Brooks, of Boston, Mass., says:\nWe have had for many years six-year courses in the two Latin schools.\nDuring these\nyears these schools have been allowed to admit grammar-school graduates for a four-year\ncourse.\nAt the present time approximately half of the pupils in each of the Latin schools\nare four-year students.\n\nSuperintendent A. B. Poland, of Newark, N. J., writes:\nI have recommended to our board the differentiation of courses at the end of the\nsixth year in the grammar school in order that boys and girls who desire it may take the\nmaximum of vocational work and a minimum of so-called culture studies\nIt is\nexpected that courses of this kind will be started in the near future.\n\nSuperintendent Homer P. Lewis, of Worcester, Mass., says:\nWe have a modification of the elementary course in this city which is a step toward the\nchange which you are investigating. Two years before their entrance into the high school,\npupils are allowed to enter a preparatory school in which a beginning is made of the study\nof Latin, French, and German. The pupils are admitted to an advanced standing in these\nsubjects in the high school and are able in some cases to shorten the high-school course by\none year. The trial we have made proves to some of us, at least, that it is desirable to go\nfarther in the change, and I for one believe thoroly in a six-year high -school course.\n\nIn Baltimore some children are allowed to begin high-school work in the\nseventh elementary grade, and while these children are not actually enrolled\nin the high schools any earlier on this account, they do, however, complete the\nhigh-school course earlier. Experience of the past six years in Baltimore goes\nto show that a pupil who has been successful in this preparatory work can\ncomplete a high-school course in three years, thus saving one year.\nFrank Rollins, Second Assistant Commissioner of Education of the State\nof New York, says:\nReplying to your letter in reference to six-year courses for elementary and high schools,\nI would say that the New York State Education Department has this matter under favorable consideration, but has not yet arrived at any conclusions as to organization of the\nwork. We shall look to your report for valuable guidance and assistance in the further\ndevelopment of this plan.\n\nRichmond, Ind., has had the six-and-six division for several years. In\n1896 a building was erected for all eighth grades. In 1899 the ''seventh A\"\ngrades were sent to the same building. The building is equipped with gymnasium, shop, and domestic rooms.\nThe work is conducted on the same plan\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nas the high school. Pupils are permitted to begin their high-school Latin or\nGerman on entering the \"seventh A\" grade in this building, omitting enough\nof the elementary-school work to make this possible. In the eighth grade\nwork the pupils take algebra during the last semester. So popular has this\nplan become that the board will provide this year another building for this\ncentral school which will be large enough for the entire seventh and eighth\ngrades of the city. The superintendent believes that this plan permits pupils\nof different powers to do different amounts of work. Some enter the high\nschool with one semester of high-school credit, some with two credits, some with\nthree, and some with four. This central school works in close accord with the\nhigh school.\nSuperintendent Henry P. Emerson, of Buffalo, N. Y., writes:\nWe have had no experience in Buffalo with six-year courses for high and elementary\nschools, but the State Department of Education is about to initiate a movement looking in\nthat direction\nI do not look for any sudden or revolutionary change in this particular, but the plan contemplates providing for three courses after the sixth year — one making\nroom for the study of a foreign language, another providing for business instruction, and\na third providing facilities for industrial training. So far as the courses coincide, the\npupils vf\\\\\\ receive instruction together. We are to make a beginning in a small way along\nthese lines next September.\n\nSuperintendent Walter H. Small, of Providence, R. I., says of the Hope\nStreet School in that city which was opened twelve years ago:\nIn this school after six years of work in the elementary schools pupils who show tendencies to strong scholarship are allowed to enter a six-year course in the high-school building completing their grammar-sAool studies and commencing certain high-school studies.\nProbably one-third of the pupils go thru the six-year course and then enter the regular fouryear high-school course. [Mr. Small is of the opinion that it might be better for some who\nhave been promoted at the end of the sixth year to have remained and completed their\ncourse in the elementary school.] I cannot say from this, however [says Mr. Small in\nconclusion], that the six-year course is a failure.\n\nFrom Nashville, Tenn., Superintendent H. C. Weber writes as follows:\nWe are drifting toward the division of six years each for elementary- and high-school\nwork. We have gone, we think, quite far along the road. Of course, children graduating\nfrom the eight years of the grammar-school work are admitted to the high school without\nexamination. There is here, however, just before the opening of each half-year term, an\nentrance examination for high-school students and this examination is open to our seventhand eighth-grade pupils, as well as those coming from other schools. Quite a number of\npupils having just finished the sixth or seventh grade have entered our high school under\nthis plan and have acquitted themselves very creditably indeed. This examination is not\nbased on the grammar-school course of study but is intended to test the power of the pupil\nto do high-school work. We are shaping our seventh- and eighth-grade work in the grammar schools to the end that it will not bear directly upon training for the high-school work,\nbut will round ofiF, as best we can in that time, those pupils who will not attend the high\nschool.\n\nSuperintendent S. O. Hartwell, of Kalamazoo, Mich., says of a plan started\nthere:\nWe have two schools, and next year shall have a third into which grade eight will\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIX-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\n501\n\nbe carried in a departmental school with grades nine and ten. The result has, I think,\nbeen helpful to both high and grammar grades. If the building arrangements were convenient, we should carry the seventh grade also into the departmental system. From\nobservation I should say that that system has strengthened the quality of work done in the\neighth grade, and I am glad to report from a pretty careful following of the lists that, in\nschools thus arranged, the falling off between grades eight and nine has been a steadily\ndecreasing factor. This has been partly from familiarity with high-school work secured\nwhile still in the eighth grade, partly from the fact that we have been able to promote pupils\n\"by subject\" between grades eight and nine in just the same way as in the upper grades.\n\nOf their departmental plan in Saginaw, Mich., Superintendent E. C. Wariner says:\nOur seventh and eighth grades were organized on the departmental plan about the\nyear 1898 and we have been running that way ever since. An option of German is given\nto pupils in the seventh grade and of German and Latin in the eighth grade. These\nseventh and eighth grades are not segregated with the high school, but are still part of the\ngrammar schools, housed with the grades and under the direction of the ward-school\nprincipals.\nUnder this plan the scheme seems to have worked here very well.\n\nSuperintendent Wm. A. Greeson, of Grand Rapids, Mich., who read a\npaper at the meeting of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, writes:\nThere should be a different organization in primary schools from that which is best\nadapted to secondary schools, and the separation in methods of organization should come\nbetween the sixth and seventh grades rather than between the eighth and ninth. If this\npoint could be established and carried into effect I think the schools would be greatly\nimproved. I do not think it makes much difference whether we have seventh, eighth, and\nninth grades together in a building or whether we have the six upper grades organized in\none school.\n\nDuring the past year a vigorous inquiry into the actual situation in the\nseventh and eighth grades in the schools of this country has been in progress\n,:by committees of the New York and Brooklyn Teachers' Associations. Inasmuch as the question of six-year courses turns largely on changes in these\ngrades, the results of such an inquiry are important. Thru the courtesy of\nVan Evrie Kilpatrick, chairman of the Committee on School Organization, and\n^Mr. Charles S. Hartwell, secretary, we are permitted to present the following\niignificant data:\nOn July 28, 1908, two hundred return postal cards were mailed to representative\n[superintendents and high-school principals, asking their practice and views regarding the\n^seventh and eighth years. Ninety-three were filled in and returned from eighty-eight cities\nin thirty-three states and one from Nova Scotia, giving the following summary of results:\nI. Length of courses: Nine years elementary, 7; eight years elementary, 74; seven\nrears elemenary, 3; six years secondary, 6; five years secondary, 3; total, 93.\nII. Promotion by subject in seventh and eighth year: Do promote by subject, 26;\n[do not, 67; total, 93.\nIII. Departmental teaching in seventh and eighth years: Entirely departmental, 24;\n[;in part departmental, 69; total, 93.\nIV. Teachers in seventh and eighth years college graduates: All, i; some, 31; not\nmy, 61 ; total, 93.\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "502\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nV. College-bred teachers in seventh and eighth years; Preferred, 46; not preferred,\n45; no answer, 2; total, 93.\nVI. Organizing the ninth year with the seventh and eighth years under departmental\nteaching and promoting by subjects as a junior or lower high school especially in large\ncities: Favored, 54; not favored, 33; no answer, 6; total, 93.\n\nAs to six-year courses Mr. Hartwell adds:\nDuring last August my attention was called to twenty-two cities in twelve states having\na six-year, or at least a five-year high-school course\nThe experiment of six-year\ncourses is being tried. From what I have so far learned this much is evident: The seventh\nand eighth years of school are now the battle-ground for improvement in courses of study.\nThere is a conflict going on between the idea of advancing the individual child, on the one\nhand, and the stereotyped idea of mass promotion on the other. The public expects the\nteacher to prepare the child for self-support rather than for college, and the sound of this\ndemand is distinctly audible. Departmental teaching, promotion by subjects, organized\nfaculties of teachers, inquiry into the needs and the bent of each child, attention to the\ntraining of the hand and the eye thruout the seventh and eighth years while the pupil is\nwithin the period of compulsory education, will bring valuable results to any city which\ndemands the best services of each of us. The six-and-six plan moves in the direction of\nbetter pedagogy and better economics.\n\nThere is a general impression revealed by this and other correspondence\nthat the whole course of instruction, both elementary and secondary, should\nbe simplified; that the differentiation of pupils' work should begin at the end\nof the sixth grade; that time is wasted on nonessentials and on impractical\ntopics; that there should be greater flexibility in the promotion of pupils;\nthat the whole system should be reorganized.\nA study of the schools of Great Britain and Germany within the past year\ndiscloses that differentiation begins in both countries at the point corresponding to the end of our sixth grade; that the elements of the \"higher\" mathematics, ofscience, and the study of the foreign languages are begun at that\npoint, and in many of the best schools even earlier; that the secondary period\nis six to eight years in length; that in the best schools in Great Britain, notably\nthose of Birmingham and Leeds, work corresponding to the high schools of\nthis country is completed at about the age of sixteen.\nThe committee is of the opinion that while we may not expect or hope for\nany sudden or extensive changes in the general scheme of organization from\nthe eight- and four-year division to the six-and-six division, nevertheless we\nfeel certain not only that the change is inevitable but that it is already in progress and is taking place in different ways to meet local conditions. We further\nbelieve that the reorganization of the public-school system along the lines of\nthis discussion is of fundamental importance, and that every reasonable measure that can be taken to overcome the inertia of the established system and to\nmake for an organization more in consonance with advanced educational\nopinions and with the needs of modem society should be employed. The\nproblem involves not only division by years, but a well-digested curriculum\nof both the elementary and secondary branches. This curriculum should\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nRECENT\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nIN PHYSICS\n\n503\n\n{a) provide the content of the work, including vocational studies; (6) establish\nthe points of differentiation; {c) consider methods of teaching and plans for\npromotion of pupils.\nRespectfully submitted\nGilbert B. Morrison, Chairman\nOliver P. Cornman\nJames H. Van Sickle\nI\n\nE. W. Lyttle\nE. W. Coy\nF. E. Bolton\nT. A. MoTT\nCommittee\n\nROUND-TABLE\nA.\nTHE\nGILBERT\n\nRANDOM,\n\nPHYSICS\nRECENT\nTEACHER\n\nAND\n\nCONFERENCES\nCHEMISTRY\n\nMOVEMENT\nOF PHYSICS,\n\nHIGH\n\nIN PHYSICS\nSCHOOL,\n\nSACRAMENTO,\n\nCAL.\n\nThis movement in physics of which I am to speak had its origin about four years ago,\nand was essentially a more or less united effort on the part of physics teachers all over the\ncountry to come to a closer agreement as to the scope and character of elementary highschool physics. It was evident that during the ten or fifteen years previous to this time,\nphysics had enlarged its scope and changed its character considerably by reason of a number of important new discoveries, and extensive new applications of its principles in the\nindustrial and commercial field. The result was not only to raise the question as to\n||whether or not the scope of elementary high-school physics should be enlarged, but also to\nlange materially the bases upon which we had heretofore judged the relative importance\n>f the different subjects in physics.\nEach physics teacher in high-school work in his own\n^way sought to adjust himself to the new conditions, with the result that there arose a very\nide divergence of opinion and practice regarding both the scope and character of the work.\nQuestions like the following arose and became all important: What work and how much\nrork shall constitute elementary high-school physics ? Should this work be covered in one\n[year? What relative proportion of the time should be devoted to laboratory and classirork? A desire among physics teachers to know each others' minds regarding these\nmatters started this movement. At the meeting of the Central Association of Physics and\nMathematics Teachers held in Chicago on December i, and 2, 1905, a discussion took place\nregarding the advisability of approving the list of experiments for a year's course in highschool physics as suggested at a conference of physics teachers at the meeting of the National\nEducational Association in July, 1905. In the absence of any very definite prevailing\nopinion, a committee was appointed to examine the list with a view to revision, and to take\nsuch other action as it might think desirable to strengthen the elementary course in high\nschool physics. The committee consisted of C. R. Mann, of the University of Chicago,\nC. H. Smith, of the Hyde Park High School, Chicago, and C. F. Adams, of the Central\nHigh School, Detroit, Mich. The committee prepared a list of about one hundred experiments, including the full list suggested by the National Education Association conference\nand different ones from another list suggested by the North Central Association of Colleges\nand Secondary Schools. This list was sent out as circular No. i to several hundred physics\nteachers in different high schools thruout the country, with the request that they indicate\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "504\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\na choice of experiments suitable for a year's course in elementary high-school physics.\nThe teachers were also asked to make suggestions, and in order to make these definite and\ndeterminate as to the extent of the unanimity of opinion, the committee included a set\nof questions of which the two following are examples: \"What is your criterion for judging\nthe usefulness of a laboratory experiment ?\" and, \"What is needed to make physics interesting to students, and stimulating as an educative factor?\" This it was hoped would\nprovide suggestions for the preparation of a syllabus of experiments. About three hundred\nreplies were received. But only twenty of the experiments received the sanction of twothirds of the teachers, even in view of the fact that they had been suggested by two important bodies of teachers. The suggestions offered indicated a wide divergence of opinion\nregarding essentials, values, and methods in elementary high-school physics. They were,\nnevertheless, valuable to the committee inasmuch as the extent of divergence was in itself\nan important fact. The committee used its influence to interest other associations of\nphysics teachers in different parts of the country, and induced them to appoint similar\ncommittees or representatives. These representatives met for consultation and decided to\ncontinue the work already started. A joint committee was organized and was constituted a\ncommission for further work. Accordingly, circular No. 2 was issued. It contained eight\nor nine questions of which the following are examples: \"What is the best method of keeping a laboratory notebook?\" \"What amount of subject-matter should be taught in a\none-year course in elementary high-school physics?\" \"In which year in the high-school\ncourse is physics to be placed?\" \"How much of the time given to physics should be\ndevoted to laboratory work ?\" \"What is the aim and purpose of instruction in physics ?\"\nAbout one hundred and thirty replies were received. The first question — namely, the best\nmethod of keeping a laboratory notebook — involved a half-dozen or more subtopics\nand on one of these the agreement was a little less than one-half and on all the others less\nthan one-fourth. On the second question regarding the amount of subject-matter in a oneyear course there was practically no agreement. Most of the teachers believed that the\namount of subject-matter usually compressed into a one-year course was too great; but the\nagreement on what to omit was less than one-fifth on any one suggestion. On the third\nquestion, as to which year in the high-school course physics should be taught, the agreement was less than one-half in favor of the fourth year. On the fourth question, the\namount of time to be given to laboratory work, the agreement was about one-fourth in\nfavor of half the time for laboratory work and half for recitation work. On the next\nquestion, regarding the purpose and aim of instruction in physics, there was a wide divergence of opinion. Less than one-fourth favored the view that the purpose and aim was to\nbring the student into intelligent touch with the world of natural phenomena about him.\nOn the matter of how to test whether or not the purpose and aim had been attained, the\nagreement was less than one-seventh.\nThe commission continued its work by issuing circular No. 3. This set forth ten\ntheses arranged from similar ones formulated and considered of fundamental importance\nby French and German physics associations which had considered and passed upon the\nsame matter.\nThe following are the theses:\n1. The subject-matter of a one-year course must be reduced to two-thirds its present\namount, or else the time allowed for covering it increased to one and a half years,\n2. If the subject-matter is reduced, the more abstract, mathematical, and technical\ntopics should be first eliminated. The better established portions of the subject should\nhave precedence over the more recent unproved speculations on the ground that in the\nlimited time it is better to teach things which are likely to be believed when the youngster is\ngrown up.\n3. In a first-year course the method of presentation is of far greater importance than\nthe choice of subject-matter. It is better to present a few topics in such a manner that they\nare powerful examples of the method by which science obtains its results than to try to\nteach a large number of more or less scattered facts and theories in such a way that they\ncan only be memorized.\n4. No definition should be introduced until the concepts with which it deals have been\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nRECENT\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nIN\n\nPHYSICS\n\n505\n\nclearly developed in the student's mind by means of a discussion of concrete cases from\nthe student's own world.\nA definition should be justified before it is stated, not after.\n5. No law should be stated until the concepts and relations with which it deals have\nbeen implanted in the student's mind by means of a discussion of common experiences and\nof simple qualitative demonstrational experiments. After the concepts and the idea that\nthere may be a quantitative relation among the facts involved have been grasped, the\nquantitative relation may be stated and proved either by demonstration or laboratory\nexperiment. The student must be given an intuitive and qualitative perception of the\nrelations summarized by the law before he is expected to comprehend it intelligently.\n6. The student should be made to see clearly that laboratory apparatus furnishes the\nmeans of determining quantitatively the relations summarized by the laws, that it is not\nnecessary to remember the details of the apparatus to appreciate the law, and that the\nexemplifications of the law are not confined to the apparatus.\n7. The student should be made to comprehend that every law has been established\nby a method of approximation, so that the statement of the law is always a statement of\nwhat we belive to be true in an ideal case. Hence, the measurements by which the law\nis established give results which approach more and more nearly to the law, the more carefully the measurements are made, and the more completely complicating effects are eliminated. He should also understand that in every practical case the law is not verified\nbecause of friction, air, resistance, etc.\n8. Measurements of the relations involved in practical cases should lead to determinations of efficiencies rather than the verification of laws. Such determinations of efficiency\nfurnish for the laboratory work problems which are of great value and interest because\nof their reality.\n9. As few units as possible should be employed, and they should be introduced only\nwhen a necessity for their use appears. Their introduction should be justified in advance,\nas in the case of definitions. The more abstract units, like the dyne and erg, should be\nomitted.\nID. Examinations and quizzes should be framed to test the student's comprehension of\nand ability to use the more important principles of physics. The questions should not ask\nfor mere statements of laws from memory, nor should they contain complicated arithmetical puzzles of the sort that seldom occur in practical work. They should not demand\ndescriptions of laboratory apparatus, nor of unrelated facts which do not have any immediate bearing on the principles involved. They should rather consist of questions as to the\nargument by which a principle is established, and as to how the principles are appHed. The\nproblems should be simple, dealing with concrete applications of principles and be of the\nkind likely to be met with outside of the classroom and laboratory.\nAbout one hundred and sixty-five replies were received, fourteen approving the theses\nin toto as presented, and eighteen more approving them in general with some modifications,\nmaking an agreement of less than one-fifth. The remainder of the replies presented a\nvariety of opinion difficult to classify. Some were very radical, expressing the view that\nthe methods of teaching physics were for the most part wrong and failed to get proper\nresults. Others expressed preference for what they called the \"natural history\" way of\nteaching physics. In reviewing its work the commission made the following observations:\n\"On counting up the letters received during the past year, it appears that suggestions and\ncriticisms have been received from four hundred and eighteen different teachers. Of these\ntwo hundred and seventy are in secondary schools, one hundred and thirteen in colleges,\nand thirty-five in normal schools. Every state in the Union, except Delaware, Florida,\nIdaho, Arkansas, and Nevada, has a representative among the number. Yet the only conclusion that all can agree to draw from the summaries of the answers as printed in the\nvarious circulars is that we teachers are far from united on any one point. Some insist on\nthe introduction into the laboratory of a large amount of quantitative work; others are\nequally insistent that this work should be qualitative. Some want to emphasize the idea\nof energy; others prefer to base the work on concepts of force. Some approve of making the\ncourse strongly inductive and of trying to teach scientific methods of thought; others\ndeclare this method useless and insist on mastery of the subject-matter. Some declare\nthat the course should be limited to pure science; others beUeve in making it more practical. Some wish to introduce more mathematics; others want to teach in the natural\nhistory way entirely.\"\nThe commission then suggested that the reason for these wide diversities of opinion\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwas probably the effort to do too much work and too many things in the one year allotted\nto physics. In other words, physics teachers were endeavoring to work beyond the limits\nof what might properly be called the elementary high-school physics. This view is strengthened when we consider the following facts which in the past few years have had a decided\nprominence in both the discussions and writings of physics teachers.\nFirst, The effort to make the work very practical in the sense that the student is to\napply his knowledge of physics to things about him. For instance, the practical teacher\nin the study of the pendulum would explain its connection with the mechanism of clocks;\nin studying velocity and acceleration, explain the speed of bullets and the starting and\nstopping of trains; in studying heat, explain the application of cooling by evaporation to\nthe operations of an artificial ice-plant, and the application of vapor pressures in the use\nof steam and gas engines; in studying electricity, explain the operation of power plants;\nin studying gases, explain air brakes and gas meters. Physics work should of course be\nmade practical, but there is no limit to the amount of work that can be crowded into a\ncourse on the supposition that every subject should be taught in relation to its practical\napplications. Some teachers would believe that physics work is not practical unless it\nenables a student to explain common things around him. They would in fact make this a\ntest of the efl&ciency and value of instruction in physics. Yet when we consider this in\nconnection with the innumerable common but complicated applications of elementary facts\nin physics in cities, the idea is absurd. Moreover, classes in physics in the high school are\nmade up of girls and boys together, the girls often being as numerous as the boys, and\nwhat would be considered practical to boys would by no means be so to girls, so far as\nvocation is concerned.\nSecond, The effort to show the application of principles on a large scale and in relation\nto the industries, as, for instance, the pressure of water and gas in mains, the use of belts,\npulleys, gears, cranes, wheels, etc. There is, of course, great merit in work of this kind,\nbut it is in the province of the technical schools, and should not be brought into elementary\nhigh-school physics.\nThird, The effort to make the work interesting by bringing in related topics. For\ninstance, the study of the air brings in balloons and airships; the study of light, the X-rays\nand radio-activity; the study of central forces, the gyroscope; the study of electricity,\nwireless telegraphy and telephony, etc. Sometimes local plants, as for instance, gas works,\npower stations, and factories are given special attention.\nFourth, The inequitable division of time between the various subjects in physics.\nFor instance, some teachers would devote one-fifth of the entire time of the work in physics\nto electricity alone, because of its general use, practicability, and interest. Electric\ngenerators, motors, transformers, electric lighting, telegraphy and telephony are taken up.\nEach of these is an extensive subject and the small amount of time spent on each is not\nprofitable. I believe that these, together with electrostatics, might well be eliminated from\nthe work in electricity. We should then teach only the principles of magnetism and current\nelectricity. This would include primary batteries, secondary batteries, electro-motive\nforce, current strength, resistance, Ohm's law, conductivity and conductors, magnetic\nproperties of currents, magnets, electrolysis, heating effects of currents, the measurement\nof current electricity involving the principle of bridges, galvanometers and meters, and\npossibly one or two other topics, depending somewhat upon the emphasis placed on certain\nfacts. This would take four or five weeks' time, which is more in harmony with the allotment of time to the other branches of physics. It is true, of course, that boys show a keen\ninterest in and know a good deal about the telephone, telegraph, and dynamo, and for that\nreason it would be well not to omit these, yet on the other hand, it is good logic to say that\nif we have to omit any subjects, we had better omit those which the student knows most\nabout and can best acquire knowledge of by himself.\nI shall not follow in detail further this movement, but call attention to some important\nresults_derivedJrom^it.\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nRECENT\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nIN\n\nPHYSICS\n\n507\n\nFirst: It called attention to the fact that physics teachers in secondary schools were\nnot working together, and were not agreed on even the most fundamental facts concerning\ntheir work. The reasons as they appear now were doubtless lack of organization, and\nlack of trained men who had been long enough in the work to have acquired a view both\nprospective and retrospective. It is only in recent years that any considerable number of\ncollege men have begun to devote the best part of their lives to science work in the high\nschools. The salaries were such for a long time that men could enter the work only while\nlooking about for a more lucrative vocation.\n' Second: It brought college professors and secondary-school men in science work\ncloser together, and their exchange of views caused each to see important relations in the\nwork of one to that of the other. College professors have ceased largely to set up burdensome and needless requirements in the sciences for admission to their work. There are\nvery few among them now who claim or believe that students do as well in college physics\nwhen they have not had the high-school physics, as when they have had it. They co-operate\nactively with high-school physics teachers and adjust their courses in many cases to the\nhigh-school requirements. They are willing, as was shown recently by the work of this\ncommission, in defining the physics unit, to allow the high-school-physics men to determine for themselves the high-school requirements for college entrance. Some colleges\nare now giving a preparatory course in physics for students who have not had high-school\nphysics, and an advanced course for those who have, showing that full recognition is\ngiven to high-school-physics work.\nThird: I believe it has pointed out the futility of trying to expand high-school-physics\nwork into the various avenues of interesting technological work. As a preparatory course\nfor several branches of work, it should not neglect one for the other or go farther into the\nwork than time will permit. In many cases it would be well even to sacrifice some of the\nwork that we consider highly practical and interesting.\nFourth: It has called attention to the need among high -school-physics men of a certain\nconsensus of opinion regarding their work to which the work may be adjusted without\ndanger of stagnation. As an example of this I call attention to the theses just read, and to\nthe report on the definition of requirements in elementary high-school physics as published\nin School Science, June, 1909.\nFifth: It seems to point out clearly the fact that quantitative and qualitative experiments and work must go together. One is not to be used to the exclusion of the other.\nThe proportion of each may be regulated to suit the work.\nSixth: It points out further, I believe, the fact that physics and mathematics go\ntogether, each giving aid to the other. The proportion of mathematics may be varied to\nsuit the work, but it should never be eliminated from the work. Problems, when properly\nused, strengthen both the physics and the mathematics work. The teacher who neglects\nthem is throwing away a powerful agent in the training of the minds of his students. They\nshould not, of course, be arithmetical puzzles, but helpful illustrations of the use of principles.\n\nB.\nTHE SCOPE AND\nV.\n\nK.\n\nFROULA,\n\nHISTORY\nVALUE\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nAND\n\nOF HISTORY\n\nOF CENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nMUSIC\nIN THE HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nMINN.\n\nST.\n\nPAUL,\n\nThe life of a youth is profoundly influenced by the nature of the knowledge which his\nplastic mind apprehends and ponders during a series of years. With the more general\nacceptance of this thesis is coming gradually a greater care as to the content of the courses\nof study which are to be the mental pabulum of the young people of the land. Subjects\nof study whose only excellence is formal discipline are gradually giving way to subjects\nwhose content has some practical value over and above mere discipline of the mind.\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nAccordingly, the study of English in high schools and colleges already commands the\nattention and respect that it properly deserves; but let us not be satisfied until history,\n\"in some respects the noblest of the group\" of humanities, receives all the attention and\nrespect that is rightfully its due.\nIn his excellent volume on the Principles of Secondary Education, Professor DeGarmo\ntells us that \"besides influencing and even forming the student's permanent attitude of\nmind regarding civil rights, duties, and responsibilities, history performs a number of\nintellectual and ethical functions that are largely peculiar to itself J^ He then mentions five\nof the most important of these functions: (i) development of judgment; (2) engendering\nof the spirit of toleration; (3) training of a reconstructive imagination; (4) exercise of the\nmemory in a way peculiar to history; and finally (5)- he says, \"Historical study should\nmaterially assist the student to develop his permanent attitude tov^ard political liberty\nand self-government.\"\nMany other testimonies of the strongest kind as to the ethical value of history are not\nwanting. G. Stanley Hall tells us that \"history enriches and adorns the mind with noble\nideas.\" Elsewhere he speaks of it as the \"window of the soul that looks out upon the\ndeeds of the race, showing man engaged in the work of revealing what is essential in his\ninward nature and what he makes real in his institutions.\" Again, we read from him that\n\"it is mainly at the altars of history that patriotism feeds her fires. In the long run the\ngreatest means of teaching patriotism must be history and literature. Study of the times\nthat tried men's souls tends to form souls that are capable of enduring trial.\" Eggleston\ntells us that \"the main object of teaching history is to make good men and women, cultivated and broad men and women.\" Further, he says that \"history is the great prophylactic against pessimism,\" because there we find that each succeeding age is better than the\npreceding. Froude tells us that \"history is a voice forever sounding across the centuries\nthe laws of right and wrong. Opinions alter, manners change, creeds rise and fall, but\nthe moral law is written on the tablets of eternity. Justice and truth alone endure and live.\nInjustice and falsehood may be long-lived, but doomsday comes at last to them, in French\nRevolutions or other terrible ways.\"\nBut besides all this, history should receive greater attention in our schools because of\nthe opportunity it affords for the acquirement of rich stores of facts. This is the age of\nreceptivity; the youth can accumulate facts and store them in his brain for future reference\nmore easily now than at any other time.\nHinsdale says that\nthe main thing the teacher of history in the primary school has to do, and largely so in the\nsecondary school, is to teach facts. While facts do not make a man a historian he cannot\nbe a historian without them. Teachers of a philosophical turn may dislike this humble\nwork, they may speak of it contemptuously as \"mere memorizing,\" but no real educator\nspeaks lightly of the memory. The common sense of mankind rightly adjudges praise to\nthe man having a rich store of information.\nProfessor James tells us that\nto exalt the logical faculties is all right, to belittle the faculties of retention and reproduction is all wrong. In the practical as in the theoretic life, the man whose acquisitions\nstick is the man who is always achieving and advancing; whilst his neighbors, spending\nmost of their time in relearning what they once knew but have forgotten, simply hold\ntheir own.\nThe epoch-making Report of the Committee of Seven has done wonders in enhancing\nthe study of history in the high schools of our country. The four-years' course outlined\nby the committee, and the excellent methods of teaching suggested, have vitalized the subject and increased the interest in history teaching and study. But it seems to me that the\nCommittee of Seven was entirely too modest in the amount of time to be required of secondary-school pupils for the study of history. It is true that a four-years' course is outlined\nand recommended, but how many pupils can take or do take as much history as that in\nthe high school under existing conditions ? Granted that the courses offered in the second- ■\nary schools of the country have been greatly improved in their scope and the teaching vastly\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n509\n\nbettered in method, the question still confronts us, Has the number of secondary-school\npupils taking a comprehensive or cumulative course in history greatly or even appreciably\nincreased ? In my opinion, the strength of the report of the committee was badly impaired\nby the irresolute paragraph on p. 128 which modestly recommends one block for the classical\nand Latin courses; two blocks for the scientific; and three blocks for the English. Let\nus hope that the forthcoming Report of the Committee of Five will be more aggressive and\ndemand three years of history of all high-school pupils even if this has to be done at the\nsacrifice of some Latin or some algebra. But it is not improbable that a greater demand\nin history may be made on high-school pupils without much or any sacrifice in other Hnes\nof study.\nThe next step in the development of the secondary-school course of study should come\nalong the lines of greater correlation. The altogether too strict division of studies into\ndepartments, often inharmonious, is resulting in much waste of effort and energy. It is\nquite conceivable that greater correlation and co-operation in the departments of history\nand English might easily result in some economy and greater efficiency. One of the most\nerroneous fallacies among high-school pupils is the feeling on their part that as soon as an\nexamination is passed in any one term's subject that part of it is forever sealed and settled\nand the teacher must not expect to revive it or expect the pupil to remember anything about\nit. And thus also a pupil often feels much aggrieved if, forsooth, a teacher in one department should happen to ask him about something that he thinks belongs to another department. Our whole system seems to favor and foster the cramming idea. Every subject\nor part of a subject needs to be remembered only during the current term, that is, until the\nexamination is passed.\nHere is a striking illustration of the lack of co-operation between departments. In\nthe penmanship class pupils are taught neatness and carefulness as indispensable parts of\nthe written page. Immediately after the efforts of the penmanship teacher to inculcate\nthese ideas, another teacher stamps them out by giving a period written test on such a\nmultitude of history or English questions that only by the most hurried scribbling can\nthe pupil cover the ground, and as for neatness or even carefulness of statement, that, of\ncourse, is entirely out of the question. Sooner or later, too, I hope we may find a way to\ncease our genuflections at the altar of the mystic figure five. If, for instance, one and the\nsame teacher could teach elementary algebra three times a week and plane geometry twice\nweekly during a period of time usually needed for the covering of these two branches\nwhen taught separately, I wonder if we could not get better results or at least rid the pupils\nof the notion that algebra and geometry are two entirely separate subjects with no connection between them. And why should there not be a greater friendship and relationship\nbetween the departments of English and history ? Why should not a logical outline, made\nout with great care and at the expense of much time for a history teacher, be acceptable\nto an English teacher also ? Is not one outline carefully prepared and thought out better\nthan two scratched off and cribbed in a hurry, more especially so when such an outline is\nstudied and criticized by two different teachers from two somewhat different points of\nview ? Why could not the study of some of the historical novels in common use be made\nto contribute to both the history and the English departments and thus some time be saved\nand perhaps efl&ciency gained ? Let us hope that the forthcoming report will look into the\nmatter of correlation of history with other subjects and by so doing demand greater time\nrequirement in history without sacrificing anything elsewhere. Thus possibly the time\nrequirement in English might be reduced from four to three years and at least one year\nadded to the time requirement of history. But even if we cannot hope for greater economy\nalong some lines thru better correlation and thus give added time to the study of history,\nI feel that history teachers have a right to demand more time for their subject even if some\nstudies now clamoring for attention must be cut down. The day has long since passed\nwhen students should be made to feel that they can read history after graduation, and\ntherefore they would better spend their hours in school in the study of other subjects.\nWe\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "5IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nare convinced that if the student is to become a reader of good literature after his school\ndays are over he must acquire a taste for it in school. I believe it is just as true of history.\nIf one is going to be an intelligent reader or student of history he must lay the foundation\nand acquire the habit in school.\nIn a large school with which I am well acquainted, one hundred and seventy-four\npupils graduated this spring. Out of that number about 30 per cent, had taken only one\nyear of history; about 25 per cent, had completed two years; about 20 per cent, had completed three years; and only 10 per cent, took four years of work in the history department.\nWhen it is further taken into consideration that the graduating class represents only about\n15 per cent, of the whole school, it becomes painfully evident how small a proportion of the\nentire school ever get to the study of United States history which someone has happily\ntermed \"the crowning work of the whole course.\" And even if this is not a typical case, I\nyet believe that the proportion of high-school boys and girls who never get more than one\nblock of history is far too great. And, as it usually works out, that one block is quite\nlikely to be Greek and Roman, the course that comes at the beginning. Indeed, there are\nschools where pupils must take history according to what is commonly called \"logical\nsequence,\" so that no matter what year they happen to take up the study of history, they\nmust begin with the ancient. To all intents and purposes, then, the majority of our pupils\nleave school with \"serious lacunae in their knowledge of history,\" the very thing that the\ncommittee tried to guard against.\nAs things are now in common practice in high schools I should say that two faults\nstand out rather boldly in the teaching of history: First, we adhere a little too closely to\n\" logical sequence\" as we like to call it; and second, we do not require enough history of our\npupils in comparison with other subjects of study and in view of the importance of this\nsubject. I fear that our craze for \"logical sequence\" in history has been the means of\nkilling ofif many a boy long before he has reached the \"crowning work of the whole course.\"\nWe have feared that if he did not begin with ancient times there might be some \"serious\nlacunae in his knowledge of history;\" and yet by the very process of subjecting him to the\nordeal of \"logical sequence\" in history we have driven him out of school with a gap as\nbig as the ocean between himself and his environment. The Committee of Seven does not\nspecify which block or blocks should be taken by the pupil if he cannot take all four. Why\nnot let the pupil's maturity determine which block he may take ? If for some reason he\nhas put off taking history until his third year, let him have English history or the block\ncorresponding to the year. If he has put it off until the fourth year let him take American\nhistory and civics. For that matter, if he can take only one block and that rather late in\nthe course, then I should say by all means let him take civics and American history whether\nin the third or fourth year. There are schools wherein eleventh- and twelfth-grade students\nmay be found among ninth-grade pupils in ancient history, simply because, altho often\nthru no fault of their own, they have put off the study until that time, and the schools insist\non everybody's beginning at the first block; or because, forsooth, pupils in English and\nAmerican history might be on an unequal footing if all had not had the same number of\nblocks previously. It is true, for instance, that in the beginning classes of the high school\nthe boys seem to be somewhat at a disadvantage in comparison with the girls; especially\nin history and the languages are they a poor match for girls of exactly the same grade and\nthe same amount of previous study in these subjects. But I have seen twelfth-grade boys\nin United States history and civics, who had taken little or no high-school history before,\nnevertheless assume a leading part in classes wherein girls who had taken all the preceding\nblocks of history predominated. On the other hand, I have observed big twelfth-grade\nboys in ancient-history classes alongside the \"freshies\" where they seemed to evince little\ninterest and do work not much better than that of the ninth-grade pupils. Such boys would,\nin my judgment, have felt more at home and have done a higher grade of work in a fourthyear history class and, I am ready to add, would have profited by it infinitely more than by\nbeing forced into ancient history.\nThe conclusion of this is, then, that in the case of those\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nILLINOIS\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nON\n\nALGEBRA\n\n511\n\nwho cannot take all the blocks, logical sequence might well be sacrificed for the maturity\nand interest of the pupils. Such a scheme would have the further advantage of giving a\nlarger proportion of pupils a chance to pursue the history of modern times, thus making a\ncloser connection between them and their environment. As things are now in actual\npractice, we seem to be going on the theory that ancient history is the one block that is\nmost important and that best meets the needs of the high-school youth. And yet, I wonder\nhow many history teachers really feel that way? To the question: \"If you knew that a\npupil could take only one block of history, which would you recommend?\" the majority\nof the answers inclined toward United States history, and the remainder said United States\nhistory if the student is not going to college, and ancient if he is. But it is high time that\nhistory teachers should stop racking their brains as to which one of the blocks in history\nshould be taken by all pupils, and insisting that history has as much right in the curriculum\nas mathematics or the sciences or the languages and should be given enough time to make\nit a cumulative study as it should be.\nAnd this leads up to my second proposition, that more than, one year of history be\nrequired of all high-school pupils. What blocks and how many is the great question. In\nthe opinion of the writer, the scope should be practically as laid out by the committee;\nnothing far short of that can be considered adequate when the importance of the subject is\nproperly considered. In order to accomplish this, three full years in the high school must\nbe allotted to the study of history. The committee suggests two ways in which the four\nblocks may be reduced to a three-year period of time. But could not something be gained\nby the co-operation of the grammar school ? The elementary and the secondary schools are\nboth a recognized part of the great public-school system. Why not have a better articulation between the two in the study of history ? Suppose the seventh grade should devote\nits attention to United States history and the eighth to Grecian history. With Grecian\nhistory out of the way, high-school pupils could begin with the study of Roman, devoting,\nas is customary now, a half-year to it. That could be followed during the last half of the\nfirst year by mediaeval history. The next time the subject is resumed by the pupil, whether\nthat be the second or third year in his course, he might begin with English history, devoting\na half-year to it, to be followed the latter half of the same year by the modern continental\nperiod. With English history preceding modern continental, there would be a slight\nunraveling of the complications of this latter period and the student would approach this\nhighly complicated subject with a little more historical knowledge and a little greater\nmaturity. The third block, of course, should consist of American history and civics, to be\ngiven either the third or fourth year, according as the one or the other arrangement best\nmeets the exigencies of each school curriculum.\n\nC.\nAN\nHENRY\n\nEXPOSITION\nL.\n\nRIETZ,\n\nOF\n\nASSISTANT\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nTHE ILLINOIS SYLLABUS\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nURBANA,\nI.*\n\nMATHEMATICS,\nILL.\n\nON\n\nALGEBRA\n\nUNIVERSITY.\n\nOF\n\nFOR\nILLINOIS,\n\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nThe syllabus of which I write was adopted by the Illinois State High School Conference at its meeting in November, 1908. This conference, which meets annually, is carrying into effect a systematic plan of preparing syllabi in various branches of study as one\nof the best means of securing co-operation between high-school teachers and college\nand university instructors.\nThe present syllabus is the result of a report drawn by a committee which had the\nmatter under consideration for a year.\nAs a member of that committee, I should say that\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwe studied with much care existing syllabi and obtained much of value from them. This\nreport was carefully discussed in detail by the mathematical section, consisting of about\none hundred and fifty members, present. After this careful consideration of every point\nin the report, it was unanimously adopted and will appear very soon in The High School\nManual of Illinois for 1909.\nThe spirit and substance of this syllabus are in hearty-accord with the recent movements in education to relate instruction to human interests. I think every teacher of\nmathematics has been impressed with the ignorance in mathematics of persons otherwise well educated. In fact, it is regarded as more or less humorous, if not abnormal,\nto know mathematics and its applications aside from the simplest forms of what the Germans\ncall rechnung. The average educated man rarely thinks of applying mathematics beyond\nthe crudest forms of arithmetic. If asked what benefit he derived from his study of\nmathematics, the answer is that he either obtained none, or that he obtained mental\ndiscipline. Far from deprecating the value of algebraic study as a mental discipline,\nwe believe the course» which is proposed in this syllabus is more valuable in this respect\nthan the traditional course, altho mental discipline is not its chief justification. It may\nappear that the movement toward reform in the teaching of algebra is designed primarily\nto make mathematics a more popular study. This is far from the facts. While the\npopularization of mathematics should be one of its results, this is by no means the main\nobject of the movement. It has a deeper significance and is the result of higher ideals\nthan those of making a subject popular. The deeper significance consists in relating\ninstruction, on the one hand, to the experience and best interests of the pupil, and on the\nother, to relate it to broader human interests which are within the comprehension of the\npupil, and with which he should become familiar.\nThe view is expressed in the syllabus that contact with the interests of the pupil can\nbe better formed by studying the principles of algebra thru numerical illustrations and\npractical problems that come within his experience than by an attempt at formal proofs\nin the early stages of the study of algebra. To this end, much of the complicated and\npurely abstract manipulations having no immediate application, as well as proofs, are\ndeferred until late in the high-school course.\nII,\n\nTIME\n\nAND\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nALGEBRA\n\nIN\n\nA HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\nThe syllabus lays down that the best division of subject-matter with reference to\ntime is to give, first, a year of elementary algebra (first course) so arranged as to enable\nthe pupil to solve such problems as are within his comprehension and as arouse his interest\nin algebra as a tool for the solution of problems which are impossible, or very difficult,\nby unaided arithmetical means. To this end it is highly desirable to include the treatment\nof quadratic equations and to omit much in the line of abstract manipulations and formal\nproofs. This first course in algebra should be followed by one year of plane geometry,\nand the two together constitute the minimum requirement in mathematics for a highschool course. This should be followed by the elective work; one-half year of algebra\n(second course) intended to meet the needs of those pupils who desire full preparation,\nfor college, and a more formal treatment of the principles employed in the first course,\ntogether with advanced chapters. This should come not earlier than the first half of\nthe third year of the high-school course.\nThe early introduction of the quadratic equation in the first course enables the pupil\nto solve many concrete problems that appeal to him as important, and this is certainly\nmore serviceable to the pupil who takes only the required mathematics than the juggling\nwith symbols which so often comprises a large part of the work of the first year. Furthermore, nothing seems lost to the pupil who continues algebra, because of deferring the\nformal demonstrations and certain difficult topics and manipulations, to give time for\nthe treatment of quadratic equations. The study of plane geometry between the first and\nsecond courses in algebra affords a fruitful field for concrete algebraic problems and\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nILLINOIS\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nON\n\nALGEBRA\n\n513\n\nserves to visualize the algebra, while the proofs of plane geometry, if properly presented,\nappear to be much more concrete to the average high -school pupil than the more formal\nparts of the second course in algebra.\nIII.\n\nCORRELATION\n\nBETVi^EEN\n\nARITHMETIC\n\nAND\n\nALGEBRA\n\nThe syllabus emphasizes that from the start in algebra the pupil should understand\nthat each letter or combination of letters represents a number. The frequent introduction\nof Arabic numerals for the letters tends to make algebra real to the high-school pupil.\nIt is undesirable to attempt to draw a sharp line of distinction at any point between arith\nmetic and algebra. The two subjects should be closely correlated, that is, the operations\nof arithmetic should suggest principles of algebra and each principle of algebra in the\nearlier parts of the course should be illustrated by numbers in the Arabic notation, and\nexercises involving letters should be interspersed with similar exercises involving Arabic\nnumbers.\nThe syllabus presents illustrative examples to make this point clear.\nIV,\n\nOUTLINE\n\nOF\n\nA\n\nFIRST-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN\n\nALGEBRA — ONE\n\nYEAR\n\nIn accordance with the view expressed above as to the time and place of algebra in\nthe high-school course, the outline and discussion of appropriate topics for the first course\nare presented in such order as to show it possible to attain in one year the main purpose\nof the first course, namely, the solution of the problems which are important for their\nown sakes and for the information they give. To this end, as stated above, we introduce\ninto the first year problems which require the solution of the quadratic by factoring. In\nfact, we thus make use of the quadratic before giving a formal treatment of fractions and\nproportion. The fractional numerical numbers of arithmetic are, however, used thruout\nthe course, and some simple cases of proportion follow soon after division in the outline,\nso as to introduce the language of proportion in problems. The first course is to include\nradicals and fractional exponents only so far as demanded for an elementary treatment\nof the quadratic. The manipulations which involve complicated fractional exponents\nbelong to the later course. The object and desirability of rationalizing an expression\nshould be thoroly understood by the student before he does the work.\nTo ask a student\nto accept i-^ as a simpler form than —r^ is confusing if it is not explained for what purpose\nthe one is simpler than the other.\nProblems of mensuration should be used to give a meaning to radicals. For example,\ndiagonals of squares and cubes; and altitudes and areas of equilateral triangles afford\nabundant applications of radicals of the second order and add interest and understanding\nto the subject. The syllabus expresses the view that the study of the graph in the first\nyear is not an object in itself, but should be used in so far as it can be made to throw light\non the solution of problems and equations.\nTo give time for the order of topics thus suggested it is recommended that the following topics be omitted from the first year: complicated factoring; complicated complex\nfractions; simultaneous equations with more than three unknowns; binomial theorem;\ncube root; remainder theorem; imaginaries, and extensive manipulations with radical;\ndiflScult cases of simultaneous quadratics; H. C. D. and L. C. M. by method of continued division; inequalities; indeterminate equalities.\nV.\n\nOUTLINE\n\nOF THE\n\nSECOND\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN\n\nALGEBRA\n\nThe syllabus provides first for a review of the first course, which implies a more\ncritical examination of the topics previously treated. While the character of the problems\nshould again be such as to touch the interests of the pupil, they should be more difficult\nand technical. While formal demonstrations of principles are, in general, out of place\nin the first course, it is highly desirable that some work of this nature be included in the\nsecond course, especially as the study of geometry has intervened, and the pupil should\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nnow come to see the argumentation is not limited to geometrical theorems but is as important a part of algebraic work.\nThe syllabus insists on much graphic work thruout the course to give a geometrical\ninterpretation to the algebra.\nThe outline of topics includes all subjects of algebra usually required for admission\nto college and a very few additional topics not required for admission to all colleges. For\nexample, the subject of logarithms, used to shorten computations in important applicasions, is included as a subject in the second course.\nVI.\n\nGENERAL\n\nREMARKS\n\nThe syllabus indicates the sources of problems which will appeal to the student as\nraising some questions whose answers are worth while. It is pointed out that great care\nmust be exercised lest we assume too much knowledge on the part of the pupil. The\nborrowing should, in general, be from below rather than from above, or the emphasis\nis thrown away from the mathematical point involved. In the first course arithmetic\nshould be an important source for problems. The usual problems of percentage, proportion, and interest can well be solved by algebra. This is also decidedly true of problems\npresented under the name of mental arithmetic. As there should be no sharp line of\ndistinction between arithmetic and algebra, methods which have an algebraic bearing\nshould be encouraged in arithmetic. The main object, in this connection, is to develop\nthe pupils by generalization, and it should be regarded as a good indication of progress\nif they early tend toward algebraic methods rather than the more special methods of arithmetic. For the second course, geometry and physics offer a fruitful source of problems.\nMany problems can be made to depend upon a single formula, such a.s,s = ^gt^-\\-at-\\-h\nfor uniformly accelerated motion. These problems may impose a large variety of conditions and lead to solutions for the various letters involved. Likewise, several problems\nmay volume\nwell beof made\nto depend\nupon a single formula, such as F = ^H{B + b-\\-\\/ ~^) for\nthe\nthe frustum\nof a cone.\nIt is held that definitions should be introduced just where needed in the development\nof the subject, and that they should be clear, unambiguous, and consistent with definitions\nrequired in the more advanced study. For example, a rational number should be defined\ndirectly as a number equal to an integer or to a fraction whose numerator and denominator\nare integers, and not negatively as a number not involving radicals.\nTo try to define every term used is not only bad pedagogy but bad logic as well; for\nthis procedure often gives the pupil the impression that all the terms of a logical system\nshould be defined in terms of something else. To be sure, it is of vital importance that\nthe pupil understand the meaning of every term employed; but there seems to be no excuse,\nin general, for defining a term whose meaning he understands thoroly. It is not, in general,\nfor logical perfection, but for what I prefer to call a common-sense understanding that\ndefinitions should be given in secondary algebra.\nIn conclusion, it was the evident sense of the Illinois Conference that the carrying\ninto effect of the provisions of this syllabus would constitute an important step toward\nrelating algebra, from the start, more definitely to the experience and interests of the\npupil and to broader human interests with which the student is to become acquainted;\nand that it would give better results on the formal side, as the maturity of the pupil at\nthe time of the second course enables him to comprehend processes of reasoning which\ncould not be understood in the first or second year of high school. Furthermore, this\narrangement makes it possible to show the specific purposes of algebraic manipulations —\na feature almost totally lacking when much manipulation comes early in the course.\nThe immediate success of the plan proposed in this syllabus will depend not only upon\nthe mathematical preparation of the teacher but also upon the ability to acquaint himself\nwith the interests of individual students and of the community in which he works, and\nupon his ingenuity in adapting problems to those interests.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTREATMENT\n\nTHE\n\nTREATMENT\n\nOF GEOMETRY\n\nEAELE\n\nR.\n\nHEDRICK,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nOF GEOMETRY\nFOR\n\nMATHEMATICS,\nMO,\nI.\n\nSECONDARY\nUNIVERSITY\n\n515\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nOF MISSOURI,\n\nCOLUMBIA,\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nThe history of geometry has much to do with our present methods and with the\nsubject-matter itself. Originating as an eminently practical subject of prime necessity\nto the race, it came to be the delight of a school of logicians who discovered in it a rich\nfield for exemplification of their processes of formal reasoning. Passing a vast array of\nancient names, I mention only that of EucUd. Perhaps no work has stood the test of\ntime — save works on religion — so staunchly as has his. That it was good work and of\nvalue to the race, is attested by not only the stolid hero-worshiping mediaevals, but much\nmore the radical race of reformers who have given character to our whole civilization\nduring the two centuries just passed. The spirit of his work pervades our elementary\ninstruction in geometry to a far greater extent than does that of any other man or school\nof men. True, we do follow foolishly at times; we adopt for children the precise forms\nwhich he devised for adult logicians, and thus we slander his intention and do not truly\nfollow him; but these vagaries prove only more certainly the sincere, if misguided, attempt\neven slavishly to emulate this master of masters.\nNor is it my purpose to attempt to urge departure from Euclid's true spirit: I shall\nadhere closely to the essential standards of Euclid. Where I urge insertion of new material,\nit is only as I firmly believe Euclid would have done had that material been known to\nhis school; if I urge less formality in logical processes, I am confident that I shall not\nexceed what Euclid would have done in an attempt to impart some notion of his system\nto children; if I mention many omissions, it is only because the natural limitations of\nhigh-school instruction and the enormous increase in the sum-total of human knowledge —\neven of mathematical knowledge — makes some elimination not only desirable, but absolutely imperative.\nII.\n\nTHE\n\nTRADITIONAL\n\nAXIOMATIC\n\nSYSTEM\n\nDEFECTIVE,\nGOGIC ALLY\n\nBOTH\n\nLOGICALLY\n\nAND\n\nPEDA-\n\nThe knowledge that Euclid's scheme of axioms and his deduction of theorems is\nopen to certain minute, but unanswerable, criticisms from the purely logical standpoint\nhas become so widespread that I need not enter upon the details before such an audience\nas this. Sufiice it to say that the work of Helmholtz, Lie, Pasch, Peanc, Hilbert, Poincare,\nRussell, and others, leaves no reasonable doubt but that there are flaws in Euclid's reasoning which make it untrue that his theorems are derived logically from his axioms.\nAttempts have been made to revise Euclid's system to make it quite rigorous. Hil• bert's famous work on the Foundations of Geometry is of these most widely known, but\nit is certainly not designed for, nor in any sense suited to, elementary instruction. Of\nother attempts I shall not speak in detail. One of these, designed for elementary instrucrtion, comes about as near to absolute logic as is at all conceivable in a high-school\n;course.\nWhile I have every respect for this type of work, and join most enthusiastically in the\nuniversal commendation of the epoch-making work of my own teacher, Hilbert, I quite\n'frankly differ from those who feel that this work can be adapted to the uses of the high\nschool. Let me not invite discussion by expanding upon a question of opinion here, but\nrather let me explain an application to the traditional course.\nRespecting thoroly the opinions of those who would revise the elementary course\nto rigid logic, I may certainly say, without fear of contradiction, that we are forced to\none of two positions: either we must accept the suggestion of revision to rigid logic, or\nwe must abandon the claim that the theorems are all derived from the axioms by logic alone,\nwithout the aid of intuition.\nI have said that I personally prefer the latter alternative,\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "51 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nand that I would personally accept the intuition as a legitimate factor in producing results\nin geometry.\nTo my mind it seems highly desirable from a pedagogical standpoint that this viewprevail. In fact, I believe that psychology would indicate that proper progress on the\npart of the child cannot be expected unless the intuition is developed — in fact, unless intuition and conception of space actually precede logical proofs. Similarly, while, logically,\ndefinitions may actually precede any conception of the entity to be defined, it is unquestionably better psychology first to acquaint the learner's mind with many special cases\nand with many class-characteristics before logical definition is attempted. Thus the\nlong lists of definitions in the first pages of many textbooks are out of place.\nIII.\n\nA PLEA\n\nFOR\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nWhat I have just said leads me to distinguish sharply between geometry on the one\nhand and formal logic on the other. I would emphasize that I have saXd formal logic.\nIndeed logic enters of necessity in geometry, and no sane person would remove it; but\nthere are many other subjects which depend upon consecutive reasoning — i. e., which\nfundamentally employ logic. In fact, algebra or trigonometry are just as dependent on\nlogic as is geometry.\nBut in geometry alone has formal logic held such sway; we unconsciously associate\ngeometry and formal logic to a degree unknown in any other subject. If in what follows\nI urge that we do less of this, I wish to state clearly that it is the formality of the logic\nand not the logic itself with which I would dispense.\nThus, I would not lower our geometry to the standpoint of mere drawing or of the\nso-called concrete geometry, nor do I agree wholly with the recent attempts to make\ngeometry experimental or inventional in character, not because this latter principle is not\ngood in its place, but principally because it has been overdone. There is no need to depart\nvery far from the traditional matter to form a suitable course, tho great changes in the\nmethod of imparting that matter seem desirable.\nThe real need is to phrase our language in the best possible way to convey to a child\nour meaning. Second only to this is a more frank and serious attitude toward the importance of the various topics. Perhaps I should in general indicate also a belief in a rational\nuse of the experimental or inventional methods whose misuse I have just criticized. Such\nmethods, used on proper occasions, would be helpful, tho no such method can hope to\naccomplish the purpose of the more important matters which I have just mentioned.\nAs an indication of my intention, let me suggest the following language in the proof\nof a typical theorem.\nIf two straight lines intersect, the vertical angles are equal.\nFor, with the lettering of Fig. i, < AOB + < BOC = < COD + < BOC,\nsince each of these sums is i8o°. Hence, canceling <BOC, we have\n< AOB = < COD.\nLikewise < AOD = < BOC.\nIt is to be noted that I have not dispensed with logic in this statement, tho the language is informal: I have sacrificed only the forFig. i\nmality of the logic, and that in order to gain in clearness and intelligibility. Itseems to me that this clearer informal logic will go far toward rendering\ngeometry more valuable to our students and to our system of instruction.\nAs for formal logic, if that be desired, a special course may be offered, or it may as\nwell be attached to almost any other subject in the curriculum. In fact I believe we\nshould ultimately gain if we were forced actually to shorten the whole work on both plane\nand solid geometry to one year, if we could study geometry as we do any other subject —\nfor its own sake, and not for the benefit of some auxiliary subject — thus giving over, if\nneed be, the last half-year of our traditional one and one-half years to a course on pure\nlogic, which might or might not be taught by a professional mathematician.\nLet this, then, be a plea for geometry, which is indeed a much-neglected subject,]\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTREATMENT\n\nOF\n\nGEOMETRY\n\n517\n\nlost in a mass of entanglement with a totally different subject — pure or formal logic.\nMy plea is, not that pure or formal logic be absolutely abandoned, but that at least a\nportion of the usual time be given to geometry alone, freed from the confusing intermixture\nwith a quite different subject.\nrV.\n\nRELATIVE\n\nIMPORTANCE\n\nI have spoken of the necessity of carefully considering the true importance of the\nvarious topics. If my plea for geometry for its own sake has weight with you, our minds\nwill be cleared in considering questions of importance from that standpoint alone.\nThus, I feel sure that theorems have frequently been thought important because\nthey so well illustrate certain formal processes of logic. May we not, at least just now, lay\nthis consideration aside and note the real geometrical importance of certain theorems ?\nAmong those which come early in the work, I would mention particularly the congruence theorems for triangles. These theorems are not especially distinguished from\nmany others on their logical side, and I presume that the very ease with which they are\nproved often leads both teacher and student to spend less time and effort upon them than,\nfor example, upon the theorems on the orthocenter, circumcenter, and so on. If we\nconsider their real import, the congruence theorems are of course immeasurably more\nvital and valuable; from the standpoint of pure geometry, they deserve ten times the\nattention and effort which should be expended on the \"center\" theorems.\nBut, one asks, what can be done after the very short work of proving these congruence\ntheorems is past ? I would answer that these theorems form the whole basis of trigonometry. Indeed, the theorems on similar triangles also are necessary for trigonometry:\nhere again are theorems of far-reaching importance in every application of mathematics.\nCan we not profitably introduce as applications of these two important sets of theorems\ncertain simple trigonometric facts? Can one doubt that Euclid would have done so\nif he had been in possession of these facts ? I do not mean to introduce complex formulae.\nAs an application of the congruence theorems, we might readily have the pupil actually\nconstruct with ruler, compass, and protractor, various triangles with given parts, and\nmeasure the unknown parts with the same instruments. Is this not the spirit of trigonometry, and will it not lend new life and meaning to these theorems in the pupil's mind ? After\nthe theorems on similar triangles, might we not conceivably define the trigonometric\nratios, and actually make a small table by measurements ? To my mind even the solution\nof right triangles by means of a small table would be very legitimate, and need not consume more than two days' time — which is the amount of time I regularly spend in reaching\nthat point in teaching trigonometry itself.\nAmong the other important theorems are the Pythagorean theorem, the theorems\nwhich lead to methods of construction, the mensuration theorems, and many others.\nThese I must now pass over for lack of time.\nI would mention still one phase of great importance — the connections with algebra.\nSuch connections can be and have been made by means of the mensuration theorems.\nAnother possible connection is thru the graphical methods now common in elementary\nalgebra. Since these methods are now coming into practically universal use, it seems\nneedless to exclude them from geometry, where their application is legion. Surely Euclid\nwould have employed them. Such curves as the parabola are now known to many students\neven before they enter geometry. Some of these simple curves might be mentioned\nhastily, tho the main topics would remain the same as at present, with a possibility, at\nleast, of occasional demonstration of theorems by means of the algebraic-graphical\nprocesses.\nV.\n\nCERTAIN\n\nERRORS\n\nAND FALLACIES\n\nI mentioned above the failure of absolute logic in the traditional system. It is certainly fitting that we should recognize this and that we should not strain ourselves to\nprove a theorem with absolute rigor, if that proof is obviously beyond the grasp of the\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "5l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nstudent. Attention has been called repeatedly to several instances of actual fallacies in\nour present textbooks, notably in the theorems regarding the so-called incommensurable\ncases. Suffice it to say here that these theorems are relatively unimportant, since we are\nspeaking of a course in which intuition must necessarily play a part, and these incommensurable cases fall well within the scope of a child's intuitional powers, if he is not\nconfused by long-drawn-out and really fallacious discussions of them. I may add that\nthe same question, the incommensurable, or irrational, case occurs in several theorems\naside from those in which it is usually treated: in the definition of area, for example,\nand in theorems on similar triangles, the incommensurable, or irrational, case exists just\nas truly as in any case. It is important to note that it never gives rise to any trouble or\nconfusion in the instances in which it is simply ignored in our traditional textbooks.\nThe all-mastering desire to live up to a Jack-o'-the-lantern principle of strict logical\ndeduction has led authors, teachers, and pupils into a quagmire of erroneous proof which\nwe may escape by the simple expedient of frankly admitting the existence of intuitional\nconclusions in such relatively unimportant matters, which are at best, to a child, mere\nquibbles over finesse in which he can see little real significance.\nVI.\n\nTHE\n\nRECONSTRUCTED\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nTo recapitulate, I would urge that formality in logic be dropped from geometry,\nand that geometry be treated strictly for its own sake.\nI would, moreover, emphasize the logic, informally, much as before, with the one\nexception of intuitional conclusions in unimportant or excessively difficult matters. For\nexample, I would insist that a student grasp the power of the reductio ad absurdum process\n— not formally, but as a live method of argument on any topic whatever; so that, for\nexample, the statement: \"Someone has entered this room, for if no one had been here,\nthis book would not have been moved,\" is instantly recognized as a true reductio ad absurdum, tho it is not stated in terms of steps, hypotheses, conclusions, major and minor\npremises, and so on. Is it not true that even the logic the student learns will be of greater\nreal value and significance to him if it is phrased in language which he can grasp, and\nwhich at least faintly resembles the forms of ordinary speech ?\nI have also urged the relative importance of certain topics. While I have mentioned\nseveral, I chose to speak in detail on two of them: the congruence and similarity\ntheorems in connection with elementary bits of trigonometry; and the uses of algebra,\nparticularly in connection with the so-called graphical processes. While the other topics\nI mentioned deserved equal notice, you will see that I had at least one purpose in selecting these two illustrations.\nVII.\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nTHE\n\nBOND\n\nOF\n\nA\n\nUNIFIED\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nFor geometry may and doubtless will serve as the vital bond of a unified mathematics,\nconnecting firmly the various topics whose disjunction we have all deplored, and whose\ncorrelation has been so earnestly, if often mistakenly, sought. I have indeed indicated two\nstrong bonds with algebra — ^in the mensuration problems and in demonstrational and\nexpositional work by means of the algebraic-graphical processes.\nThe latter suggestion constitutes also a bond with the subject of analytic geometry,\nof which the processes called graphical are a small elementary excerpt. Indeed analytic\ngeometry is in itself the very embodiment of correlation between algebra and geometry,\nI have also indicated a strong bond with trigonometry in the congruence theorems\nand in the similarity theorems on triangles, which, taken together, forecast the entire\nspirit of that subject.\nThus algebra, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, analytic geometry here find a\nnatural and powerful bond in plane, geometry — curiously the subject which has been more\nthan any other isolated from all contact with other mathematical subjects. Even the\ncalculus itself finds its most accurate forecast in the proofs of the mensurational theorems\nof geometry.\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREAL-PROBLEM\n\nMOVEMENT\n\n519\n\nIf I have urged that geometry be torn away from its traditional correlation with\nformal logic (i. e., with the formalities of logic) I have done so only to attain this greater\nand more desirable correlation between the various branches of mathematics itself. Should\nwe not rather part company with formal logic and metaphysical finesse, to join hands with\nour natural mathematical brethren, and take our stand, as a unified subject, rather in the\nranks of general science than in those of the moribund metaphysical studies ?\nVIII.\n\nCONCLUSION\n\nIn conclusion, let me say that it seems to me that my remarks are in tune with the\nspirit of the age. We must come to a saner and more practically useful attitude in all\nof our mathematics, or we shall be pushed to the wall; already is to be heard a not uncertain\ndemand that mathematics be not required in high schools, and this will inevitably come\nif the mathematical topics be allowed to fall into the disrepute of being merely useless\nplaygrounds of the imagination.\nDangerously near this has come our work in geometry. Frankly, as now taught,\ngeometry, of all our subjects, is the one which we feel of least real use in further mathematical or scientific work; as now taught, geometry, of all our subjects, is felt by students\nand by many thoughtful teachers to be of least benefit to the child who never pursues\nadvanced studies.\nMay something of what I have said fall on fruitful ground, and may geometry regain her\nformer glory and prestige as the unifying center of mathematical thought, as the queen\nof the science, so that once more we may without pretense or insincerity write, as of old,\nabove our portals:\n\"Let no one who does not know Geometry enter here!\"\nTHE\n\nREAL-PROBLEM MOVEMENT IN ITS RELATION TO THE TEACHING OF GEOMETRY AND ALGEBRA IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nJAMES\n\nF. MILLIS, HEAD\n\nOF THE\n\nDEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nFRANCIS\n\nW. PARKER\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe real-pioblem movement is an attempt to reform the teaching of secondary mathematics byteaching the different subjects in relation to their uses in solving the real problems\nthat are actually encountered in life. Instead of teaching algebra and geometry, as has\nalways been the practice, as pure sciences, almost entirely abstract in nature, and with\npractically all of the applied problems that are used artificial ones, made up to illustrate\nthe principles and processes involved without reference to their reality in actual life, it\nis proposed to gather up and use in the classrooms of the secondary schools, as far as\npossible, the genuine applied problems of algebra and geometry that are actually encountered in the activities of boys and girls, in ordinary everyday life, in the sciences and arts,\nand in the various practical industrial vocations. Algebra and geometry are to be looked\nupon by the pupil, not primarily as pure sciences to be studied for purposes of mental\ndiscipline, altho, however taught, they must be developed into scientifically organized\nbodies of knowledge and must furnish this discipline; but are to be looked upon rather\nas tools to be used in doing the world's work. The subjects are to be so taught as to give\na true and adequate conception of their uses in the various practical fields of activity. The\nuse of these real applied problems, containing a content of human interest in themselves,\nin the school work, in place of so many abstract and artificial drill problems, will lend\nmotive and interest to the work. Without this motive and interest, the study of the\nsubjects cannot be educative. Furthermore, study which is not made to function in the\nactual life of the individual — knowledge not used — is without educational value. So\nit is believed to be the duty of the school to assist the knowledge of algebra and geometry\nto function by teaching the pupil to use this knowledge while still in school in the solution\nof the problems actually encountered in practical life. This is a brief and superficial\nstatement of what the real-problem movement is.\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nViewed in its relation to general educational theory, the movement has to do with the\ngreat problem of educational waste in the teaching of secondary mathematics. This\nproblem is a general one, and is being attacked in other fields of education. It is the\nproblem of the maladjustment of the curriculum to the needs and interests of the pupil.\nAlgebra and geometry were at one time college subjects, and in the growth of educational institutions have been handed down to the secondary schools from the colleges.\nAs taught in the colleges and universities, these subjects were abstract, deductive sciences.\nWhen they were introduced into the secondary schools they preserved their old content,\nwere looked upon from the same point of view, and continued to be taught as pure sciences.\nThese subjects, as taught, stand today as representatives of the old idea of education\nthat is now obsolete, namely, the idea of education as a discipline. In the early universities ofEurope mathematics was taught as a means of training the logical faculties\nof the mind, with the aim of developing the power of disputation; and down to the present\ntime, the fundamental idea in the teaching of algebra and geometry in the secondary\nschools has continued to be the old idea of mental discipline.\nIn this old theory of education the present interests and needs of the individual are\nnot taken into consideration. These are sacrificed for the sake of the future. Education\nis made primarily a preparation for the future.\nBut the modern theory of education that for over seventy-five years has been revolutionizing the arithmetic teaching in the elementary schools has begun to exert influences\nalso on the teaching of mathematics in the secondary schools. As opposed to the disciplinary idea, education is seen to be growth or development of the individual from within\n— it is the process of living itself. The emphasis, therefore, is placed upon the present\nneeds and interests of the pupil, rather than upon preparation for the future alone. This\ngrowth of the recognition of the individual, with his needs, interests, and activities, as the\ncenter in the teaching process, has brought about almost a complete transformation of\narithmetic in the elementary schools within the last few decades. In the teaching of\nmathematics in the secondary schools it demands equally radical changes.\nWe are seeing and have seen, therefore, many reform movements in the teaching of\nalgebra and geometry, with a view to adapting these subjects to the needs of secondaryschool pupils.\nAll of these reform movements have been confined largely to solving the problem of\nwaste and inefficiency in the teaching of algebra and geometry by improving the methods\nof instruction or by reorganizing the traditional subject-matter within the curriculum.\nBut this problem of waste will not be completely solved until the content of the curriculum\nitself is changed in nature. The point of view in teaching algebra and geometry in the\nsecondary schools must be reversed. These subjects should not be taught as so much\npreparation for the future, to the total disregard for the pupil's interests and needs of the\npresent. The subject-matter should not be wholly abstract and generalized, but should\nhave a content that to the pupil is concrete and full of human interest. It should relate\nprimarily to, and grow out of, concrete living situations vital to the pupil — either situations\nencountered in his own activities or in his observation and study of the larger activities\nof the world. It should emphasize the dynamic side, the doing side, of life. The\nsubject-matter of algebra and geometry should represent the mathematical element of real\nhuman -experiences. It should not be completely divorced from these experiences, as\nit has been, but taught in its relation to them. The applied problems should be real in\nthe sense that they are actually encountered in human experiences, and they should be\nconcrete in the sense that they appeal to the actual experiences of the individual pupil.\nThe approach to the subjects should be thru the medium of real problems. The\nstarting-points thruout the work should be real living situations. Only thus can the work\nbe truly motivated and hence educative. Out of this study general principles and processes are deduced, and the sciences of algebra and geometry built up in the form of\norganized knowledge in the pupil's mind.\n\nBut every generalization, every theorem, every\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREAL-PROBLEM\n\nMOVEMENT\n\n521\n\ntopic developed, should end in applications in the solution of real applied problems. The\neducative process begins and ends with experience. In the traditional teaching of algebra\nand geometry, we have left off the beginning and the end of the educative process, and\ngiven the pupil only the middle step. We have neglected to relate the thought material\nto actual experience anywhere in the work.\nStill another word should be added on the deeper significance of the real-problem\nmovement. The fundamental principle in the educative process is that of self -activity.\nMental development comes only thru self-activity of the individual pupil in solving situations that for some reason are to him concrete and vital. For education to take place,\nthere must be a problem which is the pupiVs own problem demanding solution. This is\nthe starting-point in all education. In its final analysis, education is the solving of problems\nthat are real and vital to the pupil. For any bit of work to be educative, it must fill an\nactual felt need on the part of the pupil. For any bit of work to be educative, there must\naccompany it the positive feeling on the part of the pupil that this work is going to further\nthe self, the positive conviction that the knowledge is going to function in some way in\nhis future conduct. This is what is meant by saying that all school work must be motivated. Not only is this motivation an absolute essential in all educative activity, but the\nknowledge developed must be such as is certain to function in living conduct.\nHere is where the traditional teaching of algebra and geometry has largely failed.\nThe study has neither been motivated nor made to function. The remedy lies in the\nbuilding-up of a new content for these subjects, in building up the subjects about real\nliving problems that the pupil has a real felt need for solving, and that are actually encountered in life and for that reason are most apt to function in the individual's life in some\nway, either in doing things directly himself or in understanding the laws and processes\nof the larger industrial world. On the side of educative process, the teacher must put into\nevery situation for the pupil a real problem. Every day's work in algebra and geometry\nmust grow out of, or relate to, problems that represent felt needs on the part of the pupil.\nThe subjects must contribute to his living now, as well as to preparation for the future.\nOn the side of content of subject-matter, the teacher must arrange for the pupil a series\nof real problems, interspersed with the proper amount of supplementary drill material\nfor developing organized knowledge and technique, in which, by the self-active process\nin solving these real problems, the pupil develops along certain lines to definite ends\nof individual and social efficiency. The problem in the teaching of algebja and geometry\nis the general problem of all education, of how to organize the instruction so as to provide\nfor thought to function in practical, living conduct — now as well as in the future.\nI have spoken at some length of the significance and fundamental importance of the\nreal-problem movement. A word may be said as to the practical possibilities of this\nmovement in actual school work in the near future.\nI believe that the actual ultimate possibilities along this line have not even been\ncontemplated in this country. The movement is now not much beyond its incipient\nstage. Last November the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers\nappointed a committee which was instructed to investigate the possibilities of gathering\nup the real applied problems of algebra and geometry in everyday life, in the sciences\nand arts, and in the various practical industrial vocations, and of using them in teaching\nthe subjects in the secondary schools. This committee has been at work during the year,\nand will make a preliminary report next November. Since last March the committee\nhas been printing every month in School Science and Mathematics several pages of real\nproblerns that have been collected from various fields. These problems are typical of\nthose found in the activities of boys and girls, problems in manual-training work, in physical-science work, in athletics; problems in mechanical engineering; civil engineering;\narchitecture; the various building trades, such as carpentry, masonry, etc.; marine surveying; navigation; elementary astronomy; agriculture; forestry; mechanical drawing;\ndesigning; pattern-making; sheet-metal work, and many other practical fields.\nIt is\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\naimed thus to start the collection of a fund of these real problems, and to make them\naccessible to teachers of secondary mathematics everywhere for class-room use. An\narticle of mine in the March, 1909, number of the Teachers College Record, New York,\ncontains eighty-odd real applied problems in geometry that are accessible to teachers.\nThe brief experience of those who have been engaged in this investigation has revealed\nthe fact that elementary algebra and geometry do have many real direct applications\nin the various practical fields of human activity, such as those just mentioned, applications of an elementary nature that may be used in the secondary school. In a few years\nof careful investigation it should be possible to gather together enough of these real problems\ncompletely to transform the content of the curriculum in elementary algebra and geometry,\nand at the same time to furnish the pupil with a considerable insight of great value into\nthe larger life about him.\nThe work of collecting this material and of adapting it to schoolr«om uses is an\nundertaking of great magnitude. It must be the work of many interested and co-operating\nhands. Not a small part of this movement must consist of experimentation on the part\nof teachers of the subjects everywhere in order to see what kinds of the real problems\ncollected are best adapted to the interests and experiences of secondary-school pupils.\nTeachers who are not in a position to aid substantially in the collection of the material\ncan render great service by experimenting earnestly with the material that others collect\nwith a view to assisting in its adaptation to the needs and capacities of boys and girls. Even\nif for the present the great body of teachers must find it inconvenient to break away from\nthe idea of teaching algebra and geometry as pure sciences, primarily for purposes of\nmental discipline, every teacher in the country can at least, as an expedient, use the good\nreal problems that are collected and published in various places in place of so many of the\ntraditional abstract and artificial problems that are now used as exercises in the textbooks.\nIt may be foreseen now that the investigation of the various practical fields where\nelementary algebra and geometry are used will result in a redistribution of values in these\nsubjects. The relative usefulness of the different parts of the subjects where they are\napplied should determine to some extent their relative value in the secondary-school\ncourse. Certain topics of elementary algebra, for example, which find no applications in\npractical work, should be eliminated, or at least given less prominence in the secondary\nschools, where the great body of students will never have occasion to pursue more advanced\ncourses in mathematics, and will leave the secondary school directly to enter upon some\npractical vocation.\nSome of the traditional matter, such as the elaborate treatment of the theory of limits\nin elementary geometry, and the splitting of hairs over certain fundamental notions which\nis a total waste in the secondary school and tends to confuse and obscure what otherwise\nwould be clear and rational from the individual's experience, should be eliminated. The\ntime usually devoted to this would be better spent on the practical applications.\nThe real-problem movement should furnish thus a true basis for the eliminations\nand choice of subject-matter in the curriculum. It should furnish a sound basis for the\nunification of the different subjects of mathematics in the secondary schools, as I have\nattempted to show on another occasion. It should contribute much to the simplification\nand proper organization of the subject-matter within the curriculum. If teachers everywhere will lend an earnest hand in this movement, they will make of algebra and geometry,\nby adapting their content to the real needs of boys and girls, the genuine educative subjects\nthat they should be.\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Frank Strong, chancellor of University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.\nVice-President — W. F. Book, professor of philosophy and education, Univ. of Montana, Missoula, Mont.\nSecretary — Frank E. Thompson, professor of education. State University, Boulder, Colo.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, July 6, 1909\nThe Department of Higher Education met in the Assembly Room of the Central\nChristian Church, at 2:30 p.m., President Strong presiding. As the secretary elected\nat the last meeting was absent, on motion, Frank E. Thompson, of the University of Colorado, was appointed secretary pro tem.\nThe first address was by President Albert Ross Hill, of the University of Missouri,\non the topic, \"Has the American College Failed to Fulfill Its Function ?\"\nProfessor Samuel Wendell Williston, of the University of Chicago, followed with a\npaper on the same subject.\nThe general discussion was spirited and comprehensive.\nPresident Strong appointed the following committee on nominations:\nC. A. Duniway, president of University of Montana, Missoula, Mont.\nG. W. A. Luckey, professor of education. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\nArthur H. Guinn, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nForenoon, July 8, 1909\n\nThe topic for discussion at this meeting was \"How to Develop Properly the Inner\nCommunity Life of the College or University.\" Papers were read by Charles Fordyce,\ndean of the Teachers College, University of Nebraska, and John Hanson Thomas Main,\npresident of Iowa College.\nA full discussion followed.\nThe Committee on Nominations made the following report:\nFor President — George E. Fellows, president of University of Maine, Orono, Maine.\nFor Vice-President — Charles E. Bessey, dean of College of Science, University of\nNebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\nFor Secretary — Frank E. Thompson, professor of education, University of Colorado,\nBoulder, Colo.\nThis report was adopted and the nominees were declared elected. The department\nthen adjourned.\nFrank E. Thompson,\nSecretary pro tem\n\nPAPERS\nHAS\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nCOLLEGE FAILED\nFUNCTION?\n\nTO FULFILL\n\nITS\n\n[an abstract]\ni. albert ross hill, president of the university of missouri,\ncolumbia, mo.\nIt is assumed that this question refers only to colleges of arts and science,\nnot to professional colleges.\n523\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nSociety needs the leadership of a few of greater social insight and responsivenes — in short, of greater social efficiency than the elementary and high\nschools can furnish. Society therefore needs an institution for the education\nof those in the later years of youth, *'to teach in the broadest way the fine art\nof living;\" to bring young men and women to an appreciation of the great\nvalues of life; to stimulate their social imagination and to train them to habits\nof social responsiveness.\nTo accomplish these ends, the college must provide : First, sufficient range\nof studies to introduce students to the most typical forms of human experience\nand human interests; second, an atmosphere, catholic in spirit, earnest and\nsincere in purpose, and permeated with a proper sense of values and the deepest\nconvictions of the social consciousness; third, opportunity to associate with\npersons, both fellow-students and teachers, of worthy interests and noble lives.\nThe most prominent criticisms, with suggestions for improvement, are:\nFirst, lack of motivation. This is a common weakness in colleges, high\nschools, and elementary schools. The old college met the social conditions\nof the time by giving an effective preparation for the three kinds of social\nleadership and service that the times demanded — viz., in the professions\nof law, medicine, and the ministry, and its students had definite purposes.\nBut the social situation has greatly changed; social conditions have grown\nmuch more complex, and the forms of social service greatly increased in number and variety. The modern college has provided wealth of opportunity\nfor persons preparing for varied forms of social service, but it lacks organization of its material. One remedy may be found by utilizing more definitely\nthe vocational motives of youth. These motives are worthy, and it is quite\npossible while meeting them to satisfy the claims of culture, for culture is not\ninherent in particular forms of subject-matter but is a by-product of the educational process, and represents an attitude of mind and life rather than a particular kind of knowledge. These vocational claims may be recognized without introducing additional courses in colleges, by organization of those now\noffered, and especially by advice to individual students in their selection of\ncourses in groups. Probably the chief reason why women students in college\nare usually more earnest is due to the fact that the majority of them are planning to use their education in teaching or some other pursuit. Fewer of them\nare drifting thru the college course.\nAnother way by which definiteness of purpose and motive may be supplied\nin college work is by a greater appeal to the native curiosity of youth. This\nmay be accompHshed by a change of method in instruction rather than by a\nchange of subject-matter. A love of learning -should be one outcome of college\ntraining, and this is but the finished form of what I refer to as native curiosity.\nA second criticism is directed against the amount of loafing among college\nstudents. Recent years have seen a great growth in the number of students\nwho avail themselves of college courses, and whereas, formerly, only those took\na college course who intended to enter one of the so-called learned professions,\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHAS\n\nAMERICAN\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nFAILED?\n\n525\n\ntoday many students in college are looking forward to business and commercial\npursuits. College authorities are often led to tolerate superficial work on the\npart of these students on the theory that a man may get preparation for a business career thru taking part in student activities and by mixing with men. In\nsome quarters college professors have even gone the length of declaring with\nreference to the college course, that \"it's better to have come and loafed than\nnever to have come at all.\" Now I have no sympathy with this viewpoint.\nIt is the business of the student to study, and to tolerate any other ideal in\ncollege Hfe is to encourage irresponsibility, superficiality of intellect and of\ncharacter.\nA third charge is directed against the prominence of athletics, student\nactivities, etc., and it is claimed that these have usurped the place of scholarship\nin student honors. Now there certainly is needed less glorification of and\nemphasis on intercollegiate success, and more on widespread athletic activity\namong the students of a particular college. In addition to this some means\nmust be found of magnifying the importance of scholarship and earnest work.\nI ws)uld suggest the introduction of something corresponding to the honor\ncourses in the English and Canadian universities. There, at the close of the\nsecond year of college work, the strongest students are permitted to select each\nhis own course in which to work for \"honors.\" Students in these courses are\ngiven certain liberties and are thrown upon their own resources and own initiative. They thus develop independence and a genuine love of scholarship.\nThe brilliant man is thus stimulated to do his best, while the general course is\nadapted to th^ needs and abilities of the average student. The \"honors\" thus\nwon stand to the credit of the student for all time, his name appearing in future\nuniversity catalogs with the supplement, first-rank honors, second-rank honors,\nor the like. These honors are, of course, more enduring from a social standpoint than any athletic or social honor.\nA fourth criticism states that university ideals and methods have undermined college ideals. Now, it is true that some university specialists tend to\nbe too technical in their instruction for freshmen and show lack of perspective\nin courses of a general nature, but it is not true that the real spirit of discovery\nand research characteristic of the university is unfavorable to vital college\nteaching; in fact, the colleges that are parts of universities are today probably\nsuffering less from the weaknesses above referred to than those that are isolated,\nwith the exception of the athletic craze. The academic students in the state\nuniversities are among the most serious students that are to be found in America\ntoday. The complexity of life found in these universities, and the fact that\nso many of their students are taking professional and technical training, provides an excellent environment for the realization of the fundamental purposes\nof the college.\nFifth, too little attention is given to individual training, we are told. Now\nthe classes are not much larger in the colleges today than they were formerly\nand individual teachers know as many students as those of the older small\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "526\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ncollege; but the spirit of individual training is probably somewhat lacking\nand must be supplied by tutors, advisers, fraternity leaders, and in other ways.\nThe modem college has made a serious effort to adjust its program and\nmethods to the changed condition of society. It has not utterly failed, but has\nnot, as yet, fully succeeded. It has, to some extent, drifted, and its program\nis as yet chaotic. It has provided election of studies without system and left\nthe individual to work out his own salvation before he was mature enough to\narrange his courses wisely; but the educational conscience is awake among\nthe college men, and we may look for an organization adapted to modem conditions, such as will bring definiteness of purpose to the student, clearer perception ofthe meaning of culture to the faculty, and result in the building of\ninstitutions capable of fulfilling adequately the functions of college education.\nHAS\n\nTHE\n\nn.\n\nSAMUEL\n\nAMERICAN\n\nCOLLEGE\nFAILED\nFUNCTION ?\n\nW.\n\nPROFESSOR\nCHICAGO,\n\nWILLISTON,\n\nIN THE\nILL.\n\nTO\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nFULFILL\nOF\n\nITS\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nHas the American college failed to fulfill its function? In the United\nStates there were, the past year, less — considerably less — than one hundred\nthousand students in attendance upon the colleges of liberal arts, of whom\nperhaps fourteen thousand graduated, out of the more than eighty millions\nof our population, out of perhaps seven million young men and women of\ncollege age. Unless we assume that the so-called liberal education is of use\nto less than 2 per cent, of our people, we must admit that the American college\nhas failed as a popular institution of higher education. Evidently, then, in the\nfirst place, the American college is not fulfilling its whole function because of\nits narrowness; because, while for the most part supported by the whole people,\nit affords its direct benefits to but one-tenth of i per cent, of them.\nA single correspondence school, one of the many real people's colleges\nwhich have spmng up lately, has, during the past ten years, accumulated\nmore than one-third the endowment of Harvard College, and is helping a\nlarger number of young men and women in higher education, and probably\ndoing quite as much good for the people of the United States as that institution, which numbers its years by centuries. Do not this and similar schools\nfurnish sufficient evidence of the earnest desire of our young people for higher\neducation ? They do want better educational training than they have been\nable to obtain in our schools, millions of our young men and women, but they\ndo not want that kind which our colleges are giving, nor can they afford to\npay its cost. It may be objected that, since 1890, the growth of our colleges\nhas been very great, that they have done all that they could with the means\nat their command, that eighty-five thousand students in the college of liberal\narts are about all that the eighty-five million inhabitants of our nation can\ncare for. I cannot accept this as a valid excuse. We do not demur greatly\nat the purchase of a few additional war vessels each year which cost more\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nITS FUNCTION\n\n527\n\nthan would be required to endow in perpetuity colleges for the care of six or\neight thousand students. Of course it may be more necessary to build a\nDreadnaught than it is to educate one or two hundred thousand students,\nfor that is what each vessel means. Perhaps the largest college in America,\nthat at Valparaiso, Ind., has grown as it has, almost without endowment and\nwithout aid, largely because it keeps close to the common people. Some of\nus are inclined to sneer at it, but I wonder if it is not imparting some useful\nlessons which we shall appreciate by and by. Whenever the American people\nare assured that education is worth what it costs there is always a generous\nresponse. The only reason why there are not a half -million students in our\nAmerican colleges today is because the people believe that college education\nis not worth what it costs. The fault largely lies with the college — we cannot\ndeny it. As college administrators, we are, the most of us, always behind\nthe times. Improvements and changes have to be forced upon us. Not until\nthe college meets such dangers as now confront it, does it seek seriously to\nsolve the problems which should have been met and disposed of long before.\nNot until the industrial schools, and especially the agricultural schools, business schools, correspondence schools, and the like begin to make inroads on\nwhat it has hitherto deemed its own peculiar province does it awake to a\nrealization of its own shortcomings. Not many years ago Yale College\nsneered openly and unequivocally at Sheffield Scientific School; it does so no\nlonger; it is now jealous of it. How long it took for some of us to be convinced that most young men and women would not come to college at all if\nthey were compelled to spend many precious years in the study of Greek\nand Latin for culture's sake exclusively ! How long it took for some of us\nto admit that a study should not be excluded from the college curriculum\nbecause it might be made of direct use in earning one's bread and butter!\nBut a college may be conservative, it may even be illiberal, desiring only\na very narrow field for work, and still nobly fulfill its mission, if it only permits\nand encourages others to do that which it refuses to do itself. There are\nfar more serious charges now laid against the American college than illiberality,\nthan conservatism. It is not doing the work which it attempts to do as well\nas it did its work formerly; its teachers are, on the average, paid less;\nits product is, on the average, not of as high a quality as it was formerly; its\nfailures are proportionally more numerous. In other words, it is said,\nand I believe with very much truth, that the American college is declining in\nvalue as an efficient trainer of our youth. And these are the specific charges:\nfirst, that fully 50 per cent, of our college students either fail or drop out on\nthe way; second, that the mental discipline received by the average student\nin the' college of liberal arts — that is, his ability to concentrate, his capacity\nof apprehension, his attentiveness to duty— has deteriorated; third and most\nimportant, that there is a deterioration in moral discipline, that immorality\nis more widespread among college students than ever before, that there is\nmore intemperance, more fornication, more dissipation in general than ever\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "528\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nbefore. If the second of these charges be true the third would naturally\nfollow, for neglect of duty is merely a precursor of moral decrepitude. I myself\nam not so sure that our colleges have all grown worse in this last respect. I\ndo not believe that vice is more prevalent among the older institutions than\nit was thirty years ago, but I do feel quite sure that many — very many — of\nthe newer institutions are falling to the level of the old. While students\nwere, in general, poor in worldly means, the ambition to obtain a better\neducation kept them from vice. Such students are now in increasing numbers\nseeking their training elsewhere than in the college of liberal arts.\nWe are passing thru a period of great educational unrest. There is\nmuch dissatisfaction among the people, among ourselves as college men, with\nthe results of modern education — that is, non-professional education — from\nthe bottom up. And the entering wedge of this unrest was driven not many\nyears ago in the elective or optional system introduced at the behest of the\npeople who were no longer satisfied with the older methods, who began to\ndemand something else of the college of liberal arts than the exclusive preparation of preachers, lawyers, and gentlemen of leisure. It marked the\nbeginning of a rejuvenation of the college after a period of decline ending with\nthe eighties. Beginning at the top, the elective system has gradually permeated\ndownward thru the high school into the elementary school. None has been\na more sincere believer in college electives than myself. I remember only\ntoo well my own college days and their incessant drill in Greek, Latin, and\nmathematics. I have believed in college electives because they seemed to\nme, as to many others, the only possible escape from culture ruts, the only\nway of vitalizing modern education. But I have also seen for many years\npast, as have others, and have protested against the grave evils the elective\nsystem has brought along in its train. I believe that the time has come when\nthese evils must be squarely met and overcome, if the colleges as colleges are\nnot to end in utter dissolution. To the earnest boy, the ambitious boy, the\nthoughtful boy, he who has wise advice and helpful guidance, the system of\nelectives is of incalculable advantage; it is he who is more than justifying it;\nit is he who finds in the American college of today all its splendid excellences.\nTo the idle boy, the thoughtless boy, the irresponsible boy, the word electives\ntoo often spells ruin. To nibble at many viands, going hither and thither as\nfancy wills, may be a delectable kind of educational alimentation, but it is\nalmost sure to end eventually in intellectual indigestion and functional incapacity. Iam quite safe in saying that today the chief defect of the American\ncollege is lack of discipline, a lack quite unavoidable under present conditions,\na defect which will surely continue to increase with the increasing prosperity\nof our nation and its increasing prodigality of expenditure. I fancy that\nI hear him who was never quite convinced that the old regime was not the\nbest after all say, *'I told you so!\" The old curriculum did give discipline,\nboth mental and moral, we cannot deny it; there were fewer wrecks, less\nfailures, better fitness for the work of life — tho in well-trod fields — in the\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nITS FUNCTION\n\n529\n\ngraduates as a whole, but with fewer possibilities of the highest usefulness.\nThere 5,re some even now who urge that we should go back to the old system.\nIf this should mean making the college course for every student compulsory\nI agree with them, but if it means that there should be but one course and\nthat the olden one, then I emphatically disagree. The change was as inevitable\nas the loom or the telegraph; as well go back to the mail coach. Who of\nus who have taught both professional and non-professional college students\nbut know, and thoroly know, how great, as a rule, is the difference between\nthem in earnestness, in application, in almost everything which goes to make\nthe successful student and man. The professional student knows that no\nexcuse of any kind will be accepted for failure or poor work; that his whole\nfuture depends upon his faithfulness to duty; that not even his diploma will\nsuffice, if he be a physician or a lawyer, because the state will examine into\nhis fitness finally, and the state has no sympathy to waste upon the sluggard\nand the dissolute. Suppose that every bachelor of arts were compelled to\npass a state examination before receiving permission to make use of his college\neducation in gaining a livelihood. What a mighty change would soon come\nover our colleges ! The professional student must spend from eight to twelve\nhours daily in real work, for at least six days in the week; the college student\nwho works as hard is an exception. The professional student has no time\nfor football and professional athletics. Do you know of many medical\nfootball and baseball teams ? His . professors never have to worry about\nprofessionalism in athletics. Harvard College has lately had the rare honesty\nto admit that her students in general devoted but little more than three hours\ndaily to their ostensible duties, but Harvard College often wins in the athletic\nfield and on the Thames. The Bachelor degree today means far less than\nit did formerly to its possessor; it no longer opens the door very widely to him,\nnor does it save him from disgrace if he prove unworthy. He usually forgets\nin a few years that he has it save when he attends the periodical reunions of\nhis class and roots for his alma mater.\nAnd some of this lack of discipline is doubtless due to that demoralization\ninduced by the unwholesome rivalry on the part of our institutions for more\nstudents. At least the Carnegie Foundation makes this charge, and I believe\nthe charge to be true. The Universities of lUinois and Ohio, according to\nthe newspapers, have lately been refused participation in the benefits of the\nFoundation because of their low standards and laxity of discipline; and a\nlike charge is made in general against most of the state institutions; and the\nUniversity of the City of New York was plainly told that it is very, very bad.\nBut, lest that the pot should call the kettle black. Harvard and Columbia\nwere also warned that they would better have a care themselves. Not only\nis there an undignified rivalry among the different institutions themselves,\nbut there is also, as a direct outcome of the elective system, far too much\nrivalry among the different departments of the college itself for students.\nThe conscientious teacher, he who demands hard work from his students, is\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "530\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ntoo often shunned. He attracts, usually, only the earnest students, and they\nare in the minority.\nWe have been trying to leaven the mass of education from above downward. We are now about ready to try the more natural way of beginning\nbelow to leaven upward. And this leavening I believe would have been\naccomplished before now, or at least have been far on the way toward accomplishment, had it not been for the college itself. We have made two indictments against the college: narrowness and illiberality as the one; lack of\nmental and moral discipline as the other. The third is the gravest of all:\nthat it has prevented the proper growth of the high school; that it has warped\nand distorted it from its best uses. Today there are less than one million\nstudents in all the high schools and academies of our country. That is, less than\n5 per cent, of our boys and girls under eighteen years of age are receiving the\nbenefits of a secondary education — ^but little more than i per cent, of our population. Who is there who has not observed with astonishment and indignation the small number of graduates of our high schools, and they chiefly girls ?\nWhile we may doubt the wisdom of every competent boy and girl seeking a\ncollege training, is there one of us who contemplates with equanimity the\nawful social and economic conditions which shut out from the schoolroom\nthe great, the overwhelming mass of our children — full twenty millions of\nthem — at twelve or thirteen years of age, or earlier, to send so many adrift into\nthe office, workshop, factory, street, and mine ? One million, seven hundred\nthousand of our boys and girls between ten and fourteen' years of age — nearly\ntwice the number of those in our high schools — are working for gain, in very\nlarge part in factories and mines. I know that there are some who insist that\nthese deplorable things are the results of economic conditions which we can\nnever expect to change; that, so long as the world lasts, there will and must\nbe haulers of water and hewers of wood. Can we doubt, however, that some\nvocational education for every boy and girl till he or she has rea,ched the age\nof at least sixteen years, under good discipline, would be of economic value\nto our country, that it would save much of the crime and much of the misery\nnow so appalling in their magnitude ? If it be socialism to say that every\nboy and every girl should be educated, if necessary at the expense of the\nstate, till he or she is sixteen or seventeen years of age, then I am a socialist.\nPossibly the dividends on the watered stock in our monopolistic trusts\nwould suffice to give that education. If we college men are honest,\nI believe that we will hold ourselves accountable for one of the causes of\nthis failure in secondary education. Even more, within the past few weeks\nthe Committee of the Board of Education of Chicago, whose duty it was to\ninquire into the faults and defects of the elementary schools of that city,\ngave, as the first reason for them, the \"dominance of the college.\" Mr. R. T.\nCrane, certainly an able business man of Chicago, who has interested himself\ngreatly in the manual-training schools of that city, has recently expressed\nhimself vigorously — even violently — in opposition to the college and university,\n\nL\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nITS\n\nFUNCTION\n\n531\n\nas injuring more .young men than they helped. There is danger that an\nincreasing number of such men as he shall become enemies of the college.\nSlowly this control of the college over the high school is slipping away, and\nsoon will be irretrievably lost. How many high schools are there at the\npresent time, however, which do not shape their curricula and their methods\nof education largely or wholly at the behest of the college, who do not care\nmore for the half-dozen graduates who may hope to enter Harvard or Yale\nor Podunk College than for all the other hundred pupils who neither\nexpect nor desire, nor whose parents desire for them, to enter college; who\nsimply want to be artisans, or merchants, or farmers, and withal whom we\ndesire shall be better citizens. Some years ago, when Greek was generally\nrequired for admission to college, even the village high school taught Greek.\nA famous high school near where I reside in Chicago, with fourteen hundred\npupils, has one class of five and another of four in Greek, and the principal\nhas announced that Greek shall no longer be taught in that high school unless\nthere is more demand for it. Chicago will doubtless soon abolish the study\nfrom its high schools, even as it has abolished the study of Latin from its\nelementary schools. Had Chicago had the courage to do what it is trying\nnow to do, fifteen years ago, it would not be bewailing the inefficiency of its\neducational systeni. The high school, if even but a small part of what is\nsaid of it be true, is failing in its function, even as the college is failing. It\nhas followed the example of the college and has introduced all sorts of fads;\nit apes the college in electives and secret fraternities and athletics; it has\nforgotten that fully 95 per cent, of its pupils never go to college; it has forgotten that it is not training more than one-tenth of those whom it should;\nit has lost discipline till it is accused of fostering vice and dissipation. These\nare hard accusations. Perhaps they are not all true. But this much is true:\nThe people are satisfied neither with the college nor the high school, and they\nare demanding in no uncertain tones a regeneration of both. And I am\nconfident that this regeneration must come from below, not from above.\nDiscipline must be regained at all cost. The high school must cease to be\nalmost exclusively a feeder for the college and its narrow pursuits, and become\nthe people's college, the school not for one milHon youths, who want to be\nprofessional men or loafers, but for five, six, seven millions of our common\ncitizens. It needs, above all else, more teachers of the olden kind — firm, strong\nkind, wholesome men — teachers, real teachers. I am one of those who\nbelieve — ^most sincerely believe — that the high school has lost much of its\nefficiency in the training of our boys and girls because of its constantly decreasing numbers of men teachers and their replacement by young women, whose\nfirst ambition is to be where they ought to be, married and at home. As a\nman to men, who is there that hears me who does not desire — earnestly desire\n— that his boy of from sixteen to twenty— those critical, those dangerous\nyears in every boy's lifetime — shall be under the immediate sympathetic\ninfluence of upright, manly men ? We know ourselves what the dangers of\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nthose years are; we know how potent was the influence over us of good men.\nIt is not a question of book knowledge for the boy and girl— that is quite\nsecondary — but a question of true manhood and womanhood. It is the fixation\nof habits of honesty and duty which makes the successful man. All else without\nthese is vain. Let us dignify the vocation of the high-school teacher till\nit shall be looked upon in its proper Hght — the noblest calling that a man can\nenter upon. Today the college looks down upon the teacher in the high\nschool, for you know he is merely a teacher of boys and girls, not a research\nman; it is almost impossible for a high-school teacher, no matter how able\nan instructor he is, to get on a college faculty. Let us insist that his emoluments shall be commensurate with his dignity, and let us further insist that\nhe shall no longer be the Bohemian he now is, but that he shall have a fixed\nhabitation and a home.\nThe high school must say to the college with firmness and emphasis:\nWe shall educate our pupils as we think best, without dictation from you,\nendeavoring to accomphsh the greatest good for the greatest number. We shall\nbroaden our courses so as to help as many as possible to prepare for their\nseveral vocations in life, whatever they may be. We shall, first of all, endeavor\nto give that discipline which shall make them better men and women, better\ncitizens, obedient to duty and to law. We shall try once more to inspire that\nzeal in the classroom which has been transferred, as in the college, so largely\nto the football and baseball field. We shall, above all things else, teach\nour pupils to read, write, and especially to speak the English language, even\nif they learn nothing else. We shall, next to this, endeavor to impart a thoro\ntraining in knowledge and duties of citizenship. And we shall drop a good\nmany fads in education. We shall, for instance, banish the microscope,\nexcept as an instrument the pupil may hope to aspire to; we shall not permit\nthe pupil to spend three months in the study of a grasshopper or a crayfish,\nbut shall try to teach him how to observe the differences between an elm tree\nand a gooseberry bush. We shall not require him to memorize the dates of\nall the fracases in which Caesar engaged, but we shall see that he knows when\nand for what the war of the Revolution was fought. We shall not require\nhim to know who ruled over Greece when Demosthenes lived, but shall\ninsist that he know who is the governor of his own state. (I recently asked\nan honor graduate of the Chicago high school of which I have spoken, how\nthe United States senators were chosen. She told me that she always supposed\nthey were appointed by the President of the United States !) In short, we shall »\ndo our best to make our boys and girls intelligent and industrious citizens,\nwith habits of application, accuracy, and pertinacity, knowing how to observe\nand reason, with a wholesome respect for justice, truth, and morality. And\nthen, when we are done with them, we shall be very glad if you shall find\na,mong them an increasing number who desire to go yet farther in their school\ntraining and become leaders among men. And, in order to make sure that\nall this shall be done without hindrance by you, I should forbid by law all\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAMERICAN\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nITS FUNCTION\n\n533\n\ninterference on your part in the dictation of courses. I believe that when\nthese things have been done, and done well, the solution of the function of the\ncollege will be solved and solved for all time; and then, and not till then, will\nthe college be fulfilling its function as a popular institution of education to\na far greater extent than it is now doing. Whether or not this means the\nabolition of the college I will not venture to say. . But one thing, at least,\nwill be demanded of every matriculant of the college — motive. He will go\nlonger be permitted to dilly-dally along thru four more years in an aimless\npursuit of culture and pleasure. And I also feel sure that not till the high\nschool has been regenerated and brought back again to its true function as a\ndisciplinary institution, will the college cease to be what it now is, a heterogeneous mixture of disciplinary, cultural, and professional schools.\nDISCUSSION\nPresident George E. Fellows, of the University of Maine. — There are many points\non which I disagree with Professor Williston, but shall limit myself to two. I do not\nregard correspondence schools as serious rivals of the college. Those who join such schools\nseldom go to colleges: most of them are captivated by the advertisements. Such courses\nas they do take are really no cheaper in a money way than regular college courses.\nI must take issue, too, with the proposition that teachers were better years ago than\nnow. The reverse is true. Training as a rule now is fuller, and consists of much longer\napprenticeship than ever before.\nPresident John N. Tillman, University of Arkansas. — Professor Williston's paper\nis blue. He scarcely sees things as they are. Drinking is much less in evidence than in\nformer college days, and other vices are likewise fewer. There is far more sobriety and\nmuch more respect for women. My opinion is that we should not have fewer but more\nwomen in teaching work. This is the women's age. They are doing more good than\nmany Chicago professors. The college man, but especially the college woman, is often\nunjustly caricatured, and this may lead to much of the present criticism.\nProfessor Williston, University of Chicago. — May I call attention to the fact that\nI specifically said, \"I do not believe that the college of today is worse morally than it was\nformerly\" ?\nProfessor Carver, Harvard University. — There is some truth in the charge of\nidleness, and perhaps some truth in other charges made, but there are still some good\nthings in the modern college. On idleness, in particular, it should always be remembered\nthat there is a great deal of discussion among students which is outside of the regular\nstudy. This is frequently of more value than the study itself. Two highly important\ntheoretical questions confront us: Shall we attempt to save all and make the professor the\nwhipper-in, or shall we let the laggards go ? I would suggest that it is not too bad that\nso few go to college. Abilities differ. Give each one as good an education as he is\ncapable of taking — no better.\nPresident James H. Baker, University of Colorado. — The American college is\ndoing all it can under existing conditions. Many of us contend now, however, that sixteen\nyears for culture and knowledge is too long a time. People will no longer stand for it.\nFrom the early New England college, students graduated at eighteen; now from the professional schools often not until as late as twenty -six. The best expedient seems to be to\ndifferentiate the college work, especially in the last two years, permitting the student to\nbegin upon his professional work.\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nThe elective system was a failure, as a final solution, but it was needed to bring about\nthe abolition of the old fixed curriculum. We have several curricula now. Another thing\nto do is to eliminate a lot of useless stuff and mere repetition and end general education\nwith the sophomore year. We will then get more than we are getting now. This sort\nof reorganization has been going on in the University of Colorado. In the first two years\nthere is some choice, but much prescribed work. In the last two years, the student must\nwork out a group of studies which will prepare him for something. We believe the A.B.\ndegree will mean more and that time will be saved with these changes.\nPresident John R. Kirk, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. — This discussion\nis especially gratifying to a normal-school man. I believe a large part of the criticism\nmade by Professor Williston should be accepted by college men, and that they should not\nseek to palliate the conditions. Some of the colleges in Missouri which I know best are\nnot touched by such criticisms, but others are. There is many a boy of belated adolescence\nwho goes to a high institution and is practically ruined thereby. For this class the larger\ninstitutions present the gravest problems. The boy gets lost in the complicated machine.\nSome of the old colleges are good in this respect; they are not so large but that they can\nkeep account of their students.\nProfessor A. H. Guinn, University of Pennsylvania. — I wish to maintain that the\nstandards of scholarship have not deteriorated. A much larger number of students are\ndismissed now for deficient work than in earlier times. I do not believe that state\nexaminations, as suggested, would help at all. They always tend to focus a student's\nattention upon mere symbols. A certain student summed up a college teacher's duties\nas follows: \"He is expected to do research work, to teach inspiringly, and to represent\nhis institution. Often one or the other of these functions gets slighted.\" We are doing\nas well- as we can at present, often taking on much work of our own accord. I should\nsay that all of these functions are performed as well, or better, than they were thirty or\nforty years ago. It is inspiring to me that such a topic as this has been put upon our\nprogram.\nPresident Joseph Swain, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa. — I believe we\nshould thank the speakers for having stirred us up. To the general question under discus ion must\nI\nsay both yes and no. I should say in general that the college is worth much\nmore than it has cost. The college men and women of the country, as shown by Johnson's\nBiographical Dictionary, occupy by far the greater number of positions of confidence and\ntrust. For such a position the college man seems to have about two hundred and fifty\ntimes as good a chance as a non-college man. Whether the American college is the best\nit can be, whether it needs some change, are open questions. Much that is true of the\nold college is not true of the new. President Baker has suggested some of the imperative\nmodifications. We must see, I believe, that the college exists for study and not for diversion, and we must remember that the college has need of those who go to college rather\nthan of those who are sent. It is said that in German universities one-third of the students\ndie of overwork, one-third die from dissipation, while the other third become the leaders\nof Germany.\nWe cannot expect in America to save all.\nProfessor Chase, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. — There are two ideals between which\nthere can be no harmony: the one an ideal of culture for a class; the other a college education for all. The first is an aristocratic, and the second a democratic, ideal. We owe some\nduty to every student, and thus should have two ideals: save those who are worth it, and\nimprove all. There are always the able and the less able students. I believe some such\narrangement as is provided by honor courses would meet the situation. We could then\ncarry all but give to some a chance for distinction.\nProfessor Carver, of Harvard. — I wish to contend that it is not aristocratic to\ndrop those who have no ability. It is entirely in line with the democratic spirit which\nonly insists upon equal opportunity at the start.\n\nk\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINNER\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nLIFE\n\n535\n\nProfessor Harrow, Denver University. — ^We ought to remember that the older\ncolleges trained formally but not liberally. They disciplined powers but they did not\ngive general culture.\nWe want the whole man trained.\nSuperintendent C. P. Gary, of Wisconsin. — I believe we must grant that much of\nwhat Professor Williston said is true. There is much failure on the part of those who\nenter college which might be avoided, and many do not go to college who should. The\ntests are not always reliable, for many a distinguished man was not a strong student while\nin college.\nThe university professor is too apt to care most for good absorbers.\nProfessor Carver, of Harvard. — I wish to say that the last general theory expressed\nthat men who later become distinguished are often poor students is not borne out by recent\nstatistics.\n\nHOW\nI.\n\nTO\n\nCHARLES\n\nDEVELOP PROPERLY\nTHE INNER\nCOMMUNITY\nLIFE\nOF THE COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY\nFORDYCE,\n\nDEAN\nOF\nNEBRASKA,\n\nTEACHERS\nCOLLEGE,\nLINCOLN,\nNEBR.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nThe character of the inner community life of the college or universitydepends, first, upon how the student body spends its periods of relaxation and\nleisure; and second, upon how it occupies its hours of work. The motto\nrecently found over a student's door, ''Do not let your studies interfere with\nyour college course\" is full of meaning. The unconscious influence of the\nsocial atmosphere, past and present, may outweigh the curriculum in determining the tastes, habits, and general issues of student life. No one can live\nupon the campus of Columbia, Harvard, or Yale without feeling the force\nthat tradition has inscribed upon halls and street. These enchantments of\nthe past force themselves in upon all. The rich traditions of Cambridge\nand Oxford permeate everything about those classic halls. In these institutions many of our poets, artists, and historians have received that training\nthat gave their genius direction and productive force, memories of which\nIbind together alumni, students, and friends.\nAll great universities educate as much by their associations as by their\nteaching staff. The immense force of these silent influences is better understood when we consider that youth at its most impressionable epoch falls\nunder their molding power. The adolescent at the threshold of college life\nis more plastic, more open to outside influences, than at any other period.\niThe soul now reaches its greatest heights, or may descend to its lowest depths.\n[The acquaintances formed, the society joined, are for the first few months\nmore potent than the courses pursued in the textbooks and laboratory. At\nIno other time do the causes of good and evil battle more fiercely for the possession of the young life, and nowhere are the results of the conflict more com^pletely covered up by environment, good rnanners, and intelligence. The\nfreshman is seized by these subtle forces, and the stream of college sentiment\ncauses him to drift hither and thither as the current may bear him. A few\nresist the tide, if untoward, but the majority float. Said a teacher recently,\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nwho cares beyond all else for the moral welfare of his students, \"What is the\nmatter with your college? I keep my boys for years and then turn them\nto you in September and by Christmas half of them have degenerated. They\nhave lost punctuality, they have lost application, they have no responsibility,\nand some of them are gone to the bad.\" \"What is the matter with your\nfitting school,\" retorts the college man, \"that in a half-dozen years you can't\nteach a boy to stand up three months ?\" Many of our college men believe\nin throwing the freshmen upon their own resources — \"Allowing them to\nflounder until they go down or swim. This is the way advocated by men who\nhave no boys of their own. It is delightfully simple if we can only shut eye,\near, heart, and conscience. If none but the fittest were to survive, the cruelty\nmight be defended, but some who unhappily cannot drown become cramped\nswimmers for all their days\" (Briggs).\nProbably one of the most serious features of the new experience of the\nmatriculant is found in the unlimited freedom into which he enters. He\nis now released from paternal influence, with its loving restraint, an immature\nman with all the cravings and ambitions of a man, but without man's strength\nand powers of inhibition. He has come from a simple environment which\nhas few temptations, and he is suddenly plunged into one of complexity,\nwhere good and ill vie with each other. The siren voices of evil fall upon his\nunsuspecting ear; vice dressed in its most fascinating garb flaunts itself before\nhis admiring eyes, and ere he knows it, he yields to the seductive charm of\nhis new surroundings. The crucial test of a young man's life is this struggle\nthru which he goes in the first few months in which he is away from home for\nthe first time. Unfortunately, this, the severest battle of youth, is usually\nfought alone.\nLicense that may probably belong to the university has been introduced\nunmodified into the college, whose legitimate function in the making of men\nis radically different from that of making specialists in the university. We\nhave transplanted into our colleges the elements of the German universities\nin which the greatest freedom in both study and social life is granted. The\nstudent comes and goes at will; lectures and chapel attendance are a mere\nmatter of form; no inquiry is made into his mode of conduct unless it be\nexceedingly disorderly. These university corporations are vested with special\nprivileges which exempt their students in many instances from even civil\nauthorities. If the student violates law, he is arrested, but he has only to\nplead his university privileges in order to be transferred to the university\ncourt, where his punishment is usually light. Many of the customs and\nliberties of these foreign institutions have been incorporated into our colleges\nwhere the conditions are fundamentally different. Foremost among the\ndifferences is found the maturity of the student body. Students are not\nadmitted into the German universities until their character is formed. It is\nin the German gymnasium that the boys are made into men. The last two\nyears of the gymnasium course correspond to the first two years of our college\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINNER\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nLIFE\n\n537\n\ncurriculum and these are the two most critical years — freshman and sophomore. In the gymnasium the closest possible contact exists between teacher\nand student. Not only is the course of study prescribed, but every student\nmust adhere to it and to the government of the school with the strictest military\nprecision.\nA similar practice obtains in the English university, from which we have\ncopied much in the administration of our college affairs. The English\nuniversity, with its short school year and long vacations, gives great freedom\nto the student, but we must remember that the English, like the Germans,\nmake their men in the advanced preparatory schools before they send them\nto the university. Eton, Rugby, Harrow, and similar schools form the\ncharacter of the English student, after which the university takes him and\nmakes of him the leader. We shall take a large step in advance when we in\nAmerica discriminate as sharply between the immature undergraduate and\nthe university man; between the legitimate function of the college and that\nof the university.\nAmong other deleterious practices that have crept in with the unlimited\nfreedom transplanted from the European university is the temptation to\ndissipate. Self-indulgence is on the increase in American institutions. Many\nof our students come from opulent homes where they have spent money\nfreely. This habit is accentuated at college, where money is used lavishly\nnot only in social pastimes, but on the issues of the college game, where\nmoney, often not his own, is staked by the student. The financial demands\nin the social life of our colleges and universities have already reached an\nalarming condition. In one of our leading colleges last year the average\nexpenses of each freshman for floor tickets, box tickets, carriages, and flowers\nwas $250. How to correct the evils that have thus crept into our school\nsystem is not easily answered; but as undesirable habits growing up in the\nlife of the individual are best corrected by substitution rather than by inhibition\nor repression, so it is believed that we may most successfully counteract these\nundesirable customs that have entered into our educational Ufe. The best\nmeans of preventing these secondary activities from becoming the primary ones\nis to substitute for these diversions real intellectual work, and place it under\nIthe guidance of a strong faculty. We shall strike at the root of much of the\n[trouble by making a clearer differentiation between college administration\n[and that of the university. This should touch both the matter of assigned\nLsks and that of government, ever keeping in mind that the object of the\nCollege is to make men and women, and that it is the function of the university\n[to take these men and women after they are formed and give them such\n[technical training as will make them specialists for their chosen occupation.\n[We must recognize the immaturity of the college student; that the freshmen\n^differs from the high-school graduate only by the experiences of a short summer\nvacation; that his judgment is undeveloped, subject to whims and fancies,\nin need of being protected and guarded against its own hasty and ill-propor-\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ntioned conclusions; and that a curriculum three-fourths of which is prescribed,\ngiving continued training in the fundamentals of a liberal education, is preferable to the prevailing elective system that permits the student to wander\nat will over the flowery meadows of the curriculum, nibbling a little here and\na little there, and finally coming out with such a small amount worthy of\ndigestion as to cause the assimilative processes of the mind to atrophy. Does\nnot this very free elective system defeat the object of undergraduate education— ^namely, that of developing in the youth the capacity of sustained effort ?\nThe essential difference between work and indolence consists in the fact that\nwork requires a capacity for continued effort, while indolence gives a tendency\nto shift from one thing to another to meet the cravings for change. That\nthis elective system does in many cases encourage not only indolence, but in\ntime laziness, is evident from the study of many of its results.\nAnother means of correcting the above-mentioned evils is that of confining\nuniversity methods of teaching to the university, and college methods to the\ncollege. A considerable percentage of our college professors are lured from\ntheir legitimate channels of work by the temptations to inculcate researchmethods among undergraduates who have no foundation for it. This is\ntoday one of the most serious faults in American education. Our youthful\nprofessor, late from the fields of investigation, is not content to teach immature\nmen and women. His main concern is in his subject, not in his students.\nA prominent college professor recently said of a colleague, \"He will never\namount to much, for he already shows a vulgar interest in teaching.\" Such\nmen want no one in their classes who does not show a special aptitude for\n^heir chosen subject. Many of these Ph.D.'s want only the cream of the\nundergraduates to whom they lecture, leaving the great majority to pick\nup what they can until examination eliminates them from the class. \"My\nbusiness is to teach men; if the students are not men, I don't want them,\"\nlately said a research professor. The supreme function of such a man is\nto advance the knowledge of his subject. He is false to his trust if he spends\ntime in developing the mediocre in his class. It is not intended to underrate\nthe importance of having among our college professors specialists in their\nfavorite subject, men who give some time and that regularly to pushing out\ninto the unexplored regions of their chosen field and occasionally to making\ncontributions to the literature of their subject, but to inflict this specialty\nupon the class in the college is to do violence to the undergraduate.\nGermany commands the markets of the world today because it discovers\nand trains the talents of each of its children. Any nation is strong in the\ndegree in which it develops the character and general capacity of all of its\ncitizens. The function of the secondary school and the college is to educate\nthe masses, not the gifted few. The ambition for mere knowledge in a chosen\nfield and the ability to train a few geniuses to discover it is essential to the\nprogress of any nation; but the desire to discover in every child his leading\nfaculties and abilities, and so to lead him and to teach him thru his develop-\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINNER\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nLIFE\n\n539\n\nmental periods as to enlarge these capacities into the full strength and beauty\nof manhood and womanhood is one of the greatest passions of the human\nsoul. The investigator who discovers new truth is of little worth to the world\nif he cannot teach this truth to others. The very title \"doctor,\" which marks\nthe highest academic distinction that the university confers, implies that the\nrecipient of the degree is qualified to teach the art which he knows. The\nlegitimate function of the college is the application of this art in the training\nof the masses. It is undoubtedly a delight to polish the genius, but as great\na delight to discover and develop him thru the work of the classroom. The\nsturdiest elements of our citizens are made up of the boys and girls, at first unattractive, probably dull; but among these are many that are really diamonds,\ncolored at first with the dross of stupidity, but under the crucial test of the\nskillful teacher the precious elements are revealed and led forth from beneath\ntheir temporary covering. It was Arnold the teacher, not Arnold the investigator, who immortalized Rugby. It was Mary Lyon the teacher who made\nMt. Holyoke an inspiration to every American woman.\nThe most pressing demand of our higher institutions of learniijg today\nis for teachers of this tj^e; professional leaders who know how to adapt\nconditions both educational and social to the respective needs of the college\nand the university; men and women eager, not only to advance the subjectmatter of their chosen field of study, but to call forth the noblest and best in\neach of their students. With such at the head of the administration of affairs,\nthe student body, who have the welfare of their institution quite as much at\nheart as do the faculty, will co-operate in developing properly the inner\ncommunity life.\nHOW\nn.\n\nTO\n\nDEVELOP PROPERLY\nTHE\nLIFE OF THE COLLEGE OR\n\nJOHN H. T. MAIN,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nGRINNELL\n\nINNER COMMUNITY\nUNIVERSITY\nCOLLEGE,\n\nGRINNELL,\n\nIOWA\n\nIt is impossible for the college to do everything; it should not try to do\n►everything.\nOne of the chief causes of the ineffectiveness of present-day\n[college education, which has been charged and proved, is the attempt on the\n)art of the college to occupy the whole field of education, and to keep pace\n[with the enlargement of its boundaries, its divisions and subdivisions, in all\n[directions whatever, without providing for any centralizing interest or conrolling organization.\nThe past twenty-five years have been an era of expan[sion in the college, as elsewhere.\nIn the greed for territory the college has\nleglected the art of cultivation.\nIt has essayed the world and neglected the\nitensive cultivation of its own proper garden spot. Failure in this respect\njis not serious; it is not irremediable.\nIt is merely an incident of growth;\nis a proof of the richness of life. Out of it will come, in time, a better education, greater efficiency, and a more adequate adjustment to the demands\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nof everyday living. While it has failed in some things, it has achieved in\nmany things.\nEfficiency, especially when used in relation to college education, is a muchabused word. To prove the efficiency of college education it is not necessary\nto show that every man who takes a Bachelor's degree is ready to plunge into\nthe busy life of the world and succeed in it offhand. He may not know how\nto build a bridge, or select seed corn, or keep a set of books; but surely there\nare other standards of efl&ciency than these. Every college graduate ought\nto have considered, even tho vaguely, what his course in life is likely to be.\nIn some cases he ought to be pretty well advanced in the theory of his lifeplan, and in some degree, in its technique ; but if this were proved to be true\nof the majority of students, the college would not be wholly vindicated. The\npopular judgment might be won over, but this would not prove the point,\nbecause effectiveness of this sort, while important and very desirable, is only\none kind of effectiveness, and the man who fails to achieve it is not necessarily\nlost educationally. The question of the efficiency of college education is a\nvery fundamental one and involves principles, and men, and adjustments\ninnumerable. It is rash to say, in sweeping terms, it is or it is not efficient.\nThe trend is toward efficiency, toward greater efficiency. There will be\nmany baitings on the way, many things to condemn, many things to change,\nbut this is true of every vital human movement. Perfection is not desirable,\nbecause that would imply a static instead of a dynamic condition. Growth\ntoward perfection, toward greater efficiency, is primary in every educational\nmethod. The method gets its inspiration and its value not from the subject,\nbut from the human relations involved in the subject. The fundamental\nthing is new birth for the man. \"Ye must be born again,\" and again, and\nagain, is axiomatic in all natural college pedagogy. If we save the man, if\nwe bring him into a larger world and help him to understand it, the other\nthings will come. If our work achieves, thru him and for him, educational\nsalvation, he becomes larger than the facts, the principles, and the technique\nof any possible life-work. In so far as the college fails to do this, it fails\nto justify its title as the \"fostering mother \" of men and women. In discussing\nthis subject, it is always to be kept in mind that the college exists for men and\nnot men for the college. Efficiency includes subjects, and men, and paraphernalia, and action in the world; but it reaches beyond all of these and is\nto be finally affirmed or denied by the attitude of the spirit in the man toward\nthe various problems of life.\nIn this fundamental thing the college is open to the charge of failure, but\nthe world is not without sin, and cannot in justice cast a stone. It has been all\nintent on gathering in; the ethical and human elements involved have not\nreceived much attention. Just recently the public conscience has been\naroused. The muck-raker has been showing that business, legislation,\npolitics, the courts, have all neglected himian interests for material ends, men\nfor things. He has also been giving some attention to the college. It is\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINNER\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nLIFE\n\n541\n\nwell that he has done' so. His criticism will do good even tho it is not always\ncharacterized by vision and sound judgment. The muck-raker does not see\nthat the college has been in the current of things, that it has been a part of\nthe movement of expansion and development which has characterized the\nlast generation. If it has been material, it has been in a material age; if\nit has been tinged with commercialism, it has been living and growing in a\ncommercial atmosphere. It should have the greater condemnation for it\nhas sinned against knowledge and against the ideals symbolized on its banner,\nand writ large in its history and traditions: ''Nothing that is human is foreign\nto me.\" This is what it has said, but it has not acted so. But the final\njudgment has not yet come, and the college is not yet to be cast into outer\ndarkness. Meanwhile it should have such a degree of justification, in spite of\nits sins, as the compelling quality of the atmosphere in which it has flourished\nwarrants us in giving it.\nMore specifically, what are the besetting sins of the college? A brief\nanswer to this question must precede any helpful discussion of the inner\ncommunity Hfe of the college. Broadly speaking there are just two. The\nfirst has to do with the immense richness of the college opportunity. The\ncollege has grown from a half-dozen courses to be a treasure-house of the\nworld's bounties. We accept young people and turn them loose in this\ntreasure-house. They are bewildered. We might almost as well turn them\nloose in the British Museum and expect them to know what to do.\nIn the modern college there is lack of personal direction. This should\nbe the chief concern of the college. We have neglected it because we have\nbeen intent on other things. The other things are courses, subjects, division\nof subjects, laboratories, equipment, election, analysis; in short, we have\nbeen overwhelmed by the richness and the rapid growth of our educational\nmaterial. We have been intent on making room for everything; on providing\nteachers for everything; on giving everything an equal opportunity with\never3rthing else, so that we have abnost lost sight of the man for whom the\nwhole business is ultimately intended. The modern college fails to recommend and to correlate, either because it has adopted a pedagogy of nondirection or because it will not venture to develop departmental rivalries and\njealousies. The result is divergent interest, lack of cultural and world vision,\nlack of appreciation for the elemental unities. It is getting to be difficult\nnow to study a subject — ^it must rather be a part of a subject.\nWe do not wish to return to the old college. We could not do so even if\nwe desired it; but the unifying spirit of the old college we do want in presentday education. Scholarship, as America understands it, is, in its overemphasis ofanalysis and the technique of the subject, for the college, especi.iUy\nfor the lower classman, all wrong. It is leading us to the Alexandrian method\nof classification and subtle refinement of investigation which count facts,\ninstead of aiming at the enlargement of the whole man. If persisted in it can\nresult in nothing less than the loss of the most wholesome and essential\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "542\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\neducational ideals. The lack of direction and the richness of college opportunity, together with the minute division of subjects that they may have\nexhaustive treatment, destroys, in any event, the spirit of unity in the college, and will have its influence in impairing the spirit of democracy and\nsocial solidarity out in the worid. I believe college administrators understand thoroly this point — namely, that we are well thru the period of\nexpansion and enlargement and are ready for correlation, adaptation, and\nunification. The real problem of present-day education is before us to be\nsolved. The elements of it are clear. It is not an impossible problem, but\nit will require much time and patience.\nWhat we want for the college has long been the burning question. The\nquestion now is, what we want for our students. When we have given this\nsecond question as much attention as we have given the first we shall get\nresults, and shall have gone far in solving the pressing problem of college\neducation.\nOur neglect of this question is the second sin of the college.\nThe first obligation upon the college is to give the right spirit, the right\nattitude of mind to its students. Speaking generally, the college has not done\nit. It has not done it.because it has not desired to do it. A college man is\nfirst of all a citizen, a citizen in a democracy. He should be a good citizen.\nThe college should set its heart on this. Good citizenship in a democracy\nimplies relationship on the basis of efficiency with many men and many interests. Itimplies good understanding, and fellowship and sympathy with men.\nIt is the same whether he is to be a physician, or engineer, or a clerk in a\nstore. Success in any work gets its largest fruitage from a good understanding\nof men and capacity to deal with them on the broad fundamental principles\nthat underlie good government, good business, good manners, and good\nsociety. We are, first of all, trying to educate men. The community interests\nin college consequently need emphasizing. They are the humanizing interests,\nas distinct from the narrower and more technical interests which also have\ntheir place, their distinct place, in college life. They have to do with personality, relationships, enthusiasms — in short, that part of education which\nlooks primarily to the spiritual need of men and women. Facts and accuracy\nin dealing with facts are essential — no question about that — ^but facts without\nthe significance of facts are of little value in the building of men.\nIs it a product of education ? Surely, to some extent at least. But that\nkind Cometh only by fasting and prayer, but it is worth all that it will cost.\nThe fact is, we haven't sought it; haven't been conscious of its need; we\nhaven't wanted it. The first requisite of achievement is desire for achievement. If we seek the community interests as we have Sought diversity,\nvariety, and enlargement, we shall get community interests. If we agree to\nwant the great fundamental himianities of life and growth to have emphasis\nin college life, we shall get them. We have striven for numbers and have\ngot numbers; for analysis and variety and expansion, and have got them.\nIf we seek, we shall find. This is a fundamental educational maxim.\nWe\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINNER\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nLIFE\n\n543\n\nall alike have sinned in this educational business, and have sought the sensational rather than the genuine. The question now is, How shall we do\nworks meet for repentance; how shall we regain the fellowship of the spirit\nin college, and give the student a vision of realities that transcends things and\ngives them their significance ?\nIn every college there is a group of unifying interests quite apart from\nwhat are usually regarded as the official obligations of the college. Their\nsignificance as contributing to the unity of college fife and to the spirit of\ngood citizenship has not been recognized. Too often such emphasis as they\nhave received has been sentimental and purposdess. Certainly they have\nnot been utilized in any large educational way. These interests may be\nclassed conveniently, tho not always accurately, under three heads — religious,\nsocial, atheletic. They are now, so far as college administration is concerned,\nwaste products.\nThis is poor business and poorer pedagogy.\nThe religious appeal is universal. It deals with the elements in human\nnature that are most fundamental and that contribute most to fellowship.\nReligion is not sectarianism: it is good-will, and mutual helpfulness, and\nthe spirit of service. It is what the heart craves. On the basis of its universal\nprinciples I have seen Mohammedan and Christian live in harmony together\nin Jerusalem in the midst of warring sects and creeds. The American college\nhas ahnost eliminated religious teaching because it has failed to interpret\nreligion as it is. It is the most unifying of all human appeals, and the most\nwholesome for men in or out of college. A simple chapel or assembly service,\ncharacterized by the right spirit and accompanied by good music, will draw\nthe institutional life together as nothing else can do it. Such a service is\npossible for every college or university. It will not come of itself, but it will\ncome when we want it.\nA Sunday afternoon vesper service is another means of promoting the\ncommunity spirit. Such a service may be made strong enough and vital\nenough to draw voluntarily a large proportion of the student body. In connection with it may be rendered some of the great music of the masters, and\nin its responsive parts the entire audience may be made to say, and perhaps\nto think, together some of the great thoughts of the ages. Are we as anxious\nfor this as we are for a new physical or a new psychological laboratory?\nIf we are, it will come.\nOne of the strongest unifying forces in the college should be the Christian\nAssociations. If the college has ideals and traditions that have worth, the\nChristian Associations are the media for giving them institutional expression.\nA group of young men and women, even a small group, in a large college can\nvitalize the spirit of the college, can make it a ruling spirit. The difficulty\nis that the associations have gone their own way, on their own initiative,\nunconscious that they have an institutional obligation to discharge. This\ninstitutional obligation is to make universal the simple and fundamental\nstandards of college life. The time has come for a definite correlation of\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ncollege and associations, without impairing in any way the independence\nof the associations, with this end in view.\nThere are other religious agencies that might be mentioned, but these\nwill sufl&ce. This is to be said in general: The college has signally failed\nto emphasize the nobility, the dignity, and the universal quality of the religious\nspirit. Aside from all questions of utility and expediency, it is time that the\ncollege should awake to the consciousness of its obligation.\nThe social life of the college I shall not discuss, but it is well worthy the\nattention of college officers. If it is a menace to college order rather than a\nhelp, it is largely because we have not recognized its wholesome features and\nhave taken no pains to make it a help. The \" college union\" and the ''college\ncommons\" demand most careful consideration. They are primary needs\nin college life.\nAmong college organizations, that for convenience may be classed as social,\nthere should be at least one that has as its distinct object the cultivation of\nthe inner-community spirit. It should be called the college council. It\nshould consist of students and faculty members, and should have certain\nadministrative functions. What these are should depend upon circumstances,\nand, except within narrow limits, no definite program of activities for such\nan organization could be arranged. Its activities would vary with times and\nwith institutions and would be applied where there was need. Co-operation\nand mutual understanding would, however, in every case be its ultimate aim.\nClosely associated with such a body should be the good-government leagues\nnow forming in many colleges. The aim of these societies is to cultivate\nthe fundamentals of good citizenship with reference to making them effective,\nnot only for the future, but at once in the college life. A college in a democratic society should not be a chaos of interests, but a self -perpetuating experiment in democracy. That, without question, should be a paramount interest,\nand administrative purposes should have that end constantly in view.\nAthletics have their place in the college fellowship. We criticize athletics,\nand justly, because of the overemphasis that they are receiving, but we are\nrecovering from the fault of overemphasis and may hope for better things in\nthe future. But we are to remember that the athletic spirit is in the blood;\nit is elemental. The crowd, whether in or out of colleges, loves a contest.\nThe contest has, consequently, an element in it of great significance for the\ncollege and for the state. An intellectual contest, just because of its intrinsic\nimportance and because of its remoteness from the popular interest, cannot\nperform the same office in the college life as the athletic contest. It cannot\nfor that very reason appeal to the whole body of students. This is not to the\ndiscredit of the intellectual element in college life, nor is it to the glorification\nof the athletic element. It simply means that we must take the human spirit\npsychologically and pedagogically as it is. We must deal with it not by trying\nto kill its native instincts, but by directing them into right channels. The\nmost intellectual people, probably, the world has produced acted upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINNER\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nLIFE\n\n545\n\npeople as a whole thru their religious and their athletic instincts. They\nsought the Pan-Hellenic spirit by means of the games. At the Olympian\ngames, and at the other great national contests, the national feeHng was\ncreated. There the people thought in terms of the state. The whole town,\nthe whole state, could claim the glory of the athletic contest because it sprang\nfrom what was elemental in human nature. It appealed to the spirit in the\nblood. The contest was symbolical of the universal, hence it was great and\nsignificant in the national life, great because of the enthusiasm and patriotic\nfervor which it created. Pindar in his noble odes celebrated not the man\nwho won, but the city, the state, the race. The contest was merely the outward expression of a profound spiritual unity. The same is true of the great\ndramatic festivals and the great religious festivals. They all sprang from the\nsame source ; all symbolized unity. It is true Socrates pointed out the injustice\nof a system which gave the athlete universal praise and at the same time\ncondemned himself to death; but the fault was not in what the athlete had,\nbut in the lack of vision which failed to see in Socrates also a national benefactor. Socrates illustrates the intellectual element in college life. When\na man begins to think he becomes individual, and the more intense and analytic\nhis thinking, the more individual he becomes. Two men may unite on the\nfield of contest and be one in spirit; the same two may be philosophically,\nor zoologically, or syntactically, deadly enemies.\nAthletics have literally been pleading for an opportunity to. contribute\nin a larger way to the institutional life. We college officers have not understood their language. We have not heard them. On the contrary we have\ngone our way and given athletics over to the management of men acting apart,\nand not in close touch with institutional interests. The tremendous spirit\nof fellowship and loyalty that grows out of them has, consequently, not\nalways been representative of the best traditions and ideals of the college, and\nthere has grown up, in too many cases, a spirit of irritation and antagonism\ntoward the college. This is one of the gravest indictments that can be\nbrought against college education.\nOf course, a program formed with this end in view will not work out itself.\nWilliam James, I believe it is, who says, **A good juicy beefsteak is better\nthan the most elaborate bill of fare.\" How shall we convert a program into\nan attractive repast for boys and girls who ought to be hungry for just the\nkind of food the program prc^poses to give them ?\nFirst: Out of the unorganized mass of subjects offered to the student\nit is the duty of the college to work out a fundamental and unifying basis\nwhich will serve for any plan of education. It should have to do with social\nand moral obligations, with historical perspective, with subjects that are essential\nto an understanding of the literature and thought of the age. As far as possible this work should be provided for the first and second years in college.\nSecond: By providing for this special purpose teachers who thoroly\nunderstand the real need of the boy as a prospective citizen, who believe in\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nhim first of all, and who in their teaching prove that they ** see the world steadily\nand see it whole.\" Colleges almost universally will have to reconstruct their\nmethod of selecting teachers. They will have to formulate a new pedagogy.\nThey will be obliged to seek to get as teachers for the lower classmen not\nonly those who know the facts to their ultimate analysis, but who as well\nknow the scope and significance of these facts in the social and thought\nworld. When the colleges demand a teacher of this kind, the teacher will\nappear; and when they get such a teacher, they will reward him. Now we do\nnot reward him.\nWhen we believe in men, we shall bring men together. When we want a\nstrong inner-community spirit in the college, we shall have it. Such a spirit\nwill grow out of the teaching of strong personalities in administrative and\nteaching positions. The machinery, the buildings are great things, but the\nmen are greater. Let me quote Robert Louis Stevenson: **The house is\nindeed a great thing and should be arranged and rearranged on sanitary\nprinciples, but our heart and our interest should be with the dweller, that\nancient of days and day-old man.\"\nThe problem we are discussing has resolved itself into three elements,\nclear and easily stated: First, unity of purpose, to be created out of the present\neducational chaos; spiritual enlargement; emphasis of elemental principles;\nsecond, differentiation on the basis of such a unifying purpose in accordance\nwith individual tastes and needs; third, an institutional emphasis on the\nsupreme importance of the spiritual ends and meaning of life. The college\nhas a work to do along this line that no other institution can do. It is the\nonly institution broad enough in the scope of its work to teach effectively that\nthe ideal, the spiritual, the religious motive in all work is fundamental to\nquality, and fundamental to democracy and good citizenship.\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Henry G. Williams, dean of State Normal College, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio.\nVice-President— David B. Johnson, president of Winthrop Nor. and Indust. Coll., Rock Hill, S. C.\nSecretary — E. A. Cross, associate professor of English, Colorado State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 7, 1909\n\nThe session was called to order at 10:30 o'clock, with the president of the section,\nIJenry G. Williams, in the chair. The secretary. Miss Louise M. Hannum, being unable\nto be present on account of illness, E. A. Cross, associate professor of English in the Colorado State Normal, was appointed to act as secretary.\nPresident Henry G. Williams read an address on \"The Normal School in a System\nof Public Education.\"\nSamuel E. Harwood, superintendent of training school. State Normal School, Carbondale. 111., followed with a paper on \"The Function of the Training School as an Observation School and a Practice School.\"\n\"The Relation of the Training School to the Department of Principles and Practice\"\nwas the subject of the paper by C. B. Robertson, superintendent of schools of practice.\nState Normal School, Cortland, N. Y.\nFollowing these addresses, the president introduced Homer H. Seerley, president of\nthe State Normal School of Cedar Falls, Iowa, who presented his \"Report on the Davis\nBill and Its Relation to Normal Schools.\"\nA general discussion of all the topics then followed.\nCommittees were appointed by the president as follows:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nJohn R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.\nA. O. Thomas, Kearney, Nebr.\nH. B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nI^ESOLUTIONS\n\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.\nDavid Felmley, Normal, 111.\nHomer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday Forenoon, July 9, 1909\n\nHomer H. Seerley's report on the Davis bill having already been made, and Francis\nJ. Cheney being absent, the programs for the morning and afternoon were consolidated.\nA paper on \"Teacher Training in Great Britain\" was read by Albert Salisbury,\npresident of the State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.\nFollowing Mr. Salisbury's paper, the chairman called upon Peter Sanderford, of the\nTeachers' Training School of Manchester, England, who gave the impressions of an\nEnglishman on this American review of English schools for teachers.\nA general discussion led by D. B. Johnson, president of Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S. C, followed this informal talk.\n\"Professional Training for Teachers of Secondary Schools, as Offered by the Normal\nSchools\" was the subject considered by D. McGregor, resident regent of the State Normal\nSchool, Platteville, Wis.\nThomas A. Hillyer, president of the State Normal School, Mayville, N. Dak., treated\nthe same subject from the standpoint of the training offered these teachers by our colleges\nand universities.\n547\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nA. O. Thomas, president of State Normal School, Kearney, Nebr., read a paper on\n\"Who Should Determine Standards and Courses for the Training of Teachers, and How\nShould Such Standards Be Determined ?\"\nA spirited general discussion followed.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was as follows:\nFor President — Joseph H. Hill, president of State Normal School, Emporia, Kans.\nFor Vice-President — D. McGregor,\nregent, State Normal School, Platteville, Wis.\nFor Secretary — W. S. Dearmont, president, State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo.\nThe report was adopted and the nominees were declared elected.\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported as follows:\nThat we reaffirm the resolutions of last year as adopted at Cleveland.\nResolved, That there be a committee of five appointed to take up the matter of vocational work in the public schools and the establishment of vocational schools in the school\nsystem, and that it be instructed to report at next meeting.\nResolved, That it is the sense and thought of the Normal School Section that the\nCommittee on Elementary Agriculture be given the hearty support of the section in its\nefforts to secure appropriations for agricultural work in the public schools, and for the\npreparation of teachers for this work.\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed to make a report at next meeting\non the status of physical education in the public schools and the preparation of teachers\ntherefor.\nWhereas, The Simplified Spelling Board has appointed a committee of three, Messrs.\nSeerley, McKinney, and Felmley, to investigate the feasibility of a larger use of simplified\nspelling in the normal schools of this country, and furthermore desires the co-operation\nof this department in this investigation; therefore\nResolved, That we assent to this proposed co-operation in this investigation and recommend that a place be given in our next program for the report of this committee.\nResolved, That there be a committee of three appointed to report at next meeting\non the expansion of normal school work in the preparation of teachers in some way or\nother for the teaching of defectives, as the deaf, the blind, the feeble-minded, the incorrigible, etc.\nResolved, That a committee of eight be appointed by the President, representing the\ndifferent sections of the United States, to investigate conditions and to prepare a report\nfor this department on standards and courses to represent a standard American normal\nschool.\nRespectfully submitted\nZ. X. Snyder, Chairman\nDavid Felmley\nHomer H. Seerley\nOn motion the resolutions were unaminously adopted.\nThe department then adjourned.\nE. A. Cross, Acting Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nTHE\n\nPLACE\n\nHENRY\n\nG. WILLIAMS,\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF THE NORMAL SCHOOL\nPUBLIC EDUCATION\nDEAN\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\nATHENS.\n\nNORMAL\nOHIO\n\nIN A SYSTEM\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nOHIO\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThe form in which the subject of this paper is stated seems necessarily;\nto narrow this discussion to a consideration of the place and function of such\nnormal schools as are a part of the system of public education.\nThis wouldj\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n549\n\ninclude only state normal schools, state normal colleges, and teachers' colleges\nor departments of education as integral parts of state universities. However,\nif this discussion seems to take a course defining and limiting the state-supported\ninstitutions for the training of teachers, it may be said that all other institutions\nundertaking to train teachers might with wisdom adopt the standards the state\ndecrees to be the best to meet the demands of the public along this line. It\nmust' not be forgotten that the matter of education is primarily of public\nconcern, and it means much to the preservation and self-perpetuation of the\nstate. Hence, state-supported institutions for the training of teachers are\nmost likely to be the expression of the will of the people, and it would clearly\nfollow that the standards and ideals in such institutions ought to express\nthe highest conceptions of the people on the subject of the training of teachers.\nFrom these institutions all others undertaking to prepare teachers for service\nin the public schools should obtain the suggestions that would fix their standards and curricula.\nFrom this preliminary statement it must not be inferred that a private\nnormal school cannot render as efficient service as one supported by the state.\nIt is the duty of the state to prepare teachers for the public service; it is not the\nduty but the privilege of the private or church institution to engage in this\nservice. The state, however, should at least supervise the training of\nthose who are to mold the civic ideals that shall shape the future of the state\nand guarantee its safe perpetuity.\nAnyone who will go to the trouble to investigate will find that for more\nthan twenty years the Normal School Department of the National Education\nAssociation has been wrestling with the problems of the place and function of\nthe normal school — and other departments have frequently undertaken to settle\nthe question for us. In 1 895 a committee was appointed to report on standards\nfor the normal schools. That committee reported in 1897, just twelve years\nago, and its report makes very interesting reading still. But there has been\na further evolution of the normal-school idea since then. At the Cleveland\nmeeting of this department in 1908, a committee appointed two years earlier\nmade its final report on this subject, and I quote here the seven resolutions\nadopted :\nTo the Normal-School Section of the National Education Association:\n1. Whereas, The public schools are the schools of the people;\n2. Whereas, The public schools being the schools of the people, all factors in their\norganization are very clearly identified with the life of the people;\n3. Whereas, The preparation of teachers is an important factor in the success of the\nschools and in the development of civilization; and\n4. Whereas, The normal schools have grown out of the thought, sentiments, and\nopinions of the people and are the direct expression of the will of the people —\nBe It Resolved:\n1. That the state normal schools make high -school graduation or its equivalent the\nbasis for admission to the standard normal course.\n2. That the normal schools prepare teachers for the entire pubUc service — elementary\nand secondary.\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "5SO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\n3. That the course for elementary teachers be two years, and that for secondary\nteachers, four years.\n4. That the normal schools establish wellnarganized departments of research work\nleading to the solution of problems affecting education and life.\n5. That while the normal school is not the only agent for the training of teachers,\nit is the state's chief agent, and as such it should set up the standards of teaching, determine\nthe ideals, and train the men and women whose call is to educational leadership.\n6. That the colleges and universities should not dominate the courses of study of the\nhigh schools to the end of making them preparatory schools, thereby preventing these\nschools from being the best expression of the whole people.\n7. That the normal schools shall provide courses of study in which opportunity for\never-widening preparation may be made to meet the corresponding expansion of the courses\nof the pubUc schools.\n\nIt will be noticed that this Denver program is based wholly upon the\npropositions set forth in those seven resolutions. This is done to give further\ntime to the consideration of a few of the most vital questions that concern the\nwork of normal schools. The committee reporting in 1908 did not think\nthe question closed nor did they conclude that a further consideration of the\nquestion would be a waste of time.\nAn analysis of these resolutions ought to convince anyone that the normal\nschoolmen will not yield to the colleges of liberal arts or to the universities\nthe matter of training teachers for the public high schools.\nBut we are told that no one knows what a normal school is. In one state\nit is an industrial institution for the training of colored people in farming,\nblacksmithing, shoemaking, etc.; in another a normal school measures up\nonly to the standard of a four-year high school; in another, the normal school\nis one in which academic subjects with a little superficial pedagogy constitute\nthe curriculum; in another, the work of the normal school is wholly professional, leading somewhat to a pedagogical top-heaviness; in another the\nstandard is wholly collegiate ; in another the normal school seeks to train only\nthe elementary teacher, while in another the normal school considers its\nfunction to include elementary teachers, high-school teachers, and special\nteachers or supervisors.\nBut, who knows what a college is, or even a university? There are\ncolleges existing today, authorized by charter to confer degrees, that would\nnot measure up to the standard of some high schools. There are \"universities\" whose graduates are not adequately prepared to enter a college with\nfreshman work. The fact in the case is, the most clearly defined course of\nstudy and standards known to the American educational public is the fouryear high school, following an equally well-defined elementary school of\neight years. These standards are a part of the public-school system\nand we ought to be just as clear on the definitions of normal school and\ncollege.\nYet in the minds of schoolmen and the general public as well, the term\n** college\" is generally understood to mean four years of advanced study\nbeyond the American type of secondary[_school.\nThejerm university is less\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n551\n\ngenerally understood and more carelessly used. Our chief concern is to find\nthe present place of the normal school in a system of public education.\nIf the normal school is out of the main current, then what about the law\nschool, the medical school, and other departments of special and professional\neducation already recognized as integral parts of our public-education system ?\nAt the conclusion of the high-school course the student finds divergent\nroads leading to opportunity in as many directions. The '^current\" simply\ndivides, due to the necessary differentiation of specialized schools designed to\nfit the individual for efficiency in one or another of the various professions,\nindustries, or occupations. Teaching is one of these lines of differentiation,\nand special training is just as essential for this profession as for that of law,\nmedicine, or the ministry. The traditional courses in languages, mathematics,\nsciences, and the humanities v^dll no more make a teacher out of a man than\nthey will make a lawyer out of him. If a prospective lawyer should be\ntrained in a law school, and the embryonic physician in a medical school, so\nshould the teacher-in-the-making be trained in a school whose one business\nis to make teachers.\nResolution number two, adopted a year ago, asserts that the standard for\nsuch a school shall be graduation from a four-year high-school course for\nadmission and two years of work of collegiate rank for graduation in case of\nelementary teachers, and four years of such work for graduation in case of\nsecondary teachers. This resolution was adopted without one dissenting vote,\naltho some objection was taken in the discussion that preceded. If this is\nto be our standard, why is not the teachers' professional school a college ?\nIt is to do collegiate work only, altho it may have a preparatory department\nin connection with it. But so have some of our great universities and many\nof our colleges.\nPerhaps the prevailing criticism of normal-school standards of scholarship arises from the fact that it was once true. But this discussion is without\npith or point if we fail to recognize the evolution and advancement in the\ncourses for the training of teachers. The normal school of 1909 is no more\nlike the normal school of 1839 than is the college of today Hke the college of\nthat day — ^in fact, there has been less organic change in the college in a hundred years than in the normal school in the past fifty years. If we fail to recognize the pioneer work done by the private normal schools in advance of the\nstate normal schools, we are ungenerous, ungrateful, and untrue to our educational history. Much of the criticism of the work done in these normal schools\nhas been made by men who were not familiar with that work or who were\nignorant of the conditions that made the elementary normal school necessary.\nThe evolution of the normal school lias gone on apace until now we can\nspeak of the normal college, the teachers' college, the college for teachers, or\nthe school of education. Is it not time that we should so fix terms and standards as to indicate this evolution ? If a school for teachers sets graduation\nfrom a four-year high school as its standard for admission, why is it not a\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "552\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ncollege in every sense of that term ? Why not call all such institutions teachers'\ncolleges or colleges for teachers? Iowa has already taken legislative steps\nin this direction and the State Normal School at Cedar Falls is now the\nIowa State Teachers' College. Why not ? Missouri is about to rename her\nstate normal schools and they will be known as the Kirksville State Teachers'\nCollege, the Cape Girardeau State Teachers' College, etc. Ohio's two state\nnormal schools have been officially known since their organization in 1902\nas the State Normal Colleges. Other states have also taken action in this\ndirection, and the movement has just begun.\nGood as the word is, would it not be better to drop the term \"Normal\"\nas a part of the name of a professional training school ? The term has been\nso badly abused that it would be better to drop it in every case where the\ninstitution is able to measure up to the standard of a recognized college. This\ndoes not mean that a teachers' college may not have a preparatory department or do sub-freshman work. The teachers' colleges have just as much\nright to do this kind of work as any other college. Besides, it is quite necessary\nand will doubtless always be necessary, especially so long as teachers are\nrequired to teach for less than as many dollars a year as there are days in a\nyear. We can scarcely expect teachers to attend high school and college from\nsix to eight years beyond the highest grade they are to teach, and to return to the\nelementary schools as teachers for 84 cents a day, the average now paid all\nthe elementary teachers in the United States, distributing their salaries over\n365 days, the same as their board bills. Let us not forget that a two-year\ncollege course for an elementary teacher gives her six years of education and\ntraining beyond the eighth grade, the highest grade, measured by knowledge\nof academic subject-matter, that she can be required to teach; while the\nfour-year college course for the high-school teacher takes her but four years\nbeyond her senior class.\nThe ideal standard for the elementary teacher is graduation from a fouryear high school followed by not less than two years of further education and\ntraining in a teachers' college, prepared to give the right amount and kind of\nacademic, cultural, and professional training in proper proportion. Just what\nthis proportion is will doubtless be discussed later in this program, but we\nshould not forget that true pedagogical methods cannot stand long on a superficial knowledge of subject-matter. No amount of psychology, principles or\nscience of education, and methods, can take the place of a well-built foundation\nin language, science, mathematics, history, and art. On the other hand, no\namount of expert knowledge of these things will guarantee success on the part\nof him who undertakes to arouse the dormant intellect, ''to ring the rising\nbell in the dormitory of the soul,\" to teach, to guide, to fashion a character.\nThe genuine teaching power is an imperative requirement of the teacher, and a\nthoro knowledge of the mental processes, the interdependence of motives and\nideals, the stimuli that arouse and call to response and reaction the deeper:\ncurrents of the inner life of the pupil, are as essential to produce self -activity\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmenti\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n553\n\non the part of the pupil and train him to social efficiency as is a knowledge\nof all the ages. Education is not something imposed from without, but it is a\ngrowth, a development generated from within thru the application of proper\nstimuU and the supplying of the conditions of growth. These conditions must\nbe supplied by the teacher, who must necessanly be familiar with the whole\nteaching process. This familiarity she must gain in a school prepared to\ngive this professional type of instruction and training. Here is the true function\nof the teachers' college.\nBut what should be the organization of such an institution ? Shall it\nundertake to train teachers only for the elementary schools or shall it also\ntrain teachers for the high schools ? This departnient has said emphatically\nthat it shall train teachers for all branches of the public-school service —\nelementary, high, and special. On this proposition I stand.\nPubhc-school men and college men have long since conceded to the normal\nschool the function of the training of teachers for the elementary schools,\nbut the normal-school men will not abandon the idea that a normal college\nor teachers' college is the best place to train teachers for the high schools.\nAt the last meeting of the National Association of State University Presidents at Washington, in November, 1908, this question was discussed and I\nwish to quote from an address made by Dr. Alston Ellis, president of Ohio\nUniversity.\nThe most pressing need at the present time in the training of teachers for real professional work is better means for the right training of high-school teachers. Few of the\nnormal schools have courses of instruction long enough, broad enough, and strong enough\nto meet this need. The desired result can be brought about in two ways — by extending\nthe academic and professional work of the present normal schools or by the establishment\nof \"colleges of education\" in the universities. If the state is to inaugurate and order this\nwork, thru its accredited agents, local conditions should determine which plan will prove\nthe most effective as well as least expensive. Where public normal schools are meeting\nthe demand for trained high-school and special teachers, it might be a questionable policy\nfor the universities to duplicate their work. Should this be done, friction between these\neducational wards of the state will inevitably result.\nIt is of recent date that the state-supported universities have made the training of\nteachers a part of their work in the public interest. Something of a defii>ite idea of the\nmeans employed and the end held in view, in such cases, can be gained by the statements\nset forth in announcing the \"School of Education\" connected with the state universities\nof Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.\nAllow me to quote from the catalogs of these institutions: \"At present the scope of\n'the professional training in education at Indiana University is to prepare, as fully as its\nresources may permit, teachers, supervisors, and administrators for all grades of schools\nabove the common elementary schools. This includes the professional training of highschool teachers, supervisors of special subjects, principals, and superintendents, and, in\npart, the whole training of teachers for higher institutions\" (Indiana University, Bloomington).\n\" It is the purpose of the School of Education to bring together all the resources of the\nuniversity which contribute in a professional way to the preparation of three classes of\nworkers in our public-school system: (i) The high-school teacher; (2) the supervisor of\n• special subjects; (3) the school superintendent\" (University of Illinois, Urbana).\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\n\"The College of Education o£Fers both a practical and a thedretical training for prospective high-school teachers and principals, for principals of elementary schools, for\nsupervisors of special studies, and for superintendents of school systems\" (University of\nMinnesota, Minneapolis).\n\"The course for the training of teachers is intended to prepare students for teaching\nand supervising instruction, particularly in the public high schools of the state. This\npreparation rests upon the basis of a sound general education, and consists, in addition,\nof the following principal parts: (i) academic instruction in the subjects to be taught;\n(2) professional training by means of (a) departmental teachers' courses, and (6) courses\nin the departments of education and philosophy, accompanied by observational work in\nselected schools\" (University of Wisconsin, Madison).\n\nIt is conceded by President Ellis that the state-supported normal schools\nor teachers' colleges are or should be better prepared to train high-school\nteachers than are even the state universities thru their departments of education. Ifthis much can be universally conceded, there is no room for argument\nin favor of the training of high-school teachers in the average college of liberal\narts.\nThe normal school, or teachers^ college, let us now call it if it undertakes\nto train high-school teachers, must maintain four-year courses equal in scholastic standards to the recognized courses leading to the Bachelor's degree in\nour standard American colleges. But you may say, then why not have these\nhigh-school teachers go to the standard American college for their training ?\nPresident Baker has said that it would be better to add pedagogy to the college\nthan to add the college to pedagogy. That is a pretty play upon words, but\nit will not stand the test of closer scrutiny. To admit that an A.B. graduate\nis the best prepared high-school teacher is to claim either that there is no profession ofteaching or that the college of liberal arts is a teachers' professional\nschool. Either proposition would be difficult to defend. The A.B. graduate\nis no more a teacher than he is a lawyer, but he is a little nearer to the threshold. His classical course will prove very valuable to him in either profession,\nbut the thing that evolves a teacher out of this bachelor of arts is not to be\nfound in his college course.\nIf the college graduate is to teach in a high school he will need to be in\nthoro sympathy with the pilrpose and sphere of the high school. He gets no\nsuch instruction in his college course, and this idea is foreign to him. He needs\nto understand the adolescent and the many problems of adolescence, and he\nreceives Uttle or no suggestion along these lines in college. He will need to\nknow the motives and ideals that operate in the minds of boys and girls from\ntwelve to twenty years of age, and he has had no instruction along this line.\nHe will need to know the organization and articulation of the high-school\ncourses with those of the elementary on the one hand, and the college, or\nscientific school, or professional school on the other; but his college course\ngave him no opportunity to study this problem in its concrete form, and perhaps not at all. He will need to know the processes by which the mind is\naroused and by which it acquires knowledge thru its own self -activity; but\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n555\n\nhis college course gave him only an abstract idea of mental growth, for he\nhad no opportunity to take this problem to the laboratory and work it out, since\nthe college has no labarotory in education. The training school is the very\ncenter of the normal-school idea — the pedagogical laboratory — and is as\nessential to the training of the teacher as the clinic and the hospital are to the\neducation of the physician. A normal school, normal college, college for\nteachers, or school of education without a completely organized and wellequipped training school is only a school of the theory of education and this\nany college could be.\nThis high-school teacher will need to be thoroly conversant with the evolution of secondary education, the history of great movements toward making\npopular and more democratic secondary education in this country; the successes and failures, the plans, and the methods of great educators who have\ndevoted their lives to tne cause of education. He will only by chance get any\nsuch view in college, and if he does, it will be imparted in an atmosphere\nthat is more or less hostile to the very purposes of secondary education. The\ncollege wants the high schools made preparatory schools, while the people who\nestablish them and support them demand that the 96 per cent, who do not\nexpect to go to college should have their share of consideration. The college\natmosphere is not that of the professional school. A teacher needs to be\ntrained in the right kind of atmosphere.\nTo bring all these elements into the training of the high-school teacher\nhe should have the environment of a professional school, the spirit and purpose\nof instructors who feel they are training leaders in educational and professional\nthought, and the observation and practice and practice-teaching of a wellorganized and properly articulated training school including in its curriculum\nall the standard, or constant^ secondary subjects. This training school may\nbe an observation school to the pupil in the early part of his course and a\npractice school during his senior year. The observation should be done in\ntwo groups — the first while the critic teacher is doing the teaching; later in\nthe course the pupil teacher may observe the practice-teaching of other pupil\nteachers; and lastly he must teach under the skilled direction of critics and\nsupervisors. It would add to his future efficiency in the high school if he\nwere required to observe and practice in the grammar grades of the training\nschool as well.\nSuch facilities can only be obtained in a teachers' college, for the training\n[school must be an integral part of the institution, entirely under its control\nand administration, with teachers selected and directed by it, with close articulation between the departments of principles and methods on the theoretical\nside, and the practice or exemplification of these principles on the other.\nThe theory and the practice must harmonize, and this cannot be accomplished\nunless the training school is as much a department of the teachers' college\nas the department of psychology, or languages, or sciences.\nAll these things cost money.\nIf the teachers' college undertakes to train\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "556\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nteachers for the high school, not only the training school in secondary subjects but an additional teaching force will be required. The work of the normal schools has in the past been confined chiefly to the training of elementary\nteachers and boards of education have had to be content to employ college\ngraduates with neither experience nor training to do the teaching in the high\nschools. As the efficiency of elementary teachers has greatly increased thru\nnormal-trained teachers, school boards, superintendents, and patrons have\nlearned to appreciate the value of such training and are demanding similar\ntraining of high-school teachers. They are beginning to realize that the\npoorest teaching in the public schools is done in the high schools, because\noften the young teacher there thinks a diploma is the only requisite.\nThe teachers who instruct in our teachers' colleges must be scholars,\nteachers, and enthusiasts. Nothing less will enable these schools to turn out\nfrom year to year a class of young teachers prepared to elevate standards,\ncreate ideals, and professionalize the business of teaching. Here is where\nthe colleges and universities should show their hand in preparing a superior\nproduct. Even the college and university professors need often to have a\nliberal training in the science and art of teaching. It is here that we have the\nmost professional inbreeding. The university is the most liberal consumer\nof its own product, for where shall a university professor go to obtain scholarship and training above his class ?\nThe teachers' colleges have not yet engaged very extensively in the training of high-school teachers, because in the first place colleges are industrious\nin creating the impression that special training, which they are not prepared\nto give, is not essential — often, in fact, detrimental, they say; in the second\nplace the annual demand for high-school teachers is about one-fifteenth as\ngreat as for elementary teachers; and in the third place the teachers' colleges\nand normal schools have not generally prepared themselves for this grade of\ninstruction.\nIn conclusion, permit nie to say that it has been my purpose to open the\nwhole field of discussion on this, to us all, important question, and of course\nI have not undertaken to offer a final word on any phase of it. No man can\ndo that, for the normal-school idea has steadily grown into the idea of a\ncollege for professional training, and the near future will see training\nschools connected with these teachers' colleges, all including in their courses\nof instruction for the children and for the training of their future teachers\ncomplete courses in manual training, domestic science, elementary agriculture,\nand all the new demands of the civilization in which the schools live. For\nhis reason the whole problem will continue to evolve and evolve, and nobody\nwill be foolhardy enough to think he has said the final word.\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nOBSERVATION\n\n557\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL AS A SCHOOL\nAND PRACTICE\n\nOF OBSERVATION\n\nSAMUEL\n\nE. HARWOOD,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF TRAINING\nSCHOOL,\nCARBONDALE,\nILL.\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nA normal school is a professional school. Its purpose is the training of\nteachers. It believes that teaching is not only a calling, but should be in\nevery sense an art. It also believes that the teacher is not only a workman\nbut he should be an artist, not an artisan but an artist in the work he does.\nIt assumes that the number of ''born\" teachers is insufficient to meet the\ndemands of any class of schools; and that while it is a good thing to be a\n\"born\" teacher, it is a wise thing to be a trained teacher. Those who are\n\"bom\" teachers will not suffer from training, and those who are not so\n\"born\" must have it in order to attain any degree of success in teaching.\nThe normal school also assumes that a candidate for teaching has a number\nof needs, which must be satisfied in his preparation. Among these must\nbe included an abundance of knowledge — knowledge of the various subjects\nof the school course, of the nature of the child, and of the process of mediation,\nthe process of bringing child and subject into unity.\nAll this knowledge may be acquired from any available source and will\nbe valuable as knowledge; but that is its hmit, it is simply knowledge and\nis theory so far as the school is concerned. It has not been tested, put to\nservice for the children.\nThis candidate needs also an increase in power, power to feel and to do.\nI sometimes fear we are failing in that we forget the necessity of a cultivated\nemotional nature in the teacher and in the child, and the value of trained\ninitiative in both. The teacher must feel and do, to reach such results in\nthe child. He must have vigorous impulses and ready responses, that his\nmotor life be strong and efficient. Whenever this is done there is a demand\nfor skill. The outcome of any effort to use one's different possessions will\nbe in some form of skill, and this skill is one of the teacher's greatest needs.\nNo matter what the extent of his knowledge, no matter how intensely and\nreadily he feels, nor how vigorous his volitional life, the teacher must have\nskill. But skill requires practice, and practice requires observation — the\nstudy and use of the actual process of teaching. Here, as in all other activities,\nwe see the thing done and then do it. Squeers was not altogether wrong.\nThe teacher must observe and imitate what he has seen. Thus imitation\nthru observation and practice is an invaluable aid in the training of the teacher.\nThis leads us to the second point of the discussion. The training school\nis a school of observation and practice. It has no other ground for being.\nIt must present opportunity for both observation and practice. The training\nis not complete in the absence of either.\nWho then shall observe? The answer will depend on conditions. In\ngeneral there are two classes of observers: those who are classified and observe\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "5S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nunder direction, and those who observe as individuals and usually have\nlittle or no responsibility for results. In the latter case the observer guides\nhimself more or less aimlessly and simply looks at the skilled teacher and\ntries to formulate for himself the why and how of the plan and process. He\nmay ask some questions; he almost always misinterprets something of what\nKe sees. His after use of it is wholly experimental, without oversight or\ninsight.\nI suppose many training schools have some such observers. In our\nschool we are frequently asked for this privilege, the student wishing to fill a\nvacant hour by observing other students or the critics. Rarely some good\ncomes from this use of time; usually there is no careful analysis of the lessons\nand but little profit from the observations.\nThe observers of the first class are organized into groups for real study.\nThey are controlled and directed by one who knows the process and the\nprinciples underlying it. To these critics, reports are made and with them\ndiscussions are held, all looking toward the mastery of plan-making and use\nof devices. In this way observation is made systematic and purposeful.\nIt may be unwise to allow students to observe the teaching of the inexperienced,\nthe apprentice who is almost entirely unskilled. Yet it may not be altogether\na failure. Sometimes much benefit is possible from observing one who is to a\nlarge extent without skill, who is at the time feeling his way into the problem\nof teaching. His difficulties are easily noted and his ways of removing them\nmore nearly within the reach of the observer.\nIn some schools heads of departments are observed as illustrators of their\nsubjects. There should be more of this kind of observation in normal schools\nand colleges having professional courses. The heads who cannot illustrate\nthe teaching process of their own subjects fail of half their efficiency. Were\nsuch tests more common, they might tend to eliminate a share of the dullness\nin college teaching of which our president has spoken.\nWhat then shall be observed ? That is, what shall be sought in the\nobservation ?\nStudents are to observe everything that enters into the making of a teacher\nand everything injected into the actual exercise, whether wise or otherwise.\nThey should consider the plan as a whole, analyzing it to find that out of\nwhich it came. They must seek the teacher's purpose in all the means used\nand see how all these aid or hinder that purpose. They may and often should\ndo more specific work, to emphasize special pedagogic features as they appear\nin the process. For instance, the attention may be given wholly to the means\nof control used; how much of the teaching is direct or indirect; whether the\npurpose is to effect knowledge or skill ; whether one or all or any of the formal\nsteps are employed, or what is the spirit of the teacher. In every case the\nintention is to fix a relation between theory and practice in teaching.\nWhen shall this observation be done ? At what time in the student's course\nof preparation?\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRIANING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nOBSERVATION\n\n559\n\nNo hard-and-fast rule can be stated. Conditions will generally determine.\nWhenever the observer is best prepared for profitable work, according to the\njudgment of those in charge, this study may take place. Circumstances will\noften determine what is best. It should usually come in connection with the\nexperimental teaching. This brings us to the third phase of the discussion —\nthe use of the training school as a school of practice.\nWe repeat, ''There can be no real skill in teaching acquired unless there\nis opportunity for trial; skill must grow out of one's efforts to apply his knowledge and to use his powers.\" It is a very simple thing to sit and watch someone set forth by word and deed what he has in mind; but it is an entirely\ndifferent thing to put the observation into deed as an expression of one's self.\nSome of us understand this, and are forced by our observation and experience\nto the conclusion that those who observe successfully must in some way not\nonly analyze that which they have observed but must seek to put it into practice\n— to test knowledge by use, and learn to do by doing. All teachers must\ntest themselves in this way; they always have their periods of experimentation.\nThe \"bom\" teacher tests himself without training and succeeds thru trial.\nThe \"unborn\" teacher does, or should do, his experimenting under direction,\nwith close and friendly criticism, stimulated by a spirit and advice that are\nworth while. Failing in this, he conducts his experiments in the communities\nwhere he is unwisely employed, and this is the common way. It is the old\nstory of the bushel of eyes in order to acquire a skill that may cure. Nothing\nof that kind should be allowed. Candidates should be compelled to test\ntheir preparation not only of facts but their power to use those facts in school\nlife. There must be a school of practice ; it should be entered and used before\nany independent teaching is attempted.\nWho shall practice ? This question may be answered as in regard to\nobserving. The one who observes is only a candidate for practice, but not\nnecessarily at the same time. Custom differs. In some cases beginners\ndo no teaching until they have done considerable systematic observing of\nskilled teachers, reviewing and critically examining the principles employed\nunder guidance of the critic. Perhaps this is the ideal. In the school with\nwhich I am connected, we cannot always hold for that sort of observation\nprevious to his beginning practice. Conditions sometimes seem to compel\nthat individuals be allowed to undertake practice before they have done any\nobservation at all. Then the training teacher is obliged to do considerable\nillustrative teaching for that individual.\nWhen shall this practice be done ? In what year of the course ? In\nmany schools practice comes late in the student's course, in the junior or\nsenior year. It were well could it be so in all; but conditions compel otherIwise in some.\nAll over southern Illinois, I think pretty generally thru Illinois, there are\nyoung people going into the ranks every year who have had no more scholastic\nwork than the eighth grade, sometimes the high school, and who have had\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "56o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nno professional training. They have been able to pass the examinations\nand have gone into the schools without training of any kind. Perhaps they\nhave read some books of pedagogy as prescribed by the state reading circle.\nWhen these come to a summer session in the normal school, having a school\nengaged and contract signed, may it not be better that they be allowed, perhaps required, to do some practice under direction, in order that the work which\nthey are engaged to do in their schools may be less inefficient than it otherwise\nwould be ? It is our plan to allow those thus engaged to go into the practice\nclass in order that they may get something of plan-making, something of\nmethod and devices, something of purpose and inspiration to take into their\nwork as teachers.\nAn additional question arises in this connection — ^What are some of the\nsources of failure in the inexperienced teachers ? What are the most striking\nneeds of the young people ? What are the points of emphasis with the training teachers?\nThe commonest cause of failure is lack of knowledge. The beginner\nmay have a large number of facts in his subjects but they are unorganized,\nand have no unity for teaching purposes. Sometimes they are systematically\narranged so far as the subject is concerned, but have no professional relation,\nhave not been thought of in regard to the child. The failure is not in quantity\nof knowledge but in its adaptation to schoolroom uses. They must be led\nto see their possessions as means well ordered for teaching purposes.\nAgain our candidates fail in the matter of planning, which correlates\nitself closely with the matter of knowledge. If the candidate understands\nhis subject-matter in relation to the child or the class, he is more likely to\nplan his work in all its details. He will need some help as to forms so that\nhe may save time.\nThey fail often in their lack of control — executive power. They have the\ncommon notion of discipline: it is something to be imposed upon the child\ninstead of growing up in him with his other growths. They need to learn\nthat control is a form of teaching; and good teaching is a form of control.\nThe inexperienced need help to see how conditions may be made to remove\nantagonism between the child and the various activities of the school. They\nneed to learn the difference between leading and driving, the fitting time of\neach, so that the child will be satisfied with the teacher's authority because\nof the teacher's kindly leadership.\nThese beginners often fail in resourcefulness. They do not have at\ncommand the things they know or possess. They are not inventive. When\none thing fails they have no other available. They need help in putting\ninto place what they know and in doing promptly what they believe ought to\nbe done.\nThey fail too in the teacher attitude or spirit. Many young people think\nteaching is simply an easy way to earn money, an occupation for gain only.\nThey fail to see themselves in close relation to child life and as formative\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n561\n\ninfluences for child character. They do not consider that the teacher is\nessentially a missionary and cannot accept the mercenary as at all a controlling\ninfluence in his life-plans. Teaching cannot become a trade, nor will teachers\never be trade-unionists, however much they may federate their higher interests.\nTo aid in bringing the young teachers into this attitude, into possession\nof this spirit, is one aim of the training school and of the critic teacher; so that\nthe young teacher will be an enthusiast full of aspiration for the best things for\nhimself and of inspiration to the young lives intrusted to his care.\nTHE\n\nFUNCTIONS OF THE TRAINING SCHOOL:\nITS RELATIONS TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PRINCIPLES AND\nMETHODS\n\nC. B. ROBERTSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF PRACTICE,\nSCHOOL,\nCORTLAND,\nN. Y.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nThis meeting of the Department of Normal Schools is interesting and\nhistoric because in 1895, at Denver, this department, following the suggestion\nof President Snyder, took action that led to the appointment of a now famous\nCommittee on Normal Schools, who thru several years of faithful, painstaking,\nintelligent work and much investigation gave us, in 1899, the Normal School\nBible. This is the tenth anniversary of the publishing of that remarkable\nreport, whose clearness, saneness, and brevity have seldom been equaled.\nIt stated so well the principles that are fundamental in the normal-school\norganism that it has been a sort of Magna Charta. We owe a large debt to\nPresident Snyder and his corps of distinguished associates for this document.\nMuch that has been said ever since and will be said for some time to come\non normal schools is a repetition or an expansion of that report.\nThe ten years since that report was made public have seen a steady improvement in the normal schools of this country. Som^e of these improvements\nI know, and many I believe, are traceable to the common sense and logic\nfound therein. The progress that has been most marked, it seems to me,\nis the increasing appreciation in which the training departments are held.They are coming into a position of authority and power, because their place,\nfunction, and value have been proven.\nThere is no longer any question in the minds of those competent to judge\nthat the place of the training school is pivotal; it is the hub from which should\nradiate all the activities of the other departments. The time is here when\na normal school will no longer say that they have associated with them a\ntraining department.\nThe late and much lamented Dr. Noss said, \"Man has a soul; better,\nman is a soul.\" The training school is not the whole normal school, but it is\nthe soul of the normal school and distinguishes normal from other schools.\nThe great normal schools have become great thru their training schools.\nThe name ''normal school\" has become broadened so that it is now generally\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ntaken for granted that each normal school includes a training department,\nnot as an adjunct, but as a necessary, vital part without which the school\nis not a true normal school.\nNo set of specific conditions could be laid down for the organization of a\ntraining school because of the lack of uniform conditions, local and general.\nThe general purpose of the training school will continue to be to give to\nthose under its charge ''such a preparation for life that they in turn may\nprepare others to enter fully, readily, and righteously into their inheritances.\"\nIt should be a source of information, inspiration, and power to all who come\nwithin its influence, whether student, schoolman, or outsider. \"This school\nmust give or require of those committed to its care scholarship. The school\nmust associate or arrange this knowledge that it may be reimparted. The\nschool must give to each student the opportunity to develop the art of imparting this knowledge, to the end that he may acquire skill therein. The school's\ngreatest function is to develop that subtle essential — character, personality —\nthat indescribable atmosphere without which all the other qualities are of no\nvalue.\"\nThe dualism that very generally exists in a normal school is shown by its\nbeing called a normal and training school. It is unfortunate that there\nexists such a line of demarkation as theoretical and training departments.\nThe normal school of the future will be built about the child as a center,\nand everyone will be a close student of the child and be with the child as\nmuch as possible. \"Lo, a little child shall lead them\" is a truth that will be\ndemonstrated more and more in educational afifairs.\nThe true success of any enterprise depends upon its aim, organization, and\npersonnel. The first two elements we either have in the school, or should\nhave.\nThe normal-school report in naming the essential qualifications of a normalschool teacher wisely gave character the first place. Character is the adjustment of our activities, as expressed in conduct along well-defined lines, in\nwhich the opinions and cumulative judgments of the past are considered\nand acted upon — ''a completely fashioned will.\" We have no word or\ndefinition that makes the idea clear; it is power — efiiciency. The need of\ncare in securing this sterling quality in normal-school teachers is greater than\nin any other school, because of the direct influence this institution has on the\nfuture character of the citizenship of the state and the necessity of producing\nin them that inner stability of which Herbart spoke, or that simplicity for which\nPlato pleaded.\nSound scholarship is needed in the normal-school teacher, and I ain using\nthe term to include all the teaching force of the school. It gives a confidence\nand a power to the teacher that commands, and gets, and holds respect. One\nof the charges brought against us is that we have not attended to this matter,\nand the criticism has been in a measure fair, but there has been a marked\nimprovement in the scholastic standing of the faculties of normal schools\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n563\n\nin recent years. There has been much less inbreeding and a large increase\nin the number among us who have been trained in higher institutions.\nIt is true that productive scholarship on the part of normal-school faculties\nhas not been as frequent as desired, but there are a goodly number of cases of\nproductive scholarship and many more who began there to be productive and\nhave been taken to other fields. The work of the heads of departments of\nnormal schools should be so arranged that they would find the time for investigation, because they have a large field at hand and it is largely unexplored. The\nnormal schools should become the centers of certain lines of investigation and\ntake their proper place as authorities in child-study and the adaptation of\npractice and theory; but the teaching force is overworked and has but little\ntime or energy left for such employment. If such a plan were in operation,\nit would react favorably on the institutions by increasing the respect and\nconfidence in which they would be held, as well as by enabling normal schools\nto hold those master minds who have the ability to do research work. It\nwould give tone to the institution.\nThe heads of departments should be well trained and of sufficient maturity\nto have stability, and they should have had some kind of public-school experience— that is, they should appreciate somewhat the fact that the problems\nthey meet are problems of the child and his proper adjustment, and can be\nacquired only by experience.\nIt is not necessary to produce proof that a teacher needs to have culture\nand show the evidence of it at every point — that \"intellectual and spiritual\nfullness that is so easily recognized \" either by its presence or absence, and so\ndifficult of definition. We need to recall that from the teacher of the normal\nschool radiates most of the culture that many students have ever had, and the\nculture thus acquired is passed, in turn, to countless numbers of their pupils\nwho are seeking social and ethical light. That is a reason for less rigidity\nin the course of study for the child, and a reason for more interest on the part\nof the normal school in culture training.\nTeachers must have certain qualities that, taken together, we call teaching\nability, in order to meet the requirements of our ideal. All of these quahties\nare never absent, but the more that are present the higher is the teaching\nability of the individual, provided some neutralizing conditions do not mar\nthe effect.\nIt is very desirable that a teacher have the elements of and develop freedom,\nease of manner, confidence, quick adaptation and adjustment, power to\npresent ideas clearly and logically, and a high degree of questioning skill.\nIf these qualities are lacking the case is hopeless, but if they are present even ^'n\nsmall degree, they may be developed.\nSympathy with the life of the young, tact, confidence, adaptation, resourcefulness, sense of humor, buoyant temperament, child-Hke faith, we cannot\nacquire; but all of these virtues may be increased by adjustment.\nThe teacher of an institution should have such a spirit of professional\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nloyalty and enthusiasm and sympathy for the institution that he would inspire\nin every student in the institution admiration, loyalty, confidence, and imitation. One note of discord makes more trouble than all the harmony produced\ncan offset. It should be the policy in the normal schools more than in any\nother schools to have the motto, \" Get in line or get out.\"\nThe ethics of our profession, when mentioned, always causes amusement.\nWe need a code formulated, adopted, and lived up to; particularly do we\nneed to be safeguarded against causes of criticisms that often come upon us.\nHaving assumed a well-selected teaching force for the normal school,\nhow may the school be organized to produce the highest results? There\nshould be a school policy or principle of organization actuating all, from\nthe principal of the school to the janitors, and there must be a constant endeavor\nto shape the work so that there may be secured what we call \"team work.\"\nThe individual department must forego special development because we are\nnot making specialists.\nIt is most unfortunate that the heads of normal schools are called upon to\ngive a large part of their time, energy, and thought to politics and schemes\nof finance in order to secure the needed income for the institutions that they\nrepresent. They have often to become men of business, instead of giving\nall their energies toward the consummation of the aim of the schools.\nAgain, the normal school should consist of a single department, constructed\nabout the child as a center.\nThere must be harmony of theory and practice, a common interest and\nenthusiasm in order that the student-teacher may transmute his theoretic\nknowledge into skill.\nThe educational policy of the institution may be of long standing; it may\nbe the product of the president; but whatever its origin, there must be constant\ndirection and adjustment to the end that the faculty may work out satisfactorily\nthis scheme. This can best be given by the head of the school, who should be\nin close touch with all its activities.\nThe heads of departments should work together for the common end,\nand the details of each department's work can be carried out in harmony only\nby frequent conferences. Many details of co-operation between departments\ncan be worked out in conference, and if needed by demonstration. For\ninstance, all teachers who have children in written work should know how\nto direct and criticize the work and must insist that the child continue the\nwriting lesson into the language, history, or geography lesson. Let the teacher\nof writing-theory show by a lesson the work to the faculty. To carry over\nfrom one subject to another the idea must be the combined aim of all working with the child, the better to form the habit in each condition.\nThe department of educational theory and philosophy should lead in all\nthis organization. This co-operation and common knowledge of what is\nbeing done by different departments will result in the elimination of duplicate\nwork.\nThe question naturally comes up as to whether we may not be over-\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n565\n\norganized. That is possible but not probable. The natural jealousy for the\nprominence and success of your own work, and your own individuality, will\nprevent perfect uniformity. Individuality and freedom are valuable assets\nand must not be organized out of existence or surrendered, except so much\nof them as is needed to conform to the general policy of the institution. It\nis evident that the most effective results can be secured when the policy of\nthe school is held closely before us; when each teacher is a teacher of the\nmethod of the institution, and methods of his subject are not exalted unduly.\nWe have assumed that the child and the training school are the centers\nof the normal school. It is evident, then, that the various instructors of\nstudents in theory and practice must have a large common ground known to\nall the teaching force so that there will be substantial agreement between\nthem as to modes of procedure and fundamental ideas, and that no confusion\nof ideas on the part of the students may result.\nI know of no way of keeping the teachers of subject-matter and theory in\ntouch with the needs and capacities of children, and of keeping these teachers\nfrom soaring into the impossible or impracticable, but by requiring each\nteacher to teach his subject regularly to a grade of children — not once in a\nwhile a special lesson, or to show off some special feature; but to do this daily,\nand thus subject his theories to the only test worth while — that of practice —\nand allow these theories to stand if successful, or be changed if need be. All\nteachers of theory should demand this as their privilege and right, and if they\ndo not, they should be given a vision on the subject that will lead them to the\nlight.\nThis method keeps the problems of the student-teacher before them and\nmakes them charitable; recalls and emphasizes the practical; reminds them\nof the child and his importance, and gives an opportunity for investigation,\nverification, adjustment, and experimentation. ''Theory out of touch with\npractice becomes dogmatic and groundless speculation.\"\nThe above plan sometimes will result in an entire change in theory, especially ifthe theory is taught by young teachers with small or no experience with\nchildren. Not a few teachers of theory hesitate about doing this work. They\ndoubt their abiHty to produce results, and are conscious of a lack of skill, or a\nlack of sympathy for children, and an inability to get to the child's viewpoint.\nThe main contention, however, is that theory and practice must agree. We\nmust be shown that it will work. There is another advantage; it helps to\ndestroy the unfortunate distinction between subject and critic teachers, which\nsometimes leads one group or the other to feel that they are the central feature\nof the institution. The reason for this tendency is clear; many of the teachers\nof subject and theory have had different preparation and less experience than\nthe critic teachers.\nThe classes so taught are the best places to have the teachers in training\ndo their work in observation, in preparation for their work of teaching. This\nobservation should be directed by the teacher in charge, according to a definite\nplan.\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nIn addition to the teaching of children, each teacher should be given some\nwork of supervision. It may be small in amount, but it will give a broader\nview, a deeper sympathy, and a keener understanding of the tribulations of\na teacher in training. There must be no clashing of authority or crossing\nof purposes in such supervision.\nEach supervisor must have specific duties.\nIt is a good plan to have the supervisors and critics of grade work regularly\nmeet the teachers in training in their various classes of theory to discuss the\ndevices and plans of work, their variation to the needs of the child in the\ndifferent grades, and the pedagogy of the subject in practice. Teachers who\nonly supervise sometimes become mechanical and engrossed in device, so\nthat they lose sight of the larger and more important things.\nIt has been customary to make the program of the training school fit into\nthe program of the department of theory, but the time will come when this\nwill be just changed about.\nIn order that the training school be most effective it should be conducted,\nas nearly as its peculiar incumbrances will permit, along the lines of a firstclass graded school. The students in training must be permitted to put into\nactual practice those principles that they have acquired both as to theory and\nclass mechanics, that these ideas may have concrete and correct expression.\nThe students in training must be subjected to criticism that is helpful, constructive, suggestive, hopeful, to the end that they may go from us as selfcritics. Encourage in them initiative and efficiency.\nIn the weekly conference of students, it works well to have questions\nin regard to pedagogical subjects submitted by the students. These are\nthen classified, and the topics assigned for investigation and future discussion\nby the students at round-table, which should be conducted by various members of the teaching force. These meetings often show us defects in the theory\nand mechanics of our work, where theory has gone to seed, or the spirit of\neducation become lost in the fog of form.\nThe study and investigation of other schools, not only of the particular\ndepartment of your interest but especially how results are obtained by good\nteachers in graded schools, will often be an inspiration and a revelation to\nthe normal-school teacher. The necessary expense of such visiting by various\nselected members of the faculty should be borne by the school. For these\nvisitors to \"hunt in pairs\" is of some advantage. They should follow a\nplan — not too extensive, but more intensive — and make a formal report to\nthe faculty, when the points observed may be taken up for discussion. Visiting without report is like observation without conference. The cuhnination\nand end of securing knowledge is the expression and practice of it.\nAnother point of contact that must soon be taken up and carried out by\nus is the study of defective children and the training of teachers for this\nfield by selecting those showing special ability that will adapt them for such\nwork.\nThere then must be about a normal school that is alive, and that lives up\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n567\n\nto the light it has, an atmosphere of co-operation, sincerity, helpfulness and\nhopefulness, keen discernment, and unlimited sympathy shown by all connected therewith.\nDISCUSSION\nHenry G. Williams, State Normal College, Ohio University (replying to a question\nby a member). — In Ohio our normal colleges, in connection with our other state institutions— colleges of liberal arts — grant a Bachelor's degree to graduates after a four-year\ncourse.\nFrancis G. Blair, state superintendeut of public instruction, Springfield, 111. — About\nwhat proportion of the graduates receive the Bachelor's degree ?\nJohn R. Kirk, president of State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. — I think the\npractice of giving the degree of B.A. in Missouri is not more than two or three years old.\nThe school that I represent has not given more than five or six individuals the degree of\nB.A. We are very careful about it for the reason that an intense prejudice exists against\nit in some quarters, some of our higher institutions opposing very bitterly any such action\nby the normal schools. We have been very careful to make our requirements probably\na little more exacting than at the university, and certainly more exacting than at some of\nthe sO'Called colleges. In Missouri we have long given a degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy\nin some of the normal schools, while others I think have never given that degree. In the\nschool which I represent, the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy has been given to people who\nhave had about three years more instruction than is included in an accredited four-year\nhigh-school course. I think one of the other normal schools, the one at Cape Girardeau,\nhas gone somewhat farther in providing for the B.A. course than the other normal schools.\nI think that is where we have been a little bit weak — not standing up for our rights as\nnormal school people, and I wish to say that what President Williams says in his paper\nand the idea which underlies it, is an expression of the intention on the part of the normal\nschools to move ahead and become better than they have ever been. There are two things\nfor the normal schools to do; both of them have been referred to in the president's paper.\nOne is that the normal school should move forward vigorously to something better\nthan it has ever done, and the other is that the normal school should stand up energetically and positively for its rights as a school for the preparation of teachers.\nJoseph H. Hill, president of State Normal School, Emporia, Kans. — I wish to give\nan answer to Superintendent Blair's question with reference to Kansas. In Kansas there\nwere graduated this year a class of 100, and 8 received the degree of Bachelor of Education.\nI do not have the complete data as to the normal class of next year, but I should say that\nthere will be 15 to 20 who will receive the degree.\nCommenting on President Williams' paper, I am in complete accord with every\nposition that he took in regard to the training of teachers from the elementary\nschool thru every grade in the public-school system. There is no cleavage between the\neighth and ninth grades and no justice in the system which says that the upper part\nbelongs to the university and the lower part belongs to the normal schools. This proposition with regard to the normal college has passed beyond the stage of experiment, and, so\nfar as our work is concerned, I am going forward in recognition of the fact that this is the\nnatural and proper evolution of that work. I have no concern in the fact that the universities are doing pedagogical work, and I hope that they will realize their possibilities and\ndo real pedagogical work along the same lines in which the normal schools are directing\ntheir efforts. Then if we are all working along these lines effectively, there will be none\n^ too many of us.\nPresident Williams, of Ohio. — I find by study of various reports that the demand\nfor high-school teachers is one-sixteenth of the demand for elementary teachers, so that\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "568\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nif the state normal schools were to graduate with the A.B. degree one out of every sixteen\nfrom its classes, it would be keeping pace with the relative demand for teachers from\nsecondary schools.\nW. S. Dearmont, president of State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo. — I rise\nsimply to add to what President Kirk has said a statement of the fact that the normal schools\nof Missouri were authorized when they were founded, about forty years ago, to confer degrees.\nAt any rate they have been conferring these degrees for many years, and I suppose that\nthe provision was in the original statutes. For many years the only degree conferred\nwas the degree of Bachelor of Scientific Didactics — later the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy\nhas been conferred upon the graduates of the advanced normal course. The requirements of that course are now about two and a half years of college work. In 1902 the\nBoard of Regents of the school at Cape Girardeau adopted a resolution to the effect that\nthe school would offer four-year college courses above the high-school course and confer\nthe A.B. degree.\nJohn W. Cook, president of State Normal School, DeKalb, 111. — I desire to ask the\npresident whether he finds any difficulty in normal schools from the fact that the methods\nemployed in the academic instruction of these candidates for teaching is so severely a\ncollege method as to induce them to carry the methods into the secondary schools. I\nwant to know whether the graduates who go into the high schools are disposed to carry\nthere the methods of the college rather than the methods which are proper for the secondary\nschools.\nI have observed that some of our teachers in high schools are disposed to conduct\nthe recitations of the secondary schools upon the method of the university; that is, the\nteacher does a large part of the talking. I desire to know what the chairman in his experience has to say in that respect.\nPresident Williams.*— I should like to say that this is exactly the trouble. The\ngraduate of the college, who has had impressed upon him the importance of the training\nin mathematics, language, etc., goes directly into the high school, as the most available\ncandidate for the position, and the first thing he does is to teach as he was taught, introducing college and university methods into the high school with adolescents, and in that\npart he fails. If he had an insight into the problems of adolescence, if he had the philosophy\nand purpose of normal-school methods combined with his regular college course, he would\nmake a much better teacher in the high school.\nIn our school we require for admission to the college course graduation from a fouryear high school, exactly the same requirements as for admission to the college of liberal\narts. The state normal college and the college of liberal arts are in every sense co-ordinate\n— each has its own support from the state, each has its own separate mill-tax fund, but\nthe student in the state normal college will receive instruction in the languages in the\nuniversity classes and so in mathematics and some other branches. Instead of lowering\nstandards it has been with us a decided impetus to raise standards. In no instance has a\ngraduate of our four-year course in the state normal college gone out and made a failure\nas a teacher; in no instance has the scholarship of such a graduate been in any sense below\nthat of the best of the four-year courses in colleges of liberal arts.\nState Superintendent Blair. — ^My contention is that these normal schools have\nno business dabbling with these degrees until they fulfill the first purpose for which the\nstate established them — that of preparing teachers for the elementary grades. I am afraid\nthat when they begin to give A.B. degrees they will emphasize the preparation of teachers\nfor the secondary-school work, and leave the little fellows to dangle their feet. Let the\nnormal schools serve the purpose for which they were established.\nPresident Cook, of Illinois. — Does not the problem of the teacher decrease as\nthe self-directive capacity of the pupil increases ? Consequently do we not have the great-\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n569\n\nest problem in the lowest grades ? If that be so, would it not show that we should turn\nour main strength upon that first?\nH. B. Brown, president of Valparaiso University.^I think that in our state of Indiana\nwe have solved some of these questions. We have but one state normal school, which\nis the head of a system of accredited schools for preparing teachers for their work. No\nperson can apply for an examination for a certificate to teach in the public schools of our\nstate unless he has had a high-school education or its equivalent, and he must have had\nat least twelve weeks of professional work in the state normal school or some one of the\naccredited schools for class \"A\" certificate. Then if he teaches one year successfully\nhe can come back and take twelve weeks more of professional work and apply for a second,\nor class \"B \" certificate. If he wants class \"C\" certificate he must not only have had the\nhigh-school education or its equivalent, but he must have been successful as a teacher\nfor two years and he must have completed a professional course of study.\nThe teacher who secures the lowest grade of certificate in our state cannot receive\nless than about $50 per month; for the next grade he cannot receive less than $60 and for\nthe next he cannot receive less than $70. We are having now an average of seven months\nof school in all of the counties and in many of them nine months. We have a number of\nteachers in the country schools of Indiana who are receiving $100 per month. Before long\nwe are going to have the salary for the lowest grade increased from $50 to $60 per month\nand correspondingly increase the preparation of the teacher, the next grade $70, and the\nnext $80. We have in our state about 18,000 teachers; up to the time of establishing\nthe minimum limit we had to prepare about 4,500 teachers each year. After the new law\nwas enforced there was a change of only 1,000 teachers. Increase the qualifications and\nincrease the salaries and these people will have positions which they will not care to leave.\nPresident Kirk, of Missouri. — I think President Brown has done us good. We have\ngone aside this morning from more important matters that need consideration, to debate\nabout the small' number of persons who get Bachelor's degrees from normal schools. I\nreally wish personally that Superintendent Blair would quit twisting the lion's tail, for\nwhile it may be a satisfaction to him, it is not going to hurt the lion. The lion is going right\non just the same, because he is on the right track. \" This time the lion is the normal school;\nyesterday it was the universities. . Now as I understand it, normal schools are not worrying very much about getting to confer degrees. That is a mere incident to the growth of\nnormal schools.\nI have spent a few days in rural schools lately and I have spent a little while in some\nKansas City schools, and I want to say that I have found some rural-school instruction\njust as good as I have found in the best schools in Kansas City, and I want to say also\nthat the rural schools of Missouri will bear inspection as much as the high schools of our\nstate will bear inspection. Formerly my sympathies were with the university and for\nabout five years I pleaded in the state of Missouri for that false standard set up thru the\nHigher Education Department of the National Education Association that every fellow\nwho taught anybody else ought to have four years' more scholarship than the one he\nteaches; but I have found that our best teachers have teaching instincts and habits, and\ndo not always need that extra scholastic attainment.\nZ. X. Snyder, president of State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.-— I have never been\nso thoroly convinced in my life before that when you want to convince a Missourian you\nhave got to show him. In regard to this proposition I am in very strong accord with the\npaper of the president and also that of Dr. Robertson. The function of the normal school\nis the preparation of teachers for the elementary grades, the preparation of teachers for\nsecondary schools, the preparation of teachers for music, art, drawing, manual training,\nphysical education, playground work, teaching the blind and deaf. I believe the time is\ncoming when the normal school will be so connected with the charitable institutions that\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nhave children in them that there will be a preparation of teachers for positions in the schools\nfor the deaf and blind, and for every other school for defective or special classes of pupils\nin state-supported institutions, with a special training for each particular thing.\n\nTHE\n\nDAVIS\n\nBILL IN ITS RELATION\nSCHOOLS\n\nTO NORMAL\n\n(Report of the National Committee on Agricultural Education)\nHOMER\n\nH.\n\nSEERLEY,\n\nCHAIRMAN,\nSTATE TEACHERS\nCEDAR FALLS, IOWA.\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe beginning. — In February, 1907, there was a special meeting of superintendents ofpublic instruction of a number of states and of presidents of\nnormal schools to decide what had best be done to encourage both state and\nnational action in order to provide some more effective means to hasten the\nintroduction of agricultural teaching into the rural schools of the United\nStates. It was recognized by those who were interested personally and\nofficially in this problem that in many respects the times were ripe for action,\nas the demand from all kinds of sources were loud and strong for this kind of\nbetterment of public education. There had been certain definite measures\npending before the United States Congress for some years looking toward the\nco-operation of the nation with the several states to hasten the day of such\nconsummation. Large interest had also come from the creation of the Department of Agriculture as a co-ordinate branch of executive government as the\ndistinguished secretaries had aroused much consideration in the possibilities of\nagricultural education for the masses, while the last Secretary of Agriculture,\nHon. James Wilson, had been specially active in endeavoring to arouse interest\namong the people at large concerning the great value and importance of such\npractical education for the rural populations.\nThe training of teachers. — At the same time the prominent success and\npopularity of the state colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts and the\nstate experiment stations, both of which were largely founded and supported in\nthe beginning by national grants of land and money, gave encouragement to\nthe hope that the national government could also be induced to take a hand\nin the training of teachers of agriculture for the public schools thru the state\nnormal schools, and thru this initiative practically induce the states to add\nequivalent large amounts of money to the national contribution, just as had\nbeen done in the development and expansion of the work of the agricultural\ncolleges. There being ahnost unanimity of agreement concerning the desirability and the feasibility of such a plan of promotion, it was decided to organize\na national committee whose special business would be the arousing of public\ninterest and the unifying of the friends of these measures in the several states\nso that from both national and state standpoints agitation might be conducted,\nand both Congress and state legislature be urged to accept the plan and adopt\nsome practical scheme that would enable this very important work to be\naccomplished.\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nlAVIS^BILL\n\n57I\n\nThe normal schools can help. — It was further recognized that the state\nnormal schools were of a character and were already so well organized and\nmaintained that they could easily add to their functions this special kind of\nendeavor without much additional extraordinary expense, since professional\ninstruction in education in general, and special instruction in public-school\nwork in particular, was already very completely established and thoroly\norganized. In addition, these state teachers' schools were now in every state,\nin some states duplicated several times, and in addition they were well organized, popularly supported, enthusiastically managed and were also in entire\nsympathy with the schools and the teachers to be benefited.\nThe work of the committee and the Burkett hill. — To accomplish this service\nthe national committee assumed that the first great work to do was to secure\nthe means to organize laboratories, teachers' training classes, and adopt\ncourses of study that would enable the training of special teachers to be a\nreality. The most reasonable and feasible plan as a practical and sensible\nmeasure that was then in sight was a proposed plan that was in Congress and\nwas known as the Burkett bill. This bill, which had been introduced by the\nSenator from Nebraska, provided for but one thing — the education of teachers\nin agriculture and mechanic arts thru the state normal schools — and made a\nmoderate appropriation, that would necessarily need to be supplemented from\nthe treasuries of the several states, to give the resources necessary to accomplish in an effective way the proposed undertaking. To this measure the\nnational committee gave its hearty co-operation for two Congresses. Progress\nin the spreading of information and the gaining of support for the cause in\neducational ways has been accomplished ; but thus far, due to many different\ncauses, this bill has not yet been reported from the Senate Committee on\nAgriculture and as a measure is still awaiting the sanction of those authorized\nto adopt laws suitable for the needs of the people. This condition is not due\nto lack of appreciation of the value of the plans proposed, but is due to a sort\nof inertia that is a part of legislation, since so many great problems are pressing\nfor attention and decision at the same time. Educational matters are of a\nnature and kind that they receive very minor attention from Congress, and\nmany of the more effective members hesitate to believe that the United States\ngovernment can afford to add to its field of legislative labor these kinds of\nproblems, however important to the people at large.\nThe Davis hill. — In addition, complications have arisen among the friends\nof agricultural education for the rural communities by the introduction into\nthe House of Representatives of a measure for secondary education in agriculture, popularly known as the Davis bill. This measure originally provided\nno way whereby the educating and training of teachers in agriculture and\nmechanic arts could be successfully accomplished; but thru the influence\nand arguments of the national committee, the Davis measure was so remodeled\nby its author as to care properly for this special training. Hence the Burkett\nbill in the Senate and the Davis bill in the House have been the more promi-\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nnent measures that have been seeking adoption at the hands of the people's\nrepresentatives in Congress. The Davis bill is the most far-reaching one,\nin its benefits to the masses, that has ever been before Congress. It is a proper\nmeasure and would not interfere with any educational work now being done,\nwhile it would greatly increase the educational advantages offered to the boys\nand girls of the United States. There is much difference of opinion among the\nfriends of agricultural education and there is some doubt now as to the possibility ofthese differences being adjusted. Under the rules of the House, that\nhave prevailed in recent years, the authority of the Speaker is practically\ncapable of suppressing consideration of any measure not necessarily acceptable\nto this prominent congressional official. Hence, notwithstanding the Davis\nmeasure would pass with a large majority if a vote of the members of the\nHouse could be taken on the merits of the same, yet the Speaker has so organized the Committee on Agriculture that no report on the Davis bill has been\nmade, and it now appears as if none will be made as long as the present arbitrary methods of management are permitted to be the authorized procedure\nin legislating for the future.\nThe progress made. — Despite these untoward conditions, much real progress has been made since the national committee has been organized. Some\nof the states have authorized teacher-training in agriculture in the normal\nschools. Others have taken it up without legislation, and there is good reason\nto think that within a decade all these schools will have some suitable work\nin this direction and that some plan will be adopted that will bring actual\ninstruction in elementary agriculture to every pupil in the rural schools.\nThere is more agreement today existing as to the immediate need of this\ninstruction being given; there is more faith among the educators themselves\nas to the possibility of such work being able to be successfully carried out;\nthere is positive feeling that the plans of doing the work are practicable and\npossible; there is unanimous opinion in the national committee that the promoting of these plans should be continued until action is reached. Those\nbest qualified to decide believe that a continuous keeping of these matters\nbefore the pubHc consciousness will gradually compel public attention and\nwill finally secure satisfactory decision by both the states and the nation.\nThe most important work next to be done is to convince all friends of\nindustrial education that (i) there will never be much done that will be of\ngreat benefit to the industrial classes until the public schools are made an\nactual factor in the service of the state; and (2), that the nation must co-operate\nto that end, recognizing that of all the problems to be solved by the American\npeople none of them is so far-reaching and will take more sincere, thoughtful\nconsideration than this of the universal education of the coming generations\nin the industrial arts. However sanguine educators may be as to securing of\nan early decision on the fundamental principles involved, however certain\nthey may be that there will be immediate acceptance by the popular will of\nthose principles, whatever is agreed upon by them as a plan or policy best to\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHER-TRAINING\n\nIN\n\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN\n\n573\n\nbe adopted and put into the public work to be done, yet the desired results\nare not to be reached the next decade, the agreements necessary will not be\nformulated this generation, chiefly because the very supreme importance of\nthe service to be rendered is complicated and hindered by the remarkable\nmagnitude of the problems themselves. Universal elementary education is\ntoday the most difficult proposition that our civilization is compelled to determine, and then its difficulties are just begun. The forward movement always\ncarries these necessities and perplexities; but the courage of the American is\ncommensurate with the demands, and plenty of time will prove his capability\nto meet the needs of the people.\nTEACHER-TRAINING\nALBERT\n\nSALISBURY,\n\nIN GREAT\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF\nWHITEWATER,\n\nSTATE\nWIS.\n\nBRITAIN\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWhile the idea of professional schools for the training of teachers did not\noriginate in America, but was imported from Prussia, it seems to be true that\nthe American system of normal schools has developed on lines of its own,\nquite independent of foreign influence. The American normal school is\nsui generis. We have gone to Germany, more or less, for our pedagogy,\nbut nowhere at all for our organization of work. It so happens that we have\ndeveloped, in the main, a common type of organization, but not by imitation\nof a common model. Meanwhite, our \"kin beyond sea,\" almost unheeded\nby us, have been slowly developing a quite different system of teacher-training,\nthe outgrowth of British character and traditions. The \"teachers' visit\"\nto Great Britain during the fall and winter months of 1908, which was set\nafoot by Mr. Alfred Mosely as a return visit to that made by British teachers\nto American schools in 1906, afforded a welcome and favorable opportunity\nto study this system at first hand; and it has seemed to me that I should be\njustified in claiming your attention for a brief account of the evolution and\npresent status of teacher-training in the motherland.\nThe training of teachers in Great Britain began as a matter of philanthropy under the stimulus of the religious motive. The first experimental\nmove in this direction seems to have been made by the British and Foreign\nSchool Society, in the Borough Road School, as early as 181 7, but tl^ere was\nno appreciable activity manifested until 1840. In 1839, Parliament, after a\nfutile attempt, which nearly wrecked the government, to establish a normal\nschool free from denominational bias, made its first appropriation, ;£i 0,000, for\nthe purpose of training teachers, which was equally divided between the two\nsocieties above named. By 1844, nine training colleges had been opened;\nbut not until after the act of 1870 did the movement acquire much headway.\nA comparison of these dates with the corresponding epochs in the development ofAmerican normal schools is not without interest. The first American normal school was opened at Lexington, Mass., in 1839, and there were\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nbut seventeen normal schools in the United States up to the close of the Civil\nWar, in 1865. Thus both in Great Britian and the United States the whole\nhistory of teacher-training has been confined to the last seventy years, and its\nactive development to the last forty years.\nThe type of training college developed from these beginnings is that known\nas the residential college, established under religious auspices, either (a)\nChurch of England (''National Society\") schools, or {h) undenominational\nschools in which the nonconformist element is naturally strong. In all of\nthese, the sexes were separated — ^men's colleges and women's colleges. They\nprepare teachers for only the elementary schools, and have a two-year course\nof study. This is still the predominant type in England.\nThe residential college is, in form, what we loosely style a \"boardingschool.\" It is in fact a school family, in which the students, and the teaching\nstaff mostly, live together within the same walls and in close social relations.\nThe religious feature is prominent, especially in the schools originated and\ncontrolled by the Church of England. Some of these have been, in time past,\nalmost of a monastic character. The effect of this close association with\ncultured masters or mistresses is of great social and moral value to the prospective teachers, while the assiduous attention given to sports and out-of-doors\nrecreation has equal value to their physical well-being.\nThe number of students in such a college is limited, seldom exceeding 150.\nThe student pays an entrance fee on admission of, usually, £25. After this,\nfor the full two years, there is no charge for tuition or maintenance. The\nschool receives a government grant for each teacher successfully graduated;\nbut must, in many cases, depend on endowments or voluntary contributions\nto defray a part of its running expenses as well as the original cost of its plant.\nAn interesting feature of the indoor life of the residential college and the\nstudents' hostel is found in the ''common room,\" a large and comfortably\nfurnished apartment devoted to the social and recreative life of the students,\nnot a state reception room, but what its name implies. Altogether, indoors\nand out, the two years spent in a residential college must be halcyon days in\nthe memory of the teacher thus trained.\nIt is necessary at this point to turn back and gain some idea of the preliminary training required for admission to a training college. For many years,\nBritish elementary education has been afflicted with a form of apprenticeship\nknown as the pupil-teacher system. This, in' 1846, superseded the older\nsystem of monitors, introduced by Bell and Lancaster. In its earliest form\nthe term of apprenticeship was five years, beginning as early as the age of\nthirteen years. The pupil teacher received a small wage and must pursue\nstudies under his headmaster, out of school hours, in order to pass an examination for admission to the training college. At the close of his term of apprenticeship, the pupil-teacher could either enter a training college or continue in\nservice as an assistant teacher.\nThe term of apprenticeship was reduced, after a time, to four years and\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHER-TRAINING\n\nIN\n\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN\n\n575\n\neventually to two years, the age at beginning being raised to fifteen years.\nIn this latest form, the pupil-teacher, serving only two years, must spend half\nhis time as a pupil in schools known as pupil-teachers' centers. This system\nis still in use in tfie city of Manchester, but in most cities has been superseded,\nwithin the last two years, by a new plan by which the prospective teacher must\ncome to the training college thru the secondary school. After not less than\ntwo years of attendance in a secondary school, he becomes a \"bursar;\" that\nis, during his third year he receives a government grant, or allowance, which\ncovers his tuition fees with something over for maintenance. In his next\nyear, corresponding to the fourth year of our high school, he becomes a \"student\nteacher,\" this term being technically different in meaning from \"pupilteacher.\" He now teaches eight half -days in the week for pay, as an apprentice, but must spend the other two half-days as a pupil in school, keeping up\nhis work in the common bracnhes.\nIt should be understood that the British secondary school is not merely a\nschool lying above the elementary school, but is a wholly different type of\nschool, overlapping the elementary school in point of the age of pupils, but\ndesigned for a different stratum of society. The British elementary teacher\ncomes almost invariably from the lower middle class and teaches children\nof the same class. Under the pupil-teacher system, he might pass from the\nposition of pupil to that of teacher in the same school; and then after\npassing thru the training college with people of his own social stratum, would\nbe returned to the elementary school again to teach pupils of the same\nclass. The new system aims to bring about association for a time, iA\nthe secondary school, with youth of a higher class socially, with a view to\nmitigate, at least, the provinciahsm of the prospective teacher.\nThe Briton still adheres, however, tho with somewhat diminished rigor,\nto his ancient idea that practice should precede theory; and so all study of\neducational theory must follow this apprenticeship, to illuminate what he\nhas learned to do by rule of thumb ; as if one should light a lantern at the end\nof his journey instead of the beginning.\nBut while the residential college has pursued the even tenor of its way for\nsixty years and more, and the pupil-teacher system, after sixty years of sway,\nhas suddenly been radically modified, a new type of normal school has arisen,\nthe day training college, undenominational in character, and attached,\nas a rule, more or less loosely to some university. This type of college\nwas first recommended by a Royal Commission in 1888, and authorized\nby law in 1890. Such a training college is now connected with every university in the kingdom. While these may administer the two-year course of the\nresidential college, the majority of their students are working for university\ndegrees and the teachers' diploma at the same time in a three-year course.\nIn Great Britain, only universities may grant degrees, and the degree\ncourse is three years, instead of four as with us. The \"professional work\"\nincludes not only the theory and practice of teaching but also vocal music,\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ndrawing, hygiene, nature study, and manual training. All this work amounting to at least one subject thruout the three years must be carried in addition\nto the regular degree work of university students by the pupils of the day\ntraining college; which necessarily means that part of the work must be\nslighted or great risk of break-down must be incurred, especially in the case\nof women.\nIn connection with some of these day colleges, are hostels for women;\nbut in most cases the students either come from their own homes or live in\n** licensed lodgings\" approved by the college authorities. They thus miss the\nsocial culture and companionship which are characteristic of the residential\ncolleges. Moreover, the number of students is usually much larger in the\nday colleges, in a few cases reaching five hundred. There cannot be, therefore, such close personal relations between students and teachers as in the\nother type of school. They are at a further disadvantage from the attitude of\nthe university toward the training college, which is rather one of toleration\nthan of nurture. To the university, the degree work is the only thing to be\nconsidered. It shapes its time schedules to suit its own convenience, and the\npoor training-college student must snatch his dole of professional work as he,\nor his instructors, can find room for it. And he is at a still further disadvantage in the matter of practice-teaching, as will appear later on. It is maintained, on the other hand, that students in these day training colleges derive\na social advantage from their contact with the university, inasmuch as they\nmingle freely, in the \"common rooms,\" debating societies, etc., with students\nhaving other aims in life and preparing for the medical, engineering, ministerial, and other professions. Thus these colleges produce teachers of less technical efficiency but more broadly educated.\nThe Scotch organization for teacher-training is so radically different from\nthat prevailing in England and Wales, and is so peculiar withal, that separate\ndescription becomes necessary. Scotland has very few residential colleges.\nFormerly, the work of teacher-training in Scotland was mainly divided between\nthe Church of Scotland and the Free Kirk, both Presbyterian; tho there is\na Roman Catholic Training College in Glasgow, and a Church of England\none in Edinburgh. These rival churches had rival training colleges in the\nsame cities — ^in Glasgow on the same street; but these Presbyterian colleges\nhave now all been taken over by the state, and the two in Glasgow, the two in\nEdinburgh, and the two in Aberdeen have been consolidated under one\nadministration, tho still conducted in the original buildings, in itself a serious\nhandicap, I should think.\nThe present system of control is unique and probably only temporary.\nAll Scotland is divided into four parts, or \"provinces,\" each centering about\none of the four universities, in connection with which the training colleges are\nlocated. In each of these provinces is a \"provincial committee\" charged\nwith the conduct of teacher-training. Some of the members of each committee\nare university professors, but not the majority.\nIt thus happens that while the\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHER-TRAINING\n\nIN\n\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN\n\n577\n\nScotch public schools have greater freedom and vitality than the English, the\ntraining colleges are subject to university domination to a greater extent, and\nalso to an over-estimation of degrees as a qualification for teaching.\nOnly a few of the eighty or more training colleges in Great Britain\nhave practicing schools under their own control or immediately adjacent to\nthe college. And the day colleges are worse off than the residential, tho\nsome of these also are at a great disadvantage. The practice-teachers must\nbe sent out in squads to schools scattered about the city, and much time must\nbe spent by students and their supervising teachers in traveling the streets.\nSeldom, if ever, does a practice-teacher have any continuous contact with or\nresponsibility for a given class of children. They are dealing, for the greater\npart, with strangers, and transiently; so that their teaching must altogether\nlack organic connection and the personal touch.\nTo show under what a handicap some colleges labor, let me cite the case\nof Bangor, in North Wales, where there are three training colleges, a Church\nof England college for women, an undenominational '' Normal College\" for\nmen, and the university day training college for both sexes. Early in September, the normal college, students and teaching staff, convene in Liverpool,\neighty miles away, and camp there, so to speak, for three weeks, doing practice work in the city schools, after which they return to their own place and\ntake up the studies of the year. In like manner, the day college hies itself\nto Wrexham and pursues a like course there, the city of Bangor not being\nlarge enough to furnish all the needed opportunity for practice.\nIn many of the colleges, considerable time is given to what are called\n** criticism lessons.\" A student teaches, in the presence of all his classmates,\na class of children whom he has never seen before, brought in from some outside\nschool. He knows nothing of their previous instruction or their fitness to\nreceive the lesson which he has prepared himself to give. Naturally, he is\nHkely to go far above their heads in his labored endeavor, and is also likely\nto have much trouble in commanding the attention of the children. On\nsome succeeding day — such is the direction of the inspector — the performance\nof the practice teacher is brought up for discussion by his classmates and the\nteacher in charge. While this practice may have the authority of Jena in its\nfavor, I am afraid that the atmosphere of Jena is also essential to its profitable\nadministration.\nAt Manchester, I had the privilege of visiting the somewhat famous\n\"Sarah Fielden Demonstration School\" under the direction of Professor J. J.\nFindlay, who is very much a disciple of Professor John Dewey. The school\nreminded me forcibly of the similar venture made by Professor Dewey some\nyears ago, in Chicago; but I hope that it may prove more permanent and\nsuccessful than its prototype. I should greatly like to visit it again in a few\nyears hence.\nBut you are doubtless wishing to ask me, \"What practical message do\nyou bring us frgm the other shore? What have American normal schools\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n■\n\n[Normal\n\nto learn from British training colleges ? \" That must depend somewhat upon\nour willingness to learn. We must, I fear, become more clearly conscious\nof the weaknesses and defects of our own system, whatever they are, than we\nyet have shown evidence of being, before we can learn very much from any\nforeign source. If one goes abroad full of the idea of American superiority\nin all things, he may pursue his observations widely without any severe shock\nto his prepossessions. And I fear that such is the attitude in which some of\nour teachers went forth on this mission. For myself, I am not ready to generalize very widely or confidently. Two months is too short a time in which to\nestimate the educational system of a great nation, especially if that system\nhappens to be in a state of rapid evolution and transition, which has been true\nof Great Britain for the past few years.\nI will therefore venture only a few tentative opinions as to what the motherland might or might not teach us if we were disposed to learn.\n1. There is no doubt that Britain could teach us much with respect to\nlooking after the physical well-being and efficiency of prospective teachers.\nFirst of all, the candidate for admission to a training college must pass a\nmedical examination. The anaemic and the deformed, the victims of spinal\ncurvature and incipient tuberculosis, do not find, as with us, an open door to\nthe teaching profession. It is not considered there that anyone physically\ndisqualified for other callings has therefore a call to teach. In the second\nplace, great prominence is given to out-door recreation and sports, as also to\nindoor \"drill,\" or gymnastics. In the residential colleges, there is no recitation work in the afternoons, but students, men or women, are required to\nget into the open air and play or walk. Of course, the climate favors that\nmore than with us; but the training college has no place for the girl who is\nphysically unfit to take vigorous physical exercise, on the playing-ground and\nin the gymnasiimi. Our normal-school girls could learn hockey from their\nBritish cousins with great advantage to themselves, to say nothing of their\npupils later on.\n2. That British schools greatly excel ours in the results which they get\nin singing seems to me beyond dispute. I am not disposed to attribute this\nto their general use of the tonic-sol-fa method, tho I do not feel myself competent to pronounce any positive judgment on that matter. The superiority\nis doubtless due to the fact that the British are altogether a musical people,\nand take hold of singing with more interest and assurance than we do.\n3. Not confining the remark to training colleges, it is to be conceded without\nhesitation that British schools are superior to ours in the matter of pictures\nand school decoration. They go ahead of us in this particular as far as they\nfall behind us in the development of school libraries and their systematic use.\n4. As may be inferred from what I have already said, I do not think that\nwe have anything to learn from Great Britain in the matter of practice-teaching. Our own system and methods seem to me in every way preferable;\ntho it is unquestionably true that our practice schools should.be much larger\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHER-TRAINING\n\nIN\n\nGREAT\n\nBRITAIN\n\n579\n\nthan they usually are, so that less of the teaching in them need be done by\npractice teachers, and more by the regular staff of the training department.\n5. Concerning the actual teaching in the schools, it is to be said that while\nthe subject-matter is not radically unlike that in ours, the handling of the\nwork is noticeably different. The lecture method has much more toleration\nthan with us, especially in the day colleges. I had considerable difficulty in\nfinding teachers engaged in actual instruction — that is, in conducting recitations. Very often, the teacher was simply sitting at his desk while the pupils\nwere writing up notebooks, this being, seemingly, the principal industry of the\nBritish student. These notes are almost invariably written in blank-books,\nwith ink, and with much regard to accuracy. The British teacher evidently\nbelieves that the only way to get a clean grip on knowledge is by writing it out.\nHow the students came by the knowledge which they were writing out was not\nalways clear to me, for there seemed to be much less use of textbooks than\nwith us, and I very seldom heard any assignment of work for evening study.\nI have said that I saw little of actual recitation on the part of pupils. The\nword recitation, in the sense in which we use it, does not seem to be in the\nBritish teacher's vocabulary. And they do not have the term because they\ndo not have the thing. \"Recitation\" to them means declamation or ''oral\ncomposition.\" Of topical recitation, in which the pupil stands and puts his\nknowledge to the test of oral expression, and of all that give-and-take between\npupil and teacher or pupil and classmates which we deem so essential, but\nvery little can be seen by visitors in British schools.\nLet me say in closing that I found great pleasure and interest in grappling\nwith the elements of a new and complex system, equal pleasure in the cordial\nfellowship of our British hosts, and a new and lasting respect for the soHdity\nwhich everywhere characterizes the achievements, material and intellectual,\nof a great people, a solidity which when fairly apprehended makes much of\nthat in which we Americans take undue pride seem crude and superficial.\nSuch interchange of visits between goodly numbers of American and British\neducators cannot but tend toward better mutual understanding and closer\naffifiation between the two great nations speaking the same tongue and possessing a common literary heritage. May this visit of 1908 not be the last of its\nkind.\nDISCUSSION\nD. B. Johnson, president Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill,\nS. C. — Dr. Salisbury has covered the field of this discussion so thoroly, that there is little,\nif anything, left for me to add to what has been so well presented by him. He does not\nexaggerate the difficulty of understanding the school system, or lack of school system,\nof Great Britain. The \"caste\" feeUng in England is very strong and is a great obstacle\nto improvement in the organization of free public education. In the South we have\nseparate schools for the negroes, but never, as in England, for the poor of our own race.\nThe fact is that the countries of the old world, with probably the one exception of\nSwitzerland, have not our democratic conception of education — the preparation of the\nindividual for any sphere in life. The idea there seems to be to prepare servants to remain\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "58o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Norma\n\nservants — to train children for the occupations, the trades, belonging to their parents'\nsphere in life. It is rather remarkable that with such an attitude toward general public\neducation, such a neglect of it until comparatively recently. Great Britain should have\ndone as much for teacher-training as it has. Up to the year 1870, elementary education,\nso far as it was given in private schools, was supplied hiainly by the various reUgious\norganizations of the country.\nThere are now about 150 teacher-training schools in Great Britain, graduating about\n1,900 teachers each year, or about'two-thirds of the new teachers needed each year. These\ntrained teachers, together with those who have had some training, tho not as extensive\nas that given these, make the supply of teachers with professional training, more or\nless good, much greater in proportion to the whole number of teachers than in the United\nStates.\nIt is an interesting fact, in view of the conditions obtaining with us, that there are about\ntwice as many men teaching in the higher elementary and secondary schools as women.\nIn the elementary schools the proportion is reversed. But men in the old country do\nnot look upon the teaching of little children as we do. In an elementary school in Dresden,\nGermany, I found a man in entire charge of a class of first-grade children from five to\nsix years of age, and he seemed happy in his work.\nThe \"hostels\" or \"dormitories,\" \"common rooms,\" social and religious life, athletics,\nand absence of coeducation in the residential training colleges of the motherland were\nnot new to me. We have similar conditions in the southern states, where much is always\nmade everywhere of the social and religious life and where the people do not believe in\ncoeducation, holding to the view, old-fashioned mayhap, that a woman's education should\nbe equivalent to that of a man, but not identical.\nI was much surprised, however, to learn of the lack of social standing of the teachers\nof the British Isles, because of the fact that the social standing of the teachers in the South\nis of the very highest.\nI was impressed, as was the writer of the paper, with the faulty methods and arrangements for practice-teaching, and with the hurtful, deadening grip upon all educational\neffort of the \"external\" examination, and the placing of the examination, of marks, above\neverything else. Everybody, everywhere in that country, with few exceptions, seemed\nto be striving to standardize the human mind for examination purposes. The end of\nall study seemed to be to make a certain mark demanded by an outside inspector, to\npass an examination, and not to gain knowledge and power. The false ideals and mental\nparalysis that must result from this magnifying of mere marks above power and spirit\nis appalling to contemplate.\nI found only two training colleges with practice schools of their own. All trainingcollege authorities, without exception, who were asked about it by me, admitted that it\nwould be an excellent thing to have a practice school in connection with every training\ncollege.\nMy observations of the schools of Scotland corroborate the statement of Dr. SaUsbury, that the educational organization and methods of that country are far better than\nthose of England.\nI found that all schools for the training of teachers, with few, if any, exceptions, in\nGreat Britain and on the continent, required much and severe academic work-study\nof subject-matter — the opinion evidently prevailing that a normal school, while emphasizing professional work, could not aflFord to neglect scholarship. A great many\nof them, and the number is growing, give instruction to women in the household arts and\nin both vocal and instrumental music. The normal schools of the South, notwithstanding\nadverse criticism from other sections, have been giving instruction in these subjects,\nincluding elementary agriculture, dairying, school gardening, etc., for years. The demand\nfor teachers who can teach the common-school branches, and piano in addition, is very\nstrong in the rural districts in the South.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n581\n\nI agree with the leader of this discussion as to what the motherland might teach\nus to do or not to do.\nThe tenure of office of teachers in Great Britain .is much more secure than with us.\nA teacher is usually elected for life, his term depending upon good behavior. The kindness and consideration shown teachers absent from duty on account of sickness is worthy\nof our imitation.\nThe English pension system is to be commended as a move in the right direction,\nbut it does not yet provide a sufficient support for retired teachers.\nVisits such as that made by the teachers of the United States and Canada to Great\nBritain last fall cannot fail to be productive of great good to both the visitors and the\nvisited. I earnestly hope that this plan of a periodical interchange of visits of the educational workers of this country, Canada, and the motherland may be made a regular\ncustom to the great gain in brotherhood, mutual understanding, and a broader educational view of peoples with a common language and literature and having a common\nheritage in the moral, religious, and civic ideals wrought out by Anglo-Saxon civilization.\nThe national Civic Federation, Sir Alfred Mosely of London, and J. Bruce Ismay, Esq.,\nPresident of the International Mercantile Company, deserve the thanks of our people\nfor having arranged for this visit and, in doing so, for having rendered an international\nservice of great and lasting value.\n\nPROFESSIONAL TRAINING FOR TEACHERS\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nD. McGregor, resident regent, state normal school,\nPLATTE VILLE,\n\nWIS.\n\nThe work of training teachers for secondary schools is at present divided,\nin most of the states, between normal schools, colleges, and universities.\nThere is, however, a well-defined movement in our higher institutions of\nlearning, especially in universities, to limit the product of normal schools to\nthe grades and to create a monopoly whereby only graduates of colleges and\nuniversities shall be eligible as teachers in secondary schools. On behalf\nof normal schools we unqualifiedly condemn such movement and protest\nagainst the creation of such monopoly. We propose to show: (i) That the\nnormal schools are now doing a large part of this work and doing it so well that\nno sufficient reason exists for barring them from this field; (2) that universities\nand colleges are neither by equipment nor ideals properly fitted to train young\npeople for the teaching process. The normal-school system of Wisconsin,\nmore particularly the school at Platteville, the oldest in the state, and the\nuniversity of the same state furnish in their conditions and organization the\ngreater part of the particulars on which this paper is based. In most of the\nstates, however, relations existing between normal schools and institutions\nof higher education are so much like those in Wisconsin that with slight\nchanges what is said in this paper may be considered to have general application.\nLet it be observed that university graduates have the advantage of normal\ngraduates in being prepared in only university-accredited schools; in being\nmore mature by two years at time of graduation; and in having two years\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nrNormal\n\nmore of training; yet, in spite of these favoring circumstances, there is no\nevidence that the university graduate is the more efficient teacher in the ordinary work of a high school.\nA recent census of the teachers in the high schools of Wisconsin for the\nschool year 1907-8 shows that during that year 476 people entered upon the\nwork of teaching in high schools in that state. Of that number the normal\nschools of Wisconsin furnished 146, the University of Wisconsin 121, 36 were\nnot classified, and the remaining 173 were graduates of 66 different institutions— 6 of them normal schools, 31 colleges, and 15 universities. By rule\nof the Board of Normal Regents of the state, graduates of four-year high schools\nenter the junior year of normal schools, and, as a rule, are graduated in two\nyears. Graduates of schools accredited by the university enter the freshman\nclass of that institution and are graduated in four years. Normal schools\nexercise no accrediting discrimination.\nIt is safe to predict that the accessions to the high-school teaching force\nof our state will be not less than 500 for the current school year, and for some\ntime to come the number will increase yearly. The total number of graduates\nfrom the full courses in normal schools for the school year that closed June,\n1 908, was 507. In that number were included kindergartners, domestic-science\nteachers, and many specially fitted for grade work, and who under no conditions\ncould be induced to engage in high-school teaching. On the assumption that\nthe normal schools graduate 500 people a year — this year they graduated about\n530 — it is safe to say that not over 200 or at most 250 of these could be recommended for high-school positions. Of 52 people graduated from the Platteville\nschool in 1908, 15 — less than 30 per cent. — went directly into high schools. The\nPlatteville school has never been able to supply the demand for teachers for\ngraded and high-school positions, and I venture to make the same statement\nas to the other schools of the system. I am not prepared to say to what extent\nthe university has been able to respond to calls coming to that institution for\nteachers, but should be surprised if the supply did not fall short of the demand.\nThe normal schools place practically all their graduates in the schools of the\nstate.\nIf the field should be left to the university it does not seem possible that its\noutput could be sufficient for the needs of even one-half of the high schools of\nthe state. At present, statistics show that the university furnishes about onequarter of the number needed. It seems to me that the conditions are such\nthat if the university and normal schools should each do the utmost possible\nthey could not together supply the demand. The normal schools, seven in\nnumber in Wisconsin, must prepare teachers for the grades, tho they have\nno monopoly in that field now, as county training schools and high schools\nfurnish a considerable number.\nI frankly admit that I am delighted that it seems impossible for the university to supply the demand. The state will get better service from twoj\ncompeting agencies than from one that has the field to itself. The normal^\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n583\n\nschools have no fear of such competition, but rather welcome it. Why should\nnot the university, in like manner, welcome worthy rivalry on the part of\nnormal schools ?\nUniversities and normal schools are maintained to accomplish certain\nends, not entirely distinct, for the benefit of the state that supports them. The\nlaw definitely prescribes the function of Wisconsin normal schools in these\nwords : ' ' The exclusive purposes and objects of each normal school shall be the\ninstruction and training of persons, both male and female, in the theory and art\nof teaching, and in all the various branches that pertain to a good commonschool education and in all subjects needful to qualify for teaching in the public\nschools.\" This enactment does not bar other educational institutions from\ndoing a share of the business of preparing teachers for public schools. In\nthis state our high schools are simply the highest grade of common schools, and\naccordingly such legal provisions as relate to them are found in a chapter\nof the Wisconsin Statutes, under the heading ''Common Schools.\" I speak\nof this because some have felt that the section of the law just quoted limits\nnormal-school work to the preparation of teachers for grades below the high\nschool. While the law recognizes them as common schools, the decision of\nthe Supreme Court in the seventies settled their status as public schools. These\ntwo facts — namely, that high schools are common schools and also public\nschools — place high schools clearly within the legitimate province of normalschool effort. I believe it would not be unfair to go farther and say that these\ntwo facts, considered in connection with the organic law, make it the duty of\nnormal schools to cover this ground as far as lies in their power to do so.\nCertainly there is no evident reason in law or in their record why they should\nvoluntarily or by any crowding-out process discontinue this work, or be made\nto discontinue it.\nIn normal schools alone does the business of teaching overshadow every\nother school interest. There the business is to teach so that teaching power\nmay be developed in the person taught. The purpose is definite and its\nattainment the object of every effort.\nThere are several reasons why the duty of making teaching more effective\nshould be specially intrusted to our normal schools. This is the only class\nof schools charged by law with the duty of preparing teachers for public schools.\nOther institutions for one reason or another may undertake this work as they\ndo, but at best it must be a side issue, subordinate to the main purpose of\nthe school. A university or college makes acquisition of knowledge or scholarship the supreme object; the normal school magnifies, we hope not unduly,\nmethod — the pedagogic side. A university looks at the work of teaching from\nthe side of knowledge, the materials that the mind acts upon; the normal school\nfrom the standpoint of the mind that uses the materials for its own growth.\nThe one is concerned almost exclusively with the what, the other gives equal\nprominence to the why. In college life things of the understanding are\nacquired for personal use; in normal-school life the same things are acquired\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "584\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\nwith the ever-present purpose of adapting them to the use of less mature minds.\nIn that respect college methods are egoistic, while normal-school methods are\naltruistic. The university interest is centered in knowledge; the normal, in\nthe child. Since scholarship is and should be the chief object of higher education, itis not at all strange that the idea should still be somewhat common\nthat the only equipment needed by a teacher is knowledge of the subject.\nNormal schools are especially equipped for training teachers while no other\ninstitutions are so equipped. The law of our state requires the Board of\nNormal School Regents \"to establish a model school or school of practice in\nconnection with each normal school,\" for the purpose of affording opportunity\nfor observation and for practice-teaching in the practice school. This is a\nreal school with pupils at the different stages of advancement found in our\npublic schools.\nThe work done in schools of practice is real teaching and real managing,\nand differs from independent school work in that each teacher is responsible\nfor only a limited time and limited range of teaching, and that the preparation\nand presentation are under expert and careful supervision. The pupil-teacher\nlearns to do by doing. Then, at times, an expert shows how some piece of\nteaching ought to be done, in order that seeing may help the pupil in doing.\nThruout the entire school the emphasis is ever laid upon teaching and managing and the relation between these. These outrank everything else in importance.\nIn these schools the conditions are most favorable for giving undivided attention\nto the main object of the schools — the making of teachers. Without a school\nof practice the work must be theoretical. Now the theoretical has its value,\nbut chiefly as combined with the practical. It aids in interpreting work\nobserved and thus, to some extent, in actual teaching. But theory alone is\nfar from sufficient. The printed book or the formal lecture is all that theory\nrequires; but only the real class will give practical and profitable experience.\nUniversities in several states desire to take upon themselves the entire\nwork of preparing teachers for high schools, leaving the grade teachers to\nbe furnished by the normal schools. In some states it is understood that this\ndesire has been realized. In Wisconsin the entire field is now open and has\nalways been open to the university and normal schools, and in spite of the\nfact that the university, unintentionally or otherwise, exercises domination over\nhigh schools thru its unsanctioned system of accrediting, there is no evidence\nthat it has established any title to the enjoyment of the monopoly it seeks to\ncreate. The evidence rather points to such title being vested in the normal\nschools; at least, it is in their favor at present in the ratio of 146 to 121, or\nabout 6 to 5. The normal schools are now doing a considerable portion of\nthe work in question, more than the university is doing, and until it can be\nshown that they are not doing it acceptably they will resist every effort that\nmay be made to drive them from the field.\nIn the legislature of 1909, a bill was introduced and definite action postponed to a special meeting to be called by and by, compelling the university\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n585\n\nto admit graduates of all four-year free high schools without examination.\nThis is a protest against university domination exercised thru its accrediting\nsystem. Normal schools have no desire to arrogate to themselves duties belonging tolocal superintendents or to the State Department of Public Instruction. They welcome all who can do effective teaching whether they hail from\nuniversity, college, academy, public, private, or parochial school, or from no\nschool at all. The brand or label of the product is valueless of itself. The\ngreat question after all, is. Do they make good ? If they can teach they are\nentitled to the right hand of fellowship.\nWe must not forget that in a university, composed as it is of many colleges\nand schools, the temptation is ever present to shift from the course in teaching,\nwhich offers neither wealth nor permanence, to law, medicine, engineering,\npharmacy, farming, or something else, without any hope whatever that persons\nfrom these courses would shift to the teachers' course. This temptation is\nwanting in the normal schools and is one of the strong arguments in favor of a\nnormal school entirely separate from and independent of an institution of\nhigher grade.\nThe history of normal departments, schools of education, and teachers'\ncolleges, especially in state universities, up to the present date, offers no\nencouragement that any university can do more than a comparatively small\npart of what its ambition might prompt it to undertake. At best a teachers'\ncollege in a university, holding the same relation to the university as its other\ncolleges do, is an appendix that could be spared without impairing the general\ngood of the body. The looser the relation the greater the promise of success.\nTeachers College, Columbia University, New York, appears at first thought\nto be an exception, but when it is recalled that it is practically independent\nof the university, it ceases to be an exception. It is not the fault of the university that a teachers' training school cannot thrive as an integral part of\nsuch an institution. The natural and unavoidable conditions are unfavorable\nto any great measure of success, and the surprise is that university authorities\ndo not recognize that truth in view of experience both at home and abroad.\nThe experience of Germany in its efforts to, have the universities train its\nteachers is interesting as well as instructive. Nine of the great German\nuniversities at some time in their history have tried the experiment of preparing teachers, and all but three abandoned the attempt as being unsatisfactory.\nThe three now maintaining teachers' colleges are Heidelberg, Leipzig, and\nJena. Heidelberg furnishes practice-teaching in affiliated secondary schools;\nin Leipzig the teachers' college exists purely as a theoretical seminar; and\nJena is the only German university that furnishes its own practice school for\ntraining of teachers. After criticizing conditions that existed after the middle\nof the last century. Rein says: ''More and more the conviction grew that the\nsolution of the problem lay in increasing the number of special training colleges and organizing them on a different basis — that of having the theoretical\nand practical elements of the professional training go hand in hand.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "586\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nFries, in summarizing his discussion of the subject, says: *'Let the department seminars of the university preserve their purely academic character and\nundividedly devote their efforts to the high task of broadening and deepening\nthe academic knowledge of their members.\nPractical preparation for the\nprofession of teaching lies without their sphere\nBut let the view be\ndone away with once for all that academic efiftciency alone qualifies anyone for\nthe work of teaching.\"\nThe evidence furnished by the experience of Germany and the testimony\nof its most noted and experienced educators are almost entirely in favor of\ninstitutions for training teachers for all grades, separate from the university\nand equipped with a practice school representing all grades of the public\nschools. This evidence is of such character that the universities cannot afford\nto ignore its lessons.\nShould the universities in our western states succeed in having the\nnormal-school graduates barred from employment in high schools, within\none year, or two at most, every normal school in the West would be converted\ninto a young ladies' school whose function would be limited to preparing\nyoung women for grade teaching. Young men do not and would not prepare\nfor that work. We should consider such a result a calamity for which the\nuniversities with all their work could not atone. There is loud and wellfounded complaint that our schools are too largely feminized now; the universities cannot afford, deliberately and of set purpose, to create conditions\nthat would provoke louder complaint of this kind.\nUniversities desire to create a monopoly whereby they may control for\ntheir product the best market. If there are plums in the public-teaching\nservice they are found in the high schools, and the universities are planning to\ncomer the whole output. Monopolies are not particularly popular with our\npeople at the present time. Even an educational monopoly might encounter\nserious obstacles from the sovereign people. The scheme is illiberal, offensively narrow, and has the earmarks of a device for restraint of trade. I\nhave endeavored thus far to show that even if the scheme were best it is not\npossible, and if it were possible it is not best.\nThe present seems an inopportune time for universities to seek to add\nto their domination of high schools. If university authorities will put their\nears to the ground, they will hear mutterings loud, angry, and widespread\nagainst college domination of high schools in general.\nPrincipal William McAndrew, of New York City, in an article in the\nWoMs Work for September of last year, entitled ''Where the High School\nFails,\" among much that reflects a widespread sentiment, says: ''The high\nschool of today is characterized as antiquated, gone to seed, narrow, illiberal,\nexclusive, and aristocratic.\" The dominating power is blamed. For Mr.\nMcAndrew goes on to say: \"The course of study is not a continuation of\nthe common-school course; it comes down like a stalactite from above. The\nquestion of high-school management has not been, What are the most useful\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n587\n\nways in which these young people can spend their time ? but, What do the\ncollege examinations require?\"\nNormal schools may not be able to meet the demands of our high schools\nto the fullest extent; but they are much more likely to do so than the universities. The normal schools are much nearer the people than the universities:\nthe expense of a normal-school education is much less than that of a university— to the student not more than one-half, to the state probably about onethird ; and what is the most important of all, the normal-school teacher is chiefl}'\ninterested in seeing the pupil develop those traits of body, mind, and character\nthat promise success as a teacher.\nIn summing up let me say: While the normal schools scarcely hope to\ndo more than a fair proportion of the work, they can do for they are doing and\nimll continue to do as much of it as the state thru its legislature will give them\nmeans to carry on in a thoro, business-like, and professional manner. They\nare chartered to do this work, and if it should be found that they cannot or\nwill not do it in a manner satisfactorily to compete with the universities, let\nthe people recall their charter and intrust this greatest of all educational work\n— the making of teachers — to some more competent, more efficient agency.\nUntil they have been convicted of incompetence or unwillingness to meet\nthe demands that come to them, it is an outrage of justice to penalize them\nby the withdrawal of this great stimulus to effort and excellence — namely,\nthe preparation of teachers for secondary schools.\n\nPROFESSIONAL TRAINING FOR TEACHERS OF SECONDARY\nSCHOOLS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES\nTHOMAS\n\nA. HILLYER,\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF STATE\nMAYVILLE,\nN. DAK.\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIt would be a good thing if the training of teachers for the public-school\nsystem, broken to pieces and scattered about, as it is, among many kinds of\ninstitutions, could be gathered up and placed only in hands worthy of the\nundertaking. Few will deny that this great task ought to be divided between\nthe normal schools on the one hand, and the colleges and universities on the\nother. This division of labor would be necessary, if nothing but the mere\namount of the work were considered. Neither the normal schools nor the\ncolleges and universities could even approximate the fulfilment of the undertaking, ifacting alone; nor could they do so, if acting together. And when\nthe variety of the work is considered, it appears as reasonable that neither\nthe normal schools nor the colleges and universities should be expected to\nattempt the whole of it. The task should be so divided between them that\neach part may fall where it can be done to the best advantage.\nThe important question then arises as to how the training of public-schools\nteachers should be divided between these institutions. It seems settled that\nthe normal schools are to have a monopoly of the training of teachers for the\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nelementary schools, so far as interference from the colleges and universities\nis concerned. The colleges and universities have not seriously entered this\nfield, nor are they likely to do so, except for the sake of illustration in their\nstudy of the science of education. It seems to be determined, also, that the\ncolleges and universities may train teachers for the secondary schools, but\nit is not agreed that they may have a monopoly of this work. It has lately\nbecome a ^luch-debated question as to whether the colleges and universities\nalone are to train teachers for the secondary schools, or whether this work is\nto be shared by the normal schools. It is with a full consciousness of the\nconstantly increasing difference of opinion as to this question that I briefly\nundertake in this paper to support the doctrine that teachers for the secondary\nschools should be trained in colleges and universities, and not in normal schools.\nWhy should not the normal schools extend their courses of study to include\nthe necessary college and university work, and share with the colleges and\nuniversities the training of teachers for the secondary schools ? Other reasons\nmight be given, but the one which ought to be convincing and decisive is that\nthe normal schools have much more than enough to do, and a much greater\nopportunity for valiant service than they can ever use up, in the training of\nteachers for the elementary schools — graded and ungraded, in country, village,\nand city — without assuming responsibility for the training of teachers for\nsecondary schools, a thing which they cannot do without crippling their\nefforts in the training of teachers for the elementary schools.\nThere was a time when the colleges and universities were hostile to the\nidea of professional training for a teacher. While that was true, these institutions did nothing, so far as such training is concerned, to help the secondary\nschools. There was then good reason why a few of the normal schools,\nknowing well the benefit to the elementary schools of professionally trained\nteachers, should not only desire to see the secondary schools improved in a\nsimilar manner, but even proceed to set the colleges and universities an example\nof training teachers for these schools. But the situation is now changed. The\ncolleges and universities, thanks to the influence of the normal schools, have\nnot only acquired a sympathy with the idea of professional training for a\nteacher, but are eagerly and extensively active in carrying it into practice.\nThis change upon the part of colleges and universities is the most fortunate\nbecause it removes the difficulty of placing the training of teachers for secondary schools into their hands, where it properly belongs; and, also, because it\nrenders it less and less necessary for the normal schools to feel responsibility\nfor the training of teachers for the secondary schools, and to withdraw their\neffort from the training of teachers for the elementary schools.\nIt is claimed that it unwisely restricts the normal schools to limit them to\nthe field of elementary education, that no barriers to their activity should be\nset up, and that expansion should be freely permitted. Restricting the usefulness ofthe normal schools by limiting them to the great field of elementary\neducation is like depriving a man of liberty by allowing him only this earth\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n589\n\nto live upon. The normal schools can develop and expand, and extend their\nusefulness, without any visible limit, wholly within the field of elementary education. No other field is as vast in extent, no other presents as many or as great\nproblems and opportunities; and, if the country and village schools, long\nenough neglected, be remembered, no other is in as great need of the service\nof professional education.\nNormal schools have hedged in their own activity and have never done\nmuch of anything outside of training teachers in a narrow, classroom sense,\nhowever great and good a thing that may be. They have limited themselves\nalmost entirely, so far as special training is concerned, to the why, what, and how\nof classroom instruction and discipline. The training of a mere teacher does\nnot constitute the whole field of the legitimate effort of normal schools in their\nattempt to help the elementary schools. Normal schools could do much\nmore than they have ever attempted in the distinct training of village and\nward principals, county superintendents, and any others whose duties lie\nwholly or partly upon the side of the organization and administration of elementary schools. And there is the whole and almost untouched problem of improving the conditions of country and village life thru the exploitation of agriculture, manual training, and domestic science — the solution of which is\nmore properly expected of the normal schools than of any other institutions,\nbecause of the peculiar position that they occupy with respect to all elementary schools. If the normal schools could awake to all that the elementary\nschools are demanding of them, and if they would then undertake the complete\ndischarge of their plain duty, they would feel no restriction of opportunity,\nno barrier to expansion, and they would hear no call to train teachers for the\nsecondary schools.\nIn limiting the normal schools to the service of elementary education, they are\nonly held to the performance of what was.not only originally but wisely expected\nof them. It is true that, before the secondary schools appeared, the normal\nschools served the whole pubhc-school system which then consisted of the\nelementary schools only. But it does not follow that the normal schools should\nnow serve the whole system which has since come to include the secondary\nschools. It is more reasonable that the secondary schools, entirely distinct from\nthe elementary schools, so far as fundamental purpose is concerned, should\nlook elsewhere than to the normal schools for their general guidance and\ninspiration. Until the obligation of the normal schools to the elementary\nschools is met, and there remains upon their part a surplus capacity, they are\nnot justified, by any present changes of educational conditions, in any attempt\nto exceed the limit of their original and logical field of operations. There is\nno probability that such a time will ever come, or that the colleges and universities will ever sufficiently forget their well-learned duty to the secondary\nschools to make it necessary for the normal schools to leave their own work\nand go to the rescue. It is undoubtedly true that normal schools, in the pursuit of their own duty of training teachers for the elementary schools, may\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLNormal\n\nincidentally give their students many of the qualifications needed by teachers\nin the secondary schools, especially those doing the more elementary work,\nbut this should be the extent of the effort of the normal schools in training\nsecondary teachers.\nSome normal schools have extended their courses of study, thus converting\nthemselves over into so-called normal colleges, and have permanently undertaken the training of high-school teachers. They may be able to demonstrate\nthat they can turn out graduates better able to teach in secondary schools\nthan teachers who have had no special training; but this is no assurance that\ntheir graduates are as well trained for teaching in the secondary schools as they\nwould be if trained in colleges and universities, or that their total influence,\nwhile training teachers for the secondary schools, either in their own states or\nin the country at large, is any better, or even as good, as it would be if exerted\nwholly in the interests of elementary education. The example of these normal\nschools, which is virtually the same as that of the southern state which recently\nproposed to change all of its four or five normal schools into normal colleges,\nought not to be imitated thruout the country. It may be well meant and it\nmay be fully justified upon the part of a few excellently equipped schools\nwhich might be named, but it illustrates a policy which, as a general practice,\nand in the long run, would enable the normal schools to help the secondary\nschools only by slighting their primary duty to the elementary schools.\nIt is reported that the Carnegie Foundation declares, in refusing its benefits\nto certain universities that have sacrificed standards of scholarship for the\nsake of large enrollment and immense equipment, that the mania for bigness\nis the worst evil among higher educational institutions of all classes. Normal\nschools are not innocent of this charge and are as likely as other institutions to\nbe led astray by false ideals. It would be interesting to know to what extent\nthe present desire upon the part of piany normal schools to become normal\ncolleges is due to the mania for bigness.\nNormal schools should not feel, in these days when the secondary schools\nare developing so rapidly and attracting so much attention, that in training\nteachers for the elementary schools they are doing a thing less worthy than\nthe colleges and universities are doing, in training their own and secondary\nteachers. Normal schools that are not perfectly satisfied and that do not find\ngenuine delight in sending trained teachers to minister to children in country\ndistricts and town grades, and that are jealous of the institutions that train\nteachers for higher schools, lack much of the true educational spirit. Let\nthe normal schools be jealous only of their own rich and boundless opportunity.\nThey ought to appreciate the magnitude and the variety of the things that they\ncan do for the elementary schools, and to understand, if they wish to help the\nsecondary schools, that they can best do so by strengthening elementary\neducation — the foundation upon which secondary education is built. They\nought to see this most significant thing of all — that they train teachers who\ntouch the lives of children in the earliest and tenderest years, and for this\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n591\n\nreason their influence is almost surely more vital than that of the institutions\ntraining teachers who influence the lives of pupils at later stages. Normal\nschools that do not hear the crying demand upon them for more and bettertrained teachers for the elementary schools are deaf; and, if they do not see\nthe boundless opportunity before them, without undertaking the training of\nother teachers, they are blind. If any normal school is committed to the\nnotion that it is fulfilling its mission to the elementary schools and that it is\ntherefore justified in taking up the training of teachers for secondary schools,\nit ought to compare itself to the individual who thru ignorance, discontent, or\noverwrought ambition leaves but half-done his own business in order that he\nmay attend to that of someone else.\nSo much about normal schools has seemed necessary because it indirectly\nstrengthens the position that the responsibility for training teachers for the\nsecondary schools should rest upon the colleges and universities alone.\nThere is an important lesson concerning the qualifications of teachers\nthat the secondary schools may learn from the experience of the rural schools.\nThe lesson is that the welfare of the individual pupils of a school, as well as\nthe general progress of the school, depends in a far greater degree upon the\nsuperiority of teachers than anything else. The country schools have made\nbut little progress chiefly because their teachers have been hardly more capable\nthan their pupils. The teachers in these schools have usually been but barely\nable to get the cheapest form of teacher's Kcense and correspondingly incompetent to instruct and inspire their pupils.\nThe high schools have never suffered from this cause in the same degree\nin which the rural schools have, but they are not sufficiently provided for\nwhen their teachers are but graduates of normal schools, or even normal\ncolleges. The collegiate and university work, especially that of an academic\ncharacter, attempted by normal schools and normal colleges and done, as it\nis, alongside, and often by teachers of high-school and elementary-school grade,\ncannot have the same scholarly and liberalizing excellence that it has when\nisolated in colleges and universities. It is neither untrue nor unfair to say\nthat many normal schools and normal colleges still have much of the pedantic\nand ultra-professional character once so universal, arising largely, and perhaps\ninevitably, out of the elementary work they are obliged to do which is not\nHberalizing and scholarly, even in the training of teachers for the elementary\nschools, and which renders them especially unfit, so far as this characteristic\nis concerned, to train a teacher in the rich and bounteous way in which a\nhigh-school teacher should be trained. The colleges and universities are\npre-eminently the places where teachers for the secondary schools should be\ntrained, not only because their work is sufficiently advanced beyond that of\nthese schools, but because their general intellectual and spiritual atmosphere,\nrather than, or at least in addition to, that of the normal schools and normal\ncolleges is distinctly of the sort which the secondary schools most need. Secondary schools will retard their own progress if they accept teachers trained\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "592\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nonly in normal schools and normal colleges, when it is possible for them to\nobtain teachers trained in colleges and universities.\nWhen boys and girls pass from the elementary into the secondary schools,\nthey do so with a radical change in their point of view. In the elementary\nschools they are chiefly concerned with those . elementary things that\nall people should know regardless of any distinctions whatever. There\ntheir work, tho of primary importance, is relatively narrow. In the\nsecondary schools they are given much larger liberty and are thrown much\nmore upon their own responsibility. Their life interests, formerly latent,\nnow become prominent and diverge in the wider and more varied field before\nthem. They form and pursue different ideals — preparation for college or a\nvocation, broad culture, etc. This new situation in which the pupils of\nsecondary schools find themselves, greatly widened, deepened, and diversified, as compared with that of the elementary schools which they have left,\ndemands that high-school teachers must have in a superlative degree the\nessential qualifications of all teachers, and even distinct and special ones of\na high order. Such qualifications, so far as they lie upon the side of broad\nsocial sympathy, liberal-mindedness, broad and special scholarship, scientific\nspirit and method, and love of service are to be expected in the highest degree\nof teachers trained in colleges and universities rather than of those trained in\nnormal schools and normal colleges. Somebody has said that any teacher's\nequipment ought to be so liberal that in her work she might not have to\nwalk upon the edge of her possessions in constant danger of falling off. The\nnormal schools and normal colleges are well able to remove teachers in the\nelementary schools from this danger; but it is distinctly the colleges and universities, with their more advanced work, their more scientific spirit and\nmethod, and their more liberalizing and stimulating influence, that are needed\nto equip teachers for the secondary schools who shall be inexhaustible sources\nof knowledge and inspiration to their pupils.\nWHO\n\nA.\n\nSHOULD DETERMINE STANDARDS AND COURSES FOR\nTHE TRAINING OF TEACHERS AND HOW SHOULD\nSUCH STANDARDS BE DETERMINED?\nO.\n\nTHOMAS,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nKEARNEY,\n\nNEBR.\n\nThe situation. — We can speak of the college and the university, but cannot\nspeak of the normal school. Colleges and universities have crystallized their\ntraditions and history into definite standards. Their entrance requirements,\nrequirements for graduation, and courses are now largely uniform. Requirements for one college are usually accepted by all. The present system of\naccreditment for colleges and universities has unified the work to a large degree.\nIt is not so with normal schools. Perhaps it is because normal schools\nrepresent the last phase of public education to be developed, and sufficient\ntime has not elapsed to produce definite standards.\nPerhaps it is because\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nFOR\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n593\n\nof well-defined feeling on the part of other departments of public education\nthat normal schools have no right to tinker with academic instruction pertaining to content and culture subjects, and should confine themselves to a little\nmethodology, simple remedies, and advice. Their usual attitude is that\n\"while we could do little good, we would do little harm if confined to our\nproper sphere.\"\nBeing so much older and holding the office of protectorate, the college\nand university, in many instances, have attempted to define our standards.\nBut we are fast coming into our own heritage, and even those who held as their\ncreed that \"Knowledge is power,\" \"To know is sufficient to teach,\" \"Those\nwho have knowledge will find a method\" are coming over to some of our\nlately developed standards, are admitting there is a science of education.\nEven those who have held that normal schools should fit teachers only for the\nelementary schools, and that the colleges and universities should fit teachers\nfor high schools, are now demanding that teachers in high schools have the\nsame forms of observation, practice, and methodology that normal schools\ngive to elementary teachers.\nPubUc normals differ widely in standards and courses. It is hard to find\ntwo schools in different states with the same entrance requirements, with\nlargely the same courses of study, and with the same standards for graduation\nand certification. Each state has attempted to solve its own problem. Its\nentrance requirements, requirements for graduation, its curriculum, its field\nof activity, and its ideals and aims are largely influenced by local conditions.\nAs the public university was the first to develop, it very naturally was\njealous of any other child of the state that attempted to draw nourishment from\nthe same source of support, the public treasury. There should be little cause\nfor rivalry and feeling upon the part of these two factors in public education,\neven tho they draw support from the same source.\nTechnical school. — The university gathers about it schools of law, of medicine, and of theology; also, its department of education. The work of the\ngeneral courses of the university counts as a part of the course in the department of education, and the work of the department counts in completing the\ncourses for diplomas and degrees. It is not so with the schools of law, of\nmedicine, and of theology. Strong content and culture courses are required\nfor entrance into these schools, but the work of the special school does not\ncount on the general courses of the institution for diplomas and degrees. This\nis, no doubt, because the lore of these professions is not found in the general\ncurriculum, while the material with which the teacher deals is.\nThe content and culture subjects cannot well be separated from the how\nto teach. There are vastly more engaged in teaching than are engaged in law,\nmedicine, or theology. Moreover, the character of the school must determine\nthe character of the civilization, and every child must receive its instruction\nthru this source. Its importance, therefore, is so vast that a special department of public education especially for the preparation of teachers is justified.\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "594\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nThe best work may be accomplished in the true atmosphere of a school\nespecially prepared and endowed for this purpose. There should be no\noverlapping of normal schools and universities, and no quarrel between them.\nThe department of education in the university is also justified as a graduate\nschool for more extended research along the lines of psychology, history of\neducation, systems of education, and related subjects. It should require\njust as strong academic preparation for entrance as other graduate schools\nrequire.\nNormal-school standards have been determined largely by outside influences, but the movement is now sufficiently advanced and established to\nhave definite standards and ideals of its own. The normal school of the\nfuture will not only determine its own standards and courses of instruction,\nbut it will be the pacemaker for the great system of public instruction; it will\ntake the advanced ground on every subject, work out new methods and new\ndevices and new fields of research.\nAnd why not ?\nThose who teach in the departments are ranking in scholarship and culture\nwith those who teach in the departments of colleges and universities. Moreover, they are constantly surrounded by the atmosphere of the profession and\nare constantly searching among the foundation stones of education for greater\nstrength. The fact that leading normal schools of the country are engaging\nprofessors of well-known scholarship and ability is doing much for our independence and giving a chance for normal schools to be leaders in all educational movements.\nProfessional schools for teachers are governed by the prevailing conditions\nin the various states, and such conditions differ widely. In one state a pupil\nwho has completed the eighth grade may enter. Some states require one year\nof high school, some two, and some four. Some schools require two years\nabove entrance requirements for graduation, some four, and a few five. Some\nschools require much academic instruction well-seasoned with professional,\nwhile others cling to the old idea that method is largely the function. We\nare now sufficiently advanced in the education of teachers to work toward\nwhat may be called a standard American normal school.\nRecently this department undertook to define its policy and to set up some\nstandards toward which normal schools all over the country may work. We\nshall be very much stronger and compel much greater respect from other\neducational institutions when our standards, like those of the college and\nuniversity, become constant. At the Cleveland meeting this department\nproduced a statement of policy which should do much to bring about uniform\nconditions. This statement of policy should be extended into a statement\nof standards upon all phases of normal-school work.\nMy position that normal schools should determine their own standards\nand courses and that they are abundantly capable of so doing is sustained by\nsec. 5 of the ''Statement of Policy\" developed last year by this department,\nviz., that while the normal school is not the only agent for the training of\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nFOR\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n595\n\nteachers, it is the state's chief agent, and as such it should set up standards\nof teaching, determine ideals, and train men and women whose call is to\neducational leadership.\nRelative to the second part of the question— \"How should such standards\nand courses be determined?\": The standard should be determined by the\nneeds of the schools into which the product of the normal school goes. The\npreparation of the student should make him of the greatest value to the public\nsystem of education. This does not preclude the working-out of advanced\nideas and ideals. Usually the demands made upon us are prompted by\npresent-day needs rather than in the light of future progress. The public,\nas a rule, is interested largely in the needs of the present and in present-day\nproblems. If their demands are filled, it may mean present efficiency but\nlittle progress. If we expect progress, we must constantly hold out elevated\nstandards; there must be a reaching-up on the part of the public if the rules\nof progress are sustained. The public, therefore, is not the proper agent to\nestablish the standards of those who are leaders in education. Normal\nschools are themselves best able to establish and maintain standards. The\nnormal school should be the pedagogical laboratory from which grow the\nchanges in standards and methods.\nI do not mean by this that it should be the birthplace of fads and fancies,\nbut it might be excused if it has a few of them. A fad which becomes permanent becomes a reform ; a reform which fails is a fad. A great many new\nthings are being tried out in these days. Many of them must fail because of\nthe lack of efficient teachers and leaders. Such innovations as manual training, domestic science, agriculture, self-government in schools, and many others,\nall good in theory and proper to become a part of the pubHc-school curriculum\nand even demanded by modern tendencies and conditions, have fallen more\nor less into disfavor because they have presented a smattering rather than a\ndefinite education. The lack of teachers to handle these splendid and muchneeded phases is largely responsible. The technical school of education should\nequip teachers for these different phases. The reclaiming of waste places\nin education and the standardizing of new phases should be theirs. In standardizing its own course of study the normal school must necessarily fix the\nstandard for public education.\nIn introducing new phases into the curriculum and in carrying into effect\nadvanced ideas, the first and most essential feature is the preparation of teachers\ncapable of successfully coping with the environment as well as with the\nmaterials.\nThis department should take some action relative to the standardizing of\nnormal schools, the standards to be based largely upon the Statement of PoHcy\nadopted by the Cleveland meeting. There should be a committee appointed\nconsisting of eight members, distributed widely enough over the states to\nstudy the whole problem in order to found the results upon an intimate knowledge of existing conditions.\nThis committee should be composed of a member\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "596\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nfrom each of the groups of states — the New England, Middle Atlantic, East\nSouthern, West Southern, East Central, West Central, North Pacific, and\nSouth Pacific — ^making eight members. This committee should be financed\nby the National Association. Each member should make his investigation\nin his own section and embody his investigations in a report to the committee.\nThe conclusions should be assembled into a statement of standards covering\nthe following points: equipment; course of study; observation and practice\nschools; entrance requirements; requirements for graduation; and degrees and\nrequirements in selecting faculties.\nWhile it might be impracticable for all schools to come to this at once, it\nwould set a wholesome ideal and stand for the American standard normal\ncollege. Under entrance requirements should be considered: first, academic\nstandard; second, moral character; third, physical fitness; fourth, native\nability to teach.\nIf normal schools are to win their way quickly, they must use a sifting\nprocess in admitting students. The anxiety to enrol large numbers as a\nfirst consideration has worked harm to the cause. We must prune the vines\ncarefully if we expect to market the choicest fruit.\nThe report on equipment should set some minimimi standard and include\nsize and arrangement of observation and practice schools, as well as apparatus.\nIn arranging courses of study, the first consideration should be a thoro\nmastery of the branches required in the public schools, with sufficient knowledge of general content and culture subjects to enable the teacher to lead her\npupils into interesting and attractive fields in order to inspire them with a\ndesire for a more complete education. There should also be a just balance\nbetween the academic subjects and those subjects known as technical. Attention should be given to the sequence of studies.\nIn providing for degrees, care should be taken not to depreciate similar\ndegrees offered by college and university courses. There should be approximate standards for the selection of faculties.' Members of such faculties\nshould rank in academic attainments with college professors, and should also\npossess special discipline from the side of teaching. Standards of morality\nshould be taken into consideration. It is said that in many of our larger\ncolleges and universities little attention is paid to this side in selecting professors. The range of influence of the normal-school professor is more farreaching. They are more largely examples, and only those of clean lives\nand lofty ambitions should be considered.\nWith proper care in working out the details of such an institution, the\nnormal school would become what it should be — the center of our great\npublic-school system instead of a side issue.\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nTRAINING\n\nMINUTES\n\nPresident — James E. Addicott, Felton, Cal.OFFICERSVice-President — Miss Edna D. Day, Columbia, Mo.\nSecretary — Miss Ellen M. Bartlett, San Francisco, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6, 1909\nThe department met in the Central Presbyterian Church.\nThe president's address, \"Definitions Pertaining to Industrial Arts,\" was given byJames E. Addicott, of Felton, Cal.\nThe next topic, \" Assimiing That Our Public Schools Are Expected to Offer Vocational\nTraining, Should Manual-Training Schools Offer Trade Courses, or Should Special\nTrade Schools Be Established?\" was discussed by:\na) Charles H. Keyes, supervisor of South District Schools, Hartford, Conn., from\nthe standpoint of educational interests;\nb) W. J. Kerr, president of State Agricultural College, Corvallis, Oregon, from the\nstandpoint of agricultural interests, and\nc) J. C. Monaghan, secretary of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial\nEducation, New York City, from the standpoint of economic and manufacturing interests.\nA general discussion followed, led by CUfford B. Connelly, assistant director of\nCarnegie Technical School, Pittsburg, Pa., and participated in by Mrs. Ida Hood Clark,\ndirector of elementary manual training in the public schools of Milwaukee, and others.\nThe following committees were appointed by the president:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nC. B. Connelly, Pittsburg, Pa.\nC. J. Kissler, Boulder, Colo.\nR. A. Russ, Pittsburg, Kans.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nA. B. Clark, Stanford University, Cal.\nC. Valentine Kirby, Denver, Colo.\nGertrude R. Smith, New Orleans, La.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 7, 1909\n\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Art Education, to consider the topic, \"Art as Related to the Industries.\"\nA. B. Clark, head of department of graphic arts, Leland Stanford Junior University\nStanford University, Cal., discussed the topic from the standpoint of art;\nMiss Ednah A. Rich, principal of State Normal School of Manual Arts and Home\nEconomics, Santa Barbara, Cal., discussed it from the standpoint of manual training,\nand\nArthur H. Chamberlain, dean of department of education, Throop Polytechnic Insti\ntute, Pasadena, Cal., discussed it from a general educational standpoint.\nA spirited general discussion followed these papers.\nArthur H. Chamberlain of Pasadena, Cal., then submitted the following report,\"\nwhich was on motion adopted:\n597\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "598\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE TO CONSIDER THE ADVISABILITY OF MERGING THE DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION AND THE DEPARTMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING INTO ONE\nDEPARTMENT\n\nYour Committee respectfully submit the following report:\nWe find the following disadvantages likely to result from the proposed combination:\n1. A combined department would mean growing numbers in attendance, and as\nnumbers increase the possibilities for discussion diminish. In other words, interest might\nlag, as fewer people could take part.\n2. If the officers of the combined department were less in sympathy with one phase\nof the arts than with another, a given meeting would tend to be narrow, in that attention\nwould focus in one field.\nThe following advantages are urged in support of the proposed combination:\n1. The general tendency of the Association is toward a reduction in the number of\ndepartments. The Association has appointed a committee to consider this whole matter.\nThe reasons for reduction are:\na) The Association is becoming unwieldy with the increasingly large number of\nsections or departments.\nh) The cost of conducting the general association is thereby increased.\nc) Fewer departments and superior meetings mean greater efficiency for our work.\n2. In the immediate past most of those who were interested in the art section were\nalso interested in the manual-training section. This is especially true when considering\nthose who have done the most effective work in both art and industrial lines.\n3. In the last analysis the two subjects, art and manual training, considered from the\nstandpoint of the school, are one. There can be no effective work done in art education\nunless this work finds application in concrete form. There can be no real constructive\nwork, no industrial or manual-training work of the first class, unless the basis for such\nwork is laid on the principles of design.\nThe truly useful must be artistic.\nAs it is now, there is great difficulty experienced in co-ordinating the two subjects.\nThru combined meetings a proper adjustment may more readily be reached than would\notherwise be the case.\nHome economics, domestic art, domestic science, or any other of the household arts,\nnow must find consideration in the Manual-Training Department. A fairly satisfactory\nadjustment has been reached here by a satisfactory apportionment of time. The domestic-art subjects should have a much closer relation to the art department than they now\nhave. Hence, all manual -training, art, and home-economics work should be centered\nin one department, and proper attention given to each.\nAll of the above-named subjects properly fall under the general head — The Arts.\nWe therefore recommend that this combined department be called \"The Department\nof Arts and Industries.\"\nCare must be exercised in the choice of officers, the first year particularly, while the\nmovement is being launched. A president should be chosen who has a thoro sympathy\nwith the art and design features, with manual-training and industrial education, and\nwith the various phases of the household arts, and, in addition, has a broad outlook on\neducation in general and who will allow no narrow influence to come in to warp his views.\nAll of which is respectfully submitted,\n{Signed)\n\nTHIRD\n\nArthur ft. Chamberlain, Chairman\nC. Valentine Kirby\nFlorence E. Ellis\n\nSESSION.— Friday Forenoon, July 9, 1909\n\n\"The Influence of Industrial Arts and Sciences upon Rural and City Home Life\"\nwas the subject of the paper given by Cree T. Work, president of the College of Industrial^\nArts, Denton, Tex.\nMrs. Ellen H. Richards, instructor in Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., considered the subject from the standpoint of domestic science.\nAlbert Salisbury, president of State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis., presented\nthe economic interests of the same topic.\nA general discussion, led by Lloyd E. Wolfe, president of Vocational School for\n\"Boys, San Antonio, Tex., followed.\nThe Committee on Resolutions submitted the following report:\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEFINITIONS\n\nIN\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\n599\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nBe it resolved, That the thanks of the Departments of Manual Training and Art be\nextended to the Chairmen and Secretaries of these departments for the labors which they\nhave so effectively performed in our behalf.\nBe it also resolved, That a sense of our appreciation be expressed to the local committee of arrangements for the excellent accommodations arranged for our comfort and\nthe exhibits displayed for our instruction.\nWe also express our thanks and congratulations to the draAving and manual-training\nteachers of Denver for the excellent exhibits which they have provided, from the Denver\ngrade schools, the Denver High School, and the Denver Manual-Training School.\nWe would express similar thanks for the extremely meritorious work sent for our\nprofit from: The School of Education of the University of Chicago; from Pratt\nInstitute, Brooklyn; and from the public schools of St. Louis.\nWe also acknowledge the courtesies extended to the department by citizens of\nDenver as follows: Mr. WiUiam Shaw Ward, director of the Museum of Art and Natural\nHistory; Miss Stiles, of the Oakes Home Art-Craft Shop; Mr. Boutwell, of the Boutwell\nArts and Crafts Shop; and the artists of the Brinton Studios.\nI A. B. Clark, Chairman\nCommittee on Resolutions •]C. Valentine Kirby\n( Gertrude R. Smith\nThe Nominating Committee, which was a joint committee of the departments of\nArt Education and Manual Training, reported as follows for officers of the newly organized Department of Arts and Industries:\nFor President — J. C. Monaghan, secretary of National Society for Promotion of\nIndustrial Education, New York, N. Y.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Ednah A. Rich, principal of State Normal School of Manual\nArts and Home Economics, Santa Barbara, Cal.\nFor Secretary — C. Valentine Kirby, Manual Training High School, Denver, Colo.\nThe report of the committee was adopted.\nOn motion of Professor A. B. Clark, of Stanford University, Cal., it was voted that\nthe outgoing officers be requested to act with the newly elected officers in conference\nwith the Board of Directors in determining upon the organization and administration\nof the combined departments of Art and Manual Training.\nThe department then adjourned.\nEllen M. Bartlett, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nDEFINITIONS\nJAMES\n\nE. ADDICOTT,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\nPERTAINING TO INDUSTRIAL\nPRESIDENT\nOF DEPARTMENT\nFELTON,\nCAL.\n\nOF\n\nMANUAL\n\nARTS\nTRAINING,\n\nIn the early stages of civilization education was almost wholly practical\nand vocational. Education was a means of satisfying the demands made\nby society upon its individual members. Later, as was the case in Athenian\nculture during the Periclean Age, the individual was allowed educational\nrights and privileges over which society exercised no control. From the age\nof Pericles down to the twentieth century, educational ideals have swayed\nback and forth between the double purpose of training the individual to his\nfullest physical, intellectual, and spiritual capacity, and of compelling the individual to conform to the desires and standards of society.\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "600\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA HON\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Trainimg\n\nIn the recent past education has concerned itself very largely with the\npsychological problem of how to develop the capacities of the individual;\nat the present time we are getting a broader sociological view showing the\ndesirability of adjusting the individual to the needs and purposes of society.\nIn other words, society is demanding that our education shall train more\ndirectly for vocational and practical life-work.\nThere is now a general and profound awakening to the needs and purposes\nof industrial education, both agricultural and mechanical. The vocational\ntrend in education is rightly demanding a greater share of time, and the\ncultural point of view is gradually being adjusted to the demands of society\nfor a more practical and direct training in our public schools.\nOn the first day of last January the president, secretary, and heads of\ndepartments of the National Education Association met in Chicago to discuss\nand organize plans for the program of this Convention. As has been true\nin nearly every educational gathering of recent date, manual-training and\ntrade schools were discussed, and, as usual, conflicting and distorted ideas\nwere expressed regarding the meaning and purpose of the various phases of\nindustrial training as conducted in our schools and colleges.\nRegardless of their real significance, terms are quite generally being used\ndescribing the different branches and schools of mechanic arts. The old\nlady invalid when asking at the bicycle shop for some new rheumatic tires\nfor her chair wheels was no less careless in her diction than many advocates\nof industrial training. At a recent county institute I heard a principal argue\nstrongly against manual training in the schools because his boys already were\ncompelled to spend too much time in digging potatoes, milking cows, hoeing\ncorn, and other chores.\nIt is not uncommon to find teachers who know no difference between\nmanual-training schools and trade schools, and in the ranks of our profession\nmay be heard advice to erect and equip polytechnic institutes to train the\ntruants and incorrigibles into industrial habits. It is not surprising that teachers,\nsuperintendents, and college presidents, as well as laymen, are bewildered\nwhen we recognize, in the various cities of our country, schools offering exactly\nthe same courses in both academic and mechanical work, .but designating\nthem respectively (and doubtless respectfully) in the different localities as\ntechnical school, manual-training school, trade school, polytechnic school,\nindustrial school, and school of mechanic arts.\nAs members of the Manual-Training Department, we should put forth\nrenewed efforts to say exactly what we mean, as far as it is possible. We are\nin serious need of a more uniform nomenclature. Would it not be well\nworth while for this department to authorize the appointment of a committee\nto consider with the greatest care the terms used in industrial education and\nreport its recommendations at our next yearly session ?\nPossibly the first great mistake was in adopting the term manual training\nfor a training which was in the beginning, and probably always will be, regarded\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEFINITIONS\n\nIN\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\n6oi\n\nas mental training. Because of this unhappy phraseology it has taken the\npublic generally nearly thirty years fully to comprehend the meaning of\nmanual training; and we cannot be sure at present that the term has a definite\nmeaning even in the minds of manual-training instructors.\nThe desirability of a more uniform interpretation of terms relating to\nindustrial arts must be apparent to all. At the Chicago meeting previously\nreferred to it was thought best to give some place on this program to a careful\nconsideration of these terms.\nIt should be remembered that practically all phases of industrial arts,\nboth agricultural and mechanical, are necessarily interrelated, consequently\nno segregation of mathematical accuracy is possible. Again, all phases of\nindustrial arts are being readjusted, in fact they may be said to be in such a\nchaotic state at the present time that definitions acceptable today may be\nworthless or untrue tomorrow. The definitions suggested are for careful\nthought and discussion rather than for passive acceptance.\nIn our discussion of industrial phraseology let us proceed from general\nto specific terms; let us consider first what is meant by practical in its relation\nto the theoretical, for these two terms are closely associated in turn with their\ncorrelatives, vocational and cultural.\nEvery aspect of education shows either a practical or a theoretical trend.\nAt present the tendency away from the merely theoretical toward the practical\ncommands an almost universal interest.\nTheory is very largely the result of experience; in a broad sense theory is\npractice in abstract form. Weak theories are in most instances due to lack\nof experience. Sound theories and right practices agree perfectly. How to\nharmonize these two tendencies of education is the supreme task of the student\nand educator.\nAny attempt wholly to separate theory from practice would diminish the\nefficiency of both. It is impossible to decide which is of more importance,\nbecause in a broad sense neither theory nor practice exists separately. They\nare interdependent and fundamentally related and should not be so commonly\ncontrasted as is customary in educational discussions. Contrasting the\nelements of theory and practice is of much less importance to the educator than\na clear and definite knowledge of their interrelationships.\nThe wisest theorists recognize the importance of testing their theories\nby trying them to see if they will work. Likewise the most practical and\nsuccessful men of affairs realize the importance of comparing results with\nthe theories and works of others.\nThe interrelationships between the vocational and the cultural aspects\nof education are just as close and just as essential as the interrelationships\nbetween the practical and the theoretical.\nIn the professional schools and colleges, such as normal schools, colleges\nof law, of divinity, or of medicine, there is no longer any disposition to question\nthe cultural value of the work offered; nevertheless, these are distinctly\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nvocational schools. In the near future when the full purpose of education\nis better and more generally understood, our industrial institutions will share\nthe so-called cultural honors with professional schools and colleges.\nWhile the writer regards education for each individual as an initiatory\nprocess, nevertheless, if we are to be in any way scientific and wish to define\nterms, it will be advantageous to think of education in its various ramifications\nand arrange terms accordingly.\nEducation may be considered as vocational or cultural depending upon\nthe purpose — the vocational corresponding with the practical and the cultural\nbeing more closely related with the theoretical. We are all familiar with the\nso-called cultural schools and subjects, offered: languages, history, mathematics, and recently science has been included. Vocational schools may\nbe either professional or industrial. There is a long list of professional schools :\nnormal schools, theological seminaries, schools of music and art, colleges of\nmedicine, law, etc.\nUnder industrial there are two well-defined, tho not distinct, divisions —\nagricultural and mechanical schools. In the field of agriculture there has been\nan effort toward a scientific and uniform phraseology. Such terms as agronomy, zootechny, horticulture, viniculture, and rural engineering are supposed\nto cover distinct fields of work and are thus used with a fair degree of\nuniformity.\nThere are a few college courses in the mechanical field, such as architecture, irrigation, and electrical engineering, having well-defined meanings;\nbut in our secondary schools there is a most alarming jumble of terms and\nphrases relating to mechanical courses and schools. We have the four names\n— ^manual training, polytechnic, technical, and mechanic arts — to represent\nexactly the same lines of mechanical work, and these schools include also\nfairiy uniform courses in fine arts, domestic science, and domestic arts, for girls.\nWould it not be less confusing if polytechnic, technological, and household arts were used to describe mechanical and domestic courses in colleges\nand institutes, and manual training and household arts used for similar work\nin the secondary schools?\nThen omit the word technical from the list of mechanical schools. The\ntraining of an artist, a musician, a teacher, a minister, or a physician requires\nas much, if not more, technical instruction than the training of a carpenter,\na blacksmith, a milliner, or a cook. Technical and vocational are broad\nsynonymous terms, in fact both wholly include polytechnic, agricultural,\nindustrial, and professional. If used in a narrower sense, technical training\nmust be wholly associated with trade instruction.\nWhile there arp specific mechanical lines of technical and vocational\ntraining which are obviously in need of development for the benefit of the\ntrades, nevertheless, it would seem unwise to use such broad general terms to\ndescribe specific work for which there is already an oversupply of descriptiv\nterms.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n^\n\nDEFINITIONS\n\nIN\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\ns\n\n603\n\nThere are some reasons for applying the word polytechnic to such high\nschools as are doing the equivalent of college work in their advanced classes.\nIt is not necessary, however.\nSelection and elimination are obviously required in reference to householdarts courses for young women. Here we find six or more ways for saying\nthe same thing. We offer our girls in one school the domestic arts and sciences,\nin another household economy, in another household arts and sciences, in\nanother home economics, in another domestic economy, and in still another\nhousehold management. In our efforts to be dignified we often fail to convey\nthe idea that artistic needlework and scientific cooking are the two essential\nbranches which these terms are commonly used to picture.\nThe term \"manual training\" has been loosely applied to all sorts and kinds\nof work, from stenography, clay-modeling, and whittling, to college industrial\ncourses. Even manual-training specialists and tradesmen find much difficulty in distinguishing clearly among industrial, trade, technological, and\nmanual-training schools. The work of each of these schools is similar in\nmany respects to that of the others. Each lays special emphasis upon scientific\nand mathematical subjects in preference to language and history. The\nhand courses offered are drawing, designing, and tool work, with special\nattention given to the transforming of materials by means of tradesmen's\ntools. Altho trades are not always taught in these schools, instruction in the\nunderlying principles of some of the mechanic arts is a prominent part of the\nwork of each. Each aims at greater efficiency among our tradesmen, and\neach finds its chief reason for existence in the needs and purposes of the industrial world. The chief differences among these schools are of a technical\nnature, designed primarily to meet the needs of special communities or particular classes of students. From an educational standpoint there are no\ngreat differences as a rule, unless they are found in the practical purposes of\nthe different schools. The courses of study are not only similar; they also\napproximate very closely the regular work of the more strictly academic\nschools.\nThe industrial school looks broadly out upon the agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial pursuits and aims to prepare directly for them. The\ntrade school is a substitute for the old apprentice system and usually offers a\nshort and direct preparation for some specific trades, sometimes omitting all\nacademic branches of study. From the cultural viewpoint of education, the\ntrade school as a possible part of the public-school system is the least desirable\nof the four schools mentioned above. The industrial school stands next to\nthe trade school. Both, as a rule, take a narrower utilitarian view of education than the manual-training and technological schools. Some exceptions\nmay be found, such as the combined Lick and Wilmerding Schools of San\nFrancisco where a thoro academic high-school course, as well as a fair technical\ntraining, are prerequisites for the subsequent two-year trade-school course.\nThese two combined schools illustrate the highest conception of secondary\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o4\n\n,\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ntrade-school work in America. Some of the so-called industrial schools\nof the South are exceptions also. The Louisiana Industrial Institute at\nRuston and the Texas College of Industrial Arts for Women are at once\ntechnological, industrial, and trade schools judiciously combined with complete modem academic courses of study.\nIndustrial and trade schools are sometimes semi-factories, selling their\nproducts to defray expenses. Indeed these schools are sometimes run in\nconjunction with factories, thus limiting the pupils' opportunities for a liberal\neducation or even a broad industrial training. The factory school has caused\nthe name industrial to lose the high esteem to which it is justly entitled.\nIt is due to the factory schools and truant schools that the name industrial\ndoes not convey the correct notion of the high-class work done in some of our\nschools and colleges. If the word ''arts\" were annexed, making the name\nread ''industrial arts,\" there would be a clearer understanding of the manual\ntraining and technological work as conducted in the best industrial schools.\nWe are in need of an inclusive expression to stand for the whole scheme\nof handwork as conducted in our kindergartens, elementary schools, high\nschools, and colleges. There is a strong sentiment in favor of adopting the\nexpression \"industrial arts.\" The special courses of the agricultural college\nmay be consistently scheduled as work in the industrial arts, and thus we may\nhave a satisfactory inclusive expression. The terms \"manual training\" and\n\"industrial training\" have been used so long in so many different capacities\nthat they would probably prove misleading. \"Manual training\" would be\nsatisfactory for elementary and high schools, but the term has seldom been\nused in connection with college work.\n\"Manual training\" stands for two generally accepted ideas: (i) tool work\nfor boys, such as joinery, woodturning, and forging; and (2) the whole scheme\nof mechanic arts, including also all Hnes of handwork in the elementary school,\nand household arts, design, and ceramics in the high school for girls.\nIt is evident that \"industrial arts\" is a more inclusive term than \"manual\ntraining,\" and expresses more clearly than \"industrial\" or \"manual training\"\nthe work done in institutions giving technological or agricultural courses.\nManual-training and technological schools are nearly similar in purpose\nand content; the schools of technology usually begin their work during or\nsubsequent to the manual-training high-school course.\nDuring the last ten years the scope of manual training has broadened\nbeyond the manipulation of wood and iron, until at present it includes a\nknowledge of, and power over, a greater variety of materials, such as cotton,\ncereals, straw, clay, fruits, cardboard, reeds, metals, and leather. In its\ninitial stages manual training as a school subject was concerned with the\nproblems of a limited number of constructions; its theories were based upon\nthe idea that sheltering structures protect man in his civilized conditions, and\nthus make possible our modern attainments and culture; it omitted two more\nessential needs of mankind — food and clothing.\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDEFINITIONS\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\n60s\n\nWhen manual-training schools began to broaden their work so as to include\nthe fundamental principles of all industries, it became evident that the procuring and preparation of food and the processes of making clothing were as\nimportant from the standpoint of education as constructions for shelter and\ntransportation. Moreover, the study of foods and clothing, when carried\nbeyond mere theory, naturally led to manual-training courses for girls.\nThe manual-training movement is an educational movement. In a\nbroad sense it includes the sum-total of all forms of educational handwork\nthat may be taught in connection with school work. Manual training may\nbe defined as \"any line of handwork which is a necessary factor in the acquisition of hand skill or knowledge. If the purpose of handwork is not an\neducational purpose it becomes merely manual labor or purely play or empty\ngymnastics.\nOver a decade ago this Manual-Training Department of the National\nEducation Association defined manual training as \"the transforming of\nmaterials by working with tools according to principles fundamental in the\nindustrial arts.\" Does not this definition omit many of the essential features\nof the great manual-training movement of today which is planning to make\nevery phase of school work a part of the pupil's life work ?\nIn the kindergarten and primary grades manual training has a broader\nsignificance than could be possible thru the use of tradesmen's tools alone.\nEspecially in the primary school and to a great extent in grammar grades\nmanual training is as much a method as it is a subject. By means of manualtraining processes and methods we find the theories of Froebel, the teachings\nof Comenius, the principles of Locke, and the methods of Agassiz controlling\nvery largely the methods and work of primary education.\nThe great majority of manual-training schools are high schools preparing\nfor entrance to some university or technological school. There are, however,\na few exceptions, such as the Horace Mann School of New York City, the\nUniversity School of Chicago, the Manual-Training School of New Orleans,\nand here and there a few public schools which offer manual training in every\ngrade of the elementary course and continue it thru the high school. This\nis an ideal plan, in fact it is the only plan giving manual training a full opportunity to show its worth in an educational way. The best educational results\nof manual training from the standpoint of the teaching profession are obtained\nin the kindergarten and primary grades. As the pupils advance to the high\nschool all studies become differentiated and more highly specialized, and\nmanual training becomes more technical, vocational, and specific.\nIndustrial, trade, and technological schools are estabhshed for the purpose\nof developing tradesmen of superior technical skill. The manual-training\nhigh schools aim to accomplish the same ends and much more; they have\never stood for a broad, liberal, and progressive education, but have never\nunderestimated the practical and intrinsic value of the so-called cultural\nsubjects. The manual-training school aims to accomplish the double pur-\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\npose of training for immediate life work, and at the same time to prepare its\npupils for the university in case they wish to continue their institutional education. Comparison shows that a much larger ratio of pupils from manualtraining schools enter the universities than from industrial and trade schools.\nIt appears that trade schools and manual-training schools are at present\nquite different in purpose: the former look for immediate results and minimize the value of a cultural education; while the manual-training schools\naim to give a superior cultural education by adding experience and practice\nto the theories of the classroom.\nThere is a growing need for more intelligent tradesmen and farmers, and\nthe time is coming soon when strictly vocational work of the industrial and\ntrade schools will be offered as electives in many of our best high schools. In\nthe past the cultural theories of education caused all manual-training advocates cautiously to avoid any direct vocational work. With our new ideals\nof serviceableness and efficiency, and with a renewed and more sensible\nspirit of democracy, we may expect in the near future ample provision in\nsome of our high schools for strictly trade-school work.\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nJ. C. MONAGHAN,\n\nSTANDPOINT OF ECONOMIC AND MANUFACTURING INTERESTS, SHOULD\nSPECIAL\nTRADE\nSCHOOLS BE ESTABLISHED ?\nSECRETARY,\nNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR PROMOTION\nTRIAL EDUCATION, NEW\nYORK, N. Y.\n\nOF INDUS-\n\nBismarck said, ''The nation that has the schools has the future.\" He\nhad Germany in his mind. His hopes ran high in those days. He had seen\nthe schoolmasters help the empire to its success. He had seen their work\nbefore Schleswig-Holstein, Sadowa, and Sedan. No doubt was in his heart\nor mind. But it does not follow, because Bismarck said it or believed it,\nthat it is true. The nation that has the schools, plus the raw materials, needed\nin the industries shotdd — note that I do not say shall — have the future. We\nhave the materials. Our mines, forests, and farms are marvelously productive. With these, the future, or a large part of it, ought to be ours. The\ncensus of 1900 said we gave the world 22 per cent, of its wheat, 30 per cent,\nof its gold, 32 per cent, of its coal, silver 33 per cent., manufactures 34 per\ncent., iron 35 per cent., cattle 36 per cent., steel 38 per cent., petroleum 50 per\ncent., copper 54 per cent., cotton 75 per cent., and com 84 per cent. The\nthings in which we lead, the world wants. They are the basis of all that is\nbiggest and best in economic life. Adding education of the kind called for\nby Bismarck's remark — industrial, industrial-art, commercial and technical\nschools — and we win. If the adopt and adapt that led Germany to be adept\nare introduced here, we will tell an industrial and economic story never told\nbefore. If to the three R's the three A's and three H's — training of head and\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHOULD\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBE ESTABLISHED\n\n?\n\n607\n\nhand and heart — are added, we will win, for it is the proper training of these\nthat is needed.\nThe need of the nation now as it emerges from the shell into which it\ncrawled when it put up the walls of protection, the need of today, as we enter\nupon an era of industrial and economic expansion, is men and women trained\nas the skilled labor of Europe has been trained. We cannot go far relying\nupon what is ours now. We must build up a better class of trained help.\nThat this is so the manufacturers are well aware. For a long time manufacturers were able to fill the places of their employees, depleted by death,\nby other laborers imported from Europe. The machines bought by our\npeople in England and other countries, but particularly in England, were\nfollowed by men and women familiar with these machines. Just what brought\nthe working-men and working-women is not a question, now. It may have\nbeen the higher wages; it may have been the spirit of adventure. I believe\nit was both. But they came. To protect ourselves from foreign products,\ndirectly, and only indirectly from foreign labor, we erected the tariff barriers.\nThat these were not all their friends would have us believe is evidenced by\nthe fact that the ships laden with foreign products that paid enormous duties\ncame in crowded with laborers, upon whose coming there was no restraint.\nA time came when the tide of immigration from England turned. The\nhelp wanted for the machines had to be sought somewhere else. The Scotch\nand Irish came, then the French Canadian, then the inhabitants of southern\nEurope. At last we learned to manufacture in masses. True we were not,\nwe are not, equal to England and other European countries in the manufacture ofcertain high-class goods, but in many machine-made goods, of the\ncoarser kinds, we began to lead. We began to look for openings in foreign\nfields. It was then that we began to realize the weak point in our armor.\nWhen Hamilton started us on a career of industrial development, of which\nmanufactures were to be a big part, he never dreamed that we wo^ld rest\nsatisfied with European workmen. He dreamed of a day when dependence\nwould pass. That day is to dawn, if it is not here.\nIf a lesson is needed, there are many recorded. In 1876, Germany, among\nothers, was at our Centennial Exposition. At its close, her representative,\nRouleaux, wrote to Berlin, ''Our exhibits are cheap and nasty\" — Schlecht\nund Billig. The Germans did not get angry, nor did they resent or deny\nthe charge. They sent expert or trained agents — ^mark the kind, trained\nagents — into France and other countries to find out how it had been possible\nfor France and others to appear with their wonderful exhibits. The result\nis recorded in the romantic story of Germany's rise to a very high place among\nthe industrial countries of the world. This is not the place to tell that tale,\nhowever tempting the opportunity and however well prepared one is to tell\nit. What must be recorded, however, here, now, for the benefit of our own\npeople, is the fact that a very large part of Germany's, and I might say Japan's,\nsuccess in the years since 1876 is based upon industrial, industrial-art, and\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o8\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ntechnical schools. If those empires are winning their way to high places\namong industrial states, it is because the expert has been developed. To\nthe schoolmaster they have turned to be answered with an ever-widening\ncircle of industrially trained men and women. Again I say Bismarck's\nfamous aphorism, Wer die Schule hat, hat die Zukunft — \"The nation that\nhas the schools has the future\" — is not necessarily true, unless he refers to\nsome far-off future when exhausted mines, wells, forests, etc., will more nearly\nequalize the resources of the nations. It is no longer possible for our people\nto put their trust in our industrial resources alone, rich as those are. When\nan American weaver of carpets turns off a fifteen-by-fifteen-foot product\nthat weighs ten, twenty, or thirty pounds, and sells for fifteen or twenty dollars,\nwhile a French weaver on a Gobelin loom turns off a textile fabric of less\nweight of the same size that is worth thousands of dollars, one begins to\nrealize the important part played by expert labor in a nation's exports, in a\nnation's products. That we have won our way thus far, here at home, is\nlargely due to the tariffs; that we have won our way some outside is due, no\ndoubt, to our resources. But an hour is on us in which we must make a place\nfor ourselves here and there, at home and abroad, for as high grades of goods\nas are produced by our rivals. The highly trained efi&ciency in Germany, for\nexample, is not as old as we are urged to believe. A large part of it goes back\nno farther than forty or fifty years. Of the nearly $2,000,000,000 worth of\nour wares exported annually, no superior handicraft of any kind contributed\nto success in their sales. They were bought, most of them, because they\ncould not be bought elsewhere. The markets were not found by us.\nAnyway, our foreign trade is little better than a beginning at best, a mere\nskirmish. Estimates of our manufactures sold in Europe put them at less\nper capita than a cent's worth a week; while of those sold in Asia the per\ncapita is so small that it may be neglected. Competition kept out, we went\non unti^ invention, by splendid machines and marvelous new processes, has\nhelped us to pile up the products of our mines, forests, farms, and factories,\nuntil an outlet is a necessity. Of our $1,800,000,000 worth of exports, in a\nsingle year, 1906, $1,000,000,000 went from our farms; from our mines, exclusive of oil, $100,000,000. Of the $700,000,000 down to manufactures, iron\nplayed a large part. This was based largely upon our unrivaled raw materials. Until we know China as well as we know Europe, we will have to stand\nat the head of the world's iron producers, for we are the world's most wonderful possessors of raw iron, having more than 10,000,000,000 tons — ^more,\naccording to Mr. Carnegie, than a Swedish geologist gives to the entire earth.\nThis superiority will soon pass, for our inventions are soon copied abroad,\nor employed under royalties. As Mr. Frank Vanderlip says, *'We have, then,\ngained markets because we have cheap raw materials, because of American\ninventive ingenuity, and because of the great scale upon which we have done\nthings, but never have we gained an important market because we could do a\npiece of work better than our competitors could do it. Never have we sold\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHOULD\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBE ESTABLISHED?\n\n609\n\nan important consignment because superior handicraft entered into its production.\" One might ask why we should not admit all this and still be satisfied.\nWe command the foreign markets. We sell vast totals. We compete successfully. Granted that our success in competition does not rest on a basis\nof manual skill, our totals in the international trade balances are no less impressive. Such easy logic may be satisfactory for yesterday and today, but tomorrow itmay be shattered. Every advantage which we have had in our competition for world-markets, except the advantage of cheap raw material, may\nbe copied by our competitors. Indeed such advantages are sometimes more\nthan copies, they are improved upon. Surely it is not well that we should\nrest our claims for international trade supremacy solely upon an abundance\nof raw material when an end to that advantage is within an easy calculable\ndistance.\nWhile we have been producing most excellent executive and administrative officers, skillful engineers, the rank and file have been neglected; the\nmechanics, workers of all kinds, in all kinds of metals, carpenters, masons,\nblacksmiths, plumbers, etc., have had no training such as is given to the\nmembers of such callings in European countries. Indeed, Mr. Roosevelt,\nafter saying practically what I have just said, adds these words, \"Indeed,\ntoo often our schools train away from the shop and the forge; and this fact,\ntogether with the abandonment of the old apprentice system, has resulted\nin such an absence of facilities for providing trained journeymen that, in many\nof our trades, most of the recruits among the workmen are foreigners.\" Mr.\nRoosevelt might have gone farther and said that for a long time, even up to\ndate, our highly trained, expert workmen were foreigners. New England's\ndyers, bleachers, designers, weavers, spinners, fancy workers in jewelry shops\nwere foreigners. Surely this means that there must be some systematic method\nprovided for training young men in the trades, and that this must be co-ordinated with the public-school system. No industrial school can turn out a\nfinished journeyman; but it can furnish the material out of which a finished\njourneyman can be made, just as an engineering school furnishes the training which enables its graduates speedily to become engineers.\nWe hear a great deal of the need of protecting our workmen from competition with pauper labor. I have very little fear of the competition of pauper\nlabor. The nations with pauper labor are not the formidable industrial\ncompetitors of this country. What the American workingman has to fear\nis the competition of the highly skilled workingman of the countries of greatest\nindustrial efficiency. By the tariff, and by our immigration laws, we can\nalways protect ourselves against the competition of pauper labor here at home;\nbut when we contend for the markets of the world, we can get no protection\nand we shall then find that our most formidable competitors are the nations\nin which there is the most highly developed business ability, the most highly\ndeveloped industrial skill; and these are the qualities which we ourselves\ndevelop.\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "610\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nIf we are to make as much as may be made of our vast mineral, forest,\nfarm, and factory products, we will have to have just such schools as Mr.\nRoosevelt had in mind, such schools as have made Germany and Japan, in\na way, educational as well as industrial models.\nI cannot help thinking that the manufacturers must take the initiative\nhere, as they did to a very large extent in Europe. Nobody knows their needs\nas they do themselves. Besides, it will take a long time to get the publicschool people to move, even after they have become interested. As to a\nplan I have none to offer. Certain lines have succeeded in Cincinnati. They\nare the half-and-half lines. The boys are o^ie week in the school, the next\nweek in the shop. In the school they are taught the things that seldom or\nnever come up in the shop, and in the shop they get what it would be hard,\ngenerally speaking, to provide in the school. The Cincinnati system has been\nvery successful for Cincinnati. Boys on the half-time indicated have done\nfully three-fourths as much and far better work, as far as they went, than\nwas done by boys on full term in the technical schools. But whether it would\nbe wise, or even possible, for other cities to do what Cincinnati did, it is hard\nto say. I would urge a careful study of conditions. Nobody is better prepared for just such study than are manufacturers. The success of the Brown\nand Sharpe people, the General Electric, under Mr. Alexander's direction, and\nthe various other schools connected with factories, furnish a justification\nfor that kind of a school. I can conceive of conditions mending by means\nof industrial education till this country takes a place among the world's foremost producers of fine wares. If it is to continue prosperous, it must do this;\nfor the day China's resources are utilized and automatic machinery takes the\nplace of its myriads of men and women's hands, when mills are put in the\nplace of its homes to produce as Manchester and Lancashire are producing,\nas New England and the New South are producing, only prohibitive tariffs\nwill keep this market for our own manufacturers against China. Before we\nenter that era, American manufacturers owe it to themselves, to their help,\nto America, to inaugurate a system of education such as I have been trying\nto urge. Mr. Halsey, editor of the American Machinist, one of the most\nenlightened leaders in this new field of educational thought, is firmly convinced that no success is in sight, or will be visible for a long time, unless the\nmanufacturers take the initiative. To urge them to do this is part of my\npurpose. It is part of that purpose, Hkewise, to urge the industrial-art phase\nof the problem. Indeed, I have no doubt but that phase is by far the most\nimportant phase of the problem.\nThe way to proceed is simple. Manufacturers might organize and appoint\nexperts to study conditions. They ought to see how much money is invested\nin various industries. These should be studied carefully, with a view to\nsuch differentiation as will lead to the largest and speediest possible success.\nThe story of Theodore C. Search's efforts in Philadelphia, the success of Mr.\nSivyer and others in Milwaukee, Mr. Ittner's work and success in connection\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHOULD\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBE ESTABLISHED?\n\n6ii\n\nwith the Winona School in Indianapolis, the work of Senator Stout and Dr.\nHarvey at Menomonie, and the work in the Williamsburg and other schools of\nPhiladelphia are all fascinating tales of what manufacturers have done, and\ngive good augury of what is possible.\nIn conclusion, I cannot resist the temptation to break a lance with those\nwho tell us what wonderful work has been done here without vocational\neducation. Some say we have surpassed Germany. They argue from our\nsuccess that such schools are not needed. How greatly they are mistaken\nI may not be able to make them understand. This I must say, however, that\nit is not what Germany or anybody else is with such schools, but what they\nwould be without them. Not what we are without them, but what we would\nbe able to do with them. Germany, without them, would never have won\nher way to the high place she now occupies in the industrial world. When\nwe run over her record, noting her failure at Philadelphia, and her subsequent successes at Chicago, at Paris, at St. Louis and all parts of the world,\nand we remember that 75 per cent, of this success, at least, is due to her industrial, industrial-art, and technical-training schools, we cannot help urging\nour manufacturers to inaugurate a similar system; but before doing so, to\nsend out experts for the purpose of studying the methods that have made\nGermany, Japan, and other countries so successful. The system of apprenticeship isgone or is fast going; industrial and industrial-art education must\ntake its place. The manufacturer who does not see this has not been keeping\npace with the industrial and educational movements of mankind. The\nharder we work now the quicker will be the returns. The educational leaders\nof our land have shown a willingness to work hand-in-hand with the manufacturers. The governments — state and national — show more or less interest.\nIt remains only for the manufacturers to co-operate. The German manufacturer, conscious of what that system of education has done for him and\nhis country, is ready to support it entirely should the government withdraw\nits aid.\nIn this connection, permit me to quote. The London Times, in 1903,\nsaid: \"The Germans have a particular need for carefully trained skill for the\nwork, because they are not naturally inventive or gifted with the innate sense\nof elegance possessed by the French. Consequently, the manufacturers give\nliberal support to the textile schools, and further encourage them by giving\nemployment to the graduates. There is no doubt that it pays them. A\nmanufacturer was showing me one day in Elberfeld a length of dress material.\n* That is going to England and is made of English material. I get the materials\nfrom England, manufacture them, and send them back. I pay the carriage\nboth ways, and yet I can sell this in the EngHsh market.' 'How?' 'Well,\nyou see, this is a nice design; there is brains in it.'\" It is just this lesson\nthat American manufacturers have to learn. Not that some have not learned\nit, for some have, notably men like Theodore C. Search, long president of the\nNational Association of American Manufacturers.\nHis work in aid of just\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l 2\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nsuch education is one of the romances of industrial education. After getting\n$35,000 with which to begin an industrial school, when acting as the agent\nof a group of manufacturers who set $50,000 as the minimum upon which to\nbegin, he gave back the money and began on his own hook, in his own way,\nwithout a dollar from anybody, and laid the foundations for one of the best\ntextile schools on earth. The story will be found in full in number nine of the\nBtUletins of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education.\nI would urge its careful perusal by all interested in this line of work.\nReports of our own and other consuls teem with praise of such a system\nof education as is exemplified by the success of Japan and Germany. Surely\nit is time to investigate.\nThe speaker is not unaware of the splendid work done by the boot-andshoe men of America. Familiar with the facts of our industrial life in the\nlarge, he looks beyond the machines, to the men, women, and children. Even\nin the boot-and-shoe industry there isn't much to boast about — when the\nworkers are under consideration. Nor has the speaker lost sight of the silkworkers of Paterson, N. J., and Manchester, Conn. What has been done in\nthese places only augurs for the better day that is to dawn when once we put\nforth the energies of our people in intensive instead of extensive farming,\nin scientific instead of unscientific methods, in the care of our forests, and in\nadding the kind of education for which we stand to our factories.\nBesides building us up economically and industrially, this kind of education issure to contribute much to the uplifting and upbuilding of our workers.\nWith it running as it is running elsewhere, in this atmosphere charged with\nprogress, prosperity will walk hand-in-hand with education on all our hills\nand valleys. The miner, the man in the forest, on the farm, and in the factory,\nwill be a better man. With these we will lift the help, in all our industries,\nfrom the positions of working-men and working-women to one in which they\nwill be men and women at work they love. By means of it the man in the\nmine, made familiar with what the mines mean to mankind, to manufacturers,\nto commerce, will be lifted from his clod-like life into a larger realm, one\nmeasured by larger thought. When he has the historic perspective pointed\nout to him, is told what iron and coal meant to England and others in the great\nfight for first place among industrial and commercial nations, he will feel\nthat he, too, is part of the world's great working force. When the coal miner\nlearns all that, and learns also that the world still leans largely on him for cheap\nheat, light, and power, he will be better for it all. We, too, will be better for\nit as a people; and the mine owner will be best off of all. Every word that\nis applicable to the mine owner is applicable to and true of the manufacturer.\nWhen the smelter or wire-drawer goes to the mine for his ore and learns of\nthe large laws that were in the life of the world long ago, and then thinks that\nunder the ocean the copper wires he made are now carrying messages, or runs\nhis eyes along the wires that carry heat, light, and power to our homes and\nshops, sees what these all mean for progress and prosperity, for all that is\n\nk\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHOULD\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBE ESTABLISHED\n\n?\n\n613\n\nbest and highest in the thing called civilization, his life will be larger and better.\nOut of it all will come a new revelation of man's powers and destiny — an\nentirely different appreciation of existence. We owe it to ourselves, as a people,\nmore than we do to the men in the mines and mills, to see such a system successfully inaugurated and generously supported. It is not a dream; or, if it is,\nit is like those often recorded in the Good Book — a dream that we are able to\nrealize to make true.\nDISCUSSION\nClifford B. Connelley, dean of school for apprentices and journeymen, Carnegie\nTechnical School, Pittsburg, Pa. — Little by little, sometimes as slowly as the grinding of the\nmills of the gods, industrial education is assuming its place in the public-school system,\nuntil today, instead of educator battling with educator on the advisability of industrial\ntraining, such work is taken as a matter of necessity; in fact, in the most progressive\neducational communities of the country, the former opponent and friend of the plan meet\neach other in a unanimity of opinion that not so many years ago seemed impossible.\nWith this steady growth of the industrial-training idea and its constantly increasing adoption by our school boards, the subject has broadened in its scope until it has assumed\nmany phases and conditions, just as every new, but substantial, movement must; for it\nis the evolution of any plan toward perfection that marks its wholesome growth. So with\nindustrial training, we are today not combating the idea in itself, but are rather standing\non a more liberal platform, and are discussing the subject in its own complexities and\ndivisions.\nWe have assumed that our public schools are expected to offer vocational training, and\nwe are now confronted with the question of whether trade courses should be given in\nmanual-training schools or in special trade schools. In order that all sides may be heard,\nthe subject has been considered from the educational, agricultural, economic, and manufacturing standpoints; and in our general discussion today it might be well to follow this\nprecedent and discuss the subject on a similar plan.\nThe segregation of manual training and trade training is clearly defined on the educational side, and each has its particular place here.\nManual training is not intended to fit the student for any definite occupation, but\nrather to offer the development of those capacities which purely academic training cannot\nsupply. The keen eye, the skillful hand, the practical mind — these are the desired results\nof manual training. Manual training likewise has its place in the cultural development\nof the student, for it broadens his sympathies and interests, his ideas of the beautiful and\nthe useful, quickens his perceptions of exactness and balance, and assists in bringing his\neducation to that point where he may meet conditions and decide quickly on what is to be\ndone in each particular case; for manual training does nothing if it does not tend to encourage resourcefulness and self-reliance. However, while all this is true of manual training,\nyet neither any factor of this training nor the training as a whole can be expected to fit\nthe student for a life's vocation, any more than the academic training of the public school\ncould prepare the pupil for a professional career. In both the academic and industrial\nfield, the work of the public school must be supplemented by a specialized training along\nthe particular line of work which the student intends to make his future calling, and in\nthe industrial system this supplementary school must be the trade school. Here only can\nthe student obtain that special and thoro equipment which will enable him to go forth as\na man trained in his vocation and prepared to take his place in the field of industrialism.\nWhat the professional school or university is to the prospective lawyer or physician, the\ntrade school is to the future mechanic; and just as the student who enters the professional\nschool is supposed to have a broad foundation along academic lines before entering the\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nuniversity course, so the one who is admitted to the trade school ought to be well trained\nin the principles underlying all industrial work. This preliminary training may well be\nofifered in the manual-training schools, so that these schools, in addition to providing part\nof the necessary education for the children of today, will also serve to offer that elementary\nknowledge and practice which must be part of the equipment of students entering the\ntrade schools. It might be argued from this that manual-training schools could therefore\noffer both the preliminary and special training — the latter in the addition of trade-school\ndepartments — but it must be obvious to any observant educator that such an attempt\nwould be a very considerable and likewise burdensome undertaking on the part of the\nmanual-training schools, and that both departments — that is, the manual-training and\nthe trade divisions — must suffer in the system, for there could be no concentration of energy\nin either one, and the line of differentiation would not be very clearly marked. Then, too,\nthere would be the danger of failing to make the student realize the vast importance of\nthe special trade courses as contrasted with the general plan of the manual-training department, for the student of today is so constituted that he does not begin to feel the responsibility ofhis career until he has begun to specialize in that particular work which he is to\nmake his life's calling. On the other hand, by offering vocational training in the trade\nschools only, the sphere of demarcation is clearly defined, and the student soon understands the value of his trade training. The fact that the trade schools are only such, and\nnot institutions of general learning, must also be a potent reason why these trade schools\nmay so concentrate their plans as to offer the student the benefit of vast opportunities in\nhis special branch. It, therefore, seems clear to me that the only place in our educational\nsystem in which to offer trade courses is in special trade schools.\nOn the agricultural side, the line of differentiation is not so clearly defined, for the\ngeneral training in mechanical methods as given in the manual-training schools offers\nmuch of the rudimentary knowledge of the character that is required in agricultural pursuits.\nHowever, in the production of agricultural implements, the skilled worker of the trade\nschool is a vital necessity and the skilled blacksmith or the thoro mechanic should be\ngiven a much more specific training in his work than the manual-training schools can\no^er. This special equipment must come from the trade schools, for in them alone can\nthe student receive the benefit of experienced and well-balanced mechanical instruction.\nThe economic and manufacturing interests of the country clearly demand the establishment of special trade schools for the training of their workmen. The day of experiments\nin the economic field has passed so far as workmen are concerned, for the growth of competition and invention, and the almost miraculous pace set in the industrial world today,\nhave long since eliminated the employment of any but the most skilled and accurate workers. The progressive manufacturer can n9 longer afford to offer apprenticeship courses in\nhis plant as liberally as he did in former times, and the youth who leaves school with\nonly a manual-training education as given in the public school is in a sad plight when he\nattempts to obtain satisfactory employment. The demand for high-class men is so acute\ntoday that if we would train our students to the point where they may compete in the\nfields of skilled labor, we must give them the advantage of special trade-school courses.\nHere, perhaps more forcibly than in any other case, the line of demarcation must be drawn,\nfor the present-day manufacturer has no time for the student who is \"Jack of all trades.\"\nHere, too, must the student be made to realize most strongly that the days of schoolboy\npranks and immature methods are at an end, and that the period of responsibility has come.\nThe complete separation of manual-training and trade schools can alone bring this con- I\ndition about in a satisfactory way. Here, also, is the need for special training most felt,\nfor that student alone can take his proper place in the manufacturing world who has been\ntrained and drilled in his particular line of work. The trade schools are intended for this\npurpose and therefore offer courses accordingly, so that the manufacturer of the present\nand the future must of necessity look to the special trade school for his skilled labor.\nThe Carnegie Technical Schools, in their trade courses, offer the theoretical knowledge\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHOULD\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBE ESTABLISHED?\n\n615\n\nand practical skill required in these days of specialization. Young men desiring to enter\nindustrial work are assisted to select a congenial trade and are given practical instruction\nnot only in that trade but in the closely allied subjects. A broader knowledge can thus\nbe secured than is possible under the prevailing system of apprenticeship, which fails to\ngive general instruction to the beginner. Older men already engaged in a chosen trade\ncan secure there such additional information in subjects related to that trade, and such\nup-to-date practice also, as will increase their efl&ciency and hence their earning power.\nThe foundation is laid for habits of observation, initiative, and thoroness; the student\nis assisted in acquiring a general knowledge of the industrial conditions in America; and\nspecial emphasis is placed on the fact that besides the possession of mere skill it is essential\nfor a man to concern himself with right living and good citizenship in order to be per\nmanently successful.\nThe necessity of special trade schools must now be patent to all of us, whether from\nthe educational, agricultural, or manufacturing standpoint. I do not think that any one\nof us would advocate the abolition of professional schools or universities, nor would we\nsupport a plan to combine the academic and professional school. So, likewise, we should\nbe found on the side of those who advocate the separation of manual-training and trade\nschools. Neither one of these schools must attempt to usurp the field of the other, and\nwhile there may and should be a harmonious relation existing between the two, yet each\nhas its distinct province which it alone must occupy. It was Herbert Spencer who said\nthat \"Industrialism must not be confounded with industriousness,\" and we today might\nsay that special trade training must not be confounded with manual training. Each has\nits relative place as affects the other, just as industriousness affects industrialism; but\nthe fact still remains that they are distinct institutions and should be maintained as such.\nMrs. Ida Hood Clark, director of elementary training, public schools, Milwaukee,\nWis. — In considering this subject of vocational training in the elementary schools, we\nmust look the present situation squarely in the face, and see that it is true that the system\nin vogue in our elementary schools does not meet the needs of all the children. The\ngreat masses are in the grades, and the majority are in the first six grades. All the pupils\ncannot enter the high school, and the number of pupils whom the schools lose at the\nend of the elementary-school course is appalling. The pupils go out of the elementary\nschool, many of them, wholly unfitted to earn a comfortable hving, and entirely unprerpared to take a place in the world's race for an honest livelihood. We must profit by\n[Germany's example and provide for these wage-earners.\nI had the honor and great pleasure of being one of the members of the European\n;achers' trip, taken under the auspices of the American Civic Association. I was sent\nibroad to inspect elementary, manual-training, and trade schools for girls. While\nispecting schools in Germany, I became very much impressed with Germany's system\n>f continuation schools. The pupils who are obliged to leave the elementary school at\nibout the age of fourteen to go to work are given training in these continuation schools,\nrhich are in session in the evening, and often on Sundays. Employers are obliged to\nirrange the hours of work so employees can attend these schools, so the schools thereby\npteep possession of the boys and girls up to the age of seventeen.\nThe continuation schools may be trade continuation schools, or they may include\nistruction of an academic nature.\nThey are for those who feel the need for more training,\nLttendance at these schools is compulsory.\nI believe we could well profit by Germany's\nimple and establish continuation trade schools in America, and raise the school age\nsixteen or seventeen years.\nWe ought also to put more industrial or real manualtraining work into the elementary schools, and give more time and money to it, using\nlis work as a means of expression in the elementary grades.\nIt will thus lead to vocational training of some kind in the grammar grades.\nIt is the elementary-school curricuthat needs to be vitalized and\" pruned and made interesting, so that the boys and\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ngirls will want to stay in the higher grades, and eventually we may hope to keep more of\nthem in the secondary schools.\nWe need all kinds of schools to take care of all kinds of children. Industrial education— call it by what name you will — must include rational, related handwork from the\nkindergarten thru the elementary schools to help the children to find and to express themselves. Itmust include vocational and trade training at the end of the elementary school\nfor those who must go to work. It must also include manual training in every high\nschool, and technical schools to train directors and real craftsmen, as well as other technical institutions of higher learning. The trade schools for both boys and girls must be a\npart of the public-school system and have a definite plan in the educational scheme,\nwhich ought to give every American child an equal chance to make the most of himself\nin the industrial, as well as in the intellectual, life of the country.\nIn Milwaukee we have a trade school for boys that has belonged to the public-school\nsystem for three years. In September next we shall establish a similar school for girls.\nWe are the first city in the United States to establish trade schools in connection with\nthe public-school system.\n\nART AS RELATED\n/.\nARTHUR\n\nFROM\n\nTO THE\n\nSTANDPOINT\n\nINDUSTRIES\nOF ART\n\nB. CLARK, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF GRAPHIC ARTS, LELAND\nJUNIOR\nUNIVERSITY,\nSTANFORD\nUNIVERSITY,\nCAL.\n\nSTANFORD\n\nA readjustment is taking place in education because vocational training\nis making insistent demands. The program of this Association bristles with\nthe topic. The conservative wall has been broken and an opportunity is\noffered to place instruction in the manual arts on a sound basis. What place\nshall art have ?\nArt is the element which sweetens the performance of labor and gives\nspiritual expression to its product. By its use a workman can give an object a\nvalue beyond itself. Writing of this peculiar power of art Browning says:\nSo may you paint your picture, twice show truth,\nBeyond mere imagery on the wall —\nSo, note by note, bring music from your mind,\nDeeper than ever e'en Beethoven divined —\nSo write a book shall mean beyond the facts,\nSuflSce the eye and save the soul beside.\n\n\\^\n\nThis is true of all labor. Inspired by art a workman can dig a ditch, make\na roadway, or build a gatepost so that each, in its degree, shall mean beyond\nthe facts and save the soul of the workman from paralysis of unenlightened\ntoil.\nThe world is built under artistic law and we are fitted to perceive it.\nWhether we look at a bank of sand shifting with the wind, at an alluvial valley\nwashed by a stream, at a tall tree, or a tiny flower, we will see, if our sense is\nalert to see, that beauty of arrangement in series and rhythms of curving lines\nand harmony of colors is the universal law. Sometimes Nature seems to\ngrope, as in the formation of the mountain range; again she attains a tri-\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nAS\n\nRELATED\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\n617\n\numphant climax as in the bursting melody of a lark, or the unfolding blossom\nof the iris; but always the striving for beauty is there.\nThe manual worker should create in the same manner, assembling all that\nhe touches by artistic law. That is the path of peace and harmony. Mr.\nFrederick Oakes Sylvester has written of these laws as follows:\nArt is a living spiritual interpretation of creation, uplifting humanity by its nature,\nits activity, and its fruitage. It has its laws of being, of unfolding, of demonstration,\nexpressed thru unity, harmony, rhythm, symmetry, balance, strength, grace, and variety.\nThe permeating presence, recognition, and understanding of these laws in human thought\nand their embodiment in material form constitute the whole realm of the esthetic.\n\nImagine for a moment a community of human beings producing this\npulsating order in all its life; moving to music, expressing in song, celebrating\nevents of civic and national importance with orderly exercises in which emotion\nis controlled, unified, and expressed by concerted rhythmic action. Pleasure\nwould increase and life take on the noble exaltation of the most perfect operas.\nIn material surroundings, the first effect would be to destroy some bad furniture and houses because they would not fit orderly lives. Good articles would\nbe retained because worth retaining. This condition of life, imaginary to an\nextent, is not wholly so, for this development is now going on, and the buildings,\nfurniture, and music which do not meet artistic as well as useful standards are\nbeing eliminated. By looking back ten, one hundred, or five hundred years,\nwe see that the buildings which people preserve, the pictures and carvings\nwhich are protected in museums, are those which have artistic merit. The\ngreatest artist is he who creates those things which people will care to preserve\nfor the longest time. The best craftsman is he who so makes a dish, a table,\na leaded window, or a house that it will not soon be cast aside to make room\nfor another article of higher spiritual significance and better design made by\na workman more observant of the laws of beauty.\nWhat workman does not prefer to perform enduring and ennobling work,\nor who will make articles of bad proportion if he knows a better; or, on the\nother hand, what man making articles of exquisite beauty will be satisfied to\nmake them flimsy and perishable in joinery ?\nGood taste in design, in choice of material, in proportioning spaces, in\ncoloring and carving can so impress one's spiritual joy in an object that it will\nlast ten times as long and hence be ten times as valuable. Art is a profitable\npartner in any craft. This effect is not economic alone. The unenlightened\nworkman is a drudging slave, waiting for the release of five o'clock; while\nthe artist striving for perfection is a god, making a universe, and for him time\ndoes not exist.\nThoreau tells of the artist of Kouroo who, disposed to strive for perfection,\nset about making a staff, and altho while the task was proceeding\n\"his friends deserted him and grew old in their works and died, he grew older by not a\nmoment.\" .... Dynasties passed as he worked at his simple task, but \"When the finish\ning stroke was put to his work, it suddenly expanded before the eyes of the astonished\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "61 8\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nworkman-artist into the fairest of all creations of Brahma. He had made a new system\nin making a staff, a world with full and fair proportions .... and for him and his work,\nthe former lapse of time had been an illusion, and no more time had elapsed than is\nrequired for a single scintillation from the brain of Brahma to fall on and inflame the tinder of a mortal brain.\"\n\nSuch is the inspiration and reward of artistic work.\nThe speaker is an architect, when not teaching, and has for years noted the\nstate of mind of various workmen in the building trades. While all occupations afiford more or less of opportunity for the exercise of artistic pleasure,\nthe workmen who appreciate the main motive of a design or who feel any large\nrelationships between the various details of a structure are rarely found. This\nstate is due partly to defective Education of the individual workman, partly to\nthe defective education of those who determine building conditions, partly to\nthe spoils system or organization in industry by which a few attempt to shave\na profit from more workmen than they can furnish with inspiring jobs. In\nthe average, among the manufacturing industries the power of individual\ninitiative and appreciation is less than in the building trades.\nThe journeyman acts upon the recipes and precedents of his trade and is\nembarrassed outside of them. The artist, when confronted by new conditions,\nis stimulated. He analyzes the problem, arrives at an approximate solution\nby deduction, corrects it by experiment, and follows his taste with confidence.\nI recently saw a most beautiful result in staining redwood, obtained in this\nway, which the local painters would never have produced.\nPlaning mills are useful in furnishing dressed lumber, but evil in effect\nupon the men who do not know when to look elsewhere. I recently saw a\nman in distress because he could not cut a fancy end on a large beam with\nthe band saw. Ten minutes' work with a handsaw did the work, after an\nhour had been spent trying to make the machine do it, and even then the man\nfelt that the handsa wed' product was a makeshift.\nAmong the improvements in ideal production the three following are\nnotable :\nIn England an ideal industrial village has been established under the\nleadership of Mr. C. R. Ashbee. The principles and works of William\nMorris inspire the movement. Mr. Ashbee may be known to many here thru\nhis lectures in this country. He holds that sanity in work demands that the\nindividual must come into direct contact with his material — no machine\nbetween to destroy the impression of the human being with his sensitive soul.\nCabinets, metal work, jewelry, and books bound and printed are produced here\nin a most ideal way. Craft song and art in many forms are used to enlighten\nlife. The movement succeeds in giving a considerable number of people an\nexalted industrial existence, but it is too much in advance of the times for\nwidespread imitation.\nIn connection with the art department of Tulane University, some pottery\nwork and embroidery are produced, both under the finest conditions of work-\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nAS RELATED\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\n619\n\nmanship and of highest excellence. Each piece of work is individual in design\nand reflects and reveals the beauty of Louisiana, as felt and seen-by the artist\nmaking the work.\nThe work done under the direction of Mr. Gustave Stickley, in the wellknown *' Craftsman\" shops, is more commercial in character than the work\nin the two places just mentioned. The shops are conducted much as other\nfactories are, but the sanity of design in its adaptability to the material and\ngenuineness of construction makes this work notable.\nCountless amateur and professional handicraft societies and individual\nworkers, in almost every city, are doing some work in an enlightened artistic\nspirit. Anyone who feels the impulse to reform manufacturing conditions\nin his locality can begin the reform by making with his own hands at least\none article — a chair, a lamp shade, or a window stencil — with the spirit of\ncompletest artistic expression.\nA woman of my acquaintance recently made an embroidered wall hanging\nsymbolizing a particular spring day's drive upon a mountain. The foothills\ndotted with flowers, the mountain covered with redwood forest, and the zigzagging roadway were symbolized with charming simplicity and taste.\nHow shall teaching in the manual arts be carried on so as to advance enlightened workmanship ?\nFirst: The manual worker and teacher must be an artist; the artist must\nbe a manual worker, and there is no short cut to either. Art is not a kind of\nsurface varnish which may be rubbed over a thing after it is made, but it lies\nas well in the bones of the object. The manual-training teacher cannot be\ntold a few principles in a few words which will make him an artistic designer.\nHe must study principles and observe their application in old and modern\nwork; he must use graphic means for study and recording observations; he\nmust become an artist by doing what the artist does — then and then only can\nhe enter the art world and understand. Visual sensitiveness to appearances,\nto textures smooth and rough, to colors dull or bright, to proportions, variety,\nand individuality of form — this is the test of the artist. This ^sensitiveness\nis a growth which may be cultivated, but which cannot be obtained by recipe.\nSecond: Workers must be trained to think — a thing which schools are\nlax in. They more often train pupils to move only with the crowd; which\nrequires them not to think. In enlightened work thought must precede action;\nthe image of the finished product must be as clear and complete as possible,\nworking drawing is the first experiment in making. The completed product\nIis a test and demonstration of the first mental design. The habit of drawing\nthings before they are made induces the habit of exact thinking and should be\n[insisted upon for that reason. Thoro, exact thinking is the hardest of all tasks\nto form as an habitual practice. To produce the intellectual habit in work is\nthe emphatic task of the manual-arts teacher.\nIn teaching artistic design methods have been greatly advanced during\n'the past dozen years, an advance in which Professor Arthur Dow and Dr.\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "620\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nDenman Ross have performed notable service. The system of teaching at\npresent generally followed includes some preparatory exercises in space\ndivision by simple lines and the development of surface pattern, followed by\nplanning and actual making in definite material. Instead of an uninspired\nand lazy adaptation of details of historic ornament from classic sources,\nhistoric examples, including Romantic and barbaric art, are used for qualitative inspiration as demonstrating principles, while motives for ornament are\ntaken from such sources in nature as have personal significance. Art should\nalways have imaginative significance — express a great emotion — else it is only\nan empty husk, as most art which we see is.\nThe new method cultivates the habit of insight into the artistic principle\ninvolved, wherever it may be found, individuality in its use, and if possible an\nappeal to the higher poetic imagination. The embroidery above referred to,\ncommemorating the mountain drive, was complete in this sense of appealing\nto the higher imagination, and has a value for its maker far beyond its form.\nIt also has an artistic form and expression which makes it far more effective\nas a keepsake than any mere \"relic\" of the drive, in the shape of a bunch of\nfaded flowers tied with a ribbon and inscribed with a date would be. It is\nfrom such beginnings that the completest art grows. We wish not the Gobelin\ntapestries but American tapestries symbolizing in their art the high ideals\nof democracy, and the joy of life everywhere.\nThe present demand for more emphasis on vocational training should not\nresult in less training for culture; but rather, in such choice of illustrative\nexamples of culture, with such clear insight into it as a definite reality that it\ncan be applied and realized in one's trade.\nSociety can with propriety expect two things from school-trained men\nand women: first, vocational or trade efficiency, including broad knowledge\nof the best ideals of some trade and enthusiasm for them; second, character\nwhich makes for good citizenship, ability to use well a daily margin of time\nin making a good home, in using the best literature, and parks, theaters, art\ngalleries, etc. Society expects, in short, efficiency in a trade and balanced\nculture in the art of living.\nWhen we realize how much our material surroundings mean to us, and\nhow significant a measure of our civilization is the impress of the human soul\nwhich we place upon them, or do not impress upon them, be it in range from\nthe pattern on a Navajo blanket to the wall painting of a Puvis de Chavannes,\nit seems that one-fourth of everyone's school time might well be spent in acquiring refined ideals of the industrial arts, while intending art workers might\nspend more than half of their early school time in this study.\nIn conclusion : The enlightened industrial arts worker and designer needs\nto become saturated with beauty in nature, absorbing it with pencil and brush;\nhe needs to study principles of expression and adaptation as exemplified in the\nchoicest art treasures preserved to us; he needs to develop power in exact\nmental creation of original problems, with ability to hold all the complicated\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nAS RELATED\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\n621\n\nelements of material, of use, of beauty, and of appropriate decoration liquefied\nin his mind, until they gradually crystallize into unified form ; and he needs\ncontinually to perform with his best endeavor, making each successive product\nbetter than the last.\nThe recipes of a trade, a catalog of its raw materials, are useful, and schools\nshould provide samples of them in their museums: wood stains, dyed cottons,\nmural work, plaster textures, etc.; but more important is the implanting of\nhigh ideals, leading the coming workman to consecrate himself, each in his\ntrade, to the producing of masterpieces of craftsmanship. Phidias with his\nParthenon, Michael Angelo with his ''David,\" Stradivarius with his violins —\nthese are among the tallest trees of the forest. But there was a forest. Where\nthe greatest artists thrived thousands of lesser workmen also did their best and\nlived in the joy of creating. We can cultivate the forest.\nThe order in civiHzation in which many men are mere machines fails in\nthe ends of civilization; we do not want it. We want men to incorporate their\nminds and souls into their labor, to be artists.\nManual-training teachers, the greatest opportunity is yours. The greatest\nneed of America, you, and you only, can supply.\n//.\n\nART FROM\n\nMISS EDNAH\n\nSTANDPOINT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nA. RICH, PRINCIPAL OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL OF MANUAL\nAND HOME\nECONOMICS,\nSANTA\nBARBARA,\nCAL.\n\nARTS\n\n\"Every man is a consumer and ought to be a producer. He fails to make\nhis place good in the world unless he not only pays his debts, but also adds\nsomething to the commonwealth\" (Emerson).\nManual training, having a definite purpose, is expected by the educational\nworld to help the child to make his place good in the world at large, and ''art\nas related to the industries\" should give that additional something which makes\nhim a factor in the commonwealth — the something which Jane Addams means\nwhen she asks art and manual-training teachers to \"develop influences that will\nbring to the army of wage-earners something of the true social consciousness,\nsomething of joy and satisfaction in their work, something of stimulation\ntoward a large, intellectual life.\"\nThe subject is inexhaustible, especially if one allows reminiscences,\ncriticizes present conditions, or grows prophetic ; therefore this paper will be\nfrom the standpoint of the special teacher who is training the rank and file\nof small boys and girls before they know the meaning of vocational, industrial,\ntrade, or technical school, with the thought of choosing their life-work.\nThere is one solace. No one can know all there is to know and this fact\nwill help us to be forbearing, and to try to find a meeting ground. Art and\nmanual training should each help the other that the industries may be strengthened and improved thru the intellectual growth and appreciation of the people.\nWe do not want the industries to get the upper hand and take away all the joy\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "622\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nof childhood and youth. These young people who will be both producers and\nconsumers in one decade or generation are entitled to freedom of outlook for\na little time.\nWe are all special teachers and yet each would doubtless give quite a\ndifferent definition or explanation of the three terms, ''art,\" ''manual training,\"\nand \"the industries,\" if discussing the question. The principles of art as\ndefined by Denman Ross — \"balance, rhythm, and harmony\" — ^belong quite\nas truly to manual training, and surely these are the adjustments necessary\nin the industries.\n\"One ideal of life should be an absorbing interest in one's work, and\na consciousness of its value and social relation, not a desire for money with\nwhich to make unmeaning purchases\" (Addams). Manual training, respecting the rights of childhood, helps to realize this ideal, and thus aids in\nadjusting the demands of living during the school days when we can impress\nthem that \"Men do not attain perfection by striving to do something out\nof the common. Perfection is acquired by doing the common things uncommonly well.\"\n\"There is work that is work and work that is play, and in one of these lies\nhappiness.\" To bring understanding and happiness is the province of the\nschool that teaches art and manual training as one, and such schools give to\nthe industrial world a human product that will not be waste.\nThe art classifications are many, but the sense of refinement and beauty\nwhich is associated with the term gives a foundation on which to build.\nManual training in the acceptance of the term in its present meaning —\ngeneral training rather than vocational — has a tangible place in the minds\nof all special teachers, but who can know of all the industries and their specific\nneeds ?\nIndustries demand skill, highly specialized skill, which often comes from\nrepetition of the same operation. Remember we are dealing with children at a\nperiod when accuracy of manipulation or fine muscular control are not the\ndominant qualities of our pupils. \"On the other hand we are reminded that\nit is a period of great sensitiveness of feeling, of much self-assertiveness, of\ngreat interest in the doings of the real world, and of eagerness to participate\nin the achievements of this world\" (C. R. Richards).\nHere we realize that art and manual training have their greatest value in\nquickening and broadening the outlook for the industrial workers, and for\nthe \"other half\" who become in time consumers and keep the standard high\nthru their appreciation and understanding of industry.\nThe problem is broad, varied, and interesting to every manual-training\nteacher, because with all the generalizing, the special problems of the community must be met. In Southern California there are no factories, and\nwe think of trades, agricultural occupations, and commercial positions for\nour workers; yet the relation of art to the industries is just as vital a theme as\nin the crowded centers. Nature is so wonderful in California that minds are\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nAS RELATED\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\n623\n\nawake to beauty, and people demand simplicity and harmony in the industrial\nproducts which come to them. Life in California is not bound by traditions\nand people know little of the province of manufacture, and yet thru art and\nmanual training they must be trained to an appreciation of construction and\nthe power to judge of quality.\nDirectness, simplicity, and honesty of purpose form the basis of the relationship of art and manual training, and the grounds on which to build individual\njudgment. When novelty, which seldom means genius, absence of that proportion which characterizes noble art, and exaggeration which means unrest,\nare eliminated from homes thru the art and manual-training instruction, the\nindustries will have their being on quite a different plane. The history of the\ndevelopment of art and manual training in the schools has shown the greatest\nchange in the attitude of our teaching, owing largely to the interpretation of\nthe industries, and what is today pronounced impossible may be a reaHty in a\nfew months or years. The present need is for trained teachers who can select\nfrom the great amount of material, and organize their work so that in the\nshort time available they can present the study of industries that are fundamental because they represent the material foundation of civilization.\nArt as related to industries from the standpoint of manual training is closely\ncorrelated with design. Design is dependent upon proper relation of lines and\nareas. When construction is to be considered there is a limitation imposed by\nmaterial, by the skill of the worker, his environment, his interest, his purpose;\n''Good designs are invariably sane, regular, orderly, consistent thruout.\"\nA piece of work well done brings to the craftsman and to the beholder alike\na sense of satisfaction, and it is this factor that must influence the industries\nwhen the people's appreciation of what is good demands this production.\nManual training is concerned with technique, but it should be more practical than\ntechnical in its educational aim. Originality in design is a gift; but design in a practical\nsense is part memory, part judgment, part ingenuity and only part invention, and it\nimplies an equipment of knowledge and taste (Lewis Day).\n\nIt is not necessary, then, that every craftsman shall be a designer nor that\nevery designer shall have that skill which gives the product an ethical and a\ncommercial value; but it is necessary, in order to obtain highest efficiency,\nthat the teacher must have a knowledge and appreciation of the possibilities\nand limitations of both phases of work.\nThe industries are for young men and young women practiced in design, •\nable in workmanship, adapted to the conditions and the necessities of industrial production. The industrial world wants buyers and sellers who appreciate\nconditions of manufacture. Our pubHc schools are for all the children, who\nare all to be citizens with standards to enable them to pay their debt to the\ncommonwealth. Design has so many modes of expression and opens so\nmany avenues for both boys and girls. All the avenues lead to happiness\nin the hands of the skillful teachers of manual training or of art. There is the\nbasketry industry, the weaving in the southern mountains, as well as in New\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nEngland and in New Mexico; pottery in many centers; drawn work;\nembossed or carved leather; bookbinding; illuminating; etching; engraving;\nprinting; photography; enameling; jewelry, and metal- work in brass and\ncopper. All these can be accomplished in girls' work in domestic art which also\nincludes the many necessary and decorative things that may be done with the\nneedle. And we must here include home economics with all the opportunities\nof the house for application of design. There are countless uses for the trained\nworkers with edged tools: in wood; in the woolen mill or cotton mill; in the\nshoe factory; in the manufacture of paper; in the steel and iron industries,\nand the building trades. The list is too long. When the question is summed\nup do we not find that the province of art is so united with that of manual training that they cannot be considered as separate subjects; that they should be best\npresented in a way calculated to fit the boys and girls to become self-reliant\nmen and women because they understand and appreciate the industries ?\nThere is no one royal highway. The manual-training teacher must\ngive time for preparation, then adapt his knowledge to the questions in his\ncommunity, give willing service and be on the alert to keep abreast of the\ntimes. He may keep in mind certain salient points which will give his work\nstanding whether the town in which he works has a population of five thousand\nor fifty thousand. Always choosing the simple straightforward way will\nleave no room for crude uncertainties, which bear evidence that hand and\nmind were not working together. Teaching \"that beauty is based on sound\nconstruction,\" and that harmony comes thru the proper relation of parts, one to\nthe other, the child may grow up to believe Emerson when he says: ''Though\nwe search the world over to find the beautiful we must carry it with us or we\nfind it not.\"\nManual training apparently does not consider the machine; but this is a\nfalse premise, for man finds machinery the great factor in modern civilization.\nHe should be taught that he is to reckon with the great force and above all\nthat he must be the master of machinery, not its slave. He must know that\nmachines can repeat a good pattern as readily as a poor one, and if he has\nlearned his lesson aright he will have no difficulty in choosing.\nAll proper education is the opening-up of a necessary and beneficent lifeoccupation, the exercise of such a calling that furnishes the best and largest\nmeans for efficiency, service, happiness; and to go back to Emerson's words,\n''allows every man to pay his debt to the commonwealth as a producer and a\nconsumer.\"\n///. FROM GENERAL EDUCATIONAL STANDPOINT\nARTHUR\n\nHENRY\n\nCHAMBERLAIN,\n\nPASADENA,\n\nCAL.\n\nTwo years ago at the Los Angeles meeting of the National Education\nAssociation, your present speaker presented a paper before the Department\nof Art Education on \"Art from the UtiUtarian Standpoint.\" In this address\nthe attempt was made to point out that the truly utilitarian or useful is, in the\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nAS RELATED\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\n625\n\nlast analysis, the truly artistic. The speaker endeavored to indicate that\nany object embodying the real elements of art is at once a useful object. This\ndoes not mean that in a narrow sense all objects of utilitarian value are artistic.\nFar from it. It means rather that all essentially artistic objects must be so,\nnot in spite of, but on account of, their value as expressed in terms of use.\nIndustries and art have for so long been separated, the one from the other,\nthat little attention has been given the relation that should exist between the\ntwo. **Art for art's sake,\" upon the one hand; industry for strictly commercial purposes upon the other — these have been the conceptions commonly\nheld for many decades. It is years since an artistic commercialism has dared\npresent itself for consideration.\nYou will, owing to the important business to come before you at the close\nof this session, and because of the food for thought and discussion contained\nin the two admirable addresses to which you have\" just listened, be pleased\nif at this time I limit myself to a brief consideration of the general phases of\nthe topic, \"Art as Related to Industry.\"\nOne July morning when a boy I stood, shortly after sunrise, upon a bridge\nthat, spanning a river in one of the largest cities on this continent, was swinging\nlengthwise of the river to allow for the passage of a three-masted schooner.\nA country boy, this was my first view of the great city and of this waterway\nthat, like a mammoth ribbon, divided the city on either hand. As I looked,\ndelighted and amazed, there appeared upon the river crafts from many countries and of many descriptions then unknown to me. Tied at the docks on\neither side were barges of coal and lumber, unloading their cargoes, these to\nbe in turn distributed thruout the length and breadth of the great city; or,\nperhaps, again loaded upon cars to be shipped in every direction — the coal\nto warm the homes of thousands and to keep alive the furnaces upon which\nmanufactures and material progress depend; the|lumber to be turned into\ndwelUngs and the thousand-and-one projects of the arts of peace and war.\nOther boats were taking on their cargoes of raw material and manufactured\ngoods to find port in every civilized portion of the world. Sailing craft, lakeand ocean-going steamships, small sculls and row boats, tenders, government\ncutters, boats large and small, old and new, were passing back and forth in a\nceaseless, uneasy movement. And this coming and going, loading and unloading— this activity, life, motion, was ever before the eye telling to those who\ncould read of prosperity and of poverty, of joy and of sorrow, of pleasure and of\npain, of gain and of loss ; telling of a commercial life meaningful and necessary\nthat was being made to serve the life of man.\nBut, standing there on this July morning, the commercial significance of\nthe scene had no hold upon me. The life, the movement, the white sails,\nthe bright, painted hulls, the slender, tapering masts, the ease with which the\nimmense floating structures slipped past one another on this narrow waterway— all was to my mind the embodiment of art itself. It was only a beautiful panorama, a play enacted for my pleasure.\nTo later years of discrimina-\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ntion it was left for me to realize that another meaning attached to this picture\nupon the canvas of life, and that bound up with the scene that had appealed\nto the eye was a commercial meaning, a business interpretation, an industrial\nsignificance that could not and should not be dissociated from the former\nIt was an industrial art, an artistic commercialism.\nIn generations past, before the power of the dollar had begun to assert\nitself in such definite and far-reaching terms as is the case today; when time\nwas less of the vital element it is at present, and before division of labor had\nbeen carried to its apparently extreme limit, but a limit that is constantly\nexpanding as a rubber band may be stretched, there, was a day when art and\nindustry were blended and shaped together in the work of the people. At\nthe base of utility were beauty and stability. The builder in wood was the\nartistic builder and his product was to endure, not for a day, but for time. The\nmason kept in mind both his building and its beauty. The worker in iron\nconstructed on lines not only of strength, but of satisfaction. The architect,\nthe mechanic, the artist, were often one and the same. There was a unity,\na oneness, thruout the work, and that which today could not reach completion\nwas not outraged by hasty or careless workmanship. The worth of the\nstructure was to be determined by the test of time, the relation of function to\nfitness, and the effect produced upon the eye and mind. To meet this test,\nthought and intelligence, care and patience, honest and artistic work, beautiful ideals and strong realities, in fact the very lives and purposes of men, were\nbuilt into the structure as builders lay stones one upon the other.\nAnd so whether in the cathedral, the shop door, the road, the wall, the\npiece of furniture, the picture, the implement, the book, the fireplace, the silver\nfor the table — each building, each separate piece, decoration, or utensil, was\nmade to use, to beautify, and to endure.\nToday all is different, altho the tide has set again toward the better conception. Division of labor and specialization are now so far-reaching that ten,\ntwenty, sixty men divide among them the processes formerly carried on by\none or two. A workman knows little and frequently cares less about details\nof processes outside his own narrow field. He is a human machine, working\nautomatically, his business to turn out the largest amount of work in the shortest possible time. He need have no care for artistic merit or pleasing quality.\nDevelopment in the world of science is so rapid today, and new and improved\nmethods in the arts and industries so soon displace former practices, that\nstability is given less consideration than would otherwise be the case. True\nart cannot exist apart from stability.\nThe whole argument being presented is that our day and generation have\ndeveloped such tremendous industrial and commercial problems, such lines of\nspecial interest, that art and industry have become almost hopelessly divorced;\nand while these lines of progress are to be welcomed and accepted, a right and\nhappy adjustment of the pleasing and the profitable must somehow be brought\nabout.\nThe titne has come to cease considering \"art for art's sake.\"\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nAS RELATED\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\n627\n\nday is passed, if this country is to develop ideals and live up to them, when a\nbasis for governmental policies, moral life, and educational growth is to be\nfound in a sordid commercialism. Art and industry must work hand in hand.\nThe artistic workman must take his place side by side with the technical\nworkman; the artistic and technical elements must be developed in every\nman who plans and builds. A pleasing unity of art and industry, of beauty\nand utility, and all making for stability is the end toward which we should\nstrive.\nThe American way is the quick way, the machine way. Quantity\ncounts and character, whether reckoned in terms of man's worth or artistic\nmerit, is too little thought of. I have observed the hundreds of girls and boys\nin one of the large factories of an eastern city as they carried on the various\nprocesses of lead-pencil making. Each had his own part to perform and the\nhands moved so rapidly as to tax one in following as it would to follow the\nfortunes of a moving picture. On observing a similar group of young people in\na large pen factory in the English city of Manchester, the contrast between the\nAmerican and the English temperaments was clearly disclosed. The movements of the latter were studied, deliberate, with time enough and to spare.\nOn the one hand was an exposition of the \"simple life,\" with thought and\nphysical growth possible; on the other the expenditure of nervous energy such\nas produces invalids in adolescence.\nNow modern methods or scientific processes in the industries do not always\nimply a turning from the artistic and soul-satisfying. But as we emphasize\nthe value of quantity in production, as we make for today rather than for\ntomorrow, as we of the schools educate one class to the value of technique\nand another to the beauty of line and tone and harmonious blending of parts,\nwe tend to cut the cords that should bind industry to art. We make of art\na thing of and by itself — at which point true art ceases — and emphasize an\nindustry designed simply to make existence possible, trade brisk, and money\nmore to be desired than before.\nBut how impossible to expect a happy combination of the beautiful and\nthe useful until the schoolmasters themselves appreciate its significance and\nwork for its culmination. At this present Convention, and now, while is\nbeing discussed the advisability of cementing more closely the two departments of Art Education and of Manual Training, there are still many of our\nbest schoolmen who fail to grasp the full meaning of the movement. They\ncannot understand that there is a logical connection between construction\nand decoration, and are still willing that art in schools should be taught without\napplication and that manual training should consist in making of objects from\none or another material, apart from any refining influence of construction or\ndecoration.\nManual-training courses as such must soon cease, and courses in drawing\nas generally taught shall ere long be of the past. Real forms of industrial\ntraining must supplant these out-worn courses, and applied art and design\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ^D UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ncome in as substitutes for the present usages. Then the artistic and the\nindustrial are to be taught as portions of one subject; and the work will be\nreal instead of seeming, and will satisfy where now it offends.\nA real education implies an education for all — an individual education,\nin whatever it may consist, for the individual man. A real art must appeal\nto all and to accomplish this must be bound up with the industries, in which\nall are more or less intimately interested. Day by day, hour by hour, this\nappeal must be made, as it is constant dropping that wears the stone. With\nthe elements of beauty and of utility combined, with workmen trained to\nglorify industry thru pleasing form and to magnify beauty thru industrial\nprocesses and splendid technique, with the dawning of this day of better things\nwill dawn also the day when labor shall be dignified, and the master- and the\nworkmen shall be fellow-builders, working toward the same goal in the same\nschool of service.\nTHE\n\nIMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTION IN\nSCIENCES FOR HOME LIFE\nCREE\n\nT. WORK,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nDENTON,\n\nOF\n\nARTS\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nAND\n\nARTS,\n\nTEX.\n\nI understand that the chief purpose of the chairman of this meeting in\nproposing the topic under discussion was not for the special consideration of\nthe importance and influence of the commercialized industrial arts and sciences,\nbut rather to emphasize the importance of such instruction as will tend to\nexert an uplifting and broadening influence on the home life of our people,\nin both country and city. I take it that at this hour it is deemed especially\nfitting and important that we look to the future, toward the better training of\nthe children, both girls and boys, for the business of home-making, and that\nwe are to take into special consideration those arts and sciences, the teaching\nof which in the public schools is practicable, and which have direct bearing on\nthe problems of the home and the home life.\nIt is natural in the evolutionary process thru which public education is\npassing that there should be a clear recognition of the domestic idea, that our\nschools should establish courses in domestic arts and sciences as well as in\napplied art, and that the whole scope of physical and biological science should\nbe scanned for the purpose of bringing to bear on the home-making and homesupporting question those features which are of daily importance to all concerned. Not only this, but it requires no stretch of the imagination to see\nalso that ethics, civics, history, and the whole line of so-called economics bear\na very direct and vital relationship to the proper training of those who are to\ndirect the forces of the home. As this subject is to be discussed later from\nthe special standpoint of the domestic-science teacher and the domestic-arts\nteacher, and by the advocate of economic interests generally, I shall leave this\nphase of it to them, with the further remark that to my mind practically every\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nSCIENCES\n\n629\n\nformal subject of the present school curriculum may be held to pay tribute to\nthis, the most vital of all studies — the upbuilding and preservation of the home.\nI desire to present briefly four propositions:\nFirst: Industrial arts and sciences as related to the home should be generally taught in the public schools, first for the benefit of the pupils, and second,\nfor the further benefit of the entire community. A prime object in education\nis to assist the educated to the fullest all-around life. What is the object\nof life from the human point of view, or in other words, what do we live for ?\nIs it simply to be rich, but not economical, not comfortable, not helpful, not\ncheerful, and even perhaps not healthy ? Or is it simply to be wise in theory,\nand yet not industrious, not sensible, not practical? As I understand the\naims and ambitions of my fellow-beings, their desire to be rich and to be wise\nemanates from their conviction that riches and theoretical wisdom will bring\nthe other blessings enumerated. The extent to which this will prove true\ndepends upon the provision that we may make for giving instruction that will\npredispose and habituate our children to right habits in life.\nWe profess to believe that we are educating our children to produce, or\nto increase, in them, social efficiency. This is good doctrine; but we need to\nremember that social efficiency includes vocational efficiency, which demands\nmanual skill, a good store of sense-information, and the ability to comprehend and heed the demands of environment. We owe it to both sexes to\ngive such training as will emancipate them from the narrow limitations placed\nupon the home by tradition and the lack of practical training in the past, and\nto extend their opportunities for making better homes, including the enlarging\nof their own intellectual and social possibilities as individuals, and as free,\nintelligent citizens with ability to contribute a good share toward the wellbeing of the community.\nWomen have the right to enter upon independent wage-earning occupations outside of the home, and it is commendable that trade and vocational\nschools for girls as well as for boys are being opened in our denser centers of population. However, there is danger of making too broad the pathway leading\nfrom the home and of obscuring the chief practical department of woman's\nendeavor. There is a point beyond which competition between the sexes may\nprove a positive detriment to the home life. There is many a home where both\nparents are engaged as wage-earners, in which the actual amount saved for the\nrainy day is not so great as it would be if the wife and mother had been\nproperly trained to a comprehension and application of those economic principles that ought to be demonstrated in a well-conducted home, and an understanding ofwhich would place her in a position to add much more to the\nincome — to say nothing of the comforts of the home and the welfare of the\nchildren — than can possibly result from the combined wage of both parents.\nIf the wife's energies and time are diverted from their rational and legitimate\nchannel, extra burdens are thrown upon the husband, which, even without\nthe item of competition, tend to make him less efficient, and the fundamental\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthing at stake — the welfare of the individual characters in the home — ^is forgotten.\nThere is a stage in the life of many young women when for the time being\nit may be both necessary and desirable that they have an independent occupation. This fact it is that makes the problem a complex one. It seems to me\nthat the solution of the difficulty must lie in the organization of such courses of\ninstruction of a vocational nature as will give a combined preparation for\nindependent wage-earning and for home-building and home-keeping in the\nbroadest sense, including intellectual, social, and practical features. At\npresent many young women go outside of the home environment to seek the\nactivity and social life of which they feel the need. It is this that leads the\nyoung woman to stand behind the counter at four dollars a week, wearing out\nher nervous energy and unfitting herself at a rapid rate for the duties of homekeeper and motherhood, rather than accept partnership in the fifteen dollars\nearned by a worthy young man who would gladly give up the lion's share of\nhis earnings to have the joys and comforts of a home. The young woman\nwould also enjoy a home, but shrinks from its responsibilities because, unfortunately, is\nt to her an unstudied problem and she prefers to do the thing which\nrequires little study, or for which the traditional school training has best fitted\nher. The problem of making fifty or sixty dollars a month (the average\nwage of the great majority is less than fifty dollars) properly build and support a comfortable home needs to be solved, and its solution depends largely\nupon the women. It is the lack of study of home problems by girls that has\nturned the connubial bliss of multitudes to bitterness, and wrecked the begin-j\nnings of many a home ere the honeymoon has passed. Our cities are filled]\nwith miserable women, heartsick men, and blighted homes, due to the lac\nof instruction for girls in the grammar grades and high schools in the funda-j\nmentals of home economics. Whatever may be the temporary ambition ofj\nthe girls in our elementary and secondary schools as to an independent existence after leaving school, both history and reason forbid that we shouk\nignore the eventual demand that will be laid upon these same girls. It\nobligatory upon us to do all things possible while the girls are in the schc\nto get them ready for the duties of womanhood.\nTo the end that work especially suited for girls may find its way into the!\ncurriculum, we must give more attention to what Sachs calls the \"analysis\nof girl nature,\" and we must expect that the type of mind developed thru the\nwork of our school system will cease to be largely of the classical turn, and\nwill become more and more common-sense, practical, human. The term\n\"culture\" is an ever-changing name for the ideal results of the process\nwe call education, and the so-called cultural studies are being correlated with\nsocial subjects, and gradually is social education coming to be esteemed the\nmost cultural. The open way for the development and broadening of a\nyoung mind is not always the same way, or the way pointed to by the gaunt\nfinger of tradition.\nIntelligent industry or thoughtfully directed hand-work\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nSCIENCES\n\n631\n\nopens the door for culture to many minds. Inspiration may come thru a\nglimpse of the activities of life in well-organized operation, and growth and\ndevelopment often result from the full-daylight view of humanity in action,\nas that view is obtained thru contact with, and participation in, actualities.\nThe case of the practical father and his son taking the same course at the\nsame time in the University of Missouri, with the father entering lower\nthan the son and graduating in the same length of time and with a higher\nstanding, illustrates the clarifying influence and the cumulative force of experience and actual work as prime factors in education.\nSecond: The industrial arts and sciences in the schools should be presented for the pupils in simple, concrete form — not disconnectedly, but in\ncorrelation with other matter of the curriculum — and also by public lectures\nand demonstrations for the adult members of the community. We must\nteach not merely for the purpose of directing the outgoing energy of children,\nlarger and smaller, but also for the purpose of releasing pent-up energy.\nThe energy of many children dies for lack of an outlet, or, like the fragrance\nof the wild rose, is wasted on the desert air of riot-running pleasure or illdevised pastimes of other sorts, because the schools provide no plan for its\nconcentration and purposeful direction. Under present conditions it may\nactually be more profitable, on the whole, for many of the children to discontinue their school work before reaching the high school, because, by dropping\nout they find in the world about them the training that we have failed to provide in the school.\nTo illustrate the correlation of the various subjects of the curriculum, I may\ncite our Texas school for girls,^ where an attempt has been made to base the\ncourse of instruction on practical-life interests of women. The physiology\nand hygiene is taught by a woman physician, who also gives instruction in\nhome nursing and care of the sick; the work in chemistry and physics draws\non the home for its problems; drawing finds its application in home decoration, in designing for the work in millinery and dressmaking, in the planning\nof houses and furniture, etc. ; the cooking is closely related to portions of the\ndairy work, to botany, to zoology, to chemistry, to physical culture, and to\nphysiology and hygiene. Likewise the history, composition, and literature\nhave a close relationship to one another in the study of industry and the home,\nand each in turn involves a consideration of the various industrial features\nof the school. The mathematics, manual training, bookkeeping, and domestic\neconomy are constantly aiding one another and furnishing rich material for\nthe work in political economy and civics. Except for the change from one\nlaboratory to another and the ever-present printed titles on the textbooks, the\nstudent would frequently lose sight of the fact that the work, which to her is a\ncontinuous problem of life interests, is in many schools regarded as so many\ndistinct and unrelated subjects.\nThat the work of the school cited is practical is shown by the fact that the\n» The College of Industrial Arts, Denton, Tex.\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ngirls are constantly putting it to use, even while they are in school. After\nleaving school one takes charge of the house and puts new life into the home;\nanother, whose grandmother is taken with pneumonia while on a journey,\ntakes the aged woman to a hotel, calls a physician, and serves as the only\nnurse, her intelligent care of the patient causing the physician to send his\nown daughter to the school the next year; another serves the home village\nas postmistress; another, who has come eighty miles across the West Texas\nplains to reach the nearest railroad station, goes back to her home from the\nschool inspired, to return the next fall bringing two sisters; the three buy a\nsewing machine and by making their own clothing at school save enough to\npay for the machine, which they take back with them to their prairie home;\nanother student takes up the work of teaching others the home arts;\nanother teaches a country school and at odd hours instructs the children\nand the mothers of the neighborhood in the arts and crafts for women; another\npays her school expenses by making and selling baskets; another, who comes\nsix hundred and fifty miles to reach the school, completes her course and\nreturns to establish a modest, attractive, happy home of her own in her distant city. These are but examples of what a recently established school\nof secondary grade is doing.\nMore must be done to bring practical education within the reach of our\nwomen. Equipment and teachers for such work can be provided within\nthe means of almost every school district. The extension and neighborhood\nlecture and demonstration system should be more largely adopted, both for\nthe help that it brings to the parents and for the reflex effect such work will\nhave upon the school.\nThird: The industrial arts and sciences especially adapted to the businessj\nof home-making should be taught in all the grades of the school, the several\nphases of the work being taken up at such points in the school course as willj\nbe most suitable, considering the ages, stage of development, and environment of the pupils. Too long have we failed to take into consideration the'\nindividual interest and ambition of the pupil and her personal aims that arei\nof worth. We have failed to encourage a plunging of the personality into^\nwork vital to nature and to life's most worthy accomplishments. Yet all of\nthese tendencies of children are means that are worth utilizing to accomplish^\nour end.\nThe lack of vital issues in the curriculum has characterized the rurall\nschools as well as the city schools, and the rural homes and city homes alikej\nhave been lost sight of in our attempts to conform to the demands of psyche\nlogical theories rather than sociological needs. I have known, and some of\nyou have known men whose houses — mark you, I do not say homes — are\noutward models of beauty, but whose children are without libraries; whose\nbarns are examples of convenience for live stock, while the living-rooms of\ntheir families are better arranged for the same purpose than for human souls;\nwhose bins are filled with grain Jor the market, while the stock in their wives'\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nSCIENCES\n\n633\n\nlarders is too scant for human comfort; who glean their fields most thoroly,\nwhile about their houses there is waste enough to support several families;\nwho (thanks to the training they have had at the agricultural college) also\nknow about contagious disease in live stock, blight in the orchard, and the\nboll weevil in the cotton, and who spare no study, effort, or expense to avert\nor exterminate these enemies, while at the same time they and their households are daily subjected to worse evils by unscientific cooking and unsanitary\nhousekeeping, which produce indigestion, nourish malaria, invite typhoid,\nand throw their estates liable to the expense of premature funerals.\nNot only should girls know the how of the art of housekeeping fully as\nwell as their mothers, but they should know the why a good deal better.\nWhen a celebrated painter was asked with what he mixed his paints, he replied,\n''With brains, sir.\" Our aim should be to get more brains into all household affairs. Homekeeping and household duties are often talked of as\ndrudgery. If they are so, it is probably because they do not contain enough\nof the intellectual quality. Any work not intelligently performed very soon\nbecomes drudgery.\nCooking is both a fine art and a science. Those who are to be intelligent\nin this capacity, whether they are to practice the art or to direct a household,\nshould know the organism of the human body, how it is nourished, how different elements enter into and affect the operations of its organs, the chemistry\nand classification of foods, how they grow and how they are prepared, how\nthey are affected by heat and moisture, and by the different methods of cooking. They should know about fats and oils, starches and sugars, acids and\nstimulants, mold and yeast, bacteriology, sterilization, sanitation, and\nhygiene. They should know how to cook for the sick and for the well, for\n<^he child and for the adult, for the active and for the sedentary, for the brawn\nworker and for the brain worker. Those who are to conduct the domesticscience department of a household should be provided with a completely\nequipped kitchen, and trained in the details of conducting it. They should\nknow how to set the table and serve the meal in the best manner, because\nthe serving of the meal has quite as direct bearing on its value as has the cooking. Along with these qualifications woman must have the intellectual\ntraining and culture which makes her truly mistress of the manse — able to\nentertain, as well as to direct and manage the affairs of the household.\nSince the family is to be clothed as well as fed, it is highly important that\nthe young women of our day be trained thoroly in the art of needlework.\nFinancial ability to employ a seamstress does not entirely remove the necessity\nfor, nor invalidate the general advantages of, a practical study of such handwork by every young woman. She should also be familiar with all modern\nequipment for this class of work; with the quality and variety of fabrics used\nin dressmaking, and with the mode of their manufacture ; with the principles\nof designing and the aesthetics of dress. She should also be able to advise\nintelligently the male members of the household as to their attire, and to give\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nit such proper attention as becomes her position. She needs to know the\nscience as well as the art of laundering. A knowledge of millinery is valuable\nto any woman, and a course in this art may well be added to other accomplishments. The proper furnishing and decorating of the house are matters\nthat naturally fall within woman's sphere. She needs to be intelligent about\nhouse furnishings as to quality, shapes, design, quantity, and arrangement.\nShe should be able to select the best according to her means; to choose suitable\ncarpets, paper, and wall decorations; to give the best effect with limited\nmaterial; to make the home an attractive place. All this requires a correct\nsense of beauty, a trained eye, and deft touch. We need to make better\nand larger provision for such training in our schools. Commercial methods\nand processes of manufacture should be studied. The instruction should\ninclude visits to factories, exhibits, and distributing centers.\nThose who are blessed with rural homes should be familiar with the\nindustries incident to their position. The dairy, the poultry yard, the apiary,\nthe vegetable garden, the flower garden, and the orchard all bring with them\na multitude of problems, of which the progressive housewife as well as the\nhusband, and the girls as well as the boys, should be students. The instruction offered by schools in all of these subjects should include a consideration\nof the financial problems of the home, a systematic study of household economics, and a system of household accounts. It also involves a study of domestic\nhistory, including the history of the home and of the science and art of housekeeping, from the earliest times to the present.\nThe training of our girls in these practical lines does not mean that they\nare to be slaves to manual labor or that they are primarily to substitute their\nskill for that of commercial workers. It means, primarily, that they will have\nsuch a practical and comprehensive view of skill, and art, and science, and\nindustry, as to make intelligent use of commercial products, to discriminate\nin the selection of such materials as contribute best to the home life, and to\ntake an active and effective interest as responsible citizens in the supervision\nand control of the industrial arts and sciences as they apply to the home. Their\nfreedom from drudgery and overwork must depend largely upon their practical\ncomprehension of their work. It is in this way that woman's realm is enlarged\nand her intellectual and social opportunities increased.\nThere are many items now included in advanced courses of instruction\nin home economics that may, by a careful process of correlation, be fitted into\nthe elementary-school curriculum. Why should we wait until girls have\npassed into the high school to teach them certain fundamental truths regarding\nphysiology and hygiene, chemistry, physics, sanitation, plant and animal life,\nand other matters that prove of keen interest to younger children and that are\nbetter comprehended by them than many of their elders seem to appreciate ?\nSuch instruction may be logically reviewed and added to by formal lessons in\nhome economics in the secondary schools. The variety of subjects that may\nbe included in such a^course, involving domestic science and domestic art,\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentI\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nSCIENCES\n\n635\n\nwith their great diversity of correlated work in science and fine art, afford\na large field for careful study and systematic presentation by those who would\nenrich our school curriculum and save to the school children their right to\ngain a larger amount of practical preparation for life's duties.\nFourth: The proper conditions for instruction in industrial arts and\nsciences for girls, as well as for boys, must be provided. Among these conditions should be included properly trained teachers, plans for instruction that\nis especially adapted to local environment, and suitable texts and equipment\nfor the work. Most teachers continue to teach that which they learned in the\nlong ago, and are slow to acquire and fit into their work material that is not\nincluded in the textbook outlines or that cannot be reduced to printed form.\nIt is in this manifest lack of preparation and adaptation on the part of teachers\nthat the normal schools of the country have before them a great opportunity,\nand, to my mind, a heavy responsibility. There are still many of the normal\nschools that are not offering courses in domestic science and domestic art.\nThe greatest hindrance to the development of these lines of work thru the\nefforts of the normal schools has been due to their inadequate equipment, and\nthe fact that apparently they have not realized the necessity of requiring their\nstudents to take sufficient time for preparing themselves to teach the industrial\narts and sciences. With properly trained teachers, there will naturally follow\nplans for instruction, the correlation of the new work with subjects already\nestablished, and the reorganization of the school schedule to admit of such\ninstruction.\nOne hindrance to the more rapid introduction of the industrial arts and\nsciences, particularly in our secondary schools, is due to the comparative\nindifference, and in some cases the antagonism, of the colleges and universities,\nwhich still assume to claim that the chief function of high schools should be\nto prepare students for their courses. Is it not time that we consider more\nseriously the question as to whether or not we are to continue erecting high\nschools primarily as preparatory institutions for certain colleges to which a\nvery small percentage of our children will ever go, or whether we are to attempt\nto popularize and vitaHze the high school by encouraging the estabHshment of\nIsuch courses as will meet the needs of the larger number ? I believe in the\n[classical schools and in classic education, but against the theory of their\nlany virtues stand out a few of the concrete facts of our existence which are\n[not taken into consideration by many of the institutions inherited from our\nforefathers. It is a popular theory that if the mountain will not go to Mahomet,\nLMahomet must needs go to the mountain. In the exigencies and legitimate\n[demands of pubHc education, it is here in order to ask the question as to what\nconstitutes the mountain in this case. We are beginning to realize, altho but\ndn a small degree as yet, the tremendous possibilities of secondary education ahd\n[the vastness of its field.\nThere are certain fundamental principles und^lying the home that should\nrontrol in the home life, whether in the city or in rural districts. The indi-\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nvidual problems arising are vastly different, it is true, and for this reason I\nhave made a plea for the adaptation of the instruction in industrial arts and\nsciences to local conditions. The rural arts must find their emphasis and\nmost direct application in the rural schools. Naturally, the problems of\nthe garden, the dairy, and the like, will be dealt with at greater length and\nin more concrete manner in the rural schools than can be provided for in the\ncity schools. When the question arises as to the feasibility of specialized\nor departmental work in the rural schools, we find a partial answer at least\nin the reasonable and now popular plan of providing rural high schools, the\nnumber of which, and the scope of work offered in which, must necessarily\nbe determined by the density of population, the money available for such\nschools, and the popular recognition of the needs in the case. Those who are\nto lead the discussion of the two well-organized features of industrial arts and\nsciences for women will, I am sure, have valuable suggestions as to practical\narrangements for teaching home economics in the rural schools particularly.\nIf the propositions laid down in this paper are reasonable, we who are\ndirectly in the work of industrial education have before us a vast field requiring develoment. We must enlist the friendly attention and the best efforts\nof teachers in all lines of school work, as well as the co-operation of our citizens.\nWe must do our part in adapting the work we have in hand to the solution of\nthe problems of the home. If we believe in extending the beneficent influence\nof industrial education to the homes and firesides of our land, let us show our\nfaith by our works.\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF\n\n(.1) FROM\nMRS.\n\nELLEN\n\nH.\n\nINDUSTRIAL\nARTS\nAND\nSCIENCES\nRURAL AND CITY HOME LIFE\n\nTHE\n\nSTANDPOINT\n\nUPON\n\nOF DOMESTIC\n\nSCIENCE\n\nRICHARDS,\nINSTRUCTOR\nIN MASSACHUSETTS\nTECHNOLOGY,\nBOSTON,\nMASS.\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF\n\nThe old order of things has passed away: that we must first acknowledge.\nThe old home industries have been taken away and no new ones have been\nput in their places.\nThe trouble with the home-maker is that she does not know what is the\nmatter; she is disgusted, but she has never put two and two together — cause\nand effect.\nMan tried to be kind — we must do him that justice — when he took away\nthe interesting work of the spinning-wheel days and put in modem methods:\nplumbing, air-tight stoves, well-fitting windows; ready-to-eat breakfast\nfoods and canned foods to take the place of home cooking; carpet sweepers and\nwringing machines to save heavy exercise. He was bountiful in his gifts, but\ndid not provide means for gaining knowledge of how to use these new ideas.\nBut in his own workshop oj: factory, he did not stop at installing machinery.\nHe studied methods and devised plans until the methods of the American\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nSCIENCES\n\n637\n\nbusiness world and the management of American industries stand at the veryfront, brought there by study and by using the lessons of experience to form\na definite science of business methods.\nDo you ask what this has to do with domestic science in relation to the\ninfluence of industrial arts and sciences upon rural and city home life ? Everything.\nToday, household labor is flat, stale, and unprofitable, and the remedy\noffered is to give it up and let the hotel keeper manage it. And why do householders turn to him, in spite of the limited comforts of air and space and means\nfor home cheer and hospitality? Because he can run the establishment for\nthem without their noticing any friction, and that is because he governs by\nscientific industrial principles.\nIf the influence of the industrial arts is to be a means for progress, we must\nat once take this cue from the world of industry, and train the coming woman\nto use the ripe experience man has gained in business for the establishment of\nher home on as scientific and economic principles as have been used in the\nfactory, on the farm, or in the modern shop.\nThe home cannot be maintained without labor. How much labor depends\nupon the perfection of machinery, the elimination of friction, and the intelligence brought to bear. In women must be developed greater flexibility of\nthought and adaptability of manipulation. They must feel the sense of\npower over things.\nThis is the problem of the educational world. We have so long worshiped\nintellectuality that we feel it must make up for all lack of training. We mournfully confess it does not. The college man who relies on his book is distanced\nby the day laborer who adds intelligence to his muscle knowledge. The\ncollege woman who has missed an early experience in the various duties of the\nhousehold finds her back and arms will rebel if she is for any reason obliged\nto use them.\nFor the sake of future ease and sense of control, each child should have\nmuscle exercise in the necessary motions of housecraft. It is true that\nmachines are being invented, but where do girls learn to know their construction, to learn the use of them or how to control the motor power ? There are\nschools of all sorts of mechanical contrivances for the commercial world,\nbut none for the application of mechanical power in the house.\nIn the first Annual Report of the State Dairy and Food Commissioner of\nMaine we find the following clear statement:\nA laundry provided with stationary wash tubs, with washer and wringer for power\nuse, is an innovation. But why should not the woman of the farm be provided with modern\nappUances ? Why should she be compelled to toil as her great-grandmother did ? The\nfarmer no longer reaps with a sickle, or even with a cradle. He rides his plow, and often\nhis harrow. He rides his grain drill and com planter and corn cultivator. He rides his\ngrain harvester and his com harvester. He loads hay by machinery and pitches it into\nthe bam by horse power. The time is come when it is positive cruelty to compel, or\neven allow, the woman to toil on without running water or machine power in the house.\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA\n\n638\n\nL ED UCA TION\n\nA SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe same stream, water, and sewage system that must be present for the dairy will take\ncare of the laundry. The same power for grinding feed and separating milk and pumping\nwater and sawing wood will turn the washer and the wringer. Prices will vary somewhat, but the following will be a guide to the cost of equipping such a room:\nDimensions\n\nHorsepower\nRun\n\n3 compartments, each\n28X25X17 deep\nPower wringer\nPiping and connections\nDrying room (steam piping J)\nTotal\n\n24X32\n18\". 24\".inches\n3\". I\n\nLength of\n20-30 yrs.\n\n\\\n\nApproximate\nCost\n\n$30.00\nlo-is\n10-20\n15-20\n\n\"\n\"\"\n\n10-20\n\n••\n\n10.00\n40.00\n55. 00\n$140.00\n5.00\n\nThe investment of $140 for one year at 7 per cent, equals $9.80; deterioration,\nassuming that they will require to be replaced every fifteen years, equals $9.35 per year,\nor a total of $19.15, or say $20 per year, or 38 cents per week. Add to this 10 cents\nmore for gasoline used by the engine. K the farmer were compelled to kill and dress\ntwo hogs every week thruout the year, he would think nothing of spending 50 cents a week\nfor machines which would save so much labor, and enable him to do more work in less\ntime. A power ironer costing about $60 may be added, if desired. Such a laundry is to be\ndesired also, because it will practically insure clean garments worn by the milkers. A\ndrying room, about 6X12 feet, located between the dairy room and the laundry-room,\nprovided with steam pipes for heating, will cost very little, and will insure quick, clean,\nand easy drying in any weather. A power laundry like this may be rented to the neighbors for say 50 cents per day, they to come over and do the work. Such an arrangement\nwill in a measure lighten the burden now resting so heavily on the woman of the farm.\n\nThere must be another workshop added to your group. What shall it be ?\nThe experiment station for the application of industrial arts and sciences to the\nhome.\nI have felt all along that the girl needs as much manual training as the boy.\nThe means may be different, but the goal is the same. To quote from a\nwriter in the Manual Training Magazine: \"It is to train workmen to do better\nwork.\"\nRun over the list quickly in your mind and see how strong a place domestic\nscience has in the industrial arts and sciences. The study of electricity, for\ninstance. I wish I had a room in one of our educational institutions as well\nequipped with household appliances as the salesroom of a modem electriclight company. Again, it shows how we have been turning to the outside\nindustries for the development of manual training, and we must utilize the\nsame tendency if we mean to cultivate the woman's eflSciency in her traditional\ndepartment, if she is to continue to control it.\nOnly the other day a man was given the preference over a splendid woman\nteacher because he could build a chicken coop ! I believe that if poultry and\ndairying are to be taught in the rural schools, at least the simple elements of\ncarpentry should be taught to the girl also. Here is a statement of sloyd for\ngirls, taken from a western school: ''Use and care of tools; practical exercises\nin sawing, planing, chiseling, filing, boring, spoke-shaving, etc.; constructing\nuseful household articles — fireless cooker.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nSCIENCES\n\n639\n\nFor the well-being of her family, she should be taught with the boys the\nconstruction and management of the plumbing and heating and lighting plants.\nIn a word, she should be taught to know the machinery of the home and how\nto care for it, as well as the boy who is to be trained as an engineer or for some\nindustrial enterprise knows his plant.\nWhy does one laundry do the work for thousands of families, when washing day is such a bugbear to one household ? Why does the restaurant feed\nthousands with as little friction, apparently, as one household ? Why do the\nhotels and public places have skilled domestic service, such as many housekeepers are sighing for ? Why are some of our office buildings with thousands\nof feet of space the envy of many in regard to cleanness ? Why are the modern\ncow-stables of the large milk-producers kept so much better than the one\nlittle barn ? These questions tell us where to look for our answers for many\npresent-day problems.\nYes, perhaps more work must be put back into the home, but it is the\nwork of the brain — a directing mind to plan, to see the interesting side of the\nhousehold management, to bring out the interest and pursue it; to use every\nmaterial power, to use this knowledge for the advancement of human labor,\nand this thru the application of the knowledge at hand.\nOrganization and systematic classification come thru the handling of\ntools and having things in their right place. The direct way of doing things\nand how to save time and strength are learned by gaining control over material\nthings. Then let us apply the principle to the home ; for the principle in the\nworkshop or the pantry, in the furnace, the forge, or the stove for the kitchen,\nis the same. Woman will then choose the household as her profession, not\nbecause she sees no other way of supporting herself, not because it is a traditional inheritance; but because she will there find the means to give the best\nof strength and skill and knowledge for the betterment of mankind.\nThe time is ripe for this movement. Women have been thinking, and\nsome men have been abetting them. The family, the house, its furnishings,\nits management, its daily care, its needs in mechanical appliances, its ethical\nstandards, and the share of the income it needs to carry it on successfully\nunder the twentieth-century conditions must be determined. We must prepare the future home-maker by all the light of modern science, and we must\nfully realize the bearing of mechanical and economic changes upon the material\n[Surroundings of the home life. This preparation cannot begin too early,\nand cannot be too closely interwoven with all school work.\nCo-operation in study and publicity in results will quickly transform con,ditions on the farm, as well as in the heart of the city. The problem of the\nnation and of the individual are really one — interdependent — each necessary\n,to the other in the development of the home of the rural and the city dweller.\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\n{B)\n\nFROM\n\nALBERT\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TION\n\nTHE\n\nSALISBURY,\n\nSTANDPOINT\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF STATE\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nECONOMIC\n\nINTERESTS\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWHITEWATER,\n\nWIS.\n\nI am not sure that I rightly understand what is expected of me in the\ntreatment of the topic assigned me. If I do rightly understand, we have before\nus the question. What can the teaching of industrial arts and sciences do for\nthe rural and city home of tomorrow? And the question at once arises,\nWhat does the American home need to have done for it ?\nWe all accept, I think, without question, the doctrine that our civilization\nis essentially a civilization of homes, not of harems or caravansaries, but of\nfamilies, each with its own separate domicile and domestic circle. Whatever,\ntherefore, menaces the home menaces our civilization itself. Whatever exalts\nand betters the home is of vital importance to the nation. The problems of\nthe home are thus the problems of civilization; but the chief problem of the\nhome is the problem of woman, of her daily employment, and her attitude\ntoward domestic life. If any preponderant or even considerable share of\ncivilized women become imbued with the idea that domestic life is ''slow,\"\nthat marriage is unnecessary or undesirable, then we must recognize that the\nfoundations of our social system are already crumbling.\nLet us briefly consider, then, what has been happening to the American\nhome in the last generation. If I try with a few hasty strokes to bring before\nyour minds the home of a generation ago, let it be understood that I am dealing with the rural home, for that was the typical American home of fifty years\nago. The country home of our grandparents was a small co-operative factory.\nThere was division of labor within the home, but each home was a unit in\nitself. The wife and daughters were skilled operatives in many industries,\nand there was need of many hands, old and young, male and female, to canyon the industries necessary to the subsistence and comfort of the family.\nBut all this is now a thing of the irrevocable past. The farmer no longer\ntakes his grist to mill, or cures his own meat, or churns his own cream. The\nhome factory no longer spins or weaves or dyes or makes garments. We have\npassed from the tallow dip to the electric light, from the fireplace and Dutch\noven to steam heat and the baker's wagon. The bacteriologist now superintends our dairies, and the mail-order house caters to a multitude of wants\nwhich our own hands once supplied, or which did not as yet exist.\nMan, today, lives in a different environment, pursues different forms of\nindustry, has different aims and standards, has, in short, a very different\nconsciousness from the man of my boyhood. But the industrial, social, and\nintellectual life of woman has changed, if possible, even more than that of\nman. And the transformation already effected portends, no doubt, other\nchanges of serious import in the near future.\nIn the former days, woman in the home was the partner of man in his\nstruggle for a livelihood and a competence, and not his competitor. Her\ncontribution toward the support of the family and to its accumulations was as\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nSCIENCES\n\n641\n\nnecessary as his and no less strenuous. But the advent of machinery and\nchanges in the forms and organization of industry have taken away from her\nmany of her former occupations and responsibilities. The great shift of\npopulation from country to town and the differentiation of the city home in its\nvarious types — palatial mansions with a retinue of servants for the wealthy,\nflats and tenement houses for the multitude — has also profoundly modified\nthe daily life of women.\nLargely as a result of the causes thus rapidly hinted at, we have that striking, and to some minds alarming, social and economic movement of the last\nhalf-century — the wholesale invasion of the general labor market by woman.\nShe has made a sudden and successful raid on man industrially and has\nwrested from him a large part of the industrial field. If she had simply taken\naway a part of his work, he might have been resigned to the loss; but, under\nthe laws of supply and demand, she has lowered his wages in the occupations\nwhich remain to him below what they would by this time have become but\nfor the new competition. Five milHon women in these United States are now\ndisplacing or competing with men in occupations which women a century ago\ndid not dream of entering. In cotton mills, in tobacco factories, in printing\noffices, and a hundred other fields of manual labor, millions of women are now\nharnessing themselves to the yoke of daily-wage labor to the great detriment\nof home life, and the physical weakening and increased death-rate of such\nchildren as are born to them under these conditions.\nBut an even worse menace to the home is found in the great army of girls\nand young women pressing into forms of employment less menial, in a sense,\nbut no less dangerous both to physical health and the home-instinct; namely,\nthe nerve-wearing occupations of saleswomen in the great department stores,\nof typewriters, stenographers, etc., in city offices, whose occupation requires\nthem to dress beyond their means and sets before them hourly the easy lot\nof those possessing wealth and position with big money to handle and spend.\nBy reason of the supposed greater gentility of these occupations, young\nwomen crowd them inordinately, not only displacing and cheapening men, but\ncompeting with each other to the extent of keeping down the compensation to\na limit in many cases shamefully low.\nMany of these working-women of all types, are, it is true, working from\nnecessity — widows, victims of unfortunate marriages, and daughters of indigent\nparents, who must do whatever their hands can find to do in order to live at all.\nBut many, if not most, seek employment external to the home from choice and\nnot from compulsion. Not under the necessity of such labor, they feel a\ngreater independence thru the full control of a weekly wage; and here is where\nmuch evil takes its beginning. Having no obligation toward the maintenance\nof a home, they have no scruple about spending their whole income upon themselves, indress or other unwonted luxuries. Thus new standards of livingexpense are formed. New, if not false, ideals of life are adopted, and domestic\nlife becomes more and more an improbability if not an impossibility. This\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\n\"industrially independent\" young woman will not marry a working-man\nbecause the man's income is not adequate to her new standards of living. She\nherself has helped to diminish it. She is still a candidate for matrimony if\nshe can jump thereby into a class above her own ; but the chances are against\nsuccess in that. And so thousands of bright, young women are working on\ntoward the fast-coming day of nervous breakdown, in semi-public employments,\nwho ought to be suitably settled in the safe harbor of a modest home.\nThere is, perhaps, no more ominous fact in our social outlook than the\ngrowing number of men who remain single — the bachelor guild — shirking\nthe domestic relation, and all the social responsibiUties which naturally attach\nto it, from prudential reasons; or who delay marriage until they are unfitted\nfor home and family life, and supply the place of it by relations which may\nhere be no more than hinted at. And even with those who do marry, home\nlife has no longer the character which the moral health of society demands.\nLife in hotels and apartments, where \"no children need apply\" and where\ntrue home conditions are impossible, the fast diminishing birth-rate, and the\ndrift away from domestic duties are facts of evil import.\nWhatever turns young women away from the ideals of home-making,\nfamily life, and the separate home, in which children shall be born and reared,\nis an evil to her and to society. Whatever deters man from marriage thru his\ninability or unpreparedness to meet the rising demands of luxury and extravagance, or the unwillingness of the woman of his own class to surrender her\nincome in order to share his, tends to personal immorality and social demoralization. \"It is a condition and not a theory which confronts us.\"\nUnder the operation of great economic and sociological laws, we witness\ntoday this greatest social phenomenon of the age — the invasion by woman of\nthe open labor market, to the imminent danger, as it seems to many, of the\nhome and all that depends thereon. What shall we do about it; what can\nwe do ? It is not the province of this brief paper even to attempt an answer.\nIf this new condition meant only that woman is henceforth to do her share of\neconomic production and family maintenance in public, so to speak, instead\nof in the privacy of home, that, while matter for serious consideration and\nsome misgiving, might not be altogether alarming. But we must not overlook\nthe fact that the American home of today no longer affords the domestic training which was so thoroly instilled by the home of a generation ago. And this\nis especially true in the case of the city home. In the homes of the well-to-do,\nthe girls of the family are banished from the kitchen and practically excluded\nfrom all household employment. Even in the homes of the middle class, the\n\"hired girl\" has shut out the children from all that wholesome participation in\nthe home economies which would fit them for successful management in homes\nof their own later on. In the homes of the working-class, the case is quite as\nbad. The wife who works in the factory thru the working day, and then does\nthe meager services of her meager home, is no better able to train up her daughters in the ways of happy home-keeping than is the German peasant woman\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nSCIENCES\n\n643\n\nwho does a man's work in the fields and keeps her house besides, in the crude\nfashion of her class. And if it is the daughters who are working in the factory,\ninstead of the mother, the case is little or no better. How shall such a girl in\nsuch a home, with all its meagemess, learn even such art as her mother possesses inthis direction of rightly ordering a home ? And what will ever give\nher such knowledge of and taste for domestic ways as will save her, if she\ndoes marry, from the demoralizing Hfe of hotels and boarding houses ? Marriage itself so often becomes a tragedy by reason of this unpreparedness of the\nwife for its duties and responsibilities.\nAnd now what is the real aim, as related to women, of this industrial\neducation which we are preaching ? Is its purpose to fit her for, and so turn\nher more definitely toward, a form of ''industrial independence\" which wars\nagainst the very existence of the true home ? If only that, then let us have\nnone of it. But let us further ask whether it can, and will, be directed so as\nto exalt the dignity and increase the attractiveness of home life. Can and\nwill it do anything to make women and men more ready to enter upon home\nlife in the sane and simple way in which their own parents and grandparents\ndid, not waiting for all the means of modern luxury ? If so, and the truth of\nthis can be made manifest, then there should be no delay and no feebleness\nin the promulgation of its claims. Whatever tends to make woman man's\ncompetitor instead of his complement, whatever tends to make woman less\ndisposed toward the career of a home-maker, is not a safe or fit thing to be\ntaught in the schools of the nation. If \"industrial education\" is so administered that it tends to produce only swifter and more skillful wage-workers\nto increase the employer's profit and to compete with men and each other for\nthe employer's dole, then the less of it the better. If that is what trade schools\nmean, then let us take heed what we are doing in advocating their establishment.\nI, for one, beheve that much good and no harm can be done by wisely\norganized courses in home economics in the public schools. I believe, also,\nin schools which shall train girls in the truly feminine industries — dressmaking, millinery, etc. — ^in the larger cities, at least. But I feel that the tradeschool movement, as related to women, should receive careful and critical\nchallenge as to its real aims and its social and economic results, and that the\ninterests of the home and true domestic life should be held of higher consequence than any question of industrial independence or efficiency, important\nas they undoubtedly are. Sane living is more important than all the things\nthat wages can buy.\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ART\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Florence E. Ellis, supervisor of drawing, Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\nVice-President — C. Valentine Kirby, Manual Training High School, Denver, Colo.\n^Secretary — GERXRLtoE R. Smith, Art Department, Newcomb College, New Orleans, La.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday Forenoon, July 7, 1909\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Manual Training.\n(For program see Department of Manual Training.)\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Forenoon, July 8, 1909\nThe department met in the Central Presbyterian Church, and was called to order\nby the president.\nThe program was carried out as follows:\nPresident's address: \"Better Preparation for the Life-Needs of the Majority Who\nDo not Reach the High School\" — Miss Florence E. EUis, supervisor of drawing, Public\nSchools, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\"Art in the Home\" was the subject of a paper by Gertrude R. Smith, of the Art\nDepartment, Newcomb College, New Orleans, La.\nThe discussion was led by W. E. Roberts, supervisor of manual training, Public\nSchools, Cleveland, Ohio.\nCharles M. Carter, supervisor of drawing, PubKc Schools, Denver, Colo., read a\npaper on \"The International Congress of Art in London.\"\nAt the close of the program the president appointed the following Committee on\nNominations, to act with the Nominating Committee of the Department of Manual\nTraining:\ncommittee on nominations\nA. B. Clark, Stanford University, Cal.\nWilliam H. Smiley, Denver, Colo.\nGertrude R. Smith, New Orleans, La.\nThe department then adjourned.\nTHIRD SESSION.— Friday Forenoon, July 9, 1909\nThe department again met in the Central Presbyterian Church.\nThe first topic of the morning was a paper by W. H. Elson, superintendent of instruction, Cleveland, Ohio, on the subject, \"A High-School Course in Drawing and Applied\nArts.\"\nThis was discussed by William H. Smiley, principal of East Side High School, Denver, Colo.; Miss Ruth S. Dalziel, art instructor in the North Side High School, Denver,\nColo.; and others.\nThe Report of the Committee on University Entrance Examinations in Art was\npresented by A. B. Clark, of Leland Stanford University, chairman of that committee.\n\"The American Federation of Arts\" was the subject of a paper given by Henry\nRead, national delegate to the Art Convention, Washington, D. C.\nThe department adjourned to meet in64s\nbusiness session with the Department of\nManual Training. For report of committees on Resolutions and Nominations, and for\nelection of officers, see minutes of that department.\n\n\"\n\nGertrude\n\nR. Smith, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nBETTER PREPARA TION FOR THE LIFE-NEEDS OF THE GREA T\nMAJORITY WHO DO NOT REACH THE HIGH SCHOOL\nFLORENCE\n\nE. ELLIS,\n\nSUPERVISOR\nOF DRAWING,\nCLEVELAND,\nOHIO\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nBetter preparation for the life-needs of the great majority who do not\nreach the high school seems a fitting subject for our consideration. Indeed\nit is a vitally important subject at the present time when the curriculum is\nundergoing radical reconstruction and the school is seeking better adaptation\nto the needs of the children whom it serves. In the past, courses of study\nwere formulated without much regard to environing conditions and chiefly\nwith reference to the content and logical arrangement of subject-matter.\nThey were, in consequence, better suited to the needs of the few who were able\nto continue thruout the course than to the great majority who must at best\nleave school early in the grammar grades. Now the school is asked to teach\nnot only what is good for the child, but what is best for the child. Every\ntopic must be questioned with reference to its significance and value in the\nlife of the child in the light of all the prevailing conditions. Its value in comparison with other possible topics must be determined, and a perspective of\nvalues must be observed in the selection of subject-matter.\nIt is estimated that about 40 per cent, of the children leave school by the\nend of the fifth grade; that by the end of the sixth grade more than 50 per\ncent, have left; and that only ;^7, per cent, remain to complete the eighth\ngrade, most of whom do not enter the high school. Thus the great majority\nleave school to become citizens and wage-earners with a training not beyond\nthat of the sixth or seventh grade. What influence should these facts have\nupon our plans of work and methods of instruction ?\nAgain, it is estimated that 96 per cent, of the American bread-winners are\nengaged in commercial and industrial pursuits, while only 4 per cent, are in\nthe professions and the public service. The situation that confronts the\nschool, then, is summed up by saying that the elementary schools furnish the\nonly training received by the great majority, who leave to become citizens and\nbread-winners and who must furnish the skill, the taste, and the ideals which\nwill dominate the masses in the community. The large numbers that gain\na livelihood by manual labor and the still larger numbers that leave school\nat so early an age make an insistent demand for a practical education in the\ngrammar grades, an education that fits more fully for life's work, its duties, and\nresponsibilities.\nThis early preparation calls for simple and direct methods of instruction,\nand a minimum of waste in time and energy. Everything that is good cannot\nbe taught in the time at our disposal. Relative values must be determined;\neliminations must be made. Every step must have a reason for its existence,\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBETTER\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nLIFE-NEEDS\n\n647\n\nmust serve a purpose, and must be a means to an end. Only in this way can\nthe requirements and difficulties be met and the best returns insured. Better\npreparation for the life-needs of the majority demands, in the grammar graded:\nfirst, consideration of relative values; second, fewer things attempted and\ngreater efficiency secured; third, more purposeful instruction.\nThe time in school for most pupils is short. Topics must be carefully\nweighed; only the most vital, the most fundamental, must claim attention.\nBut which phases of work are most vital, most fundamental? Flowers,\nfruit, and other nature forms are such excellent material for training in careful seeing, and are such a valuable source of design, that the drawing of these\nmust certainly be regarded as essential. Object drawing as training in seeing\ncorrectly, in accuracy, in grouping, in teaching what is good in form is indispensable. Design, one of the most fundamental of art subjects, must not\nsuffer loss. Elimination seems impossible in considering these subjects;\nbut are not modifications possible, indeed desirable ? Considering conditions\nin the public schools, the limited amount of time at our disposal, the immaturity\nof the child, and the technical difficulties involved, pure water-color in the\ngrammar grades, indeed all color except for purposes of design and decorative\ntreatment, could well be omitted. Pose drawing and for the most part landscape seem to offer less of real value for similar reasons. It is doubtful whether\nat this point of development the results obtained in these subjects are commensurate with the time and energy expended upon them. Appreciation, which\nwe all acknowledge as the purpose of instruction in these subjects, is better\ngained in a study of the masterpieces — in learning what is really good and\ngreat in art.\nIn the primary grades a variety of subjects and mediums has been given\nand a variety of experiences has been gained. Free expression and illustration in connection with other studies and in connection with life drawing,\nlandscape, and similar work has played an important part. Design and construction have also received a large share of attention. Color has been freely\nused. The work has been varied and full of content. The child has been\naw^,kened to the beauty in nature.\nHe comes to the grammar grades capable of greater application and longer\n, sustained interest. The variety and frequent changes in subjects and mediums\nirequired in the primary grades are no longer necessary nor desirable. Work\n(that is good — as good as the child is capable of making it— only is worth while,\n[ence, fewer things attempted and greater efficiency secured in these are now\n)f paramount importance. The steady gains in accuracy, in concentration, in\n[will power, in confidence, in efficiency, in character, the consciousness of\n[growth in power and in personal worth which follows such effort, crowns the\n[work with a success not measured in teijus of learning alone, not in doing alone,\n'but in higher ideals, in a fuller and more complete living.\nOur chief concern is the greatest good to the greatest number. The few,\n[relatively speaking, who go beyond the grammar grades can without experi-\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Ait\n\nencing loss in any way wait for the omitted subjects and mediums until the\nhigh school. We are now considering a better preparation for the life-needs\nof the majority than could otherwise be offered, not primarily an education in\nart. In the grammar grades especially, relative values of subjects must be\ncarefully considered, to the end that there may be fewer things attempted and\ngreater efficiency secured in what is undertaken.\nThe common problem — yours, mine, everyone's —\nIs ... . not to fancy what were fair in life,\nProvided it could be, ... . but, finding first\nWhat may be, then find how to make it fair\nUp to our means; a very different thing. — Robert Browning\n\nAfter an elimination of topics mentioned as seemingly of less value under\npresent conditions, there still remain in the grammar grades drawing from\nnature forms, design in its various phases, construction and decoration of\nsimple articles, object drawing, and illustration. We have as mediums the\npencil, brush, and ink or neutral color in representation ; water-colors, crayon,\nand ink in design; cardboard, colored papers, textiles, and wood in construction. This concentration upon that which is at this period most essential is\neconomy in time and energy on the part of both pupil and teacher.\nSimplification, as we well know, must be the next step in educational\nprogress. In art as in other studies greater limitation in the range of subjectmatter must follow. Enrichment has gone on until we have a congested program which brings to the child a bewildering variety of topics. This fosters\nsuperficial work, lack of thoroness, and want of skill and efficiency. To control afew essential principles and to be able to apply these to the everyday\npursuits and activities of life is of far greater value than to hasten over many\nthings without gaining power or skill in any. The art of the masses must\ngrow simpler in its form and increasingly practical in its expression. There\nmust be a more purposeful instruction.\nTo make art instruction more purposeful there must be general recognition\nof the inherent value of the work. When teacher, pupil, and public realize\nthe great service of the arts in the training of the eye, the hand, the mind, the\nsoul; the vital relation they hold to the general curriculum, interrelating and\nin close harmony with other subjects; the important part they play in discovering the natural ability of the child and in what he is most interested ; and\nwhen it is realized that the arts have a commercial and an industrial value;\nthat they fit for the most complete usefulness; that they bring beauty, idealism,\nand contentment into the homes of the nation, much will have been accomplished in the way of purposeful instruction. An understanding of the aim\nof the arts in education and a knowledge of their close connection with the\neveryday work, the recreation, the hon^ life, the civic life of the people, give\nto teacher, pupil, and public a personal interest in the subject, a realization\nof its practical worth. There must be in the instruction a strong appeal to\nthe common needs of the people and the satisfying of these needs must be\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\n649\n\nevident. For example, if the study of nature leads the child to have flowers,\nvines, and shrubs in the yard, and plants in the home; to arrange flowers;\nto find enjoyment in simple, wholesome things; to spend his holidays in the\nwoods, the parks, or by the lake rather than at the cheap theater, a need of\nthe people has been met. If design teaches reserve and harmony in color,\ngood proportion, pleasing spacing, balance, rhythm, good taste applied to the\ndress, to the home, to the industries, another need of the people has been met.\nSuch instruction in art is of great significance fo the girl in making her a\nbetter housekeeper, milliner, dressmaker; to the boy, in business and in\nindustrial life. It serves its purpose in greater efficiency, in higher ideals, and\nin more complete living.\nIn conclusion, I repeat, better preparation for the Hfe-needs of the great\nmajority who do not reach the high school must mean in the grammar grades\nparticularly: first, a consideration of relative values of subjects taught; second,\nfewer things attempted and greater efficiency gained; third, more purposeful\ninstruction.\nThe schools and the public have a right to demand this adaptation of art\ninstruction to the requirements of the masses that the great purpose for which\neducation exists — namely, the building of character and personal efficiency\nin life — ^may be realized.\n\nART IN THE\nMRS.\n\nGERTRUDE\n\nR.\n\nHOME\n\nSMITH,\nART DEPARTMENT,\nNEW\nORLEANS,\nLA.\n\nNEWCOMB\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nArt in the home, as a reflection of the happiness which comes from appreciation of beauty in color and arrangement, is far from being universal. In\nfact, it is a serious question whether the development in aesthetic appreciation,\nas shown in the lives of our people, at all justifies the present methods of that\neducation which is flaunted with so much pride as the fabric upon which our\ndemocracy is built.\nThere is to artists, teachers of art, and people to whom beauty is Hfe, an\nappalling picture in the failure of a man to house himself comfortably, simply,\nand beautifully. Is it right to say that this failure of civilization, of Hfe, to\nexpress itself is irreparable ? I would suggest that the ignorance or indifference of our educated people and our social and philanthropic leaders toward\nthis phase, not only of their own living but that of the people whose conditions\nthey are trying to make better, be squarely faced.\nHow many of us, teaching art with the thought of beauty constantly before\nus, marvel at the barrenness of the homes of our friends, fellow-teachers even,\nof subjects as closely related to spiritual ideals as poetry and literature — subjects as much a part of man as history and natural science.\nIn teaching those subjects from which most might be expected the one\nstep farther into the reahn of home or vocation in life seems to have been\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nmissed. We all recognize the dear college professor who, living the happiest,\nif the fewest, hours of his life in his beloved garden, sought to bring some\neternal spring into his city study by taking a daffodil to the workman who\nwas to paint its walls, saying, ''There, that is the color I want. For me there\nis nothing to equal the joyousness of the daffodil.\" The workman smiled.\nHis color sense had been modified by experience, if not joy. It was pathetic\nthat the man endowed by opportunity with the greater capacity for enjoyment\nwas really on no higher plane than the laborer. Some of the same inconsistency\nextends into the world of sounds. Musicians to whom a false note is torture\nlive serenely in homes where harsh voices are the rule. If simple habit dulls\nthe sense to finer feeling, how much greater is the obligation resting upon us as\nteachers to influence these habits in right directions.\nIn the apathy which begins when the material need of the household has\nbeen gratified, there is illustrated a curious phase of human nature which\nkeeps people forever dully doing things over and over in the same old way,\naltho there is no longer any need for it, or even common sense in the method.\nBy what logic is the privacy of a back yard in a tenement district preserved by\nan eight- or even twelve-foot fence ? Almost no family life is carried on in,\nthe basement and garbage is removed mostly from the area door in the front.\nEven the sacredness of the family wash is not preserved, for the little pen is'\ncommunity property. Economical pressure has increased the height of the\nbuildings, but the fence remains as the social habits of the English or Continental cottage dweller placed it. Just as unreasonable is the building of\nelaborate mantelpieces into houses which do not even boast a gas grate.\nI believe firmly that the little we have of art is facing in the right direction.\nWe are compelled to admit that until recently it has been a negative growth\nin this country; but the opportunities for its development in the future are\nunlimited and their improvement should be positive. There never has been a\nmoment when the outlook has been more cheerfully free from the domination,\nof European traditions and importations. It must be allowed that the average\ndepartment stores are harmful museums of abominable things made in Europe\nfor trade here, and our architects and interior decorators are still doing things\nin periods Georgian, Italian, Renaissance, etc. ; but the influence of a limited:\npublic and the education of children in our schools who, it must be remembered,,\nare always a generation ahead of their elders, are making a marked difference;\nin the direction of simpler furnishing and better taste in dress. It is a foregone\nconclusion that the leavening of taste must come thru society, yet it is interest-,\ning to note what is being done in certain commercial activities, paralleled bj\nmuch Uterature on the subject. The character of The House Beautiful is\nimplied by its title. The Craftsman has carried on in its magazine and its\nworkshops a healthy fight for freedom of expression in beauty, usefulness, and\ndurability, by adapting its principles to all conditions and environments.\nThe International Studio is sounding its voice at one end o£ the scale, and the\ntremendously popularized Delineator ^ Ladies Home Journal^ and similar\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\n65 1\n\nmagazines are keeping up a lively interest in all things new. Firm believers\nin evolution thru patient repetition, illustration, and example, cannot overestimate the good services of departments which show in concrete form good\ntaste opposed to bad. In such weekly capsules may be served up mantelpieces orhats, curtains or coiffures, jardinieres or rugs. In each the eloquence\nof simplicity in form and decoration, as opposed to the utterly imbecile which\nmasquerades as art, must arrest the attention of many and hold some. Again,\nmuch can be said of the influence wielded by the art-crafts societies in this\ncountry. The reaction felt in such factory products as furniture, jewelry, and\npottery may easily be attributed to this movement. Just in proportion to the\nfineness of the hand-made article and the social value put upon it, will the\nmachine-made product find new thought in its development. In the final\nanalysis, the burden of responsibility for the more intimate relation of art to\nthe home must lie with us, as teachers of art in the public schools and schools\nof higher grades.\nIt is undoubtedly true, in this country at least, that artists and art teachers\nhave in the past missed rare opportunities for working with people. Intensive\nstudio methods have related color and form to abstract problems or pictorial\nrepresentations rather than to a concrete form of culture which contributes to\nthe higher life of the individual thru his everyday experiences. Even now\nwe often find in our art, manual-training, and domestic-art classrooms perfectly accurate manual results, complete control of the practical mastered,\nbut, in the very uniformity of the accuracy a perfunctoriness which stultifies the\npurpose of the lesson — the escape of the soul into higher life. No shading of\nthe correlation of art and manual training should be finer than that in which\nthis need of the pupil is adjusted. Every right-minded teacher should appreciate the fact that art is for the race, and nothing of its kind too rare or beautiful\nfor its heritage.\nIn successful art education the spirit of the work must not be confined to\nthe hours of the studio classes. The question of time is always brought up\nagainst anything which suggests extra work; but for the ideal teacher, who\ncan vitalize all of the work of the school with the touch of beauty, there is no\nnecessity for prescribing the amount of time to be used. Indeed there is\ndanger of giving undue emphasis to work which is loved by teachers and pupils.\nI should say there is no work taken up in the school which can be made more\ninteresting than that to which art is applied. To foster its growth means\nwork on the part of those directing, for pupils must see results, must be led\nby example as well as precept, and not only the reason but the thing itself\nmust be shown. It is in material to illustrate good taste in everyday objects\nthat our present system of cultural teaching is weakest. How can fine formsense be taught except we have fine forms to show ? How can appreciation\nof beautiful color-application be developed except thru visual comparisons?\nIn the work rooms of such schools as are distinguished by good results in art,\nthe teacher has created with expenditure of time and labor a proper environ-\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "652\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nment for each particular exercise. The studio is as far as possible a beautiful,\nrestful place, into which the idea to be discussed enters naturally. The\ndifficulty of getting and maintaining individual collections for proper illustration, as well as the expense for which no allowance is made in teachers' salaries,\nwill, under present methods, continue* to limit the results of cultural teaching.\nEven in those communities where museums of fine art have existed for years\ntheir assistance is proven inadequate. It is true that collections have until\nrecently been arranged for specialists rather than to interest the average visitor,\nand it is also true that their message is almost entirely from the past. The\ninstruction given by the docent must have for the majority more sentimental\ninterest than practical application to their own environment and habits of\nliving. The work of the art museum as at present conducted is good but\ninsufficient. I believe that an industrial museum is a necessary part of our\neducational system — not only a place where pupils can be sent to see things,\nbut the collections of which are available for use in classrooms. In St. Louis\nthere is now a practical working museum from which any grade teacher can\ndraw natural-history specimens, physical-geography apparatus, etc. I have\nnot ascertained that illustrative-art material is included in its collections.\nJust what these museums should contain might be open to discussion, but I\nwould beg that they have space for the education of living which should be\nequal in importance to vocational training. Let them be industrial, but in\nthat sense in which the exhibits touch the lives of the people, broadening the\nsympathies of all classes, adding to their powers of self-expression by showing\nthem better and more beautiful things than they have known before. As an\nillustration take the one problem of color. To what has our teaching led us ?\nAny excursion however limited thru our streets, our shops, our homes, brings\na blush of humiliation to the cheeks, as well as sorrow to the hearts of art\nteachers for all that is worse than missed of human enjoyment. There is no\naccident in the flowering of art. Even in those countries where the finest\nartistic feeling seems inherent, all its attributes are fostered and cultivated.\nIn Japan it is worshiped. National honor is paid to the creator of beauty,\nand in the small things of life rather than in the larger monuments do we find\nmost complete aesthetic expression. The Japanese personify the logical\nart for a democracy — the art in which the people have a part.\nPublic libraries are, in individual instances, doing marked service to the\nart interests of the communities in which they are located. Seeing pictures\nof things and reading about them cannot take the place of objective instruction, but thru them a suitable setting can be given to many schoolroom\nexercises. Thru libraries culture is being extended in many ways. Splendid comparative illustrations are given of art expressed by peoples in various\ncountries and under varying conditions of civilization. With the co-operation\nof manual-art teachers, this work could be extended to the collection of\nphotographs, stereopticon slides, the preparation of bulletins of practical\nplans and specifications illustrating how ways of living may be adapted to\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\n653\n\nenvironment, needs of the family and their income, and showing that beauty\nand good taste depend upon adaptability to tlie temperament and vocation\nof the inmate of the home quite as much as upon the money spent in\nplanning it. After regarding the constant misfits in the furnishing of our\nhomes, one is inclined to say the atmosphere which is created by the inmates\nmakes the home. Better the unrelated lines in furnishing and colorcombinations which service has saved from crudeness, when with them there\nis a feeling of happy adjustment of comfort to purposes of living.\nIt is in cities that conviction of the dire need of help crowds upon us.\nHere apathetic dreariness abounds. There is on every side a dull repetition of\nugliness among people who are paying for it with money which they can\noften ill afford to spend. Here we find that the worst possible things from\nthe point of utility as well as art are brought- There is a moral obligation in\nthis form of spending which is quite as much material for Sunday-school cooperation as those commendable movements in which church study among\nyoung people is extended into knowledge of civil laws for the improvement\nof society. The social regeneration of people thru better use of economical\nconditions is one of the problems with which art should be identified. Investing average life with dignity is surely as important as making laws for reform\nof evil. Societies which are working for the purification of nickel museums\nand the abolition of colored supplements as they appear in our Sunday papers\nmight well co-operate with the public schools in their efforts to send the message\nof beauty from the classroom to the home. Reforms can be accompHshed\nif even a few people believe in them and are wilHng to work heart and soul\nfor the cause. In Harrisburg, Pa., the whole aspect of the squalid, even dangerous, life along its disreputable river front was changed into wholesome\nbeauty by the courageous and untiring efforts of one woman. In Houston,\nTex., a house-to-house canvass secured the funds necessary to replace all of the\nunsuitable pictures which had been hung on the walls of its public schools\nwith others which adequately illustrated a high type of art, as well as some\nwholesome thought for the grades in which they were placed.\nThe middle class of society is the one in which our art education can most\nreasonably hope to work for results. Thru efficiency here conditions would\neventually be bettered at both extremes. The power must eventually rest\nwith the great public-school system. Its steady advancement along the lines\nof industry, social and economic, the establishment of courses of industry,\nof commerce, and of home science offer untold opportunities for beauty, in\nwhich the special teaching of art departments should co-operate.\nThe criticism of home adornment, if personal, would rightly be resented;\nbut the confidence which parents grant to the instruction given their children\nin school makes this channel for special suggestion a valuable one. Illustrated lecture courses in home art might well become a regular part of the\nwork taken up in such community clubs and mothers' meetings as are already\norganized in most school systems.\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nI have recently become acquainted with the home-gardening and schoolgardening work in Cleveland, and I would like to call attention to the significance of the beauty they have carried into unsightly places — embodying the\nlesson of cleanUness and order, as well as gratification to the natural cravings\nof many for the joy of living with growing things. In the work already\naccomplished here there is happiest anticipation of the home art which cannot be complete without talks upon flower and plant arrangement.\nMy own experience in teaching has led me to emphasize a few principles\nand simplify subjects with the hope of making the lessons sink deeper into the\nlife of the pupil. With the same thought in mind I would like to suggest that\nour art embody the principles of beauty thru the elimination of much that is\nsuperfluous and cumbersome in our homes. Once fixing the idea firmly of\nhaving fewer things to live with, we have prepared the way for more thoughtful selection. With such a result would come critical judgment of quality\nin the material and its suitability to purpose and, let us hope, the added elements of beauty in color and form. These, and the larger spaces which a\nfew objects in a room afford, furnish the opportunity for enjoyment which\ncomes where intelligent selective judgment exists. Art will then grow out\nof the home rather than be applied to it.\nDISCUSSION\nW. E. Roberts, supervisor of manual training, public schools, Cleveland, Ohio. —\nIn discussing Mrs. Smith's very suggestive paper, I have chosen to emphasize but one\nphase of the topic she has presented — the one of its relations to the public schools.\nTo one of unbounded faith in the power of the public schools to influence for good\nthe lives of a community, the cultivation of an appreciation of beauty and a desire to\nexpress it in the intimate surroundings of the home is but another problem which our\nschools will assume, and eventually solve, as can no other agent.\nTraditions, example, professional and business influences are minor agencies in the\ncreation of taste, reaching but comparatively few. It is actual Uving and doing, coupled\nwith precept and example, that lead to a desire to express in terms of real beauty. This\nthe schools have accomplished to a certain extent, and this they are bound to do better\nas the problem is more clearly understood and conditions under which the work must\nbe accomplished are improved. Unquestionably there is a movement toward saner\ncourses of study in our schools in which less emphasis will be placed upon some of the\nso-called essential studies and more upon those that relate directly to the lives of the\npupils. Already this appears in the establishment in some of our school systems of\nelementary and high-school courses in which emphasis is given to industrial work, including industrial art and home science.\nThere must be a much more intimate relation between the so-called art and manualtraining departments as they have been conducted in our schools. Teachers of art must\nnot be dominated by conventional courses of art as dictated by text and drawing-books,\nand must add to their working equipment some knowledge of constructive principles.\nTeachers of manual training should cease to bow down to the traditions of tool exercises,\nand acknowledge the value of products that are beautiful. Both should vitalize their work\nwith projects of beauty and of value as well, intimately related to the home and life of\nthe pupil, and so presented that they will open to him wider fields for thought and expres-\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nART\n\n655\n\nForm and color in their various applications and modifications embody the essentials\nof beauty, and are capable of expression in the simplest projects. Let me give a concrete\nillustration chosen from manual training, because that is supposed to be my department.\nThe selection and framing of a picture is a problem in both form and color which may\nbe most intimately related to beauty in the home. The examples shown are the work\nof seventh-grade children. In working out this problem the reverse of the usual\nmanual-training order of procedure was followed. The picture was taken as the\nbasis of the problem. The construction lessons were preceded by a class discussion of\npictures and picture frames illustrated by examples. The discussion brought out the fact\nthat beautiful pictures could be found that were inexpensive, such as the color illustrations in magazines and even the illustrations of many advertisements, and, further, led\nthe pupil to distinguish between the good and the bad. The pupil then brought a picture\nof his own selection from home which was studied in relation to style and width of frame.\nA frame was drawn and cut from paper so that relations might be studied and changes\nmade if necessary. An appropriate wood was chosen with close or open grain as demanded\nby the detail of the picture, and the construction lessons followed. Finally the frame was\nfinished in color to harmonize with the picture.\nThe result of such a problem will be, in the majority of cases, a thing of beauty in\nitself, but it is when we project it into the home and present it in relation to its setting\nthat we see the possibilities in so simple a lesson. It should be apparent that the same\nproblem worked out in higher grades, with better appreciation and skill on the part of\nthe pupil, would have a greatly increased value. Innumerable simple projects may be\nselected which will have a direct application in the home, and in the higher grades, with\nthe art and manual-training departments working together in the development of practical furnishings, the possibilities are almost unlimited.\nThe adjustment of courses which will give the time and proper relation of subjects\nis surely coming, when the influence of the schools will be direct, and greater beauty in\nthe home will be one of the results.\n\nTHE\nCHARLES\n\nINTERNATIONAL\nM.\n\nCARTER,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nCONGRESS\nOF\n\nART,\n\nOF\nPUBLIC\n\nART\nSCHOOLS,\n\nIN\n\nLONDON\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nThe idea of holding congresses of art teachers originated in Paris in 1900,\nthe first congress being held in connection with the International Exposition of\nthat year. Those of us who assisted at this first congress did not realize that\nit would result in future congresses as important as that held four years later\nat Berne, and the one held last summer in London — the latter a congress and\nexposition of truly grand proportions. Really one could hardly expect anything else when we consider the vast amount of preparatory work. For\nfully two years previous to the London congress the American official committee, and its auxiliary advisory committee, were actively employed in working out the details which bore magnificent fruit in the presentations made at\nLondon. Undoubtedly respect for our achievements in art education was\nconsiderably augmented. The American methods were frequently the subject of discussion, and our exhibits were under the constant inspection of\nthrongs of art teachers.\nThe organization of American interests was probably as thoro as that of\nany other nation, and was very complete in all respects. Time will not permit me to dwell upon the details of preliminary preparation.\nThey were\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "656\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nunder the direction of our most prominent art educators. A special curator\nwas appointed to accompany the exhibit abroad. Our installation was as\ncomplete and perfect in detail as that of any other nation.\nThanks to agitation in our country, upward of two hundred American\nart teachers were present. One evening a large number assembled at St.\nErmin's Hotel. It was, indeed, a remarkable sight to see such a gathering of\nAmerican art teachers in a foreign land. Unquestionably we showed the\ngreatest interest in the congress of any foreign nation, if we consider alone the\nconsiderable travel and great expense incurred by our colleagues.\nNot only did we make a notable presentation in the way of speeches and\nexhibits, but also by means of an elaborate illustrated book on Art Education\nin the Public Schools of the United States. No other nation showed anything\napproaching the value and completeness of this book. The only other publication ofthe kind we know of was a small German pamphlet.\nSouth Kensington and the university building offered palatial places for\nthe meetings and exhibits. The amount of matter presented to eye and ear\nwas truly overpowering, and it was with difficulty that one could arrive at\nconclusions. But, all in all, this wealth of material made a very impressive\nwhole, and undoubtedly impressed the world at large with increased respect\nfor the cause we represent.\nThe exhibits naturally were the first thing to attract attention. They\nrepresented work all the way from the lowest primary to the most advanced\nproductions of the industrial and fine-art schools. The subjects of study\nshowed themselves to be much the same the world over. Their presentation\nby drawings and paintings, however, showed great diversity, particularly as\nto that comprehensive term \"drawing.\" Thoroness and skill showed much\nmore in some exhibits than in others. Some exhibits were particularly\nimpressive because of their direct application to useful purposes. Roughly\nspeaking, the work shown referred to that of children, to young people connected with industries, and to advanced work of adults. Some represented\nwork from pupils who devote but part of their time to drawing, while other\nwork came from persons devoting practically all their time to art study.\nThe first important impression was perhaps the thoroness characterizing\nEuropean work, which led us to reflect that we may not be altogether right\nin our slap-dash, free-expression ideas, particularly in elementary schools.\nAt the same time it must be noted that our foreign friends showed great\ninterest in our methods and results, and evidently were somewhat envious.\nThey called attention to our lack of careful drawing. It is all well enough\nto desire \"freedom\" etc., etc., but there seems to be a feeling that there is\nnothing which will take the place of painstaking study. The great desideratum\nseems to be to find a method which will adequately embrace both freedom and\ncareful study — a method which shall develop technical skill, and at the same\ntime disseminate art ideas, and cultivate an appreciation and love of the\nbeautiful in nature and art. All of this manifestly requires time, and, as far\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nART\n\n657\n\nas elementary schools are concerned, it is a well-known fact that the amount\nof time at our disposal is so inadequate that we cannot much more than introduce there ideas. It may be interesting if mention is made of more detailed\nfeatures which attracted our attention.\nOne was drawings on an enlarged scale, particularly of plants and insects —\na method which helps to give a certain largeness and effectiveness to designs\nwhich would not result from continually making diminutive studies.\nAnother feature which commended itself was making drawings directly\nfrom nature, not of the exact form of the subjects, but of the ornamental\ntreatment they suggested. Drawings and paintings made in this manner\nseemed to have a certain vigor and distinction not always found in ornamental\nforms derived from exact representations in preliminary drawings and paintings. It seems to us that we could advantageously make use of this method\nboth in our elementary and advanced study.\nGermany showed some photographs of miniature houses, and adjoining\ntrees and shrubbery, constructed by pupils, which showed excellent consideration of lines and masses in their picturesque and artistic relation to each other.\nCertain industrial schools devoted to the development of particular subjects\nwere very interesting. For instance, one school showed various exercises\non a large scale illustrating the manner in which sign writers are trained.\nTo a certain extent the character of the nations seemed to be reflected\nin their exhibits. France showed considerable work illustrating their free\nartistic manner of handling plant form; while the Germans and Austrians\nshowed a more restrained and formal manner of using the suggestions they\nderived from nature.\nNote should be made of the installation of the various exhibits. The\ninternational committee in its preliminary conferences committed itself most\nheartily to the idea of arranging the details so that uniformity and distinctness\nof presentation should make the exhibits easily understood by the visitor,\nwho more than likely would tend to feel overpowered by the vastness of the\nexhibition. Thus it was that certain rules were adopted looking toward these\ndesirable ends. Unfortunately, however, changes in the assignment of space,\nand in decreasing it, led to arrangements which were but little improvement\nover ordinary exhibitions. As a general thing there was a lack of complete\nartistic finish. Irregular placing of work, failure to cover bare woodwork, etc.,\nwere details possible to rectify, but which in many cases were allowed to go\nuncorrected. We are pleased to say, however, that the United States exhibits\nwere carefully and artistically arranged with respect to every detail. As a\nconsequence, the general effect was as pleasing as circumstances would permit, and one could trace easily the steps of development.\nWhile many of the industrial art schools really have drawing and painting\nclosely related to the construction of objects, this feature was not very fully\nrepresented by the -objects themselves. This was probably due to the expense\nand difficulty of transportation.\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nIn the United States our exhibitions often show a liberal display of constructed work in connection with drawing. But this feature at London was\nquite inadequately shown from our country, and was ahnost entirely lacking\nin others.\nThe transactions of the Congress are reported in a volume of about six\nhundred pages containing matter in three languages. The professional\ndirector of art should study this volume as indicating the trend of modern\nart education. At this time we can only call attention to some of the most\nimportant ideas presented by speakers of different countries.\nThe report from France, edited by Professor Alfred Keller, stated that\n''education in the school and in the family, to be intellectually complete, must\nbe artistic, and at the same time scientific;\" that works of Phidias, Michael\nAngelo, Raphael, and many others were too advanced for the understanding\nof children; that subjects truly childish were best, and that they should be\nnatural and not antique; that respect should be cultivated for good local art\nand architecture; that children may exert an important influence on home\nart.\nMr. Leon Riotor, an acknowledged authority on \"Part k I'dcole\" presented\nmany valuable thoughts among which were the following:\nThe school cannot create geniuses, but it can give children a love of the\nbeautiful leading them to prefer that which is beautiful to that which is not,\nand to distinguish between things not equally beautiful. He calls special\nattention to the value of enlisting the services of professional art students in\ndecorating schoolrooms. This method of securing decorations is in operation in Chicago, the students of the Art Institute having executed several\nvaluable examples. Decorations should be furnished at the expense of towns\nand cities. Visits should be made to museums and works of art.\nThe society which M. Riotor represents, ''L'Art a I'Ecole,\" has a broad\naim which includes what we ordinarily understand by schoolroom decoration;\nbut in addition the cultivation of flowers and trees, and a consideration of\nart in the streets, and buildings, and emphasizes the importance of organized\nvisits to museums and workshops, and the holding of \"concours\" of art\nindustry.\nA dissenting note came from Austria to the effect that:\nit is a debatable question whether pictorial and sculptural decorations are advisable at\nall in the schools.\nThey distract the attention of the children from the teachers, or,\nwhat is more often the case, the children do not observe them.\nIt is questionable how far cheap reproductions should play a part in the artistic\neducation of the children; or if they are of any real value at all, from the point of view of\ntraining the aesthetic sense. After all, the best teacher is Nature, and every moment\nwe keep our children in the schoolroom or in the school museums, observing nothing but\nwhat is a dead letter to them, is taking them away from something which is very beautiful\nand very pleasurable for them.\nI object strongly to school museums and collections, except as far as the children\ncan collect them themselves, and in every way make the museums for themselves. Above\nall I would have a little menagerie of household animals attached to every school.\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nART\n\n659\n\nThere was an extended consideration of the training of art teachers. The\nrepresentatives of different countries seemed to agree that the methods of\nstudy in the past emphasized too much examinations and the development\nof personal skill; that greater attention should be devoted to psychology,\npedagogy, etc., to an extent similar to that devoted to these subjects in training teachers in other departments; that, finally, the art teacher should in\nevery respect have a training and a standing accorded to teachers in other\nsubjects, notably science and letters. A resolution was passed to this effect.\nThis subject has been studiously considered in several countries, notably\nby Dr. Kerschensteiner, of Munich. He has devoted several years to exhaustive study of the drawings of children. Among conclusions he deems as\nabsolutely correct are the following:\nIn primary schools at least, boys and girls require a different syllabus. Brush work\nshould be preferred to all other technique in decoration drawing. As a rule drawing from\nnature cannot be successfully taught in class before the age of ten. Where the systematic\nclass teaching is begun at an early stage, it is desirable to organize it exclusively as drawing\nfrom memory following class discussion. Drawing from good copies should have no\nplace in classwork, but it may be unreservedly recommended for homework.\n\nMr. E. Cooke, of England, who had considered the same subjects, disagreed with Dr. Kerschensteiner in several particulars.\nAfter all, the most important feature of any gathering which brings together\nfrom various parts of the world persons interested in some specialty is the\npersonal contact with leaders whom we may have read about but never met.\nThe London congress was no exception, and surely our American friends\nmust guard the pleasantest recollections of the fraternal spirit which manifested itself decidedly, and which will lead us to anticipate future congresses\nwith great pleasure, as enabling us to renew the friendships formed in London.\nOf the general functions, one of the most important was the reception held\nat the Victoria and Albert Museum, an ideal place for a grand affair of this\nkind. The Duchess of Sutherland gave a reception to seven hundred members\nat Stafford House. A reception was held at Leighton House and in the\nevening the president of the congress and Lord Stanley of Alderley gave a\ndinner to the congress delegates at the Franco-British Exhibition. Several\nmetropolitan schools of art entertained members. The Duchess of Wellington, Miss Gray, and Miss Watts were among others entertaining. A special\nvisit was made by invitation of the king to Windsor Castle.\nThe American committee, in particular, was favored with many agreeable\nsocial attentions, among the most delightful of which were dinners given in\ntheir honor by the Earl of Carlisle, president of the Congress, and August\nSpenser, Esq., principal of the Royal College of Art. The latter gentleman\nalso kindly entertained the American official committee at his beautiful\ncountry home.\nThe interest aroused over the American exhibit was so great that the composite exposition was broken up and portions sent to European cities for\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "66o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nfurther exhibition.\nThe Parisian authorities in particular made arrangements for the showing in Paris of several of the American exhibits.\nAltogether the London congress has given a great impetus to the cause of\nart education in its application to industry, and the development of art as an\nimportant feature of life.\nA COURSE\nW.\n\nH.\n\nELSON,\n\nOF STUDY IN FREEHAND\nAPPLIED ARTS\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nDRAWING\nCLEVELAND,\n\nAND\nOHIO\n\nIt is not the purpose of this paper to propose a course of study for the\nconsideration of this department. My problem is a simpler one. I am to\nreport to you the recent action of the college-entrance association in making\na definition of units of work in art, setting minimum requirements, fixing\na general outline of the elements of a standard course of study, and offering\na credit-allowance of two units. Incidentally I shall mention the meaning\nof this action and speak of the distinct advantages which it brings to this\nsubject as a high-school study.\nWhat the school shall teach is becoming increasingly difficult to determine.\nThis is true not only as to what branches shall be taught but also as to what\nparts or phases of each study shall be selected for treatment. In short, the\ncourse of study is under inquiry. Democratic society demands a school\nsuited to the needs of every variety of citizen, a school varied in its subjectmatter, flexible in its methods, and efficient as an instrument of culture. It\nmust appeal not alone to one type of mind and one kind of interest, but to a\nvariety of minds and to a many-sided interest. A high school intended for\nthe whole community must seek to find out and develop the special aptitudes\nof its students and give attention to individual ability or inclination, economic\nstatus or outlook. A high school that meets these requirements offers freehand drawing and applied arts as an elective study and gives reasonable\ncredit-allowance for the work done.\nOf what shall this course consist ?\nThe need for a standard course of instruction in art for high schools is\nvery great. In the past, courses in this subject, like Topsy, \"just grew\" —\nwere developed by the individual teacher without guidance or supervision and\nin accordance with her special interest or whim, and in many cases under the\nlimitations of inadequate equipment and materials. It is not surprising,\ntherefore, that these courses were often one-sided and fragmentary, inadequate and incomplete. Generally speaking, the subject was not pursued\nseriously nor under favorable conditions. It was not given the recognition\nin the program of the school which its intrinsic value and increasing significance incommon life warranted; it was regarded as incidental rather than\nfundamental and as essentially less educative than the so-called culture studies;\nit did not take rank as a standard study, did not count as credit toward graduation, nor yet as college-entrance subject-matter.\nWhen elected, the work\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFREEHAND\n\nDRAWING\n\nAND\n\nAPPLIED\n\nARTS\n\n66 1\n\nwas taken in addition to the required work of the school and suffered neglect\nat the hands of excessive demands upon the student in other subjects and\ndepartments. Under these unfavorable conditions no branch of study could\nprosper or develop a fundamentally strong program of work. Students who\nelected art work did so because it appealed strongly to their interests and\ntastes. From necessity, the teacher, naturally solicitous for the upbuilding\nof her department, was guided in the selection of topics or phases of work\nrather more by the attractiveness of the topics to students than by their value\nin developing art principles and power in pupils. True, in an occasional\nhigh school the study has been pursued seriously and credits toward graduation have been given; but speaking for the great majority of high schools of\nthe country, this has not been the case. Again, the need for adequately\ntrained teachers has been a hindrance to progress and the discouraging condition of the study has not strongly influenced teachers to fit themselves\nthoroly for the work. A smattering of this or of that was thought sufficient\nto justify the candidate in seeking any position, however responsible.\nRecognizing these conditions, the Western Drawing and Manual Training\nAssociation directed its efforts toward placing this study upon the list of\ncollege-entrance subjects. A committee was appointed to urge such action,\nan outline of work was formulated and submitted to the college-entrance\nbody for its approval, and at the last meeting of the North Central Association\nof Colleges and Secondary Schools a definition of units in freehand drawing\nand applied arts was adopted unanimously, with a credit allowance of two\nunits.\nFollowing is the outline :\nNORTH\n\nCENTRAL ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGES\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nDefinition of Units in Freehand\nMarch\nhour\n\nDrawing\n\nAND\n\nand Applied Arts Adopted\n\n27, 1909\n\nbasis for credit (2 units) 240 hours\n\nfor each\n\ncredit\n\nApproximately one-third the time should be given to representative drawing and\ntwo-thirds to decorative composition, constructive and decorative design, construction\nand applied design.\na) Pictorial — Plant Study (Flowers, sprays of leaves, seed pods, etc.)\nObject Study — (Perspective).\nLandscape — Roof studies, buildings, etc. (Perspective).\nPose Drawing.\nComposition.\nh) Decorative Composition — Plant forms, object study, landscape, pose.\nc) Decorative Design — Plant analysis (for the purpose of design).\nConventionalized plant forms.\nDecorative units, borders, surfaces, corners, rosettes, posters, book-covers, etc.\nStencils — Wood-block printing.\nHistoric Ornament.\nArrangement of straight lines, and of straight and curved lines.\nGeometric design.\nLettering — Illuminating.\nSchemes for Interior Decoration.\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nd) Constructive Design — Designs for pottery, leather, metal, bookbinding, furniture, cardboard construction, textiles, etc.\ne) Crafts — Pottery, leather, metal,\nmore of the above crafts.)\n\nbookbinding,\n\nfurniture.\n\n(Choice of one or\n\nf) Applied Design — Design applied to the crafts and to cardboard, textiles, etc.\ng) Illustration.\nh) Talks on History of Industry and Art, on civic planning, domestic architecture and decoration.\ni) Instrumental Drawing to be given as needed to meet the requirements of\npractical designing and construction.\nNote. — ^Mediimis used — pencil, charcoal, water-color, crayons, brush and ink, and a\ncombination of the pure mediums.\n\nThat the above outline of work was unanimously adopted by the College\nEntrance Association is significant of the growth of sentiment in favor of\ncollege recognition of art instruction when it is made to mean something\nstrong and vital, closely related to life-interests and life-needs. This action\non the part of the North Central Association of Colleges and -Secondary\nSchools gives deserved recognition to one of the most important and most\nuseful branches of high-school instruction. Freehand drawing and applied\nart may now take on new and added dignity and assume its rightful place in\nthe Hst of college-entrance subjects. It should share in the better instruction\nand the more adequate provisions which have affected favorably high-school\ninstruction in other college-entrance studies.\nThe outline recognizes that our civihzation is essentially industrial, our\ncitizenship cosmopolitan, and our life essentially urban. It has for its controlling aim the improvement of industry, of the home, and of civic life, by a\ntraining of eye and hand and taste. It seeks primarily appreciation of\nbeauty in the useful arts, and the cultivation of that taste and skill most needed\nin industry and in the home — the training of the industrial worker and the home\nmaker. It assumes that art in the public school should be kept close to its\npractical uses in industry and life, both for the sake of industry and idi the\nsake of art. In a word, the outline seeks an appreciation of art in its application to production, to home-making, and to personal living. These general\nconsiderations account for the assignment of two-thirds of the time to decorative composition, constructive and decorative design, construction and applied\ndesign, as against one-third to representative work. It it for these reasons\nthat not only the history of art is listed for study but also the history of industry.\nIt is for these reasons that the outline gives prominence to work related to the\nfundamental crafts and industries — in wood, metal, textiles, and pottery,\nrather than to the less substantial types of work. It is for these reasons\nthat the productive and creative output is made the test of knowledge and\nskill.\nThe outline is intended merely to give analytically the elements of a course\nof study in art. There is no thought of sequence in the arrangement of topics,\nnor that this order should be followed by the teacher.\nFor whatever of\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": ">epartraent]\n\nFREEHAND\n\nDRAWING\n\nAND\n\nAPPLIED\n\nARTS\n\n663\n\njuggesion and value it may be, I submit the following concrete scheme of\njoxk based upon the above outline:\nA POSSIBLE\n\nWORKING\n\nFORMULA\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nFOREGOING\n\nCOURSE\n\n{Suggestive)\nFirst Year\nfall term\nictorial —\nFruit, flowers, sprays of leaves, seed pods, etc.\nIn outline.\nIn mass.\nLight and shade.\nMediums: Pencil, water-color, charcoal.\n)ecorative Composition —\nPlant forms.\nIn outline.\nIn mass.\nMediums:\nPencil, brush and ink, charcoal.\n*lant analysis (for the purpose of design) —\nMediums: Pencil, ink.\n)esign (conventionalized plant forms) —\nDecorative units, borders, surfaces.\nMake collections of plant forms to be used as material for design.\nPlant studied made earlier in the year may also be used as material for design.\nMediums: Pencil, brush and ink, water-color, charcoal.\nConstruction of Applied Design —\nPortfolios, etc.\nWINTER\n\nTERM\n\nictorial —\nObject study.\nIn outline.\nIn mass.\nLight and shade.\nPerspective.\nMediums: Pencil, charcoal, colored crayons.\n\\\nDesign —\nArrangements of straight lines (tile designs).\nConstruction of Applied Design —\nPottery.\nSPRING\n\nTERM\n\nPictorial —\nObject study.\nPlant study.\nDecorative Composition —\nObject study.\nPlant study.\nMediums: Pencil, brush and ink, charcoal.\nDesign —\nLettering and illuminating.\nSecond Year\nFALL term\n\nPictorial —\nPlant study.\nLandscape.\nMediums: Pencil, water-color, charcoal, brush and ink.\nDecorative Composition —\nPlant study.\nLandscape.\nMediums: Brush and ink, water-color, charcoal.\nPlant analysis (for the purpose of design) —\nMediums: Pencil, ink.\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDesign (conventionalized plant forms) —\nDecorative units, borders, surfaces.\nMediums: Ink, w^ater-color.\nConstruction and Applied Design —\nLeather.\nWINTER\n\n[Art\n\ni\n\nTERM\n\nPictorial —\nPose.\nWinter landscapes.\nRoof studies, buildings (perspective).\nMediums: Pencil, water-color, charcoal.\nDesign —\nArrangements of straight lines, and of straight and curved lines, in borders, corners,\nsurface repeats, etc.\nGeometric design.\nConstruction and Applied Design —\nLeather.\nSPRING\n\nTERM\n\nPictorial —\nPose.\nPose.\nLandscape.\n\nJ\n\nDecorative Composition —\n'^\nPose.\nLandscape.\n^\n^B\nDesign —\n^w\nSchemes for interior decoration.\nHistory of industry and art, and reference reading to be given thruout the course.\nInstrumental drawing to be given as needed to meet the requirements of practical\ndesigning and construction.\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam H. Smiley, principal of East Side High School, Denver, Colo. — It is a\npleasure to express my cordial appreciation of Superintendent Elson's thoughtful and\nclear presentation of this subject, and with much that he offers I heartily concur. There\nare some statements, however, to which I think some limitation should be set. For\nexample, it seems to me almost too much to say that creative work is the basis of all art\nappreciation; and it is setting ourselves a tremendous task when we say that art instruction must have for its aim the development of the taste of the whole people. Perhaps it is\nwell to have ideals of this sort everlastingly before us, and I presume that there is no line\nof education in which America has not started with a fine appreciation of the ideal to be\nrealized, no matter what practical limitations we ultimately run up against. America^\nhas accomplished large things, undoubtedly, because she had large things in view; yet|\nthe danger in every department of education is that the very breadth of our purpose may\nresult in only superficial accomplishments; therefore I greatly fear that in aims set so\nhigh as we have them in Superintendent Elson's paper, and in the definition of units as\nwe have them presented by the North Central Association course of study, we may suggest to drawing teachers such a differentiation and diffusion of their energies as may result\nin weak and inefiicient results. To criticize specifically the work outlined for the institutions belonging to the North Central Association, I would say that the outline for the\nfour hundred and eighty hours to be offered theoretically covers all the work that\nis attempted in the most finely organized technical school for the teaching of freehand\ndrawing and applied design. No teacher could apportion those four hundred and eighty\nhours in detail to the divisions of work indicated in that course without, as I have said,\na dispersion of energy and a frittering away of attention that will, in the end, bring upon\nart instruction the same criticism that we hear applied to almost every subject in prepara-\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFREEHAND\n\nDRAWING\n\nAND\n\nAPPLIED\n\nARTS\n\n665\n\ntory work. If you will pardon a personal reference in explanation of the basis of this\ncriticism — in order that you may understand that I do not speak from the pedagogical\npoint of view of the theorist in aesthetics — I will say that I speak from the point of view\nof one who, under firm but kindly hands, was first taught to draw, and next to appreciate\nthe plastic arts thru a disciplined hand and eye.\nI will preface my more specific criticism of this high-school course by a simple reference to the work in the grades. Now, whatever credit may be given to the results of art\ninstruction, as regards appreciation of form, or color, or picture, this credit, at least, cannot be given to the results of such instruction — namely, that pupils learn to draw. The\nconsequence is that they come to their high-school work, in the main, with very little\nexpressive power of hand. The most fundamental principle stated in this course is that\napproximately one-third of the time should be given to representative drawing, and twothirds to decorative composition — construction and decorative design, construction and\napplied design. I believe that I might have assented to this proposition if the apportioning of time had been reversed, and two-thirds had been given to drawing, and onethird to design. I think that this criticism is in line with statements of Superintendent\nElson to which I am in duty bound to give my heartiest commendation and approval — ■\nnamely, that the judicious selection of a few fundamental phases of work, and the doing\nof these well, are the prime concern; and that enrichment, thru judicious elimination,\nis the keynote of present demands in the curriculum. The emphasis placed upon plant\nstudy and plant analysis, for the purpose of design, is given such prominence in this course\nthat I fear the results upon students and upon teachers. I doubt very much if pupils\ncan ever learn to appreciate mass and composition and truth of line, with reference to\ngrowth, for use creatively, who have not first gained keenness of eye and readiness of\nhand, thru much drawing of simpler objects.\nI am ready to grant all that is claimed for creative design as a stimulus to the student's interest, and an encouragement to his self -activity, and we all know the application\nthat students will freely give under this spur; but we must not fail to realize that some of\nthese students are laying the foundation for patient, continued study, and I hardly see\nhow any teacher can fail to agree with me that for such these earlier years are to be the\ndisciplinary years, and these are the years when they should learn to draw. I am not\nat all sure that it would not be better to make a sharp distinction in character of work\nassigned to those pupils whose aim looks forward to artisan, or artistic competency,\nin order that, at least, these elect may not suffer in their ideals and standards of what\nfinished work should be. I do not believe that the road to efficiency can or should be\nmade an easy one, tho it ought to be an enjoyable one. Consequently, I believe we should\nbe cautious about laying too great stress upon creative design, that in its appUcation may\nend in such slovenly craftsmanship as we see in much of the product of the present artscrafts movement.\n\nI\n\nRuth S. Dalziel, art instructor, North Side High School, Denver, Colo. — It is\nvery cheering to find drawing more and more recognized as a subject worthy of careful\nstudy, and great credit is due those who have worked to bring such a condition about.\nThis recognition is evidenced by the adoption of a course of study by the North\nCentral Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, and it is undoubtedly a great\nstep in advance.\nThis course, as Superintendent Elson has pointed out, allows approximately one-third\nof the time for representative drawing and two-thirds for design. Whether this is the\nbest possible division of time can only be decided by careful experiment with parallel\nclasses and a thoro comparison of the work done during a period of two or four years.\nThe experimental stage will pass more quickly if there is hearty co-operation between\nthe schools using this arrangement of time and work.\nBecause children come to the high schools with such a difiference in the standards of\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\ntheir preparatory work in this subject, and because the course itself allows so much liberty\nto the teacher, it seems to me there is need to establish a minimum limit of passability,\nif I may use such an expression, as well as one for the average work. We must convince\nthe colleges, if we want them to accept this work, that grades in drawing compare with\nas much accuracy as in other subjects. Let me illustrate: In mathematics we say a child\nhas worked a certain percentage of examples from a given page in a given book, and you\nhave a fair idea of his capacity; but when I say, \"This pupil has an average of 90 per cent,\non his drawing, \" you know nothing about it until you see the work, and, with your standard, itmay be 70, 80, or 100 per cent.\nThe only way that I can suggest to establish this standard is by examinations,\nhalf yearly at least, and including in future exhibits these marked examination papers,\nwhich will enable teachers to compare their work more accurately. In this subject, as in\nall others, the best pupils need no examinations; it is for the purpose of standardizing our\nmediocre and minimum work that this should be done. All examinations tend to develop\nself-reliance in the pupil and to give him courage to do independent work later. They\nwill also help to keep the standard from being so far beyond the ability of the average\npupil.\nI think if this is done our colleges will accept more readily the work for credits.\nIn conclusion, I wish to give my hearty thanks and appreciation to those who have\ndone so much for the cause of drawing and applied arts in the secondary schools.\nMrs. Le Favre, Denver, Colo. — Art in school work, in my opinion, finds its greatest\nusefulness in the inspiration it awakens in the pupil to look for the beautiful and the\nkindly harmonious everywhere. The late William Morris, of England, conferred a lasting\nbenefit on human society when he united the utilitarian handicrafts to the classic arts.\nCommonly speaking, people working in factories and shops are not to have ideas; not\nto express them, surely, but to be mere machines or machine operators. William Morris\ninvited ideas in his pupil workers and designs from them. There the artists and artisans\nwrought and thought together. They were happy and calm in the production of their\nfine hand-made wares. They had a season of mourning when they parted with a rug\ninto which they had for several years co-operatively worked the artistic lines of their\nkindly imaginings. Several years of co-operative association on lines of this gentle endeavor\nhad endeared this lug to them. Probably the most thoroly artistic room of these days\nfor our study is the William Morris room in a furniture store at Chicago. The very\nhighest authorities have so spoken of it. It was placed there by the admirers of Morris\nand fitted out with objects from the very hands of Mr. and Mrs. Morris — the last made\nbeing probably the book-covers. The ceiling itself is low, and with the objects of utilitarian art in sumptously rich coloring, yet so mellow and softly blended and well related\nas to give a feeling of great rest and uplift.\nIn the hand of a school pupil well trained, objects of usefulness quickly lend themselves to artistic handling. While the pupil is thus engaged, admiration ascends and\ncarries the consciousness into a new and higher experience. The character improves.\nThe emotions being played upon, the involuntary functions are roused and set to the\ntune for better respiration, alimentation, circulation. Better physiological conditions displace those pathological, and good health results.\nArt in'school work, rightly pursued, is health-begetting; it inspires better scholastic\nendeavor and enables us to look for and find harmony and the good, beautiful, and true.\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\nARTHUR\n\nENTRANCE\n\nEXAMINATIONS\n\nIN\n\nART\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON UNIVERSITY\nEXAMINATIONS IN ART\n\n667\n\nENTRANCE\n\nB. CLARK, ASSOCIATE\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF GRAPHIC\n\nARTS, LELAND\n\nJUNIOR\n\nSTANFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCAL., CHAIRMAN\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nSTANFORD\n\nAt the Los Angeles meeting, two years ago, there was a feeling that the\ntime had arrived to define standard courses of art instruction. Your committee was appointed to prepare a definition and report at this time.\nWe found upon commencing our labor that the North Central Association\nof Colleges and Secondary Schools was already working on the same\nproblem.\nTheir work was being so well done that we have awaited their results.\nThese results have just been presented to you in a most effective manner by\nSuperintendent Elson. The course of study which he has discussed is the\ndefinition of units which we present for your adoption.\nYou have discussed his report thoroly and your questions have enabled\nhim to explain its strength in a masterly way. It is a cause for congratulation\nthat a critical superintendent of schools is so abundantly able to expound the\nsolidity and necessity of this step in education.\nThe insight which he shows into every consideration which properly enters\ninto this problem is proof of the care with which the report has been considered\nand prepared.\nThis is not a theoretical course but a tried course, and represents a careful statement of the point at which art teaching has now arrived after many\nyears of experience. It is a standard definition agreed upon by some seven\nhundred schools and colleges. Furthermore, the work done in the leading\nhigh schools today, from Maine to California, might be accepted as illustrative of this recommended course of study. The exhibits sent to this meeting\nconfirm this statement.\nThe course is flexible, and should be. The particular teacher or school\nshould adapt it to local and personal needs — thus: a teacher with a number\nof intending engineers or architects in the class might profitably emphasize\nconstructive design at the expense of the printing crafts; a pupil interested\nin zoology might be allowed more time in animal or bird drawing and legs in\ndesign.\nA word as to the acceptance of these units by colleges and universities.\nMany people, worthy of all respect in other things, still think that art is for the\nfew only, and that instruction in it should be conducted only in special institutions where people of this particular taste can be humored. Many have\nsaid to me \"I want my son or daughter to get a broad education first, then\nafter college graduation, if they still want to study art, they may go to an art\nschool.\" As well graft an eighty-year-old apple tree.\nA separation of a fundamental thing Hke art from a broad education is\njust as reasonable as it would be to postpone one's physical growth until the\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nmind had been stuffed with facts, or to devote two years exclusively to eating,\nthen two to exercise, and two to thinking.\nArt, science, mathematics, civics, these are all important to everybody.\nThe person who omits culture in either is like a horse with a missing leg.\nThat art culture is to be an organic part of the educational system of the\nfuture is settled.\nThe colleges and universities have assented, in the abstract, to the principle\nthat graduation from a thoroly conducted four-years' high school must permit entrance to the university; also to the principle that the high school has\nends of its own more important than that of feeder to higher institutions.\nAt the same time, the colleges and universities, in their influence, espionage,\nand printed lists of entrance subjects dictate to and warp the growth of secondary schools.\nSuppose a boy had spent equal periods of time for four years in the study\nof literature, mathematics, science, applied art, and civics, he would be well\nequipped to study engineering or architecture, but would not be received in\nany of the universities belonging to the aristocratic \"Association of American\nUniversities.\" He could not find fifteen units of credit, which he could pass,\nlisted in the subjects of the \"College Entrance Examination Board.\" He\nwould have to study further to make up for the time spent in study of applied\nart.\nA graduate of Pratt Institute, who during three years of study had performed the work now on exhibition in connection with this meeting, would\nbe magnificently started for a useful life, but could receive only one of fifteen\nrequired entrance credits in most universities. This is a great injustice. It\nalmost excludes from the university at once an important branch of culture —\nit makes a three-legged horse.\nThat a set of college men could view this exhibit, or that of the grade schools\nand high schools of this city, and declare, in effect, that the culture so represented\nis inferior in value to any subject now on the accredited examination list,\nis unbelievable. I think they are too broad to do such a thing when they\nunderstand it. Our duty, then, is to make the college men stand before these\nexhibits and receive attacks of cold shivers as they realize that unwittingly\nthey discourage this teaching and are the stumbling blocks in this line of progress.\nWe suggest that a number of traveling exhibits be prepared and sent to\nobdurate institutions, setting forth the attainments of a standard course of art,\nworth two units of credit. This will surely hasten the day of its acceptance.\nBut the university which admits the value of this work in the secondary\nschools may doubt its value as preparation for continuing university study.\nDoes it prepare for anything? Yes.\nIn a study of the humanities, history, ethics, philosophy, or to give an\ninsight into ideals of civilization, no avenue is more sympathetic than the fine\narts; and no one can see with more penetration and sympathy than one who is\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nFEDERATION\n\nOF\n\nARTS\n\n669\n\nalso an artist. Could not the sculptor St. Gaudens understand the Greek spirit\nquite as well as any classical professor at the American school at Athens?\nCan any adequate idea of Greek or Roman civilization be attained without\nthe insight into art which the practitioner obtains ?\nIn the biological sciences the increased power of observation and recoiding\nis amply worth two entrance credits. In literature the journalist is given an\nunderstanding of the art which today is so forcibly coupled with his own that\nit is often difficult to say which is more important, the text or the art used in\nillustration and bookbinding. Such books as The Rubaiyat, illustrated by\nVedder, Peter Pan, illustrated by Arthur Rackham, and The Wonder Clock, by\nHoward Pyle, as well as the art in the monthly magazines, in which illustrators\nare quite as well known as writers, bear out this value of art as parallel with\nliterature. What is more valuable to the merchant than a systematically\ntrained taste ?\nIn short, art is a great avenue of approach to the soul, one of its greatest\nmanifestations, and the colleges and universities which stand for cultivation\nof well-balanced humanity cannot afiford to crowd it out of their own curricula;\nor, if they do, much less can they afford to crowd it out of preparatory work\nin the secondary schools.\nAt Stanford we give one entrance credit in freehand drawing. Heretofore\nthe credit has been allowed for ability to draw and shade a group of objects.\nHenceforth, by vote of the faculty in graphic arts, a knowledge of applied art\nand possession of good taste must also be shown. Hence at Stanford we already\nrecognize this recommended course as to content and, I hope, with many other\nhigher institutions, may soon do so in amount of the two credits.\nRespectfully submitted,\nArthur\nB. Clark,\nChairman\nFlorence E. Ellis\nHenry Turner Bailey\n\nTHE\nHENRY\n\nREAD,\n\nAMERICAN\n\nMEMBER\n\nFEDERATION\n\nOF BOARD\nOF DIRECTORS,\nOF ARTS, WASHINGTON,\nD.\n\nOF ARTS\nAMERICAN\n\nFEDERATION\n\nC.\n\nAs I have the honor to address the Department of Art Education of this\nAssociation, I take it for granted that you desire to encourage a love of art\namong all members of the community, and my immediate object is to bring\nto your notice a movement that will prove an effective means of aiding you in\nyour purpose. Fortunately, this will involve no discussion of educational\ntheories or methods, and I may therefore count upon your undivided good\nwill.\nAt no previous time in the world's history has wider practical recognition\nbeen given to the fact that ''union is strength,\" and this has resulted in a\nmultiplication of agencies that in many cases have proved to be only a dissipa-\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\ntion of energy. Let me hasten to say that I am not here to advocate any\naddition to their number, but merely to make known a federation of those\nthat already exist.\nBefore giving a detailed account of the American Federation of Arts, it\nmay be well to consider what justification can be found for a national movement at the present time.\nIt is only within the memory of this generation that American art may\nbe said to have found independent expression among us, and perhaps the\nmost significant feature of its spirit today is to be found in the growing conviction that art is something more than painting, sculpture, or architecture.\nVery few of us have the power to become artists, fewer still can ever hope\nto rank among the immortals, and if personal fame were to be the sole measure\nof the value of art to the community at large, an attitude of indiflference to its\nclaims would occasion no surprise. But if it can be reaUzed that art has a\nwider meaning — that it satisfies a universal human instinct, the love of beauty;\nthat it records a deUberate choice of the higher aim ; that its influence touches\nalmost every department of man's activity; that it is sane, practical, and within reach of all — then surely we are in a position to say that as a nation we can\nill afford to neglect the signs of an awakening esthetic conscience.\nThe art-craft movement and its effect upon domestic design, recent public\nand private architecture, increased attention to the cultivation of gardens,\nthe creation of municipal art commissions, their care for the details of civic\nbeauty, no less than their advocacy of more fundamental improvements, and\npublic protests against landscape disfigurement, all show a forward step in the\nadvance of good taste, and good taste is a phrase which, for our purpose,\nmight aknost take the place of the vague word *'art.\"\nThe National Academy of Art, which was established by authority of\nCongress in 1892, and is therefore one of the very few societies possessing the\ndirect indorsement of the United States government, recently decided that\nthe time was ripe for a federation of the art forces of this country, and thru its\nBoard of Regents issued a call for an art convention, which was held in Washington, May II to 13 of the present year. At this gathering, attended by\nrepresentatives of the societies, museums, schools, and civic organizations of\nthe country, and addressed by statesmen, artists, and educators of national\nreputation, the project took definite form, and, under the name of the American\nFederation of Arts, became an effective reality. At this point, I cannot do\nbetter than quote Senator Root's outline of its plans:\n1. To encourage the establishment of art schools, the exhibition of collections of\nprivate galleries, and to encourage American artists.\n2. To secure higher recognition of art in public schools, and to make boards of\neducation, faculties, and college presidents pay more attention to cultivating the taste of\nthe students.\n3. To encourage the appointment of a commission to supervise public architecture.\n4. To improve the standard of private architecture.\n5. To support the plan of the Park Commission to beautify the city of Washington.\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nFEDERATION\n\nOF ARTS\n\n671\n\n6. To extend the system of national parks and forests thruout the country.\n7. To promote public playgrounds and school gardens.\n8. To support a movement to enlarge the jurisdiction of the Supervising Architect\nof the Treasury, so that in effect a Bureau of Arts would be created, and to appoint an\nadvisory committee of experts.\n9. To support a National Gallery of Art.\n10. To assist in securing an appropriate building for the National Gallery of Art.\n11. To effect an organization thru which the general opinion of Americans on art\nsubjects may have an outlet.\n\nThis summary was accepted as a general indication of the purposes of the\nFederation, but not as limiting its activities. A constitution was adopted, and\nofficers were elected. It is unnecessary to read this document in full, but I\nwill call your attention to some of its important points. It provides for the\nassociation in membership of any existing organization or institution interested\nin the objects of the Federation, and for its admission as a chapter. It also\nprovides for personal membership at a nominal fee of two dollars a year. It\nprovides for standing committees on architecture, sculpture, painting, landscape, craftsmanship, art museums and galleries, education, exhibitions,\npubHcation, municipal art commissions, village planning and improvement,\nfree art, government art, legislation, and other matters.\nIt designates Washington as the headquarters of the Federation, in order\nto emphasize its national character; and the Board of Directors, consisting\nof the President and Secretary, ex-officio, and nineteen members elected from\nthe membership of the different chapters, is expected to be fairly representative of the various sections and interests of the whole country.\nAltho but a short time has elapsed since its creation, the American Federation of Arts has made unexpected progress in practical work. The constitution has been printed, and copies sent with letters to about four hundred\norganizations, asking them to become chapters, and to about four thousand\npainters, sculptors, architects, and others, asking them to become associate\nmembers.\nThe proceedings of the convention are now in the press, and an edition\nof five hundred copies will shortly be ready for distribution. Arrangements\nhave been made to issue to members a bulletin which will be published in\nWashington on the 15th of each month.\nIt will contain:\n1. Reviews of current exhibitions.\ndone.\n\n2. Short articles on municipal art and architecture, treating only of what is being\n\n3. A museum department, comprising one scholarly article and news notes.\n4. A school department.\n5. Schedule of exhibitions.\n6. Book reviews, etc.\n7. Editorials, \"The Voice.\"\n\nReading between the lines, we seem to catch something of the intentions\nof those who are responsible for the conduct of this enterprise.\nIts keynote\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nis fraternal work in the field of art, which, properly understood, should be\ncoextensive with human life.\nIt suggests no pleasant occupation for leisure hours, no selfish enjoyment\nof surplus wealth, but a healthy outlook upon the world around us and a\ndetermination to do its work with some regard for a higher end than the profit\nit shall bring.\nI will enter upon no personal details, but my sketch would be incomplete\nif it contained no reference to the leaders of this movement. They are men\nwhose professional reputation is a guarantee both of sincerity and ability.\nTheir faith in the artistic resources of their country should meet with a ready\nresponse from those in whose power it lies to justify their action.\nThe United States Commissioner of Education, Elmer Ellsworth Brown,\nwho has more than once addressed this Convention, was among the speakers\nat the Washington Art Convention, and his cordial approval is a fact that\nmerits your serious consideration.\nI make a deliberate appeal to you, who represent an important professional\nclass, to give your personal support to the American Federation of Arts. Some\nof you may become active workers in a movement which I believe will mark\nan epoch in the history of American art.\nI will only add, as a matter of convenience to any who wish to make further\ninvestigation, the names of the officers of the American Federation of Arts:\nPresident, Charles L. Hutchinson, Chicago.\nVice-Presidents, Herbert Adams, New York; John'W. Alexander, New York;\nRalph Adams Cram, Boston.\nSecretary, F. D. Millet, New York.\nAssistant Secretary, Leila Mechlin, Washington, D. C.\nActing Treasurer, A. J. Parsons, Washington, D. C.\nAddress all business communications to the Assistant Secretary, Leila Mechlin,\n1741 New York Ave., Washington, D. C.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\n'\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Frances E. Clark, supervisor of music, Public Schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\nVice-President — Charles I. Rice, supervisor of music. Public Schools, Worcester, Mass.\nSecretary — Elsie M. Shawe, supervisor of music Public Schools, St. Paul, Mimi.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday Morning, July 7, 1909\nThe meeting was called to order in the Trinity Methodist Episcopal Church at 9:30\nby the President, Mrs. Frances E. Clark, Milwaukee, Wis., with about one thousand in\nattendance.\nThe program opened with organ numbers, played by Frank A. McCarrell, Denver,\nColo.\na) \"Pilgrims' Chorus\" from Tannhauser (Wagner);\nb) \"Communion\" (Batiste).\nThese organ numbers were followed by songs sung by Mrs. Feme Whiteman Smith,\nDenver, Colo.\na) \"I Hid My Love\" (d'Hardelot);\nb) \" Thou Art so like a Flower; \" (Burnham) ;\nc) \"A Wee Bit Shy.\"\nThe address of welcome was given by Fred Wright, Denver, and responded to by\nCharles I. Rice, Worcester, Mass.\nMrs. Frances E. Clark gave the President's annual address, her subject being, \"The\nStatus of Music in the United States.\"\nMrs. Jessie L: Gaynor gave an informal talk on \"Music in Germany,\" recounting\nsome of her observations of music in the schools of Berlin.\nUnder the direction of Wilberforce J. Whiteman, supervisor of music. Public Schools,\nDenver, The Teachers' Club sang the following part songs for ladies' voices:\na) \"Twilight Dreams\" {Gillett-Hoursley);\nb) \"Queen of Night\" (Smart).\nA paper on \"Music on an Accredited Basis in Universities\" wa» read by Charles\nFarnsworth, Director of Music, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City.\nWill Grant Chambers, professor of education. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburg,\nPa., read a paper on \"Modern Psychology and Music Study.\"\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the President:\nMiss Carmichael, Ohio\nW. J. Whiteman, Colo.\nA. J. Gantvoort, Ohio\nA. J. Gantvoort, chairman of the Committee on National Songs, stated that the work\nhe had to submit was practically his own individual report, as he. Miss Shawe, and Mr.\nMcConothy (the three members of the committee) had not agreed. Arrangements of\n\"America,\" \"Star Spangled Banner,\" \"Hail Columbia,\" and \"O Columbia, the Gem of\nthe Ocean\" — the versions favored by the chairman of the committee — were then played\nby him on the piano, for the active members present to pass judgment upon; after the\nhearing of the songs, the following motion was made by Mr. Kinnear, seconded, discussed,\n673\nand carried:\n!\n\nResolved, That the present Committee on National Songs be continued and enlarged\nto seven members, with instructions to consider the question more fully and agree\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Musk\n\nupon forms of melodies and arrangements of the same, which shall be printed and sent to\nthe members of the Music Department of the National Education Association at least\nthree months before the next annual meeting.\nMiss Elsie M. Shawe, of St. Paul, then moved that the Department of Music Education\nprepare a resolution to be presented to the Committee on Resolutions of the General\nSessions of the National Education Association, urging their indorsement and financial\nsupport of the efforts of the Department of Music Education to edit a uniform version of\nour national songs.\nThe motion was seconded by Mr. Congdon and carried.\nThe President appointed the following Committee to draw up the resolution at once:\nA. J. Gantvoort, Miss Elsie M. Shawe, and Charles Farnsworth. On the return of the\ncommittee the following resolution was presented by A. J. Gantvoort, chairman:\n\"Whereas, The Department of Music Education of the National Education Association has been considering the advisability of having a uniform version, both text and music,\nof our national songs, and has arrangements of some of these songs to submit; therefore\nbelt\nResolved, That the general body of the National Education Association indorse the\nmovement and appropriate the sum of $200 for further work along this line to be done by\nthe Department of Music Education of the Association.\nOn motion the resolution was sent at once to the General Committee on Resolutions.\nA motion for adjournment was made and carried.\nROUND-TABLE\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nMorning, July 8\n\nThe department met at 9:30 in the Sunday -School Room of the Trinity Methodist\nEpiscopal Church with about four hundred and fifty in attendance.\nThe topic for discussion was \"The Conservation and Development of the Child\nVoice.\" Mr. W. J. Whiteman gave a talk on the subject, and his remarks were illustrated\nby the singing of a third-grade class of children from the Dependent School under the\ndirection of W. J. Whiteman. This was followed by songs from Leslie Burr, baritone,\nMrs. F. W. Sipith, contralto, and Mrs, W. J. Whiteman, contralto, all of Denver, Colo.\nCharles I. Rice read a paper on \"Terminology Reform\" and then the Report of the\nCommittee on Terminology was taken up for discussion and adoption.\nThe lateness of the hour not permitting the full report to be discussed at this session,\nthe President announced that the report would be further discussed at the session to be\nheld in the afternoon of the next day, and, upon motion, meeting adjourned.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Friday Afternoon, July 9\n\nThe session opened with organ solos by F. A. McCarrell:\na) \"Offertoire\" in D minor {Batiste);\nh) \"Andantino\" in D flat (Lemaire).\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, commissioner of education, Washington, D.^C, read a paper\non \"Our National Songs.\"\nThis was followed by a paper by John R. Kirk, president of the Normal School,\nKirksville, Mo., on \"Music on an Accredited Basis in Normal Schools,\" and an informal\ntalk on the same subject by Charles Fullerton, professor of vocal music in the State Normal\nSchool, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nA song entitled \"Fairy Love Song\" by Willeby was sung by Mrs. M. Armstrong.\nThe Report of the Committee on Terminology was next taken up, and most of the\nreport was fully discussed and partly adopted.\nA motion was made by Charles Farnsworth and seconded by A. J. Gantvoort that\nthe motion to increase the Committee on National Songs to seven members be reconsidered. The motion was carried.\nA. J. Gantvoort then moved that the Committee on National Songs be increased to\nten members and that Mrs. Frances E. Clark be one of the members of the committee,\n\nJ\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "MUSIC\n\nDepartment]\n\nIN THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\njthe other members to be named by the President.\nThe motion was seconded and carried.\n>The President announced the following Committee on National Songs:\nA. J. Gantvoort, Cincinnati, Ohio; Miss Elsie M. Shawe, St. Paul, Minn.; Osbourne\n[McConothy, Chelsea, Mass.; R. G. Cole; Thomas Tapper, New York; Mrs. Jessie L.\n[Gaynor; E. B. Birge, Indianapolis, Ind.; Mrs. C. B. Kelsey, Grand Rapids, Mich.;\nICharles Farnsworth, New York; Mrs. Frances E. Clark, Milwaukee, Wis.\nThe secretary was on motion instructed to write P. C. Hayden, editor and publisher\n'of School Music, that the Music Section of the National Education Association desired to\nexpress their full appreciation of the valuable aid of his journal in bringing the papers and\ndiscussions of the Annual Meeting to the knowledge of the readers of School Music.\nA. J. Gantvoort then moved that the Committee on National Songs be instructed to\nreport to the General Body of the National Education Association the work to be done\nIby the committee during the coming year, and prior to the next Annual Meeting, in case\n[the committee is called upon for such a report; motion seconded and carried.\nA motion was made by A. J. Gantvoort that the retiring officers be extended a vote\nof thanks for their valuable services in arranging the program for this meeting. Seconded\nand carried.\nThe Nominating Committee submitted the following report:\nFor President — Charles I. Rice, Worcester, Mass.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Elsie M. Shawe, St. Paul, Minn.\nFor Secretary, Miss B. Alexander, Dallas, Tex.\nIt was voted to instruct the secretary to cast a ballot for these nominees. The nominees\nwere then declared elected and the meeting adjourned.\nElsie M. Shawe, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nMRS.\n\nSTATUS\nFRANCES\n\nE.\n\nAND\n\nOF MUSIC\nCLARK,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nIN THE\n\nSUPERVISOR\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nUNITED\n\nOF MUSIC,\nWIS.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSTATES\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTo answer the query suggested in my topic would require the mind of a\nseer. Music is just now in such a transitional state that it is difficult to determine where we stand. We are doing things musically so rapidly and in so\nmany ways and places, that it is next to impossible to get anything like a true\nperspective.\nComparisons are not always odious; but to compare music here with that of\nEurope, without taking into consideration the conditions and history of the\nmatter, is quite certain to be obnoxious to the true American. We are constantly being told that we have no music here, and, perhaps, in some sense\n\"'tis true, and pity 'tis, 'tis true.\" If, however, we think for a single moment\nof the youth of even our oldest musical activities and institutions, we are amazed\nand overwhelmed by the prodigious growth in all lines of music. Four hundred years of active national assistance and encouragement ought to have\ndone something noteworthy in Germany, France, Italy, and Austria.\nIn\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nEurope, centuries have been given to the rise and development of schools of\nmusic, encouragement of performance, composition, opera, and every form\nof musical activity\nAmerica had only just been discovered when Palestrina wrote his music\nfor the church service and Martin Luther invented the choral. Our Pilgrim\nFathers were only just immortalizing Plymouth- Rock and struggling for an\nexistence in an unknown world, when opera and oratorio were delighting the\npeople of Italy and the civilized world with those newly discovered possibilities\nof music. These same Puritans were so imbued with the idea of separation\nfrom the forms of the oppressing church that music was nearly lost to us for\ntwo hundred years.\nWhile Bach and Handel in the early years of the eighteenth century set\nall Europe atingle with the wonders of their genius, our sturdy ancestors were\nfighting Indians and bickering with England for charters, taxes, trade, and a\nright to exist. The same year that gave to the old world that matchless*\ngenius, Haydn, gave to us Washington, the surveyor of unbroken Virginia\nforests, the Indian fighter in the wilds of Pennsylvania who, in the providence\nof God, later welded the scattered colonies into a nation.\nWhile educational interests were looked after in those early days in the\nfounding of colleges, and later the development of our splendid system of\npublic schools, music was left in its swaddling clothes. A few attempts to\ninstitute singing societies and the rise of the old-fashioned singing school\nwere the only manifestations of musical Hfe outside the desultory teach-'\ning in a few schools for girls. In Europe, Mendelssohn and Beethoven;\nhere, our first society. Over there, every child brought up on Haydn and\nMozart, French and German opera, and the oratorio; here, our highest\nachievement a W'atts's hymn to Old Hundred, Boylston, or Hamburg, pitched\nwith a tuning-fork, sung waveringly, but none the less devoutly, by our pioneers\nof the great Middle West, often led by the circuit riding preacher, whose\nsuperhuman efforts kept our frontiers from total depravity. In Europe in\nthe middle of the last century, Schubert, Schumann, Chopin, and Liszt; here,\nopening the waterways; building roads; developing commerce; making\nstates; acquiring territory by buying or battle; breaking up great prairies\nand clearing virgin forests; making homes for the millions that came to us;\nbuilding the great railroads, that in time made possible the building of great\ncities. Later our strong, progressive men were conquering the forces of these\nawful mountain fastnesses, bridging the chasms, tunneling the skyward peaks,\nand overleaping every obstacle of plains and mountains, deserts and streams,\nuniting the different portions of this marvelous young empire. God, in his\nwisdom, lined these hills with gold — gold in such abundance that no potentate\never dreamed of such richness. Was there no purpose that this untold wealth\nshould have been placed here and not in the hills of Rome ?— here in this\nnaked, crude, and brutal wilderness instead of in the Alps or the Apennines ?\nHad the fever of '49 not seized upon the chivalry of our land, we might have\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n677\n\nhad more time for culture; but in the working-out of the Divine plan, that was\nthe time for laying the foundations of those great fortunes that should, by\ninvestment in gigantic enterprises, bring us to a position of importance in the\nworld of nations.\nThen came our grief of internal strife and struggle in the Civil War, which,\nwhile the intensity of feeling brought forth heart songs of a noble and lasting\ncharacter, lost for us for another ten years any marked musical activities. It\nis startling to remember that it was not until 1867, that great year of beginning,\nthat we had a music school in this country. In that year Tourjee founded\nthe New England Conservatory, Eichberg, the Boston Conservatory, Ziegfeld,\nthe Chicago College of Music, and Miss Baer, the Cincinnati Conservatory,\nwhile Europe was reveling in the piano-playing of Liszt, Rubenstein, Tausig,\nand Von Biilow, going to hear the wonderful epoch-making operas of Wagner,\nand wondering as to the future of young Brahms and Dvorak and Grieg.\nWith this picture before us, why should we blush because we have not\nyet produced a great composer or because we have not opera in every large\ncity, nor so many orchestras, nor perhaps so great a galaxy of virtuosi. Rather\nought we to take courage and increase our faith. What wonders have been\nwrought in this miracle land of push and power ! In forty years we have\naccomplished what it would have taken, nay, did take, any other nation two\nhundred years to do. In the next ten years, with the present condition of\ngrowth, we shall be competing for, if not usurping, first place. We have\nnow our great orchestras — not enough of them as yet. We have our seasons\nof opera, all too short, and great concerts. Music schools spring up like\nmushrooms, and are doing good work, most of them. Our teachers are\ngaining prestige at home and abroad. Music is on a firm basis in the public\nschools, without doubt doing the most comprehensive work with children\nbeing done anywhere. We are sending the finest voices in the world to the\nworkshops of Europe, and we have only just begun. As good or better teaching isbeing done here as in any place in the world, and vastly more of it. Mr.\nAdolph Weidig writes in the Leader that he finds the work done here much\nsuperior to much being done in the studios of Berlin and Vienna. One writer\nsays there are ten thousand music students in Boston alone, and New York\nand Chicago could probably duplicate or exceed that number. Our Bispham\ntalks of a theater in New York for American composition, or at least opera\nsinging in English. We have yet much to learn from the old world. How\ncan we even hope to have an American music if we do not use what we have ?\nIn France, the children sing mostly the French songs; in Germany, the folk\nsong and chorals; in England, the glees, ballads, and madrigals; in Norway,\nthe songs of the Norseland. Here, our material for school singing has been\nlargely drawn from the German, giving scant attention to the French, the\nItalian, or the representative works of our best composers. We are still\nstumbling like a child learning to walk in the matter of what shall constitute\nthe daily bread of the American child or the child become American.\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nOur Sousa marches or Victor Herbert lilts may not be classic, but they are\nat least distinctly American. Our old plantation songs, according to action\ntaken by the Colored Woman's Federated Clubs the other day, are to be\nrevived and restored, and they too are American. There is a germ of\nbeauty and real Americanism in the better class of our popular songs, and\nwhile the greater portion of them are ephemeral and weak, there still remains\nthe fact that they have caught the swing and go and bustle of American life\nas no other form has done, and this fact must be reckoned with in the future.\nMany of our best composers have done already splendid things — things\nthat will live, songs that breathe of our own soil at its best. Mrs. Gaynor's\nmatchless songs of the child world should be, and are, sung from coast to\ncoast, and so, too, should be the part songs of Gilchrist, Nevin, Loomis,\nChadwick, and a dozen others. Henry Hadley carried off the $1,000 prize for\na symphony the other day at the Grand Rapids meeting of the Federated\nClubs, and Arthur Shepherd $500 for a piano composition and $500 for a song.\nWhat are we doing in colleges and universities ? From a bulletin sent out\nby the Bureau of Education, we learn that in 1907 a list of questions concerning\nmusic was sent out to a number of colleges and universities and schools of music\nin various parts of the country, but mostly in New England. 1,088 replies\nwere received. 112 colleges, normal schools, and universities reported no\nmusic department. Of the 595 schools reporting, there is a wide range of\nwork covered. Some refer only to professional training, some only to orchestra\nand glee-club work, some to extended courses in harmony and counterpoint,\nand still others only the chorus work. As to the granting of credits for entrance\nor in the college course, 123 replies jvere received from leading colleges and\nuniversities. 58 do not maintain music departments. Of the remaining,\n65 give credits for the study of music, either at entrance or during the course,\nleading to a degree, or both. Notably among those who do both are Amherst,\nColumbia, Cornell, Harvard, Oberlin, and Smith. Among those that grant\ncredit toward a degree ar6 the Universities of Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois,\nIowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Wisconsin, Kansas, Idaho, Nebraska,\nOregon, and Oklahoma, and Yale, Vassar, Wellesley, and some other colleges.\nMr. Manchester, the author of the Bulletin, well says that music needs\nthe college atmosphere, the spirit of culture, and the application to its methods\nof the system and orderliness that characterize college work. He might\nhave stated also the converse — that the college needs the music for its culture\nand harmonizing influence. He also remarks that **a well-defined, properly\nregulated development of music education, from its most elementary to its\nhighest grades, does not yet exist.\" There is just where our work lies ready for\nus. We have no uniform gradation in the grades, absolutely none in our\nhigh schools, no connection or relation with the college, and still less, if that\nwere possible, with the conservatory.\nNo statistics are as yet available to give us the number of public schools\nin which music is regularly taught, but the percentage of city and graded\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nschools including music in the curriculum must be, I think, very large. Almost\nevery town has it in the grades, but our weakness is in the absence of any sort\nof proper teaching of music in the high schools and the proper grading of the\nwork. Much of the good work done in the elementary schools has been\nallowed to lapse and lose itself in the jungle of the higher schools. Here we\nfail utterly to co-ordinate our grade work with the courses offered or proposed in our colleges, or with the work of the music school or conservatory.\nWe overlap and leave gaps all along the way. If we could only carry our\nnote-reading thru the eight grades, with proper attention to tone and song\ninterpretation; then four years in high-school work in choruses of the best\norder, short lessons in musical history, elementary harmony, and courses in\nmusic appreciation, by help of the mechanical player, school orchestra, and\nglee clubs, giving an occasional composer's day, and other programs; then\non for four years more in college, completing these courses and adding piano or\nvoice or orchestral instrument, theory, and composition, we might hope to\nachieve some sort of national recognition and perhaps the dream of a national\nschool under the government.\nWhy should we make such a hodge-podge of the whole thing, teaching\ncomposition and interpretation in the primary grades and the elements of\nnotation in the normal school? If we could have music on an accredited\nbasis in every high school, we could send pupils to our normal schools and\nteachers' training schools equipped and letter-perfect in the academic work\nrequired. Then in two years of training in methods of teaching, psychology,\nand child study, we might hope to have in the next generation a supply of grade\nteachers, musical, music-loving, and able to inspire, and instruct, and educate\nthe grade child by means of knowing how to use this powerful lever. As it\nis, the normal schools are struggling along, tr)dng to turn out a finished product\nin the course of ten or twenty weeks with raw material.\nWere it not for the indomitable pluck of the average American girl, who\nsomehow finds herself anyhow, the result would be more dismal than it is.\nAnother serious handicap lies in the fact that so many of our supervisors\nfind it possible to attend, for preparation, only a conservatory or music school\nwithout connection with a literary institution, and so come into the work without sufficient education. Every school engaged in training supervisors should\nhave at least a reciprocal connection with some school or college where literary\nwork might be had, as well as a strong training department in methods of\nteaching public-school music.\nAnother suggestion, which may be pertinent, is that the time has come for\nus school-music people to come out of our shells and meet half-way the advances\n(somewhat tardy, I must admit) of our music profession. The Music Teachers\nNational Association has a very live pubfic-school section, which has done\nmuch research work and work looking toward the better co-ordination of the\nschools with the professional teaching. The National Federation of Woman's\nClubs gave an entire session to public-school music, seeking to know how to help.\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "68o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mas\n\nThe latest manifestation of the increased interest in our work is the placing\nof children's choruses on the great programs of jubilees, etc. The Cincinnati Festival has achieved distinction in this line; Milwaukee this year gave\nPierne's ''Children's Crusade,\" as did also Rochester, N. Y. In New York\nCity only the other day they gave a concert with a chorus of 3,500 grade\nchildren, 1,500 high-school pupils, and Madame Schuman-Heink. Every\nmusic journal and bulletin has programs of concerts given wholly or in part by\nchildren's choruses in almost every state in the Union.\nMusic in America has only just begun. Where or how it shall reach its\nclimax does not yet appear, but the forces at work here will surely produce\nresults in music as in everything else.\nWe are unlike any other nation on earth, made up not of one race, one\nlanguage, or one religion, but a fusion of all the races of the Old World.\nThey have come to us, these millions, from everywhere, bringing with them\ntheir love of liberty, their hatred of oppression, their arts and loves and ambitions, and tumbled them all into the mighty \"melting pot\" of our American\nlife. Who is the present-day American ? A few years ago we would have\nsaid, \"One in whose veins flows the blue blood of the Puritans, or the aristocratic\n'Vans' of New York, or the Cavaliers of the South.\" The great throbbing\nheart of this new world has taken unto itself Irish and Scotch, German and\nRussian, Italian and French, Austrian, Bohemian, Slav, and Norseman —\nall leaving behind the traditional allegiance of the past, and proudly taking a\nstand under the protecting folds of \"Old Glory.\" What then are to be the\ncharacteristics of the American music of the future ? Not any one of these\nnationalities, but a new birth, a new life, a new song, brought forth out of the\nheat and stress, the peace and love, the brotherhood of the great forces here\nin the \"melting pot\" of the world.\nOur composer of the future, and he is coming, many of him, as sure as the\nworld moves, is just as likely to be the child of a Russian Jew or a Pole, fleeing\nfrom oppression to this land of opportunity, or a Bohemian or Slavonian from\nthe slums of New York. One thing only is sure, the music must be American ^\nbreathing out the freedom, the breadth, the strength, power, and sweetness\nof our American life at its best; not the multi-miUionaire few who sometimes\nrepresent us; not the ignorant, uncultured; not the slum element, but the\nclean, honest, fun-loving, self-respecting American. It was necessary at first\nto develop the country, to dig and delve, to shape and mold our government, to\nprepare for the service God has given to this people to do in the evolution of\nthe world ; but now we have stability, and place, and money — too much of it\nin some places — to do the great things in a new creation of art life, of musical\nart. We shall not always be grasping and wholly utilitarian.\nWe school people have the task before us to work out these higher ideals,\na higher conception of living, thru the children in our care. We must ever\nremember that it is our province to educate the whole people, not to do this\nor that thing for bread alone, but to live, to enjoy, to be an honest man or\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "bepartment]\n\nMUSIC\n\nON\n\nAN\n\nACCREDITED\n\nBASIS\n\n68l\n\n[woman, a helpful personality in the community in which we live, not to make\nmusician of this or that child, but to make a nation of music-lovers.\nThe\njeniuses of the future will find themselves only in an atmosphere of universal\nippreciation and love of music, and that can come only thru our efforts to use\nLusic as a great educational force in the development of the race. In no\nfother way can the art life of America be made indigenous to the soil and really\n[effective.\nInto the \"melting pot\" has been poured the art-loving blood of the world.\nIOurs the task to blend the diverse characteristics; to foster the love of all art,\nland musical art in particular; to demand intelligent, educational work everywhere; to rise above petty quibblings; to stand for a broader recognition of\nthe power of music as an educational factor; to do our share in furthering\n[musical activities in every line, and finally to believe in, to love, and to defend\nIthe musical future of our own America.\n\n\\MUSIC ON AN ACCREDITED BASIS IN COLLEGES\nVERSITIES\n[CHARLES\n\nHUBERT EARNS WORTH, ADJUNCT\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nCOLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK\n\nAND\n\nMUSIC,\nCITY\n\nUNI-\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIn the following paper the subject, ''Music on an Accredited Basis in\n[Colleges and Universities,\" will be considered in four main topics. First,\n)me recent statistics as to the granting of credits by colleges, both as to\nentrance and leading to degrees; second, what accrediting means; third,\nrhat accrediting in music should aim to accomplish; fourth, practical sug[gestions.\nWith reference to the first of these, the movement for the recognition of\nmusic in the higher institutions of learning is rapidly growing. The following statistics are taken from an inquiry conducted by Professor McWhood\nof Columbia University, and published February, 1908.\nThere are now sixteen colleges that grant credit for music both at entrance\nand for the degree of A. B. or its equivalent. Three grant entrance credit\nbut no credit toward the degree. Thirty-nine grant credit in music toward\nthe degree but not for entrance. In all fifty-eight colleges, out of one hundred\nand twenty-three that replied to the questions sent to them, recognize music.\nThese figures, as Professor McWhood says, are more significant when the\nfact is considered that one-half the colleges that now grant credit in music\ntoward the degree have adopted this policy within a period of six years, twofifths of them within four years, and the majority of the colleges that now grant\nentrance credit in music have taken this step within a period of three years.\nIf progress has been at the same ratio, figures collected at the present time\nwould be much larger.\nAccording to Professor McWhood' s pamphlet, the colleges that grant\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "682\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ncredit, both at entrance and toward the degree, are: Amherst, Barnard,\nBeloit, College of St. Angela, Colorado, Columbia University, Cornell University, Harvard University, Oberlin, ,Radcliffe, Smith, State College jf Washington, Syracuse University, Tufts, Westminster, and Wilson. Those that\ngive credit toward the degree only are : The Universities of Arkansas, Colorado,\nIdaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri (probably),\nNebraska, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Washington, West Viriginia,\nand Wisconsin, Dartmouth, Mount Holyoke, Northwestern University,\nUniversity of Nashville, Vassar, Wellesley, Yale University. It will be seen\nthat these lists are fairly representative.\nWith the tendency to accredit music growing so rapidly, it would be well\nto consider what accrediting, our second topic, means. To accredit a subject\nreally means that a unit of measurement has been established with reference\nto both the work and its value in relation to the other subjects of the curriculum,\nso that a person unfamiliar with music, hearing that a music course was given\ntwo points' or hours' credit, would have some idea of the work that would be\nrequired. To establish such a unit of work it is not only necessary that the\nsubject should be capable of being measured, but that the conditions under\nwhich the measurement is conducted shall be similar and that tests shall be\ngiven by competent persons.\nThat such a standard of work forms a very valuable part of educational\nmachinery will not be doubted. It proves of great value to subjects that lend\nthemselves to such measurement. It makes it possible for the applicant for\nwork to get recognition for what he has done. It gives an institution whose\ncourses come up to the standard recognized a very attractive asset for seriousminded students. It gives to students an external stimulus over and above the\ninterest of the subject itself. They need but to get a statement from a responsible institution that certain points have been gained to get instant recognition.\nOn the other hand, this effective educational device does not work equally\nwell with all studies. In those subjects requiring reproduction of what has\nbeen learned, whether as in language and history work depending upon pure\nmemory, or in much of the science work where the problems given are to\nreproduce a process of reasoning or a formula already given, one can see that\nthe accrediting system would work fairly satisfactorily. But if, with the\nexternal facts gained, the subject implied the personal reaction toward them,\nrequiring the exercise of taste and judgment and the power to value ethical\nor aesthetic ideals, a serious difficulty enters, for how are such subjects to be\nadequately measured?\nNot on the vulgar mass\nCalled \"work \" must sentence pass,\nThings done, that took the eye and had the price;\nO'er which from level stand,\nThe low world laid its hand\nFound straightway to its mind, could value in a trice:\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nI\n\nMUSIC\n\nON\n\nAN\n\nACCREDITED\n\nBASIS\n\n683\n\nBut all, the world's coarse thumb\nAnd finger failed to plumb,\nSo passed in making up the main account.\nThoughts hardly to be packed\nInto a narrow act.\nFancies that broke through language and escaped.\n\nWhat has happened to the subject of English literature with reference to\ncollege entrance is a good illustration of this point. What the framers of the\nrequirement wished was a genuine appreciation of literature. This means an\naesthetic approach. What the requirement actually turns out to be, under\nthe necessity of standardization implying measurement, is the science of\nliterature, the history of literature, the archaeology of literature, in fact, everything except the thing really wanted — that appreciation of hterature that\nmeans love and admiration.\n\nKeeping in mind that accrediting is an extremely valuable piece of educational machinery, and at the same time that it does not work equally well for all\nsubjects, let us consider the third topic: what accrediting in music should\naim to accomplish.\nThere can be httle doubt that the kind of activity that is stimulated in our\ncolleges develops a purely intellectual approach, that of cause and effect,\nrather than the approach which is based on feeling and which manifests itself\nas like or disHke, that is, taste or preference with reference to the conditions\nof our environment, and which covers such spheres of human activity as lie\nunder the domain of ethics and aesthetics. It is true that in ethics and aesthetics we constantly give reasons for our likes and dislikes, but close observation\nsoon shows, wherever the ethical or aesthetic reaction is genuine, that the\nreason is the fruit of the feeling rather than the feeling the product of the\nreason. Man is an animal so pleased with his new accquirement of reason\nthat he is inclined to give it credit for all that he does, rather than to admit\nthat he does anything for which he cannot give a reason.\nIf this is a true picture of the trend of college work, it would seem that a\nwell-rounded system of education would demand that aesthetic subjects\nshould emphasize pre-eminently the feeling approach to the beautiful. That\nis to say, we should consider the beautiful primarily with reference to like\nor dislike, not from its psychological, scientific, archaeological, or even historical\naspects. We should give genuine experience of the beautiful preference over\ncomment or study about it. It is obvious that knowledge and skill both to\nstimulate and sustain such feeling is necessary, but these should be treated\nas means rather than as ends in themselves, as they very justly might in a\ntechnical school training for professional work.\nLet me preface the last topic, ''Some Practical Suggestions,\" by facts\nshowing the kind of music study colleges at present prefer.\nIn the pamphlet from which I have already quoted there is a grouping of\ninstitutions according to the subjects in which musical credit is given.\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Music\nNumber of Institutions\nAllowing Credit\n\n47\n\nBranches in Which Credit is Allowed\nAt Entrance\n\nMusical Appreciation (including History of Music)\nHarmony\nComposition (including Form, etc.)\nPractical Music (Performance)\n\n..\n\nToward the\nDegree\n\ni89\nlO\n\n9\no\n\n33\ni8\n\nIf we add together the subjects implying the study of the grammar of music,\nwe get a total of 98 toward the degree and 27 for entrance, while appreciation,\nincluding history, has but 42 toward the degree and 9 for entrance.\nIt will be seen that there is a decided preference for the bookish work\nwhich is capable of being handled along lines with which college authorities\nare familiar. It is\" natural that this should be so, not merely because the\ngrammar of music lends itself to measurement, but also because of college\ntraditions.\nStill, use of the accrediting system for work whose importance is in the\nethical or aesthetic bearing of the studies is already familiar to the college\nworld. Many of the so-called \"snap\" courses at our great universtites are\na recognition of the fact that while the value that was to be obtained from the\nsubject could not be measured by examination papers, it was still worth while\nto have it offered because of the subtle influence of the subject, or the man,\nor generally of both combined. This means that while the measuring side\nof the accrediting system breaks down with reference to these studies, the\nbenefit of the accrediting system in giving value to the work and recognition\nand a standing is worth while, even tho many of the students are unable to get\nthis cultural benefit and can easily abuse the privilege which gives rise to the\nterm \"snap\" course.\nBesides non-musical courses, there is plenty of precedence among institutions of good standing in connection with musical courses. In the reply from\nAmherst we fmd that for four semesters' work for chorus and orchestra,\none semester credit is given, and that out of 450 or 500 students, from 70 to\n80 avail themselves of the privilege. This means that the institution is willing\nto grant its credit for work, not because it lends itself to exact measurement\nof ordinary credit work, but because the work itself is valuable and needs the\nencouragement and stimulation that the credit system gives it. Leaders of\ncollege choruses and orchestras know what this means with reference to the\nwork done. The purely voluntary organizations start out very well at the\nfirst of the year, but as soon as the pressure of work commences their ranks\nbecome decimated.\nAnother difficulty is that, in order to make the work attractive, compositions\nthat will attract audiences have to be studied. They have to be learned for\npublic performance.\nWhile this is an excellent incentive and some of it\n\n42\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nON\n\nAN\n\nACCREDITED\n\nBASIS\n\n685\n\nshould be done, the really musical value of the exercise would be greatly\nheightened if, instead of depending on what we might call ''gate-receipts\"\nfor sufficient attraction to keep students in organizations, the conductor could\noffer a certain amount of credit, could drop students who did not attend regularly, could give low marks to those who did not do good work. He would\nbe free then not only from constantly preparing work for exhibition, but\nto try works which are of value to the students from the side of the literature,\nbut which either from their nature or from the conditions under which they\nare being studied ought not to be attempted in public. Thus the accrediting\nsystem would free the leader and give him opportunity to utilize the music\nthat would be of highest value toward developing musical appreciation in the\nstudents. The work should require at least two meetings a week and should\nbe followed up with such serious earnestness that real acquaintance with the\nmasterpieces would be possible. When done in this way, the lack of all the\ninstruments for orchestral organization, or the complete balancing of choruses\ndoes not become so vital as when the only incentive that keeps the organization together is a public performance. With such actual contact with music\nthere must necessarily be considerable literary work in the line of history and\nbiography and the nature of the forms studied. Such work will take its\nsignificance entirely from the practical work in music-making. The conditions\nfor entering organizations should be sufficient talent and knowledge along the\nlines of voice or instrument to be of value to the organization. One who has\nconducted such organizations realizes how low this may be for the individual\nand yet be of worth to the organization, if faithful attendance and serious\napplication can be secured.\nSo much for music-making thru organization. Credit should also be\ngiven for individual music-making, whether with voice or instrument, if what\nis done is really interpretative and not merely the development of technique.\nOne does not need to be an advanced player or singer to give an artistic expression to a simple song or piano number. A certain modicum of technical\n'knowledge is essential. With this, if the student is ready to take pieces well\nwithin his technical capacity (instead of learning a few for some concert\nperformances), and to be guided by his teacher thru a sufficiently broad\nselection of numbers, so that he can get some notion of the style of the composer,\nthe nature of the form, the poetry in the works, he is certainly getting valuable\naesthetic experience and should be entitled to credit. I fully realize that there\nare not many instrumental teachers in connection with our colleges that\nI would be willing to do such work. The force of the modern tendency to\nexhibit virtuosity tends to overemphasize the playing of difficult pieces and to\nlose sight of true interpretation of works that are fairly easy to perform, but\nwhich make a serious demand upon poetic interpretation.\nFrom the point of view of musical cultivation, the work done in actual\nlusic-making, whether collectively or individually, is of greater value than\nIwhen the music is made for the individual, yet the ingenuity of the modern\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ninventor has placed at the disposal of those who cannot play or sing the possibility of reproducing the work of others in a way that opens up a very wide field\nfor aesthetic cultivation. Harvard has a room with a player-piano and organ\nwhere students can get direct acquaintance with musical works. There is no\ndoubt that a very large percentage of students can by this means carry on\nvaluable music study from the point of view of developing taste and love for\nthe subject. What was said in connection with the collective study of music\nin reference to its history, biography, and form is just as applicable to the\nindividual interpretative work or the work done by instruments. In fact,\nwhile making and listening to music is the way to cultivate it, we can hardly\nrecognize such work in a college institution unless it is accompanied by the\nknowledge about music that can be obtained from books and lectures. I\ntake it for granted that courses in the grammar of music will be recognized.\nThey should be limited to exceptional students who have talent sufficient to\nutilize the knowledge they get and they should have the credit that they deserve.\nSuch courses do not offer the problem that we have to meet. They do not\nsupply the real musical nourishment that the bulk of the students require,\nnor are they difficult to accredit. The emphasis I am making is for those\ncourses that will be of real value musically to the majority of the students,\nand which are at the same time difficult to fit into the accrediting system of\nour colleges. The courses I am advocating are much more vital to the real\nmusical cultivation of the community and need the serious consideration of\nthose who manage college affairs as well as those who do the teaching. The\naccrediting of this practical work on the basis of laboratory work, with the\nincidental outside reading, does not seem unjust if the college authorities\ncould be brought to see it in the light of its real value to the student, the institution, and the community, and if music teachers could conduct the work not\nfrom a technical point of view, but putting the emphasis on interpretative\nthought. Under these conditions the musical life of the colleges could be\ngreatly increased and the benefit to the community and the individual extended\nway beyond the present narrow limits.\nTo sum up, owing to the great value of aesthetic study in our educational\nsystem and because music among all the arts is the best fitted to supply the\ntrue feeling approach to the subject, it is worth while for colleges, in order\nto stimulate wider musical experience, to grant the benefit of college credits to\ncourses in music that would bring the student into vital connection with the\nsubject itself, whether this be in collective organizations, such as choruses\nand orchestras, or individually with voice or instnmient, or done by mechanical\nmeans for producing music. But while in these courses the emphasis is\nplaced on the hearing of music, they should be accompanied by literary study\nthat shall give the utmost significance to what is heard. In brief, my position\nis, that instead of emphasizing the grammatic and literary subjects as is now\ndone and recognizing music-hearing only as an accessory to these, I would\nreverse the whole process and emphasize music-hearing, putting the literary\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nMUSIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n687\n\nwork as accessory in leading to and interpreting what is heard, bearing in\nmind at the same time that this whole discussion is for the general cultivation\nof music, and not the technical cultivation, whether in composition or performance of the professional student.\nMODERN\nWILL\n\nGRANT\n\nCHAMBERS,\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\nPROFESSOR\n\nAND\n\nMUSIC\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nBURGH, PITTSBURG, PA.\n\nSTUDY\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nPITTS-\n\nThis paper claims no special authority in its field. It is an attempt to\nput in writing some rambling suggestions made more than a year ago before\nthe Music Section of the Colorado State Teachers' Association. In its preparation no experiments have been performed and no authorities consulted. It\nexploits no single system of music instruction and represents no psychological\ncult. The psychological defects which it aims to criticize and correct were\nobservations made in various schools thru several years, and it has seemed\nimpossible to organize its content in any consistent logical form. Furthermore, itrepresents the opinions of an educator interested in music, rather than\na musician interested in education; and wherever the technical interests of\nmusic and education seem to conflict, support is invariably given the latter.\nMusic holds its place in the school curriculum not primarily for the sake of\nmusic but for the sake of education.\nMusic's first service to education is its broadening of the sensory life and its\nmaking available a greater supply of the raw material of thought. The 50,000\npossible sensations referable to the stimulation of a dozen or more groups of\nsense organs, and the consequent reactions of corresponding brain centers\nmust be thought of as the ultimate material of all human experience. Other\nthings equal, the individual who is responsive to the largest number of visual\nsensations will have the richest experience, and the statement is even more\ntrue of auditory sensations. What nature study and art and construction\naccomphsh in the development of visual perception, music should accomplish\nin the auditory field. The greater the number of the tones distinguishable\nby the human ear an individual is responsive to, the greater are the probabilities\nof his correctly perceiving and interpreting the world in which he lives. This\nis by no means an insignificant service of music to education.\nFor present purposes I distinguish three significant elements in music:\n(i) tone; (2) rhythm^; (3) meaning — ^including both the images and the\nfeelings aroused.\nThe value of pure tone in the life of childhood has, I feel sure, been too\nmuch overlooked. Children love tones for their own sake. Recall the evident\nsatisfaction of the infant droning his monotone in the cradle, the incessant\nbird calls and cat calls and imitations of the calliope from a group of boys,\nthe enthusiasm of all children for drums and whistles and horns.\nThese are\n' Genetically, I should put rhythm first.\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nbut signs of the intense tone-hunger which possesses every normal boy and\ngirl. And yet much of our music instruction wholly ignores this love of tones\nand depends on the wholly unnecessary association of words with tones for\ninterest in the work. In many cases pupils' attention is attracted to the words\nand away from the tones and their relations, thus defeating the very purpose\naimed at by early training in music. Many people have reached maturity\nwithout having developed an interest in any kind of music but vocal music,\nsimply because, in the initial stages of their training, attention was given wholly\nto the words, and the song became simply a means of telling a story. This\nis especially unfortunate since the story interest is naturally strong and needs\nno such reinforcement. I do not mean to say that there should be no singing\nof songs by young children — there should be a great deal of it— but my plea\nis for a great deal more attention to tones and their relations, for their own\nsake.\nMusicians all realize the genetic antecedence of melody to harmony; single\ntones arranged in series precede simultaneous groupings of tones. This is\ndue, of course, to the fact that in mental development successive association\ncomes before simultaneous association. Primitive music is largely monotone,\nand at best a serial arrangement of a few easily distinguished tones. I conclude, therefore, that the vocal training of little children should include, at\nfirst, but few tones, and these with large rather than small intervals, that is,\nI, 3, 5, rather than i, 2, 3. As the development of the eye makes possible\nthe distinguishing of spectral colors before shades and tints of the same color,\nso the development of the auditory function brings about a sensitivity to\nlarge intervals before small ones are felt. Indeed all learning proceeds by\nsuccessive fluctuations between ever-narrowing limits. Chords and accompaniments are to be avoided, because with the child's limited range of attention\nand limited ability to analyze, they obscure for him the important factor and\ntend to disperse rather than focalize his mental content.\nIn rhythm, too, we have one of the most fundamental facts of consciousness.\nBut rhythm is subject to the law of all motor development, that is, that control\nproceeds from fundamental to accessory movements, from central to peripheral\nmuscles. The rhythms to which small children respond with vigor are simple\nand well accented. The more complex rhythms involve a t3^e of reaction\nentirely too highly specialized for motor control of primary pupils. But this\nprinciple is frequently overlooked in public-school music. Many children's\nsongs involve a complexity of rhythm which is much beyond their ability to\nfeel. Reference has already been made to the few tones of primitive music;\nit will also be recalled that savage music, as well as the dance, as a rule, is\nmarked by simple rhythm and vigorous accent. Personally I favor much\nactivity in connection with early music training. The pulses of the music\nshould be felt thruout the entire organism and should be expressed by a\nvigourous motor response.\nWhat I^have designated as meaning, the third of the significant elements\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nMUSIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n689\n\nin music, arises when tone and rhythm become associated, thru word or action,\nwith definite images. If a child has been properly trained in the appreciation\n)f and response to tone and rhythm, the transition to meaning is natural and\n■ easy. A percept, or any other mental fusion, is more than the sum of its\nconstituent sensations. Its meaning depends on the total organic response\nto it as a stimulus; and while this response is different from the sum-total of\nthe instinctive responses of its constituent sensations, it could not have been\ndeveloped but for them. All developed reactions are built upon native instincts.\nThe consciousness accompanying instinctive reactions is vague and dispersed —\na mass of feeling almost, if not wholly, devoid of imagery. This mass of\nfeeling, the echoings of racial experience, as it were, is organized into the\nimages, the meanings, the specific values of individual experience by the\nbuilding of specific reactions out of the native instinctive adjustments. And\nit is thus that the intelligent meaning of music takes form out of the sensuous\npleasantness of tone and rhythm, provided the process is not hastened and\naborted by the too early and undue use of word and story. With the instinctive\nenjoyment of tone and rhythm killed or atrophied, a song can never mean more\nthan the mere story expressed by its words, and instnmiental music can have\nneither meaning nor enjoyment.\nThis intimate interdependence of motor and mental differentiation also\nhas a bearing on the relationship existing between tonal expression and tonal\ndiscrimination. Psychologists assure us that a trained ear can distinguish\nmore than 11,000 different pitches, yet all our music is written by the use of\nabout 90 of these, and the extreme range of vocal music includes less than\nhalf of these 90. The limited range of the human vocal apparatus for the\nexpression of tones correspondingly limits the field of accurate discrimination\nand appreciation of tones and their combinations. Were it not for the fact\nthat pitches beyond the range of one's voice are subjectively represented to him\nby the kinesthetic sensations due to the vocal production of the corresponding\ntone in a lower or a higher octave, all instrumental music would necessarily\nbe limited to the range of vocal music. Ability in the discrimination of tones\nis measured by ability in the expression of those tones. This impHes, does\nit not, not only that the vocal instruction of children should be limited to the\nfew tones which fall easily within the range of their voices, and of sufficiently\ngreat intervals to be easily produced and distinguished by them, but also that\nall music presented for their enjoyment and cultivation should be somewhat\nlimited in range by the same considerations. If sustained pitches beyond the\nrange of his voice are painful to the adult hearer, their use cannot be very\neducative to the immature child. There is real need for more careful investigations ofthe natural range of the voices of boys and girls of all ages, and for\nthe systematic rewriting of all children's music in the light of these conclusions.\nThe ''music area,\" if I may so designate it, in the human cortex, is probably\neither a part of the speech zone, or occupies a highly specialized area adjacent\nto the speech zone.\nMusic, like speech, is an expressive function, and its\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nnonnal activity involves all the cortical centers involved in the processes of\nspeech. The speech zone includes the hand-motor center, the speech-motor\ncenter, the auditory center, and the visual center, all connected with one another\nand with other cortical centers thru systems of neurones of the most bewilder*\ning complexity. The use of the speech-motor and auditory centers in oral\nspeech is obvious. The hand has always been, thru sign and gesture, a most\ntrusted organ of expression, and thru drawing and writing it maintains its\nimportant place in persons of culture. When one is involved in a difficulty\nof expression, as in talking to a foreigner or amid loud noises, he invariably\nresorts to gesture as the universal language. The eye gained its place in the\nspeech apparatus originally thru its perception of facial expression, bodily\nattitude, and gesture; but in higher development it retains its place thru the\nreading of conventional symbols. The higher uses of hand and eye in writing\nand reading become a part of the speech function late in development.\nThere is no reason to doubt that this description applies equally well to\nthe development of the music area and function. When hand and eye\ncenters first co-operate with the speech-motor and auditory centers in\nthe special work of the music area, it must be in their lower rather than\ntheir higher function — that is to say, in the making and interpreting of related\ngestures or manual signs. Those, therefore, who favor the use of manual\nsigns in elementary music instruction have a psychological justification, in\naddition to the many practical advantages. I feel sure that the use of manual\nsigns of some sort in singing is a, if not the, natural transition to the writing\nand reading of music by means of conventional written symbols. The mind,\nthru the eye, has been accustomed to follow and interpret the doings of the\nhand so long that it is ready with instant recognition for every change. It is\ncommon knowledge that a monotone can sometimes be made to distinguish\nand produce different tones which at first seemed the same, by associating\nthem with different manual signs or other motor adjustments. When their\nsymbols are seen to be different the tones are more easily heard as different.\nI understand this to mean that the conventional writing and reading of music\ndo not belong naturally in the early years of instruction.\nAnd much the same conclusion may be stated as to technic in general.\nIn spite of years of agitation in educational circles over the necessity of giving\nattention to content before form, of grasping the reality before attempting a\ndefinition, of doing the thing before talking about it, I drop into a music class\nand find intermediate-grade children defining andante, staccato, pianissimo,\nsignature, allegro, cum expressione, etc., without a vestige of real content for\nany of the terms; and if, perchance, a little singing is permitted, the pupils\nfollow the score with eyes alert for these danger signals along the route, reminding one of the old-fashioned teaching of elocution, where the appropriate\ngestures were accommodatingly indicated in the margin. The idea of controlling expression thru content seems unthought of, and it is well, perhaps,\nconsidering the barrenness of content.\nToo often, formal instruction of this\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nTERMINOLOGY\n\n69\n\ntechnical kind has destroyed whatever of inner response the children naturally\ngave. The soul of music has been sacrificed to the dissection of the body.\nAnd yet, music is a subject which is especially adapted to laboratory\nmethods of instruction. It makes a strong instinctive appeal and is especially\nrich in sensory content and rhythmic response. It requires no labored correlations to give it interest. Why, then, should a teacher barter such a birthright for such a miserable mess of pottage as drill on symbols and signs, on\ndefinitions and rules, when experience is lacking to give them any real meaning ? Why should not the grammar of music grow out of its practice as the\ngrammar of speech grows out of its use ?\nFinally, just a word regarding the development of appreciation of music.\nThere are many pupils who may not reasonably be expected to become good\nmusicians, but there are few indeed who may not become lovers of good music.\nAnd I am by no means sure that this is not, after all, the chief justification for\nmusic teaching. The principle of apperception is fundamental here. Provision should be made for an abundance of music, both vocal and instrumental,\nin all our schools. This music should be the best obtainable, tho I am not\none of those who believe that no music is better than poor music. As a rule,\nmusic should be carefully selected, as much with reference to range of the\nchildren's voices as that of the singer, and with reference also to the rhythm\nand the content which will call out a quick and strong response from the\nchildren. If we are to provide for the development of the sentiments, as well\nas of intellect and motor skill, there is no more certain method than providing\nan environment rich in music and song.\nREPORT\nCHARLES\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nI. RICE, DIRECTOR\n\nON\n\nTERMINOLOGY\n\nOF MUSIC, WORCESTER,\n\nMASS., CHAIRMAN\n\nThe Department of Music Education of the National Education Association labors under some disadvantages in taking up any line of work and pushing it from year to year.\nOur meetings are nearly always well attended, but if we count the individual\nmembers who consistently follow the annual meetings of this section we shall\nfind that their number is small in comparison to the whole. In one view of\nthe matter, this may be regarded as not entirely unfavorable. A little leaven\nscattered here and there leavens the whole lump, and we are justified in believing that from each meeting-place, widely scattered as they all are from year\nto year, something of inspiration goes out as a permanent uplift to the whole\nneighborhood round about. Thus, instead of an intensive influence covering the subject encyclopedically and possibly not reaching very far geographically, we scatter each year a little good seed over an area quite remote, it may be,\nfrom the field of the previous year's sowing.\nThese conditions require me, as Chairman of the Committee on Terminology Reform, to preface consideration of the Report which you hold in your\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nhand by a brief statement of the history of the movement so far as the National\nEducation Association is concerned, that you may be made aware of the\nstatus of the matter today.\nIn 1906 the President of this Department, Hamlin E. Cogswell, appointed\na committee of five to inquire into the subject of needed changes in the terminology ofmusic, and requested that a report be made at the 1907 meeting at\nLos. Angeles. This committee was made up with reference to getting as\ncomprehensive a view of the subject as possible.\nThe professor of music at Tufts College, the trainer of teachers for publicschool music in the University of Illinois, and three supervisors of music,\neach laboring under totally different conditions, were named as the Committee\non Terminology Reform.\nThe committee reported at Los Angeles, presenting twelve very simple\nrecommendations and establishing a platform which declared that reform\nand not revolution was to be the aim. These recommendations were all\nadopted and the committee was continued until the Cleveland meeting, where\nit presented a list of recommendations in printed form. Time was lacking\nfor full consideration, and the vote of the Music Section on the matter heads\nthe list which you hold in your hands.\nA realization of the undesirability of some of our terms is no new thing.\nDr. Callcott in his Musical Grammar, published over one hundred years ago,\nsuggested one change which appeared in our 1907 list, and strong, honest\nmen there have been all along the way, who, on getting a clearer view, were\nnot afraid to say they had been wrong.\nSuch a man was Dr. Lowell Mason who died at the age of eighty, and\nwhose publications cover a period of nearly fifty years. His Boston Academy\nof Vocal Music, published in 1834, which ran thru many editions, was filled\nwith the same loose statements that prevail today. In his subsequent books\nhe continued up to 1864 to follow the old path, but in the latter year, after\nhaving been continuously on record for more than forty years, he copyrighted\na little book for use in public schools in which he prefaces a list of his former\nerrors with these words: ''In some of the earlier publications of the editor\nit is stated,\" etc. In taking this stand he demonstrated that he was not of\nthat class which Emerson was considering when he said \"A foolish consistency\nis the hobgoblin of little minds.\"\nMy opportunities for feeling the terminology pulse of the Middle West\nhave been somewhat limited, but it would seem that the excellent influence\nwhich radiated from Dr. George F. Root, of Chicago, should have done much\nfor that section.\nIn the case of both Mason and Root, the awakening came in the evening\nof life, and their younger contemporaries lacked perception to see the differences which were so clear to them. If they could have received their\nlight twenty years earlier their influence would have counted for much more.\nWhat the Pacific Coast thinks of terminology reform is shown by the\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "jDepartment]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nTERMINOLOGY\n\n693\n\nadoption at Los Angeles of the recommendations of the committee, and I\n'want to say to you that in New England and New York the attitude toward\nthis subject has undergone a most radical change in the last ten years.\nThere is in the East an organization called the Eastern Educational Conference which is of the greatest benefit to our musical interests. It is composed\n>f the members of the music departments of all the colleges in New England,\nTew York State, and vicinity, and meetings have been held at least annually\nfor the last four or five years. The college men invite representatives from\nthe secondary schools, and much helpful discussion takes place.\nAt the last\n[meeting, some two months ago, the subject of terminology appeared on the\nprinted list and the discussion proceeded in a manner which showed that\nthose present regarded the subject as worthy of respectful consideration. I\nthink I am safe in saying that ten years ago such a subject would have received\nno consideration whatever from a body of college men.\nThe association of teachers in the Middle West, which met first at Keokuk\n,and whose meeting last May was held at Indianapolis, is composed of supervisors and directors of music of the genuine wide-awake sort, who may be\n' trusted to forward any work which is worthy the consideration of people alive\nto present-day needs.\nIn closing my preliminary talk and before throwing\nIthe report open for discussion, I want to speak of another organization, the\nMusic Teachers National Association, which is doing a fine work and issuing\nits annual proceedings in a dignified and well-printed volume which can be\nbought from the secretary of the association.\nIn its roster of members are the names of several people that I see today.\nThe next meeting of this association is at the Northwestern University, Evans^ton, 111., and I hope it will be the occasion of a large increase in membership.\n[The latest available membership list shows members from 38 states and the\nDistrict of Columbia. The Middle States lead with 143, followed by the\nCentral States with 121 ; New England, 80; Southern, 40; Western, 35. New\nYork State leads with 71 to its credit, while my own state (Massachusetts)\nranks second with 57.\nAt the last meeting of the M. T. N. A. held at Washington, D. C, the\nPresident, Waldo S. Pratt, made an address on the subject of \"System and\nPrecision in Musical Speech,\" which, as its title indicates, bears directly on\nthe subject we are considering. Professor Pratt is a man of liberal education,\nsound scholarship, and is well versed in the laws of language. Of the Music\nTeachers National Association which, as compared with ours, is very stable\nin its membership, he says: \"Our energies are not consistently focused or\ncontinuously maintained.\" Also, \"The time will surely come when this\nassociation, if it is to hold its leadership and fulfill its office, will again attempt\nto put on record some ideas in this field. For progress, to be worth while,\nmust be collective.\" On the nature of the general subject of terminology\nhe says: \"It is not so much one of action as of thought.\"\nI think he means by this that more and more the trained voice must be\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Musk\n\nsupplemented by the trained intellect, and the trained hand by the educated\nbrain if the vocalist or pianist is to be a teacher of the desirable sort, for he\nsays: \"The choice of words and their precise application to thought are\nresponsibilities that pursue every one of us thruout the hours of every professional day. No teacher can escape their pressure. But let us remember \" —\nand right here is the point — \"let us remember that these responsibilities cannot\nbe met out of what we call 'temperament' or out of executive dexterity. Terminology belongs on the scientific side of musical culture and demands scholarship.\"\nThe present needs of the cause of terminology reform may be summed up\nas follows: Men, strong and resourceful, in the prime of their sledge-hammerswinging days, and women, quiet and conciliatory, but convincing, whose life\nexpectancy will enable them to give probable years of attention to the task\nof getting into general use a terminology which shall be true to fact and true\nto usage.\nThe first portion of the report was printed that you may know exactly\nwhat was passed at Los Angeles, and the second part beginning \"Concerning\nthe 1908 Report,\" etc., contains the material we are to consider this afternoon.\nTHE\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON TERMINOLOGY AS VOTED\nDENVER\nMEETING\n\nUPON\n\nAND\n\nADOPTED\n\nAT THE\n\nla. The staff is a character composed of five horizontal lines and their spaces.\n16. The lines are named from the lowest upward: ist, 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th; the spaces:\nspace below, ist, 2d, 3d, 4th, space above.\n2a. The G clef causes the second line of the staff to represent the pitch g.\n2h. The F clef causes the fourth line of the staff to represent the pitch/.\n3a. A line or space (clef understood) represents a certain pitch; a sharp on a line\nor space causes it to represent a pitch one ha If-step higher.\n36. A flat on a line or space causes it to represent a pitch one ha If-step lower.\n3c. The double-sharp is a character which causes a staff degree to represent a pitch\ntwo chromatic half-steps higher.\n2)d. The double-flat is a character which causes a staff degree to represent a pitch two\nchromatic half-steps lower.\n4a. With two sharps in the signature, treble staff, the fifth line and third space, and\nall octaves of these degrees are sharped.\n4&. With one flat in the signature, treble staff, the third line and all octaves of this\ndegree are flatted.\n4<;. In the key of B major, sharp-two is represented by double-sharping the C-degree.\n4^. In the key of D-flat major, flat-six is represented by double-flatting the B -degree.\n5a. The right-hand sharp in the signature is on the staff degree that represents seven\nof the major scale.\n56. The right-hand flat in the signature is on the staff degree that represents four of\nthe major scale.\n6a. When a staff degree is sharped in the signature or elsewhere, it may be made to\nrepresent a pitch one half-step higher by the use of a double-sharp.\n66. The pitch g is represented by the second line of the treble staff.\n6c. Staff degrees (clef understood) represent pitch.\n6d. Notes are characters representing duration; when placed on staff degrees they J\nindicate pitch.\n7. Place a quarter-note on the fourth line.\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUR\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSONGS\n\n695\n\n8. (Not accepted.)\n9. The march was written in 4-4 measure, or four-quarter measure.\n10. All notes of less value than quarter-notes are distinguished from one another by\nthe different number of strokes upon their stems.\n11. Brace is recommended.\nExample: Sing the third measure of the first brace.\n12a. Major and minor keys having the same signature should be called relative major\nand minor.\n1 26, Major and minor keys having the same tonic but different signatures should be\ncalled tonic major and minor.\n13. Not discussed.\n14. Not discussed.\nm\n15. Not discussed.\n16. There is a rest on the last beat of this measure.\nCharles I. Rice, Chairman\nConstance B. Smith\nLeo R. Lewis\nWilliam B. Kinnear\nP. C. Hayden\nCommittee\n\nOUR NATIONAL\nELMER\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nBROWN,\n\nSONGS\n\nUNITED\nSTATES\nCOMMISSIONER\nWASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nI think there is no singing of our national songs which impresses one more\ndeeply than that which one hears in the schools made up of children who\nhave recently come to America. When our immigrant children, to whose fathers\nAmerica has meant liberty and hope and a new world, come to sing those songs\nwhich we regard as the special possession of true-born Americans, there is a\nspirit and a pathos in their singing which is indescribable. It would be a gain\nfor all of our people if we might have our national songs as well sung all over\nthe land as they are sung in some of those schools of foreign-bom children in\nour great seaboard cities.\nIt is difficult to make any definite suggestions as to ways by which this\nresult may be accomplished. It has occurred to me that a series of those\nsongs which should be a universal possession might be arranged by some\nsuch body as this department, with a view to having one or more of them\ndesignated each year to be learned and sung by the children in all our public\nschools. If such a series could be devised, to run over a term of three or four\nyears and then begin again, we might have attention directed to this matter in\na way that would produce desirable results.\nBefore such a plan could be worked out successfully, it would be necessary\nto agree upon the arrangement and the text of the songs selected. The members of this department are undoubtedly familiar with the various efforts\nwhich have been made to secure the adoption of a uniform text and score. The\ncorrespondence which Miss Shawe of St. Paul, Minn., had with President\nRoosevelt upon this subject is doubtless well known.\n\nWhen Miss Shawe's\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "696\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ninquiry was submitted by President Roosevelt to the Librarian of Congress,\nit brought forth an interesting reply, which dealt, however, almost exclusively\nwith the text of the songs in question. The Bureau of Education was also\nconsulted upon this subject. The only reply that could be made from that\noffice was that it had no provision by which it could contribute to a determination ofthe standard as regards either text or arrangement, but that if a\nstandard could be agreed upon the Bureau would be able to assist in the movement by the publication of such standardized songs in the form of a bulletin.\nIt is generally agreed that only Congress or the President could determine a\nstandard which should be accepted as authoritative beyond peradventure.\nIt is, of course, necessary that a standard should be accepted as authoritative\nby the army and navy on the one hand and by the schools and musical societies\non the other. As preliminary to the determination of such a standard, it would\nbe a very important step if the leading organizations for the teaching of music\nthruout the country could agree among themselves upon a standard of their\nown, which should be offered as a contribution toward the determination of an\nofficial standard. It would seem desirable to this end that there should be\nco-operation between this department and the Music Teachers' National\nAssociation and other similar bodies of national scope and influence.\nAs having some possible interest to this department, I am submitting herewith abrief list of references concerning our national songs which has been\nprepared in the Library of the Bureau of Education. If it is thought that such\na list will be serviceable, it may be published as an appendage to this brief\npaper of mine.\nNATIONAL\n\nSONGS\n\nBanks, Rev. Louis Albert.\nImmortal Songs of Camp and Field.\nThe story of their\ninspiration together with striking anecdotes connected with their history.\nCleveland,\nOhio: The Burrows Brothers Co., 1899.\n294 pp., portrs., illus., 8vo.\nBrinton, Howard Futhey.\nPatriotic Songs of the American People.\nNew Haven:\nThe Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor Co., 1900.\n11 1 pp., i2mo.\nBrown, James Duff (editor).\nCharacterictic Songs and Dances of All Nations; with\nhistorical notes and a bibliography;\nmusic arranged for the pianoforte by Alfred\nMoffat.\nNew York; Scribner (1902), iv, 276 pp., 4to.\nKoBBE, Gustav.\nFamous American Songs.\nNew York: Thomas P. Crowell & Co.\n(1906), xviii, 169 pp., portrs., illus., 8vo.\nSmith, Col. Nicholas.\nStories of Great National Songs.\nMilwaukee, Wis. (etc.):\nThe Young Churchman Co. (1899), 238 pp., portrs., illus., 12 mo.\nSousA, John Philip (Bandmaster, U. S. M. C).\nNational, Patriotic, and Typical Airs of\nAll Lands, with copious notes.\nBy authority (U. S. Navy Department.\nU. S. Marine\nCorps).\nPhiladelphia: H. Coleman (1890) 283 pp., 4to.\n\nMUSIC\n\nON\n\nJOHN R. KIRK, PRESIDENT\n\nAN\n\nACCREDITED\n\nOF STATE NORMAL\n\nBASIS\n\nSCHOOL, KIRKS VILLE, MO.\n\nThe advancement of music education seems easy enough provided it be\ngiven rational treatment. The doctrine of this paper is that music education\nin all grades of schools and colleges should be upon a common basis with other\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nON\n\nACCREDITED\n\nBASIS\n\n697\n\nschool and college studies. Music should be recognized as a study, a sub^stantial study, not a mere drill or easy subject to be mastered by repetition.\nTnder proper treatment music should be accredited as a major subject of\n'equal value with other academic subjects, such as language, history, science,\nliterature, and mathematics.\nMusic education should cost no more and no less than education in any\nother subject. Those persons who are permitted to teach music should have\n,a sound general academic education, the same as people who teach other\nfSchool and college subjects. It seems ridiculous that we furnish free, in the\npublic schools, normal schools, and universities, the best possible education in\nLatin, Greek, agriculture, domestic science, etc., while requiring ambitious\nand talented young people to go aside and pay large fees in order to get, thru\nspecial conservatories, the education in music which their natures require.\nI use language advisedly. It is ridiculous that music education should be\nmade to cost more than other education. It is unfair to music. It is unfair\nto music teachers. It is unfair to thousands of good students of music. It\n4s unfair to the schools at large that we drive music into isolation. All the\nschools need the concentrated mass effect and the unparalleled stimulus of\nmusic intelligently taught.\nOur existing irrational customs make it possible for those having money\ntat their command to secure education in and thru music, and impossible for\nthose without money at their command to secure the same, while education\nin all other forms is practically free.\nIt is a further doctrine of this paper, based on observation, that music\neducation will lift into high efficiency just about the same proportion of the\ncommunity as can be brought into a high degree of efficiency thru any other\nsubject. A few children have defective organs. A few cannot discriminate\namong colors or among sounds. A few have defective vocal organs. Perhaps alarger number are defective as to mathematical ability. It will therefore be seen that, from the standpoint of the capabilities of students, music\nshould be put on a par with the other studies. But what is our custom as to\nthe accrediting of subjects ? Let one brief story illustrate :\nI know a high-school girl, age eighteen. She is about ready to enter the\nuniversity. Algebra comes easy to her. She has a rank of \"excellent\" for\nevery month in algebra. Fifty minutes daily suffice for her to master any\nalgebra lesson. On presenting herself at the university, she is welcomed and\nreceives credit for algebra as an entrance requirement; not because she rembers the binomial theorem or quadratics or negative exponents. She is\nadmitted, theoretically at least, because thru algebra she has secured the power\nof concentration and of analysis and self-expression.\nBut I happen to know a rugged young man of the same age. When of\nfreshman high-school rank he could play the piano very well. He was the\nson of an itinerant preacher and had to make his own way. Instrumental and\nvocal music came to him naturally.\nHe had a good voice and sang well;\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nbut algebra was a burden to him. He could barely get passing grades. Geometry was very difficult for him. But he learned history and literature without\nmuch difficulty. He learned language readily. For two or three years he\nworked with great zeal in heavy, dull-looking books that treated of harmony,\ncounterpoint, history of music, orchestration, and such subjects. It required\ntwo hours daily to prepare the lessons and the young man was delighted to\nprepare those hard lessons relating to music. When of senior high-school\nrank, he could speak extemporaneously and fluently in his literary society\nor elsewhere on what music has done for civilization. This young man has\nthe power of mental application and of analysis. He has marked facility in\nexpression. On entering any higher institution, however, he will get little\nor no credit for those attainments which come to him thru his hard and fruitful\nwork in music. That subject is **not on an accredited basis.\" The universities,, most of them, have not yet found out about it. Their eyes are on the\ntraditional curriculum. How utterly ridiculous, how illogical! But such is\nthe situation in the year 1909.\nThe writer of this paper is able to exemplify, in a large institution of college\nrank, the doctrines of the paper. The school in question has forty teachers\nand nearly six hundred students in daily attendance twelve months in the year.\nThe students are prospective teachers averaging twenty-two years of age.\nThey will teach in schools of all kinds from kindergarten to high school\ninclusive. This institution offers five years in music, taught by people of as\ngood general scholarship as those who teach literature, history, and other\nsubjects in the best schools and colleges. The institution has five teachers\nof music, four of mathematics, three in foreign languages, four in history,\nfive in science, two in art, five in English, two in athletics, and ten or twelve\nin other subjects. The institution charges $25 per year of twelve months for\nevery student that enrolls. No other fee is charged. Should the student\npursue four studies, the fee is $25. Should the student pursue but oiie subject,\nthe fee is the same. It costs in this institution precisely the same to get mathematical education as it does to get music education. The institution is supported chiefly by permanent revenues, about $70,000 per annum. All courses\nare measurably elective. The student must have a major study in which he\nshall offer four or more college units. His major may be music. If so, his\nattainments in vocal music are usually preliminary to his series of major units.\nHe must offer four units in such severe studies as harmony, counterpoint,\norchestration, history of music, etc. Grouped around the major study of each\nstudent there must be others that contribute to the effectiveness of the major\nstudy. The latter is presumed to constitute the ultimate specialty of the\nstudent.\nThere are absolutely no \"snaps\" in this school. Most of the students\nvare not looking for easy studies. If any of them are searching for an easy\nroute to graduation, they are soon convinced of the futility of their efforts.\nThe student having music for his major must have pretty large resources\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nON\n\nACCREDITED\n\nBASIS\n\n699\n\n[in literature, history, and language.\nHe must have knowledge of physics and\n)me knowledge of human physiology, for without these he can never be\niccounted a highly efificient director of music.\nI should say in passing that this institution with its large resources puts\n,art education on a par with music education and other forms of education\n^hich contribute to the efficiency of public-school teachers: The institution\n[uses all practicable means to encourage general interest in music and enjoylent of musical programs.\nThe entire school, including the faculty, is\nxustomed to meet at 10:00 o'clock each forenoon to spend twenty-five\nlinutes in general exercises.\nFour-fifths of the time is spent in singing*\n[Several series of the best available music books are always at the command\n)f the school in sufficient numbers so that all students and teachers may have\n)ooks. We occasionally change from one book to another.\nThe books are\nfiumished by the institution at no expense to students or teachers.\nIt should\nbe mentioned, too, that a majority of the books appertaining to the study of\n[music are to be found in the library of the institution so that the financial\n[status of any given student has no relation to the choice of his studies. He may\n[secure a reasonably complete music education without paying a penny in the\nform of extra fees such as conservatories of music charge.\nThe institution\nfis not in any sense out of harmony with existing conservatories of music.\nIt\nwould gradually take into its teaching faculty those people of highest efficiency\n[in the nearby conservatories of music.\nThe institution does not have a\n[conservatory of music.\nIt has a department of music on full equality with\n)ther departments.\nSome of its graduates, in order to secure the highest\n[attainable specialization, go to the great conservatories of music in the large\n:ities. The institution usually has a special chorus of a hundred or more\nroices and gives annually in the spring of the year a music festival, joining the\n:horus of the institution with a musical company like the Minneapolis Sym)hony Orchestra in the production of some such masterpiece as The Creation.\nSlowly but unwaveringly we propose to create and modify sentiment for\nmusic in Missouri.\nWe are producing more music supervisors than any other\ninstitution in the state, and I believe the field and the opportunities to be encouraging and practically illimitable.\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nBUSINESS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — S. R. Hoover, vice-principal, High School of Commerce, Cleveland, Ohio.\nVice-President — D. W. McMillan, head of commercial department. West High School, Detroit, Mich.\nSecretary — Harry C. Spillman, teacher of commercial branches. High School, Butte, Mont.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Morning, July 6, 1909\nThe Department of Business Education of the National Education Association met\nin the Central Christian Church, Denver, at 9:30 a. m. and was called to order by President S. R. Hoover.\nThe Rev. Christian F. Reisner of the Grace Methodist Church not being present, an\ninvocation was offered by President Hoover.\nA violin solo was rendered by Miss Monahan, of Denver.\nThe President's address was delivered by S. R. Hoover, vice-principal of the High\nSchool of Commerce, Cleveland, on the subject, ''The Next Advance Movement.\"\nH. M. Rowe, educational publisher, of Baltimore, Md., read a paper on \"The University ofCommerce:\nWhat it Should Teach and Why.\"\nThe discussion of this paper was led by J. E. Huchingson, supervisor of penmanship,\nDenver, Colo., with further discussion by A. Gideon, State Normal, Greeley, Colo., and\nW. N. Clifford, of the Southern High School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nThe last paper of the session was read by J. J. Sheppard, principal of the High School\nof Commerce, New York City, on the subject, \"High School of Commerce or Commercial\nDepartment.\"\nThe president appointed the following committees:\nON\n\nNOMINATION\n\nC. W. Bigelow, Denver, Colo.\nH. B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind,\nH. M. Rowe, Baltimore, Md.\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nColeman Hall Bush, Colorado Springs, Colo. Ira N. Crabb, Denver, Colo.\nHarry C. Spillman, Butte, Mont.\nA motion was made by Dr. Rowe, of Baltimore, that the election of oflScers be advanced\nto the Thursday meeting instead of on Friday as provided by the program. The motion\nprevailed.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nAfternoon, July 8\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Hoover at 2:30 o'clock.\nMiss Elizabeth Van Sant, of Van Sant's School of Shorthand, Omaha, Nebr., read a\npaper on \"Possibility or Desirability of a National Uniform System of Stenography.\"\nThis paper was discussed by Carl Marshall, of Cedar Rapids, Iowa; Dr. Rowe, of\nBaltimore, Md.; W. T. Parks, of Denver, Colo.; and A. Gideon, of Greeley, Colo.\nThe topic, \"Illustrative Materials in Teaching Commercial Geography and Commercial Law\" was informally presented by H. B. Brown, of Valparaiso, Ind.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following report, which was adopted:\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nResolved, That this department extend a vote of thanks to the Committee of Department Meetings for their splendid provisions for our sessions, and to the president and\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "702\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nofl5cers of the section for the excellent program provided, and to those who so ably presented\npapers and led in discussions before this section.\nThat cultural training and vocational training are not antagonistic. Life is fundamental y a unit despite its manifold phases. That education which leaves out of account\napplication to human affairs is visionary; that education which spurns the truly cultural\nelement is seriously defective.\nEducation must take into account the whole man.\nThat to meet the ever-increasing popular demand for commercial instruction in high\nschools as evidenced by the growth of such departments wherever they have been opened\nin high schools, and also by the phenomenal growth of the high schools of commerce in\nlarge cities, it is the opinion of this department that in every city where there are three or\nmore high schools, one should be a high school of commerce, since a commercial department\nin a classical or other high school can at best deal only in a tentative manner with the\nproblems of business education.\nThat it be earnestly recommended to all principals, superintendents, and others in\nauthority over schools having commercial courses that they be given equal place and stand-\"ing with all other courses in the school and that in particular the teacher in the commercial\nbranches shall have the same moral support, consideration, and encouragement that are\ngiven to teachers in other branches.\nThat the educational and cultural values of the vocational branches are much underestimated because they are not understood.\nThat full commercial courses should be considered as finishing courses and they\nshould be planned to meet definite purposes.\nRespectfully submitted.\nCoLMAN H. Bush, Chairman\nIra N. Crabb\nHarry C. Spillman\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following:\nFor President — James S. Curry, Commercial Department, Central High School,\nCleveland, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President — Harry C. Spillman, Commercial Department, Butte High School,\nButte, Mont.\nFor Secretary — W. N. Chfford, Head of Department of Commerce, Southern High\nSchool, Philadelphia, Pa.\nOn motion the report of the committee was adopted and the secretary instructed to]\ncast his ballot for the officers named.\nROUND-TABLE SESSION.— Friday Afternoon, July 9\nThis session consisted of a discussion of the addresses delivered on Tuesday and\nThursday.\nFinal adjournment.\nHarry C. Spillman, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nS.\n\nR. HOOVER,\n\nNEXT\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nADVANCE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nVICE-PRINCIPAL OF THE HIGH\nCLEVELAND,\nOHIO\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nCOMMERCE\n\nEducation which does not lead is a misnomer. However far afield the\nartisan, the plowman, or the inventor may fare. Education must still see to it\nthat she flies far before, beckoning ever to larger achievement. In the days\nwhen our semi-savage ancestors clothed themselves in the head of a bull,\nsome blue paint, and a howl that would make a Mohammedan dervish turn\nseveral different shades of green, any occupation which did not involve the\nuse of some blood-shedding implement was considered beneath the dignity of\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nADVANCE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\n703\n\na man. The venturesome merchant who carried the articles of civilization into\nthose northern wilds and offered them for sale to the worshipers of Odin and\nThor was set down as unworthily effeminate. A relic of this barbarism still\nclings to the descendants of the Anglo-Saxon in the prejudice held in manyquarters against one who has made his money in ''trade\" instead of by\ninheritance from some freebooter a few generations back.\nThe noble calling of arms was the profession par excellence. To this\nhave been added from time to time other professions of more or less value.\nSome of them have added much to human comfort and happiness. With\nothers we could have very profitably dispensed. But the professional in\nevery case means a special school of training. Medicine and law, the schoolroom and the church, the newspaper and the surveyor's transit have laid\nlegitimate claim to recognition, and for the training of those whose choice\nfalls along these lines there are schools, colleges, and universities containing\nlibraries, museums, and laboratories with every conceivable facility for\nresearch and experiment. To this list have been added the professional\nhypnotist, baseball player, football player, athlete, pugilist, barber, and what\nnot. And we have \"colleges\" for all of them. But he who would learn the\ntheory and practice of commercial life must still resort to the ancient method\nof Squeers, and learn to do by doing.\nIt seems difficult for many business men, to say nothing of classical educators and professional men, and sometimes even for us as commercial teachers,\nto get out of our chrisalid notion that any education connected with commerce\nshould be necessarily inferior in quality and of such a character as to require\nless exercise and development of gray matter than is expected of those who\ntake the sacred dust of dead languages as the bread which cometh down from\nheaven. It has therefore been generally true in the history of education that\nas soon as the boy showed his inclination toward a commercial career he was\nplaced in the school's ward for the weak-minded, and given what a carpenter\nwould call a hatchet-and-saw course.\nNow it remains a fact, in spite of all this handicap, that no better brain\npower is found anywhere in this country than in its commercial activity. The\nsame thing will be true of all lands in the very near future. I do not know\nwhether the bee is so intent upon the business end of his occupation that he\ndoes not see the beauty of the flower from which he gathers the honey or not,\nbut I suggest that the human worker should be so educated that life means to\nhim all its beauty and all its perfume, as well as all its honey. I am aware\nthat this accomplishment would remove one of the prolific sources of the\npunster's and cartoonist's stock in trade, but there might be bahn in Gilead\nfor even that excision.\nIt is not because there are not sufficient funds in our treasure-houses that\nthis particular need has not been met long ago. Institutions of almost all\nkinds have been founded, supported, and endowed, and all with money made\nby those in commercial pursuits. To provide an institution of university\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "704\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ngrade for the training of leaders of trade and captains of industry with expert\nteachers of business culture, ethics, history, applications of the sciences, worldmarkets, etc., is a larger opportunity for some philanthropist than the endowment of libraries or the establishment of chairs in dead languages, or the search\nfor mummies and scarabs that are still more dead.\nAmerican industry may be said to have passed thru two stages of development. In the first, other countries were under no necessity of taking notice\nof our little efforts. We were just learning how, and were often amusing to\nthose of older growth. But this gradually gave place to the second stage in\nwhich we had learned how, and began to draw on the natural resources of the\ncountry. These were so tremendous that competition was almost swamped\nby the sheer sweep of an overwhelming supply. The result was the American\ninvasion of old-world markets in such fashion as to leave Eurasian industry\ndazed and gasping for breath by the wayside. But we have reached the\nbeginning of the third stage. These old-world workers will not continue to\nlie down. They are again up and at it. The case will not be allowed to go\nby default. Every means of education and training at their command is\nbeing pushed to its utmost. Every representative of the government is also\nan agent for every salable commodity produced in the home land. And this\nmanifestation of energy must be met by equal earnestness, equal zeal, and equal\nskill on the part of our producers or the ''American industrial invasion\" will\nbe like the march of the King of France and his twenty thousand men who\nmarched up the hill, and then marched down again.\nIf we as teachers of commercial subjects have reached the point where\nwe are ready to undertake the tasks such an advance movement must involve\nwithout selfishness, there will be found men in the marts of the American\nRialto who can and will supply the necessary funds to give it being and to keep\nit alive until it has won the place where it will no longer need the protection of\nan infant industry. If it is to be made the arena of quarrels over different\nsystems of this, that, or the other method of teaching a subject; if it should\nby any misfortune become the hothouse for the culture of fads and longcherished freaks; if it should suffer the imposition of a corps of teachers who\nseek in the establishment of new institutions eleemosynary conveniences;\nor if it should be merely the exponent of some individual for the furthering of\nprivate ends, it had better remain for the future to see its establishment.\nBut if we are ready to lay aside our prejudices; to look at the matter from\nthe standpoint of the business world and its needs; to give to it the best efforts\nof our lives for the sake of the boys and girls who are to be; to look far down\nthe road which leads into the future of our land, and with a patriotism that\nis worthy the sons of a profession at whose head stands the Man of Galilee,\nto answer the call for men of iron will, indomitable courage, and supreme selfsacrifice, then this ideal of an advance movement will become reality. Who\nis ready to answer to a call like this ?\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n/.\n\nTHE\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCOMMERCE\n\nUNIVERSITY OF COMMERCE:\nTEACH AND WHY\nH.\n\nM.\n\nROWE,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPUBLISHER,\n\nWHAT\nBALTIMORE,\n\n705\n\nIT SHOULD\nMD.\n\n''Schools like this one and universities like Princeton must pass out of\nexistence unless they adapt themselves to modern life.\" This is what Dr.\nWoodrow Wilson said at St. Paul's School, Concord, on June 4. A conviction that the universities have not adapted themselves to that phase of\nmodern life in which we, in this department, are especially interested is the\nreason we have for the consideration at this time of a university of commerce,\nbecause commerce is modern life, and most of modern Hfe is commerce; for\ncommerce in the broad sense is social, religious, political, and industrial\nintercourse between the people. The exchange of commodities is but one of\nits features. Modern commerce, moreover, is vastly different from the commerce of antiquity. Commerce is the pathfinder of civilization. It is thfe\nmost modern, up-to-the-minute thing we have.\nOn the other hand, the university as we have it is the outgrowth of an\nancient institution, and its traditions find their beginnings in antiquity.' Unfortunately, the history of education tells us that scholasticism and traditionaUsm\nhave been inseparable companions all down thru the ages, and notwithstanding\nthe enlightenment of this twentieth century, it is conceded that these copartners\nof obstruction still stand in the way of our higher schools fulfiUing their largest\nusefulness and rendering their greatest service to humatiity.\nHigher education as it finds expression in our universities — in their curricula\nand in their faculties — presents to the student of education many strange and\nconflicting characteristics and perplexities, particularly when we consider\nthe university as the center of enlightened thought and as the dominant promotor of what is popularly termed \"liberal education.\" The traditional\nuniversity life, the traditional university thought — the ''university spirit,\"\nas it is frequently named — is an orientalism, an exotic. No one who has\ncome in contact with university life, its precepts, teachings, doctrines, and\nsentiments, can deny the present existence of this spirit. No course of study,\nno school of thought, no faculty, seems to have escaped this touch of orientalism. It appears to be coexistent with university life. It is less apparent,\nperhaps, to those who are university bred than to others. I have been close\nenough to study the symptoms without catching the disease. You do not\nhave to have the measles in order to know whether or not it is the measles,\nor how to diagnose it.\nWithout attempting to trace the influences of this traditional spirit upon\nthe modern university in other directions, it is proper for us to give consideration to the effect it has had upon the university's attitude and teachings\ntoward commerce and industry as they are manifested in the business callings, trades, and professions.\nIt is in our commercial and industrial development and expansion that we\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nfind the essential elements of our national prosperity and the happiness of\nour people. They touch intimately upon the existence of every individual,\nbe he a worker or a drone. They constitute the very synthesis of modem life,\nand it follows that if our system of pubhc and private education, as it finds\nexpression not only in our colleges and universities but in the lower forms of\neducational effort as well, is actually to meet the conditions of modern Ufe,\nit must give adequate attention to commerce and industry, because it is thru\na training for efficient participation in these occupations that the greatest\nbenefits will come to the largest numbers.\nDoes our system of education, in a broad sense, accomplish this? Yes,\nto some extent it does; but it is a significant fact that it was left for the private\ncommercial and trade schools to discover and provide what was lacking and\nwhat was most wanted. It is noticeable, too, that these are the schools\nfarthest removed from the university, just as the university is farthest removed\nfrom the common people and their pursuits.\nThen public opinion forced the high schools to introduce the commercial\nbranches; but at once the traditional sanctity of the cultural studies as against\nthe practical or vocational studies intervened, coming down from the university\nthru the teachers employed in our public schools, with the result that the\ncommercial branches were introduced under protest in many high schools —\nthe first step, mark you, removed from the private school — and in some of\nthem they are even now merely tolerated, and denied the place and consideration which their importance merits, as a result of exactly the same traditional\nscholastic intolerance that it is charged has hindered the universities in their\nother departments from adapting themselves to modem life.\nGiving way to the weight of public sentiment and demand, some of our\nuniversities have established schools and departments of commerce; but here\nagain the miasma of the same traditional opposition has tainted the atmosphere\nwhich surrounds these schools and departments, so that it is impossible for\nthem to manifest in their development that healthy, spiritual growth and\nvigorous appreciation of the real requirements of modem life that our commercial and industrial situation demands.\nThese schools and departments are all characterized, more or less, by two\ndistinct phases of scholastic traditionalism. One is that all good things\neducationally must come from abroad. Whenever one of these schools is\nestablished, the first thing is to send the head of the faculty to European schools\nin order to import a cargo of European ideas, processes, and methods. Hence\nwe find in these schools and departments very much that bears a foreign stamp\nand that is intimately related to foreign commerce and industry, but which does ■\nnot touch at all, or at best only remotely, the necessities of American industry,\nwith the result that we do not have a single standard university school of\ncommerce that is distinctly and distinctively American in its teachings, in its\nthought, and in its attitude toward the solution of the problems of the American\nbusiness man.\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCOMMERCE\n\n707\n\nThe other phase of traditionalism is that the vocational branches, or more\nspecifically for our discussion, those branches which relate to commercial\n\nI\n\nand industrial life — to 'Hrade,\" as the EngHshman, the Frenchman, or the\nGerman would call it— are deficient in their cultural value, are plebeian in\ntheir practical application, and are therefore beneath the consideration of the\nuniversity student with his superior mental caste and capacities.\nThe existence of the first mentioned phase of traditionalism, or more\nproperly of educational insanity, would doubtless be denied by even the most\nunfortunate of its victims, because one of the peculiar pathological symptoms\nmanifested by these people is total ignorance of their own condition. It is\nsufficient to say that there is ample opportunity and material for a commercial\nuniversity of, for, and by the American people and American industry, without\ngoing abroad for anything.\nThe cultural and truly educative value of the vocational branches in\ncomparison with other branches is no longer a debatable question in the minds\nof those who know the vocational branches; and to discuss the matter with\nothers who do not know them is futile.\nIn passing, I wish to remark that these criticisms, which may seem to reflect\nsomewhat severely upon the efficiency of our universities in certain directions,\nare not lightly made. No man can attach greater value to the work the university isdoing, in some respects, or hold in higher esteem what it has accomplished than I. That it fails to accomplish in other respects what we have\na right to expect it to accomplish is a just matter for discussion and criticism.\nLearned specialists in commerce and industry, some of them university\nmen, have realized in recent years that there is a demand for a certain kind of\ntraining in the business world which our present institutions do not reach up\nto, or down to, if you prefer to put it that way. While the professions are\namply provided for, a training in business for those pursuits that give employment to the professional man, and all other classes of men, is not adequately\nprovided.\" These facts have suggested the necessity of a university of commerce, an institution of equal rank and grade with our best universities, but\nhaving for its dominating spirit the interests of pure American commercialism\nand industrialism, and for its object and aim a series of training courses consecrated to qualify for the largest usefulness and service in developing the\nworld's resources and in handling its products.\nDoubtless there are those who will look with surprise upon the suggestion of a university of commerce. They have heard that schools of commerce,\nof accounts, and of finance have been established, and they have perhaps\naccepted it as a fact that vocational training in its higher forms has been\nadequately provided. In the minds of those who have given most thought to\nthis matter, however, there is a conviction that our present universities never\nwill nor can do this work as it should be and must be done.\nSome of the reasons for this conviction I have stated. The university of\ncommerce that is wanted is one that must be started on a new foundation,\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ndistinctly and radically different in spirit from those of the older institutions.\nIt must be developed and built up by men of different mental training and\nattitude from those identified with our present institutions. It should have\nfor its head someone with the imagination and the creative capacity possessed\nby our \"captains of industry\" — a man who can found a new empire in the realm\nof higher education, and who can build up an educational structure to meet\nthe requirements laid down in the plans and specifications of modem progress.\nThe consummation of such an ideal is no mere empty dream. This\nuniversity of commerce, from the very nature of things, is bound to become\na reality sooner or later. It must come as the natural result of necessity.\nCommerce gets what she wants, and what she must have. This is one\nof the things she now needs, and the necessity for it will shortly find a way\nfor its realization.\nNor is it the baser elements of business life that will be most benefited by\nan institution of this sort. Civilization itself finds its largest opportunities\nfor advancement thru commerce and industry. Such an institution would\nmake for the purification of commerce and industry against the meaner and\nmore sordid tendencies which have been so prominently before us recently.\nIf I have established any good reason for the existence of such an institution as I have described, then it is proper to consider the second query raised:\nWhat should a university of commerce teach ? In a broad way, the object\nof such an institution would be the promotion of commercial and industrial\neducation in all those branches of literature, science, and art, or either of\nthem, that pertain to commerce and industry; to conduct, endow, and assist\ninvestigation in any department of education relating to commerce and\nindustry, and to the sciences, literature, and arts relating thereto, and to\nco-operate in every way possible with schools now estabHshed, or to be estabUshed, in any of the states of the Union, which shall accept and maintain the\neducational standards and requirements of the institution; to appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research and investigation; to\npubUsh and distribute documents and periodicals; to conduct lectures and\nrecitations, special schools and classes; to acquire and maintain libraries;\nand in general to do and perform all things necessary to promote the objects\nof such an institution.\nAny attempt to describe in detail the courses of study that should be maintained would be utterly impossible at this time. They will be the result of an\nevolutionary process. They would naturally include courses in all those\nsubjects associated with business administration, law and government, applied\nscience in the liberal and mechanical arts and trades, industrial processes, and\nthe various other attributes of modem business invention and development.\nBut the departures from the ordinary treatment of these subjects would be\nin their apphcation and in working them over to meet the particular objects\nof the institution.\nThe first subject for profound study and consideration would be commerce\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF COMMERCE\n\n709\n\nand industry itself in its various forms and functions. The curriculum in\neach department should find its genesis in the wants of the particular department of business which it is designed to serve, with such adaptations of modern\neducational doctrines and teachings as are necessary to serve its purposes;\nand particularly its purposes should not be changed to meet existing educational notions and policies.\nMen who make these studies must have unprejudiced minds, uncontaminated and free from any influence that would interfere with or pervert the\none single paramount purpose of the various cur^cula; and, in my judgment, the hope for the final attainment of the objects of such an institution\nI'rests in radical departures from and reforms in some of our accepted educational doctrines and creeds. Thus it follows, much as I regret the necessity\nof the statement, that the ordinary university professor would have no place\nin the faculty of such an institution. If, in fact, an available one might be\nfound here and there, he would certainly prove to be an educational heretic,\nand a convert to a new faith, willing to smash old idols and to accept service\nin a unitarian educational effort.\nAny substantial preparation for business must begin with a consideration\nof the group of subjects commonly described as \"mental and moral,\" including\npsychology, the social sciences, logic, and philosophy, because the individual\nmust stand right with himself and toward the social, industrial, and political\nelements which have such a direct bearing upon business affairs, and which\nl^enter so largely into the right solution of the great industrial problems which\nare continually presenting themselves, before he can ever become an efficient\nman of affairs.\nThe conflicts between capital and labor, the rich and the poor, the strong\nand the weak in the business world, too frequently result from disregard or\nignorance of the rights of others. These abuses may never be wholly overcome, but they may be greatly curtailed. They are appropriate subjects for\nthe most patient study and investigation.\nMen must be trained to under•stand them and to deal with them intelligently and in the right spirit. We\nrhave a demand for the establishment of a \"department of the humanities,\"\nbuilt upon the Golden Rule. History, economics, geography, language,\nmathematics, business technique, ethics, law, and government are other\nfamiliar educational terms which might cover the general character of the\ninstruction; but no formal curriculum can be described for an institution\nthat is intended to be a pioneer of its kind, designed to extend its efforts into\nnew fields of labor involving new materials that up to this time have not been\nsubjected to assortment, classification, and that scientific arrangement which\nwould constitute the substance of its courses of training.\nI have not attempted to suggest to you more than a general conception\nof what such an institution should be, and what it should teach. If I have\nserved to call attention to the urgent needs of that part of the world's activities\nwhich are grouped under the heads, \"commercial\" and \"industrial,\" and if\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "7IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nwhat I have said shall contribute toward awakening an interest in supplpng\nthe help which the business worid desires and requires, and which I believe\nis necessary for the continuation and improvement of our business, moral,\npolitical, and social life, and of civilization, my purpose is accomplished.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. E. HucHiNGSON, supervisor of penmanship, Public Schools, Denver, Colo. —\nAn excellent synopsis of my discussion is concisely given in these words: The distinguished\nspeaker, whom I have the honor to follow, is my coadjutor. His intrepidity in resurrecting,\nas it were, another necessity of modern times is most commendable.\nAt present, the commercially-inclined student cannot enjoy the educational advantages\nthat are extended to other students. He who reaches expertness in receiving a superior\ncommercial training is compelled to do so thru severe labors in research and the tremendously hard knocks of experience — enormously expensive and seldom encountered in the\nmastery of other vocations. This drudgery caused by lack of opportunity naturally retards\nefficiency in the specialty and forces classical work, which is of prime importance, to a\nside issue.\nIt is not a feasible undertaking to try to solve this problem of higher commercial\neducation thru the university of classics, where concept prevails that industrial training\nhas no cultural value, and whose faculties are not in sympathy with and have not the\nfullest appreciation of higher commercial education. The time may be near but it has\nnot yet arrived when commercial training can demand its proper and just recognition. If\nwe depend upon the universities, as they now stand, it will mean a long period to span\nbefore we can hope for victory. It is not a matter of victory for our consideration, it is a\nquestion of how long we are to fight. The establishment of innumerable commercial high\nschools, business colleges, commercial departments in high schools, and colleges and private\nbusiness schools, in no small measure, reveals the fact that commerce is the very essence\nof life itself. These commercial institutions are of the greatest importance, but they should\nonly be a means, not an end.\nThe university of commerce, as proposed, a great institution where men and women\nof our country could find high-grade commercial training, in a congenial environment,\nand at the same time subserve their interests in classics and receive the whole on the basis\nof cultural education, would offer rights, privileges, and scholastic standing for the individuals especially interested in commerce, and further the systematized methods which\nmarvelously rapid advancements in the commercial field during the past quarter of a century have created.\nThe commercial university, as in the case of any other university, would aim to educate;\nits curriculum would cover all of the principles of higher commercial education, with an\nemphasis placed upon its specialization. Education, in its broad meaning, consists of\nthat training of an individual whif h develops his faculties, acquaints him with the economic\ncondition of man, combining culture, experience, and practical application to his recreative\nand vocational activities, increasing his happiness, and providing for his future in the best\npossible way. This definition cannot be applied when either of two extremes exists — a\nstudent who has been trained to make money and hoard wealth, without regard for culture,\nrefinement, moral happiness, and due regard for the welfare and happiness of others;\nor a student who has received an exclusively cultural training, without an embodiment of\nthose subjects that are of greatest practical value.\nIt may not be advisable to state that traditionalism is the serpent to crush. We are\nextremely proud of our institutions of higher learning — they are the greatest and most progressive inthe world.\nIf it is true that no demand exists for commercial universities, and if it is true that\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depaxtmentl\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCOMMERCE\n\n71 1\n\nuniversities are governed by what is required of them, then we must submit to the proposition: A commodity without demand has no reason to be supplied.\nWhether or not the failure to foster higher commercial education is attributed to the\ntraditionalism of university life, or to its seemingly insufficient demand, it is an unfortunate\nfact that something has prevented the establishment of an indispensable factor of a presentday, progressive people — the university of commerce.\nA. Gideon, State Normal School, Greeley, Colo. — My presence here is due not to my\nmembership in your department, but to my sympathetic interest in business life, especially,\nhowever, to my interest in education in its wider aspects. I came here to learn what the\nuniversity of commerce stood for. In more than one discussions heard since the opening\nof the Council, I have noticed a confusing misuse of the term culture, as if culture meant\nmere polish, a superfluous veneer, as if cultural training and vocational training were\nantagonistic. This confusion has come down thru the ages; it is not absent even from\nthe deliberations of the Council; yes, it is sometimes present even in the discussions of the\nDepartment of Business Education. It disregards the essential unity of human life.\nLife is fundamentally a unit despite its manifold phases. That education which leaves\nout of account application to human affairs is visionary. That education which spurns\nthe truly cultural element is debasing. Education in the human sense takes into account\nthe whole man.\nW. N. Clifford, head of the department of commerce in the Southern High School,\nPhiladelphia, Pa. — There is no doubt a great deal of misunderstanding on the part of the\npeople generally as to the meaning of the word commerce. Many have the idea that it\nsimply includes shorthand, typewriting, and a little bookkeeping. The business college\nis to blame to quite an extent for this erroneous idea. The business departments established\nin many of our high schools at present include only these subjects which we designate as\nbusiness technique, but the high school of commerce includes not only the business technique but it also includes vitalizing all the studies taught in any standard high school.\nFew people realize that the province of the commercial high school, or the high school of\ncommerce, as it should more properly be termed, is a more intimate association of the\nsubjects as usually taught with life. It has been necessary for years to learn over again\nthe subjects after we go out from schools. Why not teach them in school so that a person\ncan go out into life ready to take up the active duties .? In the Princeton Theological\nSeminary this past spring a cry came from the students for a lecture course more\ndirectly associated with life's work. The old professors rose up in arms and objected\nto changing their plan of work which had been in vogue for the past half -century. A cry\ncame from the pews to the pulpit asking for a more vitalizing religion; a cry comes today\nfrom the school desk, from the business desk, from life everywhere for a more vitalizing\nform of education. Of course a great deal of prejudice exists on the part of men who\nwere brought up with the belief that Latin, Greek, and a little mathematics are all that is\nnecessary for a liberal education. But today a liberal education means not only the old,\nstereotyped college course, but the broader courses that are offered in the schools of finance.\nThere are not many of these schools established, but the people always get what they want,\nand the demands of the people will be heard; so the paper just read which advocates\nthe establishment of a university of commerce will be answered in the near future, not\nonly by one university but by many universities. Soon the terms \"liberal education\" and\n\"cultural education\" will apply to that form of training given in our best schools of commerce.\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "712\n\nNATIONAL\n\n//.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHIGH\n\nJ. J. SHEPPARD,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF COMMERCE\nDEPARTMENT}\n\nOF THE HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n[Business\n\nOR COMMERCIAL\n\nOF COMMERCE,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK, N. Y.\n\nThe question I have been asked to consider is the advisability of a separate\ncommercial school where conditions warrant a choice between that and the\nmaintenance of commercial courses in the ordinary high school. In the\nsmaller cities of the country the number of commercial pupils would ordinarily\nhardly warrant the organization of independent institutions, but there are a\ngoodly number of cities apart from those now maintaining commercial high\nschools where the question of separate schools requires consideration.\nThe growth of commercial education under public auspices in the past ten\nor fifteen years has been remarkable. There has been a notable endeavor to do\nsomething in this field to meet the criticism that the high school does not fit\nits pupils for life. Reluctantly, almost apologetically at first, commercial\ncourses were introduced. With little encouragement they steadily grew in\nfavor and importance until now no secondary system of education in this\ncountry neglects to make provision for the increasingly large number of students\nwho wish to prepare for business life. We have now reached a point where\nwe may well ask what is the next step to be taken.\nThere are some who believe that well-planned courses in the ordinary\nhigh school is the sufficient and final answer to the question. With that view\nI will first concern myself. There is no doubt that commercial courses have\ndone much to broaden and enrich the curriculum of the secondary school,\nthat they have contributed in an invaluable way to the equipment of thousands\nof young men and women. Moreover, there is no doubt that we must continue to put our chief reliance upon this method of commercial training for\nthe vast majority of communities for a long time to come. They are unquestionably abig improvement on the instruction provided in the usual type of\nbusiness college, and they certainly attract large numbers who would probably\notherwise miss secondary training altogether.\nWherein has the commercial course failed ? In the first place, there has\nbeen a too narrow view of what constitutes commercial training. Generally\nspeaking, bookkeeping and stenography and typewriting, with perhaps a bit\nof commercial law, have been considered the only necessary additions to the\nregular high-school course to meet the demand for vocational training along\ncommercial lines. That these are altogether inadequate I hope to make\nclear later. Secondly, there is usually a feeling that the commercial course is\na cheaper, less substantial course than the ordinary course and is after all\nprimarily designed to meet the needs of the weaker, less promising students.\nIt has not led to anything higher educationally, and its graduates are fortunate\nto secure a job with insignificant pay. To a certain extent this situation is due\nto the attitude of the high-school principal. Generally a college graduate\nwith more or less classical training, and ordinarily overimpressed with the\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nCOMMERCE\n\n713\n\nvalue of book learning, he feels no impulse to encourage the development of the\ncommercial course, which seems a prosaic, bread-and-butter substitution for\nreally valuable secondary studies. I have heard more than one high-school\nprincipal speak disparagingly of his commercial sections. Fortunately the\nrecent outburst of zeal for vocational training in the schools is putting a\ndifferent aspect on things, and the administration of secondary schools may\nbe expected henceforth to show a more intelligent appreciation of the real\npurpose and value of business training.\nAgain there has been but slight development of the commercial courses.\nThey are taught in much the same way as they were a decade ago. Some\namplifications have been made, it is true, and occasionally some additions\nhave been made to the course. Commercial geography is not infrequently\nmet with in the published announcements of commercial courses, and once in\na while the history of commerce is included. But as ordinarily taught these\nsubjects are well-nigh useless. An ill-assorted mass of information is put\nbefore the pupil which he neither fully grasps at the time nor holds for any\nappreciable period.\nI do not think that we can look to the general high school to give us the\nimprovement in commercial education which is so much needed. Its chief\ninterests are elsewhere. The commercial course is altogether secondary in\nimportance in such an institution. The commercial teachers are usually\nless liberally educated than the others and their views have less weight. With\nthese conditions as they are, there is distinct need for a school which shall make\ncommercial education its special province; which shall seek to improve what\nis old and well established in business instruction, and to develop and enrich\nthe curriculum by the addition of new phases. Such a school will not content\nitself with a reliance upon bookkeeping and stenography as adequate preparation for the business world. It will seek, on the contrary, to make every\nsubject in the course contribute its share to the equipment of the pupil. And\nthat course will be by no means a narrow one. With the exception of Latin\nand Greek, I know of no secondary subject which cannot be profitably adapted\nto the needs of commercial instruction. But there must be a complete cuttingloose from the thraldom of the college-entrance requirements. The course\nin biology or chemistry will bear little resemblance to the courses prescribed\nfor admission to college. They will concern themselves largely with the\nmaterials of commerce, with the raw stuffs which are made over into the commodities ofthe market. Language instruction will be little concerned with\nniceties of style and construction, but it will look toward equipping the pupil\nwith a facility in oral speech which will enable him to make immediate and\npractical use of what he has learned. History will not be entirely given over\nto matters of wars and politics, but will lay special emphasis upon the economic\nconditions which underlie and explain the development of nations. English\nwill not be taught as if the eye of the college professor were upon the work.\nThe needs of the pupil, rather than the demands of the higher institution,\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "714\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nwill prescribe what shall be studied and how it shall be studied. In short,\nthe commercial school must assume the big task of adapting the standard\nsecondary subjects to the best advantage of the central purpose of the school.\nI speak from some years of experience when I say that while this is a difficult\ntask it is a supremely interesting one, and, judging from the little we have\naccomplished in New York, it makes strong appeal even to those who administer the classical form of secondary education. In my own school each department isconstantly at work upon the problem of making its work conform more\nand more to the needs of commercial training. For the men who are doing\nthis there is a distinct educational gain which they are quick to acknowledge.\nThey have the zeal of explorers into new fields.\nIn addition to this new method of treating old subjects, this recasting of the\nsyllabus, as it were, there is the big opportunity the commercial school has\nof utilizing comparatively new secondary subjects. I have in mind economics\nand allied studies. Beginning with the industrial and commercial activities\nof the community in which the school is located, the study naturally expands\ninto a survey of these activities in larger and larger areas until some appreciation ofworld commerce is gained. This sort of work is not to be hastily done\nout of a textbook crammed with all sorts of information chosen with more or\nless discrimination, but thru a study at first hand of the actual environment\nof the pupils and later with reports and other printed material now so\nabundantly provided by the government. Then there is the great field of\nbusiness organization of constantly growing importance into which the pupil\nshould have glimpses in order that he may fully appreciate how business is\nactually carried on.\nIt would be easy to enlarge upon these points but enough has been said,\nI hope, to make it clear that the specialized commercial school can enlarge the\nscope and enrich the content of the commercial course in a way and measure\ndenied to the general high school whose aim is primarily general education.\nSuch a school will have as its head a man whose business it is constantly to\nstudy ways and means for improving the effectiveness of his institution in its\nwork of training young people for business. He will see to it that every\ndepartment of the school is contributing its share toward the central purpose\nof the school. The specialized school will point the way for the makers of\ncommercial courses in the ordinary school. The latter will profit by the\nexperiments of the former, and those schools where community conditions do\nnot seem to warrant the establishment of a separate school will share in the\nbenefits of the specialized work.\nThe only argument which I have heard seriously urged against the separate\nschool is that it is unwise to separate our pupils into classes. It is better to\nhave all educated under one roof even tho they pursue different courses, we\nare advised. That view is rapidly losing support. We are coming more and\nmore to believe that our instruction should have a more definite goal, that we\nhave already too long pursued the policy of assuming that one course of\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nCOMMERCE\n\n715\n\neducation — or one course with slight variations — will do for all. We have\ntalked long about the unwisdom of assuming that every boy and girl is to be\nprepared for college and at last we are about ready to add action to words.\nThe best way to work out the problem of adapting instruction to vocational\nends is, to my way of thinking, to give to special schools the task of studying\nthe field and working out the means of instruction. In these special schools\nthere will be wide ranges of social grade. The manual-training and commercial high school will attract pupils of all classes, and social distinctions\nwill be no more important then than they are in the regular high school.\nGiven an inferior course of study and an inferior teaching force, the special\nschool would suffer naturally, but with a well-planned course and a wellequipped teaching force, it will not suffer by comparison.\nWe are all familiar with the fact that for some time past there has been\ngreat tension between England and Germany. The probabilities of armed\nconflict between these two nations are seriously discussed. The real origin of\nthe trouble we all know. England and Germany are commercial rivals and\nin the race for supremacy the latter country has made surprising gains upon\nthe former. The growth of German trade and German commercial influence\nis astonishing. To what is it due ? In no small measure the extremely efficient\nsystem of education in Germany, which makes generous and intelligent provision for industrial and commercial training, may be given the credit for Germany's enviable position today. The famous report of our Department of\nCommerce and Labor on industrial education in Germany showed how\nextensively and how adequately the Germans were utilizing education to improve every industry. Scattered thruout the empire are hundreds of special\nindustrial schools. Commercial schools are hkewise numerous. Only last summer I was told by a prominent German educator that it has become the\nambition of every German city of importance to have its own commercial\nuniversity. Only recently Mannheim, which is smaller than Denver, estabfished\na Handelshochschule. In England, on the contrary, one finds technical instruction, both industrial and commercial, far behind. The Germans are experts\nin whatever they undertake. They do not go at things in general. One has\nonly to study the program of their commercial schools to realize how thoroly\nthey have taken up the question of academic training for business. And the\nrapid growth of these schools would seem to indicate a great measure of\nsuccess for their work. We are fortunate in this country, with its marvelous\nresources, not to be so hard pushed as are the Germans, but more and more\nas the years go by we shall have to make our education do for us what the\nGermans have made theirs do for them. We shall have to specialize our\ninstruction in increasing degree. It is not too early to begin it now in the\nmatter of commercial education.\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "71 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPOSSIBILITY\n\nOR DESIRABILITY OF A NATIONAL,\nSYSTEM OF STENOGRAPHY\n\nMISS ELIZABETH\n\nVAN\n\nSANT, VAN\n\nSANT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF SHORTHAND,\n\n[Business\n\nUNIFORM\nOMAHA,\n\nNEBR.\n\nIn a country where the greatest possible liberty, not only of life, but of\nopinions, is allowed, it is safe to say that a universal system of anything is\nimpossible. Men cannot agree even on matters which are susceptible of\nreasonably scientific proof. An example of this is seen in the various methods\nof treating the sick, each with its many advocates. We have many religious\nsects, and liberty is accorded to all.\nShorthand history dates back to the days of Cicero, and there is evidence\nthat it was used before his time. In England alone there were over seventyfive systems known before the days of Isaac Pitman, and there have been\nscores of systems invented since. They vary as much as the varied languages\nof the earth, but all aim toward one end — a quick method of expression adapted\nto recording the utterances of a speaker.\nWhen Isaac Pitman first devised his system of shorthand in 1837, he thought\nit would become a universal method of writing, not merely for verbatim reporting, but also as a means of communication to take the place of the laborious\nlonghand. He would have had it taught in the schools of England to every\nchild, and when once a knowledge of it had been spread thruout the kingdom,\nletters would be written in shorthand instead of longhand. This was the\nobject of the ''corresponding style\" of writing — a style especially adapted to\nthe writing of letters by one person to be read by another. It was not intended\nthat this corresponding style should have the speed of speech, but rather that\nit should provide a legible method of writing which should be far briefer than\nlonghand. This ambition of Mr. Pitman proved to be a dream, and later the\nsystem was adapted to amanuensis work and verbatim reporting.\nBenn Pitman, a brother of Isaac Pitman, came to this country and brought\nwith him a knowledge of his brother's system. He published a manual on\nshorthand in 1855.\nThe copyright laws of this country do not permit the copyrighting of a\nsystem, but only of the words in which its principles are stated. Hence it was\npossible for others to avail themselves of the material furnished by the Pitmans\nand to devise systems to which they gave their own names, but which in reality\nare largely Pitman. There are more than a score of these offshoots from the\nPitman, and all are embraced under the common name, \"Pitmanic systems.\"\nWhile our copyright law may work some individual wrongs, it certainly\npromotes progress. An author, once safely ensconced behind an impregnable\ncopyright which protected everything he had devised, would be very apt to\nsettle down and rest content with his handiwork. But under our copyright\nlaw any person can take a system of shorthand, or so much of it as he cares\nto use, and modify, add to, or subtract from it, and publish the work as his\nown.\nIt then behooves an author to keep moving with the advance of thought\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "Deparftnen\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF\n\nSTENOGRAPHY\n\n717\n\nalong shorthand lines. There have been many new systems not based on Pitmanic shorthand, but none of these is exempt from the hands of those who\nwish to take the material which has been provided and attempt its perfection\npaccording to their own ideas.\nIf we were to attempt the selection of a national, uniform system of stenography, we should probably be forced to choose among the systems already\nIexisting. If it could be agreed by those who use shorthand that a national\n'system ought to be adopted, the first problem that would arise would be the\n^selection of a committee competent to judge as to which system it should be.\nAlmost every writer of shorthand is convinced that he is writing the best\nsystem now in existence, and he will defend it with an almost religious zeal.\n\"What system do you write ?\" is the text for many a heated discussion.\nPractically every system has some, points of superiority over others. This\nfact is the only excuse for its existence, and it makes it possible for the author\nto compare it with another and to make a showing which is altogether favorable to his own.\nIt is difficult to see how from a practical standpoint a national system\ncould be adopted. If such a thing were attempted it would be in danger of\ndegenerating into a contest of publishers. The only solution would be for\nthe government to take it in hand and assume control in the same way that\nit now has exclusive control of the carrying of the mails.\nIf, today, all the preliminaries had been settled and a national system agreed\nupon, unless a penalty were imposed and enforced for using other systems,\nit would be but a short time until there would be as wide a divergence as ever.\nShorthand is too much a matter of opinion to be subject to legislation.\nBut even if it were possible to decide upon a system and to enforce its use,\nwould it be desirable ? There are doubtless many arguments which can be\nadvanced in favor of a national system. It would simplify the employment of\ncommercial teachers. It would enable students to change from one school\nto another or from one city to another without inconvenience. It might often\nbe an advantage to employers, if stenographers were able to read one another's\nnotes.\nThe shorthand most in use today is only about three-quarters of a century\nold. By a strenuous effort the most skillful writers can for a short time report\nverbatim the most rapid speakers. But it is not beyond the range of human\npossibility that a hundred years from now shorthand will be so improved that\nthe most rapid speakers can be reported easily. This may be done by the\nimprovement of systems now in existence, or by the invention of a mode of\nexpression different from any of those now in use. No system can spring into\nexistence in a perfect condition. Time reveals its weaknesses, and the practical\ntest of use makes it possible to go on adding to its efficiency, until in the -end a\nsystem may be evolved which will meet all the requirements of the most exact\nand rapid reporting.\nShorthand has now become a factor in business of all kinds.\nThousands\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "71 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nof minds are thinking along this line, and the result of this thought may be a\nvast improvement.\nNo system is as yet so perfect as to entitle it to universal adoption. The\nnumber of stenographers in this country who can record the utterances of a\nvery fast speaker, who uses technical or scientific terms, may be counted on\none's fingers. There are many who can report a fast speaker, who uses the\ncommon words of the language, but not one stenographer in a thousand can\ndo good verbatim work if the speaker approximates two hundred words a\nminute, and uses a large vocabulary.\nUntil a system is devised by which one of ordinary ability can acquire a\nspeed which will enable him to follow a rapid speaker and record his every\nutterance so that every word may be positively known without the aid of\nmemory or reference to context, we shall not have a system worthy of universal\nadoption. An attempt to make any system of shorthand standard and universal would discourage the efforts thru which the most perfect system of\nbrief writing may be evolved at some future day. When a system possessing\nthe necessary qualities is evolved or invented, the world will be ready enough\nto adopt it without the aid of legislation. Its superiority would be so apparent\nthat it would by the natural process of evolution displace the system with less\nmerit. It would become universal on the principle of the \"survival of the\nfittest.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nSTUDY\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — George E. Johnson, superintendent of Playground Association, Pittsburg, Pa.\nVice-President — A. Caswell Ellis, professor of education. University of Texas, Austin, Texas.\nSecretary — Will Grant Chambers, professor of education, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburg, Pa.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, July 6, 1909\nThe Department of Child Study met in the Central Presbyterian Church in joint\nsession with the Departments of Physical Education and of Women's Organizations, and\nwas called to order at 2:30 by the President, George E. Johnson.\nAfter some introductory remarks by the president, and announcements by the chairman of the local committee, the first paper of the program was presented by Will Grant\nChambers, professor of education University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburg, Pa., on \"Why\nChildren Play.\"\nIn the absence of the third speaker of the program, the president announced that\nLuther H. Gulick, president of the American Playground Association, New York City,\nwould occupy the time allotted to the second and third papers. Dr. Gulick spoke on the\nsubject, \"What Children Play.\"\nA brief and animated discussion followed the presentation of these papers.\nA Committee on Nominations was appointed by the president, as follows:\nSanford Bell, Denver, Colo.\nMrs. Sarah Piatt Decker, Denver, Colo.\nWilliam W. Hastings, Springfield, Mass.\nThe department then adjourned.\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Afternoon, July 8\nThe department was called to order at 2:30 by the president.\nThe program was introduced by a vocal solo by Dr. Vere D. Richards.\nSanford Bell, editor of The Rocky Mountain Educator, Denver, Colo., read a paper\non \"The Child in School Work.\"\n\"The Child in Industry\" was the subject of an interesting paper by Owen R. Lovejoy,\nsecretary of the National Child Labor Association, New York City.\nAfter a brief discussion, the meeting adjourned,\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Friday Afternoon, July 9\n\nThe department was called to order for its last session at 2:30 in the Central Presbyterian Church by the president.\nAfter several vocal selections by a local singer, and a brief resume of the first and\nsecond programs of the department by President Johnson, the first paper of the program,\n\"The Child in the Group,\" was presented by J. H. White, professor of psychology and\neducation, University of Pittsburg, Pittsburg Pa.\nBen. B. Lindsey, judge of the Juvenile Court of Denver, gave the second paper of\nthe afternoon on the subject, \"The Child and the Community.\"\nA brief discussion of Judge Lindsey 's paper was indulged in, during which several\nquestions were asked and answered.\nThe Nominating Committee then presented the following report:\n719\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "720\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nFor President — Will Grant Chambers, professor of education, University of Pittsburgh,\nPittsburg, Pa.\nFor Vice-President — A. H. Yoder, superintendent of schools, Tacoma, Wash.\nFor Secretary — C. B. Robertson, State Normal School, Cortland, N. Y.\nThe report of this committee was on motion unanimously adopted, and the nominees\ndeclared elected.\nThe department then adjourned.\nWill Grant Chambers, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nWHY\nWILL\n\nGRANT\n\nCHAMBERS,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nCHILDREN\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nPLAY\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nBURGH, PITTSBURG, PA.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nPITTS-\n\nWhy do children play? Schiller and Spencer explain play as an excess\nof energy in the playing individual. The energy not used up in the vital and\nnecessary activities of the organism is discharged into the muscles, and play\nis the result. Groos regards play as the functioning of instincts for which the\norganism has not, as yet, a serious need. For him the significance of play\nlies in its prospective reference ; it is the development and practice of abilities\nfor future use. Hall, as is well known, objects to this prospective emphasis\nand insists that play be explained in terms of its past. It is the functioning\nin the individual of racial activities many of which have long since ceased to\nbe directly useful. The significance of play lies not in what it is to become,\nbut in what it has been. Its satisfaction is historic rather than prophetic.\nLess well-known philosophers have offered other explanations which, at best,\nare but variations of those quoted.\nAttempts have been made to explain play, also, by contrasting it with work.\nThus Dewey writes: \"In play the activity is its own end; in work an aim is\nsought beyond the activity. Play does not distinguish between the process\nand its product; work makes such a distinction and emphasizes the product.\"\nOthers maintain that play is generalized activity while work is always specialized. And our own president, Mr. Johnson, has wisely suggested that perhaps the most fundamental distinction between play and work is the difference\nbetween the functioning of instinct and the functioning of habit.\nBut it is not from the philosophers that I have sought an answer to this\nquestion of why children play. If by a cause we mean that which is invariably associated, in the mind of the experient, with the occurrence of a given\neffect, it would seem the part of wisdom to inquire of the players themselves\nwhy they play. Tho the principle is not commonly recognized in educational\npractice, my studies of childhood have convinced me that the children themselves, inmost cases at least, can give more satisfactory answers, for educational purposes, to questions concerning themselves, than the profoundest\nphilosopher who fails to consult them.\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHY\n\nCHILDREN\n\nPLAY\n\n72I\n\nTo the children, therefore, I have turned for an answer. The publicschool pupils of a Pennsylvania city were asked, ''What game do you like to\nplay best and why?\"\nWritten answers were received from 2,481 children\nIranging in age from six years to eighteen years, from 1,212 boys and 1,269\nfeirls. A total of 280 different games was named by the children of all ages.\nThe boys named 162 different games, the largest variety, 53, being named at\nkge ten; the girls chose 186 different games, the largest group, 52, coming at\n|ige eight. The girls named a greater variety of games than the boys at every\nage between eight and sixteen inclusive, averaging 10 per cent, more games\nper capita; the boys tend, on the whole, to name fewer games with increasing\nage while the girls tend to name more.\nAt the risk of trespassing on the field of our second paper, ''What Children\nPlay,\" it seems desirable to make the following brief summary of the facts\ndiscovered in the classification of the games named by the children as their\nfavorites: Outdoor games were preferred by 55^ per cent, of the children and\nindoor games by 22 per cent. The former tendency increases constantly\nafter eight, while the latter diminishes to the thirteenth year, and then increases.\nGames which are necessarily social, that is, requiring the presence of other\nchildren, are named by 89^ per cent, of our contributors, while but 2 per\ncent, give evidence of preferring solitude, all being below the age of fourteen,\nand diminishing regularly in number after eight. The curve of social\ngames begins with 75 per cent, at age six and runs about 90 per cent, after\nten, reaching 100 per cent, at age \"sixteen.\nSixty-one per cent, like games involving physical activity and only 10 J per\ncent, prefer those which are chiefly mental, and the interesting, tho not altogether complimentary, fact about this last antithesis is that while preference\nfor physical exercise gradually increases from 40 per cent, at seven to 81 per\ncent, at seventeen, mental recreations diminish in popularity from 13^ per cent,\nat eight and nine to 5J per cent, at fourteen, increasing, however, during the\nnext two years to 18 per cent, and again falling off. The relative popularity\nof games requiring motor skill is indicated by the votes of 41 per cent, of the\nwriters. This is an increasing popularity, the curve rising from 27 per cent,\nat age nine, its lowest point, by a regular ascent to 72 per cent, at age seventeen\nand eighteen. The prominence of co-operative games at an early age is one of\nthe surprises of this study. We have been encouraged by earlier studies\nto expect an extreme individualism in the games of the smaller children\nand a progressive development of co-operation in the later years. In the\npresent study, 70 per cent, of the six-year-olds choose games which require\n. co-operation, and the curve rises with only two slight depressions to 89 per cent,\nat eleven, 97 per cent, at fourteen, and 100 per cent, at sixteen.\nAnother surprise is the small proportion of rhythmic games mentioned.\nOnly four boys and fifty-eight girls — about 2 J per cent, of the children —\nname games which are necessarily rhythmic, and five-sixths of these belong\nbelow age ten. Imitation and construction have but small places in the\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "722\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\npreferences of these children; less than half of i per cent, name a constructive activity, and only 3 per cent, mention games which are consciously\nimitative.\nComing now to the reasons given by these children for their preferences,\nwe approach more directly the answer to the question, \"Why do children\nplay?\" First we discover that iii per cent, of them, found chiefly in the\nearliest years, attempt no answer. They cannot tell why they play. About\n12 per cent., chiefly of the earlier ages, are satisfied with the very vague reason,\n\"It is a nice game,\" or \"It is a good game,\" or \"I like it best.\" Another\ngroup of almost 15 per cent, name some characteristic of the game, as \"Blind\nman's buflf, because they tie up your eyes.\" The first associated idea which\ncomes to mind is given as the justification for playing the game. This tendency\nis strongest at ages ten, eleven, and twelve. The next largest group play\nfor the activity involved; 17 per cent, play because \"There is running in it\"\nor because \"It is good exercise.\" This tendency culminates at age sixteen\nwith 38 per cent. And the largest group of all, including nearly 21 per cent,\nof the children, play because \"It is fun.\" To say that a game is \"good fun\"\nis to them an all-sufficient reason. This is a very popular reason from the\nninth to the fourteenth year inclusive. As this \"fun\" curve drops after\nfourteen, another, closely related but representing a higher degree of discrimination, rises to take its place. This is the curve representing the answers,\n\" It is interesting,\" and \" It is exciting.\" From the fourteenth to the eighteenth\nyear this group grows from 4 per cent, to 28^ per cent. Finally there are\nnumerous scattering reasons, such as companionship, no running, quiet, gaining information, rivalry, easy to play, pecuniary gain, developing muscle, etc.,\ngiven by from 10 per cent, to 12 per cent, of the children.\nThe principal sex differences brought out by this study are the following:\nGirls choose a larger variety of games than boys. Boys predominate in games\ninvolving physical exercise, in those requiring motor skill, in outdoor games\nand in solitary games. Girls lead in imitative games, in indoor games, in\ngames involving mental effort, and in rhythmic games. In social games and\nin co-operative games there is no significant difference.\nNow, if we bring this array of facts into relation to the various philosophies\nof play quoted in the beginning, what do we discover? We are driven, I\nthink, to an acknowledgment that each of those theories is correct if it be\nregarded as a statement of a single point of view rather than as a comprehensive philosophy. And we are further persuaded of the necessity of a restatement of the theory of play which shall comprehend, but not necessarily in a\nsingle formula, all the partial statements which are justified by the facts.\nWith this aim in view, then, let us briefly review these statements in the light\nof the discovered facts.\nThe surplus-energy theory of Schiller and Spencer receives no direct support\nfrom the answers of these children, tho there are certain implications in favor\nof it. The games chosen are chiefly those which require the expenditure of\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nepartment]\n\nWHY\n\nCHILDREN\n\nPLAY\n\n723\n\na great deal of energy, which must be in excess of that required for the vital\nprocesses, since these processes continue without interruption. That the\nexpenditure of energy in this form gives satisfaction is indicated by the fact\nthat one-fifth of the boys and one-sixth of the girls give as their reason for\nplaying their favorite game that there is running in it, or that it is good exercise. In addition to the implications in these statements we have the commonly\nrecognized arguments that sick children have little inclination toward play,\nand that the period of greatest playfulness in life is also the time when organic\nconditions are most favorable to the protection of the surplus energy. It\nseems fair to say, then, that whether the presence of surplus energy be considered the inciting stimulus of play or not, it is certainly the means by which\nit is carried on.\nThat play is the functioning of nascent instincts, not yet, if ever to be,\ndemanded for serious business, there is little room to doubt. This study\nand others have shown that play interests closely parallel the series of nascent\ninstincts which has been worked out by genetic psychologists. Not to mention\nspecific games, the present study shows the culminations of interest in certain\ntypes of games to assume the following order: (i) in the earliest years, indoor\ngames, rhythmic games, imitative games, soUtary games; (2) about the early\nteens, games of vigorous physical activity, outdoor games; (3) in the later\nteens, social games, co-operative games, games requiring motor skill, games\nchiefly intellectual. The relation of the games of these three periods to the\nnascency of instinct requires no elaboration.\nBut more convincing still is the evidence from the mental concomitants\nof play. The reasons which children give for their choice of games are indicative of strong impulse, intense feeling, and vivid but fleeting imagery; these\nare the psychic earmarks of instinctive action.\nWhen we come to the issue between Groos and Hall as to whether play\nshall be characterized as the exercise of abilities for future use, or the practice\nof racial endowments for present satisfaction, this study lends its support to\nthe latter. To be sure, there are evidences of differentiations of play which\ncorrespond to later differences of vocation; girls choose more rhythmic, indoor,\nimitative, and purely mental games than boys; boys name more outdoor, muscular, running games and those which require motor skill. But this does not\nmean so much that future work determines the nature of present play, as that\npresent play so satisfies present needs as to make possible certain kinds of future\naction — be it work or play. On the other hand, our evidence is almost wholly\nnegative as to any conscious relation in the minds of the children between\npresent play and future utilitarian activity. Note this contrast in their reasons\nwhich indicate absorption in the game itself as opposed to those which look\nbeyond the game : The groups headed \"No reason ;\" \" Names some characteristic of the game;\" \"There's running in it;\" \"It's good exercise;\" \"There's\nno running in it;'* \"It's a quiet game;\" \"It's a nice or good game;\" \"It's\nfun;\" \"It's interesting or exciting,\" and \"I like it best,\" aggregate 83.3 per\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\ncent.; while all the groups of reasons which could possibly be construed as\nhaving a future or utilitarian aim — \"It is a source of knowledge ; \" \"It requires\nskill or thought;\" \"It leads to possession or gain;\" \"It's healthy or develops\nmuscle;\" \"It is morally good,\" and other utilitarian reasons — aggregate but\n3 per cent. So far as the child knows his own mind, future utility has little\nto do with present play. One-fourth of i per cent, of the children name a\ngame involving construction.\nAs for the relations between play and work, the conclusions already presented suggest that, whether the opposite characteristics be true of work or not,\nthe classified play activities of these children seldom point to an end beyond the\nactivities; that these play activities are diffuse and general rather than specialized, especially among the smaller children; and that play involves the\nfunctioning of native instinct rather than of acquired habits. There is little\nor no evidence in the natural plays of children of conflicting impulses which\ndemand voluntary attention. It is the introduction of voluntary attention\nwhich transforms play into work. In play there may be a highly specialized\nmotor and mental reaction at the center of things, but it is reinforced by the\nco-operative reaction of every part of the organism. The entire psychophysical system is involved. In work, a successful outcome implies that all\nunnecessary movements shall be inhibited, and all irrelevant associations shut\nout of consciousness; both the motor and mental stream must run in the\nnarrowest possible channel direct to the goal. Play, on the other hand, is\nmost joyous when its movements engage every muscle and its imagery is\nmost varied and facile.\nThat play remains a much more general type of reaction than directly\nutilitarian activities, even in the later stages of its development, is easily\ndemonstrated. Functional psychology teaches us that definiteness of one's\nmental processes is proportionate to the accuracy of his motor reactions.\nA high degree of specialization on the motor side conditions a high degree of\nspecialization on the mental side. A bungling adjustment can produce naught\nbut a clumsy percept. Now all studies that have been made of children's\nreasons for doing things show a distinct progress in their conception of \"a\nreason\" from year to year. No such marked development appears in the\nreasons given by children for their choice of games. Even the answers of\nmost of the older children linger in the region of vague feeling or of chance\nassociation. I have already stated that more than 83 per cent, of the reasons\ngiven by children of this study are of this vague, accidental, or subjective sort,\nwhile but 3 per cent, are definite and objective. The culminations of the six\nmain tendencies of the first sort are as follows: age six, no reason; age eight,\n\"It's a nice or good game;\" age eleven, \"It's fun;\" age twelve, some characteristic ofthe game given as reason; age sixteen, \"There's running in it,\"\nor \"It's good exercise;\" age eighteen, \"It is interesting or exciting.\" It is\nevident that not much progress has been made in the clarification or objectification of these answers in twelve years of school life. I am disposed to\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nWHY\n\nCHILDREN\n\nPLAY\n\n725\n\nthat the best reason to be given by anyone for playing is a statement\ntilieve\ngeneral satisfaction.\nIf, then, we attempt an answer to the question why children play we\nust frame that answer in accordance with these principles:\nI. The answer must be twofold: it must include (a) the objective cause, that which\nis found to be invariably associated with play as part of an objective series; and (b) the\nsubjective cause, that which is invariably associated with play, in the mind of the player,\nand serves as his justification of the play activity.\n2. The answer must not be in terms of future consequences which are unforeseen by\nthe player, nor yet in terms of a past utility which is no longer operative.\n3. The answer must be in terms of the organism's present needs and satisfactions.\nProfessor Dewey has strongly emphasized, in his educational philosophy, the necessity\nof relating the education of a child each day to the vital needs of the child on that day\nand of judging it by its immediate effects rather than by remote consequences. While\nthe civilization of this present generation has undoubtedly grown out of the accompUshments of earlier generations, yet those earlier generations did not strive consciously for\nus; they were striving for the satisfaction of their own needs. And it would be no more\ncorrect to account for them in terms of us, than for us in terms of them.\n\nObjectively, then, play is the functioning of neuro-muscular systems\nwhose development is of supreme importance in the economy of organic Hfe.\nIn early life these systems are isolated, and often antagonistic to one another —\nfragments of what, in mature ancestors, were highly complex systems, functioning as important activities in their lives. But these minor fragmentary\nsystems are selected and transmitted, not on account of their past value to\nthe ancestors but on account of their value to their present bearers. Each\nnew motor co-ordination we develop is built up out of the fragments of old\nco-ordinations. The old complex motor habits must dis'ntegrate more or\nless completely before the new complex movements can be built up. Play\nreveals to the individual the fragments of ancestral adjustments which he has\nin his possession, for use as components of conduct; and it also serves to bring\nthese components together into such new co-ordinations as are of greatest\npresent value thru processes of selection and fusion. Figuratively speaking,\nplay holds in solution the elements of ancestral activities, and precipitates now\none adjustment and now another, according to the needs of the player. Because the play reaction involves all the neuro-muscular systems of the body, it\nresults in the development of a unity, a wholeness, a completeness of cooperation ofall parts of the organism which could be accomplished in no other\nway.\nIt is for these reasons, speaking biologically, that children play.\nSubjectively, children play because they enjoy it. I know of no better\nreason for a boy's playing ball than \"It is fun,\" or for a girl's dressing dolls\nthan \"I like it.\" As the diffused motor reaction of play is the most promising\nfor future efficiency, so the unspecialized pure joyousness, or sense of wellbeing, is the best start for mental sanity. Indeed, this heightened emotional\ntone is to the mental side what the diffused and energetic motor reaction is to\nthe physical nature; it is the condition for vivid imagery, for rapid and varied\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nassociations, thus making all of experience accessible to the needs of the\nmoment. The completeness of co-ordination of the varied movements of\nthe physical side of play is reflected in the unity and harmony of the vivid\nand facile imagery on the mental side. Indeed these may properiy be regarded\nas obverse and reverse of the same condition. The heightened sense of\nwell-being, the pure, objectless joy, which gives the consciousness of value\nto the child's play, is the survival in him of the lapsed precepts and images,\nof the fears and excitements which accompanied the ancestral activities of\nwhich his play is the expression. There is little of educative value in formal\ngymnastics or any kind of required physical exercise, because the soul is\nlacking. An hour of spontaneous play is worth a whole course of formal\ngymnastics, because the needs which play supplies are mental as well as\nphysical.\nPlay is nature's great educator. It reveals to the child his possibilities for\naction and puts him in possession of racial experience in its most plastic form,\nwithout burdening him with ready-made adjustments or with obsolete systems\nof knowledge. He is the architect of his own fortune tho he builds his mansion\nfrom the ruins of ancestral palaces.\nTHE\nOWEN\n\nR. LOVEJOY,\n\nGENERAL\n\nCHILD\n\nIN INDUSTRY\n\nSECRETARY, NATIONAL\nNEW YORK CITY\n\nCHILD\n\nLABOR\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe grouping of the program is an ideal one for the practical use of a child'c\nemployed time — school work, home work, industry. Its wise application,\ntogether with the recreation found in play, should provide the best preparation\nfor those relations suggested in the subsequent topic, ''The Child in Society.\"\nBut at present when we speak of industry, we mean commercial industry.\nThe industry in which children chiefly engage in this country is not a concomitant of the other two, but a competitor. In fact, so rapacious a competitor\nis commercial industry, that it not only claims the lion's share of each day, but,\nwherever possible, it determines the bounds of the school term to its own\nadvantage. As a result, we do not find this threefold opportunity open to all\nchildren, but a more or less sharp. division: many enjoying the advantages of\nemployment at school and at home; others consigned to the absorbing exactions ofindustrial pursuits.\nThe children of our country technically engaged in gainful occupations\nnumbered, by the census returns of 1900, something more than 1,750,000.\nThey are distributed in agriculture, domestic and personal service, trade and\ntransportation, mechanical and manufacturing pursuits.\nCritics of the active efforts to suppress child labor have assumed until\nrecently that the employment of children in agriculture is unobjectionable.\nRecent information, however, collected from localities in which children\nare largely engaged in agriculture, reveals that in many of its forms such\nemployment is fraught with serious objections.\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "[Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nIN\n\nINDUSTRY\n\n727\n\nThe fruit-canning regions of New York have shown very young children\nit heavy tasks thru excessively long hours, and at meager wages, not for a\nfew days of the summer vacation, as had been supposed, but thru many weeks,\n)metimes even seriously interfering with the spring and autumn months of\n:hool. In the growing beet-sugar industry of the middle and western states,\nrenditions of very heavy labor are developing similar to those already revealed\nvegetable-garden farms of the Atlantic seaboard states. The cultivation,\nirvesting, and stripping of tobacco utilizes the labor of children during the\nsummer months, and often they are kept from school two or three days a\n^eek during winter when weather favors the further preparation of the tobacco.\nPossibly the most injurious features of agricultural child labor are unsaniiry conditions and congestion that prevail in the shanties, and the custom of\nsmploying children in large groups under overseers whose only interest is to\njcure the maximum profit. These features indicate a transition from old\nlethods, when children were employed on their father's farm, to congregate\nlethods so characteristic of nearly all modern industry, and call for an entirely\nlew view of the child in agriculture.\nIn the other forms of employment referred to, especially trade and trans'portation and manufacturing and mechanical pursuits, there is little question\nas to the propriety of engaging very young children. At least that subject has\nbecome familiar and need not be reviewed here. Mines, quarries, glass\nfactories, textile mills, shoe factories, cigar and cigarette factories, have been\nthe themes of direct study in many recent discussions of child labor.\nIn addition to those more formal occupations, which preclude school\nattendance or even the enjoyment of home by daylight, there are other forms\nof work not practically mcluded in the divisions named that have received\nlittle attention, and the serious nature of which has scarcely begun to be\nappreciated. These are employments which do not in their nature prevent\nschool attendance, nor necessarily take the child from home. I refer to\nvarious street trades, and the household employment developed in the tenement\nsections of many larger cities. That practically no attention has been given\nto these industries is indicated by the census of 1900, which shows a total of\n668 newscarriers and newsboys between ten and sixteen years of age for the\nentire United States. Only twelve cities are shown to have any. Of these, r 1 1\nwere found in New York City. The same report shows a total of 260 artificialflower makers between the same ages, all found in one city. Other manufacturing industries commonly pursued in tenements are as meagerly treated.\nThe total for the United States is 3,430.\nNot only are these figures ridiculously inadequate to tell the story, because\nby the nature of the census tabulation children who attend school are returned\nas school children and cannot be enumerated elsewhere, but the report further\neliminates all under ten years of age. Evidently occupations in which enrolled\nschool children are involved make a heavy drain upon children under that\nage in some localities.\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "728\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nAs educators, the members of this Conference are particularly interested\nin the relation which industry, as applied to the child, bears to problems of\neducation.\nIf nearly two million children are industrially employed to the exclusion\nof participation in educational opportunities, the situation is serious, unless\nit can be shown that industry itself gives that educational opportunity essential\nto the development of good citizenship.. When to this we add the effects of\nthose forms of labor in which enrolled children engage, the situation is still\nfurther aggravated.\nThe subtraction of many thousand boys and girls from our schools at a\ntimfe when their elementary education is only begun, and the constant invasion\nof the school to take out for a day or two at a time those who do attend, are\nfamihar explanations of the state and government statistical reports on school\nattendance. These are further explained, especially in regions where vegetable,\nfruit, and fish canning prevail, by long vacations due to these seasonal trades.\nBut those reports can do little to reveal the domination of the school in some\nlocalities by controlling industrial enterprises, which not only destroy the\nhome and mold the desires of children of school age, but, thru the influence of\nlocal school boards, dictate conditions under which the teaching force shall\nwork. Neither can such reports throw much light on interference with scholarship, due to the exactions of morning and evening industry of newscarriers,\nmessengers, milk-route boys, street-lamp lighters, coke-oven attendants, glasshouse boys, and other school children to whom industry is theoretically only\nan avocation. Nor do they aid greatly in measuring the effects of four or\nfive hours spent nightly by little girls in some cities in the manufacture of\nartificial flowers, clothing, hats, toys, and other articles of commerce, under\nthe dim gaslight of unventilated tenement rooms, crowded to suffocation and\noften reeking with filth. A beginning is being made by studying the physical\ndefects of school children, which will eventually bring to view the logical fruits\nof our policy of putting children into industry.\nThe physical, moral, economic, and other social effects of child labor are\n•matters for the consideration of those specifically engaged in regulating this\nevil. Handicaps in later years from too early employment, preventing the\nadaptation of the worker to industrial opportunities, are beginning to be noted\nby those concerned with the economic nature of ethical questions. The\nproblem of the unemployed, the casual worker, the unskilled and poorly\npaid laborer whose family maintenance is involved in the question of his\nearly equipment, cannot be overlooked in a consideration of the nature and\neffects of child labor. But the problem for present discussion is the educational\neffect of the industrial employment of children. We are famiUar with the\nold claim that children are better off at work than living in idleness. This\ns made a defense of general opposition to child-labor legislation. We\nchallenge the assertion.\nWere there anything in the industry itself to compensate for absence or\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nIN\n\nINDUSTRY\n\n729\n\ninfrequency of school attendance, the situation would be less serious. But\n•careful consideration of the industries which chiefly engage young children\ncompels the opinion that in most of them there is little, and in many nothing,\nof educational value.\nThe principal professions and more intricate industrial branches require\nhigher preparation than formerly because of increasing exactions thru specialization. In ordinary forms of labor, however, the reverse tendency appears.\nBy the development of highly specialized machinery, decreasing demands\nare made on the strength or ability of the worker. The medical, legal, or\neducational speciaHst is the man who superimposes special training upon a\nbroad general foundation. The industrial specialist usually becomes such\nby substituting the highly developed operation of a set of muscles for any\ngeneral knowledge or appreciation of the processes in which he is but an\ninsignificant mechanical part. The bearing of this principle on the industrial\nactivities of children is significant. None of the higher branches of industry\nnor lines of professional activity could utilize the services of a very young\nchild. The very nature of the chief occupations in which young children\nengage renders them devoid of the educational element. And the younger\nthis specialization begins, the worse it is. Many find their early opportunity\nto work only a ''blind alley\" from which they are thrown out at eighteen or\ntwenty years of age, unskilled, untrained, to join the army of the unemployed.\nThe direct effect upon the industrial development of the child and his\nconsequent abiHty as a wage-earner is obvious. But not less important\n[is the more subtle effect, of interest at present chiefly to the educator — the\npsychological effect upon the child.\nChildren enter industry not for training, not to learn habits of punctuality,\nneatness, thoroness, system, but to get money. The financial return is the\ndominant motive. This is an important consideration in choosing a profession with those who have reached a degree of maturity, for we recognize the\neconomic basis of most forms of useful success. But in the child this potent\nincentive operates not to elevate, but to thrust into positions that offer most\nimmediate and satisfactory returns. Industry is a thing to be bought and\nsold.\nOur most important and significant activities are industrial, and should be\nso adjusted as to contribute to general culture. To develop in the mind of a\nyoung child a keen appetite for wages regardless of the nature or quality of\nthe work done is to rob industry of that educational value it rightly possesses.\nAt present to the vast majority industry is simply a means of sustaining life\nand stands as an obstacle to progress either in art or character.\nThis perversion consigns multitudes to forms of drudgery, poorly paid,\ndevoid of significance, and from which their every higher impulse struggles\nto be free. Its visible effects in those who have passed the period of childhood are familiar. Our city and village street-comers are thronged with\nyouthful idlers sixteen to twenty-one years of age. To them work is a dreaded\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "730\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\npenalty for being alive, which they propose to avert as long as possible. People\nin middle life have for the most part adjusted their bent shoulders to the heavy\nburdens and are trying with some degree of patience to meet the increased\nobligations, or they are victims of the rigors of hard work, broken in health,\nor crushed by accident. Beyond these, we find the logical sequel of our\ndominant policy in indigent old age, the crowning reward of hard and poorly\npaid toil.\nThe effect on industry itself is no less evident. It is a common observation\nthat things are now made not to use, but to sell. The charge is not without\nfoundation. Commercialized industry demands the largest returns from the\ninvestment and pays a premium to the workman who can make the most show,\nrather than to him who does the most conscientious work. The laborer\ninevitably responds to this stimulant, the result being the devotion of armies\nof workers to making articles of commerce which are comparatively worthless when made.\nFurther, in the exhaustion of the only reward of such labor by the purchase\nof things poorly and dishonestly made, the consumer plays an ever-losing\ngame. In this, all are victims, but the poor especially, because to their lot\nfalls most particularly the supply of overpriced articles, devoid of beauty,\nproportion, or reasonable utility.\nIndustry is the most fruitful field from which to harvest human culture,\nand an education that ignores it is not only defective, but unattractive to youth.\nTo combine book education with practical industrial processes is the ideal,\nconferring at once the most vital and most inexpensive system. The principle\nis already applied in well-equipped professional and technological schools in\nCincinnati and a few other cities. But if it is proposed to apply it in the\nelementary and high-school grades, a new problem enters — namely, the\nadaptability and promise of the available industries. The working-out of\nthe system is a problem for schoolmen; but it is the province of those\nfamiliar with child-employing industries to show how they cannot at present\nbe worked into the scheme for the elementary grades, and the continuation\nschool must find its place in our educational system for pupils of high-school\nyears.\nLet us frankly acknowledge that the factories which today can profit by\nthe work of little children are those in which the kind of training we seek is not\nfound. The wages of the child worker are meager, insuflScient to maintain\nlife. This is the least important fact, if the child were at the same time\nbecoming trained. But the processes are extremely monotonous in character,\nprevent symmetrical mental or technical development, and the opportunities\nto pass from one branch to another, and thus gain an all-round training, are\ntoo few to be significant. Besides, the danger to morals, health, or life from\nmany industries which would be the only available ones in certain localities\nbar them definitely as fit places for carrying on any kind of educational process.\nConsider, for example, the glass industry, in which the only positions open\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nIN\n\nINDUSTRY\n\n731\n\nto young boys require their presence at night every alternate week. What\n^intelligent parent would consent to the exposure of a boy of eight, ten, twelve,\nIor fourteen years to the conditions in a typical glass-house ? We need not\nenter into detail to describe the moral peril from association with men, intent\non material rewards, and looking on the boy as a part of the money-making\nf^machine; or the physical cost of a system of night work which violates every\nknown law of medical science.* The child is trained to see how fast he can\ntravel from the finisher to the annealing oven, taking an athletic exercise\nbetter taken in a well-equipped gymnasium, or still better an open field;\nor is trained to sit as long as he can, bent over an iron mold, which he opens\nand shuts, his shoulders bent forward, his lungs contracted, and his face bathed\nin scalding perspiration. Yet, if the factory is to be made the adjunct of the\nschool, this is the only accessible opportunity in many communities.\nOr consider the rumbling coal-breaker, in which ten thousand tons of\ncoal a day are crushed in monster jaws and hurled down giant slides, to be\npicked and sorted for impurities by little boys who can neither see nor hear\nfor the dust and roar. Shall the school in these communities utilize this to\nfurnish that industrial training we are told must be had in the open market\nunder competitive conditions, instead of in the school ?\nThe chief textile industries present different conditions, but from the\nstandpoint of the educator, not less serious. To become the expert attachment of a wonderful piece of machinery in a cotton hiill is not the ideal we\nhave in mind when we refer to industrial development. A child of eight\nyears can learn to do that with profit to the employer in less than a month.\nAfterward, habit guides her accurately. Yet many are confined at such tasks\nfor five or ten years, learning nothing, thinking nothing, breathing the moist\nair of the mill, and becoming reduced to the plane of machines. Undoubtedly\nhigher ability comes with generations of specialization. A leading defender\nof child labor in his own southern cotton mills tells me the reason New England\noperatives are more skillful than the Southern is because children \"inherit\nthe knack of it.\" In other words, they inherit an industrial deformity. They\ncan produce more with less mental or physical power.\nIn teaching trades to children, local industries should not be utilized unless\nthey are proper ones. Teaching them in the schoolroom instead of the factory\ndoes not make them more desirable. There is no particular value in stimulating young children to recruit the ranks of already underpaid and overworked\ntoilers in certain traded by giving them at public expense an initiation into the\nindustry. Conceivably, arrangements could be made at slight expense to\ntrain children in the dominant industries of certain localities, thus making\nthem at an earlier age skilled as textile workers, garment workers, hat, toy,\nbox, and artificial-flower-factory operatives. But with what result ? We\nrelieve the manufacturer of the loss he now sustains thru inefficiency of beginners, and we aggravate the competition that has already placed these industries\non the border between self-support and dependence.\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "732\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nThe claim is made that industrial education should be self-supporting on\nthe principle that children should be taught to make marketable goods in\ncompetition with prevailing factory conditions. That principle is sound as\napplied in higher industries, demanding skill, training, mental action, and commanding living wages. My point is that commercialized industries which\ncan profitably utilize little children cannot be classed with industries that\nprofitably utilize youth and adults. There is a fundamental distinction. The\nhigher industries broaden and enrich life. These lower industries dwarf and\nimpoverish. The returns to be sought from industrial training of children\nare indirect, in the development of citizenship.\nUnder existing conditions, and we fear for many years, the overwhelming\nmajority must earn their livehhood in some of those mechanical forms of\nindustry, which neither develop them physically, nor otherwise contribute to\nenriching their lives. We thus compel many, in the words of John Stuart\nMill, **to sacrifice themselves to their fellow-citizens and to prosperity.\"\nIt may be asked, then, if these school children are ultimately to be ordinary\nfactory employees, destined as mere cogs in a great machine, going faithfully\nto their monotonous machine-craft each morning, returning wearily at night,\nwhat profit in teaching them handicrafts in school ? Why awaken a love for\nthe beautiful, the well-created, if they must abandon it in later years ? If they\nare to learn industry, should it not be practical? Should they not learn to\nproduce goods that can compete with factory products in open market ? This\nis, in fact, the same question in another form and the answer is no less definite.\nOur aim is the equipment of the worker. Industry as a basis for usefulness\nand happiness must be impressed on childhood, not industry for the sake of\nmoney. Every child who goes out of our public schools should be industrially\ntrained, not for the purpose of commercializing that training, but as an essential\nelement in character development.\nSuch an underlying principle would break down the present tendency\nto class distinction, and the necessary training would be applied alike to rich\nand poor. Private schools offer an outlet for those whose opposition could\nnot be surmounted. No boy or girl should fail to get mind and hands industrially trained so as readily to apply to such opportunities as will be presented,\nnor fail to secure that training which will make clear the dignity and honor\nof all forms of industrial labor.\nThere is another reason for teaching handicrafts to future machine\ncraftsmen. To comprehend the economic value, as well as the general social\nvalue from this deliberate public investment in industrial training, we must\nimagine many thousands of such children sent forth from our schools as compared with those turned out today. We should note the revolt against conditions that prevail. We should inevitably witness the gradual development\nof industry congenial to the type of workmen produced. Generations of\ntraining may be necessary to accomplish this result and such a system will\nmean hardship for the pioneers.\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nGROUP\n\n73^\n\nIt is our contention that such men and women as this training would\nproduce cannot be reduced to mere machines. Tho frequently reduced to\nthe necessity of performing unmeaning and monotonous tasks, the earlier\nddeals, the comprehension of the significance of industry in world development will be a continual and inspiring asset and will render them discontented\ntwith industry as it exists today and inspire them to transform it. Beyond\nthis, a man industrially capable could not be driven to the extremes so frequent in labor disputes. That man is essentially a maniac who sees slipping\nfrom him the chance to drive pegs in a shoe, or run a stamping machine, or do\nsome other trivial task which is the only thing he knows how to do, because that\njob stands between him and the hungry eyes of his children. But suppose\nhim so intelligent in hands and brain that he can turn himself to any one of a\ndozen simpler branches of manufacture, he becomes at once able to discuss\nterms with his antagonist. The opposition of the trade-unionist, expressed\nin the statement that \"the handy man\" is the worst enemy of labor, is based\non a judgment of present conditions, not at all upon conditions that would\nprevail under the system herein suggested. We are not advocating the development of thousands of workmen, each capable of doing many things indifferently; we are urging such development as will render industrial workers\ncapable of doing a number of things well.\nWe spend millions of public and private funds every year to give our people\neducation, and for the most part it is an education foreign to experience\ngleaned from other fields. This fundamental pedagogical element cannot\nbe ignored, and when it so happens that the very experience most essential\nto human development, namely, industrial experience, is one fitted to pay its\nown way, why not avail ourselves of it to the fullest extent ? In default of\nthis we may exhaust our material resources in trying to educate our youth,\nbut we shall not succeed. Education and life cannot be separated and our\neducational program must be an integral element of industrial life, not something superimposed.\nTHE\nJ. H.\n\nWHITE,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nCHILD\n\nIN THE\n\nOF PSYCHOLOGY\nAND\nPITTSBURGH,\nPITTSBURG,\n\nGROUP\nEDUCATION,\nPA.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nHuman nature everywhere, and at all times, has certain inherited tendencies\nwhich, thruout the life-history of the individual, constitute the essential motive\npowers of all thought and action. The hygienic development of the individual\nmeans a growth and an adjustment of these tendencies such as not only leads\nto the very ablest expression of every normal phase of the individual as such,\nbut at the same time fits that individual to the interests of the group in which he\nlives. Whether it be the savage or the child, the only way that the individual's\ncapacities, at first so rudimentarily instinctive, can be perfected in content,\nand that content then be brought into well-adjusted mental systems, is thru\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nlife in the group, learning to think as the group thinks, to feel as the group feels,\nto do as the group does — learning the give-and-take of all normal life. The\ncriterion by which every thought, every feeling, every action is determined, is\nnot an individual, but an objective, social one.\nIf for any reason, whether it be the instability of the group or the fact that\nit is a group with which the individual cannot fall into reciprocal interaction, or\nwhether it be the non-plastic condition of the individual himself, if for any\nreason the individual fails to get the needed mental discipline thru social\nintercourse with his fellows, we cannot hope to have an individual with capacities fully realized either as to self or society. He will be lacking in both\nthe material content and the organization of his apperceptive systems, and in\nthe more delicate and subtle feelings and emotions that always accompany them.\nHe will be lacking also in his appreciation of the interests of his fellows, and\nin his ability to co-operate with them. The new psycho-genetic and pedagogical literature is just beginning to make clear the extreme importance of this\nsocial phase of education.\nIn a consideration of the child in the group certain large features of the\nproblem suggest themselves at once.\nFirst, The child has a long period of plasticity and educability. This is\nthe period in which the big changes are wrought in the content and organization of his thought, feeling, and action. His capacities now become more or\nless fully realized.\nSecond, The child's environment from the beginning is social. He is\nfrom birth a member of a family and group whose customs are to become his\ncustoms, and whose laws are to become his laws. He is dependent not so\nmuch upon his bodily strength and instinctive capacities as he is upon his\nsocial environment. It is in his plastic period that he receives his ''social\ninheritance.\" He learns intelligent and reflective co-operation. He learns\nhis part in the clash of efforts and ideals necessary to all progress and at the\nsame time finds in it all but the resultant of differing personalities, living by\ncomradeships, sympathies, agreements, loves.\nThird, The child has a social instinct that varies in its expression with\nthe development of the child. Among his different hereditary tendencies,\nthere is one that we may safely speak of as the social instinct. Because of\nthe early association of that mstinct with every form of thought, feeling, and\naction, it is the one that fits the child for that needed discipline which can\ncome only thru contact with other minds. It holds the child to the group, that\nevery tendency he has may be trained to its normal proportion. His assurance\nabout his fellows arises by means of the very interests whereby he gradually\ncomes to his own self-consciousness. If he be the only child in a family,\nwhether his home be poor or good, he makes up almost a distinct class. ''Mental and physical defects of a grave characer are more common among only\nchildren than among other children.\" Their attendance at school, their\nsuccess in school work, and their ability to take part in co-operative games are\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nGROUP\n\n735\n\nall below the average. \" Selfishness is the most frequently named of the worst\ntraits.\" Many of these peculiar characteristics can be attributed directly\nto a lack of life in a group of his own age. A defective or a secluded child is\nalways lacking both individually and socially. On the other hand, as\nBaldwin suggests, there is no one but has noted the remarkable sharpness\nand alertness of the street boys, who have gained much of that sharpness and\nalertness from their methods of life. The normally developed child in every\ncase grows individually in direct proportion to his growth socially.\nThe social discipline that awakens and develops the child's every tendency\nbegins in the home. It takes but a few months for him to distinguish the\ntouch, the facial expression, and the voice of the mother or nurse. As\nPresident Hall says: ''She, for a time, embodies his entire world of others\n.... and from her all other persons are learned and differentiated.\" All\nhis earliest experiences are under the guidance of persons, and he becomes\nso accustomed to associating persons with things that, much as the race at\none time did, he shows the tendency to think in personal terms. It is a long\ntime before he is able clearly to distinguish between the personal and the nonpersonal elements of his experience.\nThe young child up to ten or eleven necessarily has interests in what to the\nmature person might amount to but little or nothing. His physical and mental\ncapacities are still those of a child, and yet their exercise calls for that reinforcement, byactual recognition from others, that means so much to the\nlittle child. At this time when alone, especially if an only child, he is having\nhis imaginary companions, and his day dreams are beginning. Curiosity\nis playing as great a role, perhaps, in arousing the social sense as does recognition. The questioning period- is always the period of most rapid growth\nin social insight.\nSoon the home shares the time of the child with the school and the church,\nand with groups here and there on the playground. The child's emotional\nand intellectual interests are rapidly widening, always accompanied by a\nparallel growth in social breadth. The boy's interests broaden beyond the\nnarrow bounds of the home and the school, and he enters the larger social\nworld of the street and the gang. He is ready to advance into more elaborate\nphases of self-consciousness and social consciousness. He becomes an active\nmember of one or more spontaneous organizations. He is just on the border\nof adolescence. His ''unselfing\" begins. His day dreams take on more\nventuresome characteristics and result in larger plans and ideals. Team work\nnow characterizes his plays and games. A gradually increasing interest is\nshown in all kinds of social affairs and in the other sex. He has new things\nto show off now. His social discipline thus far has carried him beyond the\nstage of asking recognition for some newly mastered physical or mental feat\nto things that have greater social value, as physical strength, agility, endurancekeenness\n;\nof perception, retentiveness of memory, accuracy of judgment,\npower of critical analysis; ability to excel in debate, oratory, music, or other\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "736\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CMld-Study\n\naccomplishments; scholarship; wealth; family connections; ancestry. But\nthese are only transitional phenomena and the greatest care must be taken\nthat there be no arrest at this stage of the child's development. There is an\nimportant social gauntlet yet to run. This individual must be brought to see\nthat the real worth of a man depends not so much upon the exceptional capabilities he has, as upon the worthy use he makes of them. His sense of\npersonal responsibility becomes larger, more self-sustaining, more reflective,\nthus showing that his social and moral self has reached a rather high degree\nof development. He is now ready to enter into purposeful co-operation with\nthe group or groups in which he is to live.\nFourth, The child when alone is a different individual from the same child\nin a group. Everyone has observed how thoughts, feelings, and actions vary\nin the various groups of which he is a member. Place a mature man, for\nexample a professional man, in his home group, before his students in the\nlecture-room, in the session of a scientific association, on a board of examiners,\nin a law-making assembly; place a young man, say a student, alone with his\nbooks, in the classroom with lecturer and classmates, with fellows in a student's\nlodging, or on a walk; place a child alone in a room, on the playground with\nother children, in the family, in the school; and that man, that youth, that\nchild will be a different individual according to the different respective positions in which we have placed him. He will show different thoughts and\nfeelings, different capacities, different morals and intelligence.\nWhen it comes to the matter of school children at the middle of the plastic\nperiod performing a simple physical act, such\" as turning a reel at the highest\nrate of speed, careful experiments have shown that when a coworker is present,\nbesides the organic changes such as labored breathing, greater rigidity of\nmuscles, and flushed faces, there is also an increase in the amount of work done.\nThe dynamometer and the ergograph have been used in experiments on the\nindividual alone and in a group showing the same results, and they further show\nthe marked influence of muscular and word-suggestion in increasing the\namount of work done. Meuman finds that without a single exception children\nwhen working in a group remember considerably more than when alone. He\nreaches the general conclusion that with every change in the external situation\n— ^in the coworkers present, in the suggestions given by the experimenter —\nthe amount of work is altered in a typical manner, and these changes appear\nin the same way in the case of children of different ages, altho they are larger\nin the case of younger children. The long series of memory tests by Lippman,\nby Stem, and by Borst corroborate Meuman's results in a striking manner.\nMayer, with this same problem in mind, made investigations regarding the\nability to do school work, endeavoring to determine whether, and under what\nconditions, the work of pupils in a group gives better results than the work of\nthe same pupils when isolated. With twelve-year-old boys as subjects he\nused such tests as dictation, mental arithmetic, memory tests, the Ebbinghaus\ncombination test, and written arithmetic.\nHe found in general that the work\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": ">epartment]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\n737\n\n)f the pupils in groups is superior to their work as individuals. This was\nipparent not only in the decrease of time but in the superior quality of work done.\nWe see therefore from both the observational and experimental phases\n'of this problem, so far as we have results, that the child varies according to\nwhether he is alone or in a group, and varies more or less in certain definite\ndirections.\nWhen we take into consideration the fact that the child brought up alone\ncan never come to a proper understanding of himself; that he has a social\ninstinct and a limited plastic period in which his hereditary equipment, if\never, is brought to its realization; that his environment from the beg'nning\nis social and that his response to it in thought, feeling, and action varies with\nhis development; that when in a group he is a diJfferent individual from what\nhe is when alone, more apt, both physically and mentally; when we take into\nconsideration all these facts and the related ones, we begin to realize the\nimmense significance of the problem of the child in the group. We begin\nto realize how incalculable would be he value of the solution to this problem\nand the right application of that solution in the home, in the school, and in\nsociety.\nWe can say nothing final now. The problem of the child in the group is\nstill in the experimental stage. The many arguments for and against classteaching are still very largely matters of opinion. The many attempts in\nself-government and related endeavors in this country and in Europe are only\ntests. The laboratory experiments mentioned above are but the initial\nsteps in the investigation of the problem and so do not pretend to give conclusive evidence. The problem is still unsolved. However, we have gone\nsufficiently far in its investigation and the investigation of related phenomena\nthat we can say with a fair amount of assurance that so far as the practical\napplication of the results are concerned, it should be our attempt not to destroy\nthis grouping instinct, but to learn how best to turn it to a good advantage\nin the proper training of our children.\n\nBEN.\n\nB.\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nLINDSEY,\n\nJUDGE\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nJUVENILE\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\nCOURT,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nI am taking for my text a recent case in the juvenile court, for I know of\nno better way to emphasize the relation of the child in the community than\nthru dealing with some concrete cases that constantly face the officers of that\ncourt.\nTen or twelve little fellows ranging in age from nine to thirteen years were\ncomplained of by a woman of the neighborhood. She said they swore at her,\nand when she passed them on the street accosted her with vile epithets and\notherwise made her life a burden. She was confident that all of these boys\nwere httle limbs of Satan, without home or school training, and only fit for\nthe reform school. The better part of her backyard was given over to a\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\n738\n\nchicken coop. They had killed one of her chickens, and the long string of\ncomplaints against these youngsters made what appeared to be a prima\nfacie case of lawlessness that was a disgrace to all of their training. The\nlittle culprits, arraigned in court and relieved of their terror, developed\nan advocate in a little eleven-year-old. His explanations were typical of that\nfrequent, and, on the part of the child, unconscious indictment of the community and the individual in the community. ** It was this way. Judge,\" he said,\n**you see the only place we have to play ball is back of her house, and sometimes we knocks the ball in her yard, and when we goes over there to get it she\nthreatens to have us arrested. She calls us all kinds of names, and once she\ngrabbed our ball and wouldn't give it back to us.\" More or less terrified\nwhen the officer was called in, the youngsters all denied that they had called\n\"the lady\" any names. The ball had struck one of the complainant's chickens, and there was a demand also that the boys or their parents be compelled\nto pay for the chicken, and the complainant fixed the value of the chicken at\n$3 . cx). She explained with great detail that the chicken was a pullet, which\nshe said was different from a hen, and, because of its youth, worth much more\nthan a hen. However much we may admit a certain amount of natural or\neven vicious rowdiness on the part of boys, my own experience with socalled juvenile lawlessness of this kind has convinced me that the great number\nof cases involve just as much, if not more, fault on the part of the community\nand the attitude of the individual in the community toward the child than the\nchild itself. Of course, we may question the wisdom of using this as an excuse\nto be availed of by the child; but in spite of all of our efforts to avoid any such\nattitude which might encourage rather than discourage lawlessness, the\naverage twelve-year-old American boy inherently and naturally sees and\nfeels the injustice involved. No person has a keener sense of justice than a\nchild. Observe the cross-examination by the little advocate:\n''Haven't we got a right to play ball ?\"\n\"Yes, but you mustn't disturb Mrs. Jones.\"\n\"But we couldn'.t help the ball going over in her yard.\"\n\"But you must be very careful not to bat the ball in that direction; you\nmight break her window or kill her chickens.\"\n\"But we can't help the ball going over there sometimes — and has she\nany right to keep our ball, because when I asked her for it she just called me\nall kinds of names and said she would have us arrested ?\"\nAnd so the colloquy continues. If it wasn't for the danger of being misunderstood, and of course the unwisdom of any such statement in the presence\nof these boys, I, as a just judge, might very properly have responded: \"Yes,\nyou have a perfect right to play ball. If the city, if the community in which\nyou live hasn't provided you a playground within a reasonable distance of\nyour homes, and the vacant lot adjoining Mrs. Jones' place is the only ballgrounds you have, or if the street is the only place to play, then play in the\nJones' lot or play in the street, but, whatever you do, play ball. If the ball\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "ik^\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\n739\n\n* accidently goes in Mrs. Jones' backyard, and she doesn't return it to you but\nkeeps it, we will send an oflficer to Mrs. Jones' house and demand that she\nreturn that ball or be prosecuted for larceny. If Mrs. Jones is so ignorant,\nso grouchy, so petulant, so absurd as to call you names and threaten you with\nthe police and the jail I think you ought to be little gentlemen enough not to\nimitate her example in back talk; but if you swear back at her in the natural\ncourse of weak human nature, she got just what was coming to her, however\ndistressing it may have been.\" Of course, my friends, this very righteous\ncondemnation of the community for its attitude toward the child would have\nbeen received by a great many individuals as a plain case of encouraging\nlawlessness in the juvenile world, and the court would have been condemned\naccordingly.\nI am not here to excuse the waywardness of the child in the community,\nmuch less to justify it; neither am I here to apologize for lawless little citizens,\nbut I am here to point out that injustice of which we have had entirely too\nmuch in the past, which would seek to put upon the child burdens that properly\nbelong to the community as a whole, and in too many cases are created by\nignorance, selfishness, and injustice of the individuals of the community in\ndealing with childhood. It is only within recent years that the community\nhas begun to awake to its responsibility as a community for the child. While\nresponsibility rests most with the home and the parent, the home and the\nparent cannot do their full duty toward the child, nor the child receive the\nfull measure of benefit from the teaching of the parent, unless the effort of\nthe parent be supplemented by the community in the discharge of its duty\ntoward the child. The cities in this country represent the highest development of community life. As it is the right of all men and women to found\nhomes and rear children, so there comes a corresponding duty to every individual inthe community, who may enjoy these rights, whether accepting them\nor not, to take some of the responsibility and cheerfully accept some of the\nhazards, the annoyances, and the difficulties that come to individuals because\nof necessary conditions of community life.\nJust as, in return for the benefits thru the establishment of government and\nthe maintenance of law, the individual must sacrifice some of his personal\nliberty and accept uncomplainingly and patriotically certain obligations and\nburdens of the community as a whole, so in return for the blessings of children .\nmust each individual and each community be willing to undergo uncomplainingly some reasonable sacrifice on behalf of the childhood of the community.\nBut in this respect how thoughtless and short-sighted we have all been in\nthe past. I think we can say without boasting that our own beautiful city\nhas, as much as any city in this country, done its part for its children; but\nI recall very well within much less than ten years appearing before the Park\nBoard to advocate public playgrounds, to be met with cynical indifference\nby the then members of the Board and to have it pointed out to me, as the\nconsoling answer to our pleas, that there were enough vacant blocks in Denver\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "740\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Study\n\nfor the children to play, or if there were none in the immediate neighborhood\nthere must be some within a mile. ** And,\" said one member of the Board to\nme upon one occasion, \"I frequently walked a mile to the old swimming-hole,\nand why can't the boys in the district walk a mile, if necessary, to the baseball\ngrounds?\" Another argument was something like this: ''Where is this\nthing going to end ? If we provide playgrounds for these kids what is to\nprevent the demand that we provide other things?\" \"Yes,\" we replied,\n' ' there is nothing to prevent it, but everything to demand it. We want a public\nnatatorium, a public trade school, a recreation center, and if the children get\nhungry and the parents cannot feed them, we will in the end want you to do\nthat — just that. In a word, there is absolutely nothing that the child needs\nwhich the parent for any fair reason cannot furnish, which it is not the duty of\nthe community to supply.\"\nIt is very difficult to put any limit upon the duty of the community to the\nchild. It is certainly coextensive with that of the parent, if there be no parent,\nor if the parent be helpless or the child suffer from the parents' neglect.\nOne of the greatest gains for the child is that which comes thru the conversion of the community to its duty toward the child. Nine-tenths of the work\nis done in bringing about the conversion. It had always been a theory of\nmine, for example, in the early fights for public playgrounds and public baths,\nthat when the first appropriation came for these things, when the city authorities intrusted with the money and power of the people to establish them took\nthe first step, made the first appropriation, builded the first playground, the\nfirst natatorium, nine-tenths of the work was done. After that it was only a\nquestion of the momentum that would be gained thru the force of the principle\nfinally accepted. I have not been disappointed in this theory; on the contrary\nit has been more than demonstrated in this community, and I believe in other\ncommunities. There was a time when we had to go before the Park Board\nwith statistics in an appeal to the pocketbook to show how it had cost this\ncity and county $40,000 in one year for prosecutions of juveniles in courts\nand their care in institutions, largely because the community had failed in\nits duty toward the child. There were at that time no public playgrounds,\nno natatoriums, and such complaints as that I have referred to were constant.\nThe police were burdened with complaints from prudish people against the\nnaked little kids in every convenient puddle, swimming-hole, or wading-place\nin the city. In the early days of our court we let the little boys in scanty\nattire bathe in the fountain pools in our court-house yard on the theory that a\ncommunity which could afford thousands of dollars every year in maintenance\nand decoration of aluminum nymphs and statues of nude women sporting\nthemselves in expensive artificial showers, could at least provide something\nof the kind for needy flesh and blood that clothed the human souls of its future\ncitizens. Prudish people would come for blocks out of their way to gaze\nupon the half-clad youngsters, who were so much more shocking than the\nnaked statues that never drew a protest; and upon their complaint the police\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\n741\n\nwould chase the dripping live-nymphs, who not only didn't have to be brought\nto our court, but took refuge there, assured of protection. In those days it\nwas hard to make the dull-minded understand the value of a heroic effort to\narouse the community to its responsibility for the child and the natural normal\npleasures of the child that, unless permitted a natural outlet, are sure to\nexpress themselves in lawlessness. But the lesson worked. The same city\ngovernment that first pooh-poohed our demands responded to the demands of\npublic education, that came with public agitation, with the playgrounds and\nthe public bath, whereas, before they were educated, before they felt the\npressure of public sentiment (which is only public education), they were as\ndense as they were dumb to such appeals.\nSuch complaints as I have mentioned, such incipient lawlessness and\nmany other examples of kindred nature which I could describe have either\nceased or materially decreased just in proportion as the community has\nawakened to its own culpabiHty, to its own part in the lawlessness of which it\nhad complained and which it sought in the past to place alone upon the\nshoulders of the child.\nIn short, even at the expense of overlooking the child's part in the case,\nwhat we did was to indict before the bar of justice the community as a whole\nand that individual who thru selfishness or ignorance, and sometimes viciousness, was an infinitely more important person to be proceeded against than the\nchild brought dripping from the public fountains by the poHceman or deprived\nof his play in the neighborhood without a playground. Frequently there is\nin the complaint of the neighbor, who saw in the breaking of a window only\njuvenile lawlessness, mere personal selfishness and a disinclination to bear\nsome burdens that rightly come with God-given rights and the advantages\nof- community life.\nIn the cases I have described, as in most such cases, we find the child the\nmost reasonable and the most just of all those involved. They readily agreed\nto pay \"the lady\" for the unfortunate pullet and promised solemnly to respect\nher privacy. I had merely reasoned with the little prisoners — conceding\ntheir rights and the \"lady's\" rights — bespeaking for her their patience and\nmanly bearing under trying provocations. As the gang, restored to freedom,\ndescended the Court House stairs the little advocate, voicing their united\nsentiment, piped back to the probation officer, \"Say, tell the Jedge we're\nvery much obliged to him.\" But \"the lady\" saw in this appreciation of\njustice only encouragement of crime, for the policeman on the beat, knowing\nvery well the attitude and ignorance of \"the lady\" and \"no place to play\"\nwas the chief cause of the trouble, found it easier for his own relief to comfort\n\"the lady\" with the relieving assurance that it was \"no use to arrest those\nkids, for the judge would only let 'em go.\"\nIf the child in the community is to have justice and the community itself\nis to be most relieved of those annoyances that come from the misdirected\nenergy of youth, the individuals composing the community must be educated\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "742\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Study\n\nto a better understanding of childhood. Most cases of so-called juvenile\nlawlessness in communities are merely cases of juvenile naturalness misunderstood or misdirected.\nI recall two cases of what the boys call a \"charivari.\" One developed\nhalf a dozen neighborhood rows; another lasting loyalty and friendships.\nIn the one case it was resented with threats that incited a riot and in the\nother it was welcomed with the good humor that prompted it.\nSuch cases constantly remind us of the necessity for one of the greatest\nof all remedies for a certain kind of juvenile misunderstanding that so\nfrequently provokes communities. I refer to that tact and kindliness that is\nbom of a wise self-control in individuals. It is the foundation of the active\nand well-directed patience that is the most effective weapon in such cases.\nIt promotes understanding rather than misunderstanding. It is the same\nwisdom that restrains the neighbor from chasing the small boy who rings the\nfront door bell. It made a certain little mother master of a bad(?) gang,\nwhose ravages of back porches brought complaints by the score to police and\ncourt. • She did not threaten, she did not complain. One day while watching\nfor the assault of the invaders of her backyard, she suddenly appeared smiling\nher sweetest smile, invited the whole gang in to partake freely of the ice cream\nthey sought to steal, and ever after it was worth a good drubbing to any boy\nin that neighborhood to molest the back porch of the little mother. It may\nhave been the loyalty of the savage, but it was loyalty, and loyalty is worth\ncultivating.\nI am not suggesting this as the remedy, of course, for every such difficulty\nbut as an example of the conquering spirit; I wish it could be more understood\nand applied in every community. If it is not more prevalent in the community's attitude toward the child it is because it is not more prevalent in other\ndepartments of life. All the courts or probation schemes on earth can never\neffectively correct the faults of the child so long as there remain the faults\nof those who deal with children in homes, in schools, in neighborhoods —\nin the community itself. There can be no court, no institution, for the protection ofthe community against the faults of children that is fair or just unless\nit carry with it powers for the protection of children against those who deal\nwith them, and a part in the education of the community to its own responsibility for the child.\nIf the community is to assume a certain responsibility for the child it must\nexercise a certain supervision over the child, the parent, and the home. It\nmust by wise laws, w^'sely enforced, see that the parent does not shirk, does not\ndodge, because purely in the interests of the homeless child or the child from\nthe careless or helpless home it has to perform certain parental duties. This is\nbeing done by the contributory dependency and delinquency laws, and while\nsomewhat new and poorly understood and enforced as yet, they bid fair to\nperform an important part in the solution of this great problem. But here,\nas everywhere, education offers our greatest hope for the future.\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\n743\n\nIt is within much less than half a century that the community has awakened\nito its responsibility for the child, and I think we may safely assume that no\n;more fundamental changes are possible in our present system of civilization\n[and government than those that affect the home and the child, and the responsirbility of the parent to the community for the child and the community to the\nchild for itself.\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam Riley Callicotte, lecturer for Colorado State Bureau of Child and Animal\nProtection, Denver, Colo. — The teaching of the rights of children and the rights of dumb\nanimals has never been recognized in our courses of study as it should be.\nMan has arrogated to himself too much and ignored the rights of his humbler brothers .\nWe have much to learn from the barnyard, the field, and the forest.\nThe dumb animal has a right, the same as man, to life, liberty, and happiness, and\nit is the duty of man, the higher life, to see that he gets food, drink, shelter, and all that\nmakes life enjoyable to the lower animal. The life of these lesser creatures must not be\ntaken save for the absolute necessities of the higher life.\nThese principles should be taught regularly in our schools as other branches of study\nare taught, thus developing the child in kindness, love, and good-will toward all living\ncreatures.\nThe rights of children and dumb animals are closely related, and may reasonably be\nconsidered together in a course of moral training.\nColorado has a State Bureau of Child and Animal Protection, and laws requiring\ninstruction to be given in all public schools on the humane treatment of dumb animals.\nI hope that this Association will give a place for a paper on \" The Rights of Children\nand Dumb Animals\" at our next session, as this subject cannot be neglected in moral\ntraining without seriously affecting the child.\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^William W. Hastings, editor of Hygiene and Physical Education, Springfield, Mass.\nVice-President — W. P. Bowen, professor of education, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nSecretary — Mrs. Lorna Higbee Leland, playground organizer, Templeton, Mass.\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, July 6, 1909\n\nThe department held its sessions in the Woman's Club Rooms. The meeting was\ncalled to order by the president, William W. Hastings, who gave the opening address of\nthe session, \"The Place of Physical Education in the Field of Hygiene.\"\nG. W. A. Luckey, professor of education. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.,\nread a paper upon the subject, \"Should School Hygiene Become a Department of the Public-School System, and Physical Training Be Made a Sub-Department under School\nHygiene?\"\nJ. E. Peairs, member of the Board of Education, Pueblo, Colo., and Robert J. Aley,\nstate superintendent of public instruction, IndianapoUs, Ind., led in the discussion which\nfollowed.\nThe last paper on the program, \"The Proper Balance between Mental and Muscular\nTraining in the School Curriculum,\" was read by W. E. Garrison, president of New Mexico\nCollege of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Agricultural College, N. Mex., and the discussion was led by A. O. Thomas, president of the State Normal School, Kearney, Nebr.\nThe president appointed the following persons to act as a Committee on Nominations\nof Officers for the following year:\nG, W. A. Luckey, Lincoln, Nebr.\nFrank G. Bruner, Chicago, 111.\nWilliam W. Hastings, Springfield, Mass.\nThe department then adjourned.\nSECOND SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, July 6, 1909\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Child Study and the\nDepartment of Women's Organizations.\n(For program see Department of Child Study.)\nTHIRD SESSION.— Friday Morning, July 9, 1909\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 by the president. The general topic for the\nsession was \"Athletic Organizations.\"\nWilliam F. Slocum, president of Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo., presented\nthe first paper, entitled \"Athletic Competition in College or Preparatory School, or Competition Preparatory to Entering College.\"\nThe discussion was led by William S. Sutton, professor of education. University vof\nTexas, Austin, Tex.; and by Ira B. Fee, deputy superintendent of public instruction,\nCheyenne, Wyo.\nCharles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo., and Mrs. Loma Higbee\nLeland, playground architect and organizer, Templeton, Mass., gave addresses on \"The\nProper Relation of Organized Sports on Public Playgrounds and in Public Schools.\"\nJohn Dietrich, superintendent of public schools, Pueblo, Colo., and E. C. Bishop,\n745\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "746\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nstate superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Nebr., presented papers on the topic,\n\"How Should the Athletics of Both Men's and Boys' Departments of the Y. M. C. A.\nSupplement Those of the Public Schools?\"\nThe discussion of these papers was led by William B. Newhall, physical director of the\nY. M. C. A., Denver, Colo.\nA general discussion followed.\nG. W. A. Luckey, chairman of the Nominating Committee, reported the following\nnominations for officers for the coming year:\nFor President, Clark W. Hetherington, director of physical education, University\nof Missouri, Coliunbia, Mo.\nFor Vice-President, Robert W. Aley, state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.\nFor Secretary, Amy M. Romans, department of physical training, Wellesley College,\nWellesley, Mass.\nOn motion, the report was unanimously adopted and the nominees declared elected.\nMrs. Lorna Higbee Leland, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nPRESIDENTS\nWILLIAM\n\nW.\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nADDRESS:\nTHE PLACE OF PHYSICAL\nTION IN THE FIELD OF HYGIENE\n\nHASTINGS,\n\nEDITOR OF ** HYGIENE AND\nSPRINGFIELD,\nMASS.\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCA-\n\nEDUCATION\"\n\nThe classification of a flower or an insect is exceedingly interesting in that\nit involves a knowledge of the total characteristics of the individual as well as\nthe general characteristics of the genus and species to which it belongs. But\nthe classification of a new science or a new art is even more interesting in that\nit involves not only the essential characteristics of this science or art but also\nits scope and its logical place in the whole field of education.\nThe principal difficulty in correctly defining the relationship between these\ntwo subjects lies mainly in the present confusion in definition of terms. There\nis no uncertainty about the meaning of the general term \"hygiene,\" since\nmanifestly it has to do with the promotion of those agencies which induce and\npreserve normal function in the human body; nor is there any difficulty about\nthe definition of the various subdivisions of this subject. Natural hygiene is\ndevoted to such agencies as air, water, soil, climate, etc., which provide a certain general environmental influence upon the health, growth, and development of man. Public hygiene or public sanitation deals with all matters\nrelating to public health, concerning itself mainly with the prevention of\ndisease; in crystallized form it is legislation for public health. School hygiene\nis concerned with those measures which are intended to insure normal health\nand growth in children ; while personal hygiene, as the name indicates, outlines\nthe personal obligation of each individual to his own body. It concerns\nitself with pure air, temperature, proper clothing, care of the skin, eyes, and\nears, good food, sleep, and exercise.\nManifestly physical education sustains a vital relationship to personal\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nHYGIENE\n\n747\n\nhygiene and to school hygiene. What the exact relationship is will depend\nupon the definition of physical education itself.\nVarious terms have been employed for the subject of physical education,\nsuch as physical training, physical culture, exercise for expression, health\nculture, gymnastics, and athletics. These terms are often used interchangeably. They are loosely defined according to the point of view of the writer and\nhave each been made to include all the rest and sometimes to take in also the\nfield of school hygiene and personal hygiene.\nThe recent duel for supremacy between school hygiene and physical education isamusing in places. It is still going on, and no one can prophesy which\nwill ultimately prove to be the ''dog and wag the tail,\" but at present physical\neducation is making the most noise. Judging by the latter, one would infer\nthat physical education is still the dog.\nIn the presidential address of a recent meeting of the National Physical\nEducation Association, it is claimed that the advocates of physical education\nhave been largely responsible for the development of all the recently organized\nmovements along the line of athletics for boys and girls, playgrounds, school\nhygiene, municipal gymnasia, baths, social centers, etc. (We note in passing\nthat the recent Congress of Charities Organizations makes practically the\nsame claim.) Allow me to quote from the closing paragraph of the president's address: ''We must press on with renewed vigor and enthusiasm until\nphysical education — including physical instruction, play, medical inspection,\nphysical examination, and hygiene — shall be fully co-ordinated with all educational procedure from the kindergarten to the university.\"\nNo fault should be found with this statement as such, but it is one thing to\nappropriate and use good things from the outside, like medical inspection,\nphysical examination, and hygiene, and is another thing entirely to classify\nthem as an integral part of physical education and subordinate to it, as many\nphysical directors are now doing.\nWe sanction unreservedly the view that the physical director should be a\nhygienist and that he should use every known agency to promote health and\norganic vigor, but that does not render sanitary inspection a department of\nphysical education any more than it renders it a department of school nursing.\nThe fact of the matter is that school nursing and physical education in schools\nare both legitimately departments of school hygiene. Logically the physical\ndirector occupies the same relation to the director of school hygiene as the\nnurse does to the physician.\nThe physical director should know all these things and should practice\nall the things which he does practice for the benefit of the student-body, but\nI maintain that he should be called the director of hygiene and should have\nthe training of the doctor of hygiene rather than that of the doctor of medicine\nor simply the director of gymnastics. This has been my view for a number\nof years, and I believe that it is sustained by recent developments. The\nonly reason physical education has nominally absorbed all these functions\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "748\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nis because school hygiene and the office of director of school hygiene have\nnot been created until recently and have therefore not asserted their legitimate place. Every physical director who is really up to date is virtually a\ndirector of hygiene.\nAt the same meeting of this National Physical Education Association\nanother prominent physical educator made a very philosophical analysis of\nschool hygiene and physical education, and gave a lucid statement of the comparative training and equipment of the teacher of school hygiene and the\nteacher of physical education. He closed with a very unique presentation of\nthe dilemma. ''If this department which I have discussed were called the\nDepartment of School Hygiene, what part or parts of the work would be left\nout? If this department were called the Department of Physical Education,\nwhat part or parts of the work which I have outlined would be left out ? . . . .\nThe fields of these two lines of work have broadened and overlapped until\ntoday they coincide. There can be no complete scheme of physical education\nwithout school hygiene.\" And conversely, we would add, there can be no\ncomplete scheme of school hygiene without physical education.\nThere has been presented to us here a double-headed Cerberus with only\none tail to wag, a most happy solution if only the body and the tail are\nsatisfied — but they are not likely to remain so. The logical relationship is\nbound to win out over the order of chronological development, for the latter\nis only accidental while the former is inherent in the nature of things.\nDr. Storey is pre-eminently a school hygienist and only needed to carry\nhis argument one step farther and to assert the logical supremacy of school\nhygiene, and assume with appropriate modesty the right to swallow the other\nanimal and dispose of him internally.\nThe term physical education as employed today by prevailing usage\ncovers all forms of muscular exercise except that of manual training and\nindustrial occupations.\nClassified for convenience according to common terminology the following\ndivisions are found: Medical gymnastics for the correction of diseases and\ndeformities (a branch of orthopedics); corrective gynmastics, a branch of\nmedical gymnastics, which concerns itself with the correction of defects of\nposture induced mainly by the school desk; educational gymnastics, movements intended for the development of facility in the use of various parts of the\nbody; hygienic gymnastics, intended for the development of organic vigor;\nplay, which has the same function and is really the natural form of exercise\nfor the promotion of growth and development in children.\nA more satisfactory classification, according to the purpose of the exercise\nand the ends sought, is as follows:\nI. Neuro-muscular training, or psycho-motor training, as it is also called,\nwhich develops the finer muscular co-ordinations and gives the child ability\nto do things. This training is secured principally by the emphasis of educational gymnastics, altho play and other forms of exercise are also valuable.\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nHYGIENE\n\n749\n\n2. Moral, volitional, or character-training, as it is variously termed. The\nt)rpe of exercise most calculated to develop this side of the child is athletics,\ngames, or some form of play; but marching, educational gymnastics, and in\nfact, all forms of physical exercise which tend to develop quick and accurate\njudgment, self-control, prompt compliance with directions, are also effective\nin character-building. Organized athletics and games develop these same\nqualities, and in addition have a social and ethical value in the development\nof the spirit of co-operation, personal courage, and fearlessness, the sense of\nfairness, and the ''give and take\" so necessary in life itself.\n3. And lastly and most important, exercise for organic vigor, including\nfor children the promotion also of normal growth and development. The\ntypical form of exercise for the production of organic vigor is play. As indicated\nabove, this is the normal form of exercise for the child. Hygienic gymnastics is\na good substitute in the case of the city child where opportunities for play are\nvery limited.\nIn discussing this matter of classes of exercise, it will be seen, therefore,\nthat exercises are all psycho-motor, all character-building, all conducive to\norganic vigor. The difference between them is simply one of emphasis, but\nthis matter of emphasis constitutes a definite and real difference. It is evident\nalso that the most important result which must be expected from physical\neducation is organic vigor — the staying power for one's life-work. It is\nequally evident that the emphasis of this third form of physical education\nfor health's sake gives practically all the results 'derived from the others and\ngives infinitely greater results than the emphasis of any other form of gymnastics. Itwas these forms of exercise which developed the perfect symmetry\nand strength of the ancient Greeks; it was these forms of exercise which made\nof the English people the political and commercial leaders of the modem world\nfor so many centuries.\nIf, then, the production of organic vigor is the principal function of physical\neducation and the emphasis must logically be placed on this division of the\nsubject, the whole subject of physical education must be classified according\nto this preponderance of emphasis, as a department of hygiene, and physical education for schools becomes then logically a department of school\nhygiene.\nThe argument is even stronger from the practical point of view. There\nis great need today of centralization of administration for the sake of economy\nand for effectiveness. Medical inspection and other phases of school hygiene\nare often entirely separated from physical education. In other words, knowledge of the conditions is separated from the application of the remedies.\nMedical inspectors and physical directors have no vital contact or relationship\nin most cities, and the most effective work is therefore impossible.\nUnder the present conditions, meeting for mutual conference is the natural\nand immediate solution of the matter, but ultimately the department of school\nhygiene must absorb the department of physical education. This has been\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "750\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ndone in Boston and St. Louis successfully.\nIt will be found the most practicable solution of the whole question of relationship.\nMy point of view as to the real relationship of physical education to hygiene\nis indicated in the following extracts from The Physical Director as a Hygienist.\nPhysical education as a science is a department of hygiene. It is not an end in itself\nbut a means to health and vigor. There is no branch of hygiene with which we are not\nconcerned; no preventive agency which it is not our function to use. But we are naturally\nmore concerned with personal hygiene than with natural and public hygiene; and of those\nsubjects upon which we should be most capable of giving competent advice, diet, rest\nperiods, and muscular activity are most vitally important. Upon these principally depend,\nnot only the organic vigor, but the intellectuaUty and moral capacity of the child and the\nultimate man. Of the three, diet and rest periods are in a sense negative or passive,\nrecuperative factors, while muscular activity is positive, active, and creative and hence\nmost important, but it is an entirely mistaken perspective which would emphasize any one\nof these factors to the exclusion of another.\nThree years is the average length of time which we (as physical directors) may expect\nto have with gymnasium members. To cultivate in them during this time a half-dozen\ngood hygienic habits is worth more to them in the long run of life than the whole three\nyears of gymnastics. Teach them how to eat, to sleep, to use the daily tonic of the cool\nbath, to dress loosely and with adaptation, to care for the eyes, and above all to make a\nhobby of some outdoor game or sport — walking, running (cross-country), horseback riding,\nbicycling, golf, tennis, etc. — to cultivate this habit the year round or, better, to ride some\nhobby according to the season and ride it hard. Let the seasonal scent of the air bring on\nthe spell of golf clubs, skates, or racquet, as it does football, peg tops, marbles, and baseball with the small boy. Fashions in gymnastics may come and go, but recreation must\ngo on forever.\n\nThe greatest need of physical education today is for the creation of a\nDivision of Physical Education under the United States Bureau of Education\nin charge of a specialist, to gather together the facts of this new science and\nto classify and organize them for the promotion of a national system of\nphysical education, which shall have for its primary object the development\nof national health and racial vitality.\nI trust that all members of this Association and speakers on the program\nwill be able to remain for a very few minutes for the business meeting at the\nclose of this session, in order to hear the reading of a brief report of the Committee on the Memorial to the United States Congress to constitute a Division\nof Physical Education under the United States Bureau of Education for the\npurpose of organizing and developing a national system of physical education.\nThe most important obligation rests upon presidents, principals, and\nsuperintendents of educational systems to study the problems of this most\nvital and basal subject of physical education at first hand, and to lend every\nenergy available for the satisfactory solution of inefi&ciency and neglect wherever found. This Department of Physical Education of the National Education Association is for you to conduct more than it is for physical directors in\neducational institutions.\nIt is for this reason I have outlined programs for two successive years,\nprincipally for your benefit, and they have been manned chiefly from your\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "[Department]\n\nSHOULD\n\nHYGIENE\n\nBECOME\n\nA DEPARTMENT\n\n751\n\niks, and not by physical directors. I would recommend the election of\n)fficers for the coming year largely from your number, for it is good sound\njxecutive judgment which this movement needs most, together with the assurice of cordial co-operation of supervisory agencies with the directors of\nlygiene and physical education who are actually doing the work. I trust\nthat you will accept this responsibility.\nSHOULD SCHOOL HYGIENE BECOME A DEPARTMENT OF\nTHE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM AND PHYSICAL TRAINING BE MADE A SUB-DEPARTMENT UNDER SCHOOL\nHYGIENE?\nG. W. A. LUCKEY,\n\nHEAD\n\nPROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nLINCOLN,\nNEBR.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF NEBRASKA\n\nIn the development of the individual there are periods of growth and periods\nof rest, periods of progress or movement forward, and periods of lull or retrogression. The same is true of the race and nation, and probably equally true\nof mankind as a whole.\nCivilization has been compared to a great desert in which there are many\nfertile spots or oases where the traveler is wont to stop to replenish his stores.\nThe student of history finds these oases scattered all along the way, but to\naccount for them or to cause them to occur more frequently in the future is a\ndifficult problem. When the forces which make for growth and progress\nunite, we have springtime ; when they are scattered, neutralizing one another,\nwe have winter. Educationally the United States passed thru such a springtime between 1820 and 1850. This was a period of reconstruction in organization and administration, and, it seems to me, we are at present in the midst of\nanother educational springtime which the future historian will record as an\neducational renaissance. Its beginning will date with the twentieth century\nand its field will cover the physical man as the old education has covered the\nintellectual man. This change is due to a belief in the biologic conception\nof education — that education is a growth, a development from within. It is a\nperiod of scientific discovery and of intellectual and moral readjustment.\nEducation is conceived to be concerned with the development of the whole\nman and is meaningless and worthless when separated from true growth.\nThis change of thought is illustrated thru the changing curricula of elementary, secondary, and higher education. Fifty years ago the humanities\nwere primal; today it is the sciences, or the former taught by methods of the\nlatter. Then intellectual and knowing processes were the only concern of\nthe teacher; today, it is health, strength, and motor activity that occupy chief\nplace. It is not what one knows but what he does that measures his worth to\nsociety.\nAgain this change of thought is shown by the many new subjects and interests that have arisen to divert the attention of the teacher from the narrow\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "752\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nfield that once was thought to be all-essential. Among these new interests one\nneeds only to mention agricultural education, domestic science and home\neconomics, manual-training and industrial education, physical education,\nincluding school and city playgrounds, school gardens and city-improvement\nsocieties, child-study associations, mothers' clubs and charity organizations,\nschool hygiene, medical inspection, juvenile courts, and health leagues, to\nrealize that we are entering a new era.\nThe change is due in part to scientific discoveries, in part to the natural\nand healthy awakening of the people, and, in part, is the result of necessity\nfrom the shifting of the population from rural to city life. At the beginning\nof the nineteenth century less than 4 per cent, of the people of the United\nStates lived in cities of eight thousand or more; at its close the number had\nincreased to over 33 per cent. If we include communities of twenty-five\nhundred and over, more than half of the entire population live in cities. In\nRhode Island, 95 per cent, of the people live in cities of eight thousand or\nover; in Massachusetts, 91 per cent.; in New York, 72 per cent.; in Illinois,\n54 per cent. The movement of the people from farm to city and the consequent congestion of population in large centers has made vital many problems\nwhich to a former generation were unknown. Another factor which adds\ngreatly to the complexity of the situation is the number of foreigners that\nmake up the body of the population. In all the large cities of the country\nfrom 70 to 80 per cent, of the population is of foreign parentage. The\namalgamation of such a large number of people with ideas so different from\nour own is no easy task.\nEducation, while dynamic, is an applied science and as such must follow\nin the wake of other sciences. But in the development of a people there is a\nmutual interaction between knowing and doing. Necessity is the mother of\ninvention, and the changed social and industrial condition of the people has\nbrought home to us the need of a different education; hence the many new\ninterests that have arisen to modify the curricula and confuse the teachers in\ntheir work. These new interests, however, are absolutely essential to the\ngrowth and perpetuity of the nation, and must become an integral part of our\neducational system.\nThe educator, physician, and student of social problems are fully awake\nto the situation ; but tradition and the ignorance and indifference of he masses\nhave caused us to hold on to the old, rather than to adjust ourselves to the\ntruth of the new. What we need at present is not so much knowledge as the\nproper distribution of the knowledge we have. I think we agree that the first\nthing in the education of a people is health, and coupled with that healthy\nactivity, which necessitate hygienic surroundings. We would send the whole\nboy to school and have him develop from within — physically, morally, mentally\n— as a single unit, in harmony with the laws of his being, and with an undivided\npurpose.\nWhen we undertake to accomplish these ends we find that our educational\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHOULD\n\nHYGIENE\n\nBECOME\n\nA DEPARTMENT?\n\n753\n\nsystem is weak. We lack in the essentials — health and healthy activity. The\ncongested condition of city life has made the school environment bad, when\nit is possible to make it the best in the world, and the change from farm to city\nhas limited the motor activity of the child. The whole industrial life of the\npeople has changed, and to the detriment of culture and true development.\nFormerly, the individual learned thru his occupation to do many things well;\nbut today his occupation teaches him to do only a small part of one thing. In\nhis work on Adolescence^ Dr. G. Stanley Hall in mentioning this fact says:\nIn the modern shoe factory the individual does but one of the eighty-one stages or\nprocesses from a tanned hide to a finished shoe; and the man in a shirt-shop is one of\nthirty-nine, each of whom does as piecework a single step, requiring great exactness, speed,\nand skill, and who never knows how the whole shirt is made.\n\nThe individual never sees the finished product and can never measure the\nresult of his work. There is no inspiration to come from the completed product\nnor the sense of responsibility in the result of his labor. We are beginning to\nappreciate the difficulties and are making strenuous efforts to overcome them.\nFor the sake of health we have medical inspection and school hygiene.\nFor the sake of growth and motor activity we have the various forms of play\nand industrial education.\nMedical inspection of schools has become an established fact in most of the\nleading countries of the world. In the United States seventy-five or more\ncities have systems of medical inspection of schools. In some states like\nMassachusetts there is a state law requiring such inspection of all schools.\nBut the idea is new and by no means universal.\nThe whole subject of medical inspection and school hygiene is in a chaotic\ncondition because of the formative period thru which it is passing. We\nbelieve in the principle and in its practical necessity, but how best to adapt it\nto our/ present complex system of education is a problem yet unsolved. As\nDr. Gulick, in his recent work on Medical Inspection of Schools ^ says:\nTwo great forces have been making in America toward medical inspection of schools.\nOn the one hand is medical science operating to pi^otect the community through its boards\nof health, while on the other is educational science operating through the great school\nsystems of the world and expressing itself through its more or less scientific departments of\nphysical training.\n\nThe one is interested primarily in the health of the community, the detection\nand prevention of contagious diseases; the other in the education, health, and\ndevelopment of the individual. The field of the one is the whole community,\nbut especially the adult community; the field of the other is the school, especially the earlier grades of the school. The interests are disparate and the\nproblems too complex to be combined with advantage.\nThe medical inspection of schools should continue to be an important\nfunction of city boards of health; but there is another and more important\nfield that needs to be covered in order to give to the rising generation the\nhealth and development which is theirs by right of birth and inheritance.\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "754\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThis field, it seems to me, can best be covered by establishing in the publicschool system departments of school hygiene and giving to these the direction\nof physical training.\nIn most of our schools physical education has fallen far short of what was\nexpected of it. Instead of corrective exercises for all we give special exercises\nto the few who are strong and able to star in feats of strength and skill. If\nthe latter should be done why should the former be left undone ? The purpose\nof physical education is health, strength, endurance, versatility, efficiency,\ncharacter. But these qualities are so closely related to intelligence that they\nmust go hand in hand with mental development. Hence the importance of\nhaving the hygienic condition of the child known by an expert and his plays\ndirected intelligently toward corrective and health-giving processes. It is a\nwell-established fact that the natural order of development is from fundamental to accessory. That means the larger muscles and coarser movements\nare fundamental, that they develop first and remain last. The tendency of\neducation is to develop prematurely the accessory muscles, causmg in after\nlife great weakness, if not complete nervous breakdown. This tendency of\nthe schools should be counteracted by exercises that give proper attention to\nthe fundamental.\nIn the public schools of Chicago besides medical inspection there is a\ndepartment of child study and pedagogic investigation which has been of\nmuch service and no doubt covers, in a way, the field that might be covered\nby departments of school hygiene. The larger systems of education might\nwell have both, but in the smaller schools the two departments should be combined.\nThe experts in school hygiene should be under the authority of the school\nboard and the direction of the superintendent, the same as other teachers of the\nforce. They should have almost plenary power in the location and kind of\nschool buildings to be added to the system. It is a lamentable fact that notwithstanding our present knowledge of lighting, heating, and ventilation,\nschool boards go on constructing buildings similar to those of our fathers\nwithout bringing to bear a single scientific principle of recent years. This\nought not to be. We ought to have in connection with every state board of\neducation a department of school hygiene with one or more experts to whom\nthe plan of every new school building of the state should be submitted, and no\nschool building constructed without the advice and consent of the department.\nWhat is the value of knowledge if we do not use it, and why should innocent\nchildren be crowded together in poorly lighted and poorly ventilated rooms\nbecause an ignorant school board has been anxious to save a dollar in the construction ?\nAnother function of the departments of school hygiene should be the annual\ncomplete examination of all the children, the object being to discover defects\nand weaknesses which, if known, might be entirely corrected or at least benefited. Such knowledge would aid in determining not only the amount but the\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHOULD\n\nHYGIENE\n\nBECOME\n\nA DEPARTMENT?\n\n755\n\nIkind of work and play the child can do with profit. These physical measurelents ought to bring to light defects and weaknesses of the eyes, ears, throat,\nfteeth, lungs, heart, nerves, circulation, and digestion in time to correct them.\n^This work the present teacher cannot do, and neither can the director of\nschool hygiene unless he has been trained both as a physician and as a\nteacher. Here also we need close correlation with the department of physical\neducation. The only way to correct habits and overcome faults of development isthru exercise, and this exercise must be adapted to the particular needs\nof the individual. Hence, the physical trainer, like the hygienic expert, must\nknow thoroly the physical nature of the child before he prescribes the kind\nand amount of play and exercise.\nAnother duty of the departments of school hygiene should be the constant\noversight of the hygienic conditions of the school when in session. The heating, ventilation, lighting, cleanliness, etc., will not take care of themselves,\nhowever perfect the system. The variation in these conditions during the\nday is often great, not only affecting the health but the mental and moral\nprogress of the children. But few janitors have sufficient intelligence to keep\nthe hygienic conditions of the schoolroom as they should be, and most teachers\nare equally ignorant along these lines. Besides, the attention of the teacher\nis so occupied with the intellectual work of the children that she becomes\nwholly oblivious to the hygienic conditions of the environment. During a\nsingle day the temperature of the schoolroom is apt to vary from 58 to 80\ndegrees, while the humidity of the air may vary from 25 to 65. Such variation\nis very detrimental to health and mental activity and should be prevented by\nthe constant oversight of trained experts.\nAnother function of the departments of school hygiene should be to study,\nin connection with the teachers, the instruction and school work in so far as\nthey affect the healthy development of the individual. In 1906-7 there were\nover seventeen million children in the elementary grades of the public schools,\non whom were expended over $330,000,000. The waste in this instruction is\nenormous, but it will be greatly reduced when our methods become more\nscientific. During the same year we expended on the prosecution and care of\nthe criminal class $220,000,000. Should we include the non-productive class\nof our civilization who become a constant drain on the nation, the loss would\nequal if not exceed $500,000,000 annually. A large part of this drain is due\nto misfits, or physical and mental defects, that might have been avoided or corrected during the early period of school life if we had distributed our present\nknowledge of biologic laws more evenly thru our teaching force.\nAnother important function of the departments of school hygiene should\nbe the instruction of the teachers, students, and parents on school hygiene,\nand social and personal hygiene. Our ignorance of the laws of health causes\nus frequently to live far short of the possibilities within our grasp, and ignorance of personal and social hygiene reduces the moral tone of the community.\nThese problems cannot be handled to advantage except by the medical expert.\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "756\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nAnd finally, the departments of school hygiene should co-operate with\nboards of medical inspection in detecting and preventing contagious diseases.\nThe boards of medical inspection become especially active during times of\nepidemic and contagion, but the departments of school hygiene should never\ncease their activity while children are growing. Like that of the parent and\nthe teacher, theirs should be a constant care, the value of which is to be\nmeasured only by the influences of time and the tests which measure true\nservice.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. E. Peairs, M.D., member of the Board of Education, Pueblo, Colo. — The scholarly\npaper just presented is a particularly clear exposition of the subject. I agree heartily with\nthe author's argument, and his conclusions. It remains for those on discussion to add,\nif possible, by way of illustration those things which will aid members of the convention to\ngo out and arouse the public to a realization of existing conditions. For, after all, our final\nappeal is not to educational authority but to the people, for the will of the people is law.\nWe must educate until the public, feeling that health is the greatest asset of any community,\nwill demand what we may only suggest; will demand that the physical welfare of the child\nbe not sacrificed for intellectual attainment; that pupils attain a certain physical standard\n(relative to natural physical characteristics) before passing from grade to grade or to graduation; that the teachers be healthy, vigorous individuals, and that, while the school must\nnot infect the home, the home dare not infect the school. In fact, that the schools do\neverything that will naturally result from a department of hygiene and physical education in\nour public-school system.\nThere can be no human progress until human life is estimated at its full value. While\nformer ages held life cheaply, our lack of appreciation is evidenced by the fact that one\nhundred thousand children of school age will die, this year, of preventable diseases, and\nfurther, that a much larger number will become defectives and ultimately dependents.\nWe are told that enforced child labor pours into our population one-fourth million stunted\nbeings each year, and that this almost inconceivable number is augmented by a vastly\ngreater number of the defectives and dependents from our public schools.\nThe government spends two million dollars a year for protection against accidents at\nsea. The Department of Agriculture, during the past ten years, has spent on an average\neach year four and one-half millions of dollars to save elm trees from the attack of beetles,\nin combating the potato bug, in stamping out cholera in hogs, in checking the ravages\nof pleura-pneumonia in cattle; but, nationally, not a dollar to eradicate tuberculosis,\nhumanity's greatest plague, which destroys nearly one-fifth of our population every ten\nyears.\nIt is a truism to state that our greatest national asset is healthy human beings. Yet\nCongress recently refused to appropriate three thousand dollars for the expert study of\nchildren, while it readily granted twenty thousand dollars for the expert study of clams.\nHowever, the recent International Tuberculosis Congress is indicative of the changing\nestimate of the value put upon human life. This great philanthropic congress alone is\nenough to distinguish the twentieth century. It is an evidence of true human progress\nin the conservation of human beings. In the great business of a nation, even from an\neconomic point of view, the most important and essential thing is that which conserves and\nmakes more effective human life.\nDean Ward, of the University of Nebraska College of Medicine, presents the situation\nvery effectively when he says: \"The American people face four great unnecessary wastes:\nFrom preventable deaths; from preventable sickness; from preventable degeneracy and\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHOULD\n\nHYGIENE\n\nBECOME\n\nA DEPARTMENT?\n\n757\n\ninefficiency; and from preventable ignorance.\" He is optimistic, however, in his belief\nthat prevention of the waste of ignorance means the prevention of the waste of inefficiency,\nsickness, and death.\nOur school system is a necessary and compulsory part of our government for its own\npreservation. Practically one-fifth of our population is of school age, and according to\ntradition they are supposed to be educated physically, mentally, and morally. As a matter\nof fact there has never been any systematic physical education. This phase of education\nhas been, and is, wholly incidental and subservient to intellectual attainment. There has\nbeen no time nor place for hygiene in our curriculum. Yet as the blossom and the fruit\ndepend upon the tree, so mind and spirit depend upon the body.\nDuring the last three centuries science has doubled the working life of the Englishspeaking people. Science within fifty years has made it possible for governments to save\nmilHons of lives. It may enhance the economic value of millions more, if governmental\npower will apply the known laws of preventive medicine and sanitation. A noted English\nbiologist declares that all epidemic contagious diseases might be eradicated within fifty\nyears. Witness the effectiveness of government sanitation and preventive medicine in the\ntropics, in Havana, in Panama, and in the Canal Zone.\nMedical inspection — inefficient, hampered, powerless, and incidental as it is — as a\nprophylactic measure has resulted in unmeasurable good. Diseases of the eye, ear, nose,\nthroat, teeth, and the grosser contagious diseases have been corrected or checked and conditions are vastly improved; but medical inspection must become direct physical examination ifit is to diagnose the more insidious diseases of which tuberculosis is the most potent\nexample for illustration. Only a department of, hygiene and physical education with\ntrained teachers and officers can cope with the situation.\nWe judge everything by comparison. Tuberculosis caused twice as many deaths\nlast year in the United States as yellow fever has caused in a century preceding. Since\nthe outbreak of the bubonic plague in India in 1896, it has not caused more deaths in ratio\nto the population than tuberculosis has caused in the United States. Double and triple\nthe graves filled by lives lost in action or from wounds received in action during the four\nyears' rebellion, and then you will not equal the number of graves filled by the victims of .\ntuberculosis during the last four years. These contrasts picture the greatness of the task\nof the government and of the school system as the most vital and effective arm of the\ngovernment.\nThe school disaster of Cleveland appalled and horrified us all. We held our little ones\ncloser and saved no expense to niake improbable a like disaster elsewhere. Yet a competent authority estimates that four disasters like that of Cleveland every school day would\nnot equal the loss of life each year in children of school age.\nWhen we know that this great loss of life is largely preventable — that it is not foreordained but is a great avoidable human waste — we ought to be appalled. Who is to\nblame ? Who must answer for this crime of omission, in the great day when civilized\nnations are to be judged ? Professor V. C. Vaughan, of Michigan University, answers\nthis in a most dramatic way. He says: \"To take the life of a fellow-man wilfully or\nmaliciously is murder; to do so through ignorance or carelessness is manslaughter. The\ngreat majority of deaths from tuberculosis are due to manslaughter and this fact should\nbe recognized.\" Is this scathing arraignment of Dr. Vaughan's applicable to us ? Are\nwe accessory to the crime of manslaughter ? We are neither ignorant nor careless, but\nto arouse the public to an appreciation of the true situation, to overcome the inertia of\nignorance has been, as yet, too great a task.\nCenturies ago Athens recognized God's out-of-doors in her system of education, and in\nher playground schools she developed the highest type of physical and intellectual manhood the world has ever seen. The twentieth century has caught the real inspiration, the\nreal meaning of the unsurpassed, classical Grecian education, and history repeats itself\nwhen great modern cities spend millions for playgrounds.\nWe have millions for defense\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nI^ATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nfrom the economic waste of ignorance, inefl5ciency, sickness, and death, but not one cent for\ntribute.\nRobert J. Aley, state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. —\nI might begin and close with the single word yes. I presume, however, that some reasons\nare wanted for the faith that is in me. Not having had the pleasure of reading Dr. Luckey's\npaper, I must give my notions independent of his.\nNo single subject is today attracting more attention than general hygiene. The\nstrides that have been made in the fight with disease and the victories that have been won\nare nothing short of marvelous. The great work of today is directed toward the saving\nand prolonging of life. Boards of health everywhere are waging successful warfare against\npreventable diseases. The leaders in the science of medicine are rapidly extending the\nnumber of such diseases. In a not very distant future it is probable that all diseases will be\nin this class and that it will be a disgrace to be sick at all.\nMany states, thru legislation, have taken advanced positions upon the subject of public\nhealth. Thru the examination and licensing of doctors, the inspection of all sorts of food\nstuffs, and the requirement that in all public buildings and tenements certain sanitary\nconditions be maintained, the citizen has had his chances to get sick greatly reduced.\nPeople are just beginning to appreciate the economic value of good health. The\nemployers of men are learning that with wholesome surroundings and proper health their\nworkmen will multiply the output and increase the dividends. We are now sure that the\nsick man entails a double loss on society — the loss of his service and the loss of the service\nof his caretaker.\nIn the close competition of the present such losses must be avoided.\nWe are generally agreed that all these forward movements must be continued and\ngreatly augmented. More victories must be gained, better health secured, and the average\nlength of life increased. Better and more stringent health laws must go upon our statutes\nand we must see that they are rigidly enforced.\nIn this forward movement the school can and should be the greatest factor. No\nprogress is certain unless the people understand thoroly the reasons upon which it rests.\nThe most intelligent health officers spend as much time educating the public as they use in\nspecifically fighting disease. The ravages of the great white plague will never be stayed\nuntil all the people know the dangers of the disease and the means of preventing it. Hygiene\nshould be made an important school study. Every child should be required to study it\nand to become familiar with the fundamental principles of health and sanitation.\nSchool hygiene should confine itself to topics of real importance. The details of\nanatomy with its bewildering nomenclature have no place in the school course. They\nbelong to the scientist and the doctor. The child needs to learn how to keep clean, how\nto care for his eyes and teeth, how to avoid contagious diseases, how to detect unsanitary\nconditions in public and private houses, how to select wholesome food, and why he should\navoid narcotics and intoxicants. In addition he should be made so famiUar with sexual\nanatomy, physiology, and hygiene that he will be safe amid the temptations of the social\nevils of the times.\nThat these ends may be reached, the programs of the elementary schools must r.iake\nample provision for the study of these topics. There should be regular instruction extending thru the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh grades. This instruction should be made so\nvital that every child will translate what he learns into personal results. Knowledge that\ndoes not result in corresponding action is worthless. Nothing will help so much in making\nthe teaching effective as an enthusiastic teacher whose physical being and personal habits\nboth bear out the doctrines that are taught.\nThe schoolhouse in all its appointments should represent the best that is known in\nhygiene and sanitation. A clean, well-ventilated schoolroom, a sanitary drinking fountain,\na toilet room with modern conveniences, a playground well drained and artistically beauti\nfied, and provisions for the complete and frequent purification of all rooms will impress\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nAND\n\nMUSCULAR\n\nTRAINING\n\n759\n\nupo» every child of the school lessons that will be permanent. The schoolhouse and\ngrounds should be object-lessons to all the country about.\nIf everything about the school is sanitary and hygienic, every child feels the good\nresults and becomes an advocate of wholesome conditions. When such conditions exist,\nmedical inspection of school children is easy. The people themselves will see its necessity\nand make a demand for it.\nEvery child has the divine right to be understood both physically and mentally. The\nunderstanding of his higher nature is impossible until we know thoroly his physical body.\nHygiene as a school study helps to make officials more alert, parents more anxious for the\nwelfare of their children, and the children themselves more pliable and more readily willing\nto form good health habits.\nThe Greeks attained a high state of civilization and became the leaders in all forms\nof art, Hterature, oratory, and government. They held the ascendency so long as they\nkept beauty of form, symmetry of development, and health of body as results that must\nbe reached by every citizen. When physical training was neglected all sorts of decay\nbegan. The example of the Greek and similar examples of other nations ought to teach\nthat physical training, resting upon the fundamental truths that hygiene has found, should\nfind a place in every school. This training should be so well directed and should be made\nto fit so exactly to individual needs that every child will leave school stronger than he\nentered. To a very marked degree, physical training is the laboratory of school hygiene.\nThe study of hygiene without any appropriate physical training is just about as sensible as\nthe study of physics without experiments, or the study of botany without plants. It is\nthru physical training that the child realizes that symmetry of form and strength of body\nthat the study of hygiene has led him to know is his birthright.\nWe are now spending much money for the supervision and teaching of music, art,\ndomestic science, agriculture, and manual training. These things are so good that we\nmust spend still more for them. Our schools, however, will not be what they should be\nuntil they cost twice as much as they do now. A large part of this other half of cost should\ngo to pay for the adequate supervision and teaching of hygiene and for the proper equipment of every school with apparatus and teachers of physical training. The school will\nindeed be the hope of the country when it improves the health of all the people, prolongs\ntheir lives, and gives them that wholesome optimism that comes to the man of perfect\nstrength and symmetric form. This will be the result when school hygiene and physical\ntraining assume the importance in the school curriculum that of right belongs to them.\n\nTHE PROPER BALANCE BETWEEN MENTAL AND MUSCULAR\nTRALNING IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM\nW. E. GARRISON, PRESIDENT OF NEW MEXICO\nMECHANIC\nARTS, AGRICULTURAL\n\nCOLLEGE\nCOLLEGE,\n\nOF AGRICULTURE\nN. MEX.\n\nAND\n\nThe phraseology of my topic appears to take for granted some very fundamental and even revolutionary doctrines — namely, that there should be a place\nfor physical training in the curriculum; that it should be, theoretically at least,\nco-ordinate with mental training, and that there should be an effort to construct a curriculum which would embody a fair balance between them. It\nwould be superfluous to say that these exceptions are not generally granted, or\nat least not generally acted upon by the curriculum makers. In general,\nphysical training has no place in the curriculum. It is therefore co-ordinate\nonly with the other things that are left out entirely, and the question of balancing itwith anything else does not receive consideration.\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "76o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nEven in those schools where there is regular physical-culture work under\nspecial teachers, the ordinary attitude of the school authorities is represented\nby: \"Now, children, let us lay aside our books for a moment and open the\nwindows and take a few deep breaths, and we will be better able to go on with\nour studies.\" That is to say, physical training, when it is considered at all, is\nusually considered as an interlude in the curriculum rather than a part of it.\nChildren are stopped occasionally in their work to take some exercises and a\nfew deep breaths just as they are stopped at noon to eat their dinners, the\npurpose being in both cases to maintain at least a minimum degree of physical\nfitness for mental work without any more real idea of training in the one\ncase than in the other.\nIn high schools and colleges physical training occupies a somewhat more\nconspicuous place in the life of the institution, but is usually still more obviously\noutside of the curriculum than in the case of the grades. Here it is usually\na question of athletics and sport, of recreation, of school or college spirit.\nEven in those institutions which maintain a well-equipped physical department\nand have required gymnasium work with the accompaniment of physical\nexaminations, anthropometric charts, and special prescriptions for corrective\nexercises, this work is ordinarily considered as somewhat apart from the real\ncurriculum. It is like the opening of the windows and taking a deep breath in\nthe grades. It is intended to keep a student in good health while he is taking\nhis college course, but it is not itself a part of the college course.\nSpeaking generally, we may say without substantial error that at the\npresent time physical training is not in the school or college curriculum at all\nin any vital sense, and it is a fundamental necessity that it should be given a\nplace not only in the life of the school, but in its curriculum.\nThe increasing emphasis which modem psychology and pedagogy place\nupon the significance of body ought to make it possible in the not distant\nfuture to give to the training of the body that place which it deserves in the\ntotal scheme of education. It would be commonplace to repeat what we all\nknow perfectly well, that modem psychology is not so much the science of\nmind, as we used to be told, as it is the science of personality; that personality\nis distinctly a sensory-motor concept involving not only states of consciousness\nbut processes of muscular and motor reaction. We do not make so much use\nas we used to of the old statement originally made in the interest of sound\nreligion and the spiritual life, that \"man is a soul and has a body.\" However,\nit may be said that in this present world man is a very interesting complex of\nsoul and body, and that he is the body part of him just as much as he is the\nsoul part. Browning, prophet in this as in most other things, says, \"Her soul\nhelps body more than body soul.\" The flabby muscle is closely akin to the\nflabby will, and the Hamlets who stand hesitant and wavering between their\nconsciences and their tasks are suffering from a defect which has at least half\nof its roots in the physical organism. They have not developed the mental\nand muscular habits involved in translating ideas into acts. The man with a\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nAND\n\nMUSCULAR\n\nTRAINING\n\n761\n\nthoroly healthy and efficient nervous system seldom goes far wrong. No\nman's morals can be much better than his nerves; and mental and muscular\ntraining must go together in the discipline and development of the nervous\nsystem.\nThe motto, ''A sound mind in a sound body\" is a good motto, but it must\nnot be interpreted as one would say ''good water in a silver pitcher.\" The\nsound mind cannot be wholly sound unless it is connected with a sound body.\nThis conception of the essential unity of the personality and the closing of the\ngap between the intellectual and the physical, ought, I say, to give great\nencouragement to those who are trying to secure proper recognition for the\nphysical side of education. It also presents a warning against a process of\nphysical education which shall be narrowly physical, as the old scheme of\nthings — perhaps we should say the present scheme — is narrowly intellectual.\nThe student is not a disembodied spirit while he is studying mathematics,\nliterature, and science, and he must not be considered as a de-spiritualized\nbody while he is doing physical training. He is at all times a personality which\nfeels things and acts.\nIn constructing a curriculum which shall include training of all the necessary kinds in proper proportion, it is necessary to consider the amount of training in the several subjects which the student gets outside of the curriculum.\nIt is conceivable that there are some processes in which the child needs training\nwhich nevertheless need not enter into the curriculum at all, because they are\nsufficiently and satisfactorily taken care of outside of the school.\nThis principle is relied upon by a good many people as an argument against\ngiving much attention to physical culture in schools. They admit that children\nneed physical development, of course, but say that they get plenty of it outside\nof school hours, and that the play instinct can be depended upon to lead a child\ninto all the physical services that he needs. The principle is sound but the\napplication is fallacious. While it is true that the average boy gets considerable\nphysical exercise in an incidental way, it is equally true that he seldom gets\nenough of it, and still more true that he does not get the right kind, and truest\nof all that he does not get it in its proper relation to the other elements and\nother activities of life, and so is not led to an understanding of the moral\nvalue and significance of clean, strong, and perfect manhood. It is for the\nspecial advocates of physical training to claim boldly that the incidental and\nmiscellaneous exercises which a boy or girl gets out of school are just as\ninadequate to the proper development of the personality on its physical side as\nis the miscellaneous thinking and learning which a child does outside of school\nhours to the development of the personality on the mental side.\nSome of our foremost educators have recently been lamenting the decline\nof intellectual interest in American colleges and the craze for athletics, which\nthey consider partly the result, but chiefly the cause, of the decline in scholarship. The facts upon which this indictment of the colleges rests are too\nfamiliar and obvious to be disputed, and in view of this situation it may seem\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "762\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nthat the time is not opportune for an appeal for an increase of emphasis upon\nphysical culture. But let us have recourse to the homeopathic principle,\n\"Similia similibus curantur,\" the free translation of which is, \"The hair of the\ndog will cure the bite.\" If our colleges are suffering from too much of one\nkind of emphasis upon things physical, let us try more, but of another kind.\nIt is to be admitted freely that many of the defects of college life are connected more or less directly with athletics, but it can scarcely be said that they\nare due to the overwhelming zeal for training for bodily perfection. This\nbeing true, I repeat the suggestion that we need to have in both school and\ncollege, not less, but more, emphasis upon the physical side.\nAll education may be considered as a preparation to meet the emergencies\nof life. And, roughly speaking, the man who can meet the most emergencies\nand the most important emergencies in the most efficient way is the best\neducated man. Modem scientific pedagogy has gone far toward shaking our\nfaith in the efficiency of general training thru formal discipline, and has given\n\\ii the idea that mental discipline has its chief if not its sole value in the field in\nwhich it is acquired. It is for this reason that a good many people have come\nto believe that a young man is better prepared for business by the study of\neconomics and commerce than by a study of Greek. Discipline and training\nare applied to actual life with a percentage of loss which varies inversely, and\na percentage of efficiency which varies directly, with the similarity between\nthe field in which they are acquired and the field in which they are used. Is\nit not a reasonable propositiofi to maintain that the exigencies of everyday life\nare quite as closely akin to the exigencies of football and baseball as they are\nto the problems of higher education ? If so, we have a sound theoretical basis\nfor maintaining that a boy will carry into the activities of business and social\nlife the qualities of accuracy, patience, and determination which he learned\nat football, with less loss than the similar lessons which he may have learned in\nconnection with calculus.\nA few suggestions as to how this larger emphasis upon the body in the\ninterest of a completely developed personality may be applied to the curriculum.\nIn the public schools there should be not only systematic physical exercises,\nwhich should be given in close connection with the instruction in physiology and\nhygiene, but there should also be the largest possible amount of muscular\nactivity in connection with all studies.\nAn alternation between mental and muscular activity in the schoolroom\nwill not give as satisfactory results, as the combination of the two processes\nwhich are both ideational and motor. In securing the proper balance, therefore, between mental and muscular training, the curriculum makers will have\nto consider not merely the question of getting a new subject into the crowded\ncourse of study, but the much more comprehensive question of a revised and\nimproved method of teaching the old subjects.\nIn high schools and colleges a fair start toward this combination of mental\nand physical activities has already been made in the introduction of manual-\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nAND\n\nMUSCULAR\n\nTRAINING\n\n763\n\ntraining courses and laboratory methods. But in addition to this, we shall\nultimately have to work out a plan for departments of physical culture which\nshall be far more comprehensive in their scope than anything that has been\nhitherto attempted, and which shall be co-ordinate in dignity and credits\nwith other departments. They should include four elements:\n1. Systematic exercise for all students, suited to their individual needs,\nsuch as is now given in colleges having well-equipped gymnasiums and competent physical directors.\n2. Theoretical work in physiology and hygiene. This should be as\nrigidly scientific in character as any other work done in the college and should\nbe done as part of the work of the department of physical culture. It would\ninclude work in nutrition and sanitation. This part of the work and the\npractical part, the exercise, are related somewhat as lecture and laboratory are\nrelated in chemistry.\n3. Thoro and careful supervision of athletics by the department. This\nwill make it possible to escape the perils of the professional coach, whose only\nanxiety is to develop a winning team; will de-commercialize college athletics\nso that we can have the kind of games that are good for the boy without reference to the gate receipts, and will open the way to the development of a spirit\nof clean sportsmanship, which is getting to be a far rarer quality than it ought\nto be in American college athletics, as at present conducted. If the colleges\nare suffering from too great emphasis upon athletics in the student consciousness, the cure lies not in the abolition of football, but in the development of\ndepartments of physical culture which shall see that it ministers to education\nand not merely to excitement.\n4. The work of such a department, including the points already mentioned, could be made a point of departure from which to approach a large\nbody of material, both scientific and historical, which is at present but little\nused, and a point of contact thru which to touch and quicken the intellectual\ninterests of a certain class of students whose college work has hitherto been\nperfunctory and unprofitable. At the present time a boy who happens to have\na consuming zeal for micro-lepidoptera can take courses in the department\nof entomology and be looked upon as a shining light in the most strictly intellectual side of college life. But the boy who finds his most immediate interest\nin the achievement of his own bodily perfection (which seems to me quite as\nreasonable and useful an enthusiasm as the other) finds that this interest leads\nto nothing which the college sees fit to recognize.\nThe college ought, in some way, thru its department of physical education,\nto make the connection between this kind of boy's natural interest in physical\nthings and the world of culture which seems to him shadowy and valueless.\nIf it is the business of education to take a person where he is and lead him step\nby step to where he ought to be, then the department of physical culture has an\nopen door before it. I am Greek enough to believe that if we treat physical\nscience in a cultural way we shall get not only health but culture out of it. The\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "764\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nworking-out of the detafls of such a program will call for much psychological\ninsight, pedagogical sagacity, and breadth of education-sympathies. It will\nalso call for a good deal of common sense. But it is worth the effort in view of\nthe magnitude of the opportunity which the colleges and high schools now have\nto develop, not as an extra or an excrescence, but as an integral part of their\ncurriculum, co-ordinate with their most scientific departments, a department\nof physical education which shall embody and express the recognition of the\nlarge place which modem educational theory ascribes to the body in the\ndevelopment of a well-rounded and effective personality.\nDISCUSSION\nA. O. Thomas, president of State Normal School, Kearney, Nebr. — I am glad to be\npresent and have a part on this splendid program. It seems much like a revival meeting\nand gospel-preaching, or perhaps better a court of justice and many convictions. It is\ngood to see so much interest in this important subject.\nThe ancients used to divide the day into three divisions — eight hours for work, or the\nliveUhood side; eight hours for the enjoyment of the fruits of industry and doing good, in\nother words, the fuller life; and eight hours for sleep. The division of time can scarcely\nbe improved. However, our schools are emphasizing the fuller-life side and paying little\nattention to the working period or the livelihood. We have spent our forces, our money,\nand our energy on the side of intellectual education and have given little attention to the\nphysical. The definition that education fits the individual for life is only half true. It\nshould also fit the individual for livelihood.\nThe strenuous life we are living and the strong requirements to be placed upon the\ngeneration now being educated make it necessary to build up a strong body as a seat for the\nstrong intellectual life required. The body is the machine thru which the soul expresses\nitself, or by means of which the soul performs its function. We should therefore spend a\nportion of our money and our energy on this phase of public education.\nA body at ebb tide of vitality cannot sustain strong intellectual and moral growth.\nA body which does not receive careful culture cannot present its ultimate strength.\nIn order to present the proper balance of physical education three phases must receive\nemphasis — the industrial, the athletic, and the gymnastic.\nThe industrial form has great value as a means of definite expression and the consum ation ofan idea, which in itself, from the standpoint of utility, is the highest form of\neducation. Games present the pleasurable and contest feature, both of which are legitimate\nincentives. The gymnasium develops those portions of the physical not usually employed\nin the above-mentioned forms, and represents the systematic culture of all parts.\nBut to our subject — the proper balance. If we consider but two phases of education,\nthe physical and intellectual, we would say give half of the time of the curriculum to each.\nIf we represent the three phases, one-third.\nIt is generally understood that the average student can handle four full studies in his\nschool course. If so, it seems to me one-fourth of his time should be given to some of the\nthree phases of physical training I have mentioned. In the earUer years, games and plays\nshould predominate, but gradually giving way to the industrial in the higher courses, the\ngymnasium acting as a proper balance thruout the entire course, the industrial phase working out in some measure the vocational side. The great unrest in education manifest today\nis bound to work some sort of a revolution in our system of schools, and it must come along\nthese lines.\n\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATHLETIC\n\nCOMPETITION\n\n765\n\nATHLETIC COMPETITION IN COLLEGE AND PREPARATORY\nSCHOOL, OR COMPETITION PREPARATORY TO ENTERING COLLEGE\nWILLIAM\n\nF. SLOCUM, PRESIDENT OF COLORADO\nCOLORADO SPRINGS, COLO.\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nIt is only about fifty years since the revival of scientific physical education\nand training. In fact it was not until after the Civil War that much attention\nwas paid to the subject in modem times. As late as 1855 President Steams,\nof Amherst, in his annual report to the trustees says, *'The waning of the\nphysical energies in the midway of college course is almost the mle, rather\nthan the exception, and cases of complete breaking-down are painfully\nnumerous.\"\nIn 1859 he returns to the same subject in his report of that year and says,\nspeaking of the breaking-down of the health of the students: ''Physical\nexercise is neglected, the laws of health are violated. The once active student\nsoon becomes physically indolent, his mental powers become dulled, his\nmovements and appearance indicate physical deterioration. By the time\njunior year is reached many students have broken down in health, and every\nyear some lives are sacrificed.\" This is a fair representation of conditions\nin all the American colleges until i860, when the first gymnasiums in this\ncountry were built at Harvard, Yale, and Amherst. Up to that time athletic\nsports were hardly in evidence in the United States, and yet it is admitted by\nall that physical instruction is at the basis of education and enters in a most\nimportant manner into the mental and moral training of all children and\nyouth. That much has been accomplished in the last fifty years is very\napparent, and it is just as clear that there is still very much to be done and\nalso there are at the present time some very unfortunate tendencies, especially\nas the outcome of the intense competition in the athletic sports of the present\nday, which are taking the place which ought to be given to scientific physical\neducation.\nA solution of the problem growing out of this intense competitive spirit\ncan be reached only by a careful examination of the true end of physical culture.\nThe aim should always be to produce normal men and women and not abnormal. A normal person is one who conforms to an essential type or form,\nand that type or form accords with nature's authoritative standard. A normal\nheart will perform its proper function as nature intended it should. An\nenlarged heart is not a normal heart. A muscle greatly enlarged beyond its\nnatural size, and which is not co-ordinated with the other functions of the\nbody, nor with the natural and legitimate claims that life makes upon a man, is\nnot a normal muscle.\nThe Greek idea which, as Charles Kingsley put it, was \"to produce health —\nthat is, harmony and symmetry and grace — in every faculty of mind and body,\"\nhas not been surpassed.\nThis Greek idea was to harmonize soul and body.\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "766\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nDr. Sargent, of Harvard University, reminds us that according to Grote,\nGreece devoted more time to the physical training of her youth than to all\nother branches of education combined. This was one reason why the training for the Greek games was so carefully regulated, not only in regard to diet,\nbathing, hours of rest and practice, but also to one's intellectual and moral\nassociations.\nPerfect normality exists where each function of mind and body performs\nits work just as nature intended that it should. It should also be kept\ndistinctly in mind that one finds a perfectly normal human being only where\nthere is a perfect interaction of all physical organs with the mind. A distinguished writer upon physical culture says that ** physical education has to\ndo with the nerves as well as the muscles.\" It should be added, however,\nthat normality can be obtained only as there is a proper interaction of mind\nand muscles and nerves, and some day it will be recognized that the teacher\nof physical training is just as much a trainer of the mind and of the moral\nnature as is the instructor of logic, psychology, or ethics. Dr. Paul Dubois in\nhis Psychic Treatment of Nervous Disorders has made clear that the interrelation of mental and physical education is very close and of vast importance.\n\"Every organic disease has its counterpart in nervousness,\" and this distinguished physician adds, \"The characteristic thing in nervous cases is not 'their\npains, but their mentality.\" He tells us further that what is called fatigue\nhas a psychic element and that this has not been sufficiently recognized. True\nfatigue is doubled by the auto-suggestion of fatigue. \"Soldiers on a forced\nmarch declare often they cannot take another step. Let the music of the\nregiment be played, and you will see these men resume their march almost at\na quick-step.\" He adds, \"They were fatigued, but under the influence of\nfatigue, their morale had awakened, and they saw their fatigue through the\nmagnifying-glass of their unhealthy pessimism.\" To this Dr. William Gilbert\nAnderson, director of the Yale University School of Physical Education, adds,\n\"The trained man brings to the aid of his intellect entire control of a strong\nand adaptable body; and therein lies the value of judicious physical training.\nMany people commit the error,\" he tells us, \"of thinking that the production\nof a muscular giant, at the expense of the intellect, is the chief object of systems\nof exercise. As a matter of fact, modem physical education aims to assist\nthe whole man toward symmetrical development, mental and moral as well as\nbodily,\" and to that Dr. Edward Mussey Hartwell, than whom there can be\nno better authority, adds, \"Professional athletes through their special training\nare a class apart by themselves and are proverbial for their stupidity and\nbrutality.\" While it is true that the body is an essential and co-operative\nally in developing mental activity, it is even a more important truth that the\nmind is an essential and co-operative ally in developing a healthy body. Such\nmen as Wundt, Helmholtz, Muller, and Harvey have made it clear that \"not\na feeling can arise, not a thought pass, without a set of concurring bodily ;\nprocesses.\"\n\nJuvenal's time-worn saying, Mens sana in corpore sano, has taken\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n.\n\nATHLETIC\n\nCOMPETITION\n\n767\n\non a very far-reaching meaning under the scientific investigations and spirit of\nmodern study of the interrelation of psychology and physiology.\nThe ultimate end of physical training is to develop the power of selfcontrol, a control which is positive and not negative. It enables the individual\nto wield and utilize all his mental forces and his physical powers for a high and\ndefinite end.\nIf we recognize this to be true, it is not difficult to discover some of the\ndefects in the system of physical training which is the outcome of athletic\ncompetition in colleges and preparatory schools. Without doubt football, as now played, has trained men in self-control and given them power\nwhich has counted in the bringing of things to pass in after life ; but the underlying fault in the game, as at present conducted, is that it is not so much true\nsport as it is a fight conducted on the basis of warfare. The men are trained\nto win a victory over someone else ; they are coached, trained, scolded, ordered\nabout, not to say abused, often by men intellectually and sometimes morally\ninferior to themselves, for the one definite purpose of fighting another set of\nmen in a physical conquest which always has, as a dominating element in the\nminds of the players, the defeat of the enemy in a battle. When a certain\nnumber of these fights have taken place, then, the real end of all the physical\ntraining having been fulfilled, the contestants \"go out of training\" just as\ndoes the prize fighter. Meantime thejre has not been physical training for the\nmany, but only for the few who are preparing for the contest. The instructions of the trainer and the conversation of the players and those who take\nsides, often with wagers of money which intensify their feelings, are much the\nsame as one might hear on the eve of a great pugilistic fight, where the purpose\nis for one man to knock down another with his fist. There is much skill, no\ndoubt, in these contests, and powers of endurance are tested to its limit.\nSometimes the opposing teams, after a while, will have friendly conferences,\njust as old soldiers do who have fought each other on the battlefield; but all\nthat does not change the mental and moral attitude which takes possession of\nwhole institutions, including faculties, the student body, and all who encourage\nthem in the contests.\nWithout doubt such training does develop will-power on the part of the\nplayers and so carries out the German idea of athletics, but that it is the true\nmethod of producing men who are mentally or physically normal, no one with\nthe true conceptions of the end of human life can possibly claim.\nAside from the moral and intellectual influences which are the outcome of\nthese undesirable competitive sports, there is, in both colleges and secondary\nschools, the very serious fact that a large amount of the work done in our\ngymnasiums is adjusted to the training of the men who are to enter these\ncontests, and too often the great mass of students who most need normal\nphysical training secure very little. It is only the strongest and best -developed\nmen who are wanted for these teams, and they are the ones who least of all\nneed the gymnasiums.\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n768\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Physical\n\nIt too often happens that the great mass of young people who require\npainstaking \"corrective work\" under well-equipped instructors and medical\nadvisers are neglected. When one considers the surprisingly large number\nof young people who have curvature of the spine to a greater or less degree,\nhow many shoulders need \"corrective work,\" how many of the vital organs\nshould have special physical exercises for the normal activity, and when also\none recognizes the admirable work that is done today along these lines for\nthe betterment of human life, it is easily recognized that there are grave faults\nin the physical training of many of our schools and colleges.\nIf it is true that health means holiness, as Dr. Stanley Hall claims, it is\nalso true that this \"holiness\" is dependent upon the \"wholeness\" which comes\nwhen a human body is made to act and react in all its delicately interrelated\norgans and functions.\nWhile it is true that fresh air, sunlight, cleanliness, good food, and good\nwater are necessary conditions of physical vigor, yet these of themselves will not\ncorrect a curvature of the spine which requires special physical apparatus and\nthe direction of a thorogoing, well-trained instructor. The question which\nshould ever be kept in view is, what will best prepare the pupils and students,\nmen and women, for the work and the responsibilities of life ? Is the intense\ncompetitive spirit engendered by such games as football, as carried on between\nthe schools in America, producing the broadest, the noblest, and the sanest\nresults? That is the question which must be answered in the attempt to\nmeet the important and fundamental problem which we have been asked to\ndiscuss.\nIn this connection there is another question which it is well for us Americans\nto consider as we discuss physical training. That is, have we as yet learned\nhow to enjoy sufl&ciently true sport for its own sake ? Our English friends,\nin opposition to the German idea that muscles must be developed thru the\nwill, maintain, with much good sense, that the best physique is secured unconsciously bymeans of athletic sports, especially in the open air. That is why\nthe man at Oxford or Cambridge who is not devoted to some one sport at\nleast, like tennis, cricket, or rowing, is not regarded as quite normal or in\n\"good form.\" Certainly much of that wholesome, manly, Anglo-Saxon\nvigor of old England, which has led to great achievements thruout the world,\nis the outcome of the good health that one finds in a certain class of Englishmen\nwho all their lives have enjoyed good sport. They of all other people have\nlearned, especially at their secondary schools and universities, to enjoy sport\nfor its own sake; and while they have not done as much as the Americans in\nthe establishment and conduct of gymnasiums, yet they have gained much by\nthe healthful games which they play in the open air. Out-of-door sports are\ncoming into vogue more and more in America, but our cousins over the water\nstill excel us in this respect.\nThe corrective and constructive work of modem scientifically conducted\ngymnasiums is essential, but Nature will do her work for both mind and body\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATHLETIC\n\nCOMPETITION\n\n769\n\nwhen the strong play instinct is given opportunity to work out its beneficent\nresults, when, with joyous exercise in the open air, one forgets himself in his\nsport and lets Nature have her own way of working out her own results with\nbrain, nerves, and muscles.\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam S. Sutton, dean of the Department of Education, University of Texas,\nAustin, Tex. — No careful observer of educational institutions in America would refuse\nto indorse President Slocum's contention that the authorities of secondary schools and\ncolleges are greatly tempted to forget the true end of physical education, which is the\ndevelopment of normal men and women, and to overemphasize the athletic training of a\nsmall number of students whose ambition it is to shine in the college and the university\nathletic world. Highly organized athletic training for only a few boys or girls out of each\nschool, to the neglect of the physical education of their fellows, cannot be justified by\nreputable standards of education or morals. This practice, which has grown up in\nAmerica within the last quarter of a century, has too frequently been born of improper\nmotives. Sometimes the motive has been the desire to win prestige for institutions whose\nrepresentatives achieve many victories on athletic fields; at other times the dominant\ndesire has been to furnish great public spectacles, by which the heart of the educational\nadvertiser will be delighted; and not infrequently — God save the mark! — the controlling\npurpose has been to put money into the pockets of men who look upon education as a\ncommercial pursuit.\nPresident Slocum's second contention cannot be too strongly emphasized by school\nsuperintendents and high-school principals, as well as by college presidents and college\nprofessors. Some of the most desirable results to be obtained from physical exercise are,\nas it were, by-products. Inasmuch as the purpose of hfe is not physical, one is following\na sound philosophy when he subordinates any form of physical exercise to a spiritual end.\nOne who walks two miles in order to visit a friend, in whose conversation there is entertainment and profit, will find that the necessary physical labor involved in making the journey\nwill be of even greater advantage than if he had, under compulsion, covered an equal\ndistance with no other aim than that of physical exercise. Any highly institutionalized\nform of athletics, if allowed to become dominant in the minds of school people, leads inevitably to professionalism, which is always extremely conscious of its feats, and, furthermore,\nof the applause and ducats derived therefrom. Surely it is not the purpose of the public\nschools to develop professional athletes. The attitude of a gentleman toward the physical\nexercise which he should take, and which he must take if he preserve his mental, not to say\nhis moral, vigor, is surely vastly different from that of a prize-fighter engaged in that training which is preparatory to a pugilistic contest.\nPresident Slocum's third contention is thoroly sound. We teachers are not developing\nminds only or bodies only, but we are engaged in the care and culture of men. It is the\nideal man which should be the all-controlling aim in all the phases of educational endeavor,\nrintellectual or moral or physical, and these phases cannot, in reason or in safety, be divorced\nrfrom one another. Athletic contests, if so regulated as to discharge reasonable and proper\n[functions, should be encouraged in our schools, largely because of the fact that they will\n■ contribute to a sane and vigorous moral life — the underlying element in commendable\n[citizenship. One who learns how to contend in generous emulation with another is learn[ing a lesson sadly needed in the world of politics and business. The safety and the perpetujity of our country depend upon how well generation after generation shall be taught the\nvirtues of modesty in the enjoyment of triumph, as well as the lesson of courage and hope\npin times of defeat.\nOne of the chief dangers to be guarded against in intercollegiate and interscholastic\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "770\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nathletic contests is that they furnish opportunities to develop an inordinate love of conquest,\na passion easily aroused in the adolescent youth, especially if he be an Anglo-Saxon, and\nmore especially if he belong to the American wing of the Anglo-Saxon race.\nIra B. Fee^ deputy superintendent of public instruction, Cheyenne, Wyo. — In the\ntopic assigned to Mr. Slociun, we who discuss it are confined to the competitive phase of\nathletics. It is hard, however, for one to present intelligently remedies for possible evils\nin competitive athletics without going beyond these limitations.\nIt has been my lot during my teaching experience to have been connected with the\nsecondary schools and to have been more or less actively identified with the athletic sports\ncommonly practiced. The three branches of competitive athletics which I have observed\nparticularly attract boys of the high school are football, basket-ball, and track. In some\nplaces track athletics is displaced by baseball, or is jointly given attention ; but as a rule\nwhere either of these sports is practiced in the average high school, the other receives little\nattention.\nI shall briefly consider the three first mentioned.\nFootball, in secondary schools, is played by boys from fifteen to nineteen years of age —\nboys who have not yet attained full growth and physical development. The game in itself\nis exciting and abounds in opportunity for good team work. In many ways great mental\nacumen may be developed by the football training. The quick, snappy plays, the centering of the attention on the call of signals, the necessity for each player to keep his temper\nand to exercise self-control help marvelously in training boys of school age for the contests\nof manhood that inevitably await them. But I believe that the benefit derived is more than\ncounterbalanced by the risk of physical injury, and this is almost the unanimous verdict of\nphysicians with whom I have talked concerning this branch of athletics in secondary\nschools. One physician stated to me that injuries received from deep bruises, often from\nfractures of collar-bones and tearing of ligaments, have been during youth without noticeable effect, but later in life these have again become very troublesome. Second, I\nwould re-emphasize a point made by President Slocum. Football, as played today,\nwhether in secondary school or college, has become almost wholly spectacular. The\ncontestants do not enter the game for the sport, for the recreation, nor for the physical\ndevelopment. The contest is one between schools, and the team is chosen to win.\nTrack athletics, in some of the events, such as jumping, vaulting, hurdling, and throwing\nweights, is splendid. Contests of this kind are instructive. There can be nothing more\nnatural than that boys should compete in jumping or throwing. Under proper direction\nthese events may be productive of physical, mental, and moral development. The longdistance runs, however, I unqualifiedly condemn for boys of the high-school age. These\ngruelling contests are a painful tax on heart and lungs. Several cases have come under\nmy own observation where boys, competing in the distance runs, have as a result become\nincurably aflflicted with valvular heart trouble.\nBasket-ball, for competitive sports, I regard as the ideal game. It has all the advantages of team work and quickness of decision that accompany the game of football without\nthe inevitable risk of injury. The contest, while keen, is not painfully exhausting. The\nzest of the game is often sufficient inducement to students without the necessity of interscholastic competition.\nThere are three chief objections, however, to the whole system of competitive athletics,\nand these I regard as serious. First, the custom of selecting for our teams the welldeveloped, powerfully built boys with no provision for the physical training of those less\nfortunate.\nSecond, the interruption to the classroom work, which unavoidably results from interscholastic competition. In the west, where distances are so great and train connections so\nuncertain, such interruption must occur if competing teams are allowed to meet.\nThird, the spectacular is unduly prominent in competitive athletics. The time and\nattention of the whole school is centered on securing a winning team at any cost, even to the\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "■\\\nDepartment]\n\nORGANIZING\n\nSPORTS\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n771\n\nextent frequently of introducing and encouraging questionable and unethical methods.\nSchool boards recognize this when they employ teacher-coaches whose duty is plainly to\n, produce winning teams if they wish to retain their positions. Nothing is said about the\nmethods. No attention is paid by them to members of the school not on the teams and\nnone is expected.\nI would advocate the encouragement on the part of our great National Education\nAssociation of compulsory physical training for boys and girls, and let the aim of this training be to develop mind and body alike and produce normal men and women. This training should be consistently given not only in the high school but in all the grades of the school\nsystem, the kind of training varying to meet the needs of the different grades. The\nteachers in all the departments of the schools should be required to be able to supervise\nthis physical training successfully before certificates are granted. I would advocate that\nthe better forms of competitive athletics such as basket-ball, baseball, and track, with the\nexclusion of the distance runs, be retained. With the stamp of approval given by the\nNational Education Association to this plan I believe that the true aim of physical training, the production of normal men and women, will not long be delayed.\n\nTHE PROPER RELATION\nPLAYGROUNDS\nI.\n\nCHARLES\n\nE. CHADSEY,\n\nOF ORGANIZED SPORTS ON PUBLIC\nAND IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF CITY SCHOOLS,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nThe increased emphasis which is now being paid to everything pertaining\nto physical training and well-being is of the greatest importance to America.\nOut of this intelligent interest will unquestionably develop a stronger, sturdier\nphysique. With increased physical power will come increased mental power\nand greater efficiency. Among the various organizations for physical betterment, none promises speedier eflficiency than the public-playground movement.\nLike all great movements its usefulness is so obvious that one wonders why\nits development did not occur much earlier. The need of the growing child\nfor exercise has been recognized clearly. The fact that the most efficient\nexercise for the growing child was to be secured from his play is of more recent\nrecognition. Of course the immense development of urban life has brought\nabout a condition which can be met only by systematic action on the part of\nthe pubHc. So long as there remained many vacant lots or fields the need\nfor the organized, supervised public playground did not seem urgent.\nUnfortunately the knowledge of the necessity of public playgrounds did not\ncome to the public early enough to enable a sufficient number of public playgrounds tobe provided in our larger cities. The encouraging fact in connection with the present movement for public playgrounds is that it will result in\nour smaller cities anticipating the need and in providing these grounds while\nland is cheap.\nAlmost every city in the United States presents the spectacle of large school\nbuildings with very limited or no excess land. In thousands of cases no profvision has been made for playgrounds of any kind. I, myself, remember\nwithin a few years hearing one of our most distinguished superintendents say\nthat the purchase of school grounds to be used as playgrounds was an absolutely unjustifiable expenditure of school money.\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "772\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nSchool boards in most communities at the present time are realizing most\nclearly the value of larger grounds, yet in few cases are the grounds which are\npurchased sufficiently large to meet the needs of the community for organized\nplay.\nIt is a debatable question as to whether public playgrounds should be\nadministered from funds raised for educational purposes, or be provided from\nfunds raised for the parks of the city. There are strong arguments in favor\nof the control either by the Park Commission or the Board of Education. No\nmatter, however, as to which power may have control of the playgrounds,\nthere is no question but that there must develop a very close relation between\nthe public school and the public playground. All of our children are, during\nthe greater part of the year, in attendance at some public school and under\na very real control by the school authorities. The school system, as organized\nfor the purpose of control, is unquestionably remarkably effective. Organized\nsports, therefore, can be successfully administered thru school authority better\nthan thru any other authority. The grammar-school boy needs the kind of\ndiscipline afforded by organized games. He needs also to have developed\nduring these years a high ethical sense as to sportsman-like conduct and fair\nplay. He must learn not to question absolute conformity to the established\nrules of the game. All of these things can be secured effectively thru the school\norganization.\nAn interesting experiment looking toward an extremely close co-operation\nbetween the PubUc Playground Association of Denver and the public schools\nof Denver has just been concluded. Thru the co-operation of the Playground\nAssociation and the principals of the elementary schools, an elementary baseball league was formed. Thirty-two of the elementary schools of Denver\njoined this league. It was divided into four divisions — north, east, south, and\nwest — each having eight teams. A definitely established schedule .was\narranged, the Playground Association furnishing umpires for these games,\nsuitable trophies to be held by the winning team of the league, and individual\ntrophies for the members of the winning teams. In general the Athletic\nCommittee retained supervisory control. The details of the management of the\nleague remained in the hands of the governing board of principals appointed\nby the city superintendent. This governing board established rules governing\nthe teams. The principals of the buildings were placed in absolute charge of\nthe personnel of the team. Any principal could make rules he thought desirable concerning habits and morals of the members of the team. In this way\nmany of the schools were able to improve the general conduct of the members\nof the team and in no way was it reported that the excitement incident to the\ngames militated against the school efi&ciency. Any appeal or protest which\nany team might wish to make thru its principal was referred to the governing\nboard and considered on its merits. The winners of the four divisions played\neach other to determine the city championship. From the very beginning the\nmost intense interest was manifested by the pupils and teachers of the schools\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZING\n\nSPORTS\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n773\n\nand the parents of the school children. Not infrequently from two to three\nthousand spectators were in attendance at these games. In only one or two\ninstances were any fees charged and that was merely to defray the necessary\nexpenses for the rental of the grounds.\nSchool spirit and loyalty soon ran so high that in almost every case the\nparents of the school children contributed sufficient money to enable suitable\nuniforms and the necessary paraphernalia to be purchased. Interest in the\ngames steadily increased until the playing of the championship game in the\nwestern league baseball park before an audience of five thousand people.\nThe experiment seemed to indicate the most beneficial results in the way of\nthe development of the sportsman-like attitude toward sports. The most\ndiflScult thing to overcome in the games of this kind is the charge by the losing\nteam of unfairness on the part of the umpires and other officials. Not infrequently the principals and teachers themselves were carried away by these\ncharges. The attitude of the governing board was uniformly just and I feel\nsatisfied that the idea of taking one's medicine, bitter tho it may be, was greatly\nstrengthened thru this insistence upon absolute conformity to the authority\nof the officials and the established rules of the game.\nThe unsupervised baseball game, in which all right-thinking boys will\nindulge, presents many evils in a large city. These games are ordinarily\nplayed upon vacant lots. They attract loafers who have a very low moral\nstandard as to conduct. Profanity, vulgarity, and often violence are to be\nfound at such places. The supervised scheduled game eliminates all of these\nevils. The authority of the principal over the team is unquestioned; the\ngeneral authority of the Playground Association over the miscellaneous\ncrowd is also unquestioned. If necessary, police protection is easily secured,\naltho in practically no instance was it found to be necessary. Ordinarily the\nprincipals preferred not to have the police, finding their own authority sufficient.\nIt is the intention of the Playground Association and the principals to\nextend this systematic and close relation between organized sports and the\npublic school next year. Probably football and field sports will be added to\nthe established schedule. The probability of having some organized sports\nfor girls is also being considered.\nIt is safe to say that, while the general responsibility of the principals was\nincreased, the good results of this organized work are so manifest that there\nwill be an extension rather than a reduction of all such organized sports.\nI believe that the good the young people receive is incalculable; that the\nlessened temptation for evil conduct and the lessened possibiHty of the development of bad habits is so great as to justify the extra responsibility.\nOur young people need this organized play. They need to develop the\nright attitude toward sport. They are entitled to have these sports under\nthe most favorable conditions, and there seems no other method possible which\nwill secure these advantages so efi&ciently as thru the organized supervision of\nthe schoolboy][games.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "774\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThat organized sports must, in order to be valuable, be under some definite\nsupervision, does not admit of denial. The question as to where the responsibility for the control of these sports should lie may perhaps be debatable.\nSome principals feel strongly that while school athletic organizations are to be\nencouraged, contests with organizations in other schools bring so much trouble\nand responsibility that it is better to discourage them. They hold that the\nduties of a school principal are almost purely educational, and that such\nresponsibilities as come in connection with athletic organizations result in a\ndissipation of forces which will lessen the power of the principal as an effective\nschoolman. Such principals hold that while organized sports are beneficial\nand highly desirable they should be controlled by outside organizations.\nThere is no question that as between outside control and no control the\nformer is distinctly preferable. In fact, our public-playground associations\nin many of our larger cities are good organizations and bring about many\nvaluable results which were illustrated by the work of our local elementaryschool baseball league.\nThere seems little doubt, however, that unless public playgrounds under\nthe control of some school association are established in every section of the\ncity, these outside athletic organizations will be Kmited in their usefulness\nlargely to immediate neighborhoods of the public playground. No such\nwidely disseminated organization as was successfully established in Denver\nthis spring could possibly be developed thru the Playground Association alone.\nIt is also true that there will be more successful management of details when\nthose who have control are also recognized by the children themselves as having\ngeneral authority over their welfare.\nIn connection with the arduous duties of the elementary-school principal,\nI realize that the acceptance of such responsibilities as are implied in general\ncity organizations entail greatly increased work. This is a detail which will\nhave to be worked out by the principals and the city superintefident. In spite\nof this increased responsibility, however, I feel convinced that the most successful development of the organized sports must come thru the direct oversight ofthe school principal, but that the power and usefulness of such organizations are greatly increased where the public support, which is implied by the\npublic-playground association, can be had.\nII.\n\nMRS.\n\nLORNA\n\nHIGBEE\n\nLELAND,\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nTEMPLETON,\nMASS.; ONE OF\nGROUND TECHNIQUE\n\nTHE\nAND\n\nARCHITECT\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZER\n\nAUTHORS\nOF \"PLAYPLAYCRAFT\"\n\nThe playground stands for natural education, racial education, self -education. Itfurnishes practically the only place in the city where the child is not\nobliged to do things foreign or distasteful to its nature. Play is nature's\nshort-cut to experience. It teaches the lessons which were beneficial to the\nrace in past ages.\nThe play-director is the interpreter of race tradition, and has become\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZING\n\nSPORTS\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n775\n\nnecessary by the civilization which prevents the child from observing adult\nactivity under favorable conditions and opportunity for imitation. The\nplay-instructor secures his influence because he knows more things which will\ninterest the children than their natural street leaders. The child is always\nthe supreme judge of the efficiency of his leadership.\nPlayground activities must be recreative and interesting. A system of\neducational play for the playground must be prescribed with freedom for the\nchild to choose the games he will play. His choice can be guided to ethical,\neducational, and hygienic ends, but these ends must be achieved on the playground thru the recreative application of play.\nThe school stands for the acquired education of civilization. Its system,\ndeveloped by adults, represents the ideals toward which the race is consciously\nworking. To the child, the school represents external authority and order,\nas do the teachings of parents, the church, and society; it is the personification of the \"eternal musts;\" the place to learn to work at disagreeable duties.\nSchool life should promote a high sense of duty as opposed to inclination;\ntherefore, the teacher is necessarily a disciplinarian and often a taskmaster.\nThe school should meet the needs of the average pupil. The brightest at\nschool must be kept back in order not to oustrip the dullards. Necessarily the\npassing mark is such that every student with proper study can reach it. Such\nmethods raise average intelligence, the chief concomitant of civilization, but\ntend to limit individual initiative.\nThe discipline of schools and playgrounds is antithetical. The disobedient\nchild is kept after school as punishment; the playground excludes him from\nthe games and grounds and makes the play so interesting that the child is\npunished.\nSchool sports should develop all the children. Schools and playgrounds\nare both necessary to complete education. Each should follow its own traditions. Therefore, a system of sports for public school should be :\nFirst: Educational, teaching what adults decide best for the children.\nSecond: They should meet the hygienic, social, and educational conditions obtaining\nwith the majority, who may be underfed, with insufficient sleep, and living under unsanitary\nconditions. The stimulus of intense competition may lead the ambitious, nervous child\ngreatly to exceed the safe limitations of his strength.\nThird: They should be compulsory and a regular part of school work, with standards\nwithin reach of the average child.\nFourth: They must be adapted to school equipment without extensive costly immediate changes.\nLastly: They must not lose their identity as sports.\n\nCompetition in school sports should be sufficient only to hold the interest\nof the children. School sports should prepare for freer competition on the\nplayground. Informal, interschool contests, or the formation of teams by\nchoosing sides in the physical-training classes should be sufficient to hold\ninterest. Active participation by every pupil and equal development of all\nplayers should be the ideal of school sports.\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe playgrounds should develop leaders. The traditions of the playground are such that it furnishes unequaled opportunity, in an atmosphere of\nliberty, for the development of leaders. The child is here not shielded from\nthe consequences of his own misdoings. Many of the forces of education are\nmaternal. Too much of this good thing creates dependence. It is sometimes\nclaimed that things are made too easy for the children, that knowledge is fed\nto them in homeopathic, sugar-coated doses. But the playground represents\nlife standards of child civilization. In order to * ' make \" the team it is necessary\nto \"deliver the goods.\" If little Johnny \"muffs a pop-up,\" his peers sit in\njudgment and the jury pay no attention to the plea, \"He did his best.\" The\nverdict is, \"Give him the sack off the team.\" There is no 65 per cent, passing\nmark on the play field.\nInterschool competition can be carried on best thru the co-operation of the\n.public playgrounds. Playground school sports, under the joint control of\nthe public schools, private and parochial schools, and playgrounds, should\nfurnish opportunity thru competition for the development of leaders. Only\nthose passing certain physical and mental standards should compete. Teams,\nincluding all those who \"passed\" in athletics, should be formed to compete\nwith respective teams from other schools on the playground. There would be\nfirst, second, third, etc., teams for each sport in each school. The total score\nwould be the combined score of all the teams. District games would be played\noff in the nearest playground. The championship meet could be made a\ngreat Fourth of July Festival. Prizes should be inexpensive — ribbons and\nbanners to go to the team, school, and playground rather than to individuals.\nPhysical training and manual training should be correlated thru constructive play. The child's instinct for play should not be satisfied with readymade toys. Children should work for their play to derive educational benefit.\nThe official bats and balls and other equipment used for school and playground games should be child-made; the champions, those who make the\nbest goods and play the best game. Playground and school sports can direct\nthe d3mamic stream of play into the channels of playcraft, where its force can\nbecome accustomed to industrial uses.\nIf money is spent on materials and instructors to teach the children to make\ntheir own play supplies, some temptations would be removed from politicians\nand others who are not in business for their health.\nCompetition, unless carefully regulated, leads to specialization introducing\ncommercialism and corruption in athletics. Children's sports should be\ndeveloped for the sake of the children, not for the sake of the game and the\nspectator. American sports, especially in college, high school, and athletic\nclubs, are professional in methods and ideals, because they are intended\nmainly to interest the spectator and not for the benefit of the player. The\nplaying-rules for professionals and amateurs should be on an entirely different\nbasis. The educators of our country can absolutely change the tendency of\nour national games by controlling the committees on rules. These committees\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nOF Y. M. C. A. AND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n777\n\nhave been generally made up of professional coaches and others, who, judging\nfrom results, have been interested largely in the money side of the game.\nNaturally the tendency of the game has been toward specialization.\nNormal, clean-sport campaigns may be necessary and right among professionals; but for amateurs, reform should strike at the roots of evil by modifying the conditions which cause corruption, rather than by treating symptoms\nwith the antidotes of registration of teams, who must use \"official balls,\" etc.,\nthe proceeds from the sale of which pays the expense of whitewashing and\nadvertising of official sporting goods.\nChildren who have never been subjected to corrupting influences naturally\nH\n\nlove fair play, and play the game for the game's sake.\nEducators should prepare and publish modified rules to develop children's\nsports with amateur ideals. The control of committees on rules, modifications,\nand publication of rules governing the sports of schools and playgrounds should\nbe in the hands of educators, physical educators, hygienists, and others, who\nare not dependent upon commercial interests in securing and holding their\npositions. Such a rules' committee should modify our traditional games to\nadapt them to city, school, and playground conditions, and should publish\nthese modified rules and keep control of the situation rather than permit the\npublication and control to be taken up by the same interests which have done\nso much to specialize American games.\nWhen the children's games of our country follow in the commercial and\nprofessional footsteps of the games for adults, as now played, then amateur\nsport in America will indeed be dead.\nHOW\n\nSHOULD THE ATHLETICS OF BOTH MEN'S AND\nDEPARTMENTS OF THE Y. M. C. A. SUPPLEMENT\nOF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS?\nI.\n\nJOHN\n\nDIETRICH,\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF PUBLIC\nCOLORADO\nSPRINGS,\nCOLO.\n\nBOYS'\nTHAT\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe Y. M. C. A. thru its athletic departments has done much toward\ncreating a public interest in athletics, not simply for those who are willing to\nplay match games, but in athletics for the masses — for all. This interest,\nreinforced by the interest on the part of a few officially connected with the\nschools, has made it possible to organize and maintain successfully a system\nof athletics in the public schools of many of our smaller cities.\nIn some places the physical director of the Association supervises all the\nphysical training in the public schools. He frequently gives instruction to the\nteachers in reference to the drills that can be given in the classroom, and also\nsupervises the athletics and sports of the boys. In other cities a publicschool athletic league is formed, and the physical director is the executive\nofficer of this organization. Again, frequently an arrangement is made with\nschools under which the students use the regular Association gymnasium ai\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "778\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nspecial times, a special arrangement being made for their use at stated hours.\nThis is done where the schools have no gymnasium of their own. In some\ncases, the Association receives a small money compensation for the use of the\ngymnasium and the services of the director, and in addition to this, receives,\nand logically so, a larger membership from the schools, due, in a measure at\nleast, to the close and reciprocal relation between the two organizations.\nIt is possible also for the examining stajff of the local Association to assist\nin making physical and medical examinations of the school children. This is\nhighly important, since such examinations made recently have revealed the\nfact that there are many physical defects among school children which are\nintimately related to mental retardation.\nIn another city, the high-school basket-ball teams use the gymnasium of\nthe Y. M. C. A. three consecutive afternoons each week for a high-school\nbasket-ball tournament. A regular gymnasium class for high-school boys\nunder seventeen years of age meets two afternoons a week. Only those who\nare members of the Y. M. C. A. may become members of this class. In another\ncity, all kinds of indoor and outdoor athletics are promoted thru the physical\ndepartment of the Y. M. C. A., and, with the exception of football, the Association isthe controlling element in the public schools. Basket-ball leagues\nare organized among the grade schools and most of the high-school classes,\nand also baseball leagues of a similar nature and an interscholastic field-meet\nis held once a year under the auspices of the Association. In this same city\nan attempt is being made by the Y. W. C. A. to interest the Board of Educacation in having the regular gymnasium exercises furnished at a fixed sum\nto the girls of the high school. It has not been definitely determined that this\ncan be brought about.\nOne Association secretary writes as follows:\nThe Y. M. C. A. can supplement in many ways the physical training of a high school,\nparticularly along educational phases. In our city we are organizing a branch of a social\nhygiene society, and we will have at our command ten to twenty local physicians who will\nbe pledged to teach the subject of personal, sexual, domestic, and community hygiene. We\nwill endeavor to arrange opportunities for these lectures to be presented to the students in the\nhigh schools. Again, by supplying competent officials for interscholastic games — ^men\nwho have the highest moral ideals, who stand for the teaching of right standards thru\ncompetitive games — we will be able, in a measure, to influence the standards of play\namong students of the different schools.\n\nIn Colorado Springs, the relation between the athletic department of the\nschools and that of the Y. M. C. A. is similar to the relation existing between\nthe athletic department of other schools and the Association. The athletic\nwork of our elementary schools is carried on in a large measure by the Y. M.\nC. A. under the auspices of the Anti- Cigarette League. The work is managed\ndirectly by the principals of the schools and officers of the Association. At\nfirst, two field-meets were held each year. A spelling contest held at the\nclose of the first semester has been substituted for the fall or winter field-meet\nof the original plan. The one field-meet is held in May of each year. A\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nOF Y. M. C. A. AND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n779\n\nplumber of medals and cups are offered as prizes. The interest in both the\nspelling contests and field-meets is excellent, and the attendance is always\nirge. A small admission fee is charged, and from the net proceeds, the cups\n(and medals are purchased. If there is any money left, it goes into the treasury\n)f the Boys' Department of the Association. All of the financial obligations\nare assumed by the Association. This plan has not only helped the athletics\nof our schools, but has also strengthened the work in spelling.\nI believe that the Men's and Boys' Athletic Departments of the Y. M. C. A.\nmay be of the greatest assistance to the athletic work of public schools not having gymnasiums, and who are not able to employ a director of physical culture.\nThe expert direction the Association is in a position to give, and the altruistic\nspirit with which it must take up the work, place the Association in a position\n'to do this needed work better than any other agency in this field. The equipment of the Association for athletic work gives it a grip on the young life of the\ncity that nothing else can offer.\nThe work should be so organized by the schools and the Association that\nregular and systematic help can be given pupils and teachers.\nBecause the Association stands for the highest ideals of moral training,\nthere should be a very close relation between the schools and the Association\nin physical training. This will afford an excellent opportunity for impressing\nthe plastic youth, not only with right standards of conduct during the playing\nof games, but also as regards the relation of every boy to his fellows in other\nactivities of life.\nPermit me to emphasize the importance of keeping the work of the Y. M.\nC. A. and that of the schools distinct, to the end that any appreciable amount\nof friction and embarrassment may be entirely avoided. Let it be further\nunderstood that the relation between the athletic department of the public\nschools and those of the Association should be close, but not official.\nn.\n\nE. C. BISHOP,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nLINCOLN, NEBR.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nThe wording of the subject indicates that there is a co-operative relation\nbetween the Y. M. C. A., and the public schools, especially in matters relating\nto athletics. This relationship comes from the duty of the public school to\nprovide physical training for schoolboys, and from the desire of the Y. M. C. A.\nto be helpful in properly directing the interests of all boys.\nThe spiritual life of the boy is the phase of most concern to the Y. M. C. A.,\nand it should be the basis of effort from the standpoint of the school, as well.\nIn the working-out of this idea there seems to be a more or less settled opinion\nto the effect that the school reaches the spiritual life of the boy largely thru the\nmore intellectual processes, and that the Y. M. C. A, reaches the boy thru the\nprocesses of physical influences.\nSince, then, the boy is the object of operation from both Y. M. C. A. and\npublic-school sources, and since the school has, in common with the Y. M.\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "78o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nC. A., an interest in boy development thru the agencies of physical education,\nthe natural question is: \"In what way can the physical education of the boy\nbe best provided for by the two factors interested in and responsible for right\nresults?\"\nThe form of stating the question indicates that the school is the responsible\nagent for the athletic training of the boy, and that the Y. M. C. A. is in position\nto supplement the work of the school. I shall so treat the subject.\nI am prepared to discuss the subject almost entirely from only one condition. That condition is where the public school is not prepared to provide\nproper athletic training. This condition exists in some of the large and in\nmany of the smaller high schools and grammar schools.\nInadequate gymnasium facilities and the lack of physical directors are the\nneeds which most often open the way for profitable supplementary work by the\nY. M. C: A. Gymnasium and bath privileges have long been a center for\nco-operation between the Y. M. C. A. and the public school. The organization of sports and the discipline on public-school playgrounds is a more recent\nopening for effective service.\nThe Y. M. C. A. is to a great degree an organization which acts on the\ninitiative. I am convinced that the interest aroused and the effects gained by\nthe efforts of the Y. M. C. A. to organize boys in clean play and sensible,\nattractive, physical training constitute one of the most powerful present\ninfluences in securing action by boards of education, which results in making\nsuch provision for athletic training under the control of the school that the\nsupplementary work of the Y. M. C. A. is no longer a pressing necessity, and\nis gradually molded into co-operation, rather than supplementation.\nIt has been my privilege for several years to serve as chairman of the junior\ncommittee on the board of directors of our city Y. M. C. A. May I be\npardoned for referring to the work with which I am best acquainted ?\nOur Junior Department aims to reach boys of grammar- and high-school\nage, whether in school or out of school. But from the difference of influences\ngoverning the life of the boy, we find a place for the organization of special\nfeatures in gymnasium work and in outdoor sports for divisions either known,\nor at least conducted, as Working-Boys' Division, Sunday-School Division,\nGrammar-Grade Division, and High-School Division, with such general associations as to bring about the proper kind and degree of fellowship between\nthe members of all divisions, the work being the same in many respects except\nas to the time Qf assembly and practice.\nFrom this we get our grammar- and high-school baseball and basket-ball\nteams, our working-boy teams, and our Sunday-school baseball league teams.\n(I explain here that our Sunday-school baseball teams practice and play any\nday except Sunday, despite the suggestion offered in the name of the organization.)\nH With our gymnasium classes of schoolboys, one matter that requires careful\nadjustment is the time of conducting classes so that they will not interfere\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nOF Y. M. C. A. AND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n781\n\neither directly or indirectly with school duties both in and out of school.\nAnother matter that has required regulation is the conflict of dates between\nathletic events in which some schoolboys are represented on a Y. M. C. A.\nteam and also on a school team, making it necessary for the boy to choose\nbetween plajdng a schedule game with the Y. M. C. A. team to which he\nbelongs, and playing a school-schedule game with the high-school and grammar-school teams in which he also belongs.\nThe Y. M. C. A.'s of Omaha and Lincoln and the city schools have united\nthe past year in the organization of Vacation School Garden Clubs. These\nclubs are under the direction of the Junior Departments of the Y. M. C. A.\nLast year Omaha had such clubs in 33 ward schools, with a total membership\nof about 1,000. The director of the garden work was hired by the Y. M. C. A.\nThe city superintendent, thru his ward principals, assembled the boys who\nwished to take up the work. The garden director met each club at the school\nbuilding by arrangement with the principal of the school at such times as\nseemed desirable, and visited the gardens personally and then the captains of\nthe clubs. The organization is being continued this year under practically\nthe same plan and the ward principals are saying good things of the result\nupon the boys who do the work, and upon the school generally as affected\nthereby.\nAt Lincoln, the plan is practically the same, except that the City Improvement Society unites with the Board of Education of the public school and the\nY. M. C. A. in supporting the work.\nA proper respect for the dignity of labor, and the creation of a greater\ndegree of love for plant life and culture processes has thus been developed\nthru these co-operative agencies. We may call this phase of the work supplementary work of the Y. M. C. A. in school and home gardening — which is\na form of outdoor athletics deserving of as much attention as track athletics\nand field-meets, because of its influence and relation to the home life of every\nboy, regardless of whether he is so fortunate as to be favored with physical\npowers which admit him to some other forms of athletics in which only the\nstrong boy can get full enjoyment.\nThe public-school teacher no doubt has a better conception of boy life\nthan any other public agency outside the Y. M. C. A. But public-school\nteachers, generally untrained in what constitutes true sportsmanship, are too\noften unresponsive to the demand on the part of the boy for direction on\nplayground, in gymnasium, and on athletic field. The Y. M. C. A. with\ntrained physical directors, who have high ideals of manhood, along with\npractical application to boy life, are in position to give very helpful co-operation.\nThe Y. M. C. A., better understanding the boy in his social relations\nteaches him by actual practice (not \"moral suasion\") to deal fairly with his\nfellows. With the Y. M. C. A. influences religion grows into the boy. Too\noften with the school influence it is poured into him. The activities of the\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "782\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nY. M. C. A. should not be confined to the actual membership, but extended to\nthe larger field co-operative with the church, the public schools, and the home.\nThe physical conception of the boy life is a strong feature of Y. M. C. A.\nmanagement. The physical enters so largely in the life of the growing boy\nthat if we would deal successfully with boys we must recognize this. A conception of fair play and a love for clean athletics are strong factors in the\nintellectual and spiritual development of the boy. It is in the great subject of\nplay that the Y. M. C. A. can supplement the work of the teacher in the public\nschool. One of the agencies is the interschool athletic contests, in which\ndifferent schools in the same city select their sets of champions and compete on\na common ground for (a) school honors to teams; (h) individual honors to\nmembers.\nI refer here to the work of last year of the Omaha Y.. M. C. A. with the\ncity schools. The following letter from City Superintendent W. M. Davidson, to Mr. Dennison, the Omaha Y. M. C. A. Boys' Secretary, is self-explanatory:\nMarch\n\n23, 1908\n\nPrincipals:\nThis authorizes Mr. Dennison to work among your seventh- and eighth-grade boys\neither along the line of \"organized play\" or along the line of \"athletics.\"\nMr. Dennison understands that this work is to be taken up with the co-operation, and\nunder the direction, of the principal.\n\nMr. Dennison organized 31 of the ward -school boys into a series of athletic\ntry-outs, ending with a final athletic meet, where chosen teams from the various\nschools competed for honors.\nI take the following extract from a letter of Mr. Dennison to each of the\nward principals:\nNow that the school meets are over, I am anxious to get at the results, and I should\nappreciate it very much if you will write me very frankly as to how the affair has impressed\nyou, and the effect it has evidently had upon your children. Especially would I like to\nknow if it has helped to increase a spirit of loyalty for your own school and of friendly\nco-operation with other schools.\n\nHere are a few typical answers. Some of the letters offered suggestions\nfor strengthening the work, but all summarize the general effect as good. The\nprincipal of the Beal's School wrote :\nOne of the most delightful events in the experience of the Beal's School was May 19,\nWe certainly vote to have the \"meet\" in the Auditorium.\nThe greatest benefit to our school was \"bumping up\" against the world. The\nexperience thus gained has been of practical value.\n1908.\n\nThe letter from the Saratoga School said in part:\nThe spirit of loyalty to our own school has been intensified. It gave many of our\nolder boys who do not have the opportunity of mingling freely with those of their age and\nsize an opportunity of measuring themselves with others, and I believe it has increased\ntheir self-respect.\nThe spirit of friendly co-operation with other schools was fine to witness. A deep\ninterest in athletics has been aroused among our boys. They practice during intermissions\nand after school.\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": ")epartment]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nOF Y. M. C. A. AND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n783\n\nWe appreciate the interest you are taking in the schoolboys who are not members of\nle Y. M. C. A., and beUeve that you are rousing an interest in manly sports that will lead\nbetter physical development and to higher ideals of conduct.\n\nThe principal of the Kellom said :\nI confess that I entertained many doubts as to the ethical results, but, after watching\nthe effect of the one just finished, I am thoroly convinced that it can be made a valuable\nadjunct to our work. Every teacher is closer to her boys because of her interest in their\nmanly sports. Every principal is making practical applications of the laws of good team\nwork, and for my own part, I shall \"get on my mark, get set, and go\" wjth a keener appreciation than I ever had before of the rare privilege that is mine.\n\nThe answer from the Long School contained the following:\nIt certainly has been a great help in fostering among our boys a spirit of appreciation\nof each other and of what is being done for them.\nBoys, who formerly were always antagonists, have forgotten to be forever on the\ndefensive, and instead, have taken an attitude of helpfulness and loyalty to the school.\nHowever much we appreciate what it has done for our school, I am sure the advantage\nis not all on one side, for it will certainly be the means of increasing the boys' membership\nin the Y. M. C. A.\n\nMr. Dennison and his assistant visited the various schools at times agreeable with the principals, and directed the boys in their play. From a large\nnumber of letters, I have selected a few typical ones which not only furnish\nsome excellent composition work for the boys, but indicate the results, measured\nfrom the attitude of the children. The first is written in a boy's brief blunt\nstyle :\nI am writing this to thank you very much for the games you have taught us to play.\nI am sorry that you have to quit. I enjoyed the games very much. We hope to play more\nfairly and inteUigently in the future.\nWe hope you will come again.\n\nAnother boy's letter says :\nWe wish to thank you very much for the plan you made in regard to the sporting events\nin the diflferent schools. We feel that you are our very best friend in the sporting line as\nwell as other ways. We hope you have enjoyed us as much as we have enjoyed you and\nyour associate, Mr. Cunningham. We hope to become thoro and gentlemanly sportsmen\nunder your and Mr. Cunningham's care.\n\nWe hope you will come again.\n\nThe girls were allowed to look on. Here is a sample of their letters:\nWe cannot thank you too much for what you have done for the boys of our school.\nWe girls regret very much that we cannot enter the sports. Some of us girls have chosen\nwhich side we hope will win. Every day you and Mr. Cunningham come, it is very exciting and interesting for us as well as the boys. Thanking you again for your interest in our\nboys, I am.\n\nI addressed letters to several individuals who are interested in, and in a\nmeasure more or less responsible for, high-school and Y. M. C. A. results in\nLincoln, Nebr. This letter was received from Mr. Foster, Boys' Secretary\nof the Y. M. C. A.:\nThe boys' work of the Lincoln Young Men's Christian Association is to a very great\nextent a work with schoolboys. The high -school boys in the Boys' Department number\n145 and in the Men's Department 65.\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPhysical\n\nThe physical work as a whole revolves around the organized gymnasium class work.\nTo understand thoroly the relation existing between the Lincohi High School and the\nAssociation it must first be known that there is no provision for gymnastic work at the\nhigh school. In lieu of courses in physical culture the school authorities grant credit to\nthe students who take gymnasium work in the Association gymnasium on the basis of\ntwo-fifths of a point each for the first two semesters, and one-fifth of a point for each\nsemester thereafter. On this account the roll is called each day in the high-school classes,\na practice which is not followed in any of the other classes. We have two classes for\nhigh-school boys, each meeting three periods, of one hour each, a week. There are also\ntwo such classes for the grade-school boys.\nJust recently an interclass meet was held for high-school boys only.\nLast year basket-ball teams were organized among the grade-school boys and a series\nof games played between the various school teams. No admission was charged and it was\na common thing for 150 to 200 boys and girls to be on hand to cheer their respective teams\non to victory. These teams were organized from the boys in their respective schools who\nwere members of the Association.\nOur physical director, Mr. Pinneo, has conducted a grade-school baseball league for\nthe past two seasons, the city schools bearing the expense of providing the baseballs and\nMr. Pinneo attending to the details of organizing the league and seeing to the playing of\nthe games.\nLast year we conducted a city baseball league among the boys. We had a league of\nsix teams and played out a schedule of 144 games. Association ofl&cers provided umpires\nand had a hand in all the proceedings. The expenses of this league were all met by the\nboys themselves.\n\nReply from City Superintendent W. L. Stephens says in part :\nThe influence of the Y. M. C. A. among the boys of the grammar schools has been good.\nThe baseball league, under the direct management of Mr. Pinneo, has been successful.\nProfanity, unfairness, and ungentlemanly conduct in general have been practically eliminated from the baseball diamond, while the league games are being played. I am positive\nthat the early associations of the grammar-grade boys with the Y. M. C. A. thru the baseball league has been influential in bringing many of them into the membership of the\norganization at the age when formative influences are most powerful.\n\nFrom Mr. C. W. Philpott, one of the high-school instructors in charge of\nathletics, I quote as follows:\nLast year we were playing for the city championship and it happened that the center\non the Y. M. C. A. Junior Basket-Bail Team was the same as chosen by Coach Whelan\nfor the high-school team. The result was a choice between the center's loyalty to\nthe Y. M. C. A. or to his school. He chose the Y. M. C. A., with the result of the loss of\nthe city championship, which otherwise would have been won by the high school. So\ngreat did this disturbing factor become in the West DesMoines High School that now\nbefore a boy is allowed to begin practicing for any team he has to sign a pledge stating\nthat \" his first allegiance shall be to his school.\"\n\nA reply from Miss Mariel C. Gere, one of the women high-school instructors, who takes an active part in all high-school social matters, says :\nIn favor of the Y. M. C. A. gymnasium, one often hears the statement that the character and influence of the men in charge is of great importance to boys at this impressionable\nage, and this is most emphatically true. However, there is no reason why men of the same\ncharacter and influence should not be employed by the school.\nThere is this to be said about the Y. M. C. A. gymnasiums, that cannot be said of the\nhigh-school gymnasiums that I know about: the Y. M. C. A. gymnasium gives boys a\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nOF Y. M. C. A. AND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n785\n\nplace to congregate and a safe place to spend their evenings.\nBy giving them a taste of a\nsort of club life and innocent amusements, they are often kept off the streets.\n\nI shall not sermonize further, but leave to the reader the privilege of forming\nany conclusions which may receive some direction or diversion by anything\nI may have attempted to present.\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam B. Newhall, M.D., physical director of Y. M. C. A., Denver, Colo. — The\nPhysical Department of the Young Men's Christian Association is not an instrument\nprimarily for the promotion of athletics and gymnastics, laudable as these pursuits may be,\nbut is an instrument for social service to the community, along physical hnes, using these and\nother rational means for the inculcation of correct habits of life. Its field, briefly stated, is\nthat of every boy and man in the community who has a physical need, and to whom no\nother organization is ministering. The Association thus becomes one more instrument\nthat the educator may use in his effort to prepare boys for the great game of life. He may\nlimit its usefulness to that of a mere promoter of athletic competition, or he may broaden\nits scope until every physical need of the boy is met by its aid.\nIn Mr. Dietrich's paper the fact that no official relation between the school and the\nAssociation should exist was made apparent, and emphasis should be laid upon this, with\nthe added statement that it is unwise for the physical director of the Association to be a\npaid supervisor or physical-training teacher, or even athletic coach, in the school system.\nThe field and problem of each position is sufficiently ample to provide exercise for the\nfaculties of separate men, and a divided duty will inevitably mean a divided interest and\nconsequent lack of efficiency.\nThe Association's relation to the school system, so far as the subject under discussion\nis concerned, falls naturally into two classes: (a) where supervisors of physical training or\nphysical directors are employed; (b) where no systematic physical training, under paid\nsupervision, is carried on. The relation where supervisors are employed will of course be\nthat of the fullest co-operation with them. The Association physical director should\nendeavor to learn what the school director is striving to attain, and at his invitation assist in\nconducting certain phases of the work that the Association man may be fitted to undertake,\nboth because of his peculiar training and broad relation to the community. So far as the\nathletic situation is considered, the Association might be asked to provide expert instructors\nfrom the ranks of its trained leaders and athletes, who would volunteer to meet the boys\nat recess periods or after study hours for instruction and advice in competitive athletics,\ngames, and other forms of play life. These men might also act as officials at the different\nschool track-meets and games. Not the least of their efforts should be directed toward the\nteaching of the clean-sport idea. The emphasis should not be laid upon the seeking and\ndeveloping of the crack athlete, but upon encouraging every boy to take up some form of\nplay.\nThe school and Association directors might together create and mold public sentiment\nlooking toward better play opportunities for the schoolboy and a more efficient equipment\nfor the teaching of athletics, gymnastics, and games. They might also foster a sentiment\nfor the medical inspection of school children from the athletic standpoint, and use the data\nthus obtained to make their work more efficient.\nThe Association gymnasium might become a place where cases of inco-ordination,\nscoliosis, and other abnormal conditions requiring individual treatment could be referred.\nThe abnormally shy boy and the boy with the undeveloped play instinct might also be\nhelped by special work in the Association.\nFor the city where no systematic physical training is given in the public schools, the\nfirst dutyrof the Association director and of his department, as an instrument to furthe\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "786\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nthe physical welfare of the community, is to create a sentiment toward the establishment of\nsuch sane physical training as is enjoyed by cities of like size elsewhere. All the efifort,\nwhatever type it may take, should have this end in view. The campaign must be educational and the matter of physical training under competent supervision kept constantly\nbefore those interested in school welfare.\nCertain practical demonstrations of the value of such physical training may be given\nso as to impress the fact upon the people, and perhaps it would be wise to follow the line of\nleast resistance, which at present seems to be in its athletic branch, where the spectacular\nattracts the public attention. The schoolboys may be organized into athletic leagues,\nbaseball and basket-ball leagues; and track-meets and game tournaments in these and\nsimilar sports conducted by the Association. Occasionally groups of boys may be invited\nto use the Association field or gymnasium for their games or contests.\nOne of the greatest services that the Association can render the boys is to follow them\nup when they leave school for business life. Lists of names of such boys may be secured\nfrom the school authorities, and inducements offered them to become members of the\nemployed-boys' department of the Association, where they will be encouraged to take the\nsystematic exercise their growing bodies require. Frequently the slight expense incurred\nthereby may be met by co-operation with the employer. This plan is in successful operation in several cities.\nAnother phase of work, and one which has the elements of real social service in it,\nmay be conducted by the Association, even where no other form of physical training is\nattempted. I refer to the national movement to teach all the boys of a community to\nswim, using as teachers the Association boys and men who have already learned, and the\nAssociation pool, the public bath, or a convenient lake or stream as the place of teaching.\nThe plan thus far worked out is to visit each schoolroom, give a short talk on the obvious\nadvantages of a knowledge of swimming, and leave with the teacher cards to be filled out\nby the boys, stating name, age, school, inability and desire to swim — this card to be countersigned by the teacher, and to entitle the holder to instruction upon presentation at the\nselected place.\nFrom one point of view the Association is a great organized instrument for the physical\nwelfare of the boys, and it is incumbent on the educator to make use of it, in his effort to\ndevelop the young Ufe. The Association gladly welcomes every opportunity to be of\nservice to the men and boys of the community, and realizes to the fullest its responsibility\nto the schoolboy. The invitation should come from the school, however, and the relation be\none of an absolutely unofl5cial nature.\nFrom the standpoint of the Association physical director, the school is a great opportunity for social service of the finest and most lasting type. The impulse should come from\na sincere desire to help the boy to attain the fullest expression of his physical life, and the\nquestion of increased memberships or remuneration never allowed to enter it for a moment.\nMay we, as school and Association directors, but above all, as men interested in the physical\nwelfare of the whole boy community, seek to use these opportunities so wide open before\nus in the fullest way, that the boys of our communities may be developed and conserved into\nefficient American citizens.\nMrs. Frances Waite Leiter, Superintendent Physical Education Department,\nNational Woman's Christian Temperance Union, Mansfield, Ohio. — According to reliable\nmedical and other authority, hygiene is defined as the \"science and art of preserving\nhealth by appropriate care and nourishment of the body and proper regulation of\nsurroundings.\"\nIf promoting health were the whole object of physical education, we might correctly\nclaim that it should be a subdepartment under hygiene.\nThis, however, is not the case.\nIf the health of children were continuously normal, and there existed no necessity for\nbuilding and protecting against the strain and confinement of school life (which of course\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nOF Y. M. C. A. AND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n787\n\nis not the case), there would yet remain the great need of bodily development and training,\nwhich is the primary object of physical education in the schools, and thru which health does\nresult.\nThe prevailing low vitality of the people leads many to think that all effort must bear\nin the direction of restoring the same to normal; and that promoting health is the end and\naim of all service for the body of the child.\nIn bills which were introduced in a number of states during last winter to secure laws\nmaking bodily development and discipline compulsory in all schools under public control,\nphysical education was defined as the \"development and training of the body and the promotion of health, thru systematic physical exercise and practical knowledge of the laws of\nhygiene.\"\nIf 25 per cent, of school children were, today, mental defectives of such character as\ncould be overcome by hygienic measures, thereby securing to the brain normal conditions,\nwould this necessity be reason per se for placing mental education under hygiene in\nthe curriculiun ?\nIt is my belief that in the dim future, when some fads and fancies have run their course,\nand when the serious problem of the present low vital condition of the people is well in\nhand, there will be estabUshed beyond question three distinct departments of education;\nnamely — physical, mental, and moral; and the physical department will include all that\npertains to the well-being, advancement, and culture of the body, such as anatomy, physiology, and hygiene; domestic science and art work; industrial training, so far as it obtains\nin the public schools; voice culture — reading, oratory, music; direct education of the eye\nand the ear; while, underlying all as the legitimate outgrowth of bodily development and\ntraining thru systematic exercise, and toward which every part of the body will contribute,\nwill be the highest possible physical and functional conditions; or, in other words, the\npriceless boon of health.\nPhysical education, then, is not primarily to secure health, but to promote the greatest\npossible eflSciency of the individual, in which health is an important factor. It will perhaps\nalways be necessary to attach some kind of hospital facilities to the public schools for the\nbenefit of the \"undertones;\" but the thing itself, the school, should not be considered a\nhospital.\nWith such premises as these, physical education in the public school cannot consistently\nbe considered a subdepartment under hygiene; but a department which, in its aims and\nresults, embodies hygiene.\nFrank G. Bruner, Department of Child Study, Public Schools, Chicago, 111., felt that\nteachers are attempting to reach the point where their instruction will not be so much for\nthe masses, as for the individual. The child is an individual, and physical training, if it\nis to be of value, ought to be adapted to the individual needs.\nPhysical training itself is valueless unless in the proper sort of environment. This\nendeavor to put the prime emphasis on the environment of the child makes the hygienic\nfeature of physical education of prime importance.\nEllen C. Sabin, President of Downer College, Milwaukee, Wis., said that she thought\nthere was not enough said about what the headmaster ought to do. He is the best paid,\nand he is eminently the one who ought to be made responsible for the buildings and grounds;\nalso the sentiment concerning health. What the headmaster tells in the different schools\n[has a great influence. He could arouse their sympathy with regard to the work of the\n[Board of Health, and could place before them in their proper Ught all such questions as\n1 public health, hygiene, general development, etc.\nMrs. Caroline LeFavre, of Denver. — Today in the midst of a complex life, we need\n'be admonished to see man and youth as something more than merely muscular organisms.\nOther questions are to be considered besides those of feats of physical endurance and\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n788\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Physical\n\ndexterity of tricks. In these days and places of trains and baggage conveyances, it is not\nlikely to become necessary for us to walk twenty miles at a stretch nor to carry a trunk or\na piano to a railroad train, as we see a porter of Constantinople do; and that, too, on his\nblack bread, onion, and unseasoned cucumbers. Why give direction of our powers to lines\nwhich have no real part in the ^jrell-being of the individual nor the social unit of the human\nrace ? In violent sports, an undue draft is made upon all sides of the human system for\nfeats spectacular chiefly and for notoriety of a contemptible sort, with which to satisfy the\nbaser vanities. Sometimes fatal injury is at once experienced. The spirit of emulation,\nthe braggadocio of contest this engenders in the younger children is emphatically detrimental to their best interests. The devitalizing drain upon the brain and nerves, as well\nas the valvular heart action, is plainly observable to a keen-minded onlooker and student\nof the legitimate welfare of the oncoming generation. I have studied several American\nand European systems of physical culture and found much good in all and some in all to be\nrejected. There are two classes of physical culturists. One boasts of the professionals he\nhas let loose on the arena of pugilism, trapeze, trickery, long-distance walking endurance,\nheavy-weight lifting, and the power to \"beat\" his fellow-opponents or competitors. His\nvision is defective, and he sees nothing in the schoolboy or girl outside the child's relation\nto his muscle-making trade and the tricks thereof. The other one views physical education\ndifferently, and relates it to the child in his possible future symmetrical selfhood. This\nteacher grows greater each day as he rises with the sun and songbird and says, \" Let me\nthis day contribute my legitimate part toward a more full-forced, symmetrical, poised,\nself-sustained, self-expressive individuality for my pupil.\"\nMuch has been said about working off the superfluous animal energy of the child by\nviolent physical culture. I say why have superfluous energy to be thus worked off?\nMothers as well as teachers should be aroused to the need of giving the child the proper\nsort of material food with elements for brain and nerve (it can be done), and to stimulate\nthe higher brain and nerve centers by early morning \"upper-brain\" drill. Do not eat nor\nfeed the child till you have agitated and used the higher part of the brain which has to do\nwith the nobler aspirations and activities. The beneficial results of this before-breakfast\nmental discipline drill will soon be seen. The ill effects of violent physical exercise or\nover-muscular development are often so subtle as not to be noted by the careless or thoughtless, but they do undermine the bank of selfhood by drawing upon its resources for utterly\nvalueless and meaningless development. A better circulation is desirable, especially to\nthe brain. We need smaller feet and larger brains; else where are our deep thinkers and\ngreat lovers of humanity ?\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Otis W. Caldwell, associate professor of botany, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nVice-President — Franklin T. Jones, teacher of science, University School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nSecretary — George L. Cannon, science instructor. East Side High School, Denver, Colo.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, July 6, 1909\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Secondary Education\nin the Auditorium of the East Side High School, and was called to order at 2:45 p. m. by\nJ. Stanley Brown, president of the Department of Secondary Education.\nIn the absence of Secretary Cannon, E. Waite Elder, instructor in physics. East Side\nHigh School, Denver, Colo., was appointed acting secretary.\nAfter announcements by President Caldwell of the Science, and President Brown of\nthe Secondary, Department, E. J. Townsend, dean of the University of Illinois, Urbana,\n111., presented his paper on \"The Status of the High School and Its Relation to Colleges\nand Universities.\"\nThis was followed by a paper on \"The Aims and Methods of Science Education in\nSecondary Schools,\" by George A. Cowen, of the West Roxbury High School, Boston,\nMass.\nA discussion followed the reading of this paper.\nPresident Caldwell of the Science Department then announced the following Committee on Nominations:\nEllsworth Bethel, Denver, Colo.\nRiley O. Johnson, Chico, Cal.\nClarence D. Kingsley, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nThe department then adjourned.\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Forenoon, July 8, 1909\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 A. m. by the president, Otis W. Caldwell.\nAt the request of the president, Charles E. Bessey, dean of the College of Science,\nUniversity of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb r., gave a brief history of the organization of the\ndepartment at the Denver meeting fourteen years ago, and of its development, ideas, and\nideals.\nOtis W. Caldwell, associate professor of botany. University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.,\nthen presented the president's address, \"The Modern High School and Industrial Education.\"\nA Report of the Committee on the topic, \"United States Government Materials\nThat Are Usable in Secondary Education,\" was next given by the chairman, Wesley N.\nChfford, head of Department of Commerce, Southern High School, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\"Progress in Conservation\" was the subject of an address read by Hugo Winkenwerder, professor of forestry, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo.\nThe Committee on Nominations then reported as follows:\nFor President — Benjamin M. Davis, professor of agriculture, Miami University,\nOxford, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President — E. L. Brown, principal of North Side High School, Denver, Colo.\nFor Secretary — George A. Cowen, West Roxbury High School, Boston, Mass.\n789\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "790\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThe report was adopted and the nominees declared elected officers for the ensuing\nyear.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nROUND-TABLE SESSION.— Friday Afternoon, July 9, 1909\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 : 30 p. m. by President Caldwell, who spoke\nbriefly in opposition to the proposed combination of the department with the Department\nof Secondary Education.\nOn motion, the president was directed to appoint a committee to learn the feeling of\nthe members on this subject, and, if advisable, to present a protest to the Board of Directors.\nThe president appointed the following committee:\nW. N. Clifford, Philadelphia, Pa.\nIrving O. Palmer, Newtonville, Mass.\nLewis B. Avery, San Jos^, Cal.\nThe first paper of the afternoon was given by Charles Emerson Peet, professor of\nphysiography, Lewis Institute, Chicago, 111., on the subject, \"What Shall the First- Year\nHigh-School Science Be ?\" A discussion, led by Miss Julia Clifford, Minneapolis, Minn.,\nfollowed.\n\"The Course in Elementary-School Science and Its Relation to High-School Science\"\nwas the subject of a paper read by Riley O. Johnson, head of the Department of Biology,\nState Normal School, Chico, Cal.\nThe report of the Committee on Secondary-School Geography was presented by the\nchairman, James F. Chamberlain, of the Department of Geography, State Normal School,\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nUpon motion, this report was received as a Report of Progress, and the committee\ncontinued for another year.\nThe department then adjourned.\nE. Waite Elder, Acting Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nTHE MODERN\nOTIS W.\n\nHIGH\n\nCALDWELL,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADDRESS\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nASSOCLA.TE PROFESSOR OF BOTANY,\nCHICAGO,\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nBiologists who are conversant with what is known of organic evolution\nrecognize that the right of an organism to live is determined by whether it\npossesses structures and habits that enable or permit it to work within the\nvarious exigencies of its surroundings. Our geology and our biology are\nconstantly disclosing to us new stories of formerly prosperous organisms which\nperhaps chanced to possess the characteristics that permitted them to thrive.\nBy the same authority we are shown that some present-day organisms retain\nhabits and structures that may or may not have served some specific function in\na former period, but now remain as records of what used to be. Present-day\nbiological theory teaches us that plants and animals adjust themselves only in\nthe sense that those which vary in the line of efficiency can persist; others,\nbeing less efficient, have proportionately less chance of success. The speed\nof elimination is proportionate to inefficiency. Each great geologic epoch\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n791\n\npresents respectively types of life that in most respects were well fitted to live\nin that particular epoch. Organic responses resulted in these changing types\nof life as demanded by new conditions. This biological analogy is not fully\napplicable to the development of educational practice, but certain striking\nresemblances and certain striking differences are noticeable between our\nsecondary educational system and the processes of biological evolution.\nStriking differences are that the organization of a curriculum is a purposeful\nand planned procedure, while in biological evolution organisms affected do not\nmake purposeful responses. In the evolution of plants and animals, the inefficient are not preserved by any unnatural or artificial processes; in education, an element or habit once efficient may be preserved by artificial selection.\nResemblances of this analogy are numerous and suggestive. A new procedure in education proves its right to a place thru its efficiency in relation to\nthe demands of the times. Having proved its efficiency we accord the new\nsubject its place. Such has been the history of each subject that has come into\nthe high-school curriculum. But instead of leaving as records of the past those\nthings that are not so fully efficient under new demands, and carrying over into\nnew periods only those things that fit the changed and changing conditions,\nwe too often have tried artificially to preserve aU the old as well as to include\nmuch of the new — the \"malady of total recall \" in secondary education. When\nintellectual discipline was the dominant determinant in educational efficiency,\nsubjects that were efficient were a logical response to their environment. But\nnow education for present and for future work in and thru ^ork has become\nequally prominent as a determinant of selection.\nIn the evolution of educational systems for the human race, it is perhaps\nnot possible fully to apply the principles of organic evolution as they are shown\nby plants and animals; but it seems clear that in many important ways their\nprinciples do apply. Must we try artificially to keep alive things that have\nbeen dominant in efficiency in all of our previous social, intellectual, and industrial periods of development, and thereby curtail and inhibit the full efficiency\nof processes and structures that respond to the demands of a more advanced\nperiod in the educational development of the race ?\nWhat do we mean by efficiency in modem high-school education ? It is\nthat which will give the highest and best dynamic quality to those who are\nbeing educated. This dynamic quality involves intellectual training; it\ninvolves knowing things so that they are dependably and readily available for\nuse, not only strictly utilitarianism, but social, historical, and aesthetic uses.\nSuch dynamic quality involves efficiency in our own times, not in those of the\npast or of the future.\nThe history of education in this country shows clearly that changes have\nconstantly been urged in the interests of some sort of vocational efficiency more\nor less broadly considered. The first colleges were established in order that\nthe supply of ministers might be maintained — a strictly vocational purpose.\nThose young men who in the early days attended these colleges found them-\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "792\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nselves under the necessity of taking the course at first planned for preparation\nfor the ministry, and indeed the vestigial structures of this early course are yet\nwith us. Then came the earliest preparatory schools to relieve the colleges of\nsome of their work, and that this purpose was also vocational is shown by the\nfact that their courses were mainly classical, so called, the pupils upon entering\ncollege being required to read Latin and Greek, and little else was expected\nof them. Then the people in some parts of the country, disappointed in that\ntheir boys in the preparatory schools could get little or none of the things that\nthe parents felt were needed properly to prepare boys who, if going to college,\ndid not expect to enter ministry or law, or perhaps did not expect to go to\ncollege at all, established the academy. The academy had served briefly the\nfunction which called it into existence, when it began also to assume the preparatory function, and soon it became a fitting school of so narrow a type that\noften its output at graduation had undergone for several years a process of\ntrimming in order that they might fit the historic but no longer efficient pattern\nof some particular classical college. And so the people lost the benefit for their\nboys which they sought when the academy was established.\nOnce more they attempted to give the best dynamic education to their\nchildren by establishing the hiigh school, at first independently, then as a public\ninstitution. These were established as a protest against a high-school education that did not educate in and thru those things that seemed most worth\nwhile in practical life. It was found that the course of study, at first full of\nappreciable significance to pupils and parents alike, must conform in order to\nmeet the exactions of institutions to which a few of the students from the\nprominent families wished to go; and again the people lost the thing they had\nsought.\nScience in the form of natural philosophy came early into the schools and\nmany of our fathers found in it a point of contact between school and life.\nBut could such a pleasurable pastime as natural philosophy have worthy\neducational values ? It had no historic setting and moreover its very pleasureableness must put it without the pale of the elect. But its inherent interest,\nand its obvious connection with those things about which people who worked\nin the world had to think persisted, and finally in a new garb it was adopted.\nEducation thru manual training appeared and was scoffed at by those who\nkept the guiding hand on the high schools. Many of us as pupils have been\nseverely censured for our shiftlessness because we spent valuable school time\nin rude carvings and constructions of wood, and in inartistic but exasperatingly expressive drawings, until the wise ones finally realized that the whole\npupil was not educated by the old system. Before this recognition came,\nseparate manual-training schools were established and then, partly thru conviction and partly thru self-defense, manual training in its broader content\ncame into a welcome place in the curriculum.\nAs with science and manual training, so it may be with industrial education. The pupil is not wholly educated unless that education bears close\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n793\n\nrelation to his social and economic life. It has taken wholesale desertion\nfrom our school system to prove to us that so large an element of inefficiencyexists. We have not heeded the demand that focused upon the academy, then\nupon the high school, and now upon the industrial school or the trade school.\nEducation for dynamic place in the world's work must be had and schools\nmust be had that will give it. If our presumably vestigial vermiform appendix\nmakes us prolonged and serious difficulty we must remove it. We have too\nmuch else to do to permit us to give it so much of our attention as it may\nrequire. Our educational vestigial structures, appreciated and honored\nmementos of a former potency, must not unnecessarily weaken our efficiency\nScience knowledge in practical application has remade the needs of industrial life. The mule on the tow-path may be driven by one of little special\ntraining, but the electric elevator, the locomotive, the gasoline launch, the\nautomobile, the electric street car, the trip hammer, the thousand other modem\nmachines, and all modem agricultural and otherwise industrial life demand\nknowing and dependable operators, else they are machines of destruction.\nThe material betterments of our age are constantly demanding more thoro\ntraining in those things that contribute to these betterments. Inventions and\nappliances to be useful demand higher tjq^es of workmen, else they are disasters.\nReal efficiency, furthermore, demands educated workmen, not merely\nempiric tradesmen. Good general education is so essential that it seems\nclear that separate trade industrial schools may result in great loss both to\ntrade schools and to our present schools. We need a people industrially\neducated, not a part of the people narrowly fitted for work in specific trades.\nOur social unit demands that we know enough of the basic elements of the\nwork of one another that we may see ''the other man's side of the difficulties.\"\nThe absence of this general appreciation gives us most of our intellectual,\nsocial, and industrial difficulties. The fundamentals of industrial education\nfor people of high-school age belong in our high schools, and place must be\nmade for them. The high schools need these elements of a well-rounded\neducation to save themselves from themselves. If necessary, industrial education may have to establish separate schools to demonstrate the function of this\naspect of modem education. But the result must be readjustment of the\npresent system so that it may fit better the period in which we live.\nOur biological sciences touch life processes upon which much of the world's\nwork depends — the manufacture of foods, elimination of carbon dioxide and\naddition of oxygen to the air, replenishment of soil fertility, the materials of the\nhome, of manufacture, of transportation and commerce. Physical sciences\ntouch the forces and processes found in all industries, and, together with the\nbiological sciences, offer an element of intellectual training of highest value\nbecause of their ability to make thinking direct, dependable, and independent;\nand because this intellectual training is thus secured in direct contact with just\nthe things with which the workers must deal when they are out of school.\nThis last is one of the greatest values of applied science. The basis of real\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "794\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nindustrial education must be educational as well as industrial. If it is narrowly industrial, it becomes trade training. Such trade training is quite\nnecessary to the world's work, but the trade worker is best as a worker and best\nas a member of society when his trade training is the outgrowth of that real\nindustrial education which is had as a part of general education. The high\nschools need the elements of industrial education in order that their subjects\nmay have appreciable significance and may be worth while. Industrial education needs the high school in order that industrial education may educate\nas well as train. Separate industrial schools must not deprive themselves and\nthe high schools as well of this common good that both may have.\nTHE\n\nSTATUS\n\nOF THE HIGH SCHOOL AND ITS RELATION\nTO COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES\n\nE.\n\nJ. TOWNSEND,\n\nDEAN\n\nOF THE\nILLINOIS,\n\nCOLLEGE\nURBANA,\n\nOF SCIENCE,\nILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nThe high school, as we commonly use the term, is the outgrowth of American conditions. That it has thus far met a public need is at once apparent\nfrom the rapid increase in the number of such schools from 40 in 1850 to 8,804\nin 1907.\nTo understand fully the changes which public sentiment is likely to\ndemand in the character of the education offered by our public-school system,\nit is important to consider the changes which our national life is undergoing.\nCombined with the problems which our rapidly increasing population and\nlarge foreign element present, we have the remarkable advance which the\ntechnical arts have made in every branch of economic life. This advance has\nmade itself felt not only in the industries and in transportation, but in every\nbranch of agriculture and of commerce. On the other hand, the apprentice\nsystem which has supplied the older countries with their skilled artisans has\ncome to have but little significance with us and is rapidly disappearing, while\nthe efforts of trade-unions in this direction are at least of questionable value.\nIt is the business of the public schools to produce efficient, self-supporting,\nand intelligent citizens, trained to meet successfully the conditions under\nwhich they must live. As those conditions change, our system of education\nmust change; more than that, we should anticipate thru the education we\nprovide at public expense the conditions and needs of the future, and that in\nsuch a way as best to protect and foster those institutions fundamental to our\nnational prosperity. The interests of our democratic institutions demand\nthat we provide a system of education which not only trains leaders for the\ncomplex civilization which we are developing, but provides adequately for that\ntraining of the masses which assures every man an opportunity to become not\nonly a useful, but a self-supporting, efficient citizen.\nGood educational foresight requires that we see to it that the public schools,\nand particularly the high schools, of the country maintain a liberal attitude\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGES\n\n795\n\ntoward those subjects which are vocational as well as cultural. There is at\npresent a widespread interest in industrial and vocational education. Much\nhas been accomplished, but we have not as yet come to the full recognition of\nour obligations and our opportunities in this direction. The public is willing\nto be taxed and that heavily for the training of men for what it recognizes as\npublic service. The New England academies and colleges prepared men for\nservice in the church because that was then the principal branch of recognized\npublic service. We have long supported at public expense schools for the\ntraining of men for the liberal professions. In our state universities we have\ncarried this movement one step farther and have asked the public to bear the\nexpense of training men in agriculture and in engineering, to the end that we\nmay provide leaders in these lines of industrial activities. We are just now\nbeginning to realize that it is also a public service to train men for the less\nconspicuous places in the mechanic arts and trades, to meet the public demand\nthat we should give every boy the opportunity to become a self-supporting\nmember of the community.\nThe boy who is early compelled by dire necessity to leave school in order\nto earn a living is quite as deserving of our consideration, perhaps more, than\nis the boy who confidently looks forward to a college course and a professional\ncareer. Why should we not give every boy an equal opportunity to prepare\nfor his future career in accordance with his tastes and inclinations ? The one\nboy excels in history, civics, public speaking, and decides that he would like\nto be a lawyer or a minister; another develops great interest in science, or the\nlanguages, and wishes to train himself to be a physician or a teacher; another\ndevelops a fondness for commercial geography, business forms, and those\nstudies of importance in commercial life, and decides to be a bookkeeper, a\nbanker, or a merchant; another develops skill and dexterity in the manual\narts and decides to become a carpenter or a plumber; while still another takes\nmost kindly to botany, zoology, and agriculture, and prefers to become a\nfarmer or a gardener. It is not only in keeping with the principles of democratic government but essential to the preservation of those principles that we\nshould provide equally well for each of these individuals. It seems to be no\nlonger a question with us as to whether such instruction should be provided\nfor by the public, but rather as to how it may best be fitted into the existing\npublic-school system. The public has given abundant evidence of its interest\nin such training and its desire to have it introduced. The question which is\nuppermost at this time is as to whether such work shall be introduced as departments inexisting high schools, or organized as separate schools. Shall we\nestablish separate high schools of agriculture as has been done, for example, in\nWisconsin, and which was recently advocated in Congress ? Shall we have commercial high schools such as are being discussed by the school boards of several\nof our great centers of population ? Ought we to introduce the general policy\nof trade schools as Milwaukee and Philadelphia have done ? Shall we commit\nourselves to separate continuation schools of the German type as advocated by\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "796\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nsome of our leading educators ? Or is there some sound pedagogical reason\nwhy, under American conditions, the boy who is to be a plumber should be\ntrained side by side with the boy who anticipates becoming a lawyer, or that\nthe boy who is to help us shape our ethics of life by his instruction from the\npulpit or in the schoolroom should be brought into close and vital relations as\nlong as possible in his early training with the youth who in future years is to\napply those ethics in his business enterprises or in his profession ? One thing\nis true; namely, unless our high schools take a liberal attitude toward vocational and industrial training, they will not long continue in the present popular\nfavor and will, like the New England Academy and the German Gymnasium,\ndegenerate into mere fitting schools for colleges and universities. The public\ndemand is for training which fits for the greatest efficiency in life, in the broadest\nsense of that term, and it is no longer a question as to what we shall do so much\nas to how it can best be accomplished. The dearth of skilled workmen which\nthe rapid development of our commercial and^ industrial interests has created\ncould without doubt be supplied by the establishment of separate trade schools.\nThere is, however, a much more fundamental reason than purely commercial\ninterests for introducing these departments in our high schools rather than to\nencourage the development of separate schools for this purpose. This question is closely and vitally connected with some of the important, unsolved\nproblems of our future as a nation, if we are to meet fully the exigencies of our\nincreasingly complex civilization. In these times of socialistic tendencies,\nit is worthy of the consideration of the men who are thinking not merely of the\ndemands of the day, but who are attempting to take a long look into our future.\nConsidering the large foreign element which is entering into our national\nlife and the problems which it presents, there is nothing which would tend\nmore rapidly to fix sharp class distinctions upon us than to establish separate\nschools for commercial and industrial training. In this respect, we may well\nlearn a lesson from the mistake of Germany in organizing separately her trade\nand technical schools. This fact has emphasized in German life an imaginary\ndistinction between the artisan and those who enter the professional callings,\nand by tending to create a social barrier between the two has fostered a feeling\nof superiority of the one class over the other, and has delayed to that same\nextent the development in a normal way of the spirit of modem democracy.\nIt is the boast of the American people that the poorest boy may aspire to\nthe highest positions of honor and trust within the gift of a free people. We\npoint with pride to the men prominent in the affairs of the nation who have\nrisen from the humblest surroundings. To maintain this condition, we must\npreserve the democracy of our public educational system, giving equal advantages to all and in all lines, restricting none save by the limiting conditions of\npersonal ability.\nThe ethical and social side of the question is of fundamental importance.\nIt is unfortunate to train the future lawyer in a different environment or in a\ndifferent school from that in which the prospective merchant or plumber is\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGES\n\n797\n\ntrained. What all three need is a close contact with each other during the\ntime when their notions and conceptions of life are being formulated and\ndetermined, to the end that each may have a sympathetic interest in the\nproblems and the difficulties of the others. Much is to be accomplished also\nby this contact in preserving the dignity of the manual vocations, and still\nmore in cultivating that bond of sympathy and common interest which is\nessential in avoiding and settling labor disputes. We have quite as difficult\na task in America to educate our laborer in the proper appreciation of the\nethics of his relations to his employer as we have to educate the capitalist as\nto his duty to those whom he employs. The best place to do this is in the\npublic school where all are on the same footing and the principles of democracy are recognized.\nSome seem to fear that commercial and industrial departments of high\nschools would suffer in point of efficiency as compared with those of separately\norganized schools; that it would be the place where the weakest teachers would\nbe assigned and the poorest students would go. Such educators need to study\nclosely the development of our colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts.\nTwenty-five years ago many maintained that to be successful these colleges\nneeded to be separately organized. No one seems to hold strenuously to that\nview today, for none are more prosperous or more efficient than those agricultural schools which are organized as a part of our state universities. Generally\nspeaking, they are not only doing more for the advancement of scientific agriculture, but the standard of scholarship is higher among the student body and\nthose appointed to the instructional staff. This is due in a measure at least\nto the scientific stimulus which comes from contact and comparison with the\nolder academic departments.\nIt is perhaps not desirable, certainly not necessary, that the industrial\ndepartments of our high schools should be organized as trade schools where\nboys are turned out as finished plumbers or carpenters and girls become\ndressmakers and milliners. Our colleges of engineering do not turn out civil\nengineers. They aim rather to give their students that fundamental training\nwhich puts them in a fair way of becoming civil engineers. Where it is thought\nbest for the high school to go further in this direction, a combined arrangement similar to that which has proven so successful at the University of Cincinnati would introduce all of the practical benefits of the trade school without\nits attending disadvantages.\n, Much is lost in the inefficient way in which the general cultural subjects are\npresented in the separately organized vocational schools. These subjects are\nregarded of secondary importance, and the point of view is too often restricted\nto industrial and commercial interests. As a result the student of manual\narts gets less of general cultural training even tho he pursues as many branches.\nFurthermore, the combined plan not only tends to cultivate a sympathetic\ninterest in the vocational callings, but it enables all pupils to obtain a certain\namount of industrial and commercial training in connection with their high-\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nschool course. The average boy or girl gets much less training of this character in the home now than formerly. Our fathers and mothers were taught\nmany things in the manual arts in connection with their early home life, which\ntoday are rendered useless by the general introduction of modem conveniences\nand the greater specialization of our employment. This lack of training is\nmore apparent in our cities than in the rural communities, and the public\nschools must assume the responsibility of making good this deficiency if it is to\nbe done.\nThis leads us to consider the bearing which the introduction of vocational\ntraining in the high schools should have upon college-entrance requirements.\nIn discussing this subject, we must keep in mind that not more than one in\ntwenty of the pupils who enter the public schools ever reach the high school,\nand of these not more than two out of every five go on to the college or university. In a country where the majority rules, the interests of the majority\nmust be protected. However, in addition to the service which the high school\nrenders in preparing for life, it has rendered and must continue to render the\nimportant service of preparing our boys and girls for college. In recent\nyears the colleges and universities have come to exercise a great influence over\nthe high-school curriculum — perhaps too great an influence. Certain it is\nthat if pressure in this direction is greatly increased, either the high school will\ndecline in popular favor or our state universities will be required by law to\nadmit every graduate of a high school recognized by the state departments\nof education. In any case, we need to take a more liberal attitude toward\naccepting for college-entrance requirements those subjects which are primarily\nvocational. When we argue in favor of the disciplinary and cultural value\nof the classics, we forget that Latin was once quite as vocational a subject as\nmanual training or stenography is today. It was given a place in the curriculum of the mediaeval schools not so much because of its own educational\nvalue as because it was a means to an end and was regarded essential to a\nsuccessful career. We are likely to overlook or belittle the disciplinary value\nof those subjects which are of a more or less commercial or industrial importance and to discover their real cultural value only when they become useless\nfor anything else. When the college had a fixed curriculum, it was essential\nthat the entrance conditions should make sure of a certain content of knowledge. With the liberal system of electives now in vogue, this necessity has in\na large measure disappeared, and what we need most is training rather than\ninformation.\nIt is natural for us to feel that the standard of a college course is somewhat\nlowered when we discover that one of our great state universities has annoimced\nits willingness to accept for entrance such subjects as stenography and typewriting. We have as yet scarcely come to regard these subjects as having an\neducational value. A closer analysis reveals the error. Eliminating the\nelement of skill necessary for the professional use of these subjects, where is\nthere any branch of study which gives the student better]^practical drill in\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n799\n\nEnglish composition, including spelling, punctuation, paragraphing, etc.,\nthan these ? They are related to English composition in very much the same\nmanner that shop practice is related to mechanical engineering. Manual\ntraining, mechanical drawing, etc., have come to be quite commonly accepted\nby our state universities and there is evidence of a movement toward a still\ngreater liberality in this direction.\nThe high-school curriculum should be arranged to give to each boy at\nevery stage of his development a preparation for the maximum efi&ciency in\nlife, and those studies which contribute to that end should constitute the best\npreparation for college work. I do not mean, by this to advocate the introduction of an unlimited amount of vocational work either in the high-school\ncurriculum or in the college-entrance requirements. Clearly this element\nmust be restricted just as we would restrict any other group of subjects. The\nUniversity of Indiana has taken a very proper attitude in this matter. It\nincludes in its entrance requirements of sixteen units two lists of subjects: one\nincludes the traditional subjects — English, mathematics, foreign languages,\nhistory, and science — from which eleven units must be selected; the other\nlist of five units is purely elective and may include any subject taught acceptably\nin a commissioned high school. Such an arrangement enables the high school\nto continue as a preparatory school to college without neglecting the other and\neven more important function of preparing the boy to render a genuine service\nto his community and to his country as a self-supporting, efficient citizen. In\nthis way we shall indeed make our school system a unit for public service,\nreflecting the requirements of modem conditions, contributing to the upbuilding and the preservation of those democratic institutions essential to our\nnational prosperity and our national unity.\nTHE\n\nAIM AND\n\nGEORGE\n\nA.\n\nMETHODS OF SCIENCE\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nCOV^EN,\n\nV^EST\n\nROXBURY\n\nHIGH\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nIN\n\nMASS.\n\nUntil half a generation ago one was admitted to the ranks of the educated\nbecause of the knowledge of languages long since dead; but the rapid development of varied industries has made it necessary to admit those trained by a\nstudy of biology, chemistry, and physics.\nThe world has for some years been asking what methods are being used to\nreach the desired end, and insistently demanding that these methods shall\nbe of the best. It is, therefore, fitting that we, professing to know the answer\nto the questions, explain the aims and methods of our instruction.\nThe aim in the main is, by stimulating the power of observation, by\nencouraging the search for truth disclosed by an array of facts, by adding to\nthe dexterity of the fingers by cleverly devised experiments, by researches into\nthe history and biography of science, to build up the educated citizen.\nThere are too many for whom the sun still ''draws water;\" multitudes to\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nwhom the scratches on the rocks tell no story of the glacier; as many more who\nhave no adequate knowledge of the sources of the power that carries, warms,\nand lights them.\nThe scientist sees things as they are, states facts as he sees them, applies\nmathematical laws to prove them to be correct.\nIt is an aim of the secondary school to build up men and women of this\ntype so that the reporter of the future will use not the extravagant language of\na Julius Caesar, who slew so many of the Nervii, but the exact and careful\nlanguage of a Newton who measures the attraction of a star.\nIt should be an aim of the school to fit boys to be of more value in the\nmanufacturing plants and offices where they find work on leaving school; to\nmake the girls better home-makers with their knowlege of biology, chemistry,\nand physics. No girl with an understanding of the growth of bacteria will\nbe careless with the milk or the ventilation. Anyone today knowing the law\nof definite proportions and using the incorrect amounts of cream of tartar and\nsaleratus in cooking deserves indigestion.\nEvery generation has its great problems in science to solve. The task is\naccomplished by a few rare minds. It is the duty of the school to find these\nand point them to their inheritance.\nIt is significant that Germany is in the process of arranging laboratory\ncourses where the boy can do individual work. It means that the pioneer\nwork done in this country during the last fifteen years is bearing fruit, and\nleads me to believe that this is the correct method of approach to scientific\nstudies.\nAmerica can profit by adopting a German method of putting more emphasis\non properly conducted exercises in the lecture-room — by no means college\nlectures, but talks in which the class shares largely and which form the basis\nof the next day's recitation.\nThe textbooks should be more simple. The more difficult matter should\ncome from a live teacher, not a dead book. Many a boy has been discouraged\nby first meeting a hard problem on the cold page.\nIn physics the time-honored arrangement of topics should be changed.\nSpecific gravity and mechanics should come near the end rather than at the\nbeginning. A child is willing and eager to do anything — a mathematical\nproblem, even — if he sees a chance of success. Problems that seem to the\nadult simple must for the beginner be approached by steps graded with the\ngreatest ingenuity, but it is a mistake to think that science can be non-mathematical. One does not understand the laws of astronomy, earth-science,\nchemistry, and physics unless he has solved many problems that prove\nthem.\nArchimedes did not discover his laws by playing with tin fish in a tub of\nwater. Lavoisier did not revolutionize chemistry by guessing at the weights\nof substances. Leverrier discovered a new planet only by difficult computations. Even our lofty mountains have been measured and weighed. A\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n8oi\n\nmethod must be found so to wed mathematics to science that the ingenuity\nof those who would educate by play can never divorce them.\nThe maximum amount cannot be given at all, but it is a mistake to give\nthe minimum amount to all. The school should be ashamed to send out a\ncarpenter who could not calculate the strength of his material or a girl unable\nto estimate correctly the amount of material necessary for a gown.\nIt will not be strange if, thru the avenue of science courses, more industrial\neducation finds its way into the school.\nDISCUSSION\nGilbert B. Morrison, principal of McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo. — I am\ninterested in the questions discussed by both speakers. The first paper gave my views,\nthat the high school should find out what is proper to teach and then present those subjects.\nThe trend of opinion is in that direction. Education must be democratic, so that the boy\nwho studies Latin or English shall have a proper respect for the boy who can make a good\ntool in the shop. Industrial courses should be given in the same school with literary and\nscientific studies. All courses should be under one head and in one building, so that\nreadjustments that may be necessary in any pupil's work may not throw him out of his\naccustomed intellectual and social environment.\nThe paper by Dean Townsend gave the idea that high-school authorities should fit\nschool courses to local needs and that all high schools should be alike. I wish to express\nmy gratitude that the trend of opinion should be in the direction of democracy in education.\nSeparate schools are all right in large cities with ample means to carry on special work,\nbut even in such schools all the departments should be under one head. The next step\nin education wiir undoubtedly be to incorporate in our schools the trades element. The\nonly question is whether this shall be done by establishing such courses inside or outside\nour present system. The same question came up when laboratory science was introduced\nas the method of science teaching. Is there any reason why a boy who expects to be a\nplumber cannot recite English with a boy who expects to be a minister ? The boy who\nstudies mathematics because it is required will be the gainer by studying in the same class\nwith the boy who expects to be an engineer. The next step will be to differentiate our\nhigh-school courses — to take more of the mechanical and less of the academic, or the reverse.\nWhen we have all pupils together under one roof, we can best find out for what a boy is best\nfitted. The pupil can pursue mechanical subjects and still maintain the unity necessary\nin a democracy.\nI wish to take exception to one point in the paper by Mr. Cowen. At the very first\nof the subject I would impress upon the class the utility of the thing to be studied. If we\ncannot make a boy believe in the usefulness of a thing, we are wanting in resourcefulness.\nI would teach him the application of the principles instead of hoping that he will apply them\nlater in life. First find out what the boy knows or ought to know and formulate the principles around that. Formulate the reasons for the study and give them to the boy or girl.\nIn short, I would begin the subject concretely instead of abstractly.\nJosiAH Main, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. — Reference has been made\nto the historical origin of the high school. It is true that the high school has inherited the\ntask of college preparation from the old New England academy. Hence we measure\nthings by what they will bring in the terms of admission requirements — by the credit\nsystem. The schools are trying to put a credit value on everything they do. But the\ncredit system is artificial and must be readjusted, so that the proper value may be put upon\nthe making of a chain or a piece of mission furniture.\nIt may be difl&cult to break away\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nfrom the artificial system of units and find a new way to estimate the value of subjects, but\nit should be done.\nW. H. Bartholomew, principal of Girls High School, Louisville, Ky. — ^There will\nbe no difl&culty about these matters if we agree to the principle that the function of the\nhigh school is to prepare for life, not for college. The high school is the people's school\nand it must continue to be so. The presence of industrial subjects in the course of study\nneed give the educator no concern. So long as these subjects have a place in preparing the\npupils for life, they have a place in our schools. The chief concern of those who supervise\npublic education must be to establish a condition of democratic fellowship in every institution. This is of more importance than the course of study.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE TOPIC: THE UNITED\nSTATES\nGOVERNMENT\nMATERIALS\nTHAT\nARE\nUSABLE IN SECONDARY EDUCATION*\nWESLEY\n\nN.\n\nCLIFFORD,\nHEAD\nOF DEPARTMENT\nHIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA.,\n\nOF COMMERCE,\nPA., Chairman\n\nSOUTHERN\n\n{An abstract)\nThe Committee made a report of great value, submitting a list of publications which would be sent free of charge to teachers and pupils on application to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. This list will be\nprinted and distributed free of charge by the same department. The Committee offer the following suggestions:\n1. Address requests to the Office of Experiment Stations, Washington,\nD. C, as this is the special bureau of the Department of Agriculture which is\ncharged with carrying on its educational work.\n2. State your own official position, special line of teaching, etc. Sometimes bulletins for which a price is ordinarily charged are sent free if it is known\nexactly to whom they are sent and what use is to be made of them.\n3. State specifically the subject on which information is desired. If\npossible, refer definitely to the title or number of bulletin, circular, or document, and the bureau which issues it. Do not ask for all of the reports on\nany subject. Write first for the Bulletin oj Publications, and then you can\nask intelligently for what you want.\n4. Avoid requesting a large number of publications on different subjects\nat the same time, or a list of different bulletins whose use is to be distributed\nover a long period of school work. As far as practicable, individual requests\nare preferred, rather than requests to supply a large number of bulletins to\npersons who may not be specially interested.\nIt is well to have individual\n* Note. — The valuable list of government publications which accompanied this report\nis not published here, because the committee, thru its chairman, Mr. ClifiFord, has secured\nassurances from Director A. C. True, of the Office of Experiment Stations of the\nDepartment of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C, that the list will be enlarged, classified\nmore fully, and published as a circular to be available for free distribution to teachers\nand others interested in agricultural education. — The Editor.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN\n\nCONSERVATION\n\n,803\n\npupils write for bulletins in which they may be interested; or, send in the\nnames of pupils to whom the reports may be sent.\nAt the Denver Convention, copies of the list of publications were distributed and a general discussion followed, of which the following is a brief\nreport:\nDISCUSSION\nEllsworth Bethel, instructor in biology, East Side High School, Denver, Colo. —\nThe Department of Agriculture, the experiment stations, and the agricultural colleges\nare all willing and anxious to help the teachers by supplying such publications as they can\nuse. Some of the most helpful aids are the post-route maps, which give distances; the\nforestry maps; topographical maps, which give contour lines and elevations.\nGreat interest may be aroused by studying the insects that affect the crops in a particular locality. In Colorado, we study the sugar beet's enemies. In Texas the boll\nweevil may be studied.\nEvery teacher of physiology should have the bulletins on hygiene, dietetics, etc.,\nissued by the Department; and every teacher of science, should be on the mailing list\nof the Department of Agriculture, the Bureau of Forestry, and the Geological Survey, so\nthat he may receive their lists of publications.\nCharles E. Bessey, dean of College of Science, University of Nebraska, Lincoln,\nreported that in the University of Nebraska the individual student writes for those publications in which he may be interested. A very interesting bulletin is the one on plant\nzones.\nJosiAH Main, of the Department of Agricultural Education, University of Tennessee,\nKnoxville, spoke of a collection of seeds, arranged in cases for convenient study, consisting oftwo parts — weeds, and economic seeds — costing $3. This set is usable either in\nthe high school or in the elementary grades.\nOtis W. Caldwell, of the University of Chicago, illustrated the advantage to the\npupil of the study of some specific subject, by the aid of government reports and other\nmaterial. A seventh grade began the study of sugar. One pupil collected all the various\nsubstances which are or might be the sources of sugar. By correspondence, he secured\nphotographs and other material from various sugar-producing localities, and from these\nphotographs made lantern slides, which he used to illustrate four talks on the subject\nbefore his classmates. The correspondence and talks resulted in great improvement in\nhis English. He is now studying the beet-sugar industry in Colorado. He has a dynamic\ninterest in the subject, which will result in his doing something along this line, or some\nother.\n\nPROGRESS\nHUGO\n\nA.\n\nWINKENWERDER,\n\nIN CONSERVATION\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF FORESTRY,\nCOLORADO\nSPRINGS, COLO.\n\nCOLORADO\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nStanding as we do, today, at the height of western civilization, in the\nmidst of conveniences which give us apparent independence of nature, we are\nprone to forget that the control we have achieved over our physical surroundings makes us more dependent upon nature than is the savage of the South\nSeas. Our present wealth and well-being are directly due to our superb natural\nresources and the use we have made of them. Our future progress, nay, even\nthe maintenance of our present high state of development, is just as dependent\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "i 804\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\non these resources as has been our past. Man has laid Nature under tribute,\nand has become powerful because Nature was rich; but if we impoverish\nNature, her tribute must cease.\nMost unfortunately, it is only during the past few years that the country has\nawakened to the fact that many of our resources are diminishing and being\ndestroyed so rapidly that in some instances the time can be predicted almost\nto a certainty when, under present conditions of use, misuse, and waste, some\nof the things we look upon as necessities of life will be gone. But fortunately,\nunder the leadership of a few patriotic men, headed by ex-President Roosevelt,\nthe realization of that sad fact has awakened the country to immediate action.\nOn the morning of Wednesday, May 13, 1908, President Roosevelt called\nto order the first conference for the discussion of this most important problem.\nIn the East Room of the White House at Washington, there was assembled\non that day the most illustrious and the most representative gathering of the\nnation's leading public men ever brought together. This Governors' Conference for the Conservation of Our National Resources marks the beginning\nof one of the most striking and important chapters in the history of the world;\nand with it we pass from an era of commercialism based upon waste to an era\nof industrialism based upon conservation.\nConservation means the highest utilization of our resources. It is the\nopposite of waste. It does not mean non-use. It means a wise use. It is the\naim of the conservation movement to perpetuate our natural resources and to\nmake possible their use to the greatest number of people.\nWe should not be surprised that ex-President Roosevelt looks upon the\ninauguration of the conservation movement as the greatest act of his administration. What are the ordinary political problems — the extension of woman\nsuffrage, the tariff, and the questions of coinage, currency, and banking —\ncompared with the perpetuation of our great natural resources ? The former\nare all merely passing incidents which alternately become prominent in the\npublic mind only to sink back into obscurity, causing, comparatively, but a\nripple in the progress of the nation's welfare. But our resources are at the\nfoundation of our very existence; upon them depend the future of our\nnational welfare, the very life of our children and our children's children.\nTherefore it is gratifying to know that in this age of profit-getting we have\nsome men who have had the keen fpresight to recognize the necessity of restrictive measures, and the patriotism to put aside petty politics in favor of the\nsolution of a problem which reaches out into the future, out beyond our own\nmaterialistic dreams into the realm of the coming generations, so that we may\nnot be taken to account for squandering a national heritage which we are\nholding in trust, and which it is our duty to hand down to posterity in as good\na condition as we have received it.\nFollowing the conference of May 13, President Roosevelt appointed, on\nJune 8, a Permanent Conservation Commission.\nOn June 19 the Executive Committee of this Commission met in Chicago\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN\n\nCONSERVATION\n\n805\n\nand determined upon a plan of action. The first step was to be an inventory\nof the nation's resources. By order of the President the heads of the various\nscientific bureaus of the government were directed to have their forces make\nsuch investigations as the Commission requested, and a large number of\nexperts were sent into the field during the summer and autumn of last year.\nThe entire Commission met in Washington again on December i, when\nthe experts and secretaries of the different divisions reported to the Commission\nand the Commission formulated its first report. This was transmitted to the\nPresident on December 8.\nOn February 18 to 22 was held a North American Conference including,\nbesides the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Newfoundland. On February 19 the President requested the powers of the world to meet at The Hague\nto consider the conservation of world-resources. This Conference bids fair\nto rival the famous Peace Conference and will, undoubtedly, accomplish far\nmore direct results.\nDespite all present and possible opposition, the future of the movement is\nassured. Already forty states have conservation commissions; beside these\nthere are forty-eight commissions representing large national organizations.\nThese commissions are co-operating through a Joint Committee on Conservation with an office to serve as a clearing-house for all joint business. The\ncommittee proposes plans of work, for submission to the different commissions.\nThe plans comprise suggestions for an inventory of resources within the purviews of each commission, containing definite statements as to what we have,\nwhere it is, what we use and waste, and what we need to do.\nThe list of conservation commissions is constantly growing, and the\nplans submitted by the Joint Committee are expected soon to be in operation\nin practically every state of the Union. Some of the national organizations\nco-operating with the Joint Committee are the National Board of Trade, the\nNational Association of Manufacturers, the American Federation of Labor,\nthe National Council of Commerce, the great lumbermen's organizations, like\nthe Yellow Pine Manufacturers' Association and the West Coast Lumber\nMen's Association, and many others representing all the great national\nresources of the country, and I sincerely hope that the National Education\nAssociation will soon be added to the list.\nThus far the greatest progress in conservation has been made in connection\nwith the forest resources and the reclamation of the arid lands. Up to 1907\ntwelve states are reported as having created state forest reserves.\nNew\nYork stands at the head with 1,500,000 acres; next comes Pennsylvania\nwith over 800,000 acres; third, Hawaii with nearly 400,000 acres; and\n[fourth, Wisconsin with 300,000 acres. Even the little state of Connecticut has\n[about 1,500 acres, and Indiana, whose soil is practically all better adapted to\nigricultural crops than to forests, has a reserve of 2,000 acres. This is little\nlore than a demonstration area, to be sure, but it serves admirably the pur)ose of showing the farmer the value of the wood-lot when it is properly cared\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nfor. When we consider that in 1905 the farmers of the country received for\ntimber cut from their wood-lots, as a secondary crop of the farm, over $100,000,000, an amount nearly equal to one-third of the value of the wheat crop\nfor that year, it seems that every state in the Union should have a demonstration area which the farmer may take as an example.\nTwelve states now maintain forest nurseries for the distribution of seedlings and for planting on the state lands. Forty states have officers charged\nwith forest work and in seventeen of. these their first duty is in forestry. If\nnow we add to this the work being done by the federal government with nearly\n200,000,000 acres of national forests that are being cared for by a force of men\ntrained in technical schools of forestry, and the millions of acres of desert land\nmade fertile thru irrigation, it shows that we have not been idle.\nMuch, then, as has already been accomplished, the spread and the future\nof the movement depend upon a systematic education of the public. Such\neducation must proceed along two distinct lines: education for a more scientific\nuse of our resources, and education toward a better realization of the large\nsignificance of the conservation movement.\nThis education may be largely centered on the forestry side of the movement; for our forests touch our national interests at many points. Because\nof the influence of forests on industry, on water for power, irrigation, and\nnavigation, on erosion and soil, and because the forest is a great renewable\nresource, the whole conservation movement must look to progress in forest\nconservation as the foundation upon which progress along other lines must rest.\nFurthermore, the opponents of the movement are directing their efforts chiefly\nagainst forestry. This is very natural because by restrictive measures in the\nNational Forests the Forest Service has successfully prevented a monopoly in\nthe use of timber, range, and minerals, and the water for power and irrigation,\nand has reserved their use to the greatest number of people. Opposition to the\nconservation of these resources is especially aggressive because they are ready\nfor immediate exploitation, wherefore the opponents of the movement wish to\nhave them left to private enterprise as an instrument to profit. It is the\nexistence of consciously selfish opposition which explains, very largely, the\nexistence of opposition on other grounds.\nHow the needed education may be carried out is well illustrated by the\nmethods used in furthering forest conservation. The Forest Service when\nfirst organized as the Division of Forestry was little more than an educational\nbureau. Its chief object was to obtain information concerning the forest conditions of the country, to learn thru investigation and experiment how these\nconditions could be improved, and to send this information broadcast thru\nprinted circulars, popular lectures, and object-lessons. The work was then\nfurther advanced by interested associations and by public-spirited citizens and\nis now about to become a part of the instruction in the public schools.\nTime was when schoolmen might have objected to the introduction into\npublic-school instruction of anything in the nature of progaganda.\nHappily\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN CONSERVATION\n\nhowever, our methods in education have undergone radical changes, and we\nhave come to realize fully that the object of instruction is not so much the\npresentation of bare facts as it is to interest the pupil in the work of the world\nand to equip him with the \"stuff\" that will enable him to cope successfully\nwith the problems which later confront him in his life as a citizen. I firmly\nbelieve that this end cannot be accomplished unless we correlate the work of\nthe classroom with the work going on in the world outside. The teacher, very\noften, is prone to forget that the world is full of useful object-lessons\nwhich are based on the very principles she is expounding, and the child thus\nloses an opportunity for the training he should receive in making practical\napplications of his knowledge. Very often, too, the teacher is not even aware\nof these great problems. Yet how can we expect her to keep in touch with\nanything but the textbook when she is required to conduct classes for seven\nhours a day, to spend two or three more in correcting notebooks and examination papers, and four or five in preparation for.the following day ?\nIn this connection I should like to make a plea for the teacher. If we\nexpect our teachers to do justice to their work we must place them in a position\nto keep abreast of the times. That means more pay and more time for daily\nstudy.\nThe tendency in modem education is to place the teacher more and more\nupon her\" own resources. I can well remember the time when textbooks were\nhanded out to pupil and teacher in twenty or more cut-and-dried lessons.\nToday many of the textbooks and laboratory manuals are prepared more\nespecially as reference books with the view to presenting a suitable outline\nwhich may serve as a basis for study and instruction. We have come to\nrealize that the diversity in age, maturity, and endowments of the pupils, the\npersonality of the teacher herself, and the local conditions under which she is\nworking demand textbooks that are flexible, and teachers that are up to date.\nHowever, in the hands of teachers whose resources are very limited such textbooks are perhaps worse than those we have cast aside.\nThat the conservation movement is as important as many of the subjects\nlught in textbook and classroom and that our public schools and universities\n[offer the best opportunities for furthering progress in conservation, I think\nno one will question.\nIn the public schools, I should like to propose that we take up studies in\n[conservation only in connection with related subjects. In the classes in\n'American history, in economics, and in general geography, for example, the\nimportance of the conservation of natural resources and the relation of the\n(conservation movement to the state and to other matters of social and political\n[concern may be discussed. In the classes in physical and commercial geog[raphy and in manual training, in chemistry, botany, and agriculture the soluition of problems concerned with a better scientific utilization of our resources\n[should receive proper attention.\nThe general plan to be adopted will need to be determined largely by local\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nconditions. These differ very widely in different parts of the country. In\nNew York, Pennsylvania, and the New England states, for example, the\npeople have been fairly well educated up to a realization of the needs of their\nlocality and of the country in general. In the Rocky Mountain region, on\nthe other hand, and especially in Colorado, where opposition is exceptionally\nstrong, the propaganda side of the question must be duly emphasized. Colorado may serve to illustrate the relation of local conditions to propaganda for\nforest conservation.\nWe have in Colorado, in the first place, a class of persons who have come\nwest in search of nature's riches. For many years they have had a free and\nunrestricted use of the public domain — of its timber, its mines, and its range.\nIt is most natural, then, that they should at first resent restrictions suddenly\nplaced upon them by the Forest Service, Altho there are many of our people\nwho are in sympathy with the forest movement, and some who have been\nfighting a battle royal to bring about better conditions, there are those who are\nardent opponents, a small body which is working as diligently to ward off any\nprogress, as are the others to push ahead.\nIn the second place, our state has nearly all industrial advantages (except\nnavigation) found in all other states combined. We have a large block of\nsemi-arid prairie; we have agricultural fields that compare favorably with those\nof any state in the Union; our mines and our water power, our mountains, our\nscenery, and our sunshine are nowhere excelled. In short, we have combined\nwithin the confines of our state such a diversity of people and climate and\nindustrial conditions that the problem is fully as important and far more complicated than it is in any other state in the Union.\nIn prairie states like Kansas and Nebraska, the chief problem is forestplanting; in the forested hills of New York the chief problem is fire protection;\nin the almost totally denuded state of Michigan, it is reforestation; in the\nagricultural states of Ohio, Indiana, and Iowa, it is the farm wood-lot; in\nCalifornia, it is irrigation and mining; but in Colorado we have each one of\nthese problems staring us boldly in the face.\nHere, then, education for propaganda may show that the forests of Colorado form one of the most important resources of the state. It should emphasize the relation of the forest to the mining, agricultural, live-stock, lumber,\nwater-power, and irrigation industries. Without her forests Colorado could\nnot boast of the great possibilities she has for the development and maintenance\nof these industries. But with much of the land that is not suited to agriculture\ncovered with forests, our state should be able to develop all its resources to their\nfull capacity.\nHow the schools may forward education along the lines suggested may be\nillustrated by the possibilities afforded by instruction in manual training,\nphysical geography, and agriculture. When the pupil is taught the mechanical\nuse and application of wood he should be taught also, as of the greatest importance for commerce and industry, the total available supply of any given\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nu.fPf FIRST-YEAR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSCIENCE\n\n809\n\nspecies, the relation of supply and reforestation to prices of raw material, the\ncost of production, and similar questions of vital importance. While he is\nlearning of erosion and stream flow in physical geography he should also learn\nof the importance of forests as they influence run-off and seepage, the washing\nof the soil, floods, water for power and irrigation, the filling of our harbors and\nreservoirs with silt, the influence of these conditions on local industry, and how\nand where in the country at large and in his immediate locality the forests will\nbe most effective as a means for controlling the forces of nature. In the\nclasses in agriculture the influence of the forests on these same conditions may\nbe treated from the standpoint of the improvement of the conditions on our\nfarms by proper methods of forest culture, and the value of the farm wood-lot\nand some of the fundamental technical considerations for profitable woodlot management may also be included.\nIn the course of my talk I have tried to emphasize the importance of introducing the subject of conservation into the public-school curriculum both from\nthe standpoint of the pupil and from the standpoint of the conservation movement, not as a separate subject, but in its relation to subjects that are already\nbeing taught.\nBefore closing, I wish to emphasize again the importance of keeping our\nschool work in touch with the great problems which are confronting-the people,\nand that the conservation movement, according to President Roosevelt himself, isthe greatest of all the great problems which are now before us. I should\nlike to suggest further, if I may, that a Conservation Commission — such as has\nbeen organized by all the great national organizations — organized as a regular\ndepartment of the National Education Association to co-operate with the\nJoint Committee on Conservation could do more to place this necessary\ninformation in the hands of the teacher and show him how to use it than any\ncommission or body now in existence; and by so doing, such a commission as\na department of the National Education Association would become one of the\nmost effective in furthering progress in conservation.\nWHAT\n\nSHALL\n\nTHE FLRST-YEAR\nSCIENCE BE?\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCHARLES^EMERSON\nPEET,\nPROFESSOR\nOF PHYSIOGRAPHY\nLEWIS\nINSTITUTE,\nCHICAGO\n\nThe great fault of the work of our students, especially in the earlier years of\nthe high school, is that it is done under low pressure, too often with the spirit\nof the day laborer and not with the spirit of the man working for himself.\nThis half-hearted way of working is neither the kind that produces the greatest\ngrowth of the worker nor accomplishes the best results.\nIf our purpose in teaching is to furnish the best conditions for growth, the\nmost rapid and healthy growth, and to develop the talent latent in the individual, the student must be inspired to put forth his best efforts with enthu-\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "8lO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nsiasm, with hope, and with pleasure, and to work with that intensity which we\nknow results in an increase in capacity.\nThe inspiration for work may be the inspiration of the lash, or it may be\nthe inspiration of interest. If the former, the labor will be slave labor. If\nthe stimulus is that of interest, the work will be that of a free man — a selfresponsible man. I leave the treatment of the subject from the former standpoint to those who are skillful with the lash. For those not skilled with the\nlash, I believe all would agree that the best way to make the student work is\nto give him something to do that he wants to do.\nThe fundamental problem, then, is what science subjects do appeal to the\nstudent in first-year high school in such a way as to inspire him with hope and\nambition and cause him to put forth his utmost efforts. It is no simple\nproblem, and can be solved only by experiment. The daily life of the student\nin the city is so different from that in the country that the subjects which appeal\nto the country boy may not appeal to the city boy. The daily life of the girl\nis so different from that of the boy that her interests are not necessarily identical— perhaps they are necessarily not identical — with the interests of the boy,\nand if so, why should the attempt be made to cast them in the same mold ?\nIn solving the problem of what science subject is best for the first year of\nhigh school, one great disadvantage under which we have worked is that\nwe have not known, and do not now know well, what things most appeal to the\nstudent. We have not been studying this question enough. Too much of\nour time has been given to a study of the question how to teach our subjects\nand too little time to a study of the student's interests and needs. The student\nhimself of course does not know what he wants. He knows what he does not\nwant.\nHe sometimes knows what he wants when he sees it.\nWhile we know something about the interests of the student when he comes\nto us we do not know nearly enough. We know that it is a characteristic of\nyoung people that they demand quick returns or their interest flags. Their\ndesires so often run ahead of their ability to handle a subject that their interest\nlags before a distant goal can be reached.\nIt is true also that the interests of the first-year high-school student are\nwhat we would call superficial. They spread over a large area and do not\ngo deeply. This may not be satisfactory to us. It is very disappointing,\nperhaps, but we cannot help that. We must take the student as he is and not\nas we might wish he were, and if we are to produce the best results we must\nadapt the work to him, not the student to the work.\nAnother of the principal characteristics of the first-year student, altho\nit is not peculiar to him, is his optimism. It is a fundamental characteristic\nwhich must be taken into account in considering the work best fitted to his\nneeds and which will produce the best growth. The work that shall fire his\nambition, awaken his enthusiasm, stimulate his imagination, enlarge his\nviews, engage his attention and utmost efforts, will impress him with his own\npossibilities, show him the great opportunities for the enterprising, intelligent.\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFIRST-YEAR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSCIENCE\n\n8il\n\nenergetic young man, and will not make him any the less an optimist, but\nshould base his optimism regarding himself on the safe and more solid foundation of actual accomplishment thru earnest effort.\nThe fourth great thing that must be remembered in connection with the\nfirst-year high-school student is that he has studied books largely all his\nschool days. In daily life he has been surrounded by many wonderful and\nfascinating things which he has longed to understand. As Hall says, he\n\"would go far to see scores and hundreds of demonstration experiments and\nwould like to repeat them in his own imperfect and perhaps even clumsy way.\"\nThis desire to experiment, to try things and see what will happen, often gets\nhim into trouble in the city.\nIt must also be kept in mind that, in the great majority of cases, the student\non entrance to high school is at the very threshold of his work in science. It is\nimportant that his first impressions of this \"wonderland\" be favorable, that\nhe be happily introduced into its mysteries and methods, and that the fire of\nhis youthful eagerness be not quenched.\nThe two subjects which lead as first-year sciences are biological science and\nearth science. Each of these subjects requires some knowledge of the other\nsciences for the most effective work. Each appeals strongly to a student only\nin so far as his life has turned his interest in these directions. Neither one,\nas ordinarily taught, lends itself extensively to that experimenting which\nmakes science seem to the young student a veritable \"fairyland.\" Neither\none alone within the strict limits of the subject gives him that glimpse into the\nwide field for which the student longs. Neither one alone is so well fitted to\nstimulate his imagination, fire his ambition, engage his whole attention, and\ncause him to work with such intensity as would a wise selection from the whole\nfield of science.\nIn view of the nature of the student's interest, then \"may we not well raise\nthe question^ whether the science now taught in the first year of high school\n(the place in the curriculum appropriate for a general introduction to science)\nis broad enough to meet the needs of the young student; whether it would not\nbe better frankly to make it a general introduction to science, which shall\nhave its roots in the wonders of astronomy, and in those portions of physics\nand chemistry which appeal to the young student, the portions full of demonstrations and laboratory exercises of the kind which delight his heart, arouse\nhis enthusiasm, and increase his desire for more and deeper knowledge?\nIs this not indeed the time to open wide the door and let the student look in\nat the many good things that are ahead and to start him happily on the way\nto acquiring the methods of science ? The subject-matter could not well stop\nwith the roots of this tree of knowledge, as it were. In those schools where\nI See paper by C. E. Peet and W. S. McGee read before the Central Association of\nScience and Mathematics Teachers, December, 1905, printed in School Science, May,\n1907 ; and a paper by the writer read at the Educational Conference of the Academies and\nHigh Schools in Relations with the University of Chicago, November, 1906.\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nthe trunk of this tree of knowledge is now physiography, should not the\nbranches and foliage be permitted to grow in the form of the study of life so\ntaught as to bring out the relations between the physical features of the earth\nand the life upon it, especially the human life of the present, with its manifold\nactivities?\"\nFor boys in the city, greater emphasis might be placed on physics; in the\ncountry, the study of life, or possibly agriculture might be the central subject.\nFor the girl in either city or country, domestic economy might well be the\nnucleus about which the work is grouped. But let it be discovered by experiment the sort of work best adapted to the interests of the student. Whether\nin city or country, for boy or for girl, if physiography is the central subject it\nshould culminate in the study of geography. To this one thing the writer is\nunalterably committed. To do otherwise would be to build the foundation for\nthe house and fail to build the house.\nThis plan of a broad introductory science course is in accord with the\nmethods of the best scientific investigation, which involve first a general reconnoissance of the field before taking up the detailed work, and is also in accord\nwith the nature of the high-school student's interests.\nThat there is a growing feeling of need of something of this sort is indicated\nby a variety of things from various sources. The physiography laboratory\nmanuals that have appieared within a few years have with a few exceptions\ngiven a considerable amount of work in elementary physics and some elementary chemistry. In the science teachers' associations, especially in the West,\nthe matter has been under discussion.^ From the teachers of science in the\nlater years of the high school there has come a demand for their own purposes\nof an introductory course in the physical sciences, which will be referred to\nlater in this paper. In some places in the Middle West the need of a general\nscience course has long since been felt and such courses have arisen spontaneously and independently in several high schools.^ Under the direction of\nMr. Caldwell, of the School of Education of the University of Chicago, such a\ncourse is being worked out in the University High School. At the high school\nin Oak Park, a suburba,n town near the western limits of Chicago, ''such a\ncourse has been much experimented upon in the last few years, and while it\nhas not yet attained perfectly definite shape in all its parts, the evolution of the\ncourse is nearing its completion.\"^ The central subjects in this course are the\nbiological sciences — ^botany, zoology, and physiology — with some physics\n1 Loc. cit., and paper by Chas. I. Hays, of the North Denver High School, read before\nthe Colorado Teachers' Association in December, 1908. In California a committee has\nthe matter under investigation.\n2 A circular of the \"New Movement in Physics\" reports six high schools known to be\ngiving such courses. Professor Frederick Sanders, principal of the Lincoln, Nebr.,\nHigh School, reports the success of such a course for four years past. In the Colimibus,\nOhio, High School also, such a course is given with physiography as the central subject.\n3 See \"Elementary Science in the High School,\" by Miss Chandler, in the School\nReview, February, 1909.\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFIRST-YEAR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSCIENCE\n\n813\n\nand chemistry. At the Lewis Institute in Chicago a course in introductoryscience has been evolving which has had as its central subject physiography,\nreaching down into some elementary phases of physics, chemistry, and astronomy, reaching up into the study of life, and culminating in the study of general\ngeography. This course has been gradually shaped, not to meet the demands\nof instructors of science in the later years of the Institute, but to satisfy the\ndemands of the young people studying physiography in the first year of the\nhigh school, many of whom are boys entering the school with the ambition to\nbecome engineers. This course is still in an experimental stage but it has\nevolved far enough to make it certain that a great step in advance has been\ntaken in satisfying the demands of the young city boy.\nSo far, emphasis has been placed in this paper on the demands of the firstyear high-school student, but the subject may be looked at also from another\nstandpoint. To know any one of the sciences thoroly it is necessary to know\nsomething of the others. For this reason the instructor in each science desires\nto have his subject placed in one of the later years in the high-school course.\nThis is desired not only because of the greater maturity of the student but also\nbecause of the advantage of the student's previous preparation in the other\nsciences. The third or fourth year is commonly given to high-school physics\nbecause of the need of preparation in mathematics, and because it is so exacting\nas to require greater maturity of the student. This demand of the later\nscience courses for previous preparation in the other sciences would be met by\na first-year general science course and is especially urged in the circular of\nthe ''New Movement in Physics.\" The committee on the definition of units\nin the sciences have asked for authority from the North Central Association\nof Colleges and Secondary Schools to work out a unit for introductory science.\nThe demand for introductory science work earlier in the high-school course\nhas arisen from the teachers of physics, because the widespread introduction\nof laboratories for the physics and the growth of the work in technicality has\nled to courses which are so exacting that an introductory course seems necessary.^\nIt may be urged that the demand from the instructors in physics for such a\ncourse is no argument for it. Let them adapt their courses to their students\nrather than ask that the students be adapted to their courses. Is it not, however, an unusually fortunate circumstance that the interests of the students\nin the earlier years of the high school seem to demand the very thing which\nwill best fit them for the work which the physics instructors have prepared for\nthem for the later years ?\nIt is not from the instructors in physics alone that the demand for this\nintroductory science course has come. The greater freedom it would give\nin the placing of the sciences of the later years of the high school has been\nrecognized.\nThe advantage it would be in allowing chemistry to precede\nI See Lewis B. Avery, principal of the San Jose High School, in School Science, 1907,\np. 196.\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nphysics has been urged by Principal James E. Armstrong, of the Englewood\nHigh School.^\nFor biology, also, there is a need of some of this introductory science work.\nAnyone can see that, as Miss Chandler, of the Oak Park High School, says,\n*'For the understanding of any physiology, plant, or animal there is necessary\na certain amount of elementary chemistry and physics.\" Indeed, the beginning of the introductory science course at the Lewis Institute, Chicago, can be\ntraced back to this fact. The Institute is near several medical schools. Ten\nyears or more ago, when the writer first began work there, the institute received\nfrom the medical schools students who needed a little more training in science\nbefore beginning their medical courses. It was in the endeavor to make the\nwork in physiography useful to these young \"medics-to-be\" that the start was\nmade in working out the introductory science course mentioned, which has\nbroadened out to meet other interests.\nTo sum up the arguments for a broad introductory science ;n the first\nyear of the high school:\n1. It is in accord with the nature of the high-school student's interests, which \"spread\nover a wide area, but do not at first extend deeply into any subject.\"\n2. This plan is in accord with the methods of the best scientific investigation, which\ninvolve first a general reconnoissance of the field before taking up the detailed work.\n3. It gives the student the broad outlook which is necessary for the most efifective\nwork in any of the sciences, and if wisdom is used in the selection of subjects and methods\nof presentation, it will leave the student with a desire for further work in science.\n4. It gives an opportunity for the very large number of students who do not go beyond\nthe first years of high school to get a look into the great field of science and introduces\nthem to its methods.\n\nSuch a course will make it necessary for a student to bring to bear on the\nproblems arising in it much of the knowledge he has already acquired, and the\nknowledge which he can get from day to day. It should make use of all the\nmethods by which knowledge is obtained — ^books, maps, diagrams, pictures,\nconversation, observation, experiments, inference, and speculation.\nIn addition to arousing interest in a wide range of nature subjects and\ncreating a desire for more by opening the door and letting him look in and see\nwhat good things there are in store, the course suggested should introduce the\nstudent to scientific methods, and \"develop in him mental habits which\nshould finally lead to intellectual independence.\"\nAmong the things to which it should lead the student are :\n1. A confidence in the testimony of his own eyes and ears.\n2. A belief in his own good sense, in his ability to reason from facts to\ntrustworthy conclusions. There is no one thing which should be encouraged\nso continuously.\n3. A habit of looking for the deeper significance of apparent facts and of\ninferring causes from effects and consequences from causes.\n4. A habit of stringing the significant isolated facts together in some orderly\nI School Science, February, 1905, p. 109.\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFIRST-YEAR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSCIENCE\n\n815\n\nfashion, building up from them definite mental pictures, and, in subjects lending themselves readily to this process, attempting to put these pictures in the\nmental cinematograph so that the actions of an agency or the cycle of changes\nin an object may pass before the mind's eye. Such an attempt is worth while\neven if it does not succeed fully.\n5. A habit of testing quantitatively by rough calculations conclusions\nwhich can be so tested, and in building up mental pictures from isolated facts,\na habit of getting the right proportions by the same method should be cultivated.\n6. The habit of attempting to see things in the large — of looking thru\nthe big end of the telescope and getting a perspective view of a thing in its\nentirety.\nIn addition to these things, such a course should leave with the* student a\nmass of knowledge much of which should be continually used thruout Hfe\nand be a satisfaction and a pleasure to him, and above all things, it should leave\nhim with a desire for more.\nAnd finally, in order that such a course or such courses may be worked out\nintelligently, a study of the student's interests and needs is urged. Let the\nquestion be raised : Are there interests natural to the student at this age which\nare increased by success in doing, or is interest based on success in accomplishment, whether the work be accomplished at first thru dull grinding or not ?\nThe study of these questions offers that opportunity for investigation so\nmuch desired by many secondary-school instructors. The investigator's\nattitude of mind in the teacher changes the wholer aspect of schoolroom problems. Itmay even make the reading of student papers a pleasure. Mistakes,\nbefore a vexation, now are items of interest because they show how the student's\nmind is working. It gives the -teacher an appreciation of the personality of the\nindividual student that is a pleasure and a nev^r-ending source of interest,\nand results in bringing student and teacher nearer together, for there is nothing\nto which the student is so sensitive as to the real feeling of the instructor toward\nhim. The instructor is thus placed in a position of advantage for discovering\nthe hopes and ambitions that lie deeply concealed in the heart of the student.\nWhen these are known, the problem of satisfying the demand of the student\nor of stimulating in him demands that will result in his greatest growth may be\nsolved by the methods which the scientist is accustomed to use in the solution\nof his problems. Is it not a reflection on the scientific methods of the science\nteacher that so much time has been given to studying how to teach the subject\nand so little time has been given to studying what the nature of the student\ndemands at the successive stages of his growth ?\nDISCUSSION\nMiss\n\nJulia\n\nB. Clifford,\n\nteacher of botany, East High School,\n\nMinneapolis,\n\n[Minn. — Such a composite course as Dr. Peet has outlined for first-year high-school\n:ience is one for which I have argued many years.\nHowever, let it be stated emphati-\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ncally that the course should not consist of six weeks each of a half-dozen different\nsciences, taught as distinct subjects. Such a division would defeat the purpose of the\ncourse. A course can be worked out in such manner that the scientific bearing of each\nprinciple taught upon the other sciences will be shown. This will require much labor\nand thought from the teacher, but I have never known the science teacher who shirked\neither. A far greater difficulty would lie in the lack of requisite knowledge in the\npossession of the teacher; and here the colleges must help by making it easy for students\nto study in several departments, and by giving teachers' courses in the various sciences.\nWhere the colleges, and students preparing to teach, have erred in the past is in too great\nspecialization in some one science. There are numerous colleges today where a student\nwho is specializing, say in physics, does not receive co-urteous treatment if he attempts to\ntake general courses in chemistry; and feels a decided chilliness in the attitude of his\ninstructors if he suggests venturing from a botanical to a zoological laboratory, or vice\nversa. If, as we have been hearing all this week, secondary education is the greatest\nwork confronting this nation, our universities must learn that preparing teachers is the\ngreatest work they have to do.\nWe have heard much talk that science has not made good in our schools. It would\nbe nearer the truth to say that science has never had the chance to make good. One cannot fail to see that this is true if he will examine the curricula of forty or fifty of the leading high schools in the country. In scarcely one of them is there a correlated science\ncourse. A large majority have either botany or physiology in the first year, but these are\nnot followed by any other science work in logical sequence. In very many of the schools\nsome one science is offered in the third or fourth years, as an option with several other\nsubjects; and this constitutes the science work which does not make good! Imagine the\nresult if a student took some one language, say Latin, in his immature freshman high-school\nyear, and then a year of French, or a half-year each of French and German, in his junior\nor senior year.\nFor this condition of sciencf work in our high schools the science teachers are more\nto blame than anyone or anything else; and the very strongest science teachers at that,\nbecause strong teachers in any one subject are apt to succeed in pushing that subject to\nthe front in their particular schools, to the neglect of other just as important subjects\nwhich should complement their work. Of course it follows, from what has been said\nabove, that the limited college -work of such teachers has contributed to produce this\nattitude.\nScience teachers, in the past, have woefully failed to work together.\nSuch a first-year course as Dr. Peet advocates would help the student amazingly to\nfind out what he does want, and it would help both student and teacher in advanced science\nwork by saving time for both. If, for instance, a student has learned the simple things\nconcerning osmosis in first-year work, how much time would be saved in teaching absorption of liquids and root-pressure in botany. Again, if he knew the properties of a few\ngases, how full of meaning would the demonstrations of the work of making food by the\nplants become. Being a teacher of botany, I naturally draw upon that subject for examples.\nIf such a first-year's work were followed by a year of either botany or zoology, and that by\na year of either chemistry or physics, and further work offered in one of the sciences for\nthe first half of the senior year, and the second half of that year's work given to a study of\nhygiene and sanitation, we would have a correlated course in science which would, at least,\nhave a chance to prove the value of science as a secondary-school subject.\nScience touches the child on every side of his Ufe, and comes close to every experience\nof his daily existence. Are we not big enough, as students of science and as teachers, to\nlook beyond our divisions of the subject and consider the real needs of the young people\nwho tomorrow will be in our places ?\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE IN ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL SCIENCE\nRELATION TO HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCE\n\nRILEY\n\nO.\n\nJOHNSON,\nHEAD\nOF\nSTUDY,\nSTATE\n\nTHE DEPARTMENT\nNORMAL\nSCHOOL,\n\nOF BIOLOGY\nCHICO, CAL.\n\n817\n\nAND\nAND\n\nITS\n\nNATURE-\n\nThe discussion of the relation of the course in elementary-school science\nto that in high-school science naturally divides itself into three parts: First,\ntheir relation with respect to subject-matter; second, their relation with\nrespect to the method of treatment; and third, their relation with respect to\nthe end aimed at.\nTaking up the last point first, it seems to be an already well-established\nfact that the course in elementary-school science is to be, and certainly it\nou-ght to be, determined by its relation to the life of the child. What its purpose\nshould be has never been more clearly nor better put than by Dr. Hodge, in his\nNature Study and Life, a book which has been an inspiration to thousands of\nteachers: \"Learning those things in nature that are best worth knowing to the\nend of doing those things which make life most worth living.\" The end aimed\nat in elementary-school science, then, may be stated briefly as preparation for\ncomplete living. On its side, the high school seems to be just on the point of\nbreaking away, if, indeed, it cannot already be said to have done so, from its\ntime-honored custom of preparing its pupils for the university, to prepare them\nfor the more important school of life. This new attitude, which the high\nschool seems to be coming hastily to assume, will affect no one of its various\ndepartments more profoundly, yea, I believe not half so much, as the department of science. With respect, therefore, to the end to be attained, we find\nthat the relation of the course in elementary-school science to that in highschool science is that of identity.\nIn the second place, since all of the sciences commonly taught in the high\nschool stand in vital relation to the most ordinary problems of life, it follows\nthat all these, in so far as their subject-matter falls within the comprehension\nof the pupils, are needed in the elementary school, and should be drawn\nheavily upon in constructing a course for the elementary school. Consequently, we should expect to find suggested in the elementary-school course,\nas well as in that of the high school, problems whose solution requires some\nknowledge of physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, and physiography, the last\nnamed including geology and meteorology. Again, since successful and\ncomplete living calls for the solution of problems arising from man's immediate\nenvironment, there should be found in both courses numerous problems having\nto do with the most common things in this environment. Thus we see that\nnot only will the same branches of science be drawn upon in the construction\nof courses for elementary and high schools, but in many cases the particular\nobjects suggested for study will be the same. Naturally, the problems suggested for solution by pupils of the high school will be more difficult of solution\nthan those suggested for elementary-school pupils. Studying the same object\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ndoes not necessarily mean repetition. It is evident, also, that the better the\nwork is done in the elementary school, the more difficult and intricate will be\nthe problems which the pupils will be able to solve when they reach the high\nschool. The high-school pupil will thus be fitted to work out, from the great\nabundance of evidence acquired in the grades, many generalizations which\nhe was not able to grasp when he stood on the lower plane. With respect,\nthen, to subject-matter, the relation between the course in elementary-school\nscience and that in the high school is one of continuity.\nIn the third place, since all the sciences with which we are dealing here,\nwhether we think of the elementary or the advanced portions of them, have\nto do with objective realities, it follows that the rational study of these sciences\nshould begin with observation. This truth, I take it, will be accepted as\naxiomatic, and hence will need no discussion at this time. Observation being\nindispensable in any right study of science, the -lesson, whether in the high\nschool or in the elementary school, should always be conducted, when it can\nbe done, in the presence of the real, living thing. Animals and plants, where\npossible and practicable, should be kept close at hand, generally the nearer\nthe better, for continuous observation. Since, in the solution of problems of\nreal life, independence of thought is desirable, the pupil of whatever age\nshould be constantly drilled in this habit. To this end he should be told\nnothing which he can be led to find out for himself by the expense of a reasonable amount of time and effort. Thus, taking them one by one, the principles which should govern in the teaching of science are essentially the same\nfor elementary and high schools, differing only, I believe, in minor particulars.\nWith respect, then, to the method of instruction, we find that the relation of\nthe course in elementary-school science to that in high-school science is again\none of identity.\nWe are thus led to see that the course in high-school science is, in a broad\nway, the same with respect to subject-matter, with respect to method of treatment, and with respect to the end aimed at, as is the course in elementaryschool science, differing only in the degree of difficulty of the problems which\nit places- before the pupils to solve. This being true, it only remains to fix, in\na rough way, the boundary between the two courses. To do this should give\nus no great difficulty.\nEvery subject must have a beginning place, and the beginning work should\nbe of the most elementary sort. This is no less true of the sciences than it is\nof any other subject in the curriculum. As the study of formal grammar is\npreceded by what is commonly called language worlc, and as the study of\narithmetic is preceded by number work, so the work in science should be\npreceded by what we know as elementary science or nature-study. In the\nstudy of botany, for instance, it is desirable to have the pupils learn the needs\nof plants by caring for them. Now, to pupils in the elementary school this\ncan be made a most interesting part of the work, but if left until the pupil takes\nup the study of botany as a science it is less likely to please, because considered\n\njy\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\n\nSCIENCE\n\n819\n\nbeneath his dignity. Similarly the work in observation which is so desirable\nin botany, zoology, and physiography, if left till the pupil has reached the high\nschool, is likely to appear trivial to him, and hence will lack the interest which\nhe would naturally have given it at an earlier age. Because these things are\ntrue, pupils in the high schools have heretofore received insufficient drill\nin the elementary facts of the different sciences studied. And so it comes about\nthat students finish the biological sciences, receiving credit in them, without\nhaving learned how to care intelligently for animals and plants, not having\nlearned in their studies what the simple wants of these organisms are. In the\nphysical sciences, it is not uncommon to find pupils who have taken, with credit,\nwhat are considered to be thoro courses in physics, chemistry, and physiography, without being able to explain the most common phenomena, such as\nwhat takes place in the burning of a lamp, or what occurs in the evaporation\nof water. In the ability to do these things lies the very essence of the connection ofthe school with life. It is at this point that the elementary school\nin its nature-study work can do a valuable service for the work in science in\nthe high school, by presenting such parts of each of the sciences as naturally\nmake the strongest appeal to the children in the grades, and which older\npupils often consider as lacking in dignity. Of such a sort are, in physiography, the study by observation of the various phenomena of erosion, and its\nconsequent influence on the formation and transportation of soils; in biology\nthe simplest wants of the organism and the advantage to the organism of the\nsimplest structures and of colors, the relation of the organism to its environment\nand to man; in physics and chemistry, the observation of common phenomena,\nillustrating in a simple way air pressure, capillarity, osmosis, chemical affinity,\nthe idea of valence, and the meaning of some formulae and of the simplest\nchemical equations.\nIt is not impossible to give to pupils in the elementary schools a good working knowledge of all these things if the teacher herself understands them.\nOne of the most interesting lessons I ever saw was one in which the pupils of\na seventh grade were studjdng the burning of a lamp — a lesson involving some\nknowledge of the atomic theory and of chemical affinity, a knowledge of\ncapillarity, and some idea of valence. The pupils had been given some idea of\nthe molecular structure of all matter, and of the size and behavior of molecules\nand of atoms, the rise of the oil in the wick had been illustrated and explained,,\nand the facts were developed that the light was caused by the intense heating\nof particles of carbon, coming from the wick and the oil, that the heat was\nbrought about by the rushing in, from all sides, of atoms of oxygen, two atoms\nof oxygen joining themselves to one atom of carbon to form one molecule of\ncarbon dioxide, which went off into the air. There did not appear to be the\nleast difficulty in understanding the facts brought out and the intense interest\nof the class was shown by such questions as, '*If all the molecules in the table\nare in constant motion, how can the table retain its shape ?\" \" Why does not\noxygen unite at all times with the carbon in coal oil and in cotton ?\" \" What\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ncauses the end of the wick to become black ?\" \"If the oxygen of the air unites\nwith the carbon of the wick as it does with the carbon of the oil, why should\nwe bother putting oil in the lamp ?\" *' What causes the flame when wood is\nburning ? \" The following is a list of experiments which are, generally speaking, entirely within the comprehension of the average seventh- and eighthgrade pupils.\nExperiments to show that plants need water, air, warmth, light, carbon,\nnitrogen, sulphur; preparation of oxygen; illustration of oxidation; preparation of hydrogen, of nitrogen, of lime water, of carbon dioxide; experiments\nto illustrate osmosis and capillarity; preparation of phosphoric acid, potash,\nand saltpeter; illustration of and test for acids, alkalies, and salts, tests for\nacid and alkali soils and the correction of each; to show that soil water holds\nplant food; that amount of film moisture depends on size of soil particles;\nto show rapidity of percolation in different kinds of soils.\nExperiments to illustrate evaporation; to show that plants transpire; to\nfind where transpiration occurs; to show that water rises thru the plant stem;\nthat transpiration exerts a lifting force on the water in the stem; how the plant\nlessens transpiration; that chlorophyll, sunlight, and air are necessary for\nstarch-making; that growing plants give off oxygen; tests for starch, sugar,\nproteid, and fat, to show regions of food storage in plants.\nBecause of the more abstract nature of the work, I should confine such\nwork as the above to the seventh and eighth grades of the elementary school,\ngiving to the lower grades the work in biology and a part of the physiography.\nI have now succeeded in showing, I think, that the science work of the\nelementary school stands in a vital relation to that of the high school, in that\nit relieves the high school of much necessary work which older children feel\nto be beneath their dignity to do, does much which the high school hardly has\ntime to, and hence makes possible in the high school a more extended consideration ofthe principles to be derived from scientific study.\nREPORT\nJAMES\n\nOF\nF.\n\nTHE\n\nCHAMBERLAIN,\nSCH:00L,\n\nCOMMITTEE\nON\nGEOGRAPHY\nDEPARTMENT\nLOS ANGELES,\n\nOF\nCAL.,\n\nSECONDARY-SCHOOL\nGEOGRAPHY,\nCHAIRMAN.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nThe expression \"the new geography\" is now so infrequently heard that it\nmay be of value to remind ourselves of its former significance. The appointment by the National Education Association, in 1892, of the Committee of\nTen was an important event in the development of school subjects in general,\nand of geography in particular.\nThe report of the Conference on Secondary-School Geography crystallized\nand gave definite and authoritative expression to the belief, which for a number\nof years previous to this had been a conviction on the part of the few leaders\nin the subject, that earth science should be a broader, deeper, more helpful\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY-SCHOOL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n821\n\nstudy than it then was. It regarded the subject not as a mere description of\nthe most striking features of man's physical environment, but as a study of the\nevolution of environment, and its relations to human conditions. It recognized\nthe fact that if geography was to maintain a place in the secondary school as a\nsubject for serious study, it must experience a decided change in character.\nAs the laboratory method was being used with success in chemistry, physics,\nand the biological sciences, it was considered wise to apply it to geography.\nThe close relations between geology and geography, the fact that the former\nwas quite well organized and that there was material available for laboratory\nwork, together with the personnel of the conference, all combined to give the\nmovement a decided trend in the direction of geology or physiography.\nBecause there were no textbooks that treated the subject from the new point\nof view, the Conference recommended that physical geography, along the\nlines then followed, be presented in the first year of the high school, and\nphysiography or geology in the last year.\nIn 1895 there appeared the first modem American physical geography.\nIt presented geographic forms and processes very fully, but, practically speaking, with the exception of a brief chapter used in the nature of a summary and\nentitled ''Man and Nature,\" it ignored their influences upon human life.\nA comparison of this book with its predecessors, as well as with the more\nrecent texts, is very interesting. The earlier books devoted considerable\nspace to a description of the surface features of the several continents. Comparatively little attention is given to the origin and classification of land forms,\nwhile there is practically no reference to human response to its environment.\nTheir treatment of the atmosphere is much briefer and less valuable than it is\nin the text published in 1895.\nIn 1897 the Science Section of the National Education Association appointed a committee of nine to consider physical geography in secondary\nschools. The report of this committee, made the following year, was in\ngeneral along the lines laid down by the Geography Conference. It is interesting to note that of the five men who signed the report, three were professors\nof geology. The report states that \"the subject should be carefully held to the\nleading idea of the physical environment of man.\" The committee favored\nelective courses in geology and meteorology.\nThere has been marked advance in the subject of physical geography\nduring the past sixteen years. We have now more than one-half dozen good\ntexts, and as many laboratory manuals. Our equipment has been improved,\nand teachers are receiving special training along this line in our normal schools,\ncolleges, and universities.\nIn spite of this great advance, there has been for several years a growing\nissatisf action with the course as at present organized.\nIt is becoming\n^increasingly evident that it does not meet existing needs.\nThe appointment\n>y the Science Section of the National Education Association in July, 1908,\n)f a committee to report upon the essentials of a course in geography for\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "822\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nsecondary schools is but one expression of this lack of satisfaction with present\nconditions. The Association of American Geographers, at its meeting held\nin Baltimore a few months ago, appointed a committee for the same purpose,\nwhile a large number of articles dealingwith the question have appeared in the\nJournal of Geography during the past two years. While the decided advance\nwhich secondary-school geography has made is recognized by all, the feeling\nis general among teachers of the subject and school authorities that the results\nare far from satisfactory. The next step in the evolution of the subject, a step\nto be taken in the near future, will be of greater importance than that inaugurated sixteen years ago.\nAltho the economic and commercial phases of geography are receiving an\nincreasing amount of attention, secondary-school geography is today practically\nphysiography. Therefore, unless otherwise specified, all references here\nmade to geography, as now taught in the high schools, have to do with this\ndivision of the subject. The following are the more important reasons for\nconsidering a change in the nature of the course imperative :\n1. The course, as at present organized, places too much emphasis upon\nthe detailed study and classification of land forms, and too little upon human\nresponse to those forms. The amount of space devoted to the lands by the\nvarious physical geographies varies from 40 per cent, to 76 per cent, of the\ntotal. The criticism here made, however, is not that too much space is\ndevoted to the lands, as one of the four great divisions of physical geography,\nbut that the lands are not suflficiently studied from the geographic point of\nview — namely, the human.\n2. A concrete study of human response to its environment does not receive\nsufficient attention. This point has reference to all of the divisions of the\nsubject. Your committee recognize the fact that a comprehensive study of\nthis subject, as applied to large areas, is impossible in a brief course devoted\nto physical geography. The omission of such study from secondary-school\ngeography is a serious matter, however. A careful examination of our texts\nwill show that the facts and principles stated are given scant application to\nconcrete areas. The newer books show an improvement over the old ones in\nthis respect.\n3. The course aims to fit the student for college rather than for the affairs\nof life. Secondary-school geography, as a part of our educational scheme,\nshould agree with the latter in so far as general function is concerned. In\nother words, it should aim to render the greatest \"possible service in preparing\nthe student to meet successfully the opportunities and obfigations of life.\nThe fulfiUing of college-entrance requirements — a matter which now receives\nserious attention — should receive practically no consideration. The soundness of this statement becomes evident when it is remembered that only about\n10 per cent, of the total enrolment in public and private high schools graduate.\nIn other words, practically all graduates of secondary schools enter at once\nupon some business, some profession, or the duties of home life. It is to\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY-SCHOOL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n823\n\nthese students — more than 90 per cent, of the total number — that the secondaryschool should devote itself heart and soul. The popular, but false, conception that the high school should place great emphasis upon meeting collegeentrance requirements in geography, as well as in other subjects, is responsible\nfor certain conditions in the curricula of our secondary schools that are much\nto be regretted.\n4. Secondary-school geography does not give the student a grasp of the\nnatural resources, the industries, and the commerce of the world. This condition is,of course, inevitable so long as the geography in the secondary school\nis almost exclusively physical geography. The training which this phase of\nthe subject, when properly presented, affords is too valuable to be neglected.\nEspecially is this true as applied to our own country.\n5. Geography in the secondary school does very little as a preparation for\nthe teaching of that phase of the subject which, in the elementary school,\nreceives chief attention. Your committee recognize the fact that it is not the\nspecial function of the high schoolto prepare its students for any particular\noccupation or profession. But as the training of children is the most important\nwork in which anyone can engage, most important both from the standpoint\nof the home and the nation ; and as a considerable number of teachers is yearly\ndrawn from the ranks of high-school graduates, we conceive it to be a part of\nthe function of the high school, until such time as professional training for\nthe work of teaching is universally required, to give its graduates such work as\nwill best fit them for teaching, provided that it is at the same time of great value\nto the many who will not teach.\nWe do not imply that a good course in physical geography does nothing\ntoward preparing the graduate of the secondary school to teach in the grades,\nbut it omits those phases of the work essential in the elementary school, and\nwhich are at the same time of most importance to the average member of\nsociety.\n6. Secondary-school geography, as at present constituted, cannot give the\nstudent that knowledge of the regions and peoples of the world which intelligent\nparticipation in the affairs of life requires. If broadly interpreted, this encompasses all of its weaknesses. By its very nature high-school geography places\na handicap upon the student who tries to do advanced work in the subject.\nThe lack of a knowledge of place relations, and of regional geography in a\nbroad sense, is a weakness so universally shown by students in the entering\nclasses of both normal schools and colleges, as almost to discourage teachers of\ngeography in those institutions. It is this knowledge which the average\nperson, no matter in what walk of life, most needs. The farmer, the fruitgrower, the stockman, the miner, the promoter of railroads or waterways,\nthe manufacturer, the shipper, the fisherman, the artisan, the health-seeker,\nand the traveler, all feel its need daily. We cannot read with intelligence the\ndaily papers and the periodicals, not to mention history and literature, without\nsome considerable knowledge of regional geography.\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nWe present the following as essentials of a course in geography for secondary\nschools:\n1. Those parts of mathematical geography which show most clearly how\nhuman life is influenced by the relations between the earth and other members\nof the solar system. Such points as the arrangement of the mathematical and\nheat zones and the varying boundaries of the latter; the change of seasons;\nlatitude and longitude; standard time and the international date hne are\nimportant. Facts as to the size of the members of the solar system, their\ndistances from the earth or sun, and their periods of rotation and revolution\nare not considered essentials.\n2. First in importance among the factors influencing life is climate. Therefore, atmospheric phenomena should receive careful attention. The principles should be applied as fully as time and the ability of the students permit. The topics which should receive chief attention are the following:\n{a) The conditions determining the temperature, pressure, and humidity of\nthe atmosphere; (6) the great atmospheric movements; {c) storms, especially\ntemperate-latitude cyclones, studied by means of the weather maps, and their\nrelations to crops, floods, and transportation; {d) precipitation; its causes\nand distribution; and its influence upon occupations and habits of life generally; {e) weather changes, such as the effect of unseasonable frosts upon\ncrops, and the efforts of man to prevent the damage ; the influence of blizzards\nupon stock on the western ranges, and telegraph and railroad business in\nmany parts of the country; the effects of storms upon wheat, oats, hay, and\nother crops; (/) we urge the importance of a study of the work of the Weather\nBureau, having students present specific illustrations of the value of its work.\nComparatively few realize the multitude of human interests that are advanced\nthru the operations of this Bureau.\n3. A brief study of the ocean as a modifier of climate, as an agent in the\ndestruction and construction of land forms, as the source of certain commodities, and as a medium for the transmission of the commerce of the\nworld. A detailed study of ocean depths, of temperatures at various levels,\nof tides, and of the character and distribution of ocean fife may well be\nomitted.\nWhile our texts treat the ocean as a separate division of physical geography,\nwe favor an incidental treatment, with a brief summary. The influence of\nthe ocean upon climate — the topic of chief importance — should be considered\nin connection with the study of cUmate. Erosion and sedimentation along\nshore-lines should be treated under those topics. The commodities obtained\n'from the ocean, as well as the commerce which it bears, would naturally\nreceive attention as a part of commercial geography.\n4. The larger geographic forms such as plains, plateaus, mountains,\nvalleys, rivers, falls, lakes, and glaciers should receive careful study. Human\ninterests and activities are \"largely confined to the lands, but it is obviously of\nfar greater importance that we should understand our relations to geographic\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY-SCHOOL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n825\n\nforms than that we should have a thoro knowledge of their evolution, or be able\naccurately to classify them.\nGraduates of secondary schools should know the location of the great\nplains of the world, and how they are related to the production of food, of\noccupations, of transportation, and the distribution of population. Whether\nor not these students can name the six or eight classes of plains given in our\ntextbooks is a matter of very little importance. Students should understand\nhow certain definite mountains influence climate, the distribution of plant\nlife, human occupation of their areas, the construction of railroads, the use of\nstreams for transportation, and the development of water and electric power,\nhow they served as national boundaries and have helped to mold national\ncharacteristics. The ability to name the different types of mountains, and to\nclassify faults and folds is of Httle value to the average person, however. In\nother wor4s, it is the human point of view that is important as applied to every\ntopic.\nStudents should be encouraged to discover human response to its environment in the home area, as this gives reality to the subject and prepares them\nto work out and appreciate these relations in remote areas.\nThe amount of emphasis placed upon the study of the various geographic\nforms and processes will depend, in part, upon the location of the individual\nschool. A school situated in a mountainous region would very properly\ndevote more time to the consideration of the influence of mountains upon life\nthan would one in the prairie section. In the first-named area the relation\nwhich mountains bear to climate, industries, settlement, road-building, are\nrelatively of greater importance than in the second, because they are at hand\nand are therefore more meaningful.\n5. A study of the larger features of the resources of our county such as its\nsoils, waterways, water powers, forests, and mineral wealth. These features\nof our geographic environment are so vitally connected with the daily life of\nevery individual, as well as with our national progress, that ignorance of them\nis a serious matter.\nThis study should show the distribution of the resources, their accessibility, their relation to road-building, to distribution of population, to development of industries, to location and growth of cities, to commerce, and to social\nconditions. The work of our government in modifying geographic environment should receive careful consideration. Our government is expending vast\nsums of money in carrying on soil surveys, in improving plants and animals,\nin reclaiming desert and swamp lands, in the preservation and extension of\n■ forests, in developing waterways and harbors. These are subjects upon which\nevery man and woman should be informed from the geographic point of view.\nThe value of such work in the molding of useful members of society is\ncertainly very great.\n6. A knowledge of the general geography of the most important countries\nand peoples of the world. The grasp of regional geography obtained in the\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Science\n\nelementary school is necessarily very meager. Geography is quite generally\ndiscontinued in the seventh grade, and, as has been stated, practically no attention is given to regional geography in the high school. A knowledge of the\ngeography of our own country and of Europe is a much-to-be-desired factor in\ngood citizenship. A somewhat detailed study of these two regions would\nincidentally put the student in possession of considerable knowledge of the\nother continents. In addition to this he would gain a \"geographic consciousness\" that would be of great value.\nIf it be true that a large part of the education of the average individual\ncomes thru reading, then it is of the utmost importance that we should be able\nto read intelligently. This, in the fullest sense, is impossible unless one's\nknowledge of geography is wider than that offered by the present high-school\ncourse in this subject.\n7. Some conception of how the history of nations has been shaped by\ngeographic conditions. We do not forget that this should be a vital part of all\ncourses in history, but it should also receive very definite attention in secondaryschool geography. All nations afford illustrations of this, some more than\nothers. That our own country is a fruitful field is evidenced by such works\nas Brigham's Geographic Influences in American History, and Miss Semple's\nAmerican History and Its Geographic Conditions.\n8. The ability to trace, in the large, the relationships between the most\nimportant geographic forms and geographic processes, and to appreciate the\nresponses which human life everywhere makes to its physical surroundings.\nOnly as the student has observed the results of geographic processes on a small\nscale can he have any definite conception of the evolution of larger and distant\ngeographic forms. When the student appreciates the significance of human\nresponse in the vicinity of bis home, he has laid the foundations for the discovery and interpretation of this response in remote areas. Moreover, this\ntraining will furnish some basis for seeing in advance the general trend of the\ngeographic development of a new region.\nIn order to make it possible to present the essentials as herein outlined, your\ncommittee make the following recommendations:\n1. Geography, touching as it does the daily life of every individual at so\nmany points, should be, in some form, a required subject in all secondary\nschools. Sixteen years ago the Committee of Ten recommended that physical\ngeography be required in all high-school courses. While we recognize the\nimportance of physical geography, we feel that this is too restricted a view,\nand that, as already pointed out, it does not include those phases of geography\nwhich are of greatest value to the average individual.\n2. The subject should be pursued for not less than one year. While more\nthan one year is very desirable, we feel that, thru careful selection of topics\nand the elimination of unimportant details, very much can be accomplished\nin the time stated.\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECONDARY-SCHOOL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n827\n\n3. The subject should be presented during the first year of the high-school\ncourse.\nSuch an arrangement will connect the work with that of the elementaryschool with the least possible break in time. It will also help the student in\nsuch work as he may take in history, literature, economics, geology, and\nmeteorology. A third advantage is that it will reach a larger number of\nstudents than it will if presented later in the course.\n4. There should be at least five recitation periods per week.\n5. About one-fourth of the total time should be devoted to laboratory\nand field work. This should by no means be confined to the study of\nphysical geography. More laboratory work and some excursions should\nbe undertaken in connection with the commercial phase of the subject,\nand there should be carefully planned exercises based upon maps and\nmodels.\n6. We recommend that about one-half year be devoted to the larger topics\nin physical geography, with the human side made more prominent than at\npresent, and that the remainder of the year be given to a study of North\nAmerica and Europe. Such a course would give our students some considerable knowledge of the geography of the most important countries of the\nworld, and incidentally much useful information, as applied to other areas,\nwould be acquired.\nThe chief difficulties that stand in the way of putting such a course into\noperation are two: first, time-honored custom; second, the lack of textbooks\nthat meet the requirements. We believe that careful consideration of the\nsubject from all points of view will remove the first, while the publishers will\nprovide us with the necessary texts almost as soon as we declare ourselves\nready for them. In the meantime, the first part of the course can be carried\non by means of selected portions of our physical and commercial geographies,\nnumerous government publications, and periodical literature. In the study\nof North America, the International, Russel's North America, The Lakes of\nNorth America, The Rivers of North America, The Glaciers of North America,\nand The Volcanoes of North America, Brigham's Geographic Influences in\nAmerican History, Miss Semple's American History and Its Geographic\nConditions, and numerous government publications are available. Helpful\nmaterial for the study of Europe is to be found in the International, Britain\nand the British Seas by Mackinder, Central Europe by Partsch, Hettner's\nLanderkunde, Vol. I, \"Europe,\" and government publications.\nThe work of your committee has been carried on under great difficulties.\nIts members live in widely separated parts of our country and hence there has\nbeen no opportunity for conference. While we are not unanimously agreed\nupon every point herein mentioned, we find ourselves in hearty agreement on\nthe report as a whole. If the conclusions here reached are pointed in the\nright direction, and shall help to bring about a more fruitful study of one of the\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nmost practical as well as one of the most broadening and humanizing of supjects, we shall be well repaid.\nIScii\nJames F. Chamberlain, Los Angeles, Cal., Chairman\nW. L. W. Field, Milton, Mass.\nMrs. Martha Krug Genthe, Hartford, Conn.\nMark Jefferson, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nWm. C. Moore, South Hadley, Mass.\nWm. H. Snyder, Hollywood, Cal.\nR. H. Whitbeck, Trenton, N. J.\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Francis H. Haserot, president, School Board, Cleveland, Ohio.\nVice-President — Otto C. Schneider, ex-president. Board of Education, Chicago, 111.\nSecretary — ^William George Bruce, editor, American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Morning, July 6, 1909\n\nThe first meeting was called to order at 9:30 o'clock at the Auditorium of the East\nSide High School by President Francis H. Haserot.\nLloyd E. Wolfe, principal of the Vocational School for Boys, San Antonio, Tex., read\na paper on ''Progress in School Administration.\"\nHe was followed by Charles F.. Perry, principal of the School of Trades, Milwaukee,\nWis., who read a paper on \"Trade Schools and School Boards.\"\nThe speaker then was subjected to a series of questions which related to the exact\nstatus of the trade school in the common-school system and to the details of management,\nthe kinds of trades taught, and the attitude of the trades unions.\nUpon motion the chair appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nJ. A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio\nC. G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.\nF. D. Tharpe, Kansas City, Mo.\nThe department then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday\n\nMorning, July 7, 1909\n\nThe second session was opened at 9 130 o'clock by President Haserot.\nA paper on \"The New Function of School Boards\" by C. W. Mark, ex-president\nof School Board, San Francisco, Cal., was read by Cree T. Work, president of the College\nof Industrial Arts, Denton, Tex.\nIn the absence of the other speakers, the balance of the time was occupied in a discussion of the paper.\nThe following resolution was introduced by President Haserot:\nbe it\n\nTo the end that a better type of men may be attracted to the service of the schools,\n\nResolved, That the selection and tenure of ofiice of custodians and janitors of school\nbuildings be placed under well-regulated civil-service rules.\nThe resolution was unanimously adopted.\nThe committee on Nominations then reported the following list of officers for the ensuing year:\nFor President — ^J. J. Stoddart, president. Board of Education, Columbus, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President — J. S. Bowers, president. Board of Education, Moberly, Mo.\nFor Secretary — William George Bruce, editor, American School Board Journal^\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n829\nThe report was unanimously adopted and the officers declared elected.\nAdjournment followed.\n\nSecretary\nWilliam George Bruce,\nF\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nPROGRESS\nL.\n\nE. WOLFE,\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADMINISTRATION\n\nPRINCIPAL OF VOCATIONAL\nSAN ANTONIO,\nTEX.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nBOYS\n\nSocial service being the supreme end of all school administration, our\nproblem is. What agencies and methods will result in a maximum of social\nservice in the field of school administration? The fundamental requisites\non the part of the school board and the community are social intelligence and\nsocial honesty.\nFirst, then, as to social intelligence — that is, the ability to discern what\nis educationally best for that wonderfully complex entity we call society. To\ndiscern what is educationally best for one class of society is a very different\nthing from discerning what is best for the respective classes of society, or for\nsociety as a whole. To do this requires clear ideas on education, sociology,\nand ethics. It calls for a knowledge not only as to what education is most\nvaluable, but as to what educative material and methods will develop the\nnatural abilities of each class into a maximum of social efficiency.\nProficiency and honesty. — The interests of the boys destined for industrial\npursuits must be as diligently sought as those of the boys destined for the\nlearned professions. Board members should be informed as to modem\nmethods of building construction, heating, lighting, ventilation, dust-destruction, etc. The health of the children must be looked after and, where possible,\nprovision made for exceptional children.\nSecond, as to social honesty. In the evolution of ethical ideas, social\nhonesty is reached much later than individual honesty. I have often found\nthat a man who is thoroly honest and reliable in his business relations, does\nnot scruple, as a member of a board of education, to extend favors to friends\nand to punish enemies. He does not seem to understand that if the service\nthat results from extending favoritism is worth a thousand dollars less than that\nsecured by an appHcation of the merit system, it is as bad morally as if he had\ndirectly embezzled a thousand dollars of the school's funds. Besides, in the\ncase of direct embezzlement the law with its penalty is a strong moral quickener.\nIn the case of the indirect embezzlement the board member can fall back\nupon the right to the exercise of individual judgment in administrative acts.\nThis question of the right to the exercise of individual judgment brings up\nthe related question of the value of expert opinion and of expert services.\nThere is a readier recognition, on the part of the members of the board, of\nthe value of expert opinion in business matters than in educational. Board\nmembers are often inclined to resent the intrusting of the initiative in the\nappointment and promotion of teachers to the superintendent of schools and\nhis assistants. A member may honestly believe that his judgment as to the\nfitness of a teacher is as good as that of the superintendent.\nIf his friends\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n831\n\nare importuning him in the interest of teacher applicants, it is all the easier\nto persuade himself that his own judgment is reHable.\nDivision of duties and responsibilities. — This brings us to the necessity\nfor expert opinion and services and definite individual responsibility. There\ncan be no question that efficiency in school administration is greatly promoted\nby holding the superintendent of schools definitely and personally responsible\nfor the educational side of the schools, and a superintendent of buildings and\nsupplies responsible for the business side — all acts subject to the approval\nof the board. However, such division of labor does not obviate the necessity\nfor frequent co-operative conferences between the heads of the business and\neducational departments. Nor is there any question that efficiency is promoted by the selection of board members at large. A ward board member\nis often imbued with too much local patriotism for the good of the school. In\nhis enthusiasm to look after the interests of his ward, he often loses sight of the\nhighest interests of the schools as a whole. The election of these members\nby the qualified voters on a general ticket is better than appointment by either\nthe mayor or council, or both. The election of board members directly by\nthe people tends to divorce the school from city poHtics, and more definitely\nfixes responsibilities. In the interest of more definite responsibihty the small\nboard is better than the large one, likewise a rather long term than a short\none.\nBut even with small, non-partisan, or bi-partisan boards, there is still\nmuch opportunity for such bartering between the superintendent and individual\nmembers of the board as is not for the best interests of the schools. For\ninstance, when the superintendent, in open board meeting, makes a nomination\nfor appointment, promotion, or increase of salary, it is often impossible for\nthe board to know whether his nomination represents his best judgment or\nwhether his main purpose is to please an individual member of the board or\nsome friend of this member or of the superintendent. A subsequent nomination may please another member or friend, and so on thru the list. The\npeople, witnessing the great harmony existing between the superintendent\nand his board, decide that their schools must be in a flourishing condition,\nwhile in fact their very life is being sapped thru the acts of a cowardly, selfseeking superintendent. Of course, the more .thoroly appointments, promotions, and increase of salaries can be hedged about by civil-service rules, the\nless opportunity there is for such bartering.\nDemagog or patriot. — But back of all boards, whether large or small,\nappointive or elective, are the people — the people, ready to be led by demagog\nor patriot. But as the demagog has a personal interest in leading, he frequently does it. It is this alternative leadership of demagog and patriot that\ngives us alternate progress and backsets in school administration. Certain\nit is that no superintendent or board can long keep far in advance of the people.\nOne of the most pitiable and discouraging things in educational work is to see\nimselfish, devoted superintendents and board members go down before the\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "832\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Adminbtration\n\nmisrepresentations of the self-seeker and demagog. All this is made possible\nthru the indifference of the people caused by their lack of social intelligence.\nSo, in the final analysis, progress in school administration is conditioned\nupon the social intelligence and social honesty of the people. For this reason,\nevery effort should be put forth, thru newspaper discussion, educational lectures, mothers' clubs, etc., to educate the people. This is no easy task because\nof the inordinate appetite among the masses for the sensational. But notwithstanding many backsets, there is little doubt that substantial progress is\nbeing made in many quarters along the lines named: Smaller boards chosen\nfor longer terms; measurable independence of city politics; greater social\nintelligence and social honesty; widening and diversifying of educational\ninstrumentalities, so as to do justice to all.\nModern tendencies. — Thus far in my discussion I have dealt with general\nprinciples and tendencies without giving examples. Without a full knowledge\nof, recent school administration in this country, one hesitates to give examples\nfor fear of marring the historical perspective. Immediately upon my acceptance of a place on this program, very late in the year, I wrote one hundred\ncity superintendents for recent facts in school administration and their opinion\non general tendencies in school administration. This communication being\nsent at a time when the superintendent's office force were busy with the work\nincident to the close of school, it elicited a limited number of replies. Permit\nme to suggest that, early in the fall, someone be requested to get the recent\nimportant facts of school administration in the United States, and report upon\nthem at your next annual meeting.\nI now, however, proceed to give a few representative facts. Among the\ngreat movements in the interest of the defective, backward, and otherwise\nhandicapped classes, are those in New York, St. Paul, Des Moines, Cincinnati,\nMilwaukee, and Toledo. Medical inspection is becoming general in the\ncities of the United States. In Toledo indigent pupils under the compulsory\nage limit receive two dollars for each week's attendance at school, to enable\nthem to remain in school. By recent law in Wisconsin, cities establishing\nday schools for deaf and blind pupils receive $1 50 per year for each deaf child\nin average daily attendance, and $200 per year for each blind child in average\ndaily attendance.\nAmong the movements during the last few years for smaller boards with\nmore definite responsibilities are those of San Francisco, Philadelphia, Milwaukee, and the state of Ohio. Among the cities that are magnifying the work\nand responsibility of the principal are Salt Lake City, and Newark, N. J.\nThe Memphis, Tenn., School Board has recently passed a resolution pa)dng\nregular teachers twelve months in the year. Superintendent McNeill states\nthat as a result of this, more than half of the white teachers will go off to the\nsummer schools. In 1907 St. Paul, Minn., established an evening college\nfor St. Paul teachers. In trade schools, the states of New York and Massachusetts have taken very important legislative steps, and practically all cities\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n833\n\nof this country are moving forward in industrial work for both boys and\ngirls.\nThe bane of compromise. — Many times have I felt that there is material\nfor a good novel or drama on ''The Tragedies and Wicked Compromises in\nSchool Administration\" — the tragedies of the devoted, courageous superintendent who year by year takes his professional life in his hands and battles\nfor the highest interests of all his pupils; likewise, the tragedies of the unselfish,\npublic-spirited member of the board who goes down before the brutal, selfish\nmajority of his board; and, what is worse, goes down before the duped people\nwhom he seeks to serve.\nOn the other hand, are the wicked and disgraceful compromises on the\npart of the superintendents and board members; compromises, not often\nof such a violent and high-handed nature as to arouse public sentiment and\ngoad it into revenge; but scores of adroitly managed compromises, in the\nemployment and promotion of teachers, the erection of buildings, and the\nmaking of repairs — compromises that do not tend to disturb the public, but,\nnevertheless, seriously militate against a higher order of school efficiency. It\nmust be admitted that much of this quiet bartering of the children's interest for\na mess of pottage is not recognized by the school-board member as dishonest.\nHe has been accustomed to extend and receive courtesies in business, in politics,\nand in the professions, and has not reached that plane of social intelligence\nand social honesty that tells him he is doing wrong; that he is the people's\nand children's agent, and that anything less than his most intelligent and\ndevoted service robs the people and the children. But a lack of intelligence\nand of a quickened conscience only partially excuses him. No man has a\nright to accept a public trust without a good measure of social intelligence and\nsocial honesty.\nBut compromises on the part of the superintendent are less excusable.\nHe is devoting his life to the highest order of public service and ought not to\nbe lacking in either social intelligence or social honesty. He therefore **sins\nagainst light and knowledge,\" and does it for want of courage. His excuse\nis the humiliation and financial embarrassment that would result from defeat\nat the hands of the board. But the public does not excuse the soldier-coward\nwho deserts for fear of the enemy's bullets.\n\nCHARLES\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nF. PERRY,\n\nSUPERVISOR\nOF\nPUBLIC\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\nMANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL\nMILWAUKEE,\nWIS.\n\nTRAINING\n\nAll vital policies which confront the boards of education of our towns and\ncities are settled by those bodies feefing the pulse of their respective communities. Anew problem is arising which will tax the best effort of school\nboards all over the country. It is the question of sending out the youth of\nour land from our public schools better prepared to enter the ranks of earners.\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "834\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nThis involves something which will help our boys and girls to find themselves\nand to supply vocational instruction. It also means a critical examination\nof all the studies offered in our public schools and a thoro adjustment of them\nwhere necessary.\nBy \"trade school\" is meant exactly what the name implies, a school where\na thoro apprenticeship in a trade may be served; and by trade is meant \"a\nskilled or specialized handicraft; the occupation of an artisan.\"\nPart of the problem to awaken public opinion in favor of industrial education in this country is to convince many that a thoro apprenticeship can be\nserved in a place other than a commercial shop. Thoro apprenticeships have\nbeen mastered in trade schools in Germany for thirty years. The Williamson\nSchool of Mechanical Trades in Delaware County, Pa., has been sending out\nsplendidly equipped graduate apprentices in various trades for sixteen years.\nThis school is a private institution. The Milwaukee School of Trades, which\nis an integral part of the public-school system of that city, is today graduating\nthoroly prepared apprentices in various trades. This statement will be met\nby different people in different ways. The majority will express different forms\nof doubt. When any school board contemplates the establishment of vocational training in its public instructional system and any doubt is expressed\nas to the method of procedure, it may rest assured that it could spend money\nin no more economical way than to investigate, by personal inspection, as many\ntrade schools as possible.\nIt can be plainly shown, to anyone who cares to look into the matter and\nwho can appreciate the entire premises^ that the trade-school graduate who\nbegins his apprenticeship at sixteen can by twenty years of age be made better\nfitted in every way to meet life than the commercial apprentice who began at\nsixteen, not only because he has been taught the ''how\" side of his trade, but\nthe ''why\" side as well.\nThe right vocational institution will by no means teach shopwork only.\nIt will teach him mechanical drawing and workshop mathematics. It will\ntake him on shop-inspection trips and make him prepare written reports on\nthese trips. It will give him lectures on topics pertaining to his trade and\ntrades allied to his. It will suggest to him correlated reading. Our country\nis awakening to the value of night schools of both grammar and high-school\ngrades. Trade papers and journals are giving us what the hungry workman\nwants and in a form that he can readily grasp. Correspondence schools help\nmany, and, now, last and best of all, for those whose academic school days are\nended, we are having university extension brought to our homes and supplemented by the personal instructor. The University of Wisconsin is doing\nthis for the people of its state, and what Wisconsin can do, others may do.\nNow that the problem of vocational training is slowly assuming a concrete\nform in this country, there will be found to be two main methods of approach\nto it: First, thru the avenue of the commercially disinterested trade school\nwhich takes a boy at sixteen, teaches him thoroly the essentials of his trade\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n835\n\nand sends him out in a minimum period of time, with a preparation at least\nequal to that which he could receive in the best commercial shop along his\nchosen line in four years — and this done by public taxation; or, second, by\nwhat is called the co-operative or partial-time plan which proposes that the\nboy shall spend the working hours of each day, after reaching a certain age,\npart of his time in school and the remainder of his time in some shop. It is\nproposed to include this plan in the public-school system of any city which\nwill adopt it. Any practical plan which will add to the number of efficient\nworkers of this country will be welcomed. It is safe to assert that no plan\ncan be invented which will be faultless, or which will be free from criticism.\nOf the two plans mentioned, the objection to the complete and thoro municipal\ntrade school is its cost to the taxpayer, while the objections to the co-operative\nplan are many. There is no positive assurance of the continued co-operation\nof the employers, especially in times of industrial depression. Its scope is\nlimited by the kind and quahty of work done in the community. It depends\nupon the desire of the boy to continue upon a half-time system for four or\nj&ve years. It does not provide for the opportunity of mature persons who\ndesire to perfect themselves in the practice of their trade or some other trade\nin night classes.\nThe co-operative system can be used to better advantage in connection\nwith an engineering school of higher learning which has no shops in its equipment and which is fortunate enough to be placed in a machine-tool city, than\nto apply it to the public-school system which touches our boys and girls of\ngrammar and high-school age. The rich success of the University of Cincinnati, with its co-operative plan for students of college grade, can be duplicated inany machine-tool city like itself, such as Worcester, Mass., for instance ;\nbut it would be useless to Cornell University, placed in Ithaca, N. Y., which\nis not a manufacturing city. There are, however, some vocations which can\nbe better mastered thru the avenue of the partial-time system than thru the\ncomplete public trade school, and they belong to the class which partake more\nof a business quality than those which require skill and training of hand.\nThis phase of handling our problem of industrial education will need deep\nstudy and foresight. It resolves itself into the question, shall we substitute\nsomething of which we are not sure or cannot control for something else which\nis positive, quick, and complete because it costs less? The not-far-distant\nfuture will bring us data of increasing value along these two and other lines\nof this vital question.\nUnder the head of problems incidental to the establishment of industrial\neducation in our pubHc schools the greatest one is not the actual trade teaching— that is the easiest part of it all — ^but it is what to do with the boy and\ngirl between the age when the law says they may leave school and the age\nwhen they may enter upon, most economically to themselves and the municipality, their definite, actual trade apprenticeship. Theoretically here is a\nsharp line of demarcation, but practically there should be none.\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nEvery American boy and giri should be at least an eighth-grade graduate.\nEvery possible effort to make them such should be made. We shall have\nfar more of them than we have at present when we shall lead them gladly\nto something higher and make the path upward more profitable and interesting.\nThe influence of the vocational school should be felt indirectly thru the seventh\nand eighth grades, and directly as soon as a boy or girl graduates from its\ngrammar-school work. This may be done in two ways, depending upon the\ncourses offered in the high schools. If the latter have a manual-training\ncourse, then it may be easily adjusted to all the eighth-grade graduates who\nwish to attend the trade school when they attain the age of sixteen. This\ncourse should be outlined in the main by those in charge of the trade-school\nwork and in conjunction with the principals of the high schools. It should\ncontain mechanical and freehand drawing, workshop mathematics, some\npractical or business English, and considerable shopwork. It should be known\nas the Trade School Preparatory Course. The day the pupil is sixteen years\nold he may leave the high school and enter upon his trade apprenticeship\nproper, and, if he has made no mistake in the choice of his trade, he should\nfinish it at eighteen and be better prepared for an artisan's life than the commercial apprentice at twenty. If for any reason, while taking the trade\nschool preparatory course, the student finds he wishes some other vocation in\nlife, the work done in the preparation for the trade school will count as highschool credit, and no time has been lost. This new plan is to be put into effect\nin Milwaukee this September.\nIf the city has no manual training in its high schools, or if all its secondaryschool manual-training equipment is in demand, then the influence of the trade\nschool should be felt in a trade-school preparatory course in connection with\nthe regular trade-school building. The majority of boys would prefer to take\ntheir preparatory work there. This preparatory course, in either the atmosphere ofthe high school or trade school, should be made as flexible as possible\nand equally adaptable to the bright and slow boy.\nFor the youth' who for any reason finds it too difficult to complete the eighthgrade work, it is suggested that each city have as many centers as necessary\nwhere especial attention under the best teachers may be given these backward boys and girls who are larger and older than the average eighth-grade\ngraduate, and who keenly feel their inability to keep up with their smaller yet\nbrighter brothers and sisters. This method of caring for our backward boys\nand girls, and solving the most delicate part of our entire elementary-school\nproblem, is the plan of Superintendent of Public Instruction, Carroll G.\nPearse, of Milwaukee. Its. excellence lies in holding to the ideal that every\nAmerican boy and girl should be an eighth-grade graduate. It cannot help\nbut appeal to the parents of such pupils that the school board is awake to its\ngreat opportunity and responsibility, and it also removes all possibility of\ninterpretation that a premium is to be placed on pupils not to strive to complete the eighth grade, and that they may go to the trade school as soon as\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n837\n\nfourteen no matter where they stand in their grade work. For those who\nleave school at fourteen without completing the eighth grade and enter the\nranks of earners until the age of sixteen and then seek entrance to the trade\nschool, admission should not be denied them. Many of such boys and girls\nwill do all the better work for having been compelled to earn their way for\na while.\nAnother element which enters the problem more deeply than appears on\nthe surface is the keen competition of private business colleges among themselves, and against the excellent commercial courses offered free in the high\nschools of many of our cities. So keen is this competition for students that\naddresses of the boys and girls in the eighth grade are paid for in order that\nthe representatives of these private commercial colleges may call upon the\nparents to bring pressure upon them to send their son or daughter to receive\ntheir instruction. Positions are promised to graduates. By this means\nmany of our boys and girls receive a wrong impression of the true value of an\nartisan's life, simply because a position which permits of white collar and\ncuffs and clean clothes is made to appeal to them. It is evident that a thoro\ncommercial course, in connection with a four-year high-school schedule, with\nits thoro drill in literature and composition, will make such a graduate of more\nintrinsic help to the employer than a hastily crowded course of a year or so in a\nbusiness college. This does not imply that there are not some good, private\nbusiness colleges and that they have their place, but school boards should\nknow their methods of procedure and take steps to meet their competition.\nAnother important point which should be clearly understood by school\nboards is the function of manual training in our public instructional system.\nIn its place manual training can be made as valuable as any subject in the\npublic-school curriculum, but it has been injured as much by its friends as by\nits enemies. Too much has been claimed for and too much expected from\nit. Already some educators and some members of school boards, fearing the\ncost of vocational training, are asking why it cannot be extended to include\ntrade training. Such questions and claims simply typify the wrong light in\nwhich manual training is held in this country. Briefly, manual training\ncannot assume to supply the new demand upon our public-school system for\nvocational training, because, first, unless the manual-training instructor is\nalready master of the trade, the fundamentals of which he is teaching, he or she\nhas no right to teach it as a trade; second, siuce the complaint is strongly made\ntoday regarding our eighth-grade graduates that too many of them are irresponsible youngsters who cannot figure accurately or write English properly,\nit is evident that much more time cannot be taken from grade work for manual\ntraining. This is not decrying manual training any more than decrying the\nhigh schools for not teaching analytical geometry and calculus.\nIt will be found the cause of vocational training will be more speedily\nhastened and perfected by each city's establishing, as soon as possible, its\nown trade school, no matter on how humble a scale it may be, as long as it\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Administration\n\ndoes a class of work which will appeal to boys and girls, parents and employers,\nrather than to struggle along attempting to establish a preparatory department\nfor something which is not yet bom, let alone developed. America today is\nsuffering under such a tremendous handicap, industrially speaking, and from\nso deep a lethargy on the part of our boys and girls and their parents regarding the following of skilled trades as a means of livelihood, that any solution\nwhich does not appeal in a tangible way to youth and parent, will, if it does\nnot altogether fail, at least delay the remedy until America will be outdistanced, as a producer of output requiring skilled hands, by more than one\nsmaller nation.\nFinally, in order to hasten the establishment of this new work in our schools,\npublic attention must be challenged. The trade schools of Germany and\nthruout Europe are held up as examples to follow. We may appoint a commission to go to Germany and gather the cream of her experience of thirty\nyears of public-school vocational teaching. The commission may return with\nher identical curriculum; it may even bring her machinery and tools and\nteachers, but whatever it may gather and bring, the most vital and necessary\nthing— Germany's public opinion toward trade teaching — must be left behind.\nWe must develop our own just as she did. We must bear in mind, too, that\nthe youths in the trade schools in Germany today are the children of parents\nwho themselves have the trade school to thank for their skill. Another important point: Germany did not start her trade schools in the face of such keen,\nindustrial competition or specialized manufacture as we must meet today.\nThe city which has a trade school in its public instructional system will\ncause all its boys, ere they reach fourteen, to visit it in company with their\nprincipal. There they will see boys but a little older than themselves doing\nhigh-grade work. While there they will have impressed upon them the fact\nthat they must leave their grammar-grade work soon. Since they must all\nmake some choice in a few months, it is vitally important that they be informed\nof the heritage which is theirs. They are reminded that it makes little difference what one chooses for his life work, providing he chooses the thing which\nhe feels born to do, and that something requires study and traimng to reach its\nhighest plane. Care must be taken to lay no especial stress upon any special\nvocation, the point being that the boy try to find himself. Before he leaves the\ntrade school he is handed an illustrated catalog prepared by the school board\nand urged to share it with his parents and an invitation selit to them to visit\nthe trade school during its evening classes. Thus the parents, also, are\nreached. Next, the superintendent of instruction will see that all the teachers\nin the public schools are intimately acquainted with its work, and the school\nboard will take measures to inform the employers of skilled labor of the\ncharacter of its work.\nThis is part of the policy followed in Milwaukee.\nInstruction in public schools is free in most states until twenty years of\nage. Thus it is possible for a boy, if he desires and has the ability, to complete\nhis high-school course by eighteen, and still have two years left in which to\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentj\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n839\n\ntake his complete trade-school course free. Not until we have the best possible\nvitalized elementary courses, taught by properly trained teachers, who have\nhad impressed upon them the important truth that they form a unit in an\nunbroken whole which leads from kindergarten to either vocational, business,\nor professional life, will we be able to expect or have any right to expect to\nhold our boys and girls longer than we do. Nor will it be sufficient to have\nall this alone. In a careful way our children must be led to know what a\nwonderful birthright is theirs.\nThere is no part of the public instructional system which will bring to the\nstudent, the taxpayer, and the employer such quick, lasting, and satisfactory\nresults as the outlay of effort and money for industrial education. It will be\nexpensive, but when it is well established thru out our land, less taxes will be\nnecessary to pay for tha negative things in our midst.\nAmerica is awakening today to the truth of Lowell's words:\nNo man is born into the world whose work\nIs not born with him.\nThere is always work\nAnd tools to work withal, for those who will,\nAnd blessed are the horny hands of toil.\n\nTHE\nCECIL\n\nW.\n\nFUNCTION\nMARK,\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nEX-PRESIDENT,\nSAN FRANCISCO,\n\nBOARD\nCAL.\n\nBOARDS\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nIt is my desire that this somewhat disconnected paper be more of a discussion ofthe general subject than a formal presentation.\nIn our form of government it is a safe conclusion to draw that all functions\nof school boards must not be too far removed from the people. In other\nwords, boards cannot go too far beyond the general public opinion in their\nwork and general educational progress. This is true in all legislative and\nadministrative functions, for the people are the source of power.\nBoards should be simply the representatives of the people in school affairs.\nIn many cities and communities the boards mix in all the petty politics, such\nas trading teachers, janitorial, and other positions for favors in other departments of the local government. This is one of the greatest evils today in\nschool administration. Also, contracts are awarded, architects are favored,\ninferior supplies are purchased; in fact, many more serious things are done\nto curry favor with some political or personal friend. This bartering in school\naffairs is absolutely criminal, and can only be stopped by wise and judicious\nlegislation. Even this cannot be accomplished unless the personnel of the\nschool boards all over our country be raised to a higher standard. Many\nseek position on the school board not for the good they can do their community\nbut for their own personal advantage. Professional men, all kinds of contractors and mechanics, seek such places for prestige, power, and prominence,\nthinking that by so doing, business will come their way.\nSchool boards have many old functions which should be eradicated and\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "840\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nmany new ones, which, introduced, would greatly improve our school conditions.\nWould it not be possible for some commission, with power to act, to formulate\na working plan for all city school boards ? Conditions differ in various sections of our country, hence nationalization would not produce the best system.\nThis might be done without nationalizing our school system.\nOur people all believe in local school administration, and we can never\nhope to have a uniform educational plan for our whole country; but certain\nbasic functions could be laid down for all school boards to follow. It might\nbe well to present a few thoughts which may be new, or may be old in some\nplaces, but which the great majority of cities do not follow.\nGiven an ideal school board in a fairly ideal community, I would favor no\nlegislation whatever, but would give it absolute control. Let the board, as\noccasion arises, act as it sees fit but always keep in mind the highest welfare\nof the children of the locality. Many advantages to children have been lost\non account of restrictive legislation.\nNot being able to find in our country ideal conditions, but facing problems\nas they exist, we must restrict by wise directive legislation. Wherever power\nis given let it be very definite, so there can be no shirking of responsibility;\nwherever duties are to be performed let them be centralized and located at once ;\nno passing of responsibility, no shifting of duties, and no weak and indecisive\nactions permitted.\nFirst. — The first and most important function is the selection of the administrator, or the superintendent of schools. The board should by law be given\nfull power to select its executive head, not for a limited number of years, as\nis the prevailing custom, but during good and efficient service. His power\nshould be defined by law and not delegated to him by the school authorities.\nThis delegation of power simply by rules and regulation of the educational\nboards has done much mischief and has hindered the school progress of many\ncities. Experience has taught that delegated power is worthless on account\nof the whims, the personality, and the changing conditions when men of\naffairs are associated together. A superintendent, on occasions, simply\nbecomes a tool or is forced to resign. A man loves independence of action,\nfor it broadens his horizon and causes him to arise to his great and noble\nwork. All assistant superintendents should be absolutely selected by the\nexecutive head and their powers delegated to them by the appointive power.\nSecond. — The second function is the selection, during competency, honesty,\nand tact, of a business manager. In large cities he should be recognized as\na man of large affairs with a large salary fixed by law, so no disgruntled member of the board could have him removed or have his salary reduced for not\n\"standing in line.\" In large cities the duties and responsibilities of the\nbusiness manager should be fixed by law, but the responsibility of all his\ntransactions should finally rest with the school board.\nThird. — Next to the importance of the selection of the superintendent is\nthe selection of teachers.\n\nM.\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n841\n\nThis function should not rest with the school board but with the superintendent. Many places try this in a half-hearted way by requiring the board\nto approve his selections. This I do not favor, but, by law, would give the\nexecutive head this power of selection and hold him directly responsible.\nA plan should be adopted by city charter, or legislative enactment — as\nnear an ideal system as could be devised — governing and controlling the\nsuperintendent as to the manner in which he selects his teachers. It is to\nbe assumed that he must faithfully and honestly carry out the plan with high\nideals and noble purpose. What a great work for him to perform! What\na sacred duty is his ! He must arise to this great responsibility or vacate his\noffice.\nIt is not for this paper to discuss any plan for selection of teachers as this\nfunction does not, in my opinion, belong to the scope of this theme.\nFourth. — Nothing will do more harm to the teaching force, nothing will\ndestroy honest effort, efficiency, and noble endeavor more than the promotion of the unworthy over the fairly competent and average teacher. This\nfunction of promotion which is now entirely in the hands of the board and\nwhich has worked such havoc in many communities of our country should be\ntaken away. Just to whom this should be given, just how it should be done,\nis a very serious problem and one in which I hesitate to offer any suggestion.\nIn order to be consistent in this discussion this most important work should\nbe given to the superintendent. A plan should be worked out after consulting\nwith some of the principals having high ideals. The scheme could then be\nadopted by the board and, after trial and experience, enacted in a law or the\ncity charter, so that no subsequent board could radically change the system.\nTeachers all like fair play, and when they realize that hard work, honest\neffort, and conscientious duty will find reward, then will the force look steadily\nupward and onward. Destroy unworthy promotions in a school system, and\nyou destroy the cancerous growth which is now eating at the vitals of the\neducational progress of many cities.\nFifth. — Equally important with promotion is the dismissal of teachers.\nThis function should rest entirely with the board, after charges have been\nfiled and presented by the superintendent. No teacher should be dismissed\nwithout just cause. In case of retirement with an annuity, the board should\nhave power to retire absolutely, providing the annuity has been fixed by law.\nAll transfers, the changing from grade to grade, should be absolutely left with\nthe superintendent.\nThe approval of the board should not be required.\nSixth. — The awarding of all contracts for current supplies and the erection\nof buildings should be a function of the school board. In some cities these\nresponsibilities are distributed to their legislative commissions, which is bad,\nfor here again responsibility is divided. In large cities, the business manager\nshould have power to select architects and all assistants, subject to approval\nby the board. No school building should be finally erected without the\napproval of the superintendent of schools.\nThe tendency of all boards is to\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "842\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\ncreate many departments, thus increasing the cost of administration and\ndestroying effectiveness.\nSeventh. — In recent years, many worthy movements have been carried\ninto effect for the general welfare of the child. For some unaccountable\nreason, these worthy objects have been taken from the school administration\nand placed under some high-sounding commission or some new titled office.\nIt should be the function of school boards to have under their control all\nplaygrounds, so that intelligent direction could lead from the classroom to the\nplayground. Play could be made an important part of our regular school\nsystem, but to place grounds under the Park or Playground Commission is\nabsolutely wrong and opposed to all educational progress.\nReform schools of all kinds, dealing with delinquents and defectives,\nshould be placed in the hands of local school boards or under the direction\nof state boards of education.\nThe enforcement of compulsory education, even including the juvenile\ncourt, should be a function of the board of education. Child -labor is surely an\neducational matter and should be so considered and placed. In fact, all the\nthings connected with child-life should be correlated and connected together.\nThe people should awaken to their responsibility and take the child and give\nhim a well-directed training under one general management, under one scheme\nof education, and a well-directed plan looking toward the future welfare of the\nstate and nation.\nIn conclusion, school boards should be small, and elected (if possible, at a\nspecial election). Have few meetings, simply to legislate on important duties.\nIn fact, if a comprehensive scheme based on this discussion were planned,\nthe board would become a legislative body of the municipality. We need\nreform based on broad and general principles, in order to perfect our city\nschool systems and give to our children what they richly deserve.\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Miss Mary Eileen Ahern, editor of Public Libraries, Chicago, 111.\nVice-President — ^David Felmley, president, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, 111.\nSecretary — ^Joseph F. Daniels, librarian. State Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colo.\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION. — Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 7, 1909\n\nThe department met in the Woman's Club Rooms at 9 : 30, with Vice-President\nFelmley in the chair.\nThe program was opened by Mr. Dudley, of Denver, who gave an account of the\nAmerican Library Conference at Bretton Woods, N. H. Vice-President Felmley discussed\nMr. Dudley's remarks.\nRobert J. Aley, state superintendent of instruction, Indianapolis, Ind., presented a\npaper on the subject, \"Books and High-School Pupils.\" Edwin W. Gaillard, superintendent of the School-Work Department of the New York City Public Library, led the discussion which followed.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed:\nGeorge H. Lee, Denver, Colo.\nR. J. Wells, Loveland, Colo.\nMiss Mary H. Johnson, Nashville, Tenn.\nThe following were named as members of a Committee on Resolutions:\nJoseph H. Daniels, Fort Collins, Colo.\nE. W. Gaillard, New York, N. Y.\nMiss Mary E. Ahern, Chicago, 111.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday Forenoon, July 8\n\nThe department was called to order at 9 : 30 o'clock, with Edwin W. Gaillard in the\nchair.\n\"The Plan of a Course of Instruction in the Use of Libraries, and the Results Accomplished'was\n'\nthe subject of a paper read by Miss Edith Tobitt, librarian of the Public\nLibrary, Omaha, Nebr.\nThe discussion was led by Mr. Parsons, of Denver.\nFrancis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111., read a\npaper on \"The Study and Use of Books.\" Discussion was opened by J. A. Whiteford,\nsuperintendent of schools, St. Joseph, Mo.\nCharles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo., read a paper on the\nsubject, \"What Does Each, the Library and the Public School, Contribute to the Making\nof the Educated Man ?' '\nThe Nominating Committee submitted the following names as officers for the following year:\nFor President — Edwin W. Gaillard, superintendent of School Department, Public\nLibrary, New York, N. Y.\nFor Vice-President — C. E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.\nFor Secretary — ^Mary Hannah Johnson, librarian. Public Library, Nashville, Tenn.\n843\nThe report was accepted, and the nominees declared elected.\nThe department then adjourned.\nJoseph F. Daniels, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nBOOKS\nROBERT\n\nJ. ALEY,\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC\nINDIANAPOLIS,\nIND.\n\nPUPILS\nINSTRUCTION\n\nOF INDIANA\n\nThe schools of America are doing great things for the country. They are\nindeed its hope. Without the schools the days of the republic would be few\nand short. The growth and continued beneficence of the government depend\nin great measure upon the growth and continued improvement of the schools.\nWhenever the schools get so good that they are above criticism the beginning\nof the end is in sight. We ought to rejoice that this time is not yet in hailing\ndistance.\nThe schools have labored hard to equip the youth of the land with what the\nrace by its common consensus of opinion has come to regard as needed information. This has been crystallized into the so-called fundamentals of knowledge. It includes the proverbial three R's and in addition some knowledge\nof the earth as the home of man, and of man's history upon it. In recent years\nwe have added to these things considerable training specifically designed to\nhelp the youth in the struggle for bread. Manual training, domestic science,\ndrawing, music, agriculture, and many other subjects of practical value are\nnow included in the curricula of many schools.\nA very large number of people are coming into agreement with John\nDewey. \"The school is not a preparation for life; it is life.\" In many\nrespects the after-school life should be a continuation of the things begun in\nschool. It is this view that makes books and their uses a topic of great significance to teachers. The subject is of real importance to every grade of school\nfrom the primary to the university.\nThe wisdom of the past, the instruction of the present, and the prophecy\nof the future are all contained in books. If one would prevent present mistakes he must know past failures. If one would build a structure of permanence he must rest it upon the foundations that the past has proven. If he\nwould enjoy the calm and repose that make for power he must find the elements\nof these qualities in the experiences of the past. If he would have the companionship that is satisfying he must find it in the men who have recorded\ntheir thoughts in books.\nAll these things and more make books one of the great materials of education. In the education of the future books must take a greater part than they\nhave yet assumed. The work of the school must be so adjusted that every\npupil will get familiarity with some books and the practical ability to use\nmany books. He who has learned how to use books has in his possession a\ntool of great power. The use of this tool makes him educated. No school\ncan afford to send boys and girls into the world without this equipment.\nThe need of books as direct aids in the work of the school increases as the\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBOOKS\n\nAND\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\npupil passes from grade to grade, and becomes greatest in the high school.\nNo really good high school is possible without at least fair library equipment.\nThe use of books in the high school cannot be what it should unless there is\nprogressive training in the use of books thruout the grades. The child that\nreaches the high school with no training in the use of books of information,\nexcept that secured in the preparation of lessons in the adopted texts, is poorly\nprepared to do even ordinary work. If in addition to this he has not made\nthe acquaintance of a number of good inspirational books, he finds himself\nunable to get the enjoyment out of life that is his right. This leads us to\nconclude that the proper use of books by high-school pupils is the result of\nmuch well-directed effort thruout the grades. In fact, unless preparation\n, is made in the grades desirable work cannot be done in the high school.\nThe matter of books for young people and the direction of outside reading\nin the grades has received much careful attention. Very desirable results\nhave been attained. More than twenty years ago the teachers of Indiana thru\ntheir state association organized the Young People's Reading Circle. This\nhas been operated thru the schools and has resulted in many grade schools\naccumulating good libraries of books for young people.\nThe directors of this work have always been teachers well fitted for the task\nand greatly interested in the children. The teachers of the state have taken this\nmatter up with enthusiasm and have helped to make it a success. Books\nhave been selected for all grades from the second to the eighth. The selections\nhave been made with a view of cultivating the reading habit and the taste of\nthe reader, and also for the purpose of helping to broaden the work of the\nschool. The books have been inspirational and informational, with the first\nmore prominent than the second. These lists have included the good stories\nof the present, biography, history, fairy story, myths, poetry, classics, and\nscience. Every valuable field of literary effort has been touched.\nThe results of the twenty years' experience are very gratifying. The\nteachers are enthusiastic in praise of the good things accomplished. Many\nboys and girls have formed the reading habit and have become regular patrons\nof the library. In many cases they have begun the collection of books of their\nown. They have formed discriminating tastes and are no longer in danger\nof being led astray by vicious and unclean books. They have learned how\nto use books as helps to the regular school work.\nIn addition to these very specific results there have been a number of\nvaluable by-products. Many problems in school discipline have been solved\nin an easy way because of the presence of the reading-circle books. The bad\nboy often forgets to be bad if he is interested in some splendid book of adventure. The restless boy becomes quiet and the silly girl sane under the magic\nspell of a good book. Many parents have caught thru these same books their\nfirst glimpse of the world of story, and as a result have become patrons of the\nlibrary and subscribers to good papers and magazines.\nExperience has convinced most of us in Indiana that nothing in the, way of\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nlibrary training for the children of the grades is so effective as the reading circle\nand the schoolroom bookshelf filled with just the things a child loves. Given\nthese conditions plus a teacher who believes in the efficacy of books, and the\nconditions are favorable to send the child from the grades into the world with\ngood taste, good reading habits, and good character well started, or to send\nhim into the high school with such a background of knowledge of books that\nhe can use most effectively all the opportunities offered him there.\nA high school without a library is as impossible as a high school without\na laboratory, or a high school without a teacher. As to the size and quality\nof this library there will be various and varying notions. Certainly it cannot\nbe too large and certainly it may be easily too small. There are some few\nthings concerning this library upon which we may quite fully agree. These\nwill be stated.\nFirst, it should be informational. It should contain the very best dictionaries, encyclopedias, atlases, gazetteers, books of facts, handbooks, indexes,\nand books of quotations, besides standard reference books and treatises in\nevery subject taught in the high school.\nSecond, it should be inspirational. It should contain books of poetry,\nfiction, essay, drama, history, romance, art, travel, and biography.\nIn both these fields there is no limit. The library should grow. Additions to it should be made frequently and regularly. These additions in part,\nat least, should be made upon the recommendations of the high-school teachers.\nIt is in this way only that a well-balanced library can be maintained. With\nall deference to the librarian it is true that he is not omniscient, and therefore\nhe cannot know all the good and needed things in the many fields that must\nbe represented. For the work of the school a library covering all fields of\nstudy represented in the curriculum is absolutely essential. Nothing short of\nthis should be tolerated.\nThe library should be catalogued completely and both library and catalog\nshould be accessible to the student. I am aware that many librarians feel\nsuch a personal responsibifity in the matter that they are unwilling for large\nnumbers of readers to have access to the shelves. I think, however, that in a\nhigh-school library this restriction should be removed and every pupil should\nhave the chance and the invitation to browse among the books. What if a\nfew books are lost ! Better lose a hundred or a thousand books a year than\nto lose that fine appreciation and growth that results from free association\nwith books. Many a boy will read if he can select the book from the shelf\nwho would never make a selection thru the cold cards of a catalog. Selecting\nbooks from a catalog is about as satisfactory as selecting clothes or food in that\nway. Of course some standard things may be obtained, but much of the\nbest will be passed by. One must see and handle if he would make the best\nbook selections.\nThe high-school library should have as careful direction as any other\ndepartment of the school. A stock of books, a good catalog, and free access\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBOOKS\n\nAND\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\n847\n\nis not enough. There should be a sympathetic and efficient director in charge.\nThis individual should understand the school situation and be able to work\nin perfect harmony with the teachers. His rank should be equal to that of a\nhead of a department. He must be a superior man. He must get results\nwithout specific assignment or direct recitation. He must be sympathetic\nand unobtrusive. His work must be quiet and very largely individual. His\npurpose must be to make the student independent and self-reliant. The\nhigh-school student should learn the machinery and the technique of the use\nof books. He should learn early in his course the standard works of reference\nand know in what fields of learning each is particularly strong. Incidentally\nbut certainly the librarian should teach the student how to use these books of\nreference readily and economically. When a new class enters the high school\nno better service could be given it than a number of lessons in the library upon\nthe use of dictionaries, encyclopedias, and all other books of reference. Early\nacquaintance with these helps to knowledge is more essential than knowledge\nof algebraic signs and Latin declensions. Training in the use of these helps\nshould continue thruout the school course, because it is from books that mature\nmen and women must gain their information. The school should give them\ngreat facility in using these means of information. All the departments should\nco-operate in this and frequently make assignments that will require search\nin reference books. Of course judgment should be used so that work of this\nsort does not become burdensome. With proper care such work is not only\nof great value to the student, but it proves to be intensely interesting also.\nMany teachers have found that by the proper use of the informational part\nof the library pupils have been retained in school and started on the road to\nuseful lives.\nEvery high-school course should be planned so that there will be time for\nreading outside of regular assignments. The pupil should read much for the\npure joy of reading. The inspirational side of the library should be used\nfreely. To this part of the Hbrary the pupil should be induced to go for joy\nand recreation. Librarian and teachers should conspire together to entangle\nhim in the lure of literature.\nThe importance of the proper relation of the high-school pupil and the\nlibrary is so great that one cannot adequately express it. The nature and\njoy of the entire mature life is involved in it. Among many people, both\nyoung and old, conversation is a lost art — not always lost, for many times it\nhas never been possessed. It is rare indeed that a group of people can spend\nan evening in conversation and agree that it has been profitable and pleasing.\nIn general such a group vote the evening a failure unless they have spent the\ntime studying the artistic representation of diamonds, hearts, clubs, and\nspades upon small pieces of pasteboard. The fine art of conversation will\nnot be realized by people generally until the schools succeed in having books\nyield their treasures to all pupils. This calls for a well-planned conspiracy\namong teachers, librarians, and school .officials. The teachers must study\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\neach pupil and discover an avenue of approach to his interest; the librarians\nmust use the most modem means to display the books and exploit their contents; the school officials must appropriate the money, buy the books, and\nkeep the library up with the times. That such a conspiracy will succeed is an\nassured fact. Each high-school boy and girl will become a lover of books\nif the proper opportunity is given. The lover and reader of books always\nhas something to communicate when he is with his fellows. He is on the road\nthat leads to good conversational power.\nMany high-school courses would be more effective if some of the pressure\nwere removed from examination courses and in its place encouragement given\nto reading. One who goes to the library merely to prepare for an examination\ndoes not necessarily become a lover of books, nor does he get from them their\nbest message. The whole academic life in America is weakened by the mad\ndesire for credit. Many of our young people are piling up credit instead of\nculture. They think they are so rushed that they have no time for the finer\nthings. For the relief of this situation the most potent factor yet discovered\nis the library, not the general circulating library, but the library connected with\nthe school.\nLibrary people everywhere should turn their attention to this fertile field.\nTeachers and school officials should likewise give it their attention. All those\ninterested in the future of the republic should unite in an effort to bring in the\nway of the youth of the land books, to make them lovers of books, and to help\nthem to get thru books the culture that the future demands.\nPLAN OF A COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE USE OF\nLIBRARIES, AND THE RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED\nMISS\n\nEDITH\n\nTOBITT,\n\nLIBRARIAN,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nOMAHA,\n\nNEBR.\n\nThe problem of teaching the public — the real owners — the use of a free\nlibrary has been considered from almost every point of view. So much has\nbeen said and written that there seems to be nothing more to say and yet we\nare almost as far, in reaHty, from being the \"people's university\" as we were\ntwenty-five years ago. With all the advance that we have made, and with all\nof the effort that we have put forth, we still reach comparatively few people.\n. If the library is to be the \"people's university,\" why should not those who\nhave been placed in charge of public libraries use as much effort to make the\nadvantages of that university known to possible students as the people who\nare at the head of our more specific educational institutions ? In order to\nobtain the desired increase of attendance at the library, the effort should come\nnot only from those directly interested but also from those who are teachers\nin any line of study.\nToo small a proportion of our people know the library, and too large a\nproportion ignorantly believe that it is only for the use of those who have a\nlove of literature or are doing intensive study of some special subject. There\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n849\n\nis also a large and almost hopeless class which believes that the library exists\nonly for the reader of fiction, and for those too poor to buy books or subscribe\nto magazines.\nThe first requisite necessary to attain the desired end — ^to make the library\nknown to the public — is that the librarian be, by nature, a teacher. It would\nbe well if every librarian had had normal-school training aiid some experience\nin teaching; but what is even more desirable than either is that she should\nknow she has something to teach, something that is worth teaching to the\npublic, and above all, that she have an enthusiastic desire to teach it to her\npeople.\nMuch has been said of the value of browsing in a library. We read of\nunusual children who have access to unusual libraries, and of the wonderful\nresults attained. But these are the exception, not the rule. Exposure to\nbooks does not teach their use, particularly their economical use, and the\nperson who would learn to use a library successfully must learn so to follow\nhis train of thought that the subject of the book, and perhaps the book itself,\nwill be suggested to his mind. This is real conservation of energy, and should\nbe so prompted and encouraged by the librarian that in time those users of\nthe library who have not had the advantage of a university education and,\nperhaps, not a high-school education, will soon be as familiar with the books\nand the tools useful to them as those who have had this training at school.\nThe mechanical side of handling books as related to schools and teachers\nhas been given attention far beyond what is necessary. Numbering, mending,\ncovering, charging, discharging, each has its place. It is necessary to teach\nchildren the proper care of books, but there is little that really counts beyond,\nfirst, a proper selection of books, and, second, giving the right book to the\nright child. It is time that every teacher and every librarian learned, in a\nlimited way at least, to be a \"professor of books.\" Emerson first spoke of this\nprofessorship and it has been advocated by many scholars. If we wish the\npublic libraries to be in reality the \"people's university\" we must take this\nposition upon ourselves and no matter how incompetent we may feel — and\nwho would dare feel other than incompetent ?— we must make those who come\nto us in any capacity for assistance feel that we are at least trying to fill the\nposition of \"professor of books.\"\nTo come directly to the subject under discussion, this matter of teaching\nwas introduced into our local* normal school three years ago. This normal\nschool is made up of students from the high school to the number of twenty.\nThe course of study is for two years and is practically what is given at the\nregular state normal schools. Each of our state normal schools has, however,\na good library and a librarian able to give personally or in the classroom the\nnecessary instruction in the use of the library. It was evident that under\nthe present arrangement of our local normal school the students would be\ndeprived of the instruction in the use of the library unless the public library\nwere ready to offer its services. This was done, the offer accepted by the\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "850\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nsuperintendent of schools and by the director of the training class, and arrangements completed whereby the librarian should give instruction to these students\nin such use of the library as, in her judgment, was the most beneficial to\nteachers. To remove any possible suspicion of faddism, the librarian stated\nto the director of the training class as nearly as possible what it was her intention to teach. She also stated that as the pupils of the high school of necessity\nhave a great deal of help from the teachers — most of their work at the library\nbeing by the direction of the teachers — they had had but little experience in\nsearching for material; in fact, were unable to use the library economically.\nArrangement was made the first year whereby the librarian was allowed\ntime for twelve lessons, each half an hour in length, and to be given once each\nweek. Experience soon showed that the half-hour did not give enough time\nfor drill and that the weekly lessons did not give the pupils enough time for\noutside work. The second year the plan was changed and the librarian was\nallowed twelve lessons of one hour each to be held fortnightly instead of\nweekly, and with the privilege of requiring as much outside work as seemed\nnecessary to obtain good results. At the same time this course was added\nto the work of the kindergarten training class. This arrangement proved a\nsuccess and this library course has now become, by the authority of the board\nof education, a part of the course of study required by the teachers' normal\nclass.\nIt is not possible to lay down any hard-and-fast rules regarding this course\nof study, but definite and systematic it must be. The pupils must be required\nto do work whch shall be corrected and returned. They must be required\nto study and recite. General lectures produce little beyond a hazy picture\nof the books on the shelves and perhaps an increased knowledge of some\nbooks previously slightly known.\nA statement of the actual work done at each lesson during 1908-9 may\nnot be out of place:\nLesson l. — A general talk on the Public Library, how and by whom maintained,\nplan of administration, and the duties of the Board as compared with those of the Board\nof Education. The dififerent departments and the field which each is expected to cover\nand the methods by which material may be found in the library.\nDefinite instruction was given on what is meant by classification and the system used\nwas explained. Instruction was given on the use of the card catalog, the pupils taking\nnotes, and for the next lesson a number of subjects, authors, and titles were assigned\nto be looked up — as, \"Give general arrangement of the cards under the heading, Bible,\nShakespeare, United States.\" All of this was recited definitely at the next lesson and\nreviewed frequently. As far as possible the pupils were supplied with mimeographed\ncopies of the rules to be learned so as to avoid much taking of notes. These rules were\nexplained and notations made if necessary.\nThat the pupils might acquire as general a knowledge as possible of children's books\nduring the course, a limited number of the best books for children were placed at their\ndisposal, in duplicate. They were asked to read not less than twelve of these before the\nclose of the course. They were also given at this first lesson a few general rules on the\nrequisites of good books for children and were required to read designated articles on children's reading.\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN USE OF LIBRARIES\n\n8SI\n\nLesson 2. — The pupils were required to recite fully on Lesson i and to discuss the\nchildren's books which had been read. While it is not the work of the course to teach\nhow to tell stories, that being a part of the work of the director, it is often profitable to\nhave the stories told and this is done as often as there is time. For this second lesson further\narticles on children's books were assigned to be read.\nLesson 3. — Further general recitation and discussion of children's books. The use\nof the reference department explained, and notes given on the dictionaries, encyclopedias,\natlases, and several of the works of this class. Also problems given to be looked up in\nthese books. The reading of the children's books with the discussion and the story-telling\nwas continued thruout the year.\nLessons 4 and 5. — Work of the reference department continued and the pupils required\nto recite on the books studied and to look up the problems assigned.\nLesson 6. — What is meant by bibliography was explained and instruction given on\nhow to prepare a bibliography. Subjects were assigned to the class, each having a different\nsubject, preferably one which would be useful in school. This should be a selected bibliography and each pupil should be given a brief outline with a statement of how many entries\nare expected. The pupils have always been given until the end of the course to prepare\nthis bibliography and it has counted one-half toward their examination.\nLesson 7. — (i) Illustrators of children's books; (2) Periodicals useful to teachers:\neducation; travel and outdoor life; drawing and craftsmanship; birds and nature; science.\nIndexes to current periodical literature.\nLesson 8. — Because of the prominence given to the Lincoln anniversary this year a\nspecial Lincoln program was prepared. This gave opportunity to teach how this should\nbe done and was of practical use as it was prepared by each teacher for her grade and was\nused in her school.\nLesson Q. — General review on the card catalog, Poole's Index, and reference books\nmost useful in the schools.\nLesson 10. — An effort to give a general idea of the value to the teachers of many of\nthe books which indirectly relate to school work, such as books of travel in the countries\nof which they are teaching; biography, particularly American biography; illustrated\nbooks, as Arthur Rackham's Midsummer Night's Dream. This is a very wide field and\ndifl5cult to treat advantageously. Merely to give authors and titles would be valueless.\nPossibly further experiment will reveal a better plan.\nLessons 11 and 12. — Devoted to the rounding -up of the discussion of children's books\nand to the telling of stories.\n\nLater the director of the class gave an examination. This with the recitations and the bibliographies decided the pupil's standing. On the average\nthe work was well done. After graduation these pupils will be engaged in\nthe city schools, and the fact that they now are frequently to be found at the\nlibrary consulting books, which they have previously studied, shows that the\ntime was well spent. The result of the work relating to children's books\nwill be more noticeable in the use made of these at the school delivery stations.\nThe fact that the superintendents and teachers of normal schools have\nfound a course of instruction in the use of the library of value is sufficient\nwarrant for its introduction into the local normal school. The fact that of\nnecessity the course must be more brief in the local school than in the state\nnormal does not warrant its omission.\nI am thoroly convinced that such a course as this, altho brief, must have a\nhelpful influence over these very young teachers, who have been unable to\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "852\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ngive time or else have not had the inclination to read many of the things which\nthey should have read before leaving the eighth grade. If the course is held\nto be profitable according to the literary and instructive value of the books\nread and examined, rather than to the amount of technical knowledge of the\ncare of books acquired, it will sijrely be a success. Perhaps not immediately,\nbut it will grow and improve as the teacher-librarian grows with the subject\nwhich she is teaching.\nA somewhat different application of these lessons was made last summer\nat the county institute. A deposit of several hundred children's books and\nbrief reference books was made at the building where the institute was being\nheld. Instruction was given for one period each day for five days and the\nteachers were given one free period each day during which to examine the\nbooks. This was done with a view to improving the county-school libraries.\nIt may seem to many that this teaching should not be the work of the librarian, but why not ? It is the duty of the library management to extend the\nusefulness of the library, and by what means can this be more effectually done\nthan thru the teachers to the pupils who are our future adult readers ? And I\nwill add that the earlier the stage at which this teaching in the schoolroom\nbegins the better, because of the chance of reaching the child who leaves school\nvery young.\nA necessary requisite, if a plan such as that given is to be a success, is that\nthe teachers learn to understand the library and the librarians learn to understand the schools. To obtain the best results there must be absolute harmony\nand sympathy between these two institutions working with the same end in\nview.\nTHE\nFRANCIS\n\nG. BLAIR,\n\nSTUDY\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nUSE OF BOOKS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nSPRINGFIELD,\nILL.\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nThe first school was organized about a book, for the purpose of its study\nand interpretation. It is fair to suppose that the last school will, also, be\norganized around a book, for the purpose of its study and use.\nSo long as primitive man could store up his acquired knowledge in the\nform of modifications of the nervous system and transmit it to his children\nthru heredity or by oral instruction, there was little need of the school; but\nthere came a time when this primitive man began to dream things 'and see\nvisions which could not be recorded and transmitted thru nerve modification,\nand which could not be adequately transmitted by word of mouth. He began\nto seek some new form of recording his thoughts and feelings and aspirations,\nto carve them in stone, to paint them on the bark of trees, and to cut them on\nwood. These expressions at first, we are led to .believe, resembled very closely\nthe things which they were intended to represent, but in time they became\nmere characters, not looking like the objects which they were intended to\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nAND\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nBOOKS\n\n853\n\nrepresent. They became mere symbols. These symbols needed interpretation. When the growing mind came to the parchment and sought to understand its meaning, he found someone was needed to stand between him and\nthese symbols and interpret their meaning. It is fair to assume that the function of a teacher here arose, and that the conventional school came into being\nwhen the teacher gathered about him a number of learners and sought to\ninterpret to them these signs and symbols on parchment and wood and stone.\nWhat a wonderful fascination these mystic symbols must have had to the\nprimitive mind; what magic, what mystery hung about them; how superior\nwas he who had the power to look upon these symbols and translate their\nmeaning, to read the thought of those who had lived and wrought in years\ngone by! It is little wonder that the book, with all of its fascination, became\nthe entire concern of the school, and it is little wonder that the study of letters,\nthe study and mastery of a book, came to absorb the entire energies of the\nschool; it is little wonder that in time the study of the book became a sort of\na fetichism, and that the mere juggling with words and sentences came to\nabsorb the entire time of the schoolmen a,nd to confuse and narrow rather than\nto enlighten and enlarge the minds of the learner. If we may believe what\nis said about the schoolmen, they had allowed all the energies of instruction\nto be turned largely to the study of words and of logic.\nIt was well for the school and for education that a Francis Bacon should\narise and declare that this worship of the word, the symbol, the book must\ngive way to a study and appreciation of the world of nature. How fortunate\nfor the school and for the children who have long since passed thru it that men\nlike Bacon fought the fight, broke down the doors of the schoolroom, and let\nin the suggestions and the educative influences of the world of nature!\nFortunate for the school, also, was it that in later years the throb and thrill of\nindustry, of the industrial life about it, began to break thru its walls and to\naffect the thought and method of the work within.\nThe book and its study and mastery have a place in the public school,\nbut it would have been unfortunate indeed if the printed book should have\nprevented the children from the study and mastery of the book of nature and\nof the great book of the industrial and social life about them. While we may\ncongratulate ourselves upon the large expansion of the inner life and work of\nthe school and of its adjustment to the needs of modem life, it is very proper\nfor us to be on our guard lest while we are opening the doors and windows to let\nin the world of nature and the world of industrial life, we shall not crowd out\nthe world of history. It was unwise for the Chinese to pin the faith and practice of their schools to a book or series of books which contained the thought\nof one man. They sought not to adjust the school to the life about them, but\nto adjust its thought and practice to what was written in the saying of Confucius. Itseems to us unwise that the early Christian fathers, in their great\nzeal for the life of the future, should have denied the desirability of a knowledge\nof the life that is; but I am sure that we would be just as unwise in the modem\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "854\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nschool if, in our attempt to adjust ourselves to the needs of the present life,\nwe should cut ourselves loose from the recorded experiences of the past and\nthe prophecies and hopes of the future. With all of the enlargements of our\nsubjects of study, let us not forget that the best of the past and the best of the\nfuture are stored up in a book.\nMr. Gannet, in one of his delightful essays, says that books are canned\nthoughts. It is one of those striking figures which arouse within us a feeling\nthat we must have thought the thing ourselves before we saw it in his essay.\nCertain men have dreamed dreams and seen visions and they have recorded\nthem on the pages of the book. These books upon our shelves are in very\ndeed and truth canned thoughts, canned ideals, canned inspirations. If our\nparticular desire on a particular occasion is for a particular brand of ideas\non friendship, we step to our shelves and find thereon a certain can labeled\nRriendship by Emerson, or Friendship by Bacon. We take down the can,\nopen it up, and feast our minds and heart upon the contents. It would be a\nsorry day for education if these stored-up thoughts and lives should be crowded\nfrom the shelves of our schoolroom, and if our children should be denied the\nopportunity of opening them and enjoying them. But it is easily seen that\nthe figure carries with it the idea that if one is to enjoy these canned thoughts\nand emotions, he must be trained so that he can go to the shelf and recognize\nthe particular brand of thought or emotion which he desires by the label upon\nthe outside. The figure of canned thoughts also carries with it the idea that\nfor one to get into the contents, he must have a can opener — some mechanical\ndevice by which he may open up to himself that which lies within. There is\nlittle doubt that thousands and millions of children sit and stand and walk\ndaily in the presence of these stored-up thoughts and expressions, but whose\nlives are not touched or influenced in the least because between them and these\nideas and experiences there is a mechanical separation thru which they are\nunable to break. Professor Patton has told us that only that is our environment which touches our life for good or ill. Books upon the shelves in a\nschoolroom which do not touch the minds and hearts of the children constitute\nno element in their spiritual environment.\nEvery word, in a certain sense, is a canned idea, and a peculiar form of the\nsymbol designates the character of the language contained. A child must\nearly be trained to recognize quickly these ideas and thoughts by looking thru\nthese symbols. Professor Thomas Balliet has shown the difference between\nthe teaching of the word as an end and the word as a means, as an end to\nbe looked thru rather than a thing to be looked at. In addressing a body of\nnormal-school students, he asked them to look at a certain window pane and\ntell him some one thing about it. They spoke of its dimensions, of the quality\nof the glass, of certain defects in it. Then he asked them to look thru the\nwindow pane and tell him what they saw outside. They spoke of the trees\nand the birds, the sky and the flowers. This illustrates two ways of studying\na word.\nSome teachers direct the children's attention to the word as an\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE STUDY\n\nAND\n\nUSE OF BOOKS\n\nend, as a thing in itself; others teach the child to see thru the word to the\nidea that lies beyond. When the child comes to the printed page, he finds\ntwo sets of s)mibols. One appeals to the ear, the other to the eye. If our\nobject is to train him to get quickly the thought and feeling of the page, it\nmust be our purpose to help him to see quickly thru the word to the thing\nbehind. The symbols which appeal to the eye must become an open window\nthru which he sees the passing panorama of life and activity described on the\npage. The book in a certain sense becomes a sort of telescope, a sort of a\nfield-glass. When he is properly trained, he may take this instrument and\nturn it upon ancient Egypt: time and space disappear and he sees an extinct\ncivilization of the time of Rameses the Second; he sees the millions of people\nliving in the Valley of the Nile, erecting the pyramids and building their\nmighty temples. When he looks thru it, an Alexander, a Constantine, a\nCharlemagne, a Napoleon, a Washington are brought close to him as objects\nof study.\nIt is surprising to discover that many children come thru twelve years of\npublic-school instruction without having gained any facility in the use of a\nbook as a means to an end. The book is made so often an end in itself that\nthe child comes to feel that when he has finished a book he is thru with it.\nThat may be so if the finishing of that book has increased his power to use\nbooks as a means to an end. All too often the schools fail to carry him on to\nthis point of efficiency. In visiting a certain school, I found a sixth-grade\nclass studying geography. The topic for the day was banana culture. The\nchildren had their geographies in hand; the teacher said, ''Turn to the twentysixth page; the first paragraph will tell you under what climatic conditions\nbananas are grown. When you have found out what is said, you may show\nme by closing your books.\" The books were opened quickly, the children\nfastened their eyes and mind upon the paragraph. Very shortly some books\nwere closed. Others remained opened for a considerable time. One child\nasked the teacher for some help on a word or two. Finally the teacher said,\n''AH of you may close your books now, as we cannot take longer upon this\npoint. Charles may tell us what he got from the paragraph.\" The next\nparagraph told of the kind of soil; the next one how the banana plant was\ncultivated, how it was gathered, and how it was shipped, etc. It is hard for\nme to see how the time could have been more profitably spent. These children\nwere learning how to use a book as a means to an end. They were learning\nhow to look thru the words and thru the printed page to the thought that lay\nbehind.\nIn the eighth grade of the same school the teacher was assigning some\nproblems in arithmetic. She assigned the problems to various members of\nthe class. As soon as a child was assigned a problem, it was noticed that he\nlooked very carefully at his problem. When the last one was assigned, the\ninstruction was given, \" Close your books, lay them aside, stand, and pass to the\nboard.\"\nThe children passed quickly to the board; the name of the child\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "856\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nand the number of the problem were written, and immediately work began\nupon the problems. One boy said that he could not remember one large\nnumber. The teacher told him to take his book to the board and copy it. It\noccurred to me that this teacher had discovered a thing which had escaped\nmy attention thru fifteen years of teaching — that one way to save time and to\nclear a child's thought was to train him to read the problem and understand\nclearly its conditions. These children, unincumbered by the book, with\nthe problem clearly in their minds, went directly at the solution and in a\nremarkably short time had arrived at the proper results.\nIt is one thing to teach a child to read and it is another to train him to use\nhis reading power in accomplishing desired ends.\nIn another school I have seen a certain teacher take a class of seventhgrade pupils to give an illustrative lesson in the use of a book and how to find\nany topic desired. Twelve different textbooks on American history were\nplaced in the hands of twelve different pupils. The remainder of the class\nhad in their hands the regular textbooks. The teacher explained that he\nwould call for a certain topic and that he wished each one to find what his\nparticular book had to say on that subject as quickly as he could. The topic\nmentioned'was the cotton gin. It was interesting to watch these children, who\nwere taking this lesson for the first time, to see the different methods employed\nto find the desired topic. Some began at the first of the book, turning page\nby page ; others seemed to remember about what portion of the book this topic\nhad been treated in and sought that particular place; others began at the\ntable of contents; quite a number turned directly to the index. Some at the\nend of the five minutes allowed had not found the topic, some saying that it\nwas not in their books, and others admitting that they did not know how to\nfind it. After five lessons under the direction of this teacher, it was interesting\nto see the rapidly acquired skill of these children in the use of a book. There\nare some people who go thru life without having learned a few of these simple\nmechanical things, which once learned saVe a great amount of time in the\nuse of books.\nI have spoken briefly on the use of a book in accomplishing an end outside\nof the one who is using the book. I wish now to speak of certain results\naccomplished within the reader himself. It is easy to see that the chisel in the\nhand of the sculptor produces certain objective results. It is not so easy to\nsee that that same chisel reacts upon the hand that holds it and produces certain spiritual results upon the sculptor. When we are training a child to use\na book as a means to an end and as he is acquiring this power, we are conscious\nthat certain results are being produced upon him that far transcend in importance the immediate ends accomplished. First of all I believe that the mastery\nand right use of a book may tend to develop within the user a finer imagination. Mr. Stevenson tells us in his delightful essay on the ''Lantern Bearers \"\nthat someone has said, \"A poet has died young in the heart of even the most\nstolid,\" but Mr. Stevenson prefers to think that \"a poet lies dormant in the\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nAND\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nBOOKS\n\n857\n\nheart of even the most stolid, awaiting the touch of some influence that shall\nbring him to life and cause him to spring to his feet.\"\nThere is little doubt that over our country, in our public schools, thousands\nand millions of children never have this poet awakened within their minds and\nhearts. I doubt whether any other instrument placed in the hands of the\nteacher can be so easily used to arouse this latent imagination as a good book.\nThe most imaginative minds that have ever lived have conceived their thought\nand placed it in these books. The teacher whose own imagination has been\naroused can take this book as a magic wand and wave it above the child's\ndormant mind and open for him a new world of life. The child may be bom\nin a home with a father and mother in whose hearts the poet is either dormant\nor dead; there may be little chance for his imagination to develop unless he is\ntouched by the right book, at the right time, in the hands of the right person.\nI have heard a superintendent of one of our largest city schools make a charge\nthat his lack of poetic imagination was due to the fact that his teachers had\nnot compelled him at the proper time to expose himself to that body of imaginative literature which would have helped to loose the wings of his imagination.\nAnother subjective result upon the user of a book is the effect which it has\nupon his vocabulary, either oral or written. There are those who contend\nthat what we read has no effect upon our style of speaking and writing. However, such a master of English as Robert Louis Stevenson claims that his style\nwas acquired by the patient study and imitation of four English authors.\nThere can be little doubt that the wonderful style of Abraham Lincoln, used\nin portions of his first and second inaugural addresses, and notably in his\nGettysburg speech, were the direct or indirect results of his study of the Bible,\nof Shakespeare, and of Pilgrim^ s Progress. He was a man of large elemental\nideas and emotions, but bom of common parents and reared among common\nfolk, where he could have acquired little power in oral or written expression.\nWhen he stepped forth upon the platform at Gettysburg to utter his deep\nthought and emotion, there can be little doubt that the style of these masters\nafforded him an adequate vehicle for the expression of his thought. I am\ninclined further to think that in a larger sense every life is the better for having\nsome mode of expression. Experiences arise within us for which we have\nno adequate expression, and being unexpressed, they leave us no stronger,\nand sometimes weaker. The study of a book or the committing to memory\nof certain fine passages often gives us an adequate form of expression for fine\nemotions, and this expression, even tho it be in the language of another, leaves\none the stronger and the better for having found an adequate utterance for\nhis thought.\nThe last subjective result which I shall mention is the influence of the\nthought and emotion of the book upon the conduct and character of the reader.\nI am inclined to think that a book is one of the most powerful forces to influence\nthe life and conduct of the children which can be brought into the school.\nMany of the questions which arise in a child's mind about his conduct and\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "858\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\naction are of such a character that he hesitates to ask the father or mother or\nteacher concerning them; but a wholesome book put in his hand at the right\ntimes answers his questions, clears his thought, and determines his action.\nWhatever may be said about hurtful literature, more can be said about\ngood literature. It is within the power of the teacher to train the child in the\nuse of a book so that thruout life he shall have a constant and immediate\ncommunion with the best thoughts and the best ideals that the best men and\nwomen of all times have thought and uttered.\nIt is doubtful whether the school thru any other one line of endeavor has\nso great an opportunity to influence the life of our country as thru the use of\nbooks. Let us teach nature, and teach it well; let us teach industry and teach\nit well; but let us not forget that when we teach the children the twenty-third\npsalm, or A Man without a Country^ that we are utilizing a force, the most\npowerful force, to unify the minds and hearts of all the people, to create a\nspiritual unity, and to arouse a common patriotism. With all the enlargement\nof our curriculum, let us continue to give the book its proper place in the school\nand in the lives of the children.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. A. Whiteford, superintendent of schools, St. Joseph, Mo. — A traveler in the Nile\nValley will find many of the natives still using the wooden plow and threshing with the\nflail. This is true because the people there have not felt the need of something more\nmodern and more labor-saving. The tools used by the people in a country are an index\nof their progress and intelligence.\nIn many schools the books in use are as much out of date as the wooden plow and\nthe flail. Pupils and teachers are dependent on the textbooks, and instead of the books being\nof service to the children, they are often a positive hindrance to their advancement. In\nmost schools the textbook is the mainstay of the teacher and main source of information\nto the child. In many countries, especially England and Germany, the teacher depends\nless upon books and relies more on her own store of knowledge. The teacher does more\nof the work and the pupils are less dependent on the printed page and must pay strict\nattention to lectures and use the notebook freely.\nBooks in the school may be considered as texts, reference books, supplementary\nreading, and general-library books. In too many instances the books are poorly arranged,\nthe subject-matter confusing, the print bad, and the illustrations not well chosen. Such\nbooks are poor tools for children. Textbook makers have many sins both of commission\nand omission to answer for. Too often the language used is more difficult than the subjectmatter treated. In many texts in arithmetic the definitions and formulae are more perplexing than the work to be mastered. The arithmetics have been filled with improbable and\nartificial problems, such as clock problems, hare-and-hound problems, the effort seeming\nto make the work as abstruse as possible in an attempt to provide mental gymnastics.\nMany of the histories are simply a compilation of facts. Valuable time has been squandered in a daily grind of memorizing useless facts and no time taken to read choice\nbiographies or inquire into the lives, manners, and customs of the people. On account of\nthe difficulties found in books, parents, even tho intelligent, are not able to give children\nmuch assistance and often find fault with the school because the books are mysterious.\nIn most schools, especially in rural districts, the textbook is the course of study,\nand teachers follow the text religiously. The grammars' have given page after page to\nparsing and diagramming, the cry being that teachers are too busy to give any time to\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nAND\n\nUSE OF BOOKS\n\n859\n\n\" unessentials,\" such as the study of the classics. The result has been that much of the\ninstruction in grammar has been a hindrance rather than a help. Pupils have learned rules,\ndefinitions, and classifications, have made hair-splitting distinctions, and their mental\nlife has been loaded down with useless lumber as a result of using a book poorly edited.\nMany of the grammars are filled with mechanical exercises to be memorized, or blank\nspaces to be filled which, when completed, have no value. The composition work has\ntoo long been devoted to abstract topics in which the children have no interest, when it\nshould come from a mind stimulated thru interest; otherwise such exercises are mechanical\nand without life.\nThe reference books found in most schools are too often a detriment rather than a\nhelp. The dictionaries and encyclopedias, without the guidance of the teacher, are often\nmisleading, and are usually beyond the capacity of the children. Dictionaries should be\nused in all the higher grades, should have a direct bearing on the work in hand, and should\nbe purchased with much care and not by weight or from the bargain counter.\nSupplementary readers are perhaps among the greatest aids in school work. In\nselecting these care should be taken to choose books of story, myth, fable, and choice literature of all kinds and to omit textbooks, as children are not attracted by the last named.\nBooks must be adapted to the reader in different stages of his development. There is a\nliterature for children as well as for grown-ups. In many schools the books have been\nchosen because of their supposed value from the standpoint of the adult. Books appeal\nto children when they contain matter that is adapted to children's minds. Fables, folkstories, ballads, and biographies are plentiful and children read them with avidity.\nThe modern school provides a wealth of literature for all grades and instead of a dull\ngrind thru one text children are reading with enthusiasm and understanding a great\nvariety of high-class books. It is not necessary that children comprehend everything\nthey read, especially upon first reading. It is better to give them an appetite for choice\nthings that afford an introduction to standard authors, rather than use books of one\nsyllable which are without life or value, in an attempt to keep on the child's level.\nLibrary books for schools have likewise been poorly selected and have been poor\ntools for children. In most places the school library has been made up of sets, such as the\ncomplete works of Dickens, Hume's History of England, Britannica, or what has been\nconsidered a good class of books, such as Butler's Analogy, Prince of the House of David,\nThe Royal Path of Life. These books are valuable in their place, but the place is not\nin the common school. Books for the home and school have too long been selected for\nadults and for adults of strong mental power and development. At the World's Fair at\nChicago, Gladstone's ax was placed on exhibition and one could readily see that it would\nrequire the strength of three or four men to swing it. The average wood-cutter could\ndo no work if such a tool were placed in his hands; yet the schools have been purchasing\nmen's tools for children's use and teachers have wondered why children have not read\nthem eagerly.\nA good estimate of the taste and ability of a teacher may be had by looking over\nthe library she has selected for her school. If the shelves contain sets of Darwin, Huxley,\nand a number of Collier's latest editions you may at once conclude that she lacks in one\nessential quality^-an understanding of child mind. If we are to secure the best work\nfrom children we must give them efficient tools, and this the school has not done. The\nchildren have asked for bread and we have given them a stone. They have longed for the\nbest in literature and instead we have provided dull readers of the scrappy variety. We\nhave insisted on having compulsory laws passed, have punished the truant boy because\nhe cared not for school when the fault was with the publisher and the teacher. The\napostasy of the small boy, like that of Roger Williams, is doubtless often justifiable.\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "86o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWHAT DOES EACH, THE LIBRARY AND THE\nSCHOOL, CONTRIBUTE TO THE MAKING\nTHE EDUCATED MAN?\nCHARLES\n\nE. CHADSEY,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\n[Library\n\nPUBLIC\nOF\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nThe question of the proper function of the public school is, of late, receiving\nnew consideration in the minds of educators and the public. Many are\nexpressing a profound lack of confidence in the results of public-school education. It is realized that the public school, as it exists today, does not meet\nthe needs of the majority. The curriculum of the elementary and the high\nschools is most admirably adapted to the needs of the minority, and unquestionably many receive a most excellent preparation in our public schools for\nthe work which they are to do.\nThe willingness to admit that new fundamental material for the course of\nstudy must be secured before our public-school system really meets the needs\nof our community is, in itself, a most encouraging sign. At the present time\nmost educators and reformers are contenting themselves with the expression\nof their discontent, and with general suggestions as to the necessary changes\nto be made in the course of study in order to bring about its greater practicability.\nThere seems to be substantial agreement that inasmuch as we are living\nin an industrial age, and that the future is bound to emphasize the industrial\nside of life, we need to train an increasingly large percentage of our young\npeople in such a way that their usefulness in industrial life will be as great as\npossible. This seems to imply that work, manual in its character, or studies\ndesigned to give to young people familiarity with the fundamental processes\nunderlying industries must receive greatly increased emphasis. In order to\naccomplish this there must be decreased emphasis upon studies now considered\nfundamental in the ordinary curriculum.\nAmong the criticisms frequently made upon the present course of study, we\nhear that books rather than things are emphasized, and that the aim of the\nreformer should be to decrease the prominence of books and emphasize\nother things. This fact, or the probability of a changed emphasis upon\nbooks, brings this subject distinctly within the province of this department.\nThose who are interested in the public library, and appreciate its wonderful value to education, must instantly become keenly interested in any discussion which threatens in any way its relative importance as a factor in\neducation.\nWithout question the study of books is often overemphasized. In many\ncases the organic connection between the fact as found in the book and the\nfact as found in life has not been established. Mere book education easily\ndegenerates into the most formal and useless kind of training. One may admit\nall this and much more, and yet most keenly object to any intimation that the\nusefulness of the library as a force in education should be questioned.\nNo\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMAKING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATED\n\nMAN\n\n86 1\n\nmatter how great the changes in the course of study may prove to be, no matter\nhow great the emphasis which may be laid upon teaching the children those\nthings which apply directly to their livelihood, so long as these changes are\nmade intelligently, so long as real effectiveness in training young people for\nlife is secured, so long will the pre-eminent importance of the printed page as a\nvehicle of knowledge be maintained. If these changes in the curriculum are\nsecured it must result in a different use of the public library, and in an increased\ndemand for certain kinds of literature.\nThat any form of education in the twentieth century which does not place\ngreat dependence upon the library can be successfully maintained is an obvious\nabsurdity. The general question, therefore, implied in the question assigned\nto me, remains a vital one.\nNo man can be truly educated who has not learned to use books intelligently and habitually. No process of education which fails to develop the\nhabit of the intelligent use of books can meet successfully the demands of the\nage. The pubHc school must continue to accept the responsibility of developing power to use books intelHgently. Those families in which the use of the\nlibrary by the children develops naturally thru the intercourse and influence\nof the home iare, unfortunately, a very small minority in most communities.\nWere this not true, the problem of the public school would be considerably\nsimplified. There are, comparatively speaking, very few children who have\nhomes with an environment which will encourage the continued, persistent,\nintelHgent use of books.\nThe problem before the public school is not to develop the habit of reading,\nbut to develop the habit of reading wisely. America is now a reading nation,\nbut nine-tenths of the matter read is valueless and often vicious. The excessive use of newspapers and popular magazines is so common as to be almost\nuniversal. If the public school met its responsibility effectively, the results\nin the sale of these papers and magazines and in the demand for a different\ntype of literature would be most marked.\nIn papers presented before this department in preceding years, practically\nevery suggestion as to effective co-operation between the pubHc library and\nthe public school has been considered most carefully and wisely. To present\na new suggestion along these lines would be, for one who has not given the\nmatter unusually careful consideration, a practical impossibility. The only\nthing that remains is to call attention to the fact that in too few cases have the\nwise suggestions for educational co-operation been carried out in a really\neffective manner.\nEducators all agree that the public school is the place where power to\nthink must be developed; where appreciation of the true, the noble, and the\nbeautiful must be secured; where the mastery of vigorous expression must\nbe encouraged; and that, above all, it is the place where discrimination between\nright and wrong must be attained if the child is to go into life with the right\nethical outlook. To these general functions we must add the development\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "862\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nof the particular powers and aptitudes of the individual child in such a way\nthat he will be able to find his sphere of usefulness in life.\nIf the public school accomplishes this, or even if it puts into operation the\nforces which will result in the securing of these powers, it can safely be called\nsuccessful. While the public school itself must be the vitally persistent thing\nin the education of children, the library immediately should assume a most\nimportant place. Few people who develop wide interests and who have the\nhabit of wide reading are able to possess private libraries sufficiently large to\nmeet their needs satisfactorily. The public library at this point steps in and\nmakes possible, to all who have the taste, the opportunity for unhampered\ndevelopment.\nThe great problem which the school has in connection with the public\nlibrary is to develop the habit of the proper use of the library. The great\nproblem which the library has in connection with the school is to secure as\nextensive a use of the books available as is possible. The two ways ordinarily\nused should react upon each other. The really effective public library should\nhave the most liberal rules possible as to the use of its books by the schools.\nEvery schoolroom should be furnished with select libraries suitable to the\nmaturity of the children in the room and changed suflSciently frequently to\nbring about the maximum of usefulness. Every school building should have\na well-selected reference library containing all the books of general information which are needed permanently. The general school library should\ndoubtless be the property of the school district, but the temporary schoolroom\nlibrary should be under the auspices of the public library. To make this\nroom library most effective there should be the fullest co-operation between\nthe teacher and the librarian. Few teachers have a sufficiently extended\nacquaintance with available literature to insure to the children intelligent use\nof the library. Any capable, sympathetic teacher, however, should be able\nto divine with considerable accuracy the specific needs of the individual children\nwith whom she is working.\nThe library, however, will not have reached its maximum effectiveness if\nthere does not develop the habit of reference to the general library and visits\nby the child to the library. This should never be overlooked by the teacher\nor the librarian. There should be devised frequent conditions which necessitate the direct, individual use of the public library by the children. When we\nfind the well-selected schoolroom library in constant use, and also find the\npupils of the room welcome and frequent visitors to the central library, the\nforces for effective work are probably at their maximum.\nUnfortunately in many cases the teachers fail absolutely to realize the\nvalue to children of steady, persistent use of the library. Too frequently the\nteacher herself, being imfamiliar with the library, in no way encourages the\nchildren to use it and gives no systematic directions as to the selection of literature suitable for her children.\nThe expense involved in establishing even small schoolroom libraries,\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n863\n\nthru the necessity of duplicates, or the large number of books required seems\nto the librarian an insurmountable obstacle. Under present conditions the\nchild who uses a library is more apt to develop a reading dissipation rather\nthan a power of wise selection. He reads much but reads to little advantage.\nThe books which he reads are not vicious — few public libraries are careless\nin this respect — ^but they are often worthless, and have no real power to develop\nanything in the child which is worth while. A study of the books most frequently borrowed by both adults and young people is enough to endanger\none's optimism as to the value of the library itself. Only thru the most persistent, painstaking co-operation between the library and the school can we\nhope for great improvement in this respect. The value of the public library\nis, in many cases, to be compared with the value of the public school to the\nindividual. Theoretically, immense benefit should result. Practically,\nhabits are often formed which are injurious rather than helpful.\nOf late years the idea of making of the school building a community center\nhas been much advocated. Successful experiments are now being carried\non in many of our larger cities. Thru the use of the school building as a\ncommunity center the value of the school library to the community could\nalso be immensely increased. I think none of us believe that this movement\nis destined to fail. The time will doubtless come when the school building will\nbe a very real social center of the community, and when that time comes it is\nsafe to say that every school building will have its branch library in which will\nbe found most carefully selected books for the use, not merely of the children\nbut of adults.\nThe relative importance of the contribution of the library to the making\nof the educated man will not diminish thru any changes in school curricula\nwhich are destined to come. The public school must remain the institution\nwhich initiates forces which will develop the educated man. The librafy\nmust continue to be the vital factor in his final unfolding into real power.\nTHE\nJ. EDWARD\n\nBANTA,\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTHE\nOF\n\nSCHOOL^\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBINGHAMTON,\n\nN. Y.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen of the American Library Association :\nAt the request of the President of the National Education Association, Dr.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, I bring you the greetings of that Association and the wish\nthat the work of the two organizations may be more and more in harmony than\nit has been in the past. The greetings are from the largest organization of\nteachers and educators in the world, with a paid membership of more than\nforty thousand. As the years have gone by, meetings have been held at\nI The following address was delivered before the American Library Association at\nits annual meeting for 1909, the author having been appointed as the representative of the\nNational Education Association to that body. It is published here because of its value\nas a discussion of the relations of public libraries to public schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nwhich eighteen thousand and more have been present; the one theme, that of\ngiving opportunity for the widest discussion on all matters educational. It was\nnot with a view of slighting the library side of education that, as the different\nsections were organized and named, the library section came to be number\nfifteen. This year the National Education Association will observe its\nfifty-second meeting at Denver, beginning during the following week. Of the\nearlier sections, naturally there was a superintendents' section, which holds,\nnow, a separate meeting. There was an elementary-school section; a normalschool section, manual training, art decoration, and the like followed; but\nwithin recent years, really in 1896, there was organized the library section of\nthe National Education Association. Its work is substantially that of the\nAmerican Library Association, but without going into the technical part of the\nwork. The discussions grow out of the main theme of the morning, the relation of the library to the school. It is the greeting of that Association that I\nbring you this morning.\nThe old view of the relation of the library to the school was this, that the\nlibrary was a very useful adjunct of the school, not necessarily an adjunct, but\nif it appeared at all, it was as an adjunct. The newer view is that the National\nEducation Association and the American Library Association are the organized\nrepresentatives of the conviction that education as it belongs to the school — I\nuse that term in distinction from home and church— consists of two parts and\nthat these parts are of equal importance. The school today in the narrower\nsense recognizes the fact that the library field is of equal importance with its\nown.\nLook for a moment at the time that is spent in school. Statistics recently\ngathered with reference to vocational and industrial education have brought\nqjit the fact that for the industrial classes the time spent in school is from four\nto^five years, and during these years, from thirty to forty weeks per year.\nBreadwinners, to a very large extent, if some education is gained, must get\nit thru the library, thru the museum, thru study clubs, or in the hard experience\nof life. The fact that so many are looking for the advanced education is\nevidenced by the large number of correspondence schools in which the breadwinner with meager wage, saving, and paying out large sums that not only\npay for the instruction received but, in addition, allow these schools to lay up\nlarge sums of money, is evidence that the breadwinner is anxious for more\neducation. Perhaps 5 per cent, of the pupils in our public schools complete\nthe secondary education. Possibly i per cent, receive the college education.\nSo the field, merely in years and in weeks, it is evident, rests to a large extent\nwith the library as equal in importance with the school. Today the slogan\nof education is not for the few, but education for all and all the time, as Superintendent Gary has put it in a recent article of his published in Harper's\nWeekly y under date of May 22, and in this he goes into detail to show us how\neducation can be for all the people and all the time with the right system of\nlibrary work. We are all well aware that home education is on the wane.\nIn\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n865\n\nColonial times, barring the three or four months that the boy or girl went to\nschool, and purely for book knowledge, book learning, the education was in\nthe home. At the present time it is passing from the home to the school and\nto the library. In Colonial days the organized system of schools as we have\nit today was an impossibility because of the fact that the home was ready to\ndo so much. Now we have come to look upon the school, and I include in that\nterm the library, as the panacea for all the ills that afflict humanity. Humboldt, the philosopher, almost a hundred years ago, uttered the statement,\n\"whatever you would put into a nation's life you must put into its public\nschools.\" ....\nIt is interesting to the student to know how nearly the development of the\npublic library, or libraries as a whole, runs along the line of the development\nof the public school. Our earliest mention of funds for the public school\ncarries us back to 1 621, in the Virginia colony, when the chaplain of an incoming ship goes about among the people upon it and collects money with the idea\nof further education among the children of that colony. It is charity. For\na long time even the Massachusetts colony left it to the contribution of benevolent individuals that had to do with the public school. The library has gone\nthru precisely this same history. The first funds and the first books were the\ncontributions of individuals. The next step is a natural one. There is a\nrecognition of the real need. The public schools are a necessity. There were\nthose who could not attend the charity school, but the public school becomes\na necessity and the state takes notice of it. The same is true of the library.\nLibrary history is recent compared to the history of the public school. The\nnext step was favoring laws on the part of the state. These came before funds\nwere contributed. Libraries have gone thru the same history precisely.\nThen came the establishment in so many of our states of a department of the\npublic-school system. We have its parallel today in the state department, not\ngenerally adopted yet in all the states but nevertheless adopted by some,\nshowing that that history is to be repeated along this line also. Library appropriations are made by the state that I represent, the state of New York, and\nin a number of the other states, the exact number I cannot tell you at this time.\nBut with the establishment of public schools there was necessary the training of those who were to take charge of those public schools, and so there were\nestablished the special schools known as normal schools. When libraries\nbecame general and their advantages were recognized, and the necessity felt,\nthe training school for librarians followed in a natural way. Then came state\nreports and state inspection from both sides, the library and the school. It is\nof marked interest to notice how very carefully the developments of these two\nbranches run along parallel lines. So that experience shows that in education there are these two branches which have to do with the school in the\nbroader sense.\nI referred a moment ago to the years at school. Compare these to the years\nof the working period of a man's life, and we find that they are very limited.\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nThe library is to furnish the material for study during this larger number of\nyears. At school there is the one who is to direct. He has the advantage of\nlaw behind him and is a master. From the library side, the attraction must\nbe that of a librarian who is a friend, inviting, with the impulse that the child\nhas had from the school for knowledge. Public-school attendance in all the\nstates now is compulsory, but for the library it is a willing attendance. There\nwe get a difference. It must work out in the character of the librarian. ''The\ngreat function,\" says an old writer, ''of the teacher is to give a strong tas.e for\nreading.\" Huxley, taking that as a text, said, \"To teach a child, boy or girl,\nhow to read and then not to make provision for what that reading shall be, is\nas senseless as to teach the boy or girl the expert knowledge of the use of the\nfork and spoon and then provide no physical food that he may use these\nimplements upon.\" The purpose of the school is to develop self-governing,\nself-directing men and women worthy of citizenship in a great nation, and the\ngreat end of the school, as of the library, is to develop character. In the\npedagogical profession we lose sight of that too often. There is so much\ndetail in the work of the schoolroom in the work of supervision that ofttimes\nthe real purpose is lost sight of; yet we all know that character is induced by\nhabit, and habit comes out of action, and action itself comes from reflection. It\nis reading that induces, I believe, more reflection than comes from any other\nsource. There is always the personal element that must enter into the influence\nupon character. Some years ago a committee of experts appointed by the National Education Association took occasion to send out a good many letters\nasking this man and that, \"What was the influence that came into your life to\ngive you a trend toward the work that you are doing ?\" and over half of the replies which came back were along this line, \"It was the reading of a book.\" The\ncompetent and enthusiastic librarian can direct, after acquaintance, to a large\nextent the reading of a community, and in directing that reading he is directing\nalso the thought of that community.\nThe old idea of the library was that of a reservoir into which was gathered\nthe material for use within a narrow range. The modem idea of the library\nis that it is a fountain sending out as well as gathering in for itself. ■ Ideals, I\nhave said, are largely drawn,, and thus character molded, from reading. The\nmechanics of reading it is the business of the schools to teach, and the schools\ntoday are trying to give an impulse also toward the kind of reading, but\nthe pupils are with us so short a time that the direction of that reading is to\nremain with the library. And so there is to be the work of the two going on\ntogether\nWhat I have said leads up to this, that the school today is looking for the\nco-operation of the library. The library is ready, I believe, to co-operate with\nthe school. In fact, I think sometimes that the library has been more than\nready to take the advance and is taking the advance in this co-operation\nYou may not agree with me in the detail that I am to give you in regard\nto how we are to co-operate.\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nT?IE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n867\n\nFirst of all, I believe the superintentendent of the public school in every city\nshould be one of the library trustees. Now, I am not saying this for personal\neffect, because yesterday when I was asked on three different occasions by\nwhat right I was attending a meeting of the American Library Association,\nwhen I was not a librarian, I had to save myself from physical violence by\nsaying, \"I am a library trustee ;\" and I was allowed to enter the ranks. Take\nthose cities and villages where the library and the school are working together\nin harmony, and you will find that the superintendent is one of those who are\nmost heartily in favor of this co-operation, of this union. He recognizes the\nfact that the boys and girls are soon to leave school, with education unfinished,\nand unless they have found the path to the library they are likely to find it to\nsome other place\nEmployers of labor are advocating better education on the part of those\nwho are in their employ. In this work, I say, the library is to have its field,\nand is having its field ; but the superintendent of schools, who has to do with\nthe oversight of educational matters, should be directly connected with the\nlibrary in order that jealousy may not come from either side, in order that\nboth may reach their greatest efficiency; and so I say that is where our by-laws\nor constitutions that forbid it are at fault. I advocate it from the school side,\nthat the superintendent be made ex-officio a member of the board of library\ntrustees.\nOne other point. We have our training schools for teachers. We are\nadvocating in many of the states that there be added to the curriculum library\ntraining, and it has been begun in certain of the normal schools. Not the\ndetail of the work, not the technical work, all of it, but enough of it so that the\nteachers who are going into the public schools shall know how to use a library,\nhow to use a card catalog, shall understand the value of indexes, of tables of\ncontents, of a preface, shall know the nearest library to which they may direct\ntheir pupils. Where that has been worked out, as it has been in certain of the\nnormal schools in New York State, it has resulted in marked advantage, so\ngreat advantage that other principals of normal schools are advocating the\ninsertion of that subject in the curriculum and requiring it of teachers. Conversely, with all the benefits that our Ubraries are receiving in the library\nschools along the line of technical work, I wish the time may come when those\nwho go out from the library schools may serve an apprenticeship in the pubKc\nschools also, that they may understand young life a good deal better than it\nis understood today by many of the librarians. Of course, I am not speaking\npersonally to those who are here. Those who are here have had a wide\nacquaintance with the younger life; but there are librarians, as there are\nteachers, who never go outside of the village, who never attend a national\nmeeting, of the American Library Association, nor a state meeting of librarians, nor a round table of a district, nor visit a library if it can be avoided.\nThose are the ones to whom I am referring, who need that wider acquaintance with younger life and young capacity in order that the school work\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nof the library may be better done and better adapted to the personality of\nthe child.\nFrom the school side we advocate a pedagogical section in every library.\nTeachers, you say, should buy their own books, but it is not always true that\nthe salaries of these teachers have been advanced in proportion to the cost of\nliving. In the library they should find the tools with which they may work.\nOf course there is a limit to the amount of money that will be expended, but\nthere are not a large number of new works on pedagogy that need to go upon\nthe shelves. In pedagogy, as in other fields of books, there are many that are\nephemeral and soon will be superseded, but a limited amount may go into that\npedagogical library. Let it be a special section if you wish, generally it need\nbe, and let these books be regarded as professional books and the teachers not\nlimited to the seven-day or the two-week period, but allowed to take these\nbooks and use them for the period of a month if need be. Where that is\ndone I think the superintendent will find that his growing teachers are making\nuse of it. That is where your superintendent may well come into play as a\ntrustee. He is advocating the purchase of books on the one side and the use\nof them on the other, and if there is any advantage at all resulting from a\nwider acquaintance with the study of pedagogy, it is going to accrue to the\nadvantage of the students in the public schools.\nThere are certain other books that teachers need to use sometimes in the\nschools. Let them be a privileged class again. I know a library in which the\nlaboring men take a special interest. They, thru the foremen and the men\nbest informed, ask for certain books, and when these books come, their time\nto read them is not limited; they wish to have them a longer period than the\nseven days, and they are treated as a privileged class. Let the teachers be\na privileged class in regard to certain books, as well.\nAll well-organized libraries today have the young people's library, or department, or room. Let the teachers assist in the selection of these books. They\nhave not a wide acquaintance with them to start with, but as our normal schools\ntake up this work they are coming out with a range of books adapted to firstyear work, second-year work, third-year work, and the like. Let them have\na hand in selecting the books for this library, and now and then it may be of\nadvantage also if they can take some of the newer books to the schoolrooms,\nand read a passage here and there to the children to interest them.\nOne purpose all along this line, as you see, is this — that we may get the\nboys and girls, today, in the schools, into the library when they have finished\nwith school, and before they have finished with school. Of course, there is a\nlarge part of the attendance upon a library, of a library's constituency, who\nare past the school age. I am not speaking for them alone; I am speaking\nfor those who are now in school, I am speaking for those who have so recently\nleft school. What will draw the children to the library ? A story hour, fairy\nstories for a particular grade. These can be developed very quickly into\nbiography, historical details, history stories, with no lack of interest on their\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n869\n\npart. That means that your library shall have stories and the librarian shall\nknow how to tell them, as well as the schoolman knows how to tell stories,\nand only the skillful one can hope long to attract the attention of the children.\nAn effective way that I have seen worked out in the library is to have\nexhibits of the drawing done in the public school, put up once or twice a year\nin an empty room in the library. We call it an art gallery. Children have\na particular piece put there. They are interested to enlist their friends to go,\nand when they have gone to the library, the visit does not stop at the art\ngallery to observe that piece of drawing, but is extended into other rooms.\nPeople see more books than they ever saw before, see titles of books that at\nonce attract their interest, and are told by the efficient and enthusiastic\nlibrarian, \"These books are for you, they are not for us.\" ''May I take one\nof these books home and read it?\" ''Why, certainly, that is what we want\nyou to do.\" And so it enlarges the field of usefulness of that library.\nThe assembling of books by grades at a particular time has a marked\nadvantage, and the schoolmen today recommend it to librarians, and ask it\nof them as well. There are other exhibits besides those of drawing — historical\nexhibits. It may be that they are merely exhibits brought from another city,\nbut they are giving a wider range of knowledge, and with that, I believe of\ninspiration, that will work out later in life.\nAs the new books come in, let the teachers know. It costs something to\nprint the list and to send it out. Sometimes it can be done with the printing\npress; sometimes the daily paper will take it up; sometimes it can be done\nthru mimeograph work or any of these machines that mak^ many copies, but\nall of it having reference to the wider education and the greater use of the\nlibrary.\nThen, too, systematic instruction in the use of the library in schools, not\nby the teacher, but by someone from the library, should be encouraged. A\nteacher comes to be associated with the arithmetic and the geography and the\nlanguage, but a new voice attracts attention. I have seen this matter worked\nout in the schools. An assistant librarian who was formerly a school teacher\noffered to take up the work and it was interesting to see how quickly the children responded. There can be a definite course of instruction along this\nline. Now, this is not new. It is being followed by a number of cities of\nmy acquaintance, and a number of other librarians have written in regard to\nthe matter\nI want to say just a word in regard to the librarian. I have referred to it\nalready. I mean with respect to personality. In school the personality\nof the teacher counts for more than all things else. We have in New York\nState a man who was known while alive as the Nestor of educators. Dr.\nSheldon, of the Oswego Normal School. He had a national reputation.\nThe last time he attended a meeting of the associated academic principals, one\nman had spoken upon character in the teacher, and he Umited it virtually to\npersonality. Another had spoken upon methods, special training, the province\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "870\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nof the normal school. Others had spoken upon education. The question\nwas put to Dr. Sheldon, \"How do you rate these three elements in a teacher ?\"\nHe said, \"On a scale of ten I put character, represented as personality, five\npoints. I put broad education as three, and I put the technical education,\n'methods,' as you have called it in the discussion here today, two.\" Now, if\nthat is a necessity in the public-school teacher, where the children come under\ncompulsion, if they do not come otherwise, compulsion from home and compulsion from the state, represented by the attendant officer, while the libraries'\nattraction must be the impulse toward learning and a friend at the end of it,\nwhat must that be? It seems to me that there must be what Pestalozzi\nmeant when he said, \"The essential element in education is not teaching at\nall, but is love.\" The essential must be what was meant by Thomas Arnold\nwhen he said that \"the master of Rugby must be first a gentleman, and after\nthat a schoolmaster\" — first of all the man and the woman, after that the\ntechnical librarian.\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nSPECIAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Frank M. Jack, Institute Conductor, State Normal School, River Falls, Wis.\nVice-President — Miss Cornelia D. Bingham, Deaf -Oral Dept., Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111.\nSecretary — Miss Elizabeth E. Farrell, Inspector of Ungraded Classes, New York, N. Y.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, July 6, 1909\nNone of the officers and no member of the local committee being present, Carroll\nG. Pearse, superintendent of the city schools of Milwaukee, Wis., called the Department\nof Special Education to order at 2 : 30 p. m. in the First Baptist Church. He stated that Miss\nJennie C. Smith, the president of the department, had resigned, and that President Harveyhad appointed Frank M, Jack of the State Normal School, River Falls, Wis., to fill the\nvacancy. Mr. Jack being unable to attend the meeting, the President of the National\nEducation Association had requested Mr. Pearse to preside.\nEdward M. Van Cleve, superintendent of the State School for the Blind, Columbus,\nOhio, was elected secretary, pro tent.\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis., read the first paper on\nthe subject, \"Public Schools for the Exceptional Child.\"\nA. O. Neal, superintendent of schools, Franklin, Ind., read a paper on \"The Indiana\nPlan for Handling Truants, Indigent and Pauper Children.\" The discussion was opened\nby J. M. McCallie, principal of Centennial Grammar School, Trenton, N. J.\nBen B.Lindsey, judge of the Juvenile Court of Denver, being present, was called to the\nplatform and addressed the department upon his method of handling truants and delinquents. The discussion was continued further by Dr. Frank G, Bruner, of Chicago;\nW. R. Callicotte, of Denver; L. C. Gee, of Greenville, Tex.; Mrs. Caroline Le Favre, of\nDenver; Mrs. Conkey, of Cincinnati; and Miss Theda Gildemeister, of Winona, Minn.\nThe president announced the following committee on nominations:\nJ. W. Jones, Columbus, Ohio.\nMiss Agnes Roche, Pittsburg, Pa.\nFrank M. Driggs, Ogden, Utah.\nAdjournment was taken to 9 : 30 a. m. Thursday.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nForenoon, July 9, 1909\n\nActing-President Pearse called the meeting to order at 9 : 30 o'clock.\nL. E. Milligan, superintendent of the Montana School for Blind and Deaf, Boulder,\nMont., read a paper on \"Practical Industrial Training and Trades for the Exceptional\nChild.\"\nEdward M. Van Cleve, superintendent of State School for the Blind, Columbus, Ohio,\npresented \"The Outlook for the Blind Youth.\"\nMrs. Ida Hood Clark; director of elementary manual training, Public Schools, Milwaukee, Wis., described \"Open-Air Schools as Developed in Germany and England.\"\nThe discussion was participated in by Acting-President Pearse; Mrs. Wallace, of\nDenver; Miss Rinehart, of Kensington, Md.; Dr. Frank Bruner, of Chicago; and Mrs.\nLe Favre, of Denver.\n871\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "872\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nL. C. Gee, superintendent of schools, Greenville, Tex., spoke of the need of knowledge thru study on the part of teachers in public schools of the children to discover who are\nexceptional children, defective in any particular, and offered the following resolution,\nwhich was adopted:\nWhereas, The defective children of our schools require the special attention of\nteachers, and teachers need all the assistance in this respect that they can secure, be it\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed by the president of the department\nto recommend the best books and apparatus that pertain to this work; that no one be\nplaced on this committee who has something to sell; that this committee report to the incoming president of the department in time to secure, if possible, the inclusion of its report in\nthe annual volume of Proceedings for 1909.\nFor such committee the president appointed:\nFrank G. Bruner, Child-Study Department, Public Schools, Chicago, 111.\nEarl Barnes, University Extension Lecturer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWalter F. Dearborn, The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nThe secretary was instructed to corrimunicate to the pastor and officers of the First\nBaptist Church the thanks of the department for the use of their comfortable auditorium\nas a meeting place.\nRITPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION\nTO RECOMMEND A PLAN FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF THE PROBLEM OF THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD\n\nA committee to \"recommend a plan for the investigation of the problem of the exceptional child\" was first appointed by the Department of Special Education, of the National\nEducation Association, at the Los Angeles convention, in July, 1907. The personnel of\nthe committee was as follows:\nMaximilian P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N. J., Chairman.\nGeorge L. Leslie, Los Angeles, Cal.\nF. M. Jack, River Falls, Wis.\nJ. W. Jones, Columbus, Ohio.\nO. H. Burritt, Batavia, N. Y.\nThis committee reported briefly at the next convention which was held at Cleveland.\nUpon motion the committee appointed at Los Angeles was discharged, and a new committee appointed to take up the work.\nThe new committee was composed as follows :\nMaximilian P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N. J,, Chairman.\nOlin H. Burritt, State Institution for the Blind, Overbrook, Pa.\nMary T. McCowen, Deaf-Oral Department, Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111.\nElizabeth E. Farrell, New York City.\nLightner Witmer, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.\nThis committee, iDeing without funds to pay expenses, has found it impossible to hold\nfrequent meetings or to enter into any extended correspondence. Nevertheless, by conferences, meetings, and exchange of letters between the members of the committee they\npractically agreed on the following points:\nFirst: that it cannot be the function of a committee to suggest an elaborate and detailed\nplan for the investigation of the problem referred to them, or for any other scientific problem.\nSecond: that such work can legitimately be done only either by individuals interested\nin researches of this kind; or by bureaus, commissions, and societies organized for the\npurpose, and whose functions would be permanent, or would be in force until the work\nwas accomplished.\nThird: that such work would require sufficient endowments of money to enable\nthose who undertake it to carry it into execution. Such endowments will eventually have\nto come either from philanthropic societies and individuals, or from public funds, communal, state, or national.\nFourth: that the plan of investigation should embrace the following distinct fields of\nresearch, viz.:\na) The development of a suitable classification of exceptional children;\nb) The securing of complete statistics of exceptional children;\nc) The determination of the causes of exceptional development (hereditary, congenital, and environmental);\nd) The suggestion of proper provisions for the different groups, or classes, of exceptional children;\n\nk\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILD\n\n873\n\ne) The advancement of methods by which all agencies that are directed toward the\nstudy and relief of exceptional conditions of child-life (medical, educational, legislative,\nor sociological) may be organized into unified effort.\nRespectfully submitted,\nMaximilian P. E. Groszmann, Chairman\nMary McCowen\nOlin H. Burritt\nElizabeth E. Farrell\nLiGHTNER\n\nWither\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\nFor President — Edward M. Van Cleve, superintendent of the Ohio State School for\nthe Blind, Columbus, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President — Frank G. Bruner, Child-Study Department, Board of Education,\nChicago, 111.\nFor Secretary — 'Miss Martha Bell, State School for the Deaf, Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, Pa.\nOn motion the report was accepted and the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot\nof election.\nThe department then adjourned.\nEdward M. Van Cleve, Secretary pro tent.\n\nPUBLIC\nCARROLL\n\nG.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR THE\n\nPEARSE,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCHILD\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS.\n\nIn the older days of mining the methods of separating the precious metals\nfrom the ores in which they were found were very crude and wasteful. A\nconsiderable portion of the gold and silver remained in the waste portion thrown\nout upon the dumps of the separating mills. In some cases this proportion of\nwaste was so great that when the chlorination process and other improved\nmethods of separating the metals from the ore were perfected, it was found\nprofitable to rework the entire \"dumps\" of some of the old mills, the precious\nmetals obtained paying a good return for the expenditure of labor and materials.\nOur early-day educational plants and the methods used in them somewhat\nresembled the early separating plants for ores. By these crude methods we\nmanaged to take care of the average boy and the average girl. They got a\nfairly good education and were able to maintain themselves in the school,\npassing thru the successive grades and receiving our stamp of approval in the\nform of a diploma at the end of tjie course of studies. But the schools in those\ndays had a great amount of waste product; boys and girls who did not fit the\nsystem of education in vogue were constantly being crowded out and dropped\nalong the educational roadside. We had not come to a realization of the fact\nthat it is the duty of our public educational system to take care of all the\nchildren of the community. We supposed that we were doing our duty when\nwe made provision for the ordinary child. Exceptional children did not come\nwithin the scope of our public-school activities.\nIn those elder days, no one thought of educating a deaf child in the public\nschools.\n\nSuch a child was a ''dummy.\"\n\nHe could not communicate intelli-\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ngently with the members of his family even, to say nothing of sustaining any\ncomfortable relations with other members of the community. Unless he was\nfortunate enough to find his way into some state institution or private school\nespecially organized to care for such children, he grew up without any adequate\neducation and was, as a result, thruout his life barred from the employments\nof normal people and from association with those who enjoyed the sense of\nhearing.\nBlind children were necessarily excluded from the public schools. There\nwas no way in which the intelligence of these blind children could be effectually\nreached or their minds effectually trained. Unless some institution opened its\ndoors to them, they grew up with such education and information as could\ncome to them incidentally in their homes.\nA considerable number of children belonging to a class whose discovery\nwas celebrated by William Hawley Smith under the caption ''bom short\"\nwere crowded out of the public schools. Sometimes they were permitted\nto drag along year after year learning practically nothing, acquiring habits of\nidleness, losing whatever self-respect they might originally have possessed,\nand becoming possessed by a feeling of bitterness and resentment toward the\nschool in which they did not fit, and toward their associates who were more\nfortunate in intellectual endowment, and who looked down upon them.\nOut of the school were crowded also many boys and girls who were what\nwe now call \"disciplinary\" cases. These children had quick tempers, or\nwere morose and sullen or obstinate, or were disposed to be cruel or abusive\nto their schoolmates, or had tongues which they were unable to govern, and\nwho said things to their teachers or to their companions which could not be\npermitted in the school community. These children were, in hundreds of\ncases, forced to leave school, either because their dispositions and the methods\nnecessary in their education were not understood, or as the result of some outburst of temper or disobedience, or abuse of fellow-pupils, with which the\nschools had not learned how to deal.\nThere were many children who were merely slow — children whose minds\nunfolded less rapidly than those of other children, or who were particularly\ndull in certain subjects. Sometimes these children were diffident and lacked\nself-confidence to do as well as they were able to do. Too often such cases\nwere allowed to take the line of least resistance; they fell behind their classes,\nthey were dropped back into a lower grade, or failed repeatedly to secure promotion. Soon the time came when the child must go to work, or when he\nchose to leave school rather than suffer the humiliations of repeated failures\nand low class standings.\nWe had not learned then that numbers of children who appear exceptional\nare not really so. Many children who are dull or unduly nervous or difficult\nto manage in the school exhibit these undesirable qualities because they have\ninsufficient food, or food of a sort which does not afford proper nourishment.\nThese children were often permitted to continue in this condition lacking the\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILD\n\n875\n\nStrength and energy which proper food would give, and for that reason frequently becoming discouraged and falling behind. The school passed unfavorable judgment upon them and was quite willing to see them go out into life\nto begin its battle poorly prepared. We had not then learned, either, that\nmany children who appear exceptional give this impression because of physical\ndefects, imperfect eyesight, dull hearing, nervousness, adenoid growths in the\npharynx which frequently impede breathing or circulation and make many\nchildren otherwise normal appear dull and stupid.\nBut in our schools at present, we have come to recognise our responsibility\nfor the correct diagnosis of all these pupils who for one reason or another appear\nto be, or are, exceptional. The proper remedies are applied to those children\nwho only appear to be exceptional. Proper food is supplied either in the way\nof co-operation with the home, or with luncheons supplied at school, or thru\nsome public or charitable agency. Children who are suffering from physical\ndefects are examined to ascertain the nature of these defects; proper glasses\nare provided for children of defective vision; treatment is given to improve\nthe dull hearing; imperfect teeth are corrected or rebuilt or replaced; curvatures and other malformations are corrected by the necessary surgery or by\nproper treatment and appliances; adenoid growths are removed; and in all\nthese ways the children who are fairly normal, but thru lack of attention or\nthru misfortune have appeared otherwise, are brought into a condition which\nenables them to do their school work and to grow up into capable and useful\nmen and women.\nFor the slow or backward children, where the slowness is not too great\nto be reached by means of special work given by the teacher, a period is set\napart during the day so that the children who need special help may receive it.\nIn this way many children who might become discouraged and fall behind are\nenabled to keep up with the class. For those children whose handicap is\ngreater, on account of much absence from school, or lack of opportunity for\nprevious school attendance, or lack of knowledge of the language, the ungraded\nclass is provided. In these classes pupils receive much individual help from\nsympathetic and skillful teachers. They are assisted and encouraged to\nmake such progress as their abilities make possible. Frequently children\nin these ungraded classes do in one year the work ordinarily done in two or\nthree or four years, and many boys and girls are enabled to bring up their\nwork so that they may enter classes with other children of their age and general\nadvancement. Frequently these children would become discouraged and\nleave school if such an opportunity were not given.\nThe boys and girls who are afflicted with bad tempers, or bad personal\nhabits, who are confirmed truants, who are abusive or otherwise undesirable\ncompanions for normal children, are placed in disciplinary schools, where,\nin charge of wise and skillful teachers of strong personality, they are able to\nform habits of obedience and application; they become good-tempered and\ndesirous of carrying out the necessary regulations and conforming to the\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "876\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nrequirements of the school. Frequently these children, after correcting their\nbad habits, can be returned to the regular classes and show themselves good\ncitizens of the school community.\nFor those who are subnormal intellectually, not feeble-minded, but ''bom\nshort\" in some particulars, classes for exceptional children are provided. In\nthese classes, which are placed in charge of skillful and sympathetic teachers,\nthese children are given such treatment as they are able to receive, they get\nsuch training as will increase their powers of nervous and physical self-control\nand their power of application to whatever task may be in hand. Much of\nthis work consists in physical training and manual employment. The muscular and the nervous control frequently need as much training and development\nas the intellectual control. It is not expected that members of this class will\nin many cases become entirely normal, but they can be put in a good attitude\ntoward the school and toward the pupils about them; can form habits of\nindustry, and can receive education in those lines which their limitations make\npossible. They can in most cases be saved from a future of uselessness and\nidleness, from the formation of bad habits, and from an attitude of antagonism\nand bitterness toward the pupils about them and toward society in general.\nFor children who are blind, or whose vision is so defective that they cannot\ndepend upon their eyes for education in the regular classes, special classes are\nprovided in connection with the elementary schools. These classes work\nin rooms fitted for their special use. The children learn to read by means of\npoint letters, the regular textbooks of the school being reproduced for them\nin this form. They recite with seeing children in the regular classes; they\nstudy in charge of a specially trained teacher in the schoolroom which is fitted\nup for them; their writing is done by means of little \"slates\" or typewriters\nmade for the use of the blind. They have manual training as the other children do; they play with the other children at recess; they use their roller\nskates upon the cement walks like other children, and, so far as possible, are\nmade to forget that they are blind. They are, by this plan, enabled to remain\nin their homes instead of being sent away to become inmates of institutions.\nDeaf children are taken care of also in connection with the day schools.\nThey are brought together from the differen|; parts of the city into a school\nwhere, under the charge of a principal and teachers thoroly trained for the\ndoing of this work, they are taught the same things which other children learn.\nWithout the use of the sign or manual language they learn to read the lips of\nthose who speak with them and to use their organs of speech so that they can\ntalk like hearing children. By the time they have finished the work of the\ngrammar grades they are able to do this quite readily and in a large majority\nof cases acquire the ability to be members of the community, moving about\nfreely, communicating with people they meet, and engaging in many employments which are open to people who have the sense of hearing.\nThis development of the work of teaching exceptional children in connection with the public schools has had two beneficial results.\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDIANA\n\nPLAN\n\nFOR\n\nTRUANTS\n\n877\n\nFirst. — These children, unfortunate in one way or another, have been\nbrought into, and given the benefits of, our system of public education. They\nare no longer crowded out of the schools as waste material. They are\na portion of the material furnished by the community to the schools. The\nsystem has now so far adapted itself to the needs of all the children that these\nare educated in comfort and fitted for usefulness.\nSecond. — Regular classes have been freed from the incumbrance frequently\nplaced upon them by the presence of these exceptional children. The time\nof the teacher can be devoted entirely to those children who can profit by the\ninstruction given to the class. The necessity for taking large portions of the\nteacher's time for these special cases to the neglect of other members of the\nclass has been done away with. This has resulted in great benefit to the\nnormal children, who get more and better instruction and who are also freed\nfrom the unfortunate influence which these special cases sometimes have\nover normal children who are obliged to be in their society.\nThis study of the needs of exceptional children has not yet been completed.\nThe classification of exceptional children is still going on. Methods and\ninstrumentalities more perfectly adapted to their education will be devised\nyear by year, and no doubt new classes of children who require special treatment will be discovered. All this will lead toward making the public schools\nmore perfect instruments for the education of all the children of the state.\n\nTHE\n\nINDIANA PLAN FOR HANDLING TRUANTS,\nINDIGENT AND PAUPER CHILDREN\n\nA. O. NEAL, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, FRANKLIN,\n\nIND.\n\nThe method of handling any class of cases will of necessity depend upon\nthe previous legislation.\nIndiana's truancy legislation is in harmony with that of the other states\nhaving such laws. The best detailed discussion of this subject is found in the\n1908 report of the state superintendent of public instruction.\nBy the enactment of 1897, children between the ages of seven and fourteen\nwere required to attend schools for twelve weeks. This term was changed\nin 1 901 to the full term of school in the corporation in which the pupil resides.\nThe enforcement of this law has been attended with many difficulties but\nis now on a satisfactory basis, as the report for 1908 shows. There were no\ntruant officers who made 66,000 visits, bringing into school 26,000 pupils.\nOf these, 7,500 were given aid at a cost of $22,000. Salaries amounted to\n$32,000, making a total of $54,000, or exactly $2.08 for each child brought\ninto school.\nThe executive officer known as the ''truant officer\" is appointed yearly\nby the county board of education. This body is composed of the township\ntrustees, who have charge of the schools of their respective townships, the\ncounty superintendent of schools, and the president of the school board of\neach city.\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "878\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nThis truant ofl5cer, appointed in May, begins service in September. His\ncompensation is $2 . 00 per day for actual time spent in discharge of his duties.\nPrevious to the opening of school each corporation must furnish him with an\nalphabetical list of pupils of compulsory age. This list is taken from the\nenumeration list which gives the age and birthday of each child, certified by\nthe parent under oath. Thus supplied, he is ready to begin work. Calling\nat the school, he checks up with the enrollment of the school and proceeds to\nbring in children not enrolled. This he does by visiting the home and presenting the law to the parent. It then rests with the parent to get the child into\nschool. If this is not done, he visits the home again and leaves a legal notice\nwhich requires the parent to have the child in school within five days. If\nthis is not done the truant officer files complaint, the judge orders the parents\nconcerned into court, and the parent is fined $5 .00 to $25 .00, to which imprisonment may be added.\nThru the year the truant officer makes weekly visits to the superintendents\nwho furnish lists of pupils who are habitually tardy or absent, and the same\nprocedure is followed. Usually a warning is sufficient, but occasionally a\ncase pushed to the limit has a very helpful effect. If upon investigation it is\nfound that the family is unable to provide books, material, and clothing, the\ntruant officer has power to purchase necessary supplies, present the bill to\nthe school board who in turn certify the same to the county. The bills thus\ncontracted are ultimately paid by the county.\nIn carrying out this provision many schoolmen find cause for concern.\nA recent study of the administration of poor reUef to school children in\ntwenty-two cities ranging in population from thirty-five hundred to twentytwo thousand, and typical of the cities of the state, reveals a variety of practice\nthat is neither truly charitable, educational, nor economical in its effect.\nThere seems to be little uniformity in the management of relief. One\nis led to believe that in many places inquiry into the merits of cases is lax\nenough to permit the professional pauper to prey upon the community from year\nto year, Reading between the lines of the reports received, one feels that there\nis such a duplication of relief agencies in many communities that the greatest\nextravagance is fostered, both on the part of the giving community and the\nrecipients of the gifts. The school seems to have too slight contact with other\ncharitable and correctional forces in solving the problem of relief and correction\nfor the cities of the state.\nThe difficulty does not seem to lie in any lack of legislation, but in a lack\nof proper co-ordination of forces already in existence to carry the laws we have\ninto effective execution. Some suggestions for the guidance of schools in the\nsolution of this problem should receive consideration.\nThese suggestions, made by Superintendent Fitzgibbon, of Columbus,\nillustrate the methods employed in that city.\nI. Careful investigation should be made to determine whether applicants for help\nare really indigent.\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDIANA\n\nPLAN\n\nFOR\n\nTRUANTS\n\n879\n\n2. Families that are not indigent should not receive help.\n3. Indigent families should be taught economy, so far as possible, in the use of books\nand clothing received.\n4. Poor relief for school children should be administered by the school corporation\nin cities, not by the township trustees. There should be no duplication of agencies in this\nwork.\n5. Practically no clothing, except shoes, should be bought for needy children. Clothing may usually be supplied from well-to-do families glad to donate it.\n6. There is little need of buying textbooks for needy children. An ample supply may\nusually be had from the more fortunate children who have no younger brothers or sisters\nto inherit them.\n7. No child should be permitted to apply for help. In the beginning it is a burden\nand humiliation that should not rest upon him. If followed, it is a dangerous practice\nthat will effectually train him for pauperism. When there is a father in the Indigent family\nhe alone should be permitted to apply for assistance for his children. This burden should\nnot rest upon the mother if she is not the head of the family. The father is usually willing\nto shift this burden to the shoulders of the wife and children. If he is compelled to bear\nsuch burdens, and is able-bodied, he will often find a way to work for his family.\nWhen the parent applies for help, compromise with him by asking him to furnish\npart of it— even a little of it— if you feel he can do so. See that what you know the child\nneeds is actually bought for him. Whenever it can be done, a loan should be made to\nthe father, rather than a gift given to him for his child.\nSome juvenile courts in Indiana have held that the truancy law means not only that\nthe parent shall send the child to school, but that the child shall come provided with proper\nequipment and decently clothed and clean. If this latter condition is not met, they hold\nthat the whole child has not been sent to school and the spirit of the law has been violated.\nWhile this decision has not been tested in higher courts, it has proven effective in many\ncases.\n8. The school should work sympathetically with the city charities and Board of Children's Guardians.\n9. Let relief be so administered at all times that the recipient may feel thru it, in the\nlargest measure, the desirability of being able to help himself.\n\nThese suggestions are not made with the thought that they may be easily\ncarried into practice. There is no royal road to the education of a part of any\ncommunity from papuerism to thrift. The city, however, that has not had\nits tendencies toward pauperism weakened and its strides toward thrift and\nindependence, on the part of its citizens, lengthened from year to year has\nnot received that efficient service from its school that it should expect.\nThe juvenile court in its relation to schools is an important factor in Indiana\nand should be in every state.\nBy an act approved March 10, 1903, we have in Indiana not only the one\njuvenile court at Indianapolis under the wise direction of Judge Stubbs, but also\na juvenile court in each county. This act provides that \"in those counties\nthat do not have a city with 100,000 inhabitants, the judge of the circuit court\nshall be the judge of the juvenile court.\"\nIn other words we have, in effect, juvenile courts which have jurisdiction\nover every county, township, city, town, and village in the state, and the powers\nof the circuit judge, coupled with his powers as juvenile judge, place the whole\ntruancy situation entirely in his hands.\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "88o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Special\n\nFrom this responsibility no circuit judge can escape. A bad truancy situation in a county cannot but be a reflection on the judge who presides as circuit\njudge, for his powers extend not only to the children but to the parents of the\nchildren.\nWherever this situation is appreciated and its principles applied, the\nschool authorities have found this enactment effective.\nThe influence of an interested judge willing to lend the majesty of the\nlaw to the work of the schoolmaster is a very strong \"big stick\" to hold over\nparents who are not moved by any other sense of responsibility.\nThe following letter from Judge Montgomery, of Clark County, will be\nsubmitted as evidence of its effectiveness.\nDear Sir:\nIn the last year we have had hardly any trouble with truants. Whether it is good luck\nor the reason of the plan followed I am unable to say. However, I believe we have the\ncorrect system.\nI have insisted that the prosecuting attorney hold parents accountable for truants.\nIt is the duty of the parent to require children to go to school and to make it a misdemeanor\nfor 'them to fail. That being the case, I have corrected a great many cases of truancy\nby bringing parents into court under the charge of permitting children to commit truancy.\nIf this does not succeed, and occasionally there is a case when the parents are not able to\ncontrol the truant, I proceed against the truant himself. More cases I have cured by\nsuspending sentence and requiring some known officer of the court to visit the schoolroom\noccasionally and inquire concerning the boy or to visit the home with similar purpose.\nI have never found it necessary to bring a truant into court after suspending sentence,\nif he is followed up for a reasonable length of time.\nI have found it necessary in but few cases to pass judgment on a truant and send\nhim to any of the state schools. This, in brief, is our procedure, and as I see it now it is\nvery successful.\nH. C. MONTGOIVIERY\n\nBy the provision of the law establishing the juvenile court, the judge is\nauthorized to appoint probation officers, one of whom is paid, and as many\nmore as will serve voluntarily. This has proven in line with the Indiana plan\nof probation which has attracted the attention of the leaders in reformatory\nwork. This probation officer follows up the ruling of the judge and has authority to see that the child lives up to the requirement. If a truant child, a report\nsimilar to the following is usually employed:\nName of Probationer.\nAddress\nAttendance\n\nConduct\n\nMonday\nTuesday . . .\nWednesday.\nThursday . .\nFriday\nSignature of teacher\nSchool No\nGrade\n\nWeek ending .\n\nRemarks\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDIANA\n\nPLAN\n\nFOR\n\nTRUANTS\n\n88i\n\nThe forms indicated here are the ones approved for use in Indiana and are\nfurnished by the State Board of Charities. The working-out of this plan in\nMadison County under the direction of Superintendent Pittenger, of Alexandria, and Mrs. Pittenger as probation officer is typical of the best work\ndone in the state.\nSome facts taken from the work in Madison County may be used to show\nhow the juvenile court and probation officer benefit the school. In the county\nthere are at this time thirty-one persons reporting to the probation officer.\nFourteen of the thirty-one are in the public schools. Their attendance is\nperfect and there is no complaint concerning their conduct. Every one of the\nfourteen is doing better in school than he did before being placed on probation.\nThe teachers of probationers work with the probation officers to make the\ncondition in the school as favorable as possible.\nOne of the greatest benefits to the schools is the fact that the probation\nofficer is on the ground and that the law is being enforced. Many would-be\noffenders are kept in check by that alone and many parents take more responsibility for the conduct of their children as they come to understand the meaning of the law.\nSome parents who feel that they are losing control over their children\nappeal to the probation officer for help, and in some cases a single visit has\nbrought very satisfactory results.\nOne of the most helpful agencies in the handUng of the truants and paupers\nis the Board of Children's Guardians which works with the probation officers.\nAn act passed by the legislature m 1 901 provides that in each county in the\nstate a board composed of six persons, three of whom shall be women, may\nbe appointed by the circuit judge and be known as the Board of Children's\nGuardians of the County. They shall have the care and supervision of\nneglected and dependent children.\nAn act passed in 1907 defines a dependent child as \"any boy under the age\nof sixteen or any girl under the age of seventeen, who is dependent upon the\npublic for support, or who is destitute, homeless, or abandoned.\" A neglected\nchild is \"any boy under the age of sixteen, or any girl under the age of seventeen, who has not proper parental care or guardianship; or who habitually\nbegs or receives alms; or who is found living in any house of ill-fame or with\nany vicious or disreputable person; or who is employed in any saloon; or\nwhose home by reason of neglect, cruelty, or depravity on the part of its\nparents, or guardian, or other person in whose care it may be is an unfit place\nfor such child; or whose environment is such as to warrant the state, in the\ninterest of the child, in assuming its guardianship.\"\nSuch children are usually a problem to the public schools. It is difficult\nto keep them in school regularly; they are often offensively unclean; they are\nusually not supplied with books, and often they are of low moral tone. The\nBoard of Children's Guardians gives great help to the schools by providing for\nsuch children.\nIn many cases a conference with parents when they are\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "882\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nthreatened with prosecution for contributing to the dependency of their children is all that is necessary; in other cases the fear that the children may be\ntaken away from them will improve the conditions. In some cases the conditions are such that the board is convinced that the children have no chance\nand they proceed to take them.\nA petition is filed by the attorney for the board with the judge of the juvenile\ncourt (Petition of Board of Children's Guardians, Form C, No. 1551), in which\nthe' reasons are definitely stated.\nWherefore, the board of Children's Guardians of\nCounty petition the Court\nto order that said child\nbe committed to the custody of said Board.\nThe Board of Children's Guardians of\n\nCounty.\nBy\n\nAttorney\n\nOn the order of the judge a writ is sent to the person having charge and\ncustody of the child.\nForm K. — Writ for Neglected or Dependent Child and for Use of Board of Children's\nGuardians. — No. 1561.\n\nCommanding\ncourt.\n\nthe parent to bring the child before the judge of the juvenile\n\nIn case the Board of Children's Guardians believe that a child for whom\nthey have petitioned will be carried out of the jurisdiction of the court they\npetition the judge as follows:\nForm. G. — Board of Children's Guardians. Affidavit of Officer for Possession of\nChild.— No. 1557.\n\nBy the affidavit it is asked that a warrant be issued to the sheriff of the\ncounty directing him to take charge of such child and bring him before the\njudge.\nIf the judge grants the petition he issues an order to the sheriff giving him\ncustody of the child until disposition is made of the case.\nThis order is:\nForm E. — Order to Take Child into Custody upon Petition of Board of Children's\nGuardians. — No. 1559.\n\nIf on hearing the case the judge finds that the best interest of the child\nshall be served by making it a public ward, he shall, do so by making it a ward\nof the court, of the Board of Children's Guardians, or of the Board of County\nCommissioners, and he shall order that it shall be placed in a suitable home.\nThe following decree of guardianship is issued:\nCounty Juvenile Court.\n, Ind.,\n19\nUnder the provision of an act approved February 23, 1907, defining a dependent child\nand a neglected child\nit is hereby adjudged a dependent (neglected) child\nand made a ward of\n\nCounty, Board of Children's Guardians, or \\\nBoard of County Commisioners, or >•\nJuvenile Court\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDIANA\n\nPLAN\n\nFOR\n\nTRUANTS\n\n883\n\nto be temporarily cared for in the proper institution until a suitable home is found for it\nin a private family by the guardian herein named, by the Board of State Charities, as the\nlaw provides.\nJudge\n\nThe Board of Children's Guardians was organized in Madison County in\n1902. Thru investigation and by advising parents and guardians and\ncalling their attention to the laws they have improved the conditions surrounding many children without taking them from their homes.\nA number of children have been taken by the board and placed in good\nprivate homes where they have equal chances with other children. Practically\nall of them, under the conditions in which they were living, were detrimental\nto the public schools.\nAccording to the Eighteenth Annual Report of the Indiana Board of State\nCharities:\nFifty-four counties have Boards of Children's Guardians, and probation ofl&cers\nhave been appointed in fifty-four counties. The importance of the work of these boards\ncannot be estimated. It means a real help. Every effort counts for the welfare of some\nunfortunate.\n\nMuch of what is submitted in this paper is taken from the Report of\nCommittee on Delinquent and Dependent Children, of which committee the\nreader had the responsibility of being chairman. The recommendation of\nthat body was as follows:\nYour Committee recommends that every superintendent of schools should become\nfamiliar with the laws concerning juvenile courts, probation officers, boards of children's\nguardians, and the care of dependent and neglected children; that you insist that the laws\nconcerning dependent and neglected children be enforced; that if the law does not require\na parent, if he is financially able, to equip his children for successful work, you should\nurge its amendments in such a manner as to compel him to do so or be guilty of contributing\nto the dependence of his children; that you urge the judge of your counties to appoint\nboards of children's guardians and probation officers if they have not already done so.\nSchool officials, neighbors, and even the police are slow about interfering with family\naffairs in the interest of children even when the most distressing and dangerous conditions\nsurround them, and it is our duty to see that officials be appointed whose duty it is to look\nafter those who are helpless.\n\nBut someone asks, ''Is this a part of the duty of the schoolmaster ?\" Shall\nwe not rather look upon it as a great opportunity ?\nIn the great Book of Books we find that the first man born on this earth was\nCain and the first question of that first man was ''Am I my brother's keeper ?\"\nShall the same be the last question of the last man ? The answer is largely\nin the hands of the schoolmaster.\nWould that it were in my power adequately to praise the work of hundreds\nof loyal teachers in Indiana, whose inspiration and influence are stronger forces\nfor good in overcoming these difficulties than any legal enactment; whose\nlives of devoted service are but the embodiment of that divine affirmation\nthat \" the letter killeth but the spirit maketh alive \" — ^but you know that the\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "884\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nreal acts of charity, or the real uplift of heartfelt sympathy is not a matter of\nstatistics. The time will come when this will be a process of leading, not of\ndriving.\nI like to think of the tribute which was paid to our Hoosier hero. General\nLawton. After his death one of his soldiers said, \" I never heard Lawton\nsay, 'Go on, boys; ' it was always, 'Come on, boys.' \" Would not this be an\ninspiring motto for the schoolmaster as he comprehends the great opportunity\nfor real philanthropic and civic service in behalf of this special class of pupils ?\nDISCUSSION\nJ. M. McCallie, Centennial School, Trenton, N. J.— Usually there is little trouble\nin convincing the tax-paying public that the deaf and the blind children need a special\nkind of education. It is quite another proposition to convince this tax-paying public that\nthe partially blind or the partially deaf also need special education. And the reason for\nthis is that we are not agreed among ourselves as to the prevalence of these conditions.\nIt is no wonder that our figures fail to carry conviction when our tests show that even in\nthe same city, sometimes, the prevalence of defective eyesight or hearing in one borough\nwill be five times as great as in another similarly situated. One of the chief causes for\nthe variation of these statistics is the lack of a uniform standard for measuring vision and\nhearing. I recently made a study of many of the test cards used for testing vision, and\nfound that the letters varied considerably in size. They also varied in style from the plain\nGothic to the complex German type, and these letters were printed on cards varying in\ncolor from glazed white to black. Anyone can see that these variations would produce\nvariations in results.\nI also compared the relative visibility of a set of Snellen letters with the illiterate E\nwhich was of the same dimensions as these letters. Nine hundred a^nd forty eyes were\ntested with each set under exactly the same conditions. Both kinds of letters were supposed to have been seen at i6 feet by the normal eye. My test showed that the largest\nnumber of eyes saw the letters at 14 feet, while the illiterate E was seen by the largest\nnumber of eyes at 24 feet. Yet we have been using these two measures supposing that\nthey were equal ! Is not this a convincing argument in favor of the adoption of a standard\nfor testing vision ?\nTo eliminate some of the sources of error in making vision tests, I have devised two\nsets of cards which have been used very successfully by teachers. One set is for testing\nilliterates, and consists of ten cards 5\"X5\" on which are the pictures of a boy, a bear, a cat,\nand a girl, all playing ball. The ball is a dot which can be seen at a certain distance.\nFirst one and then the other gets the ball as the cards are changed. The child watches the\ncards and tells each time which has the ball. He enters into the fun of the game and has\nhis eyes tested without his knowing it.\nThe other set is for testing pupils who know their letters. It consists of twelve cards,\n5^X5\", having letters of different sizes so arranged on them that their order can never\nbe remembered as they are presented one by one to the pupils. Both of these sets are to\nbe used by the teacher, and, preferably, in her own schoolroom in the presence of all her\npupils. These cards enable the teacher to make tests much more rapidly than by the\nordinary tests.\nTests of hearing are usually made by my watch or by the voice test. More varying\nstandards could hardly be selected. No two watches tick the same and no one watch\nwill tick the same at any two times — its loudness varies with the amount it is wound up\nor run down. As to the voice, who will say that the loudness, pitch, and quality of John\nSmith's voice in Maine is the same in loudness, pitch, and quality as the voice of Mary\n\nS\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department}\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF DEAF,\n\nBLIND,\n\nAND\n\nFEEBLE-MINDED\n\n885\n\nJones, of Mississippi ? Yet we gather statistics made by such tests and wonder why\nthey differ so widely. To overcome these sources of error, I have devised a simple audiometer, the operation of which is based upon the simple fact that the loudness of sound\nvaries when the opening thru which it passes varies. It consists of a sound-proof castiron box about 4j\"X4j\"X4j\", containing a device for making a constant sound. The\nconstant sound is produced by a metal hammer falling from a given height. The only\nway for this sound to escape is thru a V-shaped opening in the roof of the box, and then\nthru a three-way valve into stethoscope tubes to the ears. The three-way valve directs\nthe sound into either ear separately or both ears at the same time, thus enabling one to\ntest both ears at once or each separately. By turning a graduated wheel, the size of the\nV-shaped opening can be varied at will and the figure to which the index points indicates\nthe loudness of the sound passing thru. This audiometer is so simple and easy of operation that it can be used by the ordinary teacher in her own room in the presence of all her\npupils. Ordinary street or schoolroom noises do not prevent its successful operation.\nPupils above the third grade may be tested at the rate of about one a minute. While this\ninstrument was constructed primarily for school use, yet the thousands of tests that have\nbeen made by it prove that it is equally valuable for the accurate work required in psychological laboratories and by aurists.\nIt is hoped that these test cards and this audiometer will help to point the way toward\nusable standards for testing vision and hearing, and thereby obtain statistics that will\nbe reliable and will admit of comparison.\n\nTHE\nL.\n\nE.\n\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION OF THE\nAND FEEBLE-MINDED\n\nMILLIGAN,\n\nDEAF, BLIND,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF MONTANA\nSCHOOLS\nFOR\nAND BACKWARD\nCHILDREN,\nBOULDER,\nMONT.\n\nDEAF,\n\nBLIND,\n\nTen years ago almost nothing was said of industrial education in papers\nread before the National Educational Association. This year, from the address\nof our President thruout the program, the cry of a commercial age is given\ndeserved attention. The pendulum of this movement, like that of all movements in the past, will swing backward and forward until it reaches its proper\nbalance, but I believe it will remain much nearer its present position than any\nplace it has occupied in the last decade.\nGetting our daily bread is the serious problem we all must face; therefore\nI would state, as the keynote of this paper, any education that does not aim to\nincrease a child's ability to earn a living is misdirected.\nA classical education is a beautiful thing. It enables us to ramble down the\nvistas of history, and pluck the fruit that has ripened there; but this kind of\nknowledge is like the gingerbread work around the eaves of a building — highly\nornamental, no doubt, but it doesn't help to support the building. I don't\nknow of a more pitiable object than a boy just out of college looking for something big enough for him to do. He is told that the world is his oyster, but\nhe hasn't even a hairpin with which to open it.\nToday the man in the overalls is the man who is earning good wages. A\ngraduate of Johns Hopkins who is earning $8 . 00 per day as a brickmason was\npointed out to me a short time ago in Butte. He is a contented man. The\nother day I went down in our engine-room and picked up the book that the\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "886\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nhead engineer was reading during his leisure moments.\n\n[Special\n\nImagine my surprise\n\nwhen I found it was Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. I do not know what\nKant has to say about cleaning fire-tube boilers, but I do know that we have\nthe best steam plant in the state of Montana, and that a man does not have\nto have clean hands and a white collar to be a scholar and a gentleman.\nThe schools for the deaf, blind, and feeble-minded have been pioneers in\ntrade teaching. Eighty years ago the eariy schools for the deaf emphasized\nthis work. Fifty years ago the schools for the blind took it up, and a little\nlater the schools for the feeble-minded established industrial departments.\nThere is not a state school for special education in the country that is not\ndevoting from two to eight hours a day in teaching the pupils to work with\ntheir hands. To this fact, more than any other, I attribute the success in after\nlife of such a large percentage of the graduates of the deaf and blind schools.\nThey have demonstrated at Yale University that exercising the left arm also\nincreased the strength of the right, and that increasing the physical vigor gives\nadditional power of attention and concentration to the brain.\nMontana is the only state in the union where the three lines — deaf, blind,\nand feeble-minded schools — are concentrated under one management. When\none has to spread a given amount of butter over three slices of bread it is bound\nto be thin in places; but, profiting by the experience and mistakes of the older\ninstitutions, we are trying to make our butter count.\nTrade teaching to the deaf. — I will not weary you with a list of the trades\ntaught in the various schools in the United States. These lists may be found\nin the American Annals of the Deaf, published at Washington, D. C; in the\nOuUook for the Blind, published at Boston; and in the Journal of Psychoasthenics, published at Faribault, Minn. The deaf also support and are the\nchief contributors to the American Industrial Journal of the Deaf published\nat Delavan, Wis.\nAll of the trades taught have their educational value. Printing helps the\npupil probably more than any other trade in gaining a command of language.\nWe look on it with disfavor in Montana, because so small a percentage of\nthe boys follow the trade when they graduate. We teach Sloyd to the smaller\npupils in all three schools, and try to impress upon the minds of the children\nthat it is better to be bom careful than rich.\nIn the degree with which our deaf pupils have met success after their\nschool days, I will place the leading trades in the following order: (i) farming\nand dairying; (2) carpentry and painting; (3) cobbling and shoenlaking;\n(4) printing.\nFarming is frequently followed because the parents of the pupils are largely\nengaged in that occupation.\nCarpentry and painting are taught together with us, because the pupils\ndo nearly all the repair work that is being done around the schools and there\nis always a good demand for this kind of work.\nThis summer our deaf foreman and his pupils are erecting a $5,000 dairy\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF DEAF,\n\nBLIND,\n\nAND\n\nFEEBLE-MINDED\n\n887\n\nbarn. The entire building, including the plans and cement work, will be\ndone with deaf help.\nCobbling, with shoe and harness making, has proved profitable in all the\nschools. There are a number of successful deaf printers and linotype operators. In connection with the general education of the deaf we are placing a\ngreat deal of stress on a business education.\nI do not approve of the intermarriage of the deaf with the hearing, but\nmarriages of the deaf with the deaf, provided both are not congenitally mute,\nnearly always turn out happily. We are endeavoring to teach our girls the\ndomestic virtues, so that their future husbands will have no cause to complain\nof their school training. Have you ever noticed that a girl who is a good\npenman is nearly always a good seamstress ? Excellence in any line of manual\ntraining is bound to react on the school work.\nThe blind. — ^With the blind we face a most difficult problem. Threefourths of our education is gained thru the ear, so along literary lines the blind\nare at small disadvantage. In learning trades their obstacles are insurmountable. A certain number of the blind will be successful no matter what trade\nthey follow. For instance, we had a Smith Premier typewriter that had been\nknocked off a table and landed on the keys. It was a complete wreck. One\nof our blind boys, however, took some spokes out of an old bicycle and fixed\nup the typewriter so that it again did duty in the schoolroom. I have no fears\nfor this boy's future. On the other hand there are some of the blind who can\nnever make a living. They are the born incompetent and would be failures\nhad they perfect sight. All superintendents of blind schools have racked\ntheir brains to find profitable ernployment for the mass of blind pupils. Broommaking has been revolutionized with the introduction of machinery and brooms\ncan no longer be profitably made by hand. A few days ago I visited the\nChicago Working Home for the Blind. They have about eighty blind\ninmates, with twenty seeing employees to assist them. The institution is\nwell managed and they turn out a large number of brooms, but it runs\nat an annual loss of between four and five hundred dollars per inmate.\nBroom-making is of value in strengthening the fingers, and for this reason\nwe have just installed a new outfit. As a means of livelihood for the blind,\nit is a failure.\nWe have two graduates who make from twelve to fifteen hundred dollars\na year with their music. We also have three who are supporting themselves\nas piano- tuners. These are exceptional cases. In spite of the popular\nopinion that the blind are musical geniuses, many of them cannot strike a\nnote correctly.\nJapan has given the blind a monopoly on the trade of masseuring. This\nline of work is being tried out in New York. I see no reason why a blind man\nwould not make a successful osteopath or Christian Scientist.\nIt is only in the purely mental fields of endeavor, where the blind are not\nseriously handicapped, that we must look for successful occupations for them.\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "888\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nWe are only increasing their capacity for suffering if we broaden their culture,\nwithout giving them some outlet for their energy.\nBusiness training should be insisted upon. Their judgment and reasoning\npowers should be developed. Practice in running a school store has proved\nvery helpful.\nBlind children are notoriously fond of talking. Senator Gore has a\nnational reputation as an orator. Rev. J. H. Milburn was for many years the\nblind chaplain of the Senate. Why not raise the standard of our schools and\neducate the blind for business men, lecturers, ministers, and lawyers ? This\nseems to me, except in occasional instances, to be the most promising field for\nthe blind.\nInstead of herding the adult blind together in working homes, I would\nadvocate a pension system as the most economical for the state and satisfactory\nfor the blind themselves. Working homes have been experimented with\npretty thoroly and are always centers of dissatisfaction. A system of pensions,\nvarying with the needs of the individual and not beginning until the applicant\nis forty years old, would avoid the many disadvantages of a working home, and\nkeep the man with shoestrings or an accordion off the streets.\nThe feeble-minded. — ^Work with '* backward\" children, as we call them in\nMontana, presents many interesting features. We take only the improvable\ngrade at the state school. The idiots are sent to the hospital for the insane,\nwhere they receive custodial care. Some of our children have re-entered the\npublic schools after their bodies have been built up by nourishing food, regular\nexercise, and healthful discipline.\nTrue feeble-mindedness, however, is caused by a brain lesion or a defective\nnerve center. For this there is no cure, but in nearly all cases the child can\nbe trained and his condition improved.\nWe begin with the more helpless children by having them pile the cobblestones with which the town of Boulder is plentifully supplied. Then they\npound a chalk mark on a block of wood. The exercise varies with the ingenuity of the teacher, until the children can handle with reasonable accuracy\nthe shovel, rake, ax, hoe, and saw. Last year the boys sawed and split all\nthe wood used in the kitchen, bakery, and laundry, graded the lawn, and\nhauled four hundred wagon loads of stone off the ranch.\nThis summer we have nine feeble-minded boys at work on the ranch.\nThey milk the cows, clear off sage brush, and keep the garden free of weeds.\nFeeble-minded children, as a class, lack judgment and common-sense. Their\nwork is valuable if they are under constant supervision; left to their own initiative, they accomplish nothing.\nA horse is of no value until he is broken and trained; then, with a good\ndriver he will not only support himself but a man also. A feeble-minded boy\nis in much the same condition until he is trained and directed.\nIt is our object to establish a farm colony for the boys. As fast as they\nreach the limit of their capacity they are transferred from the school to the\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\nYOUTH\n\n889\n\nranch where they can have a good home. There, under skilled supervision,\nthey can aid in supporting themselves and the institution.\nThe girls assist in the sewing-room, kitchen, and laundry. Many forms\nof industrial work have been tried. The most satisfactory have proven to be\nfarm work for the boys and domestic employment for the girls.\nThese days there is no excuse for the child who sits on the bank. The\nwater is fine and everyone has a chance to learn to swim. I am not sure but\nthat our afflicted children, as a whole, have a better chance than the average\nchild.\nMany years ago the watchword of our educational work was Know. Later,\nwhen we realized that character was the foundation of success, it was Be. Now\nthe word heard on all sides is Do, and the greatest of these is Do.\n\nEDWARD\n\nTHE\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nM.\n\nCLEVE,\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nFOR THE BLIND,\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nVAN\n\nFOR THE\n\nBLIND\n\nYOUTH\n\nTHE OHIO\nOHIO\n\nSTATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFor a proposed federal children's bureau, Florence Kelley's statement\nof the need {Charities and the Commons, March 27, 1909, p. 1254) begins with:\n**We want the federal children's bureau to furnish trustworthy current data\nin answer to the following questions, among others: Blind children: How\nmany bHnd children are there in the United States ? Where are they ? What\nprovision for their education is made? How many of them are receiving\ntraining for self-support? What are the causes of their blindness? What\nsteps are taken to prevent blindness ?\"\nIt is significant that questions of this nature should be suggested by a leader\nin the study of social conditions. Already speciaflsts in work for the bHnd had\ninsisted that such inquiries are valuable, and imperative, indeed, if an increasingly numerous body of our people is to be reached and rendered more selfhelpful. The old ideal of philanthropic care for an unfortunate class is being\nreplaced by a social selfish ideal — namely, that the blind must not be deemed\na necessarily helpless part of our citizenship, but, rather, that they should be\nsought out, educated as well as possible, and rendered capable of as much\nself-help as is practicable. Self-respect that comes thru education and thru\nability to eat the bread of independence dignifies any citizen. True philanthropy isthat which exercises itself in giving the other fellow a chance.\nUnquestionably the outlook for the blind youth is better and growing better.\nOne needs but to study the pictorial representations of the schools and their\nappliances in the published reports to be assured of improved material equipment. Whether or not the teaching in these schools is improving only one\nwith years of experience and observation in the work of educating the sightless\nis competent to say; but that observers of intelligence and discernment are\nexpecting better things is evidenced by the gratulatory comment upon the\nfact that in cases of recent change in the headship of several schools for the\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "890\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nblind thruout the country the new man, contrary to custom, had been called\nfrom the work of the ordinary public schools. Out of eight such changes in one\nyear no less than six men of public-school training were brought into these\nspecial schools. A cursory inquiry makes possible the report of increased\nattention to the so-called practical in education of the blind. For example,\nfollowing the lead of the Halifax school, business courses are being offered at\nthe Pennsylvania schools both east and west and at the Ohio school, with\npossibly others, and at the Western Pennsylvania school the business theory\nis being practiced in a small store — items of the children's purchases being\non sale by members in turn of the class in business, an application of the\ncommercial schools' methods, using, however, actual and needed material and\nreal money, instead of supposititious objects of barter and '* college scrip.\"\nWhile musicianship is not an inevitable accompaniment of blindness —\nindeed, the proportion of sightless people who do not even enjoy music is surprisingly large— many find a means of livelihood in performance or teaching.\nHere the outlook is better because the attitude toward the work has changed.\nTime was when most of the work of a school was done for show; the band and\nthe orchestra were extra-prominent features. Ensemble work is practically\nvalueless in preparing the youth to become self-supporting, so the greater\nemphasis is now being laid on learning for teaching or for performance that\nwill pay.\nIndustrial education for the blind was recognized as a part of the state's\nobligation very early. When the Ohio school, the first to be opened as a part\nof the public-school system and exclusively a state project, was established\nin 1837, the legislative act provided for \"instruction in letters and the mechanical arts.\" Trade schools for all children at public expense are now proposed,\na thing that ten years or so ago was considered preposterous. I recall how I\nsustained a distinct shock in reading Dr. Paul Hanus' The Modern School\nwhen I came upon his suggestion that manual training might properly develop\nartisans and, indeed, become in fact, as in effect, training for trades. But\nfor the blind and the deaf, training for a livelihood has been approved from\nthe beginning. What pursuits offer attractive or possible fields of employment for the blind is the ever-recurring problem. For the most part they must\nbe such as the individual can follow. Nearly a century's experimentation has\nshown that in only a few cases have establishments for the employment collectively of blind operatives proved successful in a financial way; yet the sense\nof obligation to furnish opportunities of employment by which such citizens\nmay become partially if not wholly self-sustaining is felt no less strongly by\nattentive private and state interests. Mistakes in past administration are\nbeing pointed out and avoided by those responsible for the newest efforts\ntoward rehabiUtating the artisan who has become sightless, and there is a\nmovement almost nation-wide to provide wisely the means of occupation to\nthe adult blind. The sightless youth who will one day be an adult is deeply\ninterested in this movement, as is his instructor.\nTraditional employments\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\nYOUTH\n\n891\n\nthat are still among the best for boys who must work with the hands are pianotuning, broom-making, basket-making, and cane-seating of chairs. Girls\nhave been employed manually in basket-making, cane-seating, knitting and\nkindred work, and in sewing. Weaving of art fabics has recently been made\na seemingly profitable means of employment for women, notably in Boston\nand Cleveland.\nOur sightless youth about to enter on the struggle for a livelihood and to\nbecome a productive citizen finds his field limited much more by the incredulity of the seeing than by any lack on his part; that is, so long has the impression prevailed that the blind are merely the objects of pity and a dole that it is\nwith the general public a fixed habit of mind. What can he do ? Sometimes\nhe can teach. As teachers of music many have already won notable success\nand many more will add to the record. As tutors, especially of backward\nchildren, they have won golden opinions. The infinite patience of a blind\nteacher whose work for a year came under my observation would put to shame\nany teacher of my acquaintance. And she had four or five children of whom\none might reasonably despair. Not as teacher in charge of the usual publicschool grade, but as tutor or lecturer in higher institutions the sightless youth\nhas a good chance to succeed. Perhaps in answering the question, ''What\ncan he do ?\" I should keep away from the higher professional employments\ntho I could point to successful preachers, doctors, editors, lawyers. These\nare notable men and a rather small percentage of the whole. More young\nmen have the business instinct. For such the outlook is made brighter by\nthe successes of sightless men, won despite the incredulity and unhelpful\ninertia of associates. ' Such a one is a contractor of Cleveland whose business\nis erecting concrete buildings, bridges, and anything made of reinforced\nconcrete. He secures the contracts, figures the material and labor, plans the\noperations of the workmen, is treasurer of his company. He is now engaged\nupon a contract to build a $330,000 manufacturing plant. Taking courage\nby him, one of our boys recently decided he would go into business for himself. He has been for several years an acceptable salesman for a manufacturer\nof flavoring extracts. He now proposes to become manufacturer and sell\nhis own product. Many small businesses furnish a fruitful field for the activities\nof those so inclined.\nA fundamental consideration is brought to mind in the words, \"those so\ninclined.\" A sightless youth has his inclinations and his special qualifications\njust as has his seeing brother. One of our graduates goes out this year with\nhis high-school diploma, a certificate of proficiency as a tuner of pianos, and\nthe diploma which declares him a competent broom-maker. His qualities\nof mind would lead him to some literary work and he will follow such a line\nif he can find a field; otherwise he has two other occupations to fall back upon.\nThe blind youth has been taught and can make well, perhaps, some things\nwith his hands. Making of baskets from willow, and from combinations of\nstraw braid and reed with willow, has proved a practicable employment with\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "892\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nreasonably good return to the blind operative. His best success will be attained\nin the prosecution of this work in his home and selling his product at retail,\nthus securing the profits of the usual two middlemen. In some places he may\nfind occupation in making and renewing hair mattresses. The Boston mattress shop has been in operation for many years.\nThese, then, are some answers to the question, \"What can he do?\" In\neducating for efficiency the girl who is without vision is not lost sight of, and\nmost of the answers to the question of capacity to do things apply to her as\nwell as to the youth. She is just as anxious to be independent, and we are\nteaching her that her hands are capable of useful work. She succeeds well\nas teacher of piano or organ when well equipped; if possessed of courage,\nindependence, and sagacity sufficient, she can find livelihood in canvassing\nor conducting a small business; handwork may secure some remuneration,\ntho the usual woman's handwork has not a very eager market. In many\nmanufacturing plants are processes that a blind girl can effectively work at,\nif she gets the chance. One of our girls works in a box factory beside seeing\noperatives folding cartons and earning a living wage. I have used some of\nour girl pupils in the process of folding circulars and inserting them in envelopes, at which some were able to earn a dollar a day at the rates paid in our\ncity's job-printing offices. From the home-making department of the school,\ncommonly called the domestic-science department, we are sending girls back\nto their homes able and ready to become acceptable helpers in the household\nwork, washing and ironing, cooking, scrubbing, sweeping — in fact, all the\nwork of the housekeeper.\nNot to multiply instances, enough has been said to show that in various\nfields of remunerative effort — and the number of activities in which the blind\nare engaged is much greater than here indicated — our youth are equipped,\neach in his several way, according to his individuality, to be engaged, or are\nalready engaged. The outlook for success is better, I think, because I note a\nchange in the attitude of the youth toward his problem. A speaker before\nthis department said a few years ago in discussing a kindred theme that the blind\nyouth had been nursed and coddled and his work bragged about so much that\nhe had an unhealthy view of his civic and social relations. A diligent inquiry\namong a number of the older boys discloses a realization of this fault, and a new\nview of personal obligation to society and less harboring of the old assumption\nthat the world owes each a living. This is one of the most hopeful signs of the\ntimes and is not confined to a single school, as conversation with other superintendents has shown me.\nBut the better outlook is assured by the opening of the eyes of ''the blind\nsighted people,\" as the general pubUc have been felicitously called. Indications are many that the remarkable utterance of Helen Keller:\nThere is no law on the statute-books compelling people to move up closer on the\nbench of life to make room for a blind brother; but there is a divine law written on the\nhearts of men constraining them to make a place for him, not only because he is unfortunate,\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\nYOUTH\n\n893\n\nbut also because it is his right as a human being to share God's greatest gift, the privilege\nof man to go forth unto his work,\n\nis being heard, and the world is going more and more to exercise its intellect\nin helping to discover ways in which the sightless can be employed, working\nin their own communities, along with seeing people, a part of their own home\nsociety. I was touched by the hopeful spirit of that graduate who said in his\ncommencement address in 1907 that he thought the people in general were\ncoming to realize that a piano is tuned not by the use of the eyes but by the\nexercise of the sense of hearing, and therein he saw his opportunity. I was\npleased to hear not long ago the comparison instituted by a patron of one of\nour music stores. While I was in the store she came in and paid a bill for\nuning her piano. The clerk went for a receipt and while he was gone the\nlady said to her companion, ''This is the last time they can send their man\nto me. Why, the time before I had a blind man and he went over the piano\nand tuned it thoroly, and I never had such a good job done on it.\"\nTeachers of ordinary public schools need to be enlightened, too, that they\nmay come to understand that the problem of educating the blind youth may\nbe, as it should be, a charge not only of the special institutional schools but\nof the home schools also. Institutionalized children lack the social touch that\nrenders them agreeable members of society, we are told, and thus, too, their\nsuccess at remunerative activities is interfered with. Some of this institutionalizing may be overcome if the child at home on vacation is invited and\nurged to attend the home day school the few days he may be at home while it\nis in session, and if the children of the community are influenced to seek out\nin the long vacation play time and draw into their play these boys and girls\nwho need so much this sort of attention. They must be sought out, for timidity\nand reserve are accentuated in them. But the effort will pay in the improvement of the ones thus sought out and in the reflex influence of deeds of unselfish\nkindness done to very needy ones.\nIn another particular is enlightenment sadly needed, yet I approach this\nphase of the subject with some reluctance and speak almost with bated breath.\nEnlightened teachers and public may help to the prevention of much blindness.\nPreventable blindness seems to be increasing. But the outlook is that\nan enlightened public sentiment is about to be aroused that will make for\nbetter things. A superintendent of one of Ohio's state hospitals for the treatment of the sick of mind said to me that if certain precautions of a physical\nkind might legally be taken, within fifty years an insane person would be such\na curiosity that people might be willing to travel hundreds of miles to see one ;\nwhile today Ohio has nearly 12,000 in her state hospitals alone. Organizations ofwomen and men touched by the sense of responsibility for the common\nwelfare and horrified at the disclosures of Dr. F. Park Lewis' committee of\nthe American Medical Association, and state commissions in a half-dozen or\nmore commonwealths are striving to awake the public to the fact that much\nblindness is unnecessary, preventable, and should not be allowed.\nA blind\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "894\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nyouth should be more of a curiosity than he is. This will come about with\ngreater knowledge. Chary as I, superintendent of a state school and possessed\nof knowledge of causes of blindness beyond other teachers, should be in the\nmatter of publication, it appears to be a duty owed to other members of the\nprofession of teaching to advise them of the awful fact that 40 per cent, or\nmore of the blindness in youth is due to the social sin of one or the other of the\nparents, usually the father (sometimes of the grandparents). An educational\norganization afl&liated to our parent National Education Association — the\nSociety for the Scientific Study of Education — has, in the Eighth Yearbook,\nwritten by Professor Henderson, contributed notably to the cause of purity\nand progress. If its publication is widely enough read and the recommendations are followed, social vice is bound to decrease. Tho I am not one who\nbelieves that virtue can be taught — it must be the product of a spiritual activity\nrather than an intellectual — ^yet I believe that the way of virtue may be taught,\nand the guides of youth may so influence choices by inspiration, by warning,\nby precept, by example, by restraint, and even by compulsion that ''the primrose path of dalliance\" may be avoided and the way of clean living be trod,\nto the advantage of the individual and the race.\nPrevention of all unnecessary blindness is a public duty. Education of\nall children, including the sightless, is a public function. Ignorance and\nfalse sympathy of parents, or of the public, must not be permitted to hinder\nsuch well-rounded development as can be secured to these in whose interest I\nspeak. And being trained, the youth must have his chance.\nI am an advocate. I appeal for my clients that so far as possible those who\nhear these words or read them shall in the future lend a helping hand to open\nfor our sightless young men and women the way to honorable employment.\nTeachers are the best hope of a better social order. How much they can do !\nHow much they are called on to do ! And I suggest the additional service to\nthe state and to society that in any community where these who live in physical\nnight may be, the teacher shall search out for such opportunities to become\nuseful members of society. This is the true philanthropy.\nOPEN-AIR\nMRS. IDA HOOD\n\nCLARK,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDIRECTOR OF ELEMENTARY MANUAL\nSCHOOLS, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\n\nTRAINING,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSpeaking to an assembly, every member of which has an intimate knowledge of the conditions and requirements of school children, it is unnecessary\nto point out the advisability of making special provision for the delicate child —\nthe weakling — who attends school only between the intervals of illness, or if\nnot actually compelled to be away from school, is incapable of exertion, either\nmental or physical, necessary to keep up with his comrades. It is true, of\ncourse, that some delicate children are exceptionally intelligent, and do not\ntherefore lose ground, but speaking generally, children in poor health are\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n^\n\n895\n\nbackward, not on account of defective intelligence, but rather from impaired\nvitality arising from a variety of causes, such as underfeeding, organic weakness, or incipient disease. For such physically unfit children, a new type\nof school has been established by Germany and England during the past five\nyears. This is the open-air school, whose aim, briefly, is to teach and cure.\nA very thoro system of school medical inspection has been carried on in most\nparts of the German Empire. This has enabled educational authorities to\nexamine and sift very carefully the large numbers of school children who\nbecome of school age.\nBy means of a system by which every school child is provided with a health\ncard, a regular and comprehensive record of the bodily condition of a child\nis kept during the whole of his or her school life.\nIn course of time, it was found that there was a certain class of children\nwho were suffering from disease and unable to attend school, and it is probable\nthat from 3 to 5 per cent, of all school children in large cities belong to this\nclass. So Germany established these open-air schools. From the hygienic\nstandpoint the children must be brought out into the open air, must be fed\nregularly and properly, given plenty of play and rest, and treated with fresh air exercises, sunshine, and baths.\nThe children selected by the school doctor were those hkely to benefit by\nattending an open-air school and were in general anaemic or debilitated.\nNone suffering from acute or infectious diseases were chosen. Before entering the school, their teeth should be examined and put in order, otherwise\nthey will not derive the proper benefit from their food. About 90 per cent,\nof our schoolchildren suffer from defective teeth, which are also responsible\nfor many other ailments, much unnecessary suffering, and lowered vitality.\nThe first school in Germany was established at Charlottenberg, in a pine\ngrove about three miles from the town. It covers about five acres. The\nbuildings, among which are a number of open-air sheds, are distributed in\na suitable manner. This school has an attendance of about two hundred and\nfifty children.\nThey come in the morning about 8 : 30 and remain until evening. They\nreceive four meals a day, and are compelled to sleep two hours after the midday\nmeal. They are provided with rugs for chilly weather, and capes for rainy\nweather, and whenever it is possible they are kept in the open or under an\nopen shed. The work of the school doctor consists in keeping a careful\nwatch on the bodily condition of the children. He weighs them, constantly\nexamines the heart and lungs, the state of the blood, and the general condition with regard to color, and muscular and flesh development. Plenty of\nmineral, spray, and sun baths are given.\nThe first physical results carried out four years ago, after the first experiment with one hundred children for three months, were remarkable: 23 per\ncent, were cured and 45 per cent, greatly improved.\nThe second experiment, lasting five months, gave still higher percentages\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "896 ^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nof cures and improvements. Nearly half the anaemic cases were cured and\nabout one-third of the]^scrofula cases. More than half the consumptive cases\nshowed great improvement and cases of heart trouble were very much\ndiminished.\nThe increase in weight per child was about six or seven pounds, or about\none-half pound per week per child.\nThe children's bodies also became hardened to some extent by their constant sojourn in the open air so that even in wet and cold weather they scarcely\never suffered from colds.\nThis school is now carried on from April up to Christmas with the snow\non the ground.\nThe educational results were no less remarkable. All the teachers noticed\nan increase of mental attention and alertness. Three months after the\nchildren returned to the ordinary town schools, reports were sent in that in\nall cases they were able to resume and continue their work in a normal manner.\nIn some cases their- progress was even greater than before they had attended\nthe open-air school. These educational results were brought about by small\nclasses of twenty-five children to one teacher, by a reduction of the hours of\nformal instruction, and generally by bringing the instruction into touch with\noutdoor conditions and thus stimulating the children's interest.\nThese are most significant results and_^raise the question as to whether the\ninstruction in the elementary schools could not be given in a different manner,\nand with greater benefit to the children's health and a better utilization of\nthe large sums of money expended on elementary education.\nIf such results can be obtained with debilitated children taken out into\nthe open, their hours of instruction reduced, the number of teachers increased,\nand their health looked after, what could we not hope to attain with normal\nchildren under similar conditions ?\nThe behavior, too, of the children, showed great improvement, especially\nin regard to order, cleanliness, self-help, punctuality, good temper, and kindly\ndisposition — this owing to their isolation from street life, to the constant\nintercourse with teachers outside the formal hours of instruction, and to their\nsharing in the daily tasks of the community.\nThe recognized hours of attendance at the open-air school were from\n9:00 A.M. to 7:00 P.M. Breakfast was served at 9:00; ' lessons occupied\ntime until 12:30; dinner at 1:00 was followed by two hours of perfect\nrest, the children lying either in lounge chairs or on rugs on the ground.\nAbsolute silence was enforced, and sleep encouraged. Lessons again from\n3:30 to 5:00 — tea time — and from 5:00 to 7:00 the time was spent in gardening, games, or any interesting occupation.\nThis long day with the children gave opportunity for the development\nof that sense of corporate life and responsibility so essential to the making of\na good citizen.\nThe daily round of domestic duties required the abnegation of self so\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n897\n\nnecessary to the well-being of a community. This necessitated a good deal\nof labor and devotion on the part of the teachers, but they seemed very enthusiastic and did not begrudge the extra time.\nThe leading principle of the school seemed to be frequent changes from\nwork to play, reading, singing, and rest, with constant stimulation of interest.\nIn America we have now, as a part of our regular school curriculum,\nschool excursions, school camps, vacation schools, country schools, school\ngardens, etc. Each has its own particular line and scope, but we must not\nconfound open-air schools with these. The open-air school with its scheme\nof three to six or more months of continuous outdoor instruction together with\nits careful attention to every detail of nutrition and health is by far the most\nsystematic and comprehensive form of outdoor school life, altho it may lack\nsome opportunities of work and interest afforded by other forms of open-air\neducation.\nThe movement, of course, contains nothing new. The principles underlying ithave been preached by Emerson, Herbart, Froebel, Luther, Pestalozzi,\nComenius, Bacon, Rousseau, and many others in modern times. Comenius said, \"As far as possible, men are to be taught to become wise, not\nby books, but by the heavens, the earth, oaks and beeches; that is, they must\nlearn and examine the things themselves, and not the testimony and observations ofothers about the things.\"\nNow, why do we want as much outdoor instruction as we can get out of\nour present school system ? Because our children on leaving school should\nbe bright, alert, resourceful, in touch with actual conditions, with some power\nof initiative and plenty of brain hunger. We can attain this best by abandoning as far as possible the old methods of instruction by words and basing\nas much of the instruction as possible upon appeals to sight, sound, touch,\nand movement, bearing in mind that the areas of the brain which control\nmuscular development develop much earlier than the higher brain centers.\nSo we must clear spaces in our educational area where children can actually\nlive thru and act simple human activities. Just as we provide laboratories\nfor science instruction, so must we provide outdoor sites and activities as a\nnecessary complement to indoor or desk instruction.\nAs carried on at present, European open-air schools are rather open-air\nrecovery schools. Later, without any doubt, we should establish open-air\nschools for healthy children. If such results can be secured with debilitated\nand sick children by open-air school treatment, what may we not attain\nwith healthy children under similar conditions and methods ?\nNow for the curriculum of the open-air schools. For health purposes, the\nordinary formal instruction must be reduced one-half and the children given\ntwo hours of complete rest. This loss in length of formal instruction can be\nmet by small classes not exceeding twenty-five, and by teaching many of the\nsubjects in the open in actual touch with actual conditions. Briefly speaking,\nmost of the morning instruction should be devoted principally to reading,\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "898\n\n'NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nwriting, some drawing, and a little of the principles of arithmetic. The length\nof the lessons should not exceed thirty-five or, at the most, forty minutes.\nThe rest of the morning and a great part of the afternoon as a rule should be\ndevoted to the practical teaching of history, geography, nature-study, practical arithmetic, and so forth. Here every possible activity should be brought\ninto play to aid the instruction. Digging, gardening, acting, singing, drawing,\nplanning, measuring, and building, the fashioning of tools, apparatus, pottery,\ncare of animals, order, cleanliness, bodily fitness, and sharing in the work of\nthe community should be among their daily tasks. Teachers will arrange\nthe subjects to suit their individual schools, but care must be taken to carry\non very thoroly the formal instruction in reading, writing, some drawing,\nand some principles of arithmetic.\nIt is important to remember that an open-air school is not only a physical,\nbut also an educational, institution, and that both aspects of the school are\nequally important. The children's health will of course improve, owing to\nthe regular feeding and improved surroundings, but unless care is exercised,\nthe educational aim will be neglected.\nIn arithmetic, the children should be provided with tape measures and\nuse them as much as possible. They should base their sums on actual outdoor\nmeasurements, made by themselves, and not merely manipulate abstract\nfigures. The whole of the surroundings and daily life of the school can be\ndrawn upon for suitable examples.\nGeography should be taught as much as possible in the open. Relief\nmaps may be made to scale in sand and the configuration of the surrounding\ncountry explained. An immense amount of geographical instruction can be\nimparted with the help of a rivulet or a stream.\nIn teaching history, the children should be taught to act historical episodes,\nas much as possible, using their own words. In England in one school I\nsaw the children begin by living the life of the prehistoric people. They\nwere cave dwellers, and prepared and used the primitive implements in the\nstone age. They became lake dwellers, fished in the most primitive fashion, and\nmade the rough pottery of the period and baked it in the sun. Experimenting\nwith firesticks and flint to produce fire were fascinating occupations. They\nemerged from these days before history to more modern times, became worshipers ina Druid temple, discovered that, for purposes of protection, it was\nadvisable to form a village community and that for purposes of government\na chief must be chosen. The children constructed the necessary buildings for\neach period, including cave, lake dwelling, wigwams, log huts, and Norman\nkeep. All but the last-named were large enough for the children to live in.\nNature-study, as a matter of course, was an important feature in the school.\nThe truest means of knowing Nature is to live with her, and in the open-air\nschool this opportunity of being continuously in close communion with Nature\nwas given. The children were bathed in sunlight, fanned by the summer\nbreezes,\ntheir nostrils gratified by the perfume of many blossoms,\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n899\n\ntheir ears charmed by bird songs, and nature-study became a spontaneous action, not a time-table lesson. The flowers, shrubs, and trees\nbecame familiar friends. The kitchen garden, overrun with weeds of three\nor four years' growth, gave a splendid field of observation and collection until\nstern necessity demanded the uprooting of these misplaced plants and the\nsubstitution of more useful specimens intended on a future date for home\nconsumption. This same kitchen garden gave material for nature-study\nof a rather unwelcome kind, for the caterpillars, flies, worms, and beetles which\nattacked part of the crop, altho interesting as studies, rather upset the domestic\ncalculations. The life history of some of these and other creatures from the\ngarden was carefully followed from specimens collected and kept in the school\nmuseum, which was only a glass porchway leading from the house into the\ngrounds.\nFrequent short tours of discovery were made in the neighborhood which\nresulted in establishing homes for various frogs, toads, dragon fly, scorpions,\nand other forms of pond life. In these expeditions, whether for the purpose\nof nature-study or general observation, the children were provided with a\nhectographed map of the district to be covered and, with the sun-dial and\ncompass, found their way, being only assisted in case of dire necessity.\nGardening, cane weaving, and clay modeling were selected as the most\nsuitable forms of manual work; and one need not enlarge upon the value of\nsinging and physical exercises in the open.\nThe chief aim was for the right use of the abundant and varied material\nby which they were surrounded, so that the children might receive the greatest\npossible good, physically, mentally, and morally.\nIn this school in England, the teacher and children took charge of the\ncaretaker's baby, with the thought that what was good for delicate school\nchildren might benefit a sickly infant, so to the softening influence of nature\nwas added the humanizing influence of a little child. The first week or two\nthe baby was too ill for the children to do more than take turns in watching\nhim, noting carefully the remedies applied for his relief. Afterward the elder\nchildren were taught how to bathe, dress, and generally care for an infant of\ntender age, and especially was impressed upon them the necessity for proper\nfeeding. If every man and woman understood the duty due to their children,\nthere would certainly be a greater number of useful citizens in our country.\nAt all events, the older children in the school learned that pork, peas, pudding,\nand pickles do not form a suitable diet for children up to twelve months\nold.\nWhen the children return to the ordinary school, they should not be judged\nentirely by the standard generally applied to school children taught by book\nmethods. Increased mental alertness and receptiveness, and greater application and resourcefulness should be taken into account in estimating\ntheir progress.\nMuch time, work, and patience will be_necessary before we attain definite\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "poo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nmethods and conditions in open-air teaching on a large and comprehensive\nscale. Highly qualified and resourceful teachers will be required. The work\nis also exhausting at the beginning, as the teachers are with the children during\nthe whole of the day.\nA few points may be mentioned as likely to arise out of open-air teaching.\nOne is a question of size of classes. Open-air school teaching cannot be\ncarried on with large classes: first, because of difficulty in supervising large\nclasses in the open; second, because the children's interest is awakened to\nsuch an extent that questions pour forth in a ceaseless flood. It is a most\nimportant part of a teacher's work to answer children's questions and to\nstimulate them by every means in her power, and this is possible only in small\nclasses. Then, too, much of the instruction is based on sight, movement,\ntouch, and various activities, and is therefore equally impossible in large\nclasses.\nGerman and English authorities believe that when more open-air schools\nhave been established, it would be of the greatest benefit to the ordinary school\nto bring about a constant interchange of teachers between the two types of\nschool. There might be a constant flow of teachers from the ordinary school\nthru the open-air school and back to the ordinary school. In this way many\nof the open-air methods would be made known and become popular with the\nordinary school. Financially there is no doubt that the open-air school movement will exercise an influence on the position of future school buildings.\nFor hygienic reasons we shall cease to build schools in congested areas, where\nplaygrounds and open, quiet surroundings are impossible. We shall try to\nbuild such schools around parks and open spaces, and see if the transit difficulties can be surmounted by the laying-down of car lines not only in regard\nto the conveyance of adults but also in regard to the position of the schools\nand conveyance of school children.\nThe tendency in the construction of school buildings in the near future\nshould be to expend less on bricks and mortar and more on playgrounds and\nhygienic and educational apparatus.\nAt the present time we seem to have only two alternatives in the erection\nof elementary school buildings: either we must put up fine buildings, great\ntemples of learning, which will show to future generations our zeal in education\nand our taste in architecture, or, anticipating the great coming changes in\neducation and the probable shifting of the population in large cities, we must\nfrankly abandon this idea and build simple buildings calculated to last about\nthirty years, but fulfilling all requirements of course in regard to heating,\nlighting, ventilation, drainage, aesthetic appearance, and so forth. Many\nschool buildings of the future might very well be built with a ground floor only,\nor one story high, with an open-covered and well-lighted veranda, if possible\nbuilt on to each schoolroom.\nIt is an error to assume that children in poor, congested areas should have\na school at their door. Their school should face a park or open space or be\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n•\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nBOOKS\n\n901\n\non the outskirts of a city. The transit diflSculty could be solved by choosing\nthe site with referenee to the street cars, or putting the car lines down with\nreference to the schools. Cars taking full loads to the heart of the town in the\nmorning and returning empty could be utilized for school transit; conversely\nin the evening.\nSchool children might ride free of charge in municipal cars.\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON BOOKS AND TESTS PERTAINING\nTO THE STUDY OF EXCEPTIONAL AND MENTALLY\nDEFICIENT CHILDREN\nYour committee, consisting of the undersigned, appointed by the president of the Department of Special Education, during the Denver meetings,\nto prepare a list of the best books and appropriate workable apparatus and\ntests pertaining to the work of educating exceptional children, beg to submit\nthe following report which is somewhat incomplete on account of limited time\nfor preparation and space for publication.\nAPPARATUS\n\nAND\n\nTESTS\n\nTo select workable apparatus and suggest tests for use in determining\ngrades and degrees of abnormality in children, which, in the hands of those\ndevoid of technical training, will give promise of yielding serviceable and\nfairly accurate working data, is obviously difficult, if not wholly impossible.\nIndeed, to the minds of the committee, it is quite problematical whether those\nuninitiated ought to attempt independently any more extended use of apparatus\nor tests than to determine some of the relatively obvious sensory deficiencies,\nnervous disturbances, or mental abnormalities. In dealing with such a\ncomplex, compactly organized being as a child, a little knowledge is not\nonly dangerous, but curative treatment in the hands of the unskilled is ordinarily fraught with grave consequences. Really, about as much as an ordinary\nteacher or supervisor may do with impunity, and practicable results, is to\nexamine for some of the grosser eye and ear defec s, look for symptoms of\nnervous disorganization or disintegration, make uncomplicated fatigue tests,\nsecure records of the children's height and weight as indices of growth and\nrelative maturity, and employ some rough tests for grading extreme degrees\nof subnormal'ty.\nVision. — It seems clear to the committee that a teacher should undertake\nto assume nothing beyond an advisory interest in a child's visual organs.\nIn no other regard, perhaps, does quackery lead to such fatal results as when\nchildren are fitted with glasses wholly unsuited to the nature of their ocular\ndefects. Often they are compelled to go about suffering a martyrdom, which\nfrequently permanently destroys the efficiency of vision, or worse, leads to\nnervous collapse and a breaking of the entire physical organism. Still it\nmust not be forgotten that neglected eye defects oftentimes lead to a similar\nresult. A teacher should consequently be able to detect in the gross se ious\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "902\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n•\n\n[Special\n\ndeficiencies in the functioning of the visual organs, and interest, direct, and\nurge parents in matters leading to their correction\nOne of the most common tests of vision is for deficiencies as regards the\nrecognition of distant objects, or of writing on a distant blackboard, or of\nprinted matter in a book held at least twelve inches from the eyes.\nThe standard test for distant vision is what is known as the Snellen Letter\nor the Snellen Illiterate Test. Before attempting this test, or indeed any of\nthe vision tests to be suggested below, the teacher should familiarize himself\nthoroly with the directions given in any standard work on the eye. (Hartridge, Refraction, G. Churchill & Co., London, 1903, is perhaps as good as\nany.)\nIn use with mentally defective children the illiterate test-card in general\nhas been found to yield the most satisfactory results. With one of the eyes\ncovered, the child stands at a fixed distance of six meters (20 ft.) from the eye\nchart and turns the outline \"E,\" which he holds in his hand, so that its general\ndirection will correspond with that of the ''E\" on the card to which the examiner points. The examiner begins at the top of the test-card and proceeds\ndownward as far as the child's vision will permit. The number of the line\nreached will thus constitute the denominator of a fraction whose numerator\nis six (the standard distance), and this fraction roughly is the index of the\nvisual acuity of the eye in question. A visual acuity of less than two-thirds,\neven in the absence of other symptoms, should cause a teacher to report to\nparents that the eyes of their children ought to receive the attention of an oculist.\nFar-sightedness (Hypermetropia), that is, difficulty in seeing objects or\nreading matter at a distance less than twelve inches from either eye, may be\nadvantageously tested, in a rough way, by determining the nearest point at\nwhich the small print of an ordinary newspaper begins to blur. Unless the\nprint stands out clearly not farther away than twelve inches, the case should\nbe reported to the parents, and in turn to an oculist. Children generally will\nbe able to see the print clearly at a distance from six to eight inches from the\neye. (For ill effects arising from far-sightedness, the reader is referred to\nDr. Swift's chapter on ''Reflex Neurosis\" in The Mind in the Making, Scribners, 1908).\nAnother characteristic and extremely common visual defect arises from an\nasymmetry in the form of the eyeball, and is known as astigmatism. To detect\nthe type and degree of astigmatic vision, however, is always difficul even for\nan oculist, so obviously a teacher's intimation of its presence in a child should\ncome indirectly. If the child complains of headaches, if he is nervous or\nrestless, if he appears to be working under a strain or tension, if he is dull and\nlistless, and indifferent to study, it is always wise to have the eyes examined\nby a competent oculist, to determine whether there be not present some\ngrave visual defect. But charts and other direct devices for testing astigmatism, in the opinion of the committee, are safe only in the hands of those\nwho have been carefully trained in their use. (See any good text on refraction.)\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nBOOKS\n\n903\n\nHearing. — Devices and methods for testing auditory acuity have been\nprojected in considerable numbers. Among mechanical devices the watch\ntest, because of its wide use, must be. given foremost rank. The acuity of\nthe ear in question is determined, with this method, by the distance that the\ntick of the watch can be heard, as compared with normal ears. To take the\nplace of the watch, an Austrian professor (PuUitzer) devised an instrument\nconsisting of a small hammer falling upon a metallic rod from a constant\nheight. Then to eliminate the factors arising from extraneous noises due to\nthe extreme distances called for in these two methods, and the errors due to\nsound reflection, McCallie (see Training School, 1908) places the Pullitzer\ninstrument (or a modification of it) in a sound-proof box, and conducts the\nsound to the ear thru rubber tubes, the quantity of sound reaching the ear\nbeing regulated by varying the dimensions of the apertures leading into the\ntubes. Space forbids a discussion of the merits or deficiencies of any of the\nabove. Suffice to say they give relative results only, and such, indeed, as a\nteacher might ordinarily detect without the use of any apparatus.\nIn Germany aurists generally employ for testing hearing an elaborated\nscheme of tuning forks, sometimes quantitatively graduated, often not. Proessor Seashore, of the University of Iowa, has on the market an electrical\ninstrument, wherein a sound caused by the opening and closing of an electric\ncircuit is transmitted to the ear thru an ordinary small telephone receiver.\nThis is perhaps the most practical instrument extant, in that a large amount of\ntechnical skill and knowledge are not required for its manipulation and use.\nIndeed any intelligent teacher may use it to test hearing with assurance of\ngetting fairly good results. (For information regarding the use of this instrument and a description of its mechanism, see University oj Iowa Studies,\n1899, P- 55-)\nPerhaps after all about as serviceable a method as any to employ in testing\nhearing, from the viewpoint of the average teacher — and this is applicable\nto children of all grades of intelligence — is what is commonly designated\nas the whisper test. By this method the child is stationed at some ten to\ntwenty feet from the examiner (depending upon external conditions) with\none of his ears turned in the examiner's direction. The numerals from one\nto twenty are then spoken to the child in a whispered voice, and he is\nrequested to repeat what he hears. A child who does not hear, with either\near, a fairly loudly whispered numeral at a distance of ten feet, should be\nreferred to the local aurist, or, in the absence of such, to the family\nphysician, for diagnosis and subsequent treatment.\nThe tests and methods just outlined by no means include all. They re,\nhowever, representative. In addition there have been devised some complicated apparatus, for stating hearing acuity in absolutely quantitative units,\nbut these are unserviceable for ordinary school purposes. (For a history\nof these see Bruner, The Hearing oj Primitive Peoples, Science Press, 1908,\nP- 55-)\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "904\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nIn the case of both eyes and ears, it ought to be added, teachers should be\nconstantly on the alert also for evidences of local irritations, such as inflamed\nor granulated lids, eye fatigue, or pustulating ears and earaches.\nAdenoids. — ^Altho there is no doubt but that the baneful effects of enlarged\nadenoid tissues are frequently exaggerated, adenoids do very commonly\ninterfere seriously with school work. Owing to their location, too, unless\nqu'te large, they will often escape the detection of a physician's routine examination, and hence an infallible rule for their discovery by the teacher is\nlacking. Is the child a habitual mouth breather? Can he breathe thru\nhis nose when told to hold his mouth shut? Is his nose particularly broad\nbetween the eyes ? Does his voice have a nasal tone ? With these answered\nin the affirmative, the teacher is justified in directing parents to seek the advice\nof a physician. Chisel-shaped teeth, mental dullness, nervousness, or defective\nhearing are also frequently the accompaniments of adenoids.\nNervousness. — Professor Kirkpatrick, in a paper read before the Department of Physical Education of the National Education Association in 1905 (pp.\n763, 764) calls attention especially to this physical condition of some children\nwhich so often retards their school progress. His statement is as follows:\nIn general, nervousness is either a state of low nervous tone, or of nervous irritability, but it is most often both at the same time. Excess of nervous energy in children\nof the motor type is a form of pseudo-nervousness that is almost indistinguishable from\nthe abnormal irritability of the really nervous child. The chief differences are that the\nreally nervous child makes more irregular and unco-ordinated movements, responds\nexcessively to slight stimuli given suddenly, is more likely to become angry and to cry\non slight provocation, and these symptoms are more marked after a period of physical\nor mental exercise.\nNervous weakness may not be evident to ordinary observation, except when the\nchild is subjected to an unusual or prolonged strain, when it is often shown in a sudden\nweakening and loss of self-control. The best test for deficiency of nervous force is\nobtained by following Warner's suggestions for observation of the nervous hand. Every\nteacher should look at the picture of the nervous hand which he gives in his book, 2\"he\nStudy of Children^ showing a peculiar drooping curve of the wrist, with the third finger\nslightly separated from the others and the middle joint raised above them. After an\nimage of this type of hand has been gained, it may best be observed by asking the children\nto stand and hold their hands out in front of them, palms down. The significance of\nthis test, and the uncertainty of a teacher's judgment based on ordinary observation, are\nindicated by the following case of twins. One was restless, which was taken as a sign\nof nervousness, while the other, a steady, quiet worker, gave no such signs, yet he had\na nervous hand. The teacher was surprised to hear from the mother of the children that\nthe quiet boy \"went all to pieces\" when he got home at night, while the other one showed\nno signs of nervousness at home. Doubtless close observation for nervous hands would\noften enable teachers to guard against the sudden \"going to pieces\" of quiet, studious\nchildren, which sometimes occurs, much to the surprise of the teacher and the disturbance of the school.\nIf, when the hands are held out in front, the fingers are straight but the thumbs\ndrooping, a less degree of nervous weakness (perhaps due to temporary fatigue) is indicated.\nOther signs of lack of nervous tone and balance, shown in the same test, are over, under,\nor unequal elevati on of the arms, or a throwing-forward of the abdomen, especially when\nthe pupil is asked to stand erect and hold his arms horizontally.\nFurther evidence of lack\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nBOOKS\n\n905\n\nof balance and good muscular control may be obtained by asking the children to close their\neyes and hold their arms out horizontally on each side, then observe for swaying and lack\nof symmetry of the arms.\nOne of my students recently used these tests in observing several hundred children,\nand, with a few exceptions, all that had shown signs of nervousness were detected by these\ntests, while a number manifested some of these signs of nervousness in whom it had not\npreviously been noticed.\nOther enlightening tests are to ask children to sit perfectly still without moving a\nmuscle for a minute or two, or to place their hands on the desk, and keeping all but the\nforefingers on the desk, tap as rapidly as possible for a minute or two without stopping.\nManual work and games of various kinds also furnish good opportunities for observing\nnervous defects, irregularity or lack of control of movement usually indicating nervousness.\n\nTests of intellectual capacity. — ^Tests of mental deficiency are chiefly useful\nin the hands of the skilled experimenter. No sets of tests have been devised\nwhich will give a categorical answer as to the mental status of any 'ndividual.\nIn nearly every instance in which they are used, they need to be interpreted.\nTeachers of experience in institutions for the feeble-minded, for example,\nusually learn, after general observation of the appearance and behavior of\nmany patients, to tell with a fair degree of accuracy the grade of deficiency.\nSuch tests as are now used should enable such an experienced person to determine more promptly and certainly the child's mental level because they put\nthe patient and observer into such experimental conditions as weeks of general\nobservation might not bring about. But even so, they need to be supplemented\nby much experience before certain cases can be successfully classified.\nWhat applies to a greater or less extent to most cases of feeble-mindedness\nis even more true of the lesser degrees or grades of deficiency, backwardness,\nand nervousness. Such tests as the ''nerve signs\" of Warner, referred to\nabove, designed to determine the nervous condition of pupils, will be of aid to\nthe person who has taken the pains to become experienced in the observation\nof such cases, and who can bring to bear some fund of general experience to\nsupplement and interpret the results of a given test, and this experience is\nby no means beyond the reach of the ordinary grade teacher if she will devote\nsome attention to the observation of such cases in her classes. Taken by themselves, however, they often mislead the experienced observer.\nTwo sets of tests of general capacity have been proposed within the last\nfew years and have been found to be of considerable value. They are those\nof Professor Sante de Sanctis, of the University of Rome, and of Binet and\nSimon, of the Sorbonne in Paris. As they are, as yet, not accessible to the\nordinary teacher, the committee gives below a translation of them prepared\nby Dr. Henry H. Goddard, and published in the Training School (November\nand December, 1908).\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o6\n\nNATIONAL\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nGRADING\nBY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF BACKWARD\nHENRY\n\nH.\n\n[Special\n\nCHILDREN\n\nGODDARD\n\n{Training School, November, 1908)\nDr. De Sanctis has six tests so graduated and arranged that the grade of the child is\nindicated by that test beyond which he cannot go.\nDE\n\nSANCTIS'\n\nTESTS\n\n1. Give me a ball. (The experimenter notes the time it takes the child to respond\nand, when the response is obtained, covers the balls with a screen.)\n2. Which is the ball you gave me ? (Time and cover as before.)\n3. Do you see this piece of wood (cube) ? Show me all that are like it in that group.\n(Time and screen as before.)\n4. See this card. Mark every figure that you can find on the card that is like this\npiece of wood (holding a cube before him) . (Time, note errors and omissions, and replace\nthe screen.)\n5. Here are blocks of wood just like those you saw on the card.\na) Look carefully and tell me how many there are. (Child is allowed to count.)\nh) Which of them is the largest ?\nc) Which one is farthest from you ? (Note the time, errors, and omissions.) (Replace\nscreen.)\n6. (a) Are large things heavier or lighter than small things ?\nh) How does it happen that sometimes small things are heavier than large things ?\nc) Do distant things look larger or smaller than near ones ?\nd) Do they only appear smaller or are they smaller ?\nThe apparatus for these tests is as follows:\nist Test. Five balls of five different colors, red, green, blue, yellow, and violet or\npurple. They should not be too small and may be of any convenient material. We use\nworsted balls of about two inches diameter. Instead of a screen, we cover the balls with a\npasteboard box of suitable size.\n2d Test.\nThe box is removed so the child can see and pick up or point to a ball.\n3d Test. The group of blocks consists of five cubes, three cones or pyramids, and\ntwo parallelopipeds. The cubes are about an inch and a half on a side; the four-sided\npyramids about the same base and two inches high; the parallelopipeds two and a half,\nby one, by a half-inch.\n4th Test. The card has ten rows of fourteen figures each, the figures being a triangle,\nan oblong, and a square placed at random. The figures are about a half -inch base, the\noblong is half that height, and the triangle is the altitude of the square.\n5th Test.\nThere are twelve cubes varying in size from an inch to three inches.\nIn giving the tests see that the child is comfortable and happy, not fatigued, frightened,\nor ill. Make a pleasant game of the whole procedure.\nRest a bit after each test.\nUse words that the child understands. The question may be repeated three times.\nIf then he cannot answer, stop the examination.\nYou have reached his limit.\nIf you are in doubt the whole can be repeated after a few days.\nDr. De Sanctis claims that by these tests one discovers directly:\n1. Capacity of adaptation to experience, which comprises adaptation to work, and\ncertain conditions of attention, or perception, and of will.\n2. Immediate memory of colors.\n3. Capacity for recognizing colors and forms, and the recognition in a way to establish\nthe identity of a plane figure with a solid.\n4. The tenacity or duration of attention.\n5. The capacity of enumerating objects and of judging of their quantity, size, and\ndistance.\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nBOOKS\n\n907\n\n6. The capacity to reason about objects no longer present to the senses, and on the\ngeneral concepts which comprise not only attention and imagination but also the faculty of\ngeneralization and abstraction,\n7. The rapidity of perceiving, of reflection, and of acting.\nClassification:\na) Intellectual defect of a very high degree is established when the subject cannot go\nbeyond the second question.\nh) Moderate degree when he cannot go beyond the fourth question, but does the\nfifth with great difl5culty and many errors.\nc) Light degree when he does fifth but not sixth.\nA child who does all with normal rapidity is not defective.\nDr. De Sanctis says that the tests give excellent results with all children from seven to\nsixteen years of age. Dr. Decroly, of Brussels, finds it agrees well with his own institution\nclassification. It must be added that apparently the effect of training is not fully taken\ninto account, and a child who has had rather good training may pass Test 6 and still be\nfeeble-minded. However, it would seem that the teacher who finds a child who passes\nall the tests \"with normal rapidity\" may safely consider the possibility of that child going\nback eventually to the regular grades. A child who does not do the sixth is feeble-minded,\nalthough of light degree.\nAny teacher using these tests should keep a careful record of the name, age, sex, training, etc., of each child together with the date of testing.\nTHE\n\nBINET\n\nAND\n\nSIMON\n\nTESTS\n\nOF\n\nINTELLECTUAL\n\nCAPACITY\n\n(See Training School, December, 1908)\nThe Binet and Simon tests are more extensive than those of De Sanctis. Consequently\nthey admit of a closer classification and I apprehend they will be more satisfactory to the\nteacher. They certainly reveal much more of the child's ability or its lack than do the\ntests of De Sanctis. Like his, however, they show the actual intellectual condition of\nthe child at the time. They tell nothing about his past and they make no prediction as to\nhis future.\nThe teacher who measures a child by this standard simply discovers where he stands\nat the present moment. She knows whether to adapt her methods to a mildly deficient, or\na very dull, child. Adapting her methods according to this knowledge she will discover\nin due time how improvable he is.\nThe tests number thirty, but that is not as serious as it sounds when we remember\nthat they begin with things suitable for infantile intelligence and end with those suitable\nfor a normal child. The result is that in any given case one starts with the sixth, or tenth,\nor fifteenth test, and perhaps ends with the tenth, fifteenth, or twenty-second.\nThe required apparatus is also comparatively simple and easily prepared.\nThe following is the list of tests with a brief statement of what they are intended to\nshow and the method of applying.\nFollowing the list will be found details of apparatus\nwhere such are needed:\nTests:\n1. Co-ordination of movement of eye and head. Use a lighted match, moving it about\nin front of the eyes. Note if child is able to follow the match with his eyes.\n2. Prehension provoked by tactile excitation. One seeks the co-ordination between a\ntactile sensation of the hand and the movement of grasping and carrying to the mouth.\nWe use a small cube, laying it in child's hand.\n3. Prehension provoked by visual stimulus; sight of an object and its prehension.\nUse cylinder and string. Hold in front of child's face within easy reach and note if he\nreaches for it, grasps it, and carries it to mouth.\n4. Recognition of food. Can he tell by sight what is food and what is not ? Use wood\nand candy or chocolate.\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n5. Search for food complicated by a little mechanical difficulty. This test can put in\nrelief a rudiment of memory. Wrap candy in paper in sight of child. See if he removes\npaper, eats candy, eats paper and all, or does nothing.\n6. Execution of simple orders and imitation of simple gestures. This test involves\ndiverse motor co-ordination and certain association between movements and the understanding ofthe significance of certain gestures, (i) Does he shake hands ? (2) Be seated.\n(3) Pick up from floor. (4) Send away. (5) Call back, (a) Clap hands; (b) put hands\nin air; (c) on shoulders; id) behind back; (g) turn one hand around the other; (/) rise\non toes.\n7. Verbal recognition of objects. (Association between objects and their names.)\nWhere is head, hair, eyes, feet, hands, nose, ears, mouth, cheek, eyebrow, heart ? Part 2 :\nString, cup, and key on the table. \" Give me the key,\" etc. Use suggestibility: (a) \" Show\nme the button.\"\n8. Verbal recognition of objects. (Same as 7, only a little more difficult.) Use\ncolored pictures: \"Where is the window? etc.\" Suggestibility: (6) \"Where is the\nPatapoun ? \" \" Where is the ' Nitcheoo' ? \"\n9. Naming of designated objects. (The reverse of 7 and 8.) A second colored\npicture.\n\"What is that ?\" (pointing to various parts of the picture).\n10. Immediate comparison of two lines of various lengths. \"Which is the longer line ? \"\n(three cards; repeated).\nUse in this connection \"Suggestibility (c).\"\n11. Repetition of three figures. Test of immediate memory and voluntary attention.\nSay to child \"Say this after me, 4-7-3.\"\n(Four, seven, three.)\n12. Comparison of two weights. (Test of attention, of comparison, and of muscular\nsense).\nUse 6- and 24-gram blocks, then 12 and 30, then 6 and 30.\n13. Suggestibility. Record here the results obtained under \"Suggestibility\" in\ntests 7, 8, and 10.\n14. Verbal definition of known objects.\nWhat is a spoon, house, dog, mamma ?\n15. Repetition of phrases of fifteen words. Repeat each number entire, and require\nchild to repeat it after you.\nNote his errors.\ni) Boys work on the farm; girls work in the house; boys and girls go to school.\n2) In the summer we have fine weather; in the winter the snow falls.\n3) My cousin has been bad; she does not work; she will be scolded.\n4) The chestnut tree in the garden throws upon the ground the shade of its new leaves.\n5) The horse draws the carriage; the road ascends and the carriage is heavy.\n6) The clock has struck one; the house is silent; the cat sleeps in the shade.\n7) It is not necessary to say all that one thinks but it is necessary to think all that\none says.\n8) We should not confound the spirit of criticism with the spirit of contradiction.\n16. Differences between many known objects, as recalled by memory: (i) paper and\ncloth; (2) butterfly and fly; (3) wood and glass. (It is an exercise in ideation, the notion\nof difference, and a little of the spirit of observation.)\n17. Exercise on the memory of images. (Looks at objects for thirty seconds and\nthen names all he can.)\nUs.e prepared card.\niS. Designs from memory. (Test of attention, of visual memory, and a little of\nanalysis.) Use prepared card. Expose ten seconds. Have child draw his design on\nback of record sheet.\n19. Immediate repetition of more than three figures. 597, 5328, 41653, 738219\n2690315, 85723946. Pronounce the figures in each group distinctly, and not too fast.\nSee if child can say them after you.\n20. Resemblances of many known objects represented in memory: (i) milk and snow;\n(2) mosquito and bee; (3) table, a chair, and a door.\n21. Comparison of lengths by means of two series of lines. Use set of cards — \"B'*\nand then \"C.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nBOOKS\n\n909\n\n22. Placing in order five weights — 18, 15/ 12, 9, and 6 grams. (Requires continuous\ndirection of attention, an appreciation of weights, and memory of judgment. Use the\nwooden cubes.)\n23. If 22 has been done rightly, have child close his eyes and take away one of the\nweights.\nRequire him to tell which one has been taken away, weighing them by hand.\n24. Exercise on rhymes. (Requires an abundant vocabulary, suppleness of spirit,\nspontaneity, and intellectual activity.\nRhyme with ball, coy, din, feet, spring, money.)\n25. Supplying words for those left out of sentences. The following is Binet's story:\nThe day is fine, the sky is (i) (blue). The sun has quickly dried the linen that the washers\nhave put on the line. The linen is dazzling white and tires one's (2) (eyes). The workers\npick up the great sheets; they are as stiff as if they had been (3) (starched). They shake\nthem, holding them by the four (4) (corners). The wind blows them and they flap with\na great (5) (noise). Meanwhile the housewife irons the fine linen. She has some flatirons which she places, one after the other, on the (6) (stove). Little Mary who is taking\ncare of her doll is full of envy. She, too, wants to (7) (iron). But she is not allowed to\ntouch the (8) (irons).\n26. Synthesis of three words in the same phrase. Make a sentence of the three words :\nParis, bank, fortune.\n27. Response to an abstract question:\ni) What ought one to do when he is sleepy ?\n2) When he is cold ?\n3) When he is detained so that he will be late for school ?\n4) When he sees that it is raining just as he is about to go for a walk ?\n5) When one is tired and a long way from home ?\n6) When one has missed the train ?\n7) When one has broken something that does not belong to him ?\n8) When one sees that a book has been stolen ?\n9) When there is a fire in the house ?\n10) When one has been struck by a playmate who did not do it purposely ?\n11) When one needs good advice ?\n12) What happens when one is lazy and does not wish to work ?\n13) Why is it necessary to save one's money and not spend it all ?\n14) What ought one to do when one has received punishment that he did not deserve ?\n15) What ought one to do before taking part in an important afi'air ?\n16) What should one do to get a watch that he wants at a store ?\n1 7) What should one do when someone has ofi'ended him and comes and asks pardon ?\n18) What should one do when asked his opinion of someone whom he knows only a\nlittle ?\n19) What happens when two persons discuss a question without understanding the\nwords ?\n20) What should you do when a person always contradicts you, no matter what you\nsay?\n21) Why ought one to judge a person more by his acts than by his words ?\n22) Why does one excuse a wrong act committed without anger ?\n23) Why is it better to persevere in what one has begun than to give it up to try something new ?\n24) Why should one not taunt a person of the service one has done him ?\n25) What ought one to do, who has done an irreparable wrong ?\n28. Interchange the hands of a clock for (i) the hour 6:20 and (2) 2:56. (Child\nmust not see a watch or clock.\nIt is a test of imaging power.)\n29. \"Cutting.\" (Test of voluntary attention, of visual imagination, of reason.)\nFold and cut the paper before the eyes of the child, but do not unfold until child has\nanswered or failed to answer.\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "9IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n30. Definition of abstract terms: What is the difference between (i) esteem and\nfriendship; (2) remorse and chagrin ?\nNotes and Suggestions for Using the Tests:\nIt is well at first to begin at the beginning in order to see how children react to the\neasy tests but the teacher will quickly learn that she can begin well along in the list and\nhit closely the child's grade.\nMake the examination interesting to ihe child by talking to him, being careful only\nthat one does not tell him what to do in those tests where the doing is the test itself.\nThe phrasing will often have to be changed to fit the comprehension of the child.\nYet the teacher must not forget that she is not trying to get the child to answer but rather\nto see if he can answer when he has had a reasonable amount of explanation of what is\nwanted.\nTest 7, Part 2. Any suitable objects may be used. \" (a) \" is the test of suggestibility.\nThere is no button and the bright child says so at once. The very dull child keeps hunting\nfor it until told to stop. There are all grades.\nTest 8. \"(6)\" is also to test suggestibility. Many children will point to something\nin answer to these nonsense questions.\nTest 10. There are three cards each having a line three centimeters long and one four\ncentimeters. The cards may be interchanged and the test repeated until the teacher is\nsatisfied as to whether the child has the power of comparison.\nThis is a critical test.\n\"(c)\" of this test, is the last \"suggestibility.\" There are three other cards in which\nthe two lines are the same length. When asked which is the longei many children will\nsay one or the other, following the suggestion that in the first cards one was longer.\nTest II. In this and similar tests the figures should of course not be repeated a second\ntime. Explain carefully what, you want and if child fails try another group of figures.\nRepeat the figures distinctly and with equal stress on all.\nTest 12. These weights and those of Test 22 are all of the same size. Ours are cubes\nabout an inch and three-quarters on a side. The smallest is 6 grams, the others 9, 12, 15,\n18, 24, and 30. The heavy ones are weighted with lead.\nTest 17. Thirteen pictures of familiar objects are arranged on a card. The pictures\nare about three inches in size.\nTest 18. These two designs are used together.\nTest 21. These lines differ in length from one to four millimeters and it requires a\ndistinctly higher intelligence to get them right than in the case of Test 10.\nTest 24. Explain carefully, with illustration, what a rhyme is.\nTest 25. The words in parenthesis are to be supplied by the child. Another story\ncan be used if desired. The word should always come at the end of the sentence and be\nsuch that, if the child has listened to the reading of the sentence and understands it, he\nsupplies the word the instant the teacher hesitates.\nTest 26. Substitute words from the child's environment.\nTest 27. It will be noted that the sentences are progressive. Therefore, when one\nhas gotten beyond a child's depth it is unnecessary to go farther.\nTest 28. The correct answer is, of course, 4:30 and 11 : 10.\nTest 29. Fold a sheet of paper twice in different directions. Then with scissors cut\noff the corner which would be the center of the unfolded sheet; also cut a rectangular\nnotch from one side next to the portion first cut off. What will be the shape of the hole\nwhen the paper is unfolded ?\nHave the child draw on a separate sheet what he thinks the hole will look like.\nProfessor Binet finds four kinds of responses to these tests, as follows:\n1. No solution. Either the child says nothing or makes such a gross error that it\namounts to total failure.\nThis is indicated by the minus sign ( — ).\n2. Partial solution. Child gives an answer that shows more or less comprehension,\nthough not fully correct.\nThis is marked one-half, one-fourth, three-fourths, etc.\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nBOOKS\n\n911\n\n3. Correct answer.\nThis is indicated by the plus sign ( + ).\n4. Absurdity. These are common and are important. Such an answer is indicated\nby an exclamation point (1).\nHe also notes the reasons (apparent) for the various answers.\ni) Ignorance. Child does not know the word we use or the object involved in the\ntest.\n\nThis is indicated by an \"I.\"\n2) Resistance to the test, through stubbornness or the like. This is indicated by \" R. \"\n3) Timidity.\nIndicated by \"T.\"\n4) Defect of attention. Indicated by \"D.\" There are several forms of this. Accidental distraction; constitutional distraction, common among the abnormal and comprising distraction by dispersed perceptions, distraction by pre-occupation and distraction\nthrough lack of fixation of attention.\nAccording to these tests we have the following classification:\nA. Idiots:\n\ntest.\n\n1. Idiot negative, no manifestation of a life of relation; reacts to no test.\n2. Idiot with voluntary regard. Follows an object with eyes. Reacts to the first\n\n3. Idiot with prehension. Can develop an act of prehension. Responds to the first\nthree tests.\n4. Idiot with recognition of nourishment. Does the fourth and fifth tests but no\nfarther.\n5. Idiot with faculty of imitation.\nB. Imbeciles:\n\nHe stops at the sixth test.\n\n1. Imbecile with faculty of naming.\nAnswers question: \" What is that thing ? \"\n2. Imbecile with faculty of comparison. Can compare two lines and two weights,\ncan repeat three figures, but goes no farther than Test 12.\n3. Imbecile with faculty of repetition of a discourse; is able to repeat simple phrases.\nImbeciles have the aptitude of a normal child of about two to five years.\nC. Feeble-Minded:\n1. The feeble-minded with faculty of reasoned comparison; those who can recognize\nand state the difference between two given objects.\n2. The feeble-minded with the faculty of seriation; those who are able to put in order\nfive weights of the same volume (Test 22).\nAs a further aid in understanding the meaning of our results, we have the following\nstatement of how normal children react to the tests:\nNormal children respond as follows:\nThe child of three years names, and recognizes after the name, the majority of objects\nfiguring in a series of objects and images pertaining to the habitual domain of the child.\nThe child of five years for the most part repeats three figures, compares two lines, and\nafter a lesson, two weights; is likewise able to define a usual object.\nThe child of seven years responds as follows:\nA. Memory of immediate repetition. He repeats three phrases out of eight (Test 15),\nand commits an average of three errors of absurdity or nonsense.\nB. Sensorial intelligence. He makes in Test 21 an average of one to five errors,\nespecially in the second part of the small lines; he commits one to three errors in the seriation of weights (Test 22) and an incalculable number of errors in Test 23.\nC. Suggestibility. Among ten children, four did not resist the suggestion; two\nhesitated once; one hesitated twice; two hesitated three times; and one only refused the\nsuggestion three times.\nD. Intelligence with the development of language. He cannot find rhymes; he does\nnothing with Tests 26 and 30; on the first twenty abstract questions of Test 27 he gives as\nminimum 6.5 silences and one absurdity; as maximum eleven silences and two absurdities.\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "912\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nChild of nine years:\nA. Memory of immediate repetition. He repeats on the average fo\\ir phrases and\nmakes no error of absurdity or nonsense; retains 6 . 2 images out of thirteen, and repeats\nsix figures.\nB. Sensorial intelligence. He commits one error in the second part of the small lines.\n(With the large lines girls of 20 years make four, five, and six errors).\nIn Test 22 he commits four errors; in Test 23, two errors on the average, with a\nmaximum of five.\nTest 29 is not appreciated.\nC. Suggestibility. Of ten children, two take all of the suggestions; two hesitate once;\nthree hesitate twice; two refuse all.\nD. Intelligence with development of language. He gives one, two, three, four\nrhymes in a minute. He does not respond to Tests 26 and 30; makes as minimum five\nsilences and one absurdity, and maximum of twelve silences and three absurdities in\nTest 27.\nChild of eleven years:\nA. He repeats five phrases, makes only half an error of absurdity or nonsense, retains\n7 . 2 images and recites six figures.\nB. He makes .2 errors in the second part of the small lines, makes 2.4 errors in the\nseriation of weights; and two errors with a maximum of five in Test 23. In Test 29 he\nsometimes attains to putting a lozenge in the center of the paper.\nC. Suggestibility. Of nine children, three hesitate once; one hesitates twice; two\nhesitate three times; two refuse two suggestions; and one refuses the three.\nD. In Test 24 he gives many rhymes; to Tests 26 and 30 he hardly responds. In\nTest 27 he makes minimum two silences and .5 absurdities; maximum five silences and\ntwo absurdities.\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\nTo offer a bibliography of subject-matter which shall meet the needs and interests of\nany considerable number of readers is, of course, impossible, and particularly so since the\nbibliography must be restricted as to length. Then too the inaccessibility of library\nfacilities, lack of training on the part of readers, and certain other considerations have\nautomatically eliminated some valuable writings. While what is offered, therefore, calls\nfor no previous extended training or library accessories, it does presuppose serious, studious\nreaders, with sufficient persistence to master semi-technical subject-matter.\nFor assistance in the preparation of this bibliography, acknowledgments are due E. M.\nVan Cleve, superintendent of the School for the Blind, Columbus, Ohio; Dr. F. Lyman\nWells, assistant in psycho-pathology, McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass., and Dr. Bird\nBaldwin, of Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.\nAyres, Leonard P.\npp. 236.\nBarnes, Earl.\n265.\nBarr, Martin W.\nBeach, Fletcher.\n\nLaggards in our School.\n\nNew York: Charity Pub. Com,, 1909,\n\nThe Mentally Defective Child.\"\n\nSchool Journal, March, 1903, pp. 264,\n\nMental Defectives, Their History and Treatment.\nPhil., 1904.\nMentally Feeble Children, Treatment and Education.\nLondon, 1895.\n\nFernald, Walter E. \"The History of the Treatment of the Feeble-Minded,\" Proc.\nN. C. of C. cr» C. 1898, pp. 203.\nHenderson, Chas. R. Dependents, Defectives, and Delinquents.\nBoston: D. C. Heath\n& Co., 1904, pp. 394.\nJacobs, Bertha W.\n\"Border Line of Defectives: Need of Special Treatment,\" Proc.\nN. C. of C. &f C, 1905, pp. 532, 533.\nLewis, Geo. A. The Practical Treatment of Stammering and Stuttering.\nDetroit, 1905.\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nBOOKS\n\n913\n\nMaennell, B. The Auxiliary Schools of Germany: Six Lectures.\n1907, pp. 137, This\ncan be obtained on application to the U. S. Commissioner of Education, Washington,\nD. C.\nMeyer, Adolph.\n\"Observation of Mental Abnormalities in School Children.\nChild\nStudy Mo., Vol. I (1895), pp. 1-12.\nSee also article by same author in Psychol.\nClinic, Vol. II (1908), p. 89.\nNoRS WORTHY, Naomi, The Psychology of Mentally Deficient Children.\nNew York City:\nScience Press, 1906, pp. iii.\nPearse, Carrol G. The Separation of Physically and Mentally Defective Children\nfrom the Schools,\" /. of Educ, Boston, Vol. LXV (1907), pp. 287-89.\nRichards, James B. \"The Education of the Feeble-Minded\" (an educational classic,\nthe well-known Sylvanus case), Proc. N. C. of C. &» C, 1885, p. 174.\nRowE, S. H.\nThe Physical Nature of the Child.\n(Contains a very good catalog of\nordinary physical defects and their corrective treatment.)\nMacmillan, 1899, pp.\n14 + 207.\n\nSeguin, Eduard.\nIdiocy and Its Treatment by the Physiological Method.\nNew York :\nScience Press, 1907, pp. 202.\nShuttleworth, G. E. Mentally Deficient Children.\nLondon, 1900, pp. xvi + 180.\nTreadgold, a. F. Mental Deficiency (one of the latest and best works on the subject).\nLondon, 1908, pp. 391.\nTravis, The Young Malefactor; \"A Study of Juvenile Delinquency.\"\nCrowell & Co., 1908, pp. 28 + 243.\n\nNew York:\n\nVan Sickle and Others.\n\"Provision for Exceptional Children in the Public Schools,\"\nProc. N. E. A., 1908, pp. 345-85.\n(An exceptionally good contribution to the\nsubject.)\nWarner, Francis.\nThe Study of Children.\nMacmillan, 1898, pp. 242.\nWatt.\nPhysical Deterioration.\nDutton, 1904.\nSee Corman, Cornell, Witmer, and others in Vols. I, II, III, of the Psychological\nClinic, Phila., Pa.\nSee Goddard, Johnstone, and others in the Training School, and the Training School\nSup pi., Vineland, N. J.\nConsult Journal of Psycho- Asthenics, Boston, Mass., almost every number of which contains valuable material.\nTo those who read German and French, the following are especially commended.\nBiNET ET Simon, Enfants anormaux.\nParis: Folin, 1907, pp. 211.\nBiNET, Alfred.\nCreation de classes speciales pour enfants arriers.\nParis, 1896.\nDe Moor, J. Die abnormer Kinder und ihre erzichliche Behandlung in Haus und Schule.\nAltenberg: Bonde, 1901, pp. 292.\nTrueper, J. Die Anfange der abnorme Erscheinungen im kindlichen Seelenleben. Altenberg, 1902.\nLey, Aug.\nL' arrieration mentale.\nBruxelles, 1904, pp. 287.\nThe following titles, kindly furnished by Mr. Edward M. Van Cleve, are offered with\nreference to the special topic of the blind:\nAllen, Edward Ellis. \"Education of Defectives,\" in Monographs on Education in the\nU. S., edited by Nicholas Murray Butler, No. 15, pp. 51.\nAllen, Edward Ellis. \"Tangible Writing for the Blind,\" New England Magazine,\nNovember, 1890, pp. 320-28.\nHall, Frank H. \" Lessons to be Learned by the Teacher of Normal Pupils from Teaching Arithmetic to the Blind,\" Proc. N. E. A., 1901, sec. xvi.\nHall, Frank H. \"The Blind, Deaf, and Deaf-Blind Compared with Normal Children\nin Respect to Imaginative Power,\" Trans. III. Soc. for Child Study, Vol. IV (1899).\npp. 18-30.\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "914\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nHowe, Samuel Gridley, M.D.\n\"Education of the Blind,\" Report U. S. Com. of Educ,\n1872, pp. 433-36.\nJ AVAL, Dr. Emile.\nOn Becoming Blind.\n(A very remarkable treatise.)\nNew York:\nMacmillan, 1905, pp. 191. ($1.25.)\nKellar, Helen.\nStory of My Life. Doubleday, Page & Co., 1903.\n($1.60.)\nLaSizeranne, Maurice.\nThe Blind as Seen Through Blind Eyes.\nNew York: G. P.\nPutnams, 1893, pp. 154.\nProceedings, Department of Special Education, N. E. A. (Four papers.)\nProc. N. E. A., 1903, pp. 985-1037.\n(i) \"Influence of Study of Unusual Child on.\nTeaching of Usual; \" (2) \"Should the Scope of Public School be Benevolent, so as to\nTake in All Children Capable of Education ? \" (3) \" How Can the Term ' Charitable '\nBe Justly Applied to Education of Any Children?\" (4) \"What Teachers Need to\nKnow about Sense Defects and Impediments.\"\nPouLSSON, Annie Emilie.\nBlind Children's Kindergartens.\nWide Awake.\nBoston:\nD. Lothrop & Co., 1883.\nFollowing are some titles referring to the topic of \"The Deaf\":\nSee articles in special number of Education Bi-Monthly, published by Chicago Normal\nSchool, June, 1909.\nMacmillan, D. P. and Bruner, F. G. \"Investigations Concerning Deaf Children.\"\nPub. Department of Child Study and Pedagogic Investigation, Public Schools, Chicago. ,\n(Experimental and Pedagogical.)\nRegan, Margaret A. \"Education of the Deaf,\" School Work (New York) April, 1908,\npp. 21-25.\nThe Association Review, Published by the American Association for the Promotion of the\nTeaching of the Deaf, Mt. Airy, Philadelphia.\nParker, W. D. First Annual Report of the Inspector of the Schools for the Deaf, to the\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis., 1902.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nFrank G. Bruner, Assistant Director, Department of Child Study,\nChicago Public Schools, Chairman\nEarl Barnes, Lecturer in Education, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWalter F. Dearborn, Assistant Professor of Education, The University ofChicago\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF INDIAN EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Charles E. Burton, superintendent of United States Indian School, Grand Junction, Colo.\nVice-President — Leslie M. Compton, superintendent of Indian School, Tomah, Wis.\nSecretary — Miss Estelle Reel, general superintendent of Indian Schools, Washington, D. C.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Monday Morning, July 5, 1909\nThe Department of Indian Education met in the Unity Church at 9 : 30 A. M., with\nthe president, Charles E. Burton, superintendent of Grand Junction Indian Schools,\nGrand Junction, Colo., in the chair.\nThe following program was presented:\nMusic, furnished by the Grand Junction Orchestra.\nVocal Solo, Mrs. Wilberforce J. Wightman, Denver, Colo.\nInvocation, Rev. David Utter, Pastor of Unity Church.\nGreetings were given by:\nHon. John F, Shafroth, governor of Colorado.\nDr. E. L. Bartlett, president. Chamber of Commerce, Denver, Colo.\nHon. Katherine M. Cook, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo.\nHon. Katherine L. Craig, ex-superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo.\nHon. Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of public schools, Denver, Colo.\nHon. A. J. Spengel, supervisor, Denver, Colo.\nThe president's address, \"A Resume of Indian Work,\" was given by Charles E.\nBurton, superintendent of Grand Junction Indian School, Grand Junction, Colo.\n\"The Prevention of Tuberculosis in the Indian Schools\" was the topic of a paper\npresented by Dr. Joseph A. Murphy, medical supervisor of Indian Schools, Washington,\nD.C.\nAfter a few remarks by Miss Estelle Reel, general superintendent of Indian schools,\nWashington, D. C, some demonstration lessons with classes of Indian pupils were presented by Miss Katherine L. Keck and Miss Mae McCauley, of Haskell Institute,\nLawrence, Kans.\nA demonstration luncheon, prepared and served by Indian pupils, concluded the\nsession.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday Morning, July 6, 1909\n\nThe second session of the department was held Tuesday morning at 9 : 30, President\nCharles E. Burton presiding.\nThe following program was presented:\nMusic, furnished by the Grand Junction Orchestra.\nInvocation and Address, Rt. Rev. Nicholas C. Matz, Bishop of Denver, Colo.\nViolin Solo, Miss Jeannette McDonald, Denver, Colo.\nThe following papers were then presented:\n\"Our Educational Duties to the Indian,\" Dr. James H. Baker, president of the\nUniversity of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.\n\"The Correlation of Literary and Industrial Subjects in the Classroom,\" Dr. Z. X.\nSnyder, president of the State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "9i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\n\"Essential Features in the Education of the Child Races,\" Dr. Charles Bartlett Dyke,\nhead master in the State Preparatory School, Boulder, Colo.\n\"The Teacher's Responsibility to the Indian Child,\" Sylvanus L. Heeter, superintendent of city schools, St. Paul, Minn.\n\"Character-Building — the Foundation of Education,\" John Herbert Phillips, superintendent ofcity schools, Birmingham, Ala.\n\"What Education Has Done for the Indian,\" H. B. Peairs, superintendent, Indian\nSchool, Lawrence, Kans.\nDemonstration lessons with classes of Indian children, presented by Miss Maggie\nHarper, teacher, Indian School, Lawrence, Kans.\nTHIRD SESSION.— Thursday, July 8, 1909\nA Round-Table Conference was held on Thursday morning, at 9:30, President\nCharles E. .Burton presiding.\nThe following program was presented:\nInvocation, Rabbi William S. Friedman, Denver, Colo.\nMusic, by the Grand Junction Indian School Orchestra.\n\"Moral Training,\" Ben. B Lindsey, Judge of the Juvenile Court, Denver, Colo.;\ndiscussion led by G. W. Cross, of Tohatchi Indian School, Tohatchi, N. Mex.\n\"The Preservation of Aboriginal Arts,\" A. J. Fynn, principal of the Longfellow\nSchool, Denver, Colo.\n\" Elementary Industrial Training in the Day School,\" S. Toledo Sherry, day school\ninspector. Standing Rock Reservation, Fort Yates, N. Dak.\nThe following resolutions were offered and on motion adopted by unanimous vote:\nResolved, That the institute of the Department of Indian Education, held at Denver,\nColorado, July 5 to 9, under the direction of Hon. Robert G. Valentine, Commissioner\nof Indian Affairs, was the most successful meeting ever held in the history of the department; that we hereby express our appreciation of his generosity in making it possible to\npresent such practical demonstration lessons, and such an extensive and instructive\nexhibit; that we will co-operate to the fullest extent of our ability in his campaign against\nthe suppression of tuberculosis among Indian people; that we will use our best efforts in\nfostering the native arts of the Indians, and that we will faithfully and loyally strive to\ncarry out the policy which he has outlined for the industrial and literary education of\nIndian children.\nResolved, further. That we appreciate the untiring and efficient efforts of Superintendent Reel in introducing into our schools practical methods of instruction, and her\npersistent labors which have contributed to the success of this institute; that we tender our\nthanks to Mr. Charles E. Burton, president of the department, for the capable and impartial manner in which he presided over our sessions; that we are grateful to the local committee, and to the merchants who contributed to the success of the demonstration lessons\nby loaning necessary tools and implements; to the teachers and students of Haskell Institute, who have so ably demonstrated to the pupils the practical training the government\nis affording the Indian children; that we acknowledge the courtesies extended and the\nhospitality of the people of Denver, and we thank the local press for the extensive reports\nof our proceedings.\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nEsTELLE Reel, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA RESUME\n\nPAPERS\n\nOF\n\nINDIAN\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nA RESUME\nCHARLES\n\nE.\n\nBURTON,\n\nWORK\n\n917\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nOF INDIAN\n\nSUPERINTENDEN^T\nOF\nJUNCTION,\nCOLO.\n\nWORK\nINDIAN\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nGRAND\n\nProgress is being made in Indian work both in the schools and on the\nreservations. Indians are taking their places beside their white brothers much\nmore than ever before. Those of us who have been years in the service know\nthat a decade ago few Indians were thought capable of competing with the\nwhites in any pursuit. The last two or three years have seen keen competition\nbetween the Indian and the whites in stock-raising, mercantile business on the\nreservations, and as teachers, stenographers, disciplinarians, matrons, and\nother positions in the schools.\nOn the Navajo and Moqui reservations there are a score of young men who\nare conducting trading posts among their own people and keenly competing\nwith white traders, compelling them in many cases to close their businesses.\nThese young Indians go to Albuquerque, Santa Fe, and even to St. Louis to\nlay in their stock of goods; the,y talk excellent English, wear as good clothes as\nanyone, and are driving sharp competition with the white man.\nIndian pupils from the Grand Junction School are taking positions as\nstenographers, engineers, and farmers at not less than $60 per month for\ntwelve months in the year. The band and orchestra compete lively with white\norganizations.\nPressure is being made at all the non-reservation schools toward industrial\nfeatures of education. Pupils are taught to build houses, frame, brick, concrete, and cement block; to build and repair wagons, buggies, mowers, etc.; to\npaint and repair in a workmanlike manner; to raise stock and to do dairy\nwork. Girls are taught to do good housekeeping, cook, sew, weave blankets.\nThey become expert dressmakers and even do a little millinery work.\nAs life in the fullest is not all prose, the poetry of music enters into Indian\ntraining and wields an influence for good, sometimes overlooked. Stirring\nnational airs, together with the raising and lowering of the stars and stripes,\nteach patriotism and a pride in citizenship.\nGreat progress has been made in the clerical work of the Indian service\nwithin the last two years. Formerly a voucher for the purchase of a bolt of\ncalico resembled a huge petition to Congress with its multiplicity of certificates\nfrom interpreters, inspectors, weighers' returns, and what not, until a poor\nsuperintendent had rather, and in many cases did, pay for an article than cobweb his brain with such a multiplicity of details too numerous to mention.\nIf Commissioner Leupp did nothing else than cut the Gordian knot of red-tapeism, his administration would be long and favorably remembered.\nOne can\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "91 8\n\nNATIONAL\" EDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nnow get up a voucher without having the nightmare and without having a\nbrainstorm when he receives his letter of exceptions from the Indian office, or\nfrom the auditor, many months later.\nThere has been great agitation against the non-reservation schools during\nthe last two years. Several have been closed. Sentiment is divided. One\nargument is made that the civilization and education of the parent is as necessary as that of the child, and that the day school and the reservation boarding\nschool, which come in contact with the daily life of the Indian, are, in reality,\nthe little red schoolhouses of the American school system, and hence the only\nfeature of the system that accomplishes good. Others argue that the nonreservation school system has been built up at an enormous cost; that there are\nstill thousands of Indian children without school facilities on the reservations;\nand that it would be a losing policy to destroy the expensive non-reservation\nschools and build up another more expensive system on the reservations, which\nare usually situated remote from railroads and other bases of supplies.\nCommissioner Leupp has stirred up the moss-backs in the Indian service.\nBy some he is considered visionary and impractical. But so was Galilee so\nconsidered, and so was William Lloyd Garrison, and Harriet Beecher Stowe,\nand hosts of others Who lived decades ago in advance of their times, and who\nsaw great visions of the future from the mountain-tops of their exalted positions.\nThe whole world now recognizes that they were- right. The scoffs and adverse\ncriticisms have changed to admiration and applause and a grateful nation now\nhonors and reveres their memories. Commissioner Valentine is purifying\nthe service, building hospitals, cleaning the Indian homes and villages, and\nrendering them more sanitary, stamping out tuberculosis, trachoma, and kindred complaints, and applying rigid measures for relief and cure; he is sending\nbetter goods and supplies to schools and agencies; he has by personal inspection of schools and agencies and their employees ferreted out worthless\nand incapable employees and supplanted them by those considered more\nworthy.\nI should be recreant to my duty if I closed my remarks without giving credit\nto the admirable administration of our worthy superintendent. For nearly\ntwelve years she has bravely and efficiently held the reins; she has seen the\nservice grow mightily under her watchful care ; she has fostered and nurtured\nthe service, and by tactful instruction, kind and helpful discipline, has aided\nweak employees to become strong and capable, and poor schools to become\nexcellent ones. Her administration will be remembered by its length of service,\nits helpfulness, its brightness, its alertness, and its efficiency.\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTUBERCULOSIS\n\nPREVENTION\n\nJOSEPH\n\nF. MURPHY,\n\nIN\n\nINDIAN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF TUBERCULOSIS\nSCHOOLS\n\nMEDICAL SUPERVISOR,\nSERVICE, WASHINGTON,\n\nIN THE\n\nUNITED\nD. C.\n\nSTATES\n\n919\n\nINDIAN\nINDIAN\n\nDr. Trudeau recently wrote, \"The more attention you give to the tuberculosis problem, the more it grows in size,\" and the enormity of the problem has\ncertainly appealed to me while thinking on what would be the most practical\naspect of the question to dwell on. I wish to confine myself this morning to the\nresponsibility of the employees of the Indian Service in the prevention of tuberculosis, and give a few practical hints regarding the solution of the problem\nin the Indian schools.\nThe crusade against tuberculosis is one of the greatest works which the\npresent generation has so far attempted. The fight against it has received\na tremendous impetus from the International Congress on Tuberculosis\nrecently held at Washington. The public has awakened; money has been\nforthcoming; men and women thoroly in earnest have been enlisted to take\npart in the campaign. The public must be kept awake, more money collected,\nand more men and women enlisted. It is not a battle of a year or of a generation, but it will have to be of several generations. The time will certainly come\nwhen tuberculosis will no longer be a curse to the world. How soon depends\nlargely on the earnestness, intelligence, and persistence of the effort which is\nexerted in the work.\nThe eradication of the disease is a problem that cannot be solved solely by\nthe medical man. He must be assisted by the combined intelligence and labor\nof all educated men and wcmen who should be interested in the welfare and\nhealth of their people.\nThe mortality of tuberculosis is far higher among the Indians than among\nthe negroes of the white population of this country. Statistics on this point\nare still very incomplete, but what records there are available show a frightful\nmortality among many tribes, a somewhat less one among others, but an\nexceeding serious one in all. We of the Indian Service cannot avoid the responsibility for the continuance of this condition. More work must be done toward\nthe prevention of this disease among the Indians than has been done in the\npast. Mote of the employees in the Indian Service must take a hand to assist\nin the fight against it than there ever have been in the past. More of the\nteachers must realize that their duty is not ended in looking after the mental\nwelfare of the child, but that they must take an interest in the physical welfare\nalso, and fit the child to become a useful member of society, who not only knows\nthe three R's but who knows how to live right. More of the matrons, disciplinarians, and superintendents must fully realize the danger of the spread of\ninfection in their schools, and must be more alert to prevent it. More of the\nfield matrons must learn to consider the homes in which tubercular infection\nhas gained an entrance to be their special care, and they should know their\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "920\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n*\n\n[Indian\n\nI'esponsibility in teaching the members of those homes the cause and method\nof spread of the disease, the disposal of the patient's sputum, the sanitary care\nof the patient, and the prevention of the infection, especially among the children\nliving there. These homes are the centers of infection, and work along these\nlines by competent and conscientious field matrons would do a vast amount of\ngood at the source of the trouble. There is not an employee in the Service who\nshould feel himself exempt from this campaign of education, and the more he\nknows about the disease the greater his responsibility.\nThe more intelligent have learned that the great majority of diseases are\npreventable, and especially the infectious diseases. We all know that cholera,\nyellow fever, smallpox, and many other diseases, once scourges of the\nworld, are preventable, and we are now just beginning to realize that\ntuberculosis belongs to this same class. A large number of our own race are\nstill apathetic or indifferent to this fact. Among ourselves diseases have long\nbeen looked upon as of unknown and unknowable origin, or as due to divine\nwrath, and over which man had but little or no control. In contrast with our\nown recent beliefs, the Indian, still under the influence of superstitions which\nhave prevailed for generations with his race, still a believer in the charms and\nincantations of his untaught medicine man, still under the spell of his mythical\nlegends, can with much greater difficulty be made to realize the actual facts.\nIt is indeed difficult to bring the older Indian to a realization of his own\nbetterment, of the power that he has of preventing disease by his own action,\nor of the reasons for it. One can hardly expect a complete mental evolution,\na throwing-over of all traditions among these older Indians, altho this statement should not be interpreted to mean that no effort should be made to instruct\nthem. Much can be done, and should be done, but the greatest good may be\naccomplished by the education of the Indian children who are attending the\nschools, in the cause and methods of prevention of the disease.\nThe Indian children will be the best promoters of new ideas in the homes,\nand will be able thru the training received at school to advance materially all\nefforts along other lines. The education of the younger Indians will be the\nquickest and most effective means of disseminating knowledge as to the nature\nof tuberculosis, and the best means of prevention and cure.\nTuberculosis should certainly be studied in the Indian schools in addition\nto the prescribed curriculum. The facts desirable to teach lend themselves\nreadily to distribution among the various grades and classes. A textbook on\nthe subject has been placed in the grades in some cities in the white schools.\nIn the District of Columbia there is a book on the subject, written by two physicians and a layman, which is being studied in the seventh and eighth grades\nof the public schools. This is a step in the right direction. A pamphlet will\nbe prepared and distributed among the Indians by the Indian Oflfice in the\nnear future.\nDr. William White, of Pittsburg, proposed to the National Association\nfor the Prevention of Tuberculosis recently that all cities should appropriate\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTUBERCULOSIS\n\nIN\n\nINDIAN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n921\n\nfunds for providing competent scientists whose duty must be to teach the\nchildren of the schools the evils of tuberculosis and other contagious diseases.\nThis, too, is an excellent suggestion. We have paid physicians in our Service.\nThe rules of the Office require that part of their duty shall be work along these\nlines. Superintendents should see that this is carried out, but teachers should\nsupplement this by classroom exercises.\nIn our large schools the tendency is to handle the mass rather than the\nindividual. Personal attention to the health of the individual child is frequently neglected. The matron is busy with her cares and duties; so many\nbaths must be given or preparation made for this or that entertainment, details\nmust be assigned, and certain work imperatively done. Frequently the child's\nhealth is not considered nor the work selected that is most suited to the\nindividual. The teacher, however, has the child under her direct supervision\nand care for one-half of every day. She should feel that the child is more than\na machine, and she is certainly a most competent judge as to whether the child\nappears perfectly well or whether, on the other hand, he coughs, or is dull, listless, pale, or not progressing as he should. Children of this sort should be\nreported by the teacher to the school physician so that he may examine, and\ndiscover what the real trouble is before it becomes so advanced that it is too\nlate.\nDr. E. S. Bullock, of the New Mexico Cottage Sanitarium, after a long\nexperience with tuberculosis said:\nNo man can spend years in contact with tuberculosis and have left any great enthusiasm for the results of treatment, climatic or otherwise. We are coming to recognize clearly\nthat the root of the evil must be attacked by prevention, not cure, and that it would be\nbetter for civilization if all the money expended in attempts at \" cure \" had been directed to\nthe accomplishment of prevention instead. It is, however, our duty to care for the sick\nas well as to prevent sickness, and after infection has occurred it becomes our plain duty\nto do all we can for the unfortunate person on whom the parasite has fastened. A careful\nstudy and observation of tuberculosis will convince anyone that, left to itself after the onset\nof tangible symptoms, it is the same old fatal disease it always has been, and that, even\nunder the best of conditions, and with every modern weapon brought to bear, it is ultimately nearly always fatal in any stage beyond incipiency. Until we have learned to\nbring these people under treatment in the early stages we have no right to wax enthusiastic\nover our efforts to cure tuberculosis.\n\nIt is in the attempt to recognize the disease in its early stage that the personal\ninterest of the teacher in the health of the individual pupil is solicited. It has\nbeen suggested that teachers weigh their pupils monthly, keeping a record of\nweights, and thus have a check on children not gaining as they should.\nHealthy growing children should gain steadily in weight, and such a record\nwould be of inestimable value to the doctor in his early diagnosis and treatment\nof an incipient case of tuberculosis.\nI wish to suggest also to superintendents that a special diet table be provided where pupils, recommended by teachers, matrons, or the school physician,\nmay obtain eggs and milk in addition to the government ration. The increase\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "922\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nin nutrition and building-up in this way of children who are not thriving in the\nschool may arrest in its incipiency many cases of tuberculosis.\nThe farmers at the schools should see that the hospital and diet table are\nmore freely provided with eggs. The milk provided should be uninfected.\nSuperintendents should have their dairy herd tested with tuberculin, and\nshould dispose of all cattle reacting.\nThe subject of the source of infection in tuberculosis among the Indians,\ndue to infected milk, is very interesting. In a number of the tribes badly\ninfected with tuberculosis the Indians drink no milk. If there is anyone here\nwho can supply me with observations of his own on this point I will be glad to\nhear them.\nMilk is very frequently a source of disease from the fact that bacteria once\nintroduced into it grow and multiply very rapidly. By the time it is consumed\nit may contain countless billions of bacteria, while at the time of contamination\nonly a few were introduced. For this reason superintendents should make it\na point of inspection to see that milk is not contaminated; that farmers insist\non the most scrupulous cleanliness of the hands of the milkers, the udders of\nthe cows, and the cleanliness of the milk cans and pails. Milk should be cooled\nquickly after milking and all precautions taken against the growth of bacteria\nin it.\nTuberculosis is more frequent during the first two or three years of life,\nwhen children are so commonly confined, than from the third to the fifteenth\nyear when they live in the open air so largely. From the fifteenth to middle\nlife, or later, the disease increases in frequency because of greater exposure to\ninfection. This gives us a hint that children of the Indian tribes who are\nusually accustomed to living in the open air are confined too closely after being\ntaken into the school. Not enough fresh air is admitted into the dormitories\nor into the schoolroom. More open-air exercise should be provided and\nteachers should have the windows open between recitations, giving deep\nbreathing and other exercises during these times.\nProper supervision is not given to sweeping. Dry sweeping, causing the\nstirring-up of almost unbreathable clouds of dust, seems to be the rule rather\nthan the exception. How many infections and deaths this one practice has\ncaused it is impossible to say, but there is no doubt that this has been the source\nof countless cases of tuberculosis. No dry sweeping should be permitted, and\nchildren should be taught the reason for this. The insistence upon this point\nshould not only be made an object-lesson at the school but the Indian girls\nshould be instructed to do the same in their homes. The proper methods of\ncleanliness for the home should not only be taught to the giris, but the boys\nalso should be made to feel, as they go out from the school to build their own\nhomes in the future, that they should take a pride in having them well lighted\nby plenty of windows, and well ventilated. So many of these homes which\nare now the hotbeds of tuberculosis would be improved, and the disease prevented ifthese facts were impressed upon the children at school.\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTUBERCULOSIS\n\nIN\n\nINDIAN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n923\n\nProfessor Vaughn, of the University of Michigan, said,\nTo take the life of a fellow-man wilfully is murder, the greatest of all crimes; to do\nso through ignorance or carelessness is manslaughter. In effect it is the same as murder,\nalthough in guilt it may be less heinous. The great majority of deaths from tuberculosis\nare due to manslaughter, and this fact should be recognized. The man who carelessly\nor ignorantly expectorates infected sputum, which, after drying, may be inhaled and may\ninfect another, is guilty of manslaughter. The same is true of the dairyman who sells\ninfected milk, or of the landlord who rents an infected house. It is essential that we recognize these truths. Then we can be successful in our crusade against tuberculosis. The\nman who would put arsenic in milk or drinking water would be regarded by the law as\neither a lunatic or a criminal, and would be so dealt with that he could not repeat the\noffense. The man who sells milk or other food infected with tubercle bacillus, or other\ndisease-producing germs, is distributing a more deadly poison than arsenic, and he should\nbe forbidden the practice. We need wise laws in order to restrict and eradicate tuberculosis, and their adoption and enforcement are sure to come as soon as the mass of the people\nsee the matter in the right light.\n\nHave we not been guilty of criminal negligence if we have not prevented\nspitting around our schools and in them ? Have we not been guilty if we have\nfailed to disinfect the rooms, bedding, and clothing of tubercular children sent\nfrom our schools ? Have we not been guilty of the spread of tuberculosis and\nother contagious diseases when we put two or more children in one bed ? Who\ncan tell that one may not have incipient tuberculosis ? One of the last orders\ngiven by the retiring Commissioner was to prevent the use of double beds for\nthe children. How many diseased children have the Indian Service to account\nfor by continuing this practice up to the present time ? This order may cause\na great deal of inconvenience and readjustment of dormitories now, but it is\ncertainly one of the wisest measures which have been adopted for the prevention\nof disease.\nThe most important and most frequent means of the spread of tuberculosis\nis the sputum of the infected individual. If all sputum could be destroyed,\nand all spitting in buildings and about the grounds absolutely prevented, there\nwould be practically no spread of the infection in our schools. Why cannot\nregulations absolutely prohibiting spitting be enforced? This should certainly be done. One of our finest Indian schools was found on inspection to\nhave the most spitting about the grounds. The spitting was largely outside,\nbut it was unsightly, it was tramped and dragged by dresses into the schoolrooms and dormitories, only to dry and blow about these rooms. We are\ncertainly exercising criminal negligence if we fail to prevent this custom.\nThe sputum of all pupils suspected of having tuberculosis should be examined microscopically. Some of the service physicians have microscopes, and\nothers have not. It is my intention to recommend that a microscopist be\nappointed to examine all sputum sent him by physicians or agents in the\nService.\nIt has been the policy of the Indian Office to send all tubercular Indians\nhome from the schools, not because this is an ideal procedure but because\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "924\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nthe schools are for healthy children, and the retaining of a pupil infected with\ntuberculosis would be a source of contagion to others at the school.\nThere has been heretofore no place to send pupils other than their homes.\nCamps for the treatment of tuberculosis are now being constructed on the\nreservations, and in addition screen porches are being built to some of the\nschool hospitals for the segregation and treatment of tubercular suspects. One\ntubercular colony is located at Colville, Wash., one camp has just been finished\nat Laguna, N. Mex., and a camp is about to be erected at Phoenix, Ariz.\nThese are starting on a small scale, but they will undoubtedly increase in size\nand number.\nPupils in the Indian schools are now being regularly inspected for tuberculosis and other contagious diseases. Renewed efforts are being made on all\nsides looking toward the stamping-out of the disease.\nMuch praise is due ex-Commissioner Leupp for the reform he has instituted\nin the Service along medical lines. His last tour of inspection, made at the\ntime when he was on the verge of nervous prostration, was for the purpose of\nimproving the health conditions among the Indians, and stamping out\ntrachoma.\nThe members of the Service attending this Institute should thoroly inform\nthemselves upon the subject of tuberculosis, its method of spread, the proper\ndisposal of sputum, and the treatment. The tuberculosis exhibit downstairs\nwas sent for the purpose of your education and is well worthy of careful inspection and study. It is my intention to demonstrate by the use of the microscope, the tubercle bacillus, so that all here may see and thus better comprehend\nhow easily the germ is disseminated.\nAs you go out from this Institute I would like the teachers here to feel that\nthey have a responsible share in this great work. They will have a tremendous\ninfluence in the fight, because successful eradication will depend in large\npart upon the extent to which the rising generation are taught concerning its\nprevention and cure.\nIn spreading the knowledge of these truths, in the personal interest in the\nphysical condition of the pupils under their charge, looking toward the early\ndiagnosis and cure at the only time when tuberculosis may be cured — that is,\nin its incipiency — and in the conscientious performance of these duties and\nadded responsibilities, the teachers of the Indian children can be of inestimable\nservice in this great struggle.\nREMARKS\nMISS\n\nESTELLE\n\nREEL,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nWASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nINDIAN\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nIt is not necessary for me to assure the employees of the Indian schools\nthat the Office deeply appreciates your attendance at this convention. It is\nthe first congress of Indian workers convened under the administration of\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHEAT\n\nAND\n\nBREAD-MAKING\n\n925\n\nHon. R. G. Valentine, the new Commissioner of Indian Affairs, with whom\nmany of you have a personal acquaintance, and for whom I am sure you will\nbe loyal workers.\nEleven years ago we met in Colorado Springs, but this is the first time that\nour department has met in the city of Denver, and I want to say to our hosts,\nthe governor, and other officials who have assured us that they will leave no\nstone unturned to make our stay pleasant and profitable, that we consider ourselves fortunate in meeting in Denver.\nThe value of an education to any child lies in its usefulness to him after\nleaving school, and thruout this convention we wish to emphasize the essentials\nin educating the Indian. We want especially to urge the teachers to give close\nattention to the demonstration lesson which will be presented by teachers in the\nService who made have special preparation, and which will show more clearly\nhow the Ofl&ce desires you to correlate the literary and industrial work in order\nthat the instruction given may best meet the immediate and practical needs\nof the pupils. I also want to urge you to attend as many of the sessions of the\nNational Education Association and its departments as possible.\nDEMONSTRATION\nWHEAT\n\nAND\n\nLESSON\n\nBREAD-MAKING\n\nDemonstration lessons on the subject of wheat and bread-making were presented\nwith classes of Indian children under the direction of Miss Mae McCauley and Miss\nKatherine L. Keck, teachers of the United States Indian School, Lawrence, Kans.\nI. Miss Mae McCauley: I am sure you will all agree that there is no more important\nsubject in which a child should be instructed than in the care of health, and one of the\nfirst requisites in keeping good health is good food.\nFor my lesson I have selected the subjects \"Wheat\" and \"Bread.\" I wish you to\nbear in mind that I am not a teacher of cooking but of the fifth grade, and, as you will\nobserve, am of the Chippewa blood.\nI am a graduate of Haskell Indian Institute.\nIn this lesson I shall endeavor to show how practical subjects may be used in teaching\nreading and arithmetic. Penmanship may be taught thru writing recipes, and instruction\nin geography given by studying the crops and markets of the diflferent states. It has\nalways seemed to me that it would be of more value to the children if the subjects teachers\nuse in the classroom were selected with reference to the occupations which the pupils will\nneed to know after leaving school instead of spending so much time teaching the height\nof mountains, the length of rivers, etc.\nMany of the best schools of the United States consider it advisable to have the theory\nof cooking taught in the classroom, and it would seem equally important for teachers of\nthe Indian School Service to make this an essential part of their work, not only for girls,\nbut for boys who are taught cooking to advantage. Teachers can begin the first year the\nchild enters school, and if the pupils are non-English speaking and the subject is \"Bread,\"\nshow them a piece of Indian bread and give the Indian name for bread. Then show them\na piece of common bread and teach the English name, \"bread,\" etc. Thus the foundation\nis laid and this work can be carried on thru the grades, the teacher giving occasional\ndemonstrations by actual . cooking, using the oil stove in the classroom, then the pupils\nare ready to take up the actual cooking of meals under the domestic-science teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "926\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nSome Indian tribes use cornmeal, some bean flour, others use acorn flour, but the\nmajority of people use wheat flour for making bread.\n[Here followed a detailed lesson on \"Wheat\" consisting of questions by the teacher\nand answers by the pupils, together with problems relative to the topic]\nII. Miss Katherine L. Keck: \"New occasions teach new duties. Time makes\nancient good uncouth\" has been well said. The tepee home and the life of its inmates\nmay have been good, but the progress of civilization is forcing the Indian from these shelters\ninto more permanent homes, where the new duties crowd too fast for his comprehension\nunaided. All that is best in the life of a people centers around the home. Thus the subject of home-making becomes of the greatest importance in our Indian training schools.\nThe Indian girl receives less training from her home environment than her white sister.\nWe must therefore give her the more in school; must also make her classes training classes\nfor the mothers as well.\nYou have seen how the classroom teacher may use such practical subjects as breadmaking or other household duties to teach the English branches to Indian girls, and at\nthe same time give training which will save much time on entering the regular classes in\nthat work, or prove of real value in the home.\nDiscussions of the price and value of the different cuts of meat, of vegetables, cereals,\nand fruits, methods of keeping account of household expenses, average cost of simple\nfurnishings, and utensils, rules of hygiene and sanitation may furnish live, interesting\nsubjects for the use in teaching reading, writing, language, spelling, and arithmetic, and\nthe facts thus gained become of equal value with the training gained thru their employment.\nI have charge of the domestic-science department, as it is technically called, at Haskell\nInstitute, the girls coming to me from the fifth grade upward.\nBelow this grade the work is carried on by the classroom teacher, who leads the pupil\nstep by step to furnish a small home with the furniture and utensils necessary for cooking,\neating, and sleeping, considering use and price of each. She is taught the mechanism\nof the stove and how to control its fuel and heat in cooking the simpler foods and beverages.\nWith lessons on the sanitary care of food, dishes, bedclothing, and sleeping-room the\npupil is prepared for the broader work of the domestic-science department. Here the\nwork includes the study of food principles, methods of cooking, digestion, cost and care\nof food, use and care of milk and butter, planning and serving family meals, hygiene\nand sanitation, and laundry work.\nClasses coming in well prepared from the lower grades may advance rapidly thru the\ndaily practice in planning, cooking, and serving meals, caring for dairy products, and\nlaundering department linen. Effort is constantly made to cultivate adaptability — the\npower of making the most of the means at hand. A double boiler is a necessity in cooking\ncereals and milk and egg foods over the fire, but a small saucepan in a larger one closely\ncovered serves the purpose equally well. Often in call, we hear the statement, \"You\nnever showed us how to do it.\" The reply is, \"Try to work it out from certain principles\nalready given.\"\nA dry-goods box, curtained and shelved, may serve the needs of a simple household\nas well as a costly kitchen cabinet, and the ingenuity which constructed it be developed\nand strengthened for further works of improvement. We find also discussions of comparative values of the greatest importance to the girls.\nA girl remarked in class, \" My mother says we can't have so many utensils to work\nwith at home,\" meaning of course, \"We can't do so well.\" Asked why they couldn't\nhave them she said, \"They cost so much,\" \" What costs so much ?\" \"A double boiler\nfor one thing.\" When told an ordinary double boiler costs no more than the large ribbon\nbow on her hair^she^said, \"I guess it's because we don't think.\" That must be our work —\nto teach pupils to thinh and to know real values.\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nDUTIES\n\nTO THE\n\nINDIAN\n\n927\n\nPerhaps you, as well as the girls, will be interested in considering the following study\nof values:\nA chicken of 4 J lbs., live weight, after being bled and beheaded is 4J: lbs.; picked,\n3I lbs.; feet off, 3! lbs.; drawn, 3 lbs.; boiled, i\\\\ lbs.; minus bones, skin, and surplus\nfat, I lb.; at 10 cents per lb. costs 45c for | lb. edible flesh. Should not every housewife\nrealize this and be able to compare its nutritive value with chuck steak, for instance,\nwhich for 48 cents will give 4 lbs. edible flesh for building up the body, strength, and\ntissue, and when well cooked prove thoroly appetizing ?\n[Here followed a statement by a pupil outlining the process of bread-making.]\n\nOUR EDUCATIONAL\nJAMES\n\nH.\n\nBAKER,\n\nDUTIES\n\nTO THE\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF UNIVERSITY\nBOULDER,\nCOLO.\n\nINDIAN\nOF\n\nCOLORADO,\n\nThe question of how to make \"good\" Indians has been answered in various\nways in the history of this country — and the record upon the whole has not been\nto our credit. We have killed them, we have exploited them, have formed and\nbroken treaties with them, pauperized them, attempted to educate them, and\nnow, I believe, are really educating them.\nI recall some observations made some years ago when returning by the\nsouthern route from California. At a station near the Mohave Desert I saw\nIndians who were pauperized in spirit begging from the curious passengers;\nat another station were Indians selling blankets and pottery, their own handiwork representing their art and skill; still later we saw Indians working on\nrailroad construction by the side of white laborers; and farther east we saw\nIndians who owned farms with neat cottages, and appeared industrious and\nprosperous. Two thoughts came to me: first, the Indian ultimately must be\ncivilized as we understand civilization, become a self-supporting, self-respecting\ncitizen; second, he may well preserve, if possible, the traditions, the art, and\nthe pride of his race — at any rate he must be self-supporting.\nIt is a leading principle of education that we must take the individual where\nwe find him and develop him from that point; must discover the virtues he\nalready has instead of trying to transform him; and this principle applies to\nraces yet undeveloped as measured by our standards. And there is not a\nprimitive race that has not qualities from which the most civifized peoples\nmay learn.\nI am sure that Japan and China are fortunate in that they have been left\nmainly to take on our western progress in their own way, instead of being\nradically and rapidly modernized by foreign invasion. They will develop in\naccord with their own traditions a civilization far superior to any that could\nbe forced upon them. Suppose that today some Englishman or American\ncould surely trace his descent from some Briton of Caesar's time or from some\ninvading Dane, would he not boast of his ancestry ? It might be too large a\nuse of the imagination to suppose a time in the distant future when an American\ncitizen might say with pride, *' Yes, sah, I have a trace of African blood in my\nveins and my ancestors were slaves;\" but I am sure the time will come when\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n928\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\ncitizens of Indian descent may be able to point with pride to their ancestry\nand say, \"We are of the original inhabitants of America.\" Booker Washington is right when he claims that any race like the negroes must learn pride of\nrace; must have their own lawyers, doctors, preachers, leaders, and literature;\nmust be taught the arts of industry.\nI can only touch upon the present methods of dealing with Indian problems, and only upon the phase of their education. From what I can learn from\nreports and other sources regarding the work of reservation and other schools,\nI am impressed with two things: the Indians are given a practical industrial\ntraining and thus learn the first lessons of industry and of adaptation to modern\ncivilization; also, attention is given to the growth of their own virtues, preservation of their art and traditions, pride in their own race and history. And these\nthings appear to me right.\nOur educational duties to the Indians are without limit — in justice we owe\nthem all that we can possibly pay — but our obligation must be discharged with\nwisdom. We have underestimated our duty toward them; now we may be in\ndanger of overdoing and thereby pauperizing them. We can best perform a\nlong-delayed act of justice by giving them a practical education, by creating a\nspirit of self-dependence, and by allowing them to preserve, as they may, respect\nfor their race and pride in their traditions.\n\nESSENTIAL\nCHARLES\n\nFEATURES IN THE EDUCATION\nCHLLD RACES\n\nBARTLETT\n\nDYKE, HEAD\nMASTER\nSCHOOL,\nBOULDER,\n\nIN THE\nCOLO.\n\nSTATE\n\nOF THE\nPREPARATORY\n\nToday Americans are attempting to educate every race under the sun,\nwith extremely Hmited knowledge of race differences and race possibilities.\nOne very positive school of theorists demands identical education for all, in\nconformity with the equality postulated by our Declaration of Independence.\nAnother equally positive school pleads for the development of the best in the\nIndian, the negro, the Filipino, the Hawaiian, instead of trying to make of him\na poor white man.\nTo be sane, educational theory must rest upon scientific knowledge. Do\nrace differences inhere in the shape of the skull, the texture of the hair, the pigment of the skin ? Are psychical differences the result of education, or are\nthey determined by hereditary impulses which have beaten with the hearts\nand coursed thru the veins of countless generations ? What human possibilities\nare common to every race ? Have all races equal intellectual ability ? What\nis the best in every race to be fostered and preserved ?\nThe various new American possessions, benevolently assimilated during\nthe last decade, afford us a laboratory for the study of these vital problems.\nHawaii is especially rich in racial types. There, for more than a century.\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nRACES\n\n929\n\nCaucasians, Mongolians, and Polynesians have freely mingled and intermarried. The pure-blooded natives have crossed with every Asiatic, European,\nand American nationality coming to their shores.\nAfter some experience in teaching the Caucasian, the negro, and the Indian,\nmy greatest personal interest in Hawaii centered about the question of race\ndifferences.\nI became firmly convinced that psychical race differences are not eliminated\nin any appreciable number of generations, be the education what it may. In\nthe Kamehameha Schools of Honolulu, like environment and opportunity\nleave untouched certain traits inherited from ancestors often unknown. At\nthe age of twenty, the individual is plainly modified or even determined by the\nblood of his passive Pol}Tiesian ancestors, or by the more pronounced activity\nbequeathed him by Caucasian or Chinese or Japanese or Ethiopian. One\nof our students beheved himself to be a pure native Hawaiian; but his woolly\nhair, his dancing gait, his airy manner, his boisterous laughter, and his gorgeous raiment all betrayed his negro blood — so opposed are all of these traits to\nthe gentle dignity of the Hawaiian.\nThe liberal endowment of the Kamehameha Schools enables us to furnish\nboard and tuition at the nominal sum of fifty dollars per year, with every\nencouragement to the students to work out their expenses by services on the\nfarm or in the dairy or shops. Here again race characters appeared. Of the\nChinese-Hawaiians 70 per cent, worked their own way thru school, wholly\nor in part; while the American-Hawaiians almost invariably induced some\ngenerous white man to pay for all of their expenses, thus enabling them to\nlead a life of elegant leisure. Again, while only 18 per cent, of the boys were\nChinese-Hawaiians, they furnished more than one-half of the upper classmen,\nnot because of their brilliancy, but because of the staying qualities of the\nChinese blood. The pure Hawaiians lacked the physical and mental vigor\nfor advanced work. The Caucasian-Hawaiian crosses were impatient of\nroutine and restraint. But in the Chinese-Hawaiians, the patience and docility\nof the Chinese blood conquered the weakness and vacillation of the Hawaiian,\nand they plodded on steadily till graduation.\nThe foregoing argument points to fundamental differences in the races\nof men. In education, a knowledge of the race characteristics is fundamental.\nNo system of education that neglects this principle can succeed. I will go\nfarther, every race should rapidly become its own teacher. No white man can\nunderstand /M//y the American Indian, or the negro. His success as a teacher,\ntherefore, is limited by his ignorance or imperfect knowledge of primitive race\ncharacters. The Tuskegee Institute is a notable example of what negro\nteachers can do with their own race.\nDo not misunderstand me, white teachers are absolutely necessary, and\nare doing a noble work in the education of the primitive races, but it should be\ntheir constant aim to develop native teachers and leaders. No race can become\nself-respecting and rise to its full stature until it has its own leaders and teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "930\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nARRESTED\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nArrested development is a very real problem in the education of all races.\nWe have all used energy sufficient to move mountains in the vain attempt to\nintroduce an idea into some dense mind, adult or adolescent. All men reach\ntheir intellectual growth, some early, others comparatively late in life. Psychologists maintain that Americans cease to be productive at the age of forty\nyears. The primitive races attain their mental growth at a much earlier age.\nTake, for example, the mental power of abstract reason. By it men pursue\nthe more intricate problems of learning and of life. In this field, primitive\nman is quickly beyond his depth. His development has ceased before reaching\nthis highest form of intellectual power.\nIt is absurd to theorize about the propriety of a college education for the\nmass of negroes, or Indians, or Filipinos, or Hawaiians. They lack the intellect to acquire it. This is true to a smaller extent of the mass of white children.\nThe scholar is the flower of civilization, bom rather than made. And yet the\ncurricula of our schools provide mainly for the development of scholars, tho\nwe do not know what to do with them when they appear.\nTHE\n\nNATURE\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nPRIMITIVE\n\nRACES\n\nAre the possibilities of the child races developed by fostering the best of\ntheir own civilization, or by supplanting it by the white man's civilization ?\nThis is an important question at issue.\nThe Indian may live in the Indian's world, the negro may live in the negro\nworld, the Polynesian may live in the Polynesian world, but when those worlds\nbecome dominated by the white man, their inhabitants pass from the face of\nthe earth.\nOne glance at the world of today shows it to be the white man's world,\ndominated by the white man's science, invention, industry, and ideals. The\nwhite man has set a standard of living that compels adoption by the Indian\nand other races. The com dance is an interesting example of the red man's\nbest, but if he is to continue to exist, he must leam to raise crops by\ncultivation rather than by appeasing the gods. The \"joy of today\"\nis an example of the negro's best, but if he is to escape the chain gang, he must\nleam to provide for the morrow. Hospitality, generosity, and toleration are\nthe most striking qualities of Hawaiian character, but the germs of leprosy\nand plague will devour the race without segregation, the white man will wreck\nhis home and steal his land, unless he adopt the white man's wisdom and thrift.\nThe \"gentleman of leisure\" is an example of the Filipino's best, but he cannot\nlive in a democracy until every peon becomes a man. Reverence is China's\nbest, but industrial bondage is the result of allaying floods by the worship of\na water snake, instead of by the construction of drains and reservoirs.\nTo exist in the white man's world demands knowledge of natural law,\nobedience to social control, deliverance from malevolent deities, and the ideals\nof democracy.\n\nThe essentials of any child's education are:\n\n(i) A study of\n\nf\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nRACES\n\n931\n\nnature in its broadest sense, including self-cultivation; (2) home arts and\nindustries, culminating in a vocational training warranted by industrial capacity\nand social demand; (3) moral regulation of personal and social life; (4) such\naesthetics as make for happiness and self-respect; for example, religion, music,\nand literature. It is a minor matter whether the child weaves raffia or reeds,\nor paints snakes or sunsets, except as his product augments his happiness or\nmeets a social demand.\nSuch was the curriculum of the schools for Hawaiians founded by missionaries nearly eighty years ago. And such has been the curriculum of Hampton,\nTuskegee, Carlisle, and Kamehameha. It is well to note that the Hawaiians\nwho will survive have felt the influence of this training.\nThe reports of the Superintendent of Indian Schools of Hampton, of Carlisle, Tuskegee, and Kamehameha, and, better still, personal visits, prove\nconclusively that the training of the head, the heart, and the hand results in\nemancipation from the discomfort, the superstition, the ignorance, the fear,\nwhich hold the child races in bondage.\nComfortable, well-ordered homes, useful pursuits, places of trust and\nreward in the community, moral, self-respecting lives, prove the possibility\nof every race to survive in the white man's world.\nI am in receipt of a letter from that gallant fighter and distinguished educator. General R. H. Pratt, in which he protests against the term \"Child Races,\"\nsa)dng most truly: \"The Indian fought for his home and right to live in the\nland with such strength and ability, although feeble in numbers, as to lead us\nto give the highest honors to those of our own race who here and there succeeded in overcoming even small detachments of him; and the many millions\nof acres in our great Southland that have been subdued and made to yield\nuntold riches almost entirely by negro labor is fullest evidence of his manly\npower.\"\nWe have no right to pronounce upon the possibilities of the average man.\nSo long as one-tenth of our population goes hungry, so long as another tenth is\nunfed, so long as our average child receives only three and a half months of\nschool training each year, it is clear that American possibiUties are undeveloped.\nMoreover, so long as our schools for white children aim to produce scholars\ninstead of fitting human beings to make the best of conditions, our highest\npossibilities cannot develop.\nNine years ago — and conditions have not greatly changed — Albert Shaw\nwrote in the Review of Reviews:\nIf I paid $10,000 a year for it, I could not possibly give my own small boy anywhere\nin or about New York City the advantages of as good a school as the raggedest little\nnegro child of Phoebus, Va., freely enjoys, whose education is under the care of the\nHampton Institute and is carried on under the Institute's normal department in the\nJohn G. Whittier School.\n\nEducation of any kind is good both for the individual and for the state.\nThat individual whose higher nerve centers^have been trained by the acquisi-\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "932\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\ntion of even the three R's is almost invariably saved from the grosser crimes,\nnot by his little learning, but by the substitution or foresight for the ''see snatch\",\ninstinct of the savage. That education is best which fits youth for the best\npossible life-existing conditions. Because that has been the aim of the great\nteachers of the child race, their school life is more potent in developing their\npossibilities than the school life of white children, planned as it is for the making\nof scholars.\nEvery normal child of every race is bom with the possibilities of life, liberty,\nand happiness, and the sad fact that so many forfeit one or all of these rights\nbefore manhood proves that we are not rearing them to make the most of their\npossibilities.\nIt is indeed fortunate that General Armstrong, General Pratt, and others\nwho founded our present system of education for the primitive races broke\naway from the conventional standards set by American colleges and universities for the development of scholars.\nTo summarize : The races of men feel, think, and act differently not only\nbecause of environment, but also because of hereditary impulses. The Indian\ndiffers from the negro, the negro differs from the Hawaiian, the Hawaiian\ndiffers from the Filipino, and the white man, their teacher, differs from them all.\nEducation does not eliminate these differences.\nWhile a man of one race can never fully understand the feelings, thoughts,\nand actions of his brother of different race, successful teaching demands a\nknowledge of race characters. Without such knowledge, the emotions will\nbe improperly trained, the intellectual capacity will be misjudged, and the\nplace that the child can best fill in the community will be misunderstood.\nProgress must necessarily be slow, but our schools should aim to develop\nnative teachers and leaders.\nThe mass of children of primitive races are not well developed in the power\nof abstract reason and of personal initiative. Vocational training, therefore,\nrather than higher education is their need, allowing full scope for those of\nexceptional ability to pursue college, professional, or technical training.\nThe emotions lie at the foundations of personal happiness and of all moral\nand social relations. Their development can best be^ accomplished thru\nthe native folk-lore, art, music, and religion. But for economic reasons, primitive man must be trained in vocations that fit him for life in the white man's\nworld.\nThis is a fundamental requirement in the education of primitive races.\nTHE\n\nTEACHER'S\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nS.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nL. HEETER,\n\nOF\n\nTO THE\nSCHOOLS,\n\nST.\n\nINDIAN\nPAUL,\n\nCHILD\n\nMINN.\n\nAn invitation to meet with the Department of Indian Education this morning has given me the occasion to acquaint myself somewhat with your problems.\nI have been pleased to note from reports of the department the progress made\nin carrying training to the thirty thousand Indian youth enrolled in the various\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nTO\n\nINDIAN\n\nCHILD\n\n933\n\nschools. My limited reading has interested me intensely in the subject, and\nyet what I shall say centers more about the universal principles of teaching\nthan in any immediate experience of my own with the Indian.\nMeanwhile, I wish to congratulate the Department of the Interior and\nespecially the Commissioner of Indian Affairs and the Superintendent of Indian\nSchools, not only upon the results already achieved, but upon the poHcy that\nobtains in all their work.\nThe teacher's responsibility to the Indian child is determined first, by the\nchild himself; second, by his environment; and third, by his prospective career.\nFirst: The child. You fail to meet your responsibility, if your eyes are\nclosed to all that is genuinely characteristic in the Indian — his ancestry; his\nphysical and mental inheritances; his splendid physique; his racial instincts;\nhis fondness of fresh air, freedom, and activity; his pride in feats of strength;\nhis patience in hunger, thirst, and cold; his fortitude in danger; his artistic\ntemperament; his inborn distrust of the whites; his hatred, suspicion, and\nrevenge. First, know your child and all his racial and individual experience.\nThere is your starting-point. There is your first responsibifity as a teacher,\nwhether you labor among the pale faces of our modern cities or among the\ncopper skins of the reservation.\nSecond: His educational environment. This includes all those conditions\nunder which the process of education must proceed. Your pupil is the child\nof a defeated race, crowded to the frontiers and waste places of our American\ncontinent by the onward march of a conquering civilization. The environment of your child is still an Indian village, the primitive forest, the untouched\nplains, or the ravaged reservation. As long as the mind of an individual and a\nrace is developed by its responses to external stimuli, education must begin\nwith environment. There is the first teacher and we do well to build upon what\nwe find there. All education of the Indian must find its setting in field, forest,\nand stream; in tribal laws and customs; in the traditions, habits, and instincts\nof a race still in a stage of primitive development. If you proceed to impose\nupon him the trimmings of a white man's civiHzation, if you destroy his racial\ncomfort, break up his customs, stamp out his native and rude occupations, if\nyou rob him of his language, art, literature, and religion, there is danger that\nyou remove the foundation and source of his old life and slaughter his very soul\nbefore he finds the new life, all for a mongrel education aiming at a caricature\nof a white man. In all your labors, ever keep in mind that you cannot transform your Indian by the wave of the hand into something other than an Indian.\nYou cannot take a first-rate Indian boy, crop his hair, give him a modem\nbath, and make him into anything more than a little cleaner Indian. You\ncannot teach him industrial education, for example, by compelling him to\nthrow aside his native occupations for a Morris chair or a Wemecke bookcase. You cannot teach your Indian maiden domestic science by abolishing\nall traditional dishes for Mrs. Rohrer's menus. Begin your carpentry with the\ntepee or medicine lodge if necessary; your domestic art with the Navajo\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nblanket; your cooking lessons with the salted pork; your training in English\nwith the early vernacular; your modem art with his inherited ideas of ornamentation; your literature with his rich collection of folklore; your music\nwith his festival and dances; your Christian religion with his ghost dance, the\nmedicine man, and his volume of prayers. This is what we mean by beginning\nwith the child in environment. It means searching for all that is foundational\nin his life, selecting all that is hopeful and vital in his environment, making\nthat the starting-point, giving it a new direction, finally a new setting, leading\nto a newer and larger environment.\nAnd now, third: This newer and larger environment. You meet your\nresponsibility to the Indian child only as you lead him consciously and unconsciously into a larger life. The new environment which you set up for him\nshould finally determine your educational aim and fix your responsibility.\nAnd here is where I fear of you. Your aim in your work cannot be the same\nas mine. The standard of your school cannot be the same as mine. The\nstandard of your race, as a whole, cannot be raised in one generation to the\nsocial potentiality of an Anglo-American people. This larger capacity that\nyou would realize for your Indian boy is not measured by the achievements of\nthe white man's race. This larger life into which you would lead your people\nis limited by the race itself and all its inheritances. You cannot undo in a half\ndozen years what centuries have done. Your courses of study dare not pattern\nour culture courses. The details of your methods are your own and cannot\nbe outlined for you in seminaries, in teacher's colleges, and schools of education. Your aim cannot be taken from that modem-day humanist, who is\nforever and ever idealizing on mediaeval and worn-out conceptions of abstract\nculture and discipline. The measure of your success cannot be taken from\nthe ability of your children to pursue our intellectual programs and pass our\nfinal examinations in academic courses. If you are in earnest about Indian\neducation, you will not imitate the schools of the white aristocracy, but you\nwill recognize that your own succeed just to the extent that you focus your\nactivities upon the concrete needs of the Indian children.\nJust here I am constrained to congratulate you. You are forcing us to\nchange our methods. Nothing has so much modified the theory and practice\nof teaching in the public schools of this country as the manifest needs of the\nIndian, the negro, and the lagging half of our own people. They have forced\nus to democratize, socialize, and industrialize our whole educational system.\nIt is the needs of the under half of our society that have called for industrial\nschools, parental schools, training schools, farm schools, ungraded rooms,\ngymnasiums, school gardens, medical inspection, and the scores of arts and\ncrafts, occupations and industries, the games and plays and activities that now\nmake up our daily program.\nIt is gratifying to follow this movement toward vocation and life that is to\nbring more and more of genuine opportunity to your people and mine. Our\nsystems of education will not reach their fullest development, except Jn the\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nTO\n\nINDIAN\n\nCHILD\n\n935\n\ncontinued evolution of a democratic aim in education to the extent that nothing\nshall be negligible in the investigation of the individual needs of all children\nand nothing essential to those needs. I read that there are forty thousand\nIndian children in the United States, and that three-fourths of them will settle\ndown and live their allotted time on the frontiers. Most of them will draw\ntheir living out of the soil. Some, an increasing number, perhaps, will enter\nthe ranks of general labor as miners, ditchers, lumbermen, ranchmen, railroadmen, and so on. Your responsibility, teacher, consists in offering to\nthese children the best possible training in view of the life that waits them.\nIt is training, not learning, that they need. It is not for you to idealize or\ntheorize. Approach your problem fairly. Face actual conditions; measure\nactual needs. There is no need of experiment. You fail if you offer to the\nprimitive child of the frontier nothing more than an academic or classic\neducation.\nTo my mind the ideal school for the Indian is now being evolved. It is not\nHampton, or Carlisle, or Haskell. It is a child's school, not the technical\nschool for the adult Indian. On the other hand, it is not the non-reservation\nnor even the reservation boarding school which breaks up the family Hfe —\none of the most vital and saving factors in the elevation of any race. It is not\neven the present form of public school,with its academic course's limited equipment, effective as these schools have been in American civilization. Nor is\nthe ideal school an institution so free and easy as to feed and clothe and lodge\nan Indian, or cultivate a spirit of dependence and pauperism, in order to force\nupon him a modicum of learning which he does not want. The most efficient\nIndian school of the future will come with the development and extension of the\nIndian day school, a school in charge of an efficient man and an efficient wife.\nFirst, a little cottage, a model home, setting an example of efficiency in home\nliving; then a small schoolroom, a real wholesome parental school, whose\nliterary program is subordinated to the activities that touch the house, the\nadjoining shop, and the little farm near by. One-half the time of every Indian\nboy spent in shop, garden, or field; one-half the time of every Indian maiden\nspent in kitchen, dining-room, bedchamber, or garden. Multiply these unique\ninstitutions, the Indian day schools — elementary industrial schools — on every\nreservation and in every Indian village and you extend the largest opportunity\nto a stricken race. Then let the government issue a proclamation commanding\nand compelling every able-bodied Indian to work out his own salvation or be\nsubject to the laws of vagrants and vagabonds; issue a decree compelling every\nIndian father to support his family and furnish books, board, and clothing to\nevery mother's son and daughter; pass a law compelling the attendance at\nsome school until children have mastered the essentials of a practical, elementary education, and then follow up all your decrees and laws with armed compulsion, ifnecessary, and you will have met your responsibility to the Indian\nchild.\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCHARACTER-BUILDING— THE FOUNDATION\nEDUCATION\nJOHN\n\nH.\n\nPHILLIPS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBIRMINGHAM,\n\n[Indian\n\nOF\nALA.\n\nI wish at the outset to disclaim any qualifications based upon experience\nto address the members of the Department of Indian Education. But, while\nI have had no experience whatever in the education of the Indian, my long\nexperience of thirty years, in close proximity to the educational and economic\nproblems of another backward race, enables me to realize more fully some of\nthe difficulties encountered by those who are engaged in the noble work of\nuplifting a race from barbarism to civilization.\nThe chief weakness of our American public-school system lies in the\ndemand for uniformity. The want of flexibility and power of adjustment to\nthe varying needs of childhood are nowhere more conspicuously demonstrated\nthan in the application of the matter and method of the traditional school in\nthe education of alien or backward peoples.\nThat school education must be adapted to the needs of the child; that the\ninstruction in matter and method must be adjusted to the requirements of the\ntaught, is an educational principle that has become trite from frequent repetition. Imust assume that those in charge of Indian education have been\nmore successful in the application of this principle to the education of the Indian\nchild, than we of the South have been in our efforts to apply it to the negro\nchild.\nTraditional subjects and traditional methods have become so intrenched\nin American education, that it is difficult to secure such variations and modifications as will effectively adjust the instruction to the capacity, the environment, and the economic needs of the child. Such adjustments are impossible\nwhere the craze for statutory uniformity deadens all initiative. To subject\nall communities regardless of conditions to one common course, and to place\nall the children of the state, urban and rural, civilized, semi-civilized, and\nsavage, in one common educational mold, may be beautiful in theory, but it is\nunscientific and impractical.\nIn our democratic civilization the conception of justice is generally based\nupon the idea of equality. With equal rights, equal privileges, and equal\nduties, there must be equal laws and impartial administration. This equality\nassumes identity of inheritance and hereditary processes, identity of intellectual\nand moral capacity, and identity of economic needs and conditions. This\nmisconception of equality has led to many absurd conclusions, political and\neducational. After centuries of contact with inferior races, we are just beginning to learn the important lesson that the negro, the Indian, and the Filipino\nare not merely Anglo-Saxons with colored skins. Each is the product of distinct and radically different psychological processes. The historic consciousness of each differs from that of the others, in proportion to the difference in\ndistinctive race processes. Between the historic consciousness of the Indian\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHARACTER-BUILDING\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n937\n\nchild and that of his Anglo-Saxon teacher, there must be a chasm as wide as that\nwhich exists between their respective civilizations.\nIt will be accepted without question that the ultimate aim of all school\neducation, whatever the race, and whatever the immediate and intermediate\nends may be, is the development of character. It has required nearly twenty\ncenturies of development to bring the Anglo-Saxon people to its present stage\nof civilization. Yet we indulge the Utopian expectation that a backward race,\nwithout historical perspective, may in a few years be forced to span the chasm\nrepresented by these twenty centuries of evolutionary processes, and be enabled\nto maintain a civil and moral status equal to that attained by the older civilizations ofthe earth.\nI assume that the development of character according to our highest American ideal is the chief function of the Indian school. In order to accomplish\nthis result, the school must, at least in some measure, restore to the race the\nessential processes of development that it has lost during the long centuries of\nits intellectual sleep, and provide mental and moral equivalents for the evolutionary processes and race-culture elements of which it has been deprived\nduring its past history.\nMy experience, so far as it has any value, has convinced me of the fact that\nwhatever is to be accomplished thru the school for the uplift of our backward\nraces must be begun in early childhood. With the negro, this is peculiarly\ntrue, and I assume that it is also true of the Indian, and indeed of all backward\npeoples. In the children of these races, the period of infancy is less prolonged\nthan it is in the children of the Caucasian race type. The child matures physically and mentally at an earlier age, and the period of acquisitiveness and of\nintellectual growth is correspondingly limited. These children are more\nmature physically than white children of the same age. But the mental development isprematurely checked; the early closing of the brain sutures causes\nthe arrest of brain growth and they remain thruout Hfe mentally and morally\nin a state of comparative childhood. The instruction and training received\nafter twelve or fourteen years of age generally exert little influence upon the\nmoral character of the individual. Habits of life have become crystaUized\nand tendencies have become established; brain development has been permanently checked and the higher faculties have become inactive. Whatever of\ntraining is received after this period is apt to remain simply as a veneer, a sort\nof superficial gloss. It is possible for the adult to acquire by imitation somewhat of this external culture, but invariably, in case of strain or emergency,\nthe lower automatic habits easily break thru and assert their dominion. The\nartificial acquirement cannot resist the force of automatic habits reinforced\nby hereditary instincts. The inhibitive function of the will is not strong enough\nto hold the active lower impulses in restraint.\nIt is evident, therefore, that children of these backward races should\nenter school relatively earlier than our white children. Kindergartens\nand nursery schools, as well as primary schools, should be provided at an\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "938\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nage much lower than that usually prescribed as the minimum by our state\nconstitutions.\nIt is also evident that these schools should provide practical instruction and\ntraining in moral and industrial habits; such habits must be continued so that\nthey may become automatic before the period of brain arrest is reached.\nImitation in itself possesses little of real value at any stage of the child's\ndevelopment. There must be a worthy end, self-direction, and purposeful\neffort. His activities must at first be on the plane of the material and must\ndeal primarily with the concrete and the objective, both in matter and in\nmethod. The appeal at the beginning must necessarily be to the lower motives\nof self-interest, and the incentives must be such as to inspire mental as well as\nphysical effort. In addition to this, the instruction and training should be\nsuch as to develop habits of skill and industry which may find their natural and\nlegitimate exercise in the practical world of the individual and of the race.\nThat education which unfits a man for the farm and fails to fit him for anything\nelse is, to say the least, a questionable attainment. The primary traits that the\nschool is expected to develop are industry, frugality, thrift, self-support, and\nself-control. These elements of character are fundamental to progress and\ndevelopment in those moral and civic virtues ttiat must characterize a useful\nmember of society and a citizen of a republic.\n\nH.\n\nB.\n\nWHAT\n\nEDUCATION\n\nHAS\n\nDONE\n\nFOR THE\n\nPEAIRS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nHASKELL\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nINDIAN\nLAWRENCE,\n\nKANS.\n\nThe Indian is human. What he has been and what he is now should be\nattributed, to a very large degree, to what his environment has been and what\nit now is.\nThe older Indians, even, have progressed as their environment has been\nchanged for the better, and yet the great change has been among the young\npeople. Education and training have been the effective factors in this process\nof evolution. After all, environment is largely a fruit of education. The\nschools are, in general, doing excellent work and are attaining satisfactory\nresults. For years good schools have been provided in which the Indian\nchildren can and do have excellent opportunities for head and hand training\nand in many places good opportunities for heart training. MilUons of dollars\nare being expended every year in the government schools for Indians and\napproximately three-fourths of all Indian children are in school. For all of\nthis the government should be commended. Certainly to those who are intimately connected with the work there is in the lives of the splendid Indian\nyoung men and young women, such as we have present here today from Grand\nJunction, Haskell, and others, results commensurate with all expenditures\nmade. We might go on patting ourselves on the back and congratulating\nourselves over results, but sometimes we need to have pointed out mistakes and\nshortcomings as well as success. As the editor of the local paper said of the\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nINDIAN\n\n939\n\nHiawatha drama as given by the Haskell boys and girls, \"The good was\ninfinitely more in evidence than the bad;\" so it has been and is now in our\nIndian school work which, in my judgment, demands our serious and thoughtful attention.\nPhysically the Indian is weak, poorly developed. To the best of my knowledge the government has never done anything regularly and systematically\ntoward building up and developing the Indian child physically until within\nthe past year. Thanks to the medical profession and to the Commissioner of\nIndian Affairs, steps have been taken not only to stamp out disease already\nexisting but to prevent further infection. Of this Dr. Murphy has spoken,\nbut I want to make a plea for proper physical training of the Indian youth.\nWhat will the Indian boy or girl whose physical welfare has been neglected\nbe worth to the nation, to the state, or the community ? Such an individual\nmust soon become a burden rather than a useful citizen. We cannot afford\nlonger to neglect the physical welfare of the Indian. We have already said\nthat the hand and head training of our Indian youth is along intelligent\nlines and is exceptionally commendable. But few if any boys and girls\nanywhere in this country have as good opportunities. Granting this, and\nhoping for a more intelligent and systematic effort for physical training as an\noutgrowth of the present campaign against the spread of tuberculosis and\ntrachoma, as well as the closer supervision of sanitary conditions, there is still\nanother feature of the school work which needs the most careful and serious\nattention of everyone.\nMoral and religious training are the foundation stones of characterbuilding. Neglect these lines of training and, no matter how thoroly hand\nand head may be trained, the Indian young man and young woman, in fact any\nyoung person, is in danger at all times. The Indian schools are not giving as\nmuch attention to moral and religious training as should be given. There is\nbut one church that is really taking advantage of the opportunities offered for\nthis line of education and training — namely, the Catholic. Other denominations should awaken to the opportunities offered, especially in the school, for\ncarefully instructing and training the Indian children along the moral and\nrehgious lines and thus supplementing and aiding the government in the work\nof preparing the Indian youth for Christian citizenship.\nBriefly summarizing:\n1. Improve the home environment as rapidly as possible, make it the\nbusiness of those employed to look after the home affairs, to keep constantly\nin mind that environment is the greatest influence for good or bad and therefore must be constantly improved. Crowd civilization in upon the evil influences of the reservation and thus force, if necessary, a better environment.\n2. Continue the thoro hand and head training that is now being given.\n3. Arrange to give careful, systematic, intelligent, physical training.\n4. Insist upon careful moral training being given in the schools by example\nof employees and by systematic instruction, and encourage careful, intelligent,\nreligious training.\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nAGRICULTURE\nA demonstration lesson was presented with a class of Indian pupils by Miss Maggie\nHarper, teacher, Haskell Institute, Lawrence, Kans., showing the manner in which\nagriculture may be correlated with the literary instruction in the classroom.\nMiss Harper: In teaching the subject, agriculture, one may profitably combine\nthe reading, composition, and other classroom studies. It is the duty of the housekeeper\nto supply her table with nourishing food for the various seasons. This is the secret of\nsuccessful housekeeping, and to accomplish this a knowledge of agriculture is necessary.\nTherefore, the subjects, agriculture and cooking, are interdependent.\nTo insure success in correlating subjects in the classroom, the lesson must be logically\nand clearly presented to the pupils; for example, if the lesson is bread-making, as it was\nyesterday, the appropriate correlative would be wheat, including, where practicable,\na visit to the wheatfield to observe the planting or growth of the crop, or a series of visits\nto the harvest field, the granary, and the flour mill, followed by experiments in the classroom with sprouting the grain, careful observation of its appearances at different stages\nof development, and a study of its food values.\nThe subjects will vary at different schools; teachers in schools not in a wheat country\nmust adapt the lesson that is practical and teach subjects of local interest.\nTeachers, you will see that this is a composite lesson representing months of study.\nThis is given to demonstrate how broad the subject is, and how a little given each day\nbecomes of practical value.\n[Here followed a series of questions by the teacher and answers by pupils illustrating\nthe classroom education in agriculture at the Haskell Institute.]\n\nMORAL\nBEN\n\nB.\n\nLINDSEY,\n\nJUDGE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\nJUVENILE\n\nCOURT,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nThe topic assigned me for discussion this morning appears upon the program under the title of ''Moral Training.\" There is certainly no more important subject to occupy our attention. I presume that I am given this honor\nupon the theory that the children's court being a sort of clearing-house, as it\nwere, for the troubles of childhood, we ought to know something about it;\nand yet I sometimes doubt whether we know as much as we ought to know.\nI have found it one of the most difficult subjects to deal with. It is hard to lay\ndown any rules in discussing so important a subject. I have long come to the\nconclusion that all children are frankly and innocently unmoral. The child\ntakes what he wants at the beginning of his life, in the development of his\nconscience; he takes what he wants if he can get it, not because he is an embryonic thief, but because, my friends, this is nature; not human nature, but\nnature itself, and I think we have found that nature is seldom altruistic. The\nnormal child is merely a healthy little animal to start with, and we must remember always that his morals develop, grow with his growth and strengthen with\nhis strength, only when he is guided in the right direction. Therefore, my\nfriends, it being the duty and responsibility of the parent and the teacher, we\nhave a right to assume that when the child is immoral after that period of care\nand development that should have been a part of his life, the trouble must have\nbeen, not so much with the child, consequently we must put the responsibility\nwhere it belongs — upon the home and the school and the church. These three\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n941\n\ngreat institutions are responsible for the morals of the child largely; they are\nresponsible for the direction of the child. In the home, the school, and the\nchurch the child receives that precept and teaching that is necessary in the\ndevelopment of its character; but, my friends, I have found in my own experience that this precept and teaching counts for little unless it is accompanied by\nexample. This example must, of course, be in accord with the teaching; it\nmust be furnished not only by the parent and the teacher, but also by the\ncitizens of the community. And I would go farther, and say that it must be\nfurnished by the community itself — by the public officials in the community.\nI recall very well a typical little gang from the Delgany District, down\namong the railroad tracks and bottoms, in Denver. This gang was made up\nof eight or ten boys, bubbling over with surplus energy, much misdirected;\nand finding it encroaching upon box-cars, and eventually the comer grocery,\nit had to be stopped. I remember a certain little fellow, the leader of this\ngang, who cross-examined the judge one day, somewhat to the judge's embarrassment. We were all seated around the table, talking in that chummy\nfashion that boys will talk in the alley when we can bring out their natural feelings and thought about things in general, and upon occasions like this I have\nbeen somewhat amazed and shocked at the observation of the child, and the\nimpressions made upon his mind by the acts and conduct of men. Well, while\nwe were sitting around the table chatting, little David, we will call him, suddenly\nsaid to me : ''Judge, if old Britt, that runs the saloon down in our neighborhood,\ncan keep open all day Sunday and stand in with the police, and the cop sits\nout on the beer keg and don't 'pinch' him, why can't the kids swipe then?\"\nI was so impressed with this unconscious indictment of the community\nby this boy that I called in Mr. Myers, a stenographer in this city, and had him\ntake down the question of the boy, but I must say it was very difficult to have\nhim take down the answer of the judge.\nMy friends, we are all more or less responsible for the bad example set for\nthe child, as citizens, as parents, as teachers, even as public officials. I once\nhad some newsboys in court. They were pursued for \"shooting craps,\" as\nthey call it. With them I found again this unconscious observation on the\npart of the child and its influence upon the child. One of them, who is well\nknown in police circles, in a similar gathering in my chambers one evening\nsaid this: \"Judge, I can take you down on Curtis Street any night and show\nyou a lot of fellows gambling in the Cottage Club, and the cop stands outside\nand doesn't do a thing, and why can't we shoot 'craps' ?\" And why not ?\nOf course, my friends, these evils and difficulties are more or less common in\nlarge communities, but happily I hope are passing away in this community after\na more enfightened administration. I am speaking rather of past experiences,\nas illustrating the effect of bad example in the community upon the child. I\ncould cite you an infinite number of such cases wherein the state learns the\nlesson from the child thru that companionship that develops a sort of confidence\nwhen you can get the true impressions reflected back from the heart of the\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nchild, impressions put there by men and women who have been traitors to\nchildhood's sacred cause.\nSo it follows if we are going to teach morality successfully we must take\nheed, I think, of the very homely truth expressed by Mark Twain: \"If you\nwould train up a child in the way it should go — go that way yourself.\" We\nmust do this if we avoid the indictment of the little twelve-year-old when the\nold deacon came to die. Everybody in the neighborhood was inquiring as to\nthe deacon's chances when they began to post bulletins. At four o'clock on\nthe eventful day, the first one read: \"The deacon is sinking rapidly;\" about\nan hour later a second bulletin read: \"The good deacon has gone to heaven;\"\nthen the twelve-year-old American boy shocked the neighbors with this final\nbulletin, which read: \"Great excitement in heaven — the deacon has not\narrived.\"\nMy friends, that boy knew that the deacon's example had not squared with\nhis precept, and if you think boys and girls are not observers you are mistaken.\nThey are the keenest observers in the world, and they have the keenest sense of\njustice, and the minute your example does not square with your precept your\nwhole teaching becomes a farce; it is met with scorn by the child and he prefers\nto follow the ways of wickedness rather than righteousness, because he believes\nyou lied to him. That, my friends, is one of the chief difficulties in the training\nor in the instilling of morals into the children of this country. We do not go\nthat way ourselves. We ought to.\nThe child feels unconsciously the effect of the business world. Once I\nwent into the newspaper alleys of Chicago to interview the newsboys; I talked\nto them; I became chummy with them. I was confident that their testimony\nthat I sought to get would be as frank and as honest as would be their conversation with their best chums. And every one of those boys told me that every\nboy they knew would steal, if they thought they wouldn't get caught. I am\nnot saying that is true. I have not come here with any indictment against the\nchild. If I have any indictment, it will be against men and women who have\nbeen responsible for childhood.\nNow, my friends, those boys knew of a commercial warfare going on\nbetween the newspapers in that town. They knew that those papers would\ndo anything vile and dishonest to beat the other fellow. They knew they\ndidn't hesitate to lie; they knew that in this competitive warfare they didn't\nhesitate to murder men, because those boys knew more than one man had\nbeen killed in this fight; they knew that these men would stop at nothing\nin these fights for power and money. They would tell you about it if you\nwould get their confidence. Perhaps the average observer thinks they didn't\nknow anything about it, but they knew all about it; they know what goes on;\nthey know of the fierce competitive wars in which morals are valued at so much\nless than they ought to be, and I have come to the conclusion that example,\ncombined with a certain false teaching that comes from the home and the\nschool, was largely responsible for these answers that I not only received in\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n943\n\nChicago from the boys in the street, but in four other cities — it is not necessary\nto mention them. In four cities I made the same experiment with the boys\nfrom the public school in the seventh and eighth grades, and here were their\nanswers — ^if I remember correctly. I put them down as they came from the\nlips of the boys, and these are examples of 90 per cent, of all the answers I\nreceived: \"Nearly all the kids I know swear.\" \"Most all the fellows will lie\nif they think there is no proof and they can get out of it that way.\" \"Over\nhalf of the kids in our school will steal if they get a chance and they think\nthey won't get caught.\" \"All the kids I know talk bad things, tell dirty stories,\nand boast about things that most of them never did, but they think it is smart\nto say they did, and some kids I know have.\"\nI once quoted what these boys said and a very worthy gentleman in the\npulpit came out in the pulpit and said that all boys were liars and thieves. I\ndoubt if that gentleman came thru his life and boyhood without lying or stealing\nsomething. We will not have a \"snitching bee,\" as the boys call it, here this\nmorning, for I don't want to be in it; but I want to ask you how many men can\nsay they passed thru their boyhood without being technically guilty of any one\nof these offenses? That is a part of the weakness of human nature. Its\noccurrence and correction is a part of the method of strengthening and building\ncharacter. These boys were frank and honest, and it was in their favor. I\ndo not believe that these things are of chronic occurrence among the children\nof this country. If, however, one of these misdeeds becomes chronic the state\nis certainly preparing to reap a criftiinal rather than a good citizen, and that\nis why it is necessary for the home and the school to be constantly on guard.\nNow, my friends, before closing, in discussing this tremendous subject,\nupon which I can only dwell a few minutes, I want to urge one or two practical\nthings. I have found in our court work that nothing helps more than the little\ntalks with the children. Sometimes these talks are better delivered in private;\nin fact, I should say in most cases; sometimes with the children all together.\nI should say it is more important to have frequent talks upon such subjects\nconcerning morals than to teach grammar, arithmetic, or geography. I have\njust been advised that in California they have passed a law requiring such\nteaching in the schools. Now, among the subjects I would recommend would\nbe these, which I have selected at random for the probationers in our court,\nwho report every two weeks when we have report day, and it opens generally\nwith a talk on a subject like this: \"Our Duties to Each Other;\" \"The Absurdity of Hate;\" \"Truthfulness;\" \"About Quarreling;\" \"Usefulness, Gentleness and Kindness, Mercy and Charity;\" \"Money and Manhood;\" \"Evil\nAssociations;\" \"Evil Thoughts;\" \"Evil Talk;\" \"Jealousy and Envy;\"\n\"I Forgot;\" \"What is Success ?\" \"The Man Who Serves and the Man Who\nMakes Money;\" \"Public Service;\" \"A Pure Life.\"\nChildren will not tire of these subjects if properly presented, but do not\nforget they must be properly presented. For instance, upon our duties to each\nother, I might give the topic upon which it is discussed, \"Snitching — when to\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Indian\n\nsnitch and when not to snitch.\"\nThe boys understand that; they are aroused\nat once to a high pitch of interest.\nNow, my friends, in closing I want to emphasize this point — that the child\nis moral just in so far as he is strong — do not forget that; just in so far as his\ncharacter is developed. Character comes thru conscience — do not forget that\n— and conscience comes thru the development, not of the mind or of the intellect, but conscience comes thru the development of the human heart; and until\nwe reach the heart of the child, until we can teach him to do right because it\nis right, and not because he will get in jail, we ai-e not going to have a morally\nstrong boy. I have reached the conclusion it is a mistake for a mother or a\nteacher to say to the child: \"If you do that the police will get you; you will get\nin jail; I will turn you over to the police.\" You are more than likely storing\nup possibilities of a criminal when you do that; you are basing all your teaching upon fear and are teaching that boy in innumerable instances a lesson\noften seen in the business and commercial world — *' Steal all you can, cheat all\nyou can, so long as you don't get caught.\" Avoid that in your teaching of\nchildren. Of course, it is important to hold up the consequence of evil-doing,\nbut too often the child in his tender undeveloped mind misunderstands, and\nmakes his motive to avoid punishment, and, my friends, that is not the right\nmotive for righteous conduct.\nYesterday morning some of the teachers were in our court, and I had to\nsend a twelve-year-old boy to the reform school. His mother said in the presence of those teachers that he. would not go. Well, he was a run-away; technically, he was a thief; he was incorrigible, and he was considered hopeless.\nWhat was the trouble ? Weakness. Now, why did that boy go alone to the\nreform school ? We got a telephone message this morning that he had arrived.\nWe seldom ask whether they get there or not; we are certain they will go.\nWhy did he go ? Because he was strong enough to last one day. If I had said\nto that boy, ''One week from today you go to the reform school,\" he would\nnever have gone. If I had said to the last burglar I sent to Buena Vista prison\n— two hundred and fifty miles from Denver — whom the policeman had to put\nchains on, ''Bill, you take your papers and this $12 . 50 in cash I give you, and\none week from today you take the train and travel two hundred and fifty miles,\nget off the train, face the great stone walls of that prison and ask the man on\nthe toWer with the rifle to shoot down those who come out to let you in,\" he\nwould not have done it; but when I said, \"Bill, you take the train, travel\ntwo hundred and fifty miles, get off the train and ask the man on the tower\nwith the rifle to shoot down those who come out to let you in; I will like you\nfor it, because I know you like me, because I know you believe in me. I know\nyou can do it. Bill, if you do it tonight, but if you do it next week, a pal you are\nrunning with will tell you not to, and you're not strong enough to resist the\ntemptation to do it. If you can only go tonight, you will go.\" And Bill takes\nhis papers, as every prisoner has done that I have thus sent there, travels two\nhundred and fifty miles all night, gets off in the gray dim light of the early\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n945\n\nmorning, goes out into the country to the prison, and faces the man on the tower\nwith the rifle to shoot down those who come out to ask him to open the gates\nand let him in.\nNow, why did we adopt the system of not sending a policeman or sheriff\nwith these boys ? Because we have recognized this great principle — that crime\nand immorality is a matter of strength and weakness, rather than viciousness\nor meanness, and our fight has been to make the youth strong, so strong that\nhe can resist temptation not merely for a day or a week, but forever.\nDISCUSSION\nG. W. Cross, principal of Tohatchi Indian School, Tohatchi, N. Mex. —\nThe most important subject before the American people today is the proper education\nand training of the child. The child of today becomes a citizen of tomorrow. The\nfuture citizenship of this country will depend largely, and I might say wholly, upon the\nkind of training we give to the boys and girls of today. We all believe in America; we\nall believe in American manhood and American womanhood; we believe the perplexing\nconditions and problems that now confront us will be met and solved; we believe that\nthe future generations will experience a greater degree of liberty, a more substantial progress,\na higher state of civilization, and a nobler type of manhood and womanhood.\nNotwithstanding this optimistic view in the hope of the future there is a dark\nside to the picture. Many of our leading educators, men and women who have given\nserious thought to the question, are of the opinion that crime and immorality are growing\nworse in this country. If this be true, there is something seriously wrong with our system\nof education; or the ones who are entrusted with the sacred duty of educating and training the child are at fault. One thing is sure, the fault is not the child's. \"Train up a\nchild in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it\" is just as\ntrue today as it was in the days of King Solomon of old.\nIn this country we have three institutions that have to do with the training of the\nchild — the home, the school, the church. If these three institutions properly perform\ntheir functions, the child will be properly trained.\nThis subject demands our deepest thought. It should marshal to its support our best\nmen and women, our greatest minds. Here is common ground on which all can meet —\nthe poor man and the millionaire, the man who lives in the palace and the man who lives\nin the hut, the parent, the teacher, the churchman, the patriot, the statesman, the philanthropist. Here is a common field in which all can labor side by side; for the training\nof the future American citizen, be he red, white, or black, is equally important to all.\nOne of the requisites looking to the training of the child, and in my opinion the most\nimportant, is the proper environment. I desire to make a special plea for the most favorable\ncondition in which to bring up the child. The child needs a wholesome atmosphere in\nwhich to grow. The child has a right to be guided, has a right to be protected, has a\nright to be happy. I would give every child a Christian home, a home that has in it love,\nsunshine, and gladness. I would give to every child, regardless of race, color, or nationality, the benefits of a good school, conducted by men and women of the highest type of\ncharacter, men and women who love their work and appreciate its importance to the state.\nThe difference between the Indian child and the white child is one of environment\nand training, and not of soul or faculty of the mind. The question of moral training in\nthe Indian school is fundamentally the same as it is in our public schools. In the first\nplace we must give the Indian child a proper environment. To take a child out of his\nnative environment and create another for it, to tear down the ideals, customs, and beliefs\nof his ancestors, and substitute something entirely^new and foreign in its place, without\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "946\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\ncrushing out all that is good and manly in his nature, is a problem that deserves most\ncareful study. We should seek out all that is good and elevating in the home life and\nenvironment of the Indian child and build upon it. We find many beautiful customs and\nteachings, legends, songs, and folklore among the different tribes that will give us a\nstarting-point — something upon which to build.\nThe Indian is very religious; he worships the Great Spirit, prays to the clouds, the\nskies, and the lofty hills. He has his sacred mountains upon which he goes to pray. Does\nthis not remind us that the chosen people had their holy mountains and that the Savior\nwas wont to go into the mountain apart to pray ? We pray for ourselves; the Indian\nprays for himself. We pray for friends and relatives, so does he; we pray for our country,\nthe Indian prays for his tribe. I will venture the assertion, with all due respect, that the\nIndian comes as near living up to his religion, his ideals, and his beliefs as we do to\nours.\nIf we would help and guide the Indian we must understand him and measure him\nby his own standards; we must have a clear idea as to what we want him to become. If\nwe want him to be a good Indian, we have ample reasons for believing that we can help\nhim to become such. If we want to transform him into a white man, I fear we shall fail.\nWhat does it matter whether the Indian wear his hair long or short and whether the Indian\nwomen wear squaw dresses or dresses made according to the latest styles, so long as they\nare honest and law-abiding citizens ? Is it necessary for the Indian to give up his religion,\nhis customs, or his traditions, in order that he may become a good American citizen ?\nI will answer. His religion should be improved and elevated; all his customs that are\nnot positively harmful and debasing should be left alone; many of his traditions should\nbe preserved and handed down to future generations.\nWhat can we do toward moral training in the Indian school ? We can teach by\nexample. Our conduct, habits, and manner of life will have more influence over the\nchild than all the preaching we can do. His idea of white man's civilization will largely\nbe based upon his idea of the men and women who are sent out by the Indian Office to\ninstruct him. The Indian child is a close observer; he notices any peculiarities in speech\nor manner that we may have. The adult Indian watches us closely; he compares our way\nof living with his own, and then asks the question, \"Wherein is the white man's way of\nliving better than mine?\" Often when we have convinced him that the while man's\nway of doing things is better than his own, he advances this argument: \"That is all right\nfor the white man, but won't do for the Indian; the Great Spirit made the Indian different. \"\nWe must convince him that what is good for the white man is good for the red man, and\nwhat is bad for the white man is also bad for the red man.\nIn order that we may be able to reach the Indian child we must gain his confidence.\nWe must convince him that we are his friends, that we are striving to help him. It is\nimpossible to gain his confidence if we hold ourselves aloof from him and act as tho we were\nafraid to touch him; and withhold from him our love and sympathy, which of right is the\nchild's. I believe in making the school pleasant and attractive; it should be more than\na school, it should be a home; the home atmosphere should be apparent. There should\nbe ample time and means for amusement; there should be playgrounds, outdoor games,\nand indoor games; athletics should receive proper attention and encouragement.\nThe classroom teacher should give instruction in morality and right conduct. She\nwill have at her command the stories from the school readers, the noble characters of\nhistory, and the legends and traditions of the tribe.\nThe larger boys and girls should have instruction along the line of sex in its relation\nto the home and in its relation to society and the State. The matron can, indeed, be a\nmother to her girls, giving them timely and wholesome advice and training in this —\nthe very foundation of the happiness and well-being of the home.\nDiscipline in its broadest sense is one of the chief instruments in character-building;\ndiscipline should be firm and kind, not loose or spasmodic.\nThe child should know the\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPRESERVATION\n\nOF\n\nABORIGINAL\n\nARTS\n\n947\n\nreason why it is being punished. The one who disciplines an Indian child should never\nscold or lose his temper.\nSome features of the \"school city\" might be used to good advantage in our Indian\nschool, in fact, are now being used in some of our schools with the best results.\nOur Indian boys and girls should receive careful religious instruction; the Indian\nOffice has made most careful provision for this feature of the work. The missionary in\nthe field is given due encouragement and support.\nThe government is a good friend of the Indian boys and girls. It is spending large\nsums of money anually to educate and prepare them for citizenship. The present Indian\npolicy is wise and business-like. The present administration of Indian affairs has been\nprogressive all along the line. With proper co-operation in the field we expect the very\nbest results. We believe that the money now being spent on our Indian' boys and girls\nwill not have been spent in vain. We believe it a much wiser policy to spend the money\non our boys and girls in training them for good citizenship than it is to neglect them for\nwant of it and spend it prosecuting them as criminals later in'life.\n\nTHE\nA. J. FYNN,\n\nPRESERVATION\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nOF ABORIGINAL\n\nLONGFELLOW\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nARTS\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nConservation is the watchword of the hour. In the midst of rapidly\nincreasing wealth, gigantic business enterprises, territorial expansion, and\ncommercial development, the thoughtful people of the country are pausing\nto reflect on the debt of Americans to America. The prodigalities of the past,\nthe indiscretions of pioneer days, are already haunting us as we look reflectively\noutward toward the welfare of posterity. We turn to the remnants of the\nswiftly vanishing forests at our right, the poverty-stricken soil at our left, and\nthe rapidly disappearing minerals at our feet, and earnestly ask what our duties\nare toward the preservation of these and various other great agencies of civilization, general and local, which the centuries have handed down to us and\nintrusted to our care.\nAgain, we are turning to the basements and the attics of our homes and\nbringing out the stained, the battered, and the faded heirlooms and longforgotten antiques, the solid worth of which we appreciate today as never\nbefore. These fabrics and wares are dragged from the dark nooks and corners\nand given a place of honor; and we wonder how it has happened that they have\nbeen so long neglected.\nSince we have been careless and negligent regarding the valuable and\nsacred productions of our own people, it is not surprising that we have been\neven far less appreciative of the merits of those whom we are accustomed to\nrank as inferior people. Race prejudice, religious intolerance, and false\nethnological notions have been busy agencies in wasting and destroying invaluable art creations and simpler handiwork of our aboriginal tribes. No Prescott is needed to describe wholesale destruction of native antiquities. The\nworld knows the story. Every antiquarian and ethnologist of America has\nblushed at the vandalism that has gone on for years almost within a stone's\nthrow of the city in which this Association is assembled.\nEqually mischievous is the notion that the products of a simpler race must\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "948\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nnecessarily be inferior products. There is a possibility, sometimes a strong\nprobability, that the opposite is true. If we search for evidences, we will find\nthat, again and again, the native handiwork of the masses will stand out as\nparticularly meritorious in contrast to the tinsel and show, the hastily made,\nmechanically made, poorly made products of the more pretentious classes.\nIn the one there are the unmistakable marks of native industry and genius, in\nthe other the easily recognized trademarks of the commercialist. In America\nit has been self-evident that when the conqueror came upon this soil to destroy\nthe aborigines, or to force upon them a civilization, the hostile spirit of the\nbattlefield sustained the customary contempt for aboriginal arts. There was\nlittle respect given to the acquirements of so-called pagans, however noteworthy\nthose acquirements might be.\nAt the eleventh hour, however, a change is coming over the spirit of our\ndreams. Encouragement is given toward a return to the old arts and crafts\nof the natives. There is special fitness in such a movement. These people,\nwhen not distracted and misled by the gaudiness of the Caucasian autocrat,\nare naturally interested in the arts practiced by their own ancestors. The\nIndian has a natural inclination toward such work. Thru long training he\nhas acquired a skillful hand. His outdoor life and the nature of his occupations make him a keen observer. He excels as an imitator. All these emphasize the adaptability of the man to this kind of occupation.\nThat there are many productions among these people which are far from\nartistic no one will question. In many cases the results are childish and hideous. We should, however, look upon the aesthetic accomplishments of this\nrace as we look upon those of the Chinese or of the Turks, recognizing points\nof excellence and making due allowances for defects. Is not the simplicity\nof Japanese art, with its few strokes, its suggestiveness, in many cases its very\nfaults in the way of perspective and atmosphere, of great value to us ? We\nlearn from these people that important effects may be produced in ways different from those to which we are accustomed, that our way of doing things is\nnot the only way, nor necessarily always the right way. We come to realize\nthat there is a spontaneous native art as true and valuable from the standpoint\nof culture as is our more affected civilized art.\nClosely associated with this thought is the significant fact that a certain\nlocality frequently originates and fosters a unique aesthetic individuality. A\ncharacteristic object of a district, whether the object happens to be animal,\nvegetable, or mineral, may influence or determine the whole style of art of that\ndistrict. Take from ancient Egypt the lotus as a model for ornamentation, and\nthe whole body of aesthetics along the Nile becomes so changed that it is hardly\nrecognizable. As an ornamentation, this plant has been considered one of\nthe most beautiful of any age or of any people. It becomes still more interesting when studied from the standpoint of religion and symbolization. Indeed\nits influence reached very far down into the whole life and development of the\npeople.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPRESERVATION\n\nOF\n\nABORIGINAL\n\nARTS\n\n949\n\nOver among the South Sea Islands, the preponderance of marine forms\namong the rude arts of the inhabitants is especially noticeable. To people\nalways in contact with the ocean, what else could be expected ? Even the most\ncommon articles, for instance the shafts of arrows and the bowls of tobacco\npipes, are thickly decorated with innumerable forms of the serpents and crocodiles abounding in those regions. To the north of these islands, the evervisible sacred mountain of Japan and the never-failing presence of the dragon\nof China emphasize the influence of suggestion and environmental relationship.\nFollowing the same belt of latitude to America, we find the alligator, the\nsame species of animal that was found among the Pacific islands, directing\nthe art forms of our aborigines for thousands of miles along the two tropical\nshores of the Americas. In the less cultural regions, monstrous shapes of this\nugly animal appear, and in those shapes may be traced the dread and superstition with which the natives looked upon this hfe-destroying creature. Comparing locality with locality, and older representations with newer, one cannot\nfail to notice a significant artistic development. The animal becomes changed,\nconventionalized, and beautified until the ugliness disappears, and only the\nfaintest traces of the original remain.\nBut there are many other places in America no less noted for unique designs\nand exquisite workmanship. Let these native handicrafts be energized. Let\nthe localities in which the environments especially encourage certain industries\nbecome still more famous for the excellent articles produced. In the land of\nthe Moqui and Navajo, the land of sunshine and sheep-herding, let them continue to make the blankets, belts, and scarfs which have become noted thruout\nthe land. Let them go on weaving their artistic designs, weaving their religious conceptions, weaving the history of their people, weaving their modes and\nmanners, weaving the very emotions of their simple lives, into these famous\nfabrics. There is not only this aesthetic, this sentimental side to be considered;\nbut what is of more consequence is the utihtarian significance of this handiwork.\nA great uplift is given to the whole domestic life of the Indian when he makes\nsuch goods, puts them upon the market, sells them, and feels that tJiey are a\ndesirable product, a real necessity in the commerce of the world.\nThe making of pottery is equally as interesting an occupation in this section\nof the country as is the making of fabrics. The Pueblos are sedentary, and\nthe work of clay-modeling flourishes in the Southwest as in no other part of\nthe United States. Here are the clays, the coloring materials, and all the other\nnecessary natural agencies for the encouragement of this time-honored art.\nHere the attention of the inhabitants is centered on this industry from the very\nfact that, on account of the nature of the country, many other aboriginal arts\ncannot flourish. Here is the eagerly demanded ware which the ancient people\nleft in the ruins of their cliff-homes, the designs of which, originating in the\nlong, long ago, reflect in our far distant times the spontaneity and excellent\nartistic judgment of the potters. Great will be the loss to the world if the\nceramic art of the Southwest is allowed to perish with the present generation.\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "950\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nThe skillful older potters are passing away, and there is danger 'that there may\nbe no worthy successors.\nFor thousands of miles along the Pacific coast, and extending for a considerable distance inland, is the natural home of the aboriginal basket-makers.\nWhen looked at from the standpoint of durability, or of delicacy of texture, or\nof appropriate design, these products of Indian handicraft cannot fail to win\nour admiration; and, if a settled value could be fairly well established upon\nthe wickerwork thruout this whole territory and suitable markets arranged\nfor the equitable disposal of the products, a well-deserved impetus might be\ngiven to this extremely valuable industry. The number of tribes and bands\nof Indians engaged in basket-making along this fringe of attractive territory\ncan hardly be estimated. There is necessarily a great variety in style, texture;\nand material among the baskets produced along this coast, from the hot, dry\nland of the Pimas to the island-abounding shore of Alaska. The desert, with\nits wiry bushes and hard grasses, stimulates one kind of product ; the forests of\nthe north another. But whether the baskets be medium-sized utilitarian articles\nlike those of the Pimas; or especially large durable ones like those found on\nthe Fraser River, particularly the fish baskets; or the small, tasty, ornamental\nones like those on the shores of Nootka Sound, there is no question regarding\nthe merit of the products.\nOther industries, such as beadwork in Oklahoma and silvercraft among\nthe Navajoes, could also be greatly extended, and they would add greatly to\nthe dignity and social standing of the individuals of the race. In the preservation and promotion of all of these arts there should be kept constantly in mind\nthe fitness of things. Let there be natural adaptability between environment\nand product. Some of the efforts of well-meaning officials of days gone by\nhave been as inconsistent in regard to the industrial education of the Indian\nas would be the establishment of an ice-manufacturing plant at Point Barrow\nor the erection of snow-sheds on the Desert of Sahara.\nA few generations ago the white child who was to get anything beyond\nthe rudiments of an education was sent away from home to the academy\nor seminary. Now the education is brought to the child. Even the modest\nvillage boasts of its high school. More than that, the arts and industries are\ncarried into the common-school curriculum. Let, at least, the same advantages\nbe given to the needy and embarrassed Indian child.\nELEMENTARY\n\nINDUSTRIAL TRAINING\nSCHOOL\n\nIN THE\n\nDAY\n\nS. TOLEDO SHERRY, DAY SCHOOL INSPECTOR, STANDING ROCK AGENCY, FORT\nYATES, N. DAK.\n\nWith the idea that all Indian education should have for its object the preparation of the children to become home-makers and home-keepers, all our\nliterary and industrial work at Standing Rock is based on a model farm.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nDAY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n951\n\nThis consists, first, of a frame of wood six feet square and two inches deep\ndivided into nine equal parts, representing an ideal plan for a model farm\nhome. After the plan has been drawn and studied and used as the basis for\nlanguage, drawing, number, writing, and reading lessons, materials are\nsecured and the construction of the frame begun. Every detail of the construction isworked out in the classroom before the actual work is begun.\nMaterials and tools are studied and drawings made of everything. The drawings are made on a scale adapted to the conditions and the advancement of\nthe pupil.\nWhen the frame is completed it is filled with loam, which is prepared for\nsowing and planting. This completed, a map of the entire farm is made by\neach pupil in the school. This map is drawn to a scale, colored, and each\nfield properly named. The cardinal points of the compass are then studied\nfrom a map of their own making rather than from one of Montieth's of South\nAmerica.\nAt this stage plans, drawings, and specifications for the various kinds of\nfences required for the yards and fields are prepared. Then fences and gates\nare constructed by the pupils and, as far as possible, from materials in the\nrough. Meanwhile the germination of seeds is being studied and their\ngrowth and development watched with keener interest than Indian pupils\nof their years have ever been detected manifesting in the study of books.\nAt the end of about two weeks the loam is emptied out and replaced with\nsand and the planting repeated and studied under the new conditions and the\ncontrasts noted. This process is followed with clay and afterward with\nsoils of mixed sand and clay, sand and loam, clay and loam, in varying proportions; then combinations of all three, and finally, with the best soil obtainable.\nNot only does the model farm handled in this way furnish most excellent\nmaterials for correlated literary and industrial work, but it becomes a miniature\nexperiment station near their own homes, and under conditions that will\nprevail when these pupils go upon their own claims and carry out on a larger\nscale what they have learned to do in the day school.\nThe model farm above described is for indoor study. This is to be followed\nby one out of doors thirty-three feet square. TWs is to be seeded, fenced,\nand improved with houses, barns, and other buildings as an ideal farm home\nshould be. This out-of-door model is more substantial and requires much\nmore time for its completion as the crops are left to mature. While they are\ngrowing a good substantial barn is planned and built. This is followed by\nthe construction of a modern dwelling-house suitable for an ordinary farm\nhome of one hundred and sixty acres.\nThis miniature experiment station with its little fields of the various crops\nthat should be raised on an ideal farm in this locality is considered one of the\nvery best features of the entire plan, for the reason that it is seen day after\nday by the pupils, their parents, and other visitors.\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nAfter the work has progressed thus far, a field is laid off and space for a\nmodel farm for each child, with pathways between, is allotted.\nHere, then, is where the pupils do their best industrial work. They are\nrequired to sow, plant, and raise everything practical that will grow to advantage in this latitude. They make every tool and utensil, and all the buildings\nand improvements possible with the tools at their disposal. The model farm\nis to the future home life of the pupil what the plans and specifications are\nto the architect — an ideal toward which he is to work. Who shall say that\nthis plan of industrial work systematically and intelligently carried on thru\nthe day school, and supplemented by the boarding schools, will not result\nin these boys and girls going out on their allotments and doing on a larger\nand grander scale what they have been trained in the day schools to do ?\nIn the Standing Rock day schools, we are endeavoring to hold up to the\nIndian boys and girls an ideal of manhood and womanhood that shall culminate inhappy, prosperous homes of their own.\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — D. B. Johnson, president of Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S. C.\nVice-President — ^A. B. Graham, College of Agriculture, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.\nSecretary — E. E. Balcomb, State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6, 1909\nThe department met at 9:30 in the First Baptist Church, with President Johnson\nin the chair.\nThe program was carried out as follows:\n''Agricultural Education for the Rural Districts\" — Seaman A. Knapp, Farmers'\nCo-operative Demonstration Work, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington,\nD. C.\n\"Some Means of Awakening and Maintaining an Interest in Agricultural Education\"\n— E. E. Balcomb, State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla.\n\"National Aid in the Preparation of Teachers of Agriculture for the Public Schools\" —\nH. H. Seerley, president of Iowa State Normal School, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nA general discussion followed.\nThe president appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nE. C. Bishop, Lincoln, Nebr.\nDick J. Crosby, Washington, D. C.\nMiss Anna L. Force, Denver, Colo.\nROUND-TABLE\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 7, 1909\n\nThe department met in round-table conference, under the leadership of Dick J.\nCrosby, of the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, who presented a paper on the subject, \"How May the Rural Schools Be More Closely Related\nto^the Life and Needs of the People?\"\nThis was followed by a general discussion, participated in by James W. Robertson,\nQuebec, Canada; Edward T. Fairchild, Topeka, Kans.; J. D. Towar, Laramie, Wyo.;\nMrs. Katherine M. Cook, Denver, Colo.; S. A. Knapp, Washington, D. C, and A. H.\nMacKay, of Halifax, N. S.\nTHIRD SESSION.— Friday Morning, July 9, 1909\nOwing to the temporary absence of President Johnson, the department was called\nto order at 9:30 by Dick J. Crosby,\nA vocal solo was rendered by Miss Gertrude Griffith, after which the following program was carried out:\n\"Special Agricultural High Schools\" — Dick J. Crosby, United States Department\nof Agriculture, Washington, D. C.\n\"The Present Status of Agricultural Education in the Public Schools\" — E. C. Bishop,\nstate superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Nebr.\n\"The Correlation of High-School Science and Agriculture\" — Josiah Main, department of agricultural education, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.\n\"Agriculture for the Elementary Schools\" — Riley O. Johnson, head of department\nof biology, State Normal School, Chico, Cal.\n953\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nIt was moved by E. E. Balcomb that the president appoint a committee to arrange\na tentative course of study in agriculture which would be generally recognized thruout\nthe United States, and report the same at the next meeting of the Association.\nThe motion was carried and the following committee appointed:\nE. C. Bishop, Lincoln, Nebr.\nJosiah Main, Knoxville, Tenn.\nRiley O. Johnson, Chico, Cal.\nThe report of the Committee on The Educational Value of Agricultural Study and\nSecuring College Entrance Credit for High School Agriculture was read and approved.\nOn motion, the committee, consisting of\nE. E. Balcomb, Providence, R. I.,\nA. B. Graham, Columbus, Ohio,\nC. H. Robison, Montclair, N. J.,\nwas continued for another year.\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report:\nMass.For President — Kenyon L. Butterfield, president of State Agricultural College, Amherst,\nFor Vice-President — Charles A. Lory, president of Agricultural College, Fort Collins,\nColo.\nFor Secretary — E. E. Balcomb, department of agriculture and geography. State\nNormal School, Providence, R. I.\nOn motion, the report of the committee was adopted, and the nominees were declared\nelected as officers for the ensuing year.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nE. E. Balcomb, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nAGRICULTURAL\nSEAMAN\n\nA.\n\nKNAPP,\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nUNITED\nSTATES\nDEPARTMENT\nWASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nRURAL\n\nDISTRICTS\n\nOF AGRICULTURE\n\n[A Synopsis]\nIn a narrow way this topic may be limited to the kind of husbandry that\nshould be taught the rural masses, and how to teach it successfully. In a\nbroader way it may include the lines of education most helpful to the toilei-s\nupon the farms, and how to convey this instruction so successfully that it will\ntransform and enrich rural life. We shall discuss the topic mainly along these\nbroader lines. First, however, let us outline some of the more salient rural\nconditions as compared with cities:\nFirst. — ^There is a much lower earning capacity of the rural toiler than of\nhis equal in the city and a consequent dissatisfaction upon the part of the farm\nwage-earner.\nSecond. — ^There is a lower and more hazardous return from farm investments than from those in commercial or transportation lines and a consequent\ndisinclination to hold country property.\nThird. — In the past half-century rural improvements have not kept pace\nwith civic, and social conditions upon our farms have declined by the removal\nof many old and cultured families to the city. The progress of our cities has\nbeen so phenomenal that they have attracted people of education and refine-\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nDISTRICTS\n\n955\n\nment to the detriment of the country, and it has especially lured the brainy\nyouths of the farm with visions of becoming captains of industry.\nFourth. — There has been a gradual increase of tenant farming, until it now\nrepresents about 40 per cent, of the total, and the marvelous advance of cities\nin population, wealth, and political power is part of the current history which\nindicates radical changes in our commonwealth not gratifying to lovers of a\nbroad liberty.\nFijth. — From the standpoint of the statesman, our large cities are dangerplaces on the map of our republic. Homes are so costly that only the rich can\nown them. The poor, and even those of considerable earning power, are\ntenants at will. The industrial enterprises are vast and it requires enormous\nwealth to handle them. Each supports an army of employees, all dependent\nupon a managing will. In several of our largest cities there is a large number\nof men so completely dependent for a day's toil that they are compelled to cast\ntheir votes for a job, and there are as many more who are unavoidably influenced by their jobs. There is also, where great numbers are aggregated, a\nmass leadership regardless of wealth. Generally this represents organized\nand predatory poverty. It matters not that the prosperity in cities, so far as\nit relates to the masses, is illusory; it attracts, it allures.\nMany and radical reforms must be worked out before ideal conditions can\nbe established generally in the country.\n1. A much larger percentage of the farmers and their families must be\nbroadly educated and of high character.\n2. The farm lands must be so improved and managed as to yield a more\ncertain and profitable return for labor expended, and afford greater profit\nfor the toiler than employment in the city.\n3. The farm improvements must be durable, suited to the requirements\nof the farm, convenient, and attractive.\n4. Churches, schools, means of communication, social conditions, and\nopportunities for accumulating wealth and for civic preferment for the masses\nin the country must be as good as, or better than, those in the city.\nThe methods to accomplish this rural reform, briefly outlined, are as\nfollows: The first step to be inaugurated among the people is the Farmers'\nCo-operative Demonstration Work of the United States Department of Agriculture, bywhich the elementary lessons in agriculture are taught directly to the\nfarmers and their methods improved, so that they are able to realize two-, three-,\nand fourfold the results now obtained by them. Thru this increase of income\nthe people of the rural districts are able to improve their homes and to pay expenses incident to a higher civilization. Every upward step, whether in city or\ncountry, costs something. No great advances can be made unless this added\ncost be provided for. Thru this instrumentality the homes of our rural population will be greatly improved.\nThe second great step in the rural uplift is the consolidation of the rural\nschools. The neighborhood school is simply adapted to a people in a very\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nelementary condition of society. They are simply kindergarten schools, but\nwhen too many branches demanded by modem conditions are thrust upon them\nthey are totally unsuited to meet the requirements of the people. It is better for\nparents to send their children a greater distance and have a real country\nschool, properly equipped and graded so as to meet all the requirements of\nrural education. In such schools agriculture should be an important line of\neducation. However, even in such schools it is out of the question to teach all\nthat relates to agriculture, and a mistake to attempt it. The present curriculum which has been worked out with such care should not be so disturbed\nas to inject into it courses of study that must gradually weaken the instruction\nnow given. The public demand for agriculture has made this error — a lack\nof definiteness. It would have been much better had legislatures simply\ndemanded the teaching of two or three things which are universally required\nand which would have given some greatly needed information to the people.\nInstead of agriculture, should be substituted the vegetable and fruit garden,\nthe cow and her products, and poultry. These three lines of instruction would\ngive definiteness to what is required. As it is now the teachers are perfectly\nat sea, and there will be an attempt to teach almost everything, from pure\nscience related remotely to agriculture to the purely mechanical methods of the\nfarm. In the family vegetable and fruit garden would be included all the\ninstruction in soil, in seed-selection, how plants feed and how they grow, and\nin methods of cultivation necessary for the rural town and for the country in\nan elementary way. Practical lessons about the cow and her products, and\npoultry, would give the kind of knowledge required in every household in\nregard to such common food supplies as milk, eggs, veal, beef, and the flesh\nof fowls; how to produce them economically; their value, and the offices they\nperform in the human system when used for food. Instruction of this character is along the line of people's daily necessities and gives the kind of\nknowledge required by the toiling masses. There is little danger of teaching\nincorrect theories or methods upon these subjects because the object-lessons\nare at hand for correction. In most schools it would be better to give instruction in only one of these at a time, commencing first with the market garden ;\nsecond, poultry; and third, the cow and her products. No one should be\nconsidered educated who is ignorant of the economic production of these,\nand their great value in the food supplies that must form one of the chief\nsources of sustenance for the human race.\nInstruction in these branches could be given as well by women teachers\nas by men. In nearly every school district one or more model gardens could\nbe established among the patrons of the school and in most districts someone\ncould be induced to purchase a better cow and improved poultry, and keep\ntheir records for the school. Ask the pupils to bring samples of their gardens,\nof their cows and poultry one day during each school term. Call it Agricultural Day, and invite the parents.\nOne of the greatest forces in education is to get the people to compare\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nDISTRICTS\n\n957\n\ntheir products and realize that there is a method that will produce better\nresults.\nUpon this plan every school teacher will become an educator not only of\nthe children but of the adult population of the district.\nThe Farmers' Co-operative Demonstration Work of the United States\nDepartment of Agriculture and the State Colleges of Agriculture could furnish\ninstructions and thus assist. In the teaching of agriculture it is not so much\nbooks that are required as an awakened inquiry upon the part of pupils and\npatrons. Object-lessons and competitive exhibits, with proper direction by\nthe teacher, will do more than books.\nPublic opinion is that power in civilization which regulates and controls\nmatters beyond the realm of law, and it is just as important that this should be\nframed upon a conservative and wise basis looking to the greatest good to the\ngreatest number as that laws shall be enacted of the same character.\nAt present there is little real country public opinion. It is mainly a modified town opinion, collected on streets and in stores and taken home by each\nfarmer as he returns from a weekly visit to his market town.\nTo have a true rural public opinion there must be real rural society. Sound\npublic opinion cannot be imported; it must be made on the spot and for the\npurpose.\nThe home, the school, and the church are the three great forces upon which\nwe must depend for the establishment of society, the creation of a true public\nopinion in the country, and the final readjustment of rural life. The three\nforces are ever present and all-powerful, if united, and can make a true rural\npublic opinion with potential forces to control conditions in the country.\nAnother course emphasized is the organization of boys' and girls' clubs\nwith the object of working out at their homes, in the garden, and on the farm\nthe lessons inculcated at the schools.\nGreat emphasis should be placed on the means of teaching the dignity of\nlabor, the value of thrift, the giving to the young a larger measure of common\nsense by causing them to be more familiar with the common things of their\nenvironment. Special value should be placed on the importance in a republic\nof the ownership of small farms. There are two ways to look at a small farm.\nOne is the common way, that it is a place to make a living and rather a hard\nplace, and should be sold as soon as anything better can be found. The other\nis that the ownership of land is a mark of honor; that a patent to land is a\ntitle to nobility and right of sovereignty. The ownership must be complete,\nsubject only to the state, so that each proprietor is the independent sovereign\nof a portion of the United States, that the final power thru the ballot to\ncontrol the local, county, state, and national governments is a position of great\ndignity and power.\nI have tried to make clear the importance of an education in conmion\nthings for common people as opposed to the exceptional and the remote. If\nwe have no more time than is necessary to become perfect in the knowledge\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "958\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultura\n\nof one country, let that country be our own. Study the history, the language,\nthe soil, the climate, the animals, the birds, the plants, and all the conditions\nthat make for home success and comfort. If still there be inclination, leisure,\nand means, then extend the researches into foreign lands. We are on the\nwrong line. We have tried to master ancient history without knowing modem.\nWe have tried to translate the classics and have failed for lack of English. A\ngreat nation is not the outgrowth of a few men of genius. We agree, however,\nthat to meet our highest ideals the classes, occupations, and provisions of our\ncommonwealth must be strengthened and developed in the life-work of the\nindividual to the extent of his capacity.\nI have tried to show that there are forces in the field for the readjustment\nof the rural conditions, if vitalized and brought into service. There is always\na class eager to establish new agencies, to join battle without industrial equipment, to attack a stronghold with raw militia, and to storm impregnable\nfortresses with guns that would not breach a camp tent. It has taken centuries\nto establish the schools we now have. With a little readjustment they will do the\nwork required for agriculture. Even in this we are learning to include instruction in agriculture. There is danger that we may eliminate branches of great\nvalue which are necessary to the rounding-out of the rural toiler in his obligations to human society. If our institutions are to be preserved, it must be\naccomplished by making greatness common. More thoroness, faithfulness,\nexalted character, greater breadth, perfect intelligence, and larger views of\nhuman rights and government requirements, millions of inspired doers who\ngive to every creation of their handiwork such perfection of accomplishment\nthat what man has wrought blends perfectly with what God has created.\nMillions of scholars in their rural homes controlling knowledge and promoting\nart. Millions of statesmen toiling on the farm and in the factories, working\nout the details of a broader life, and millions of rural philanthropists making\nimprovements to better the old.\nWhat can teachers do to help our rural conditions? Everything. They\nare an essential part of the greatest of all universities — the home. They have\ncharge of the extension courses. They can inspire in the youth a love of knowledge and make all its avenues look delightful. They can unlock the books\nwhich are treasury-houses of human wisdom and give them a golden key.\nThey can cause the soil to become more responsive to the touch of industry\nand the harvest more abundant; they can add to the comforts of the home,\nmold its environments into lines of beauty, and increase its attractiveness until\nthe home shall become the greatest magnet of our people. They can create\na love for investigation and give it direction, and can enlarge the knowledge\nof the people in common things and thus lay the foundation of common sense.\nAt their instance fingers will touch the lines of deftness, mechanical skill will\nbecome universal, and thrift and alertness will transform the toilers into captains of industry. Their mission is to make a great common people and thus\nreadjust the map of the world. The dawn of a greater life will appear. A\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTEREST\n\nIN\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n959\n\nnation of broader horizon and higher purpose will stand forth to battle for\nhuman rights.\nSOME\nE.\n\nMEANS\nOF\nINTEREST\nE. BALCOMB,\n\nAWAKENING AND\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nSTATE\n\nAGRICULTURAL AND\nSTILLWATER,\nOKLA.\n\nMAINTAINING\nEDUCATION\nMECHANICAL\n\nAN\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nOne of the inquiries that has come to me many times and from many\nsections of the United States during the last few years is, ''How can we interest\nthe parents and the pupils so that we can successfully introduce agriculture\ninto our schools ? \" Another question, which is a necessary second to the first,\nis frequently asked: \"How can we maintain the interest ?\"\nIt is generally conceded by leading educators and thinking men and women\nthat the present school system is inadequate. Leaders in educational progress\nfeel that, thru the study of agriculture and other subjects closely connected\nwith the environment of man and his struggles to feed, clothe, and shelter\nhimself, we shall come more nearly to educating our young people to become\ncontented, cultured citizens, capable of meeting the demands made upon\nthem in life. But believing these things ourselves does not make it possible\nfor us at once to introduce these subjects into the schools.\nFor years we have educated pupils and parents to feel that education, the\nreal article, meant so much knowledge of abstractions, of algebraic terms, and\nthe ability to decipher Greek and Latin — a mass of knowledge which has no\napplication to the life they are to lead.\nAnd they came to believe that the possession of such knowledge was the\nmeans and the only means of bettering the conditions of their children.\nNow we must go thru the process of educating the mass of the people to\nour new conception of education.\nWhere no sentiment has been aroused for these things it is best to begin\nwith talks at all kinds of gatherings, to have articles in the local and state\npapers. It must \"get into the air,\" \"into their systems,\" until there is a subconscious feeling in the community that somehow it is ^Hhe thing.\"\nThese lectures should prove: That the study of agriculture is education;\nthat it is practical to teach it in the school; and that the teaching of it is profitable. To relate marked incidences of what has been accomplished in other\nstates, bringing it as nearly home as possible, gives the best results.\nI have found that such statements as these appeal to the average citizen:\n' ' In Iowa, by teaching the farmers the simple process of testing seed com for\nvitality, the value of the com crop each year has been increased several miUions\nof dollars. In Minnesota the oat crop has been increased in some localities\n25 per cent, by the improved seed developed by farmers and school children.\nFor years the rest of the country has poured millions into the coffers of Wisconsin for her butter and cheese and high-grade milk cows, because of her separa-\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "960\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\ntor, her Babcock milk tester, and other scientific knowledge of the processes\nconnected with milk and its products.\"\nHon. Dick J. Crosby's article on \"Boys' Clubs\" in the 1904 Yearbook is\nmost effective. He describes the two large pyramids of com at the St. Louis\nExposition, made up of 1,000 little pyramids, each containing ten beautiful\nears of white or yellow com with these legends above them: \"Grown by the\nFarmer Boys of Illinois.\" Then he gives the story of how this was brought\nabout. It sounds like a fairy story and is simply fascinating. To read of the\nboys coming to the first contest in a little town of Illinois with their first com\nfor exhibit, some walking and lugging their com, some of it in boxes, some in\ncoffee sacks, tied up with binder twine, shoestrings, bed cord, anything, thrills\nand moves one as much as do the old stories of the boy going off to school,\narriving in the village with only seven cents in his pockets and all his earthly\nbelongings in a red bandana handkerchief, and later buming midnight oil\nto master Greek and Latin lessons.\nJust get some of the old-type orators, the type that used to look into those\nbright eyes and see a coming president of the United States, Patrick Henry,\nor Henry Clay, and let him tell of these com-raising victories of boys — and\nthen watch results.\nI am no orator, but even I have talked to a crowded house of patrons, or\ngone into a district school in Oklahoma and told the little fellows of the $10,000\noffered at Omaha for the best ten ears of com, and told them what the boys\nin Nebraska, Illinois, and Wisconsin have done, and their eyes would grow\nlarge, and they would begin to talk of the old hog lot that their father would\nsurely let them have to raise their prize com; and backward boys have been\nanxious to go to the blackboard and figure for me how much more they could\nraise with good seed com than could be raised with ordinary seed. And the\nold father saw it, and he saw, too, that such things made the boy eager to figure,\nthat it made his arithmetic real — \"Figures talk.\" And when you show that\nthe boy is still getting readin', 'ritin', and 'rithmetic, the old father is glad\nto have his boy study agriculture.\nTell them that one grain added to each ear would increase the com crop\nof the United States 5,000,000 bushels.\nA recent report from Mississippi shows that three hundred boys in the contest in one county averaged 70 bushels to the acre, one raising as high as 124\nbushels. These are the figures that talk. These are the things that awaken\ninterest.\nAccompanying the lecturing must be convincing demonstrations before\nthe audience: Tests of milk with the Babcock milk tester; actual lessons in\nstock- judging with the horse or the cow present; real lessons in cooking.\nIn Oklahoma, to create the proper sentiment for agricultural education, we\nhave had joint teachers' and farmers' institutes. Patrons, pupils, teachers, and\nschoolboards were urged to be present. Often the entire schools of the\ncounty were dismissed and teachers brought their pupils. The best results\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTEREST\n\nIN\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n961\n\nfor interesting all were obtained where we had actual instruction for boys and\ngirls. For two days we had a school. There were classes in corn-judging,\nstock-judging, milk-testing, scroll-saw work, weaving, etc. I carried outfits\nand materials with me. We used local teachers for helpers. There were a\nnumber of classes going on at the same time. Boys and girls were actually\ntaught to do things. The children were enthusiastic. The parents caught\nthe spirit. One young man, who brought eighteen pupils to the institute from\nhis school, wrote me afterward that the boys talked of the meeting continually,\nand were making plans to \"show me\" next year.\nI remember one place where I held an institute, a little girl asked to keep\na loom to finish her little rug, promising to bring it back before I left. She\nfailed to come to the hotel. But when I was boarding the train she came, all\nout of breath and handed me the loom as the train pulled out, calling to me,\n''I just got it done !\" The results of giving the children this actual opportunity\nto work with the tools meant the introduction of manual training into the\nschools of that little city four weeks later. It meant, too, a number of boys\nand girls for our contests. The principal wrote me, \"You have awakened the\nwhole town.\" The fact is I simply gave the boys and girls something to do,\nand they awakened the whole town.\nA part of my plan was to carry a large exhibit from various schools in the\nstate — work actually done by children. A little apron with dear little stitches^\nmade by a little third-grade girl would win the hearts of many for domestic\nscience.\nWe found one of the most effective means of awakening an interest in\ndomestic science was to give lessons in cooking and table-service to a group\nof girls before the audience. We took girls having had no previous instruction\nand gave lessons in hall, church, opera house — anywhere, and borrowed our\nequipment, adapting ourselves to circumstances, and showing that with very\nlittle equipment palatable and attractive dishes could be made.\nIn one instance where we needed some girls at once to take a lesson, we\napproached a group of six school girls who had just arrived from thirteen miles\nin the country. With a short explanation they accepted the invitation and\nwent immediately to the hall and began taking instructions for making tomato\nsoup. We had expected to make a sample only but, finding the rations were\nshort, the girls, under the direction of the teacher, made a good bowl of soup\nfor each of seventy-five people.\nThat was strenuous work but netted good results. The women of that\ncounty formed an organization and began studying household topics. They\nassisted the county superintendent, financially, so that he could secure the\nteacher. Miss Hazel Clark, of Tonkawa, for his summer teachers' institute. What would the results have been if the teacher had talked to\nthe audience an hour on the properties of wheat, amount of gluten and\nprotein, etc. ?\nWe must go to the farmer.\nIt is most profitable to go with the county\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultura\n\nsuperintendent thru the county, giving lessons at schools and holding evening\nsessions, giving demonstrations and doing actual work as suggested above.\nI thoroly believe in boys' and girls' clubs and consider them one of the best\nmeans, under our present school system, to arouse and maintain an interest\nin agriculture and domestic science. We have some good beginnings of clubwork in Oklahoma under the direction of devoted county superintendents.\nSuperintendent Moors, of Cheyenne, has a scheme for prizes. He began by\nhimself, donating a thorobred pig, and then secured donations from others\nuntil now he has six pigs in his pen. The boy winning first prize has first\nchoice. To get the best pig the boys will have to learn to judge hogs. It\nmakes a double contest. In the bread-making contest, the girls are actually\nto bake the bread at the meeting.\nTo maintain an interest in these subjects we must have efficient teachers,\nand until teachers are prepared it is folly to demand the formal and extensive\nintroduction of these subjects into our schools. Demand preparation of\nteachers first, then instruction in the schools.\nUntil teachers are prepared let us undertake only a few things. Let us\nmake a few things practical, and study them in such a way as to awaken an\ninterest for further investigation, for home study and home experimentation,\nfor research work, using geographies, government bulletins, magazines and\nfarm journals, stories of peoples and their achievements.\nIn place of the regular graduation essay or oration, it is suggested that the\npupil have some particular problem to work out. It may be some problem\nin connection with agriculture or horticulture is assigned. Let this problem\nbe comparing the milk products of two cows in the father's herd during the\nyear, the cost of keeping hogs from birth to marketing, showing the time of\ngreatest growth. The boy might arrange to cultivate a small tract of land,\nkeeping an accurate account of the expense and labor applied, and the\namount of revenue received from it, the problem being to see what the maximum rate of revenue from a given investment could be made, allowing the\nboy to keep poultry, live-stock, raise garden truck, etc. The girls might\nkeep accounts showing the cost of living for a year, the income from poultry\nand butter, list of clothing, cost of furnishing a home, with house plans and\nmost suitable furniture for eachoroom, making a chart of this; menus for\ndifferent seasons of the year with cost of same, etc. The children should be\nleft more or less free to select their own problems. This study should continue\nthru the year and would largely be carried on at home, in the country, and\npartially in shops at the city. The results should mean so many points, a\npart of the examination for graduation.\nThe idea would be in every case to connect the intellectual school life with\nlife-problems and actual physical labor, so that the young people would realize\nthat book learning was only one part of their real education. This would at\nonce relieve the textbook work from being the dry grind that it has been so\nlong, and relieve the physical labor from being the drudgery which it invariably\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTEREST\n\nIN\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n963\n\n•\nbecomes if there is no form of intellectuality connected with it. All other subjects all thru the year should contribute something to the problem. It would\nbe a great advantage if this problem could be of such a nature as to maintain\nthe interest of the young people after they have passed the formal graduation\nperiod, so that they would still come to the teacher once a week, or in the\nevenings for assistance in carrying on the work. In this way the child would\npass from school into life naturally and easily.\nLive educators can do much under the present system, but if we are to maintain the interest and teach these subjects as they should be taught, and really\ntrain the masses for citizenship, we must change our whole system of education.\nThe great mass of evidence obtained by the Country Life Commission goes\nto show that the schools are failing to do the task they were once supposed to\ndo. We have a large educational machine that fails to do real educational work.\nProfessor Began, of the Lane Technical School in Chicago, says: \"I often\nwonder what it is in our make-up as teachers that impels us to gaze at our\nwork through the telescope of tradition and precedent, which magnifies the\nimportance of Greek and Latin and ancient literature, while we ignore the\npitiful sight of mankind on its knees praying in all its terrible literalness, 'Give\nus this day our daily bread.' \"\nEqual opportunity should be offered to all, whether in the field of the\nintellectual or the mechanical. Education should fit the young people for\ntheir life-work. The nation has too long asked of the public-school system\nbread and been given a stone.\nThe new theory of our public school is that it is a mental gymnasium plus\nuseful activity; that the implements used to develop the mind are useful in\nthe activities of after-school life like the saw, the hammer, and the chisel of\nthe carpenter's apprentice; that they are not thrown away like the dumb-bell,\nbut become the tools with which real work is done in after life. We have the\nexample of a few schools that are partially solving this problem.\nThe Lincoln School at Santa Barbara, CaL, furnishes indisputable proof\nthat an ordinary school, under the most unfavorable conditions, can equip its\npupils for social efficiency, for useful lives. The condition of the school was\nvery bad indeed. The economic side strongly appealed to me. The gardens\nwere made to pay, and furnished the resources to purchase shop equipment,\nand the shops in turn brought forth economic results. The boys mended over\none hundred chairs and desks, built cupboards and bookshelves, and rebound\ntwo hundred books.\nFrbm the first grade to the eighth the children helped each other; they\nworked together at handwork and they studied and recited together. One\ngroup of children will be found gathering around a rug frame, transforming\nwith busy fingers a piece of old burlap and some discarded clothing into a\nserviceable rug; another making a cupboard or building a bookcase out of\nmill ends and dry-goods boxes; and still another constructing a punt for\nsurf-boating.\nWhile their hands are busy they are talking over their lessons,\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "964\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nmost of which are based upon the things they are doing. At work with cotton\ngoods they have a genuine, living interest in cotton, and they get its geography\nand history and nature-study, because they have a real reason for wanting to\nknow it. Arithmetic and language grow out of the work in the same way.\nThere is a course in mending anything that belongs in or about the home.\nA broken thing is placed before two or more children and they are asked to\nwork out a good plan for mending it. A plan is adopted and carried thru to\nsuccess, whether on the first trial or on the third, or on the thirty-third. The\neducational value of a problem like this is equal to any that can be found\nin books. The ingenuity which some of them display in this mending is quite\nremarkable, and the training that they get makes not only for power but for\nculture as well, and for utility.\nThere is a course in simple housekeeping, for nearly half of the girls in that\nschool were the only housekeepers their homes had. Rooms were fitted up\nand the girls given actual training in housekeeping; how to ^'tidy up\" a room\nand make a bed; how to decorate in a plain and tasteful way; how to cook\nand to buy the simplest and cheapest food. They have shoe- judging and\ncloth-judging contests, as well as fruit-judging and vegetable-judging.\nFormerly more than 70 per cent, dropped out before getting thru the seventh\ngrade; now less than 15 per cent, drop out at that time. In the conventional\nstudies the grades are as high as any in the county.\nFrom all parts of the city are coming requests that something like this plan\nmay be followed in the other schools of Santa Barbara.\nIn France the apprenticeship idea has been worked out on the farm. In\nNorth Carolina, they are trying something of this kind. But I would have\nmy farmer boys do their apprentice work on their father's farm. I would\nmake the system more of a continuation school than an apprentice school.\nI want study and improvement to go on and on, with granting of diplomas\nas mile-stones — marking progress, but never the end. As long as there is\nlife there is improvement and growth.\nDISCUSSION\nW. S. Sutton, professor of education, University of Texas, Austin, Tex. — The\npapers we have heard this morning are interesting and valuable. They furnish the\nstrongest kind of evidence that agriculture can be reduced to pedagogic form, and can be\nused effectively for both practical and disciplinary purposes in our schools. Careful students\nof education thruout the country, including college presidents and college professors,\nare recognizing the worth of agriculture as a subject of study. In many colleges agriculture may be elected as an entrance requirement.\nWhile we may rejoice at the progress of agriculture and the teaching of agriculture in\nour country, yet prudence demands that, in the curriculum of our schools for rural children,\nagriculture itself should not be overemphasized. The great purpose of education is\nspiritual development, and such subjects as language and history should, by no means, be\nneglected. It is far more important that the teachers of this country be engaged in the\nmaking of men than in the making of farmers or mechanics or lawyers or doctors or\nwhat-not.\nAny policy which may lead to the peasantizing of farmers should not be\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "r\n\nDepartment]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nOF AGRICULTURE\n\n965\n\nderated in this democratic country, and I am glad to know that many thoughtful leaders\nin education subscribe heartily to this view.\nIf this view be correct, there should be no friction whatever between teachers engaged\nin giving instruction in different subjects or between schools of different rank. The\nuniversity that does not render substantial service to other phases of education has no\nexcuse for being, and, on the other hand, other schools that do not minister to the welfare\nof the entire school system are not worthy of the support of an intelligent people.\n\nNATIONAL\nAID\nIN THE\nPREPARATION\nOF AGRICULTURE FOR THE PUBLIC\nHOMER\n\nH.\n\nSEERLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF STATE\nIOWA\n\nTEACHERS\n\nOF\nTEACHERS\nSCHOOLS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCEDAR\n\nFALLS,\n\nThe present need. — Among all the greater problems of modem public\neducation, that of the industrial training of the common people so as to enable\nthem to give a more productive service to their day and generation has been\nthe most difficult of solution because of the magnitude of the enterprise undertaken and of the personal, practical nature of the accomplishment sought. All\nother education can be conducted in groups and in schools, but this is obliged\nto be personal and individual. All other efforts heretofore outlined admit\na similarity in individual needs and provide a course of study that seems\nto suit the mass of those who study and recite, but this effort depends upon\nthe recognition of remarkable diversity in individual needs, and demands a\nprovision that will permit the preparation of each individual for large efficiency\nin some one particular direction. This psychological fact has delayed the progress ofindustrial education, and has magnified the expense of such training by\ncompelling a recognition of the fact that education is for the man rather than for\nsociety, as thru the man's competency, after all, is society to be actually benefited.\nImprovement in mechanical lines. — ^The progress of the common mechanic\narts has been more than ordinarily successful, because such individual instruction is particularly adapted to the needs of the populous community where\nwealth and enterprise easily combine to develop a competent and well-equipped\nworkman out of the ordinary public-school pupil. For similar reasons more\ndifferentiation of teaching skill and of pupil capability can be recognized without such extravagant expenditure per capita or without alarming the student\nof social conditions as to failure to secure mass improvement among the multitude. The few representatives of modem industrial educational effort who\nreceive this training are so satisfactorily prepared for occupation that the critic\nof educational progress is satisfied with commending the results obtained as\nthe thing to be done, not only for the few, but also for all, hoping that the good\nexample thus set will act as a contagion that will reach the multitude.\nDifficulties in agricultural education. — Now agricultural education applied\nto the rural communities is a much more gigantic problem than that of\nmechanic-art education applied to the cities and towns. Agriculture is not one\noccupation but many complicated occupations, depending not upon a single\nscience but many profound sciences, reaching success not in a single kind of\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "966\n\nNational\n\neducation\n\nassociation\n\n[Agricultural\n\nskill and capability but many kinds of skills and of capabilities. In this vocation, empyrical education has prevailed from the dawn of civilization. While\nthis has been sufficient to protect and continue to a certain extent the race of\nmen to the present, yet it is admitted by students of the history and development of civilization, as found in the nations of the past and present, that scientific education and training of the people of the rural communities are absolutely\nnecessary if the development and progress of the American people on this soil\nare to be permanent and definitely prosperous. The gigantic nature and the\ngreat importance of this problem ought to appeal to everyone who desires an\nearly solution of the question at issue.\nThe nation's interest. — It is conceded that the nation as a whole ought to be\niaterested in the education and traiaing of the mechanics, the engineers, the\nhousekeepers, the cooks, the electricians, the miners, and special employees\nof the great manufacturing and transporting industries, because their competency and their skill determine the standing of America among the nations of\nthe world; but it should never be forgotten that all these will fade from prominence and distinction when agriculture and its allied industries are unable to\nfurnish the products of the soil for the maintenance and the support of all those\nwho contribute to the other kinds of national prosperity and success. These\nthings make it excremely imperative that a greater enthusiasm be shown\nregarding the supreme importance of the effective educating and training of\nthe pupils who are to become the future agriculturists. It is evident that the\nresources of the country at large depend upon agriculture being made an exact\nscience, and that those who are to follow this vocation should realize that there\nis no more urgent demand for special training than there is for this kind of\ninstruction among the masses of the American people. This is not so much'\na question of making more money per individual per acre and thus securing\ngreater temporary prosperity, as it is a question of perpetuity of national life\nand of permanent prosperity.\nThe state's interest centered. — It is thus evident that the different states in the\nUnion can well afford to get positively interested in the developing and improving of the country schools, so that the country boys and girls are actually trained\nfor efficiency and happy, successful life. It is also evident that this undertaking\nis a remarkably large, expensive, and difficult problem, that involves more\nvital questions than are found in all other fields of public education, and that\nit means great losses to the nation as a whole if these fundamental interests\nare not conserved and if the welfare of the rural child is not properly regarded\nNothing of any real value in this direction is going to be accomplished so\nlong as the enterprise is conducted on as small an expenditure as at present,\nor is given so petty a place in national and state legislation as today. The investments that ought to be made by both state and nation in training skilled teachers\nfor this great rural industrial field should far exceed what is now done to educate\na few experts in the great colleges of agriculture for giving advice and conducting experiments to learn the best ways to do the work of farming; since the\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nOF AGRICULTURE\n\n967\n\nfate of present-day civilization is determined by the education of the masses,\nand not by the education of the classes. In addition, both the state and the\nnation should combine to give such financial returns for rural-school teaching\nthat well-educated, well-trained teachers may receive sufficient remuneration\nfor services performed so that a creditable livelihood may be earned and an\nhonest, effective service may be a reality.\nGreat training oj men means a greater nation. — ^The nation has no larger\nfield for permanent returns than is this of improving the industrial capacity\nof the rural populations. - The states alone have thus far not shown themselves\nfully able to assume financially this great service and at the same time carry\non successfully the other things demanding attention and support. The\ninitiative of the scattered populations in the country is not of a character that\ncan combine and develop these resources of power and prosperity. The present knowledge of these populations is not universally sufficient to give the\nimpetus to the service even now needed, and many generations must pass at\nthe present rate of progress before such essential standards can be reached;\nhence it does seem extremely essential that this great undertaking should\nreceive a strong and effective start in this generation.\nComparisons unfavorable to custom. — What is national prestige in battleships, armies, and navies as compared to the prestige of the industrial prosperity of the masses ? What are Panama canals and great trunk lines of railways and magnificent steamships unless we can maintain our supremacy in\nagricultural products and give commerce its necessary conditions ? What are\nwar balloons and conservation of national resources and higher education for\nthe professions if there are no industrial masses to support the whole on their\nshoulders ? What are monuments and factories and great public buildings and\nnational prominence if the teachers of the rural populations are not qualified\nor conversant with their duties, or capable of meeting the emergencies that\nare rapidly developing ?\nHelp and co-operation must he given. — For these reasons this question of\nthe agricultural education of teachers has been emphasized by some thoughtful\nAmericans for the past decade. For these reasons, the National Congress has\nbeen asked to encourage the states that they may put forth more strenuous\nendeavors to reach the greatest demand of the present age. It is needless to say\nthat an impression favorable to the cause has been made wherever these facts\nhave been presented. No intelligent person has rejected the claim as improper\nor as unnecessary. The chief difficulty has been to get the responsibility for this\nuntoward condition located. The states have pleaded incapability to undertake\nit; the nation has pleaded that all such work belongs to the states and was not\nfor it to assume; and yet Congress has every year appropriated vast sums for\nother undertakings that are of less national importance than the education of\nteachers for agricultural service in the country schools. In consideration of\nthese things it does seem that the campaign ought to be continued; that the\ncause of the common people ought to be kept to the front by all who recognize\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "968\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nthe importance of industrial education for the common man, and that in some\nway before long the leaders of the people shall be made to recognize the greatness of the undertaking; or, if that cannot be done, that the industrial classes\nthemselves will arise in their majesty and demand their inalienable rights from\nthe hands of those who represent them in the halls of legislation.\nThe method proposed. — ^The accomplishing of this educating and training\nof the rural-school teacher to add to the public schools the industrial activities\ndoes not necessarily mean the preparing and adapting of every woman teacher\nto do this kind of work. For this to be determined as the real size of the problem at the outset would be the probable abandonment of the entire scheme\nas purely chimerical. It is feasible, however, to solve the situation in an entirely\ndifferent way. Men teachers are the ones who must be induced to become thus\nidentified with the work of teaching and training the future agriculturists,\nand this can be successfully done by so reorganizing the system as to place a\nman, as instructor in agriculture and assistant superintendent, in charge of a\nterritory in which from fifteen to thirty rural schools and school teachers would\nbe located. Under the inspiration and direction, as well as the instruction,\nof this rural-school superintendent the work in agriculture could be\nsuccessfully carried on, and thru his sympathy and helpfulness both teachers\nand pupils would successfully develop the work to be done. This plan may\nbe carried out with moderate original and subsequent expenditure beyond that\nnow annually invested in rural-school management. If to this could be added\nthe county-unit system, whereby the management thru a county school board\nand a county school superintendent could be unified and the fiscal transactions\nbe thus more liberally provided for, the rural schools would experience a revival\nin efficiency that would surpass any present or past accomplishments.\nTo inaugurate and carry on this preparation of agricultural teachers for\nthe rural schools, the state normal schools are the specially organized public\ninstitutions to conduct this training. They are successful schools for teachers\nand are prepared to teach everything that is now wanted except agriculture\nand mechanic arts. If these studies were added to their province and this\ntraining were supported by both national and state appropriations, the work\nso urgently demanded could easily be provided by every state.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn R. Kirk, president of the State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. — There is\ndense ignorance in higher education circles as to what agricultural education is and what\nit is for. It is usually discredited by the university committees that dictate courses of\ninstruction for secondary schools. Most of the committees on college entrance are yet\nso ill-informed that they contentedly discriminate against practical laboratory work and\nscientific instruction in agriculture. They see in school education little or nothing outside\nthe old-time, so-called culture studies, such as algebra, Latin, physics, etc.\nIt happens to be my lot to meet face to face each year more than one thousand students\nand to help them plan their programs with a view to academic courses in the upper half\nof the high-school ciu-riculum and the lower and middle parts of a college ciuriculum.\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\n969\n\nMany of those students are high-school graduates. Others have had from one to three\nyears in colleges and universities. Many of them are planning to enter universities.\nI am, therefore, compelled to know the sentiment which prevails in the community at large\nand also the attitude of the gentlemen who control university-entrance requirements and\nprograms in the university. Physics is one of the studies for which the tradition-bound\nuniversity committees give credit. A student having nine months of rather poor\ninstruction in physics will receive, from the committee, full credit for a unit in physics,\nwith a view to entering an A.B. course in the university, while a better student, having\na highly efl&cient course of nine months' instruction in a first-class agricultural laboratory\nand using an abundance of scientific literature, will receive no credit from the committee\nunless he proposes to enter an agricultural course or some other course in the university\nwhich is not taken at par value by the committee.\nWe have a great campaign of enlightenment before us. On the one hand, the stolid\nindiflference of many communities is an obstacle. On the other hand, the traditionbound committees in higher institutions constitute a greater obstacle.\nThe old definitions of studies for culture and studies for utility have done harm enough.\nThey should be abandoned.\nI recall the following incidents:\nOne morning a teacher from the Latin Department placed on the chapel platform\na large and beautiful bouquet from his private garden. Its presence suggested an\nexplanation to the students, which was to the effect that Latin is a culture study for\nthose who do not turn it to an immediate, practical use: it is a study for utility to those\nwho are soon to make their living as Latin teachers. The bouquet allied itself with both\nthe utility and the culture phases of the Latin teacher's life. Another day the agriculture\nteacher placed on the platform a larger and more beautiful bouquet. Fifty students in\nthe chapel knew how the bulbs back of that bouquet had been potted and wintered and\nbrought thru the spring and early summer. This bouquet suggested that agriculture is\nof tremendous consequence as a culture study. Then a great school of six hundred prospective teachers applauded both the Latin professor and the agriculture professor, and\nno one could tell which of the two departments was more for culture and which was more\nfor utility.\nI think it is time for schoolmen to free themselves from tradition. I have lately\nvisited farmhouses where the people were as familiar with their libraries and as skillful\non their musical instruments as any of the city folks; and some of my neighbors in the city\nare as practical in shop work and farming and gardening as those who live on the farm.\nSome of my own graduates in agriculture courses are as refined, as literary, as cultured,\nand as modest as the best of those produced by the department of classics.\nEducation in agriculture is for utility and for culture. If any studies deserve aid\nfrom any source, agriculture is one of them.\n\nHOW\n\nMAY\nDICK\n\nTHE RURAL SCHOOLS\nBE MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO THE LIFE AND NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE?\n\nJ. CROSBY,\n\nUNITED\nSTATES DEPARTMENT\nWASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nOF\n\nAGRICULTURE,\n\nIn the summer of 1908, as the members of this Association are aware,\nPresident Roosevelt appointed a Country Life Commission, composed of seven\nmen who are eminent because of their study of and knowledge concerning social,\nagricultural, and economic conditions in this country, to investigate and report\nupon the opportunities for better business and better living upon the farm.\nThis commission, after holding thirty public hearings and considering in a\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "970\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\npreliminary way one hundred and twenty thousand answers to printed questions sent out by the United States Department of Agriculture, found that the\ngeneral level of country life is high compared with any preceding time or with\nany other land. It also found discontent in the country and in places discouragement; that farming does not yield either the profit or the satisfaction\nit ought to yield; that farmers as a class do not magnify their calling, nor do\nthey understand it. Among the six leading specific causes of unsatisfactory\nrural conditions mentioned by the commission, the second was \"lack of good\ntraining for country life in the schools.\"\nThe underlying problem of country life, as pointed out by the commission,\nis to develop and maintain on our farms a civilization in full harmony with the\nbest American ideals, and one of the means of accomplishing this is thru\neducation in the public schools. Concerning country-life education, the\ncommission reported as follows:\nThere must be not only a fuller scheme of public education, but a new kind of education\nadapted to the real needs of the farming people. The country schools are to be so redirected\nthat they shall educate their pupils in terms of the daily life. Opportunities for training\ntoward agricultural callings are to be multiplied and made broadly effective. Every person\non the land, old or young, in school or out of school, educated or illiterate, must have a\nchance to receive the information necessary for a successful business, and for a healthful,\ncomfortable, resourceful life, both in home and neighborhood. This means redoubled\nefforts for better country schools, and a vastly increased interest in the welfare of country\nboys and girls on the part of those who pay the school taxes. Education by means of agriculture isto be a part of our regular public-school work. Special agricultural schools are\nto be organized. There is to be a well-developed plan of extension teaching conducted\nby the agricultural colleges, by means of the printed page, face-to-face talks, and demonstration or object lessons, designed to reach every farmer and his family, at or near their\nhomes, with knowledge and stimulus in every department of country life.\n\nSuch a scheme of public education calls for larger school units, to the end\nthat the per-capita cost of education may not be unduly increased when we\nprovide better material equipment, better trained and better paid teachers, and\nhigher grades of instruction within daily reach of the homes of all rural children.\nIt calls for instruction in the principles and practice of agriculture and home\neconomics in the rural public schools, and for the establishment of a limited\nnumber of new, special schools of agriculture and home economics. It\ndemands a new point of view in teaching the subjects now generally included\nin the public-school curriculum, to the end that non-essentials shall be eliminated and greater concreteness and effectiveness shall be acquired thru problems and illustrations drawn from the farm, the home, and the common things\nin the natural environment of the children. And, finally, it must have the\nunited support of national, state, and county educational agencies, the bureaus\nand departments of education, the departments of agriculture, the state universities and colleges of agriculture, the state normal schools, and the various\nassociations of farmers and teachers, to study the pedagogical and practical\nproblems involved in the redirection of country-life education. That the\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\nproblems are vast and complex no one will deny; that they are worthy the best\nefforts of our most profound students of education is equally beyond question\nor doubt.\nThe purpose of this conference, I take it, is to arrive at some of the main\nfactors in the problems. I have attempted merely a statement of the general 71\n9\nproposition. Others who will take part in this conference will suggest methods\nof solution.\nDISCUSSION\nS. A. Knapp, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C— The\nrural situation in the South which makes it necessary to support two systems of public\nschools is peculiar and unfortunate. The school problem there is working some peculiar\nchanges. Certain counties are becoming mainly black and others mainly white because\nwhen the number of white farmers in a locality becomes too limited to support a school,\nthey are compelled to move to some other section or county, and the same is true with the\nblacks.\nThe United States government should give some money directly to each rural school\nwhich attains certain standards of excellence and includes practical agriculture and mechanic arts in its course, rather than to give a lump sum to the district agricultural schools\nas suggested in the Davis bill. One high school which gives special attention to agriculture has informed me that it costs about $8,000 annually above the income to conduct\nthe farm. This certainly is a very poor demonstration of the success of the theories that\nare taught in the school, or at least of the theories that should be taught. The co-operative\ndemonstration work, under my charge, will have three hundred and fifty traveling agents\nin the field during the ensuing year and these agents will hold many meetings in all portions\nof the South. At such meetings they will demonstrate how to double the product per acre\nand at the same time reduce the cost of cultivation, and they will urge a higher standard\nof living and a general improvement of the domestic life by adding to the table a garden\nand increasing the supply of cows and of poultry.\nWm. Robertson, Superintendent of Crookston School of Agriculture, Crookston,\nMinn. — One of the best ways to get teachers interested in taking up agricultural work\nin their schools is for the county superintendent to start contests in growing or selecting\nseeds and vegetables and in sewing and cooking. Minnesota had over four thousand\nboys and girls in such contests the past year. It is easy for the superintendent to get prizes\nfrom local business men for these contests. Our experience with this matter has taught\nus that when the young people get interested in this work they will compel the teacher to\nget interested. This is real and practical agricultural education. It so interests the young\npeople that many more of them stay in the schools to complete the eighth-grade\nwork. Our small county of Douglas is so interested that they graduated one hundred and\nthirty pupils from the rural schools of the county the past year. Their graduating exercises were in charge of the county superintendent, and were held at one time and at one\nplace, the county seat.\nAnybody interested in the details of this work may write to Superintendent of Farmers\nInstitutes, A. D. Wilson, St. Paul, Minn., and ask for Farmers' Cluh Circular No. i.\nWilliam Riley Callicotte, lecturer for Colorado State Bureau of Child and Animal\nProtection, Denver, Colo. — The problem which concerns the farmer is, not how to produce more, but how to market and exchange what he now produces at a fair and profitable\nprice.\nUnder present conditions, when he has a big crop down go the prices; when he has\na shortage up go the prices; supply and demand, our economists tell us, determine the\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "972\n\n■ NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nprices. I have no doubt the farmer could easily increase h is product immensely could he\nbe assured a reasonable price for his produce.\nThe consumer now pays three dollars for what the farmer gets but one dollar for.\nThis is not just to the farmer nor to the consumer. These are the problems that now concern the farmer, not the question of producing more.\nOver two millions of men and women are now organized in the Farmer's Union,\nand this is the great question now up for solution by this great order.\nOur schools and colleges should be able to aid them in their work, and I hope a place\nwill be given this subject at our next annual meeting.\nDavid Felmley, president of Illinois State Normal University, Normal, 111. — I cannot agree with the statement that it is impossible to legislate interest into this work\nof agricultural education in the public schools. The chief obstacle now to the general\nintroduction of the work in our rural schools is the fact that teachers know but little of the\nvalue of the work, they know less of its content and method, and, because of this want of\nknowledge, they have little interest in it. We all admire the altruistic sort of interest\nthat pursues a subject without any thought of personal advantage to the student; and\nwe are in the habit of assuming that if knowledge is to be used for personal gain it immediately becomes tainted with commercialism. The great body of medical and law\nstudents pursue their professional studies with thought of professional usefulness, yet this\ndoes not prevent many of them from becoming students of law or medicine in those broader\nfields where little personal gain can result. We need legislation requiring teachers to prepare to teach agriculture in the rural schools. Interest in the subject will grow with the\nknowledge of the subject. The present demand for such instruction that exists in many of\nour progressive farm communities is. fruitless because qualified teachers can scarcely\never be found.\nThe second difficulty in the way is the fact that teachers in the common schools move\nso frequently that they do not get the real interest of the school at heart. Some recent\ninvestigations lead me to believe that in 75 per cent, of our rural schools, children in the fall\nface a new teacher. If, in April and May, when the school gardens are to be planted,\ncorn clubs organized, and plans made for the home plantings and home gardening of the\nchildren during the summer months, the teacher is already packing her trunk to move\nout of the district, but little of this work will be done. Aster shows, tomato exhibits,\ncorn contests, and harvest homes are just as vital to the highest success in agricultural\ninstruction in the schools as is the agricultural fair and farmers' institute with grown-ups.\nThe farmers do not realize that a good teacher is probably worth from 25 to 50 per cent,\nmore money to them in her second year than in her first. When this truth is realized and\nthe fitting salary paid, agricultural education in our rural schools may become a reality.\nOtis W. Caldwell, the University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. — In the University\nof Chicago, and I am informed that in the University of Wisconsin and probably in a\nnumber of other universities, there is a tendency toward a larger number of subjects that\nmay be ofi'ered in satisfaction of entrance requirements. The president of the University\nof Chicago has said that the University should accept for entrance any four-year's highschool work, provided that work has been well done. The difficulty in having high-school\nagriculture, as well as some other recently introduced subjects, accepted by the universities\nis found in the question whether these subjects are sufficiently well organized and well\ntaught. The colleges are coming to accept any good body of material that is well organized and well taught.\nJ. D. To WAR, director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Laramie, Wyo., suggested that farmers' institutes were very helpful; that the school-library movement and\nespecially the school agricultural library and the bulletins from the United States Department of Agriculture and state experiment stations should be in the hands of every districtschool teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\n973\n\nA. H. MacKay, superintendent of education for the Province of Nova Scotia, Halifax,\nwhen called upon from the chair said: The educational system of Nova Scotia is similar to\nthat prevailing in the United States, in having eight years or grades in the common school\nfollowed by four years in the high school preparatory to entering the universities or technical colleges.\nIn the common schools they have four classes of teachers, mainly dififerentiated by\ntheir scholarship and maturity, which correspond to honor passes in the respective first-,\nsecond-, third-, and fourth-year courses of the provincial high-school system. Class \"D,\"\nemployed only in pioneer and poor sections, receive an annual bonus from the governmentof$6o; Class \" C \" of $90; Class \"B\" of $120; and Class \"A\" of $150. After thirty\nyears' service, at the age of sixty years, or thirty-five years' service if younger, these teachers\ncan retire and draw for the remainder of their lives this provincial grant, semi-annually.\nIn rural sections, teachers who act as librarians of school libraries having two specified minimum values of books and amounts of circulation can draw an additional $5 or\n$10 for this service, on making the prescribed annual report.\nBy taking additional courses in \" Rural Science,\" the higher-class teachers can qualify,\nif they have school gardens of prescribed status in addition to this extra diploma, for grants\nof $15, $30, $60, or $9b more than other teachers of the same class in city or rural schools.\nThere are over one hundred teachers engaged now, during the summer season, in\nNova Scotia, taking a six-weeks' course at a time which does not interfere with their regular\nemployment as teachers during the year. It is possible in three summer terms of six weeks\nat lectures, in the laboratories, and in the field, supplemented by reading prescribed texts\nduring the rest of the year, to pass the examination required for the \"rural science\"\ndiploma.\nTo explain the term, I must say that we have three other similar special classes of\nteachers: (i) the \"mechanic science\" teacher, manual training in woodwork, etc.; (2)\n\"domestic science,\" manual training in cooking, sewing, laundry, etc.; (3) kindergarten;\nand (4) \"rural science,\" being nature study of one's rural environment, so as to make\nclear practically the scientific principles on which agriculture, horticulture, and forestry\ndepend. This last is not agriculture. We tried unsuccessfully to teach \"agriculture\"\nfor a dozen years in the common schools: but it was not agriculture. But with the aid of\nschool gardens, for which the school trustees can also obtain an extra grant of $10, $15, $20,\nor $25 from the municipal fund, provided a greater amount of expense had been incurred\nfor fertilizers, plowing, fencing, etc., not including pupils' work, the pupils are interested\npractically in scientific principles underlying the successful exploitation of these industries.\nHere I may say that our schools have three sources of revenue :\n1. The provincial aid payable to teachers in proportion to scholarship and professional\nqualifications, to which I first referred.\n2. The municipal fund, collected with the municipal taxes as one of the rates. The\namount is determined by the population, thirty-five cents being levied }or every head\nwithin the municipality; but on the assessable property. This is paid to school boards —\n$25 per annum for each teacher employed, the balance (the greater portion) being paid in\nproportion to the days' attendance of pupils at school. These municipalities may be of\nthe size of counties.\n3. The sectional assessment, voted at each annual meeting of the ratepayers, and\nlevied on the section property by the trustees. The school section is a self-governing\ncorporation in educational matters, a city, or town, or rural territory normally four or\nfive miles in diameter with the schoolhouse near the center. The comparative importance\nof each of these sources of revenue will be shown by their totals for last year. In round\nnumbers they are: (i) provincial grants $335,000; (2) municipal grants $147,000; (3)\nsectional assessment $667,000.\nThe teachers draw extra from the provincial treasury, and the school trustees from the\nmunicipal treasury, for this rural-science teaching with the school garden as the laboratory;\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "974\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nand this acts as a stimulus to the sectional taxpayer, who likes to see as much money as\npossible come to the section from outside.\nOur rural-science training school which is now at work meets in Truro, where the\nProvincial Agricultural and Horticultural College is located near the Provincial Normal\nCollege; so that the laboratories and instruction in the two institutions may be utilized\nfor the scientific training underlying oiu- rural industries. This summer the training school\nis conducted under the auspices of the two institutions, with additional instructors from\nabroad when the services of eminent scientific instructors can be reasonably obtained.\nNot only teachers, but clergymen, are proposing to take these rural-science courses.\nThere are three grades of school gardens defined, so as to give all communities a\nchance to develop them. The greatest handicap to our system is the summer vacation, in\nJuly and August.\nAs a rule the teachers leave then; and often some of the pupils.\nTo meet this condition, pupils who visit their garden plots once or twice a week —\nand it makes a very nice picnic occasion — can have their attendance reported to the secretary of the school board, which can be added to the attendance during the next school\nyear, and thus draw a corresponding increase from the municipal fund.\nThen again, the pupil who has a small plot in the school garden is encouraged to\nhave a larger plot at home, worked out on similar lines. And when this is done, the value\nof the instruction is greatly increased and its influence extended.\nPhenological observations. — All schools are also furnished with blank schedules for\nthe observation of seasonal phenomena such as the first flowering, leafing, and fruiting\nof plants, first agricultural operations, meteorological phenomena, and the migration of\nbirds, etc. Over one hundred objects are on the list. The eyes of all the children attending the school, covering a radius of two miles, are watching for these sights and report,\nbringing when possible the specimen to the teacher. A first find is quite a prize to the\nlucky pupil. This watchful mood enlivens the way to and from school. The pupils come\nto know all the early interesting botanical and bird species. The schedules, when filled,\nare sent in by the teachers at the end of the year, and prove so valuable that they are bound\nup by the Education Department in annual volumes for future studies of climate; and\nare compiled so as to show the phenological character of coast, inland, and highland regions\nfrom the south to the north, and from the east to the west. In fact, these school observations were found to be far superior to the observations made previously by members of\nscientific societies, whose reports generally showed a tendency for seasonal phenomena\nto progress in weekly spurts. For a number of years these average dates (or phenochrons)\nhave been published in the transactions of at least two Canadian scientific societies. The\nwork takes up no time in school, aids other nature studies, and accumulates valuable\nscientific data for local and general purposes in the years to come; while the educational\nefi\"ect life\non the\nis good\nin kind\nand strong in degree. It all adds to the happiness of\nrural\nandchildren\nthe value\nof rural\neducation.\n\nDICK\n\nSPECIAL\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nHIGH\n\nJ. CROSBY,\n\nUNITED\nSTATES DEPARTMENT\nWASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nSCHOOLS\nOF\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nIf I may be permitted, I desire at this time to discuss briefly the advisability\nof establishing special agricultural high schools, a subject to which I merely\nreferred in my opening remarks. This subject was treated quite fully by Dean\nDavenport yesterday in a paper before the Department of Secondary Education, but no opportunity for public discussion was given.\nSeveral objections to the establishment of special agricultural schools were\noffered by Dean Davenport but I shall consider only those three which are\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n975\n\nlikely to prove most misleading: (i) That the courses in special agricultural\nhigh schools are narrower than those in public high schools; (2) that young\nboys and girls attending them are removed from parental influence and control;\nand (3) that the establishment of such schools would tend to peasantize the\nAmerican farmer.\nIn the first place I fully agree with Dean Davenport that the great mass\nof country boys and girls should be educated in existing public schools and\nthat attention should be given to improving these schools thru the introduction\nof courses in agriculture and home economics, but I do not believe that the\ncourses of study in special agricultural schools need to be narrowed to the extent\nthat they shall be less cultural or less truly educational than existing highschool courses. On the contrary, I am sure that better courses than are commonly offered in schools attended by pupils from rural districts can be devised\nfor these schools, courses which retain all that is essential of the old and provide\nfor broad training along agricultural lines. Dr. A. C. True, of the Office of\nExperiment. Stations, acting as chairman of a committee on secondary courses\nin horticulture, has already planned a course for horticultural high schools\nwhich embodies all that is necessary of language, mathematics, science, and\nother high-school work for entrance to Cornell University, and at the same\ntime provides for daily work in agriculture and horticulture thruout the four\nyears. I am convinced that the establishment of a few good agricultural\nhigh schools in each state would hasten the general introduction of agriculture\nand home economics into public high schools, and rapidly advance our school\nsystem to the point where the aim would be preparation for active useful lifework rather than merely for college entrance.\nThe contention that special agricultural high schools remove children from\nparental control would merit serious consideration were it not for the fact that\nwe all know that the majority of country boys and girls who now attend high\nschool not only go away from home to cities and towns but are not even under\nfaculty control outside of school houre. On the other hand, a large percentage of agricultural high schools in this country are boarding schools,^\nand the pupils in many of them are under as close and careful supervision\nas they would be at home.\nThat special agricultural schools will \"peasantize the American farmer\"\nis a cry we have often heard in the discussion of this movement in education,\nbut I doubt whether the farmer will be much alarmed by it. If we were\nattempting to establish a system of special schools to wliich the farmer must\nsend his children, he might well be alarmed, but no such thing is contemplated.\nWhere special schools of agriculture have been established the farm boy is\nstill free to choose between it and the public high school, just as in many of our\nlarger cities the boy may choose between a technical high school and the oldline school. The special agricultural high school simply offers the country\nboy who has decided that he will be a farmer a better opportunity to prepare\nfor his profession than the public school can ever afford him — better equip-\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "976\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nment in buildings, laboratories, land, animals, machinery, and implements,\nand a better faculty of trained specialists. Are we so credulous as to believe\nthat offering the farmer a better opportunity to prepare for his life-work will\npeasantize him?\nWe are told that the agricultural schools of Germany are in part responsible\nfor the peasant farmer in that country, but facts do not bear out this assertion.\nAs a matter of fact, the peasant farmer of Germany antedates the first agricultural school by several hundred years. He is a peasant in spite of the uplifting\ninfluence of agricultural schools, not because of it. And I cannot help believing that they have had some influence in making the German farmer the producer of some of the largest yields per acre of any farmer in the world. A few\nyears ago his yields were not unusual, but today, largely as a result of adopting\nmethods advocated and taught by the special agricultural schools, he produces\ntwice as much wheat per acre as the American farmer, 65 per cent, more oats,\ntwice as much rye, 35 per cent, more barley, and more than twice as many\npotatoes. Not much of a ''peasantizing\" influence about that! If the\ncomparatively narrow work offered by the German agricultural schools can\naccomplish such results with a peasant farmer, how much more might we expect\nfrom well-equipped, well-manned agricultural schools in America where every\nfarmer is a prospective candidate for president.\nTHE\nE.\n\nC.\n\nPRESENT\nBISHOP,\n\nSTATE\n\nSTATUS\nIN THE\n\nOF AGRICULTURAL\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nNEBR.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nLINCOLN,\n\nTo give a correct idea of the present status of agricultural education in the\npublic schools, a general survey of the growth of the movement is necessary.\nThe limitations of this paper permit only a very brief review.\nPublic-school agriculture began with the school-garden movement in Germany more than eighty years ago. Forty years later, when Austria and Sweden\ngave financial encouragement to the establishment of school gardens, they\nsprang up all over Europe — more than 100,000 of them. And now we find\ngardens and instruction in agriculture in nearly every country of Europe, in\nthe colonial dependencies of England — India, Canada, New Zealand, Australia\n— in growing Japan and in South American republics — in every country which\nis alive to the educational needs of her people.\nThe movement has grown from the school-garden idea to more definite\nand advanced agricultural instruction. The laws and requirements vary in\ndifferent countries. Instruction is sometimes optional, sometimes required,\nwith a tendency to require it in agricultural districts. Sometimes it is found\nonly in secondary schools; sometimes it is required in every grade, running\nthru nature study, object-lessons, elementary science, and finally reaching\nthe more advanced and technical agriculture. As in the United States, agricul-\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n977\n\nture is often made secondary to, or the outgrowth of, nature study and science;\nthen, again, as in Denmark, the entire elementary-school system is woven\naround this subject where it is already recognized as of vital importance to\nthe prosperity and happiness of the people.\nThat nations feel such instruction is essential to the development of the\npeople and to the prosperity and welfare of the country is shown in the numerous provisions made for giving national aid and financial encouragement to\nschools giving practical agricultural instruction. To teachers who excel in\nthe work, and to students taking special courses in practical agriculture, free\ntuition and board are sometimes given.\nSchool gardens in Europe have been very much more extensive than what\nwe have termed school gardens. Some years past, Russia reported 11,000\nfruit trees, 22,000 forest trees, and 1,000 hives of bees connected with her\nschool gardens.\nIn various ways the problem of making the work practical to those who\nmost need it is being solved. Japan has 500 supplementary industrial schools,\nwith 23,000 children, most of whom work on the land of their parents. The\nschools are in session evenings, Sundays, and holidays to accommodate those\nwho cannot attend the regular school sessions.\nIn France and some other countries, there are apprenticeship farms; and,\nwhat seems to be more profitable, demonstration farms run by the government\nwhere practical and scientific instruction is given. We find short courses and\nitinerant instruction given to meet the needs of farmers and their families.\nAgricultural instruction in the public schools of the United States is of very\nrecent growth, altho its value was recognized as early as 1824. It was then\nurged that \"agriculture and the gospel are the two great instruments of divine\nprovidence to check the voluptuousness and exercise the virtues of man.\"\nOur first school garden, planted in Boston in 1891, was for nine years only a\nflower garden. Since 1900, when kitchen vegetables were first planted in\nthat garden, the advancement of agricultural education in public schools has\nbeen very rapid.\nThe greatest growth in our agricultural colleges has been within recent\nyears. Nearly all of their extension work has developed within the last ten\nyears. We have no statistics for farmers' institutes for 1897, but there was\nbut little interest at that time. In 1908, 14,000 agricultural meetings were\nheld for farmers. Now our agricultural colleges are giving short courses,\nreading-circle courses, correspondence courses; sending out millions of\npamphlets, many of which are adapted to public-school use; conducting\ninnumerable schools and demonstration farms, not only in connection with\nthe college, but in other localities. This has had a great influence in creating\na demand for agricultural instruction in the public schools.\nSchool improvement leagues, observance of Arbor Day, boys' and girls'\nnature-study clubs, corn-growing contests, and the like, have all aided in\nstrengthening the movement.\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "Q78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultura\n\nFor the purpose of securing definite information on some phases of the\nstatus of agricultural education, a questionnaire was sent to the state superintendents, the presidents of normal schools, and presidents of agricultural\ncolleges in the United States. Forty-six states and territories were represented\nin the responses. The information given is based on the respective opinions\nreceived from these three sources. Some replies were incomplete, on account\nof lack of information on the part of those responding.\nIn 1897 none of the states report giving agricultural instruction in rural\nschools; the recent data show forty-four states giving such instruction. Fourteen of these have laws requiring it to be taught in the rural schools; twelve\nrequire it in the graded schools; Texas designates schools with less than 300\nscholastics as being required to teach it ; ten states require it taught in the\nhigh schools; eleven more states are planning to pass such laws. In some of\nthe states there is no specific law, but authorities are free to introduce the subject. Twenty-eight states have laws that permit agriculture to be taught.\nWhile agriculture is said to be taught in the elementary schools of these\nforty-four states, only thirteen claim that instruction is at all uniform thruout\nthe state. Five others report ''fairly so.\" Eighteen states publish courses\nin agriculture for rural schools, and ten publish courses for high schools.\nIn 1897 there was but one agricultural high school; now there are about\none hundred; seventeen states report having such schools. Twenty-three\nstates now report high schools giving agricultural instruction; probably there\nare several thousand of them. The total of figures given was 1,200, but a number of states simply reported ''many\" without giving exact figures. The\ngovernment report shows that two years ago there were only eighteen high\nschools reporting such instruction The course has been also added to numerous county normal training courses.\nThe agricultural high schools have more or less extensive farms and are\nequipped with buildings, with animals and machinery, and give courses in all\nfarm practices.\nSome inquiry was also made concerning nature study. Sixteen states\nrequire such teaching; fourteen others report that it is strongly urged.\nTwenty-six states report giving nature study and agriculture. In many\ncountries of Europe this tendency is also very strong.\nThere seems to be a tendency to teach agriculture as a separate study.\nThirty-eight states report such a method. Of these, twenty-four also report\ncorrelating agriculture with nature study in the grades and with science in the\nhigh school.\nThe report from West Virginia is significant because of its statement,\n\"Nature study with agriculture.\" We have been accustomed to saying \"Agriculture with nature study.\"\nThe normal-school men of New Mexico say that the state board of agriculture urges agriculture rather than nature study, and Georgia reports\n\"agriculture rather than nature study.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n979\n\nThe following states report correlating nature study with geography:\nGeorgia, Missouri, New York, South Dakota, Illinois (in the normal school\nat Macomb), Nebraska, New Mexico State Normal, and Washington State\nNormal at Ellensburg.\nThe new Nebraska course of study for the elementary schools, issued\nMay 5, 1909, provides a course in agriculture correlated with the course in\ngeography as a science branch running thru the eight years of the elementary\ncourse. In the first two grades the work is outlined under the heading ''Nature\nStudy.\" In the third grade the work is continued under the heading \"Oral\nand Observational Work in Nature Study and Geography,\" with a decided\nturn toward home and industrial geography. Beginning in the fourth grade\nand continuing thru the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades the work is outlined\nunder the heading \"Geography,\" with the work in agriculture well correlated.\nIn the eighth grade the work is outlined as \"Geography and Agriculture of\nNebraska.\"\nThe correlation of agriculture with the common branches should go further\nthan geography and nature study. In the regular work in arithmetic, problems\nshould be provided which involve the actual working-out of real arithmetic\nproblems connected with the work of the farm and the home. This should be\ncontinued in the work in bookkeeping. The course in history and civil government should give attention especially to the development of agriculture and\nother industries in the country, with special application to the home state.\nThe study of physiology and hygiene should not be limited to that of the\nhuman body. It should include the physiology and hygiene of farm animals,\nwith especial reference to physiology and hygiene as related to the care, feeding, and use of farm animals, and the utilization and disposal of products\ntherefrom. When properly presented these become a very interesting and\nprofitable education in home economics of as great value to the girl as to the\nboy.\nThe course in reading should include selections from our best authors\nwhich emphasize attractions of country life and of home life generally. Picture\nstudy should give attention to the study of pictures which find a response in\nthe daily home life of the pupil. The pictures on the walls of our rural-school\nbuildings should represent in proportionate number and artistic value the\ndegree of interest the child should have in home scenes and home life, in comparison with the interest he should have at this time in his education with the\nruins of Athens and Rome, and other far-removed subjects, which so often\nmonopolize the space on schoolroom walls to the exclusion of life-breathing\nsubjects which educate in more than mere art, and at the same time give art\nits best recognition.\nThe course in grammar and composition should be vitalized by providing for\nthe reproduction, in written and oral statement, of the associations of the child\nin his play, his work, and other home and school relationships. The proper\nuse of nouns and verbs will then come to the child as a necessary accom-\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "980\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nplishment for the expression of his own thoughts which are a delight to him in\nboth meditation and expression. Such work will help to eliminate the terrors\nof written composition and oral recitation.\nThe technical study of agriculture should not come before the high school\nand should be technical in only the agricultural high school. The whole\nproblem in elementary industrial education is one of adaptation to the environment of the schools.\nAny form of industrial education which is closely related to the development of the broader life of the child and which can be correlated with the\nregular work of the public school should become a part of the general education\nof the child.\nThe boy and girl educated in the city should receive in their education such\nintroduction to agriculture as will acquaint them with the importance of agriculture as our great national resource, and give them a vision of rural life which\nwill furnish an outlet for their ambition to find a place in the business and social\nworld outside of the bounds of their community life, when they arrive at the\ntime of choice of vocation. The child of the city school has as much a right\nto demand an insight into country life as has the country child a right to demand\nan insight into the city. For that reason agriculture is a study which should\nnot be entirely omitted from the course of study in the public schools of any\nstate or community in the United States.\nThirty-nine state superintendents report that there is more or less of a\ndemand for agricultural education in their states; seven question whether there\nis such a demand. Reports from agricultural colleges indicate that there is a\ndemand for agricultural education, but that such demand is now vague and\nunorganized, and that the first task is to create an understanding of the work\nand an interest in it.\nThe reports asking for the source from which the demand comes indicate\nthat the demands come very largely from normal schools, agricultural schools,\nand superintendents rather than from pupils, parents, teachers, and farmers.\nExcept in the most progressive farming communities, the demand for agricultural education will yet continue to come for some time from educators, rather\nthan from the farmers themselves, or from their children, or from the teachers\nwho teach their children. This is one of our greatest problems in promoting\nagricultural education.\nFourteen states report organizations known as boys' and girls' clubs, which\nhave for their purpose some line of agricultural education. This is one of the\nnewer features of the work, and one which has done a great deal toward stimulating interest in the study of agriculture and home economics. The movement encouraging boys' and girls' clubs has exerted a strong influence in the\nestablishment of agriculture, home economics, and manual training as parts\nof the public-school curriculum.\nThe most significant item in the present status of agricultural education is\nthe attitude toward it. My investigations show that even yet the demand for\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n981\n\neducation in agriculture comes as a whole more from educators, business men,\nand others looking toward the better development of our country and the proper\neducation of our people than it comes from the average fai-mer.\nThe day is rapidly passing when the farmer asks to be let alone to provide\nfor himself, maintain his home, and live his life apart from the related business,\neducational, and social world. The advanced price of labor has led to the\ncombination of head and hand work which gives the strong pair of hands\nincreased effectiveness in results. The advancement in farm values has opened\nthe farm arithmetic to the pages which ask for solutions of problems concerning the necessity of increased returns coming by means of proper seed selection,\nbetter cultivation, and more economical practices in disposal of farm products.\nThe question of plant development, soil tillage, selection of feeds, care of\nfarm animals, and other questions relating to the production and utilization\nof farm products in the most economic manner has led to the recognition that\nagricultural education pays as a business investment. The gaining of knowledge concerning agriculture has led to the development of a science and an\nart, which offer to the stiident a most fascinating study, an intellectual development, and a moral uplift which places agriculture in the foreground as a basic\nscience and, in its higher degrees of development, as an art.\nIn Nebraska we now have more than four hundred high schools offering\ncourses in agriculture. In establishing these courses we worked from the\ngenerally accepted idea that agriculture is so dependent upon geography,\ngeology, botany, physics, chemistry, and zoology, that a fair knowledge of\nthese subjects is necessary before the student is in the right attitude and position\nto take up the study of agriculture. This yet applies in considering agriculture\nas a technical science. But in considering agriculture as related to primary\nand secondary education, it is my opinion that agriculture should be the introductory orbasic branch in elementary science. With the proper introduction\nand correlation thru the study of elementary agriculture, our boys and girls\nwill approach the study of botany, geography, physics, physiology, chemistry,\ndomestic science, geology, zoology, and civics with a degree of interest and an\nattitude of love and intensity that will bring from these various branches\nresults which cannot be secured from the child who approaches these subjects\nwithout such introduction, and to whom these subjects too often appear as dry,\ndead matter yielding only mental discipline and class credits. Elementary\nagriculture properly correlated opens the way thru the known and experienced\nto the unknown fields of investigation in the other sciences.\nWhy should not the study of botany begin with that of a plant with which\nthe child is or should be familiar, a plant associated with his home interests,\none which he can see with his eyes and feel with his own hands, which brings\na message thru the senses of taste and smell — a plant which means beauty in\nthe home, food for the table, a product for the market, and credit at the bank ?\nShall we first stimulate the interest of the child and help him properly to\nvalue the beauty and utility of the known plants about him, or shall we force\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "982\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nhim to learn of intricate parts, with distressing names, of plants beyond his\nfield of observation and without his atmosphere of interest ? Shall we in the\ncom belt teach him first of the beautiful and useful corn plant, or force him to\nanalyze, classify, dissect, make drawings of and deliver orations on the liliaceae,\nprimulaceae, leguminosae, rosaceae, and compositae ? Shall his introduction\nto zoology begin with the chimpanzee, the boa constrictor, and the giraffe, or\nshall he learn first to know and to love the cow, the hen, the horse, the pig, and\nthe sheep?\nThe analysis of a chicken can be made as profitable as that of an oyster or\na lobster. We have the chicken. Why not consider the health of the cow, the\nvigor of the horse, the disposition of the hen, the nervousness of the sheep, the\nself-satisfaction of the pig, and the temper of the dog; how these animals are\nconstructed; how their health is guarded; how their exercise is regulated; how\ntheir bodies are trained into forms of beauty, service, and sale ? Are not these\nphases of physiology and zoology which will help the pupil to a better understanding ofthe science of human physiology, and lead him to an intelligent\ninterest in the domestic animals about him ?\nKnowledge of the mechanics of farm and household machinery makes an\nexcellent beginning in the study of levers, pulleys, and the foot pound. The\naction of heat, water, and air on soil; drainage of the yards, fields, and roads;\nerosion, seepage, road-making, fence-building, irrigation, soil composition,\nbread-making, fruit-canning, care of milk and its products, preserving and curing meats, vegetables — I need not enumerate further — are these not fitting\nintroductions to the study of physics and chemistry? And are not all the\ndoings on the farm and in the home truly educative when properly conducted ?\nAre they not fascinating when properly presented ? And will they not open\nand create an inviting way to the formal study of the other sciences ?\nOur greatest encouragement is in the rapidly changing attitude toward\nagricultural education. Agriculture bids fair to become soon our most popular\nscience in elementary and secondary schools. Its value as a practical subject,\nappealing to the everyday business and social life, is exceeded only by its value\nas a disciplinary study and as an ethical training second to no other.\nWhen agriculture becomes properly established in the courses of study\nin the public schools from the kindergarten to the twelfth grade inclusive, thru\nits correlation with the sciences, language, and history work, the student will\nfind a satisfactory relation between his school work and the home life which\nwill cause him not only to have a greater degree of contentment, interest, and\nintelligent activity in all duties and relations of the home, but his work as a\nstudent will be intensified and vitalized by the interest acquired therein thru\nthe associated knowledge and experience which his home and community bring\nto the work of the school.\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\nJOSIAH\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCORRELATION\nMAIN,\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nOF\nHIGH-SCHOOL\nAGRICULTURE\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOF AGRICULTURAL\nOF TENNESSEE,\nKNOXVILLE,\n\nSCIENCE\n\nEDUCATION,\nTENN.\n\n983\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAgriculture as an organized subject is now taught mainly in the agricultural\ncolleges established under the Morrill Act. It is a fact that much of the work\npresented in such colleges is not of collegiate character and is given there\nchiefly because it must come somewhere in an agricultural education and has\nbeen omitted from all previous school work of the student. A glance at the\ncatalog of such colleges also betrays the fact that certain of the sciences, notably\npreliminary courses in botany, chemistry, and physics, are prescribed to precede\nmuch if not all of the agricultural work. An examination of the courses prescribed inthe purely agricultural school of secondary grade, to which some of\nthe friends and some of the opponents of agricultural education would have\nthis work below the colleges relegated, discovers the fact that they are attempting to give pretty much the same practical work, minus much of the science\nrequirements, that the colleges do. Finally, turning to the courses of study of\nthe best high schools of the traditional type, we find science courses as recom\nmended by the best authorities given without any agricultural or other application of them. We are forced to believe, therefore, that there is a phase of\nboth agricultural and science work proper for secondary schools and that\nbelow the agricultural college these two phases of science, the theoretical and\nthe applied, are being arbitrarily kept apart.\nThe proposition here is to show how these mutually dependent phases of\nscience work may be correlated in such a way that each may immeasurably\nenhance the value of the other, and to emphasize the necessity that each pupil\nwho may be taking the science for either culture or practical purposes\ntake both phases of it. And it would work in the interest of administrative\neconomy to accomodate both types of students in the same class. The purpose\nis to show that it is not only a pedagogical economy but a pedagogical necessity.\nFor when we consider that nearly every important order of plants and animals\nhas representatives of economic importance, and that the principles of chemistry and physics have application in the arts and industries, we realize that\nthe study of science for cultural purposes may as well be illustrated mainly\nby materials that the industrial student must use. And when we consider, on\nthe other hand, that no fact or principle of science, however abstract, and no\norganism, however insignificant today, but may by some invention or change\nof environment or adaptation become of the greatest economic importance\ntomorrow, we must admit that a common ground of agreement on subjectmatter of study is feasible. Then when we reflect that the industrial student\nneeds a broader vision than could be obtained by providing merely for his\nmaterial needs, while the student who seeks culture only cannot get it by leaving\nout the necessity of applying in some way every bit of knowledge he acquires —\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "984\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nin other words that nature will not be cheated — we must admit not only the\neconomy, but the necessity, of having both types of students in the same class\nto correct each other's tendency to unsymmetrical development.\nFollowing are a few illustrations of the advantage or necessity of correlating\nscience with agricultural work. Some of the examples go much farther in\ndemonstrating the necessity of a knowledge of the fundamental sciences in\ndealing with the great social problems of the age. Some of them illustrate as\nstrikingly the fact that the benefit of correlation inures as well to the fundamental sciences as to their application in agriculture.\nThe only general system of soil classification is based upon the physical properties\nof the soil and dependent in great measure upon the size of the soil particles. Since the\nonly natural or laboratory method of separating a soil into its particles is by gravity,\na knowledge of specific gravity is fundamental in soil work and is best studied by simple\nexperimentation before applying it to agricultural purposes. One of the chief purposes of\ntillage is to control capillarity. The laws of capillarity are best demonstrated in the physical laboratory. Drainage and erosion involve hydraulics, which is much more easily illustrated bythe simple physical apparatus of the laboratory.\nCause and effect of weather phenomena are too complex for anyone to understand\n•who has not studied the laws of gaseous bodies as an independent subject.\nChemistry is the basis of soil fertility, and together with soil physics, bacteriology,\nand plant physiology determines the production of crops. With animal physiology it\ndetermines animal production. Physical osmosis by simple laboratory demonstration\nis a necessary preparation to a knowledge of plant and animal nutrition. Physical laws\nof indestructibility of matter and correlation and conservation of energy are conceptions\nwithout which the function of nourishment as applied to fertilizers and animal rations\ncannot be put on a safe basis.\nThe only recognized value of food is a fuel value measured in calories. The calorie\nmust be learned as a physical unit before it has any meaning in foods and rations.\nBacteriology has heretofore been looked upon as an independent science. We are\njust coming to an appreciation of the fact that a big share of the function of tillage is the\ncontrol of soil bacteria.\nHabits of plant growth, plant structure, and fruiting habits are purely botanical subjects of study, but correct cultivation, pruning, and propagation are dependent upon this\nbotanical knowledge.\nMethods of propagation and repression of insects depend upon a knowledge of their\nhabits of reproduction, their metamorphoses, and their structure as treated in the science\ntexts.\nCell activity is a matter upon which intelligent treatment of disease depends, whether\nof plants, domestic animals, or men. Rules of hygiene without this knowledge are of limited\nutility.\nThe literature of agriculture is replete with the terminology of pure science and it can\nnever be otherwise. Only in the pure sciences free from the complexities of agriculture\ncan the accurate meaning of such terms be learned.\nThe properties of protoplasm seems an abstract subject of study until revealed by the\nmicroscope. Yet in the response of Paramecium and lumbricus terrestris to the various\ntropisms is laid the foundation for the superstructure of psychology and training for citizenship.\nEcology is a recognized phase of all biological sciences and every modern text gives\na large quota of space to the subject. A correct conception of man's place in nature is as\nan ecological factor and his influence is great or small in proportion as it is correct or incorrect agriculture.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n985\n\nSoil, plants, crops, farm animals, productiveness, prosperity, civilization, education,\nculture are a series of causes and effects dependent primarily upon geology, physiography,\nand climate as ultimate material causes. Progress in civilization has an uphill task when\nit goes contrary to geographic influences, whereas, going with those influences, its development isalmost as free from conscious causes as was Topsy's. The 20-inch rain-fall line,\nthe 50° isotherm, and the southern limit of glaciation determine the location of the corn\nbelt — scientific causes which millions of years ago permanently decided not only the agriculture of the vast territory, but nourish a citizenship that is affecting the educational\npolicy of the world.\nPlant kinships are determined mainly by study of the various modifications of stamens\nand pistils as promulgated by Linnaeus and presented in the botanical texts. A knowledge of these family relationships is necessary to him whose business it is to understand\nthe habits, properties, symbiotic and parasitic insects, diseases and uses of weeds and\neconomic plants — the producer of crops. This structural relationship also has a much\nwider significance. To the uninitiated weeds are quite naturally relegated to a class distinct and separate from cultivated plants. As a matter of fact the study of botany shows\nsome of the worst weeds to be closely related to some of the most valuable plants, as, for\ninstance, the following; hutter print and cotton, bindweed and sweet potato, jimson and\npotato, mustard and turnip, pigweed and sugarbeet, crab grass and maize, smartweed and\nbuckwheat, tares and bean, and many other. Without the botanical study and these\nspecific illustrations how can a pupil be prepared to appreciate the achievements and possibilities of plant breeding ? How appreciate the fact that there is no valuable economic\nplant but is the w6rk of generations of careful selection and mating, and that its value is\nusually proportional to the care that has been bestowed upon its ancestors since the day that\nit was nothing more than a weed surviving by natural selection ? How else may the pupil\nbe brought to appreciate the fact that no organism however mean but has unlimited possibilities for good in it if only its peculiar virtue be discovered and augmented by generations\nof intelligent selection? How better teach the dignity and responsibility of husbandry\nwhose high purpose it is to receive from our fathers the cumulative effort in improvement\nwhich began with civilization; to maintain thru our short span the delicate poise in its\nascent toward perfection each well-bred species has attained, where a single mistake or\nmesalliance may entail the loss of generations of careful selection; and to pass the various\nforms to our children a little higher in development and finer in quality than we received\nthem ?\nThis structural relationship may also be given an ethical significance still higher.\nWhat better basis for the lesson which each generation of children of a democratic government must be taught — namely, that no family is so highly cultured as to be secure from\nsudden precipitation to the depths if not properly safeguarded by education, nor so low\nin the social scale that education may not lift it to a position of the highest importance.\nA knowledge of the nature and effect of parasitism is essential to scientific agriculture.\nYet this is a piirely biological study and no purely biological course omits it. Without\nsuch biological study who can appreciate the significance to the individual and to the\nstate of the commercial, political, intellectual, and moral parasitism which curse society; how\nelse may we put the selection of vocation on the proper ethical basis for youthful instruction; how else may we put meaning into the statement of the Great Teacher that \"unto\neveryone that hath shall be given but from him that hath not shall be taken away even\nthat which he hath\" than to note the loss thru disuse of an organ of some such example\nas the hermit crab, which prefers to retire from the struggle which alone might develop\nits talentS; or that \"flat-patterned\" type whose ancestors anticipated our modern commercial standard of success by undertaking to \"get there\" without wings ?\nWe have recently recognized that laws of mathematics are at the basis of heredity,\nvariation, and correlation of characters, and Dean Davenport in his masterly treatise on\nthe breeding of plants and animals has put the subject on that safe basis. A knowledge\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "986\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nof natural selection is also necessary to intelligent selection by the breeder. And who\nshall be so bold as to fix limitations' on this matter of selective mating for the betterment\nof the human species ? The recent action of the legislature of the state of Washington\nin prohibiting marriages under certain conditions is a prophecy of the day when the direct\nrelationship between haryo-hinesis and eugenics will be legally recognized and applied.\n\nThese instances, if they mean an)i;hing, illustrate that neither the fundamentals of agriculture nor the fundamentals of the social sciences can be\nappreciated by a mere authoritative statement of the natural laws behind them\nto one who has had no scientific training. Such principles can be acquired\nonly by laboratory demonstrations without which experiences the most glaring\nmistakes are possible. They also illustrate the vital connection between the\nfundamental sciences on the one hand and the social sciences on the other,\nand that in the bridging of this gap is the peculiar utility of the study of highschool agriculture to one who may never practice farming.\nThe enumeration of the foregoing scientific principles does not necessarily\nsignify that the science is to be developed to such extent as suggested here. It\nsimply means that these great relationships should be appreciated by the\nteacher and developed in class so far as good judgment warrants in putting\npupils on the proper tack for the utilization of their knowledge. They are\nmentioned with a belief that, for pupils of high-school age, agriculture as a\nschool subject makes practicable for all purposes sciences which might otherwise be of questionable value, without affecting the method of presentation for\npurely agricultural purposes; and they are given to suggest a solution of a\nfictitious difficulty which schoolmen have inherited with accretions from a\nprevious generation. For it is evident that in so far as agriculture is correlated\nwith the sciences, it may readily pass as so much science without the necessity\nof any new method of estimation.\nCorrelation of science and agriculture is advocated because it works both\nways, and thus pays for its space from either the cultural or the practical viewpoint. It adds nothing to the burden of a school that undertakes to satisfy\nmodem requirements, and in fact tends to economize the time and effort of a\nschool that undertakes to teach agriculture and the high-school sciences.\nGranted that the science topics are properly chosen and graded, and granted\nthat the agricultural course is complete and well balanced, then it would seem\nthe height of folly not to correlate the two mutually dependent phases of the\nsubject, thus holding the science student to the necessity of applying some of\nhis theories, and lifting the future farmer above the narrow limitations of ryleof-thumb practices, however correct they may be. Without correlation agriculture can never become a high-school subject, but will be put on a low plane\nand be judged by its own estimate. With it the agricultural work becomes an\nextension of the physical geography, botany, chemistry, or other science, and\nthis agricultural warp crossing the scientific woof breaks down the artificial\nwalls which we instinctively build up between subjects, and unifies all science.\nCorrelation has yet another very important advantage.\nMany pupils who\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nFOR\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n987\n\nelect studies at the beginning of their high-school courses are unable to say\nwhether they will ever see inside the walls of a college. Perhaps those who do\nnot know are of as much importance to the college as those who know. Perhaps a course that may serve immediate purposes without stifling ambition is\nworth more educationally than one prescribed for definite educational ends,\neither cultural or practical. An uncorrected agricultural course can fit for\nonly one purpose — farming. It is not a preparation for even the agricultural\ncollege. Where election of a strictly agricultural or a non-agricultural course\nis enforced at the beginning of the high-school course, what is the university\ngoing to say to the agricultural graduate whose ambition later carries him to\nits doors for admission ? And would the science student have impaired his\npreparation by a judicious admixture of applied science ? Not if we may judge\nby the opinion of university science instructors who teach freshman classes.\nFor those who get no more schooling than the high school provides, correlation\ngives an intimation of the connection between the fundamental sciences on the\none hand and the social sciences on the other, to say nothing of its necessity\nfor a correct knowledge of the factors with which the farmer must deal to the\nend of his days. If it be true that the school which undertakes correlation\nthereby elects to do less of agricultural practice, may it not also be true that the\nfarmer with the scientific training has so much better mastery of the forces of\nnature as to outstrip in practice in a few years his more methodically trained\nfellow, and have something worthy to inspire his thoughts while he plows and\ntills and reaps?\nAGRICULTURE\nRILEY\n\nFOR THE\n\nO. JOHNSON,\nHEAD\nOF\nNATURE\nSTUDY,\nSTATE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nTHE\nDEPARTMENT\nNORMAL\nSCHOOL,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF BIOLOGY\nCHICO, CAL.\n\nAND\n\nThe attempt to introduce into the schools a new liae of work of any kind\nis always attended by two problems: First, the creation of a sentiment in favor\nof the work; second, the preparation of teachers to teach it. This statement\nholds good with reference to the attempt to introduce agriculture into the\nschools. The signs of the times seem to indicate that the first of these problems\nhas, in a large way, been solved, and that all over the country there now exists\na strong, healthy demand for this kind of work in the schools. But the second\nproblem, which, by the way, is by no means an easy one, still calls for solution.\nOnly a very small percentage of the teachers now in the schools have any\nintelligent idea either of the subject or of the proper method of teaching it.\nVery few of the normal schools, even, are sending out teachers with anything\nlike a definite idea of what to do or how to do it.\nIn the paper which I have to present I shall try to outline a definite method\nof procedure in the preparation of teachers to teach this subject in the elementary schools. I shall try to make this so plain that, by following it, any teacher\ncan, by reasonable application, prepare herself for the work. I admit, without\nhesitation, that there are imperfections in the plan which I have to offer, but\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "988\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nas conditions now exist in my own state (and they are duplicated, no doubt,\nin many other states), it is as good, I believe, as can be put into practice at the\npresent time. As in everything else, so in the training of teachers to teach\nagriculture, we must begin with things where we find them; and since it is not\npossible to begin with a perject plan of procedure, then let us begin with one\nas nearly perfect as possible, putting the latter aside as soon as something better\ncan be used. At least let us begin giving to teachers now, those now in the\nschools as well as those going out from the normal schools, something definite\nto do and a definite idea of how to go about it.\nWith respect to what she is to do, it is not enough to tell the teacher that the\nmaterial for a course in agriculture should be chosen from the environment of\nthe school, that it should be selected with reference to the season, and that it\nshould be something adapted to the mental capacity of her pupils. This might\ndo, and would no doubt be the better way, if all teachers were competent to\nconstruct courses of study. In no other elementary-school subject do we lay\ndown the principles which should underlie a course of study and leave it with\nthe teacher to construct the course. Why should we do so in agriculture, a\nsubject which the teacher has never studied and one in which by far the greater\npart of the work lies outside of any textbook ? Since the great majority of\nteachers are utterly helpless without a course of study, it is my opinion that the\nteacher should be given, at least to begin with, a definite course of study in\nagriculture.\nThe course in agriculture for any school should be determined largely, of\ncourse, by the environment of the school ; hence it follows that a course which\nwould be suited to the schools of any large area, a whole state, for instance,\ncould contain comparatively few topics. But this limitation would be no great\nbarrier. There are at least three reasons why the course in agriculture, to\nbegin with, should be short: First, the teacher will find it much less difficult\nto prepare herself on a few topics than to prepare on a wide range of topics;\nsecond, it is better to have a few topics well taught than many only superficially\ntreated; third, with the present crowded curriculum, it is impossible to carry\nout any very extensive course in agriculture. The course should include\nanimals and plants common to large areas (such as the domestic animals),\nbeneficial and injurious insects, and other animals of economic importance\nand of wide distribution, field-crop plants, and subjects of general interest in\nevery locality, such as forestry and the weather. It should also include a line\nof experiments, to be carried on both indoors and outdoors, which should\nillustrate clearly the relation of the plant to the soil, air, water, and sunlight.\nWindow-gardening in boxes, pots, cans, and egg-shells should be made a part\nof the course.\nIt would be well to arrange the course so that in rooms where all the eight\ngrades are present there shall not be more than two classes, and, further, so\nthat pupils who pass regularly from the first class to the second, and from the\nsecond to the liigh school shall not be compelled to repeat any part of the work.\n*\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nFOR\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n989\n\nTo meet these conditions I have devised for the use of the elementary teachers\nof California a course which I deem not inappropriate to call a ''rotation\"\ncourse. For the administration of this course the eight grades are divided\ninto two sections. Grades one to six inclusive constitute the first section, and\nthe seventh and eighth grades the second section. The course for each section\nis divided into as many parts as there are grades in the section and each section\nis to complete one part each year. Each part of Section I is thus repeated\nevery six years and each part of Section II every two years. Following is\nthe course in full:\nSection I (Grades 1-6) —\nPart I. Cow, Snail, Bee, Fish, Earthworm, Rabbit.\nPart 2, Ant, Toad, Mosquito, Bat, Cabbage Butterfly, Gopher.\nPart 3. Snake, Horse, Plant Lice, Seed and Plant Dissemination, Galls and Gall\nInsects.\nPart 4, Spider, Hen, Grasshopper, Sow-bug, Codling Moth, Plant Diseases (pear\nblight, potato scab, rust and smut of grain).\nPart 5. Cat, Crow, Filaree, Scale Insects, Irrigation and Dry Farming, Grape and Its\nEnemies (animal and plant).\nPart 6. The Weather, Forests (use and abuse), Eucalyptus, Migration of Birds,\nEconomic Relations of Birds, Alfalfa Plant.\n(The course for Section I might more properly be denominated nature study, while\nthat for Section II is more strictly agricultural.)\nSection II (Grades 7-8) —\nPart 7. Experiments to show that plants need water, air, warmth, light, carbon,\nnitrogen, and sulphur; preparation of oxygen; illustration of oxidation; preparation of\nhydrogen, of nitrogen, of lime water, of carbon dioxide; experiments to illustrate osmosis\nand capillarity; preparation of phosphoric acid, potash, and saltpeter; illustration of and\ntests for acids, alkalies, and salts; tests for acid and alkali soils and correction of each.\nPart 8. Experiments to show that soil water holds plant food; that amount of film\nmoisture depends on size of soil particles; to show rapidity of percolation in different kinds\nof soils; to illustrate evaporation; to show that plants transpire; to find where transpiration occurs; to show that water rises thru the plant stem; how the plant lessens transpiration; that chlorophyll, sunlight, and air are necessary for starch-making; that growing\nplants give off oxygen; tests for starch, sugar, proteid, and fat; to show the regions of\nfood storage in plants; propagation by grafting, budding, layering, cuttings, etc.\n(Each of the principles illustrated by the above experiments should be fully discussed\nin its relation to agriculture as the experiments are performed. The work in Section II\nmay or may not be accompanied by a textbook.)\n\nWhere only the first six or any smaller number of grades are present in a\nroom, it is necessary, according to this course, to have only one class in agriculture. In case only the first three grades are present in a room Parts 1,2, and\n3 of the course are used and repeated every three years; if only the first five\ngrades should be present, the first five parts of the course are taken and repeated\nevery five years. The course will thus be seen to fit the elementary school of\nany number of grades, and to require a minimum of time for its execution. To\nthose who would object that pupils of the first six grades should not recite\ntogether I would say that long experience has shown me that the average sixth-\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "990\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\ngrade pupil knows little more about nature when he comes to school than do\nthose of the earlier grades. Then, too, the easier questions may always be\nreferred to the younger pupils for answer and in the event of their failure to\nanswer referred successively to the higher grades. Thus the interest of the\nyounger pupils will be sustained while the older pupils will revel in the opportunity to show how much more they know by answering the difficult questions\nreferred to them. Should the younger pupils tire before the end of the recitation they might be given some busy work, like drawing or modeling, correlated\nwith the topic under consideration.\nWhen the teacher knows definitely what she is expected to teach she should\nthen know how to teach it to obtain the best results. Of this most teachers are\nas ignorant as they are of the subject-matter. Only a very small percentage\nof the teachers have ever studied agriculture or nature study, a still smaller\npercentage have ever studied it in any proper way, and their study of science\nin the high school and the university has generally given them little or no idea\nof the method to be used with pupils in the elementary school. The teacher\nshould be given definite suggestion as to how to proceed with the work. Some\nten or twelve years of experience as teacher and supervisor of nature study\ninclines me to believe that the \"development method\" is the best method to\npursue in this work, taking up the study of each topic at the point where it\ncomes most closely in contact with the life of the pupil. This method is well\nillustrated by the following questions taken from an illustrative lesson on ''The\nCow \" : \"What did you have for breakfast this morning ? Where did the milk\ncome from? How many have ^een a cow? Several pupils may tell their\nexperience with cows. What must we do for the cow if we want her to furnish\nus with milk ? What besides food ? Of what does her food consist ? Which\nof these foods does she like best? Why? Why, then, is hay given her so\noften ? Discuss the making of hay, kinds of hay, relation to grass, etc. How\noften do cow^ eat ? Compare with man and account for man's eating three\ntimes a day, and ill effects of eating between meals. How much can the cow\neat? Why necessary to eat so much? How much can she drink? Does\nshe drink more or less than the horse ? Why ? How often should she have\nwater ? Is all water good to drink ? What kind of water do you like ? What\nkind is best for the cow ? Why ? What should you do with drinking water\nthat is very cold? Why? Does the cow know enough to do this? If the\nwater is ice-cold what should be done with it before giving it to the cow ?\nWhat should be done with hay that is very dusty before giving it to the cow ?\nWhy? How should bran be treated? Danger in feeding apples, turnips,\npotatoes, etc., to cows.\"\nTwo or three topics worked out quite fully after this fashion and placed\nin the hands of the teacher would give her a tolerably clear insight into the\nmethod recommended. These illustrative lessons should be accompanied\nby a list of points to be emphasized in presenting the work. The following are\nsome of these: Always conduct the lesson when possible in the presence of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nFOR\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n991\n\nliving thing. Disputed points should always be settled by observation, the\nonly scientific way to settle them. Make free use of experiments, demonstration, and drawings in presenting the work. Where possible keep the living\nanimal or plant studied in the schoolroom for continuous observation. Bring\nout as often as possible the agreement or conflict of interests between the thing\nstudied on the one hand and man on the other. Tell the pupil absolutely nothing\nwhich he can find out for himself by a reasonable expense of time and effort.\nIn every instance approach structure from the viewpoint of function. If, for\ninstance, it be desired to draw attention to the claws of the cat it would be well\nto ask, ' ' How does puss hold the mouse after she has pounced upon it ?\" Make\nall questions definite. Avoid questions which can be answered by ''yes\" or\n''no.\" Bring out humane methods of treatment of animals wherever possible.\nThe specimen lessons should illustrate all these points so far as possible, and\nthe teacher should be asked to make a critical study of the questions to see that\nthis is so.\nIn this connection the teacher should be given some practical directions as\nto how best to prepare herself for conducting the lesson. She should be told\nthat to secure the best results the whole topic should be thoroly worked up\nbefore the first lesson is given; that this preparation should consist, first, of\nmuch observation, and, second, of wide reading, this to be followed by a second\nobservation to confirm new points gained from the reading; that all the facts\nwhich are to be presented should be woven into a well-organized outline so\nthat the entire subject shall be unified in the teacher's mind; and, finally, that\nthis outline is for her own use rather than that of the class.\nWhen the teacher has learned what she is expected to do, and something\nof how she is expected to do it, she should be told definitely how she may obtain\nliterature which will be directly helpful in carrying out the course. What she\nneeds is not so much the literature which deals with theories and principles,\ntho that has its place, but literature containing information ready for use.\nNow much of the most helpful literature treating of topics in the above course\ncan be obtained free in the form of bulletins from the Department of Agriculture and the various state agricultural experiment stations. The teacher\nshould be furnished with a brief list of those bulletins which will be found particularly helpful to the beginning teacher. These should be referred to by number and name, and the name and address of the station issuing them should be\ngiven. For instance. Bulletins 116 and 152 of the Kansas experiment station\ngive a valuable fund of information concerning the gopher; Bulletin 155 of the\nsame station, alfalfa; Bulletin 67, of the Montana station, the bee; Bulletins\n46 of the Massachusetts station and 91 of the Kentucky station, the toad, etc.\nBesides these every teacher should be furnished with a complete list of the\nagricultural experiment stations in the United States, of the Audubon and\nhumane societies, of tree-growing clubs, horticultural and agricultural societies,\nand the like. Teachers should be encouraged to collect and arrange, in every\nschool, a library from the above-named and other sources, and to this should\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n992\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agriciilttiral\n\nbe added pictures and articles pertaining to agriculture culled from the magazines and brought in by the pupils.\nIn the foregoing remarks I have tried to show how the work in agriculture\nin the elementary schools may be made effective — namely, by working with the\nteacher and helping her to meet the practical difficulties which arise. But\nwho is to do this ? I want to suggest in closing this paper that there should\nbe in every state/either at one of the state normal schools, or at the state university, a central bureau to which teachers can appeal for help. From this bureau\nshould be sent out to teachers, in anticipation of their needs, printed information— in the form of leaflets, perhaps — giving help along the lines indicated\nin this paper. This is the plan I have put into operation in California. Not\nonly have the things recommended in this paper been placed before the teachers\nbut they have been furnished with the directions in detail for carrying on the\nexperiments in Section II of the course of study, together with suggestive\nnotes on the same. It is my purpose, the coming year, to send out to teachers,\nin leaflet form, concise information concerning those topics in the course about\nwhich it is difficult to obtain printed information. In the meantime at the\nnormal schools we are preparing teachers, by study of the principles underlying the subject, to construct for themselves courses of study suited to the various\nlocalities into which they go to teach.\nAfter a careful study of the situation I am convinced that it is only in some\nsuch way as that outlined in this paper that the work in agriculture can be\nmade really effective in the elementary schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF WOMEN'S\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Miss Laura Drake Gill, president of Ass'n of College Alumnae, Washington, D. C.\nVice-President — Mrs. Sarah S. Platt Decker, Educ, Council, Teachers' Ass'n, Denver, Colo.\nSecretary— M.ViS. Mary D. Bradford, Prin., Training Dept., State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Afternoon, July 6\nThe Department met in joint session with the Departments of Child Study and\nPhysical Education.\n(For program see Department of Child Study.)\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday\n\nAfternoon, July 8\n\nThe Department met in the Woman's Club Rooms at 2 : 30 p. m., and was called to\norder by the president, Miss Gill, who in a few words expressed the gratitude of the Department for the welcome given by the Woman's Club of Denver.\nThe program was opened by Mrs. Alice Schatelowitz, who sang a Finnish lullaby and\na Finnish love song.\nThe first paper, \"The Constitution of the Ideal School Board, and the Citizen's Duty\ntoward It,\" was presented by Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell, field lecturer. State Agricultural\nCollege, Fort Collins, Colo. Mrs. Sarah S. Platt Decker, member of the Educational\nCouncil of the State Teacher's Association, Denver, Colo., discussed Mrs. Grenfell's paper.\n\"Delinquency and the Responsibility of the School toward It\" was the subject of\na paper presented by Joseph A. Bache, superintendent of the Jewish Training School, .\nChicago, 111. This paper was discussed by Charles C. Merica, president of the University\nof Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo., and also by Mrs. Alice H. Hinman, vice-president of the\nBoard of Education, Lincoln, Nebr.\nThe following were appointed by the president as a Committee on Nominations:\nMrs. Sarah S. Platt Decker, Denver, Colo. Mrs. Sanford Bell, Denver, Colo.\nMiss Rose Summerfield, New York, N. Y.\nMrs. Alice Hinman, Lincoln, Nebr.\nMiss Mary H. Johnson, Nashville, Tenn.\nMiss Gill reminded the members of the constitution of the committee to plan work\nfor the coming year: It consists of one member from each of the five national organizations comprising the department, the same to be appointed by the respective presidents;\nthese five to act in conjunction with the three members of the executive committee.\nThe following recommendations were presented:\n1. That the officers of the department be chosen for a term of two years.\n2. That the president be chosen in even years, the vice-president and secretary\nin odd years.\n3. That in 1909 the president be chosen for one year; the other officers for two years.\nA motion for the adoption of these resolutions was carried.\nROUND-TABLE\n\nSESSION.— Friday Afternoon, July 9\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 : 30 by the Vice-President, Mrs. Sarah S. Platt\nDecker.\nThe discussion of the first topic, \"Amusements,\" was opened by Mrs. Sanford Bell,\nof Denver.\nShe was followed by Mrs. Davis, of Texas, Miss Brown, of New Orleans,\n993\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "994\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nMiss Sadie American, of New York, Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, of Boston, and Mrs.\nMerriweather, of Colorado.\n\"Colorado\" was sung by Mrs. Smith, of Denver.\nMiss Theda Gildemeister, principal of the Elementary Department, State Normal\nSchool, Winona, Minn., opened the discussion of the second topic, \"Study at Home.\"\nThe discussion was continued by Miss Davis of Texas, Mrs. Sanford Bell of Denver, and\nMiss Marion Brown of New Orleans.\nThe third topic, \"The Parent's Obligation to the School,\" was presented by Mrs.\nHenry J. H6rsey, president of State Congress of Mothers, Denver, Colo.\nThe Nominating Committee reported as follows:\nFor President, Miss Laura Drake Gill, President of Association of College Alumnae,\nWashington, D. C.\nFor Vice-President, Mrs. Hugo Rosenberg, President of Council of Jewish Women,\nPittsburg, Pa.\nFor Secretary, Mrs. Orville T. Bright, President of Illinois Congress of Mothers,\nChicago, 111.\nThe report of the committee was adopted, and the secretary was instructed to cast the\nballot of the department for the officers nominated, after which the persons named in the\nreport were declared elected.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nMary D Bradford, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nMRS.\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nCONSTITUTION\nOF\nTHE\nIDEAL\nSCHOOL\nAND THE CITIZEN'S DUTY TOWARD IT\nHELEN\n\nL.\n\nGRENFELL,\n\nEX-SUPERINTENDENT\nDENVER,\nCOLO.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nBOARD,\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nThis is one of those large, indefinite subjects that, according to the plaint\nof the White Queen in Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking Glass, ''fill one's\nhead with ideas without telling you what they mean.\"\nIs this perfect board to serve in a city of several million inhabitants, in a\ncountry town, in a small city, in the country, or in some remote mountain\nglen? Will its chief duties be dealing with those questions that afflict the\ncongested districts, or will it have to devise a plan by which to get a teacher\ncapable of inculcating a knowledge of geometry, spelling, and the English\nalphabet to some twenty children ranging from six to eighteen years of age, at\na stipend of thirty dollars a month and ''find yourself \" ?\nThe ideal board for the citizens of Rocky Gulch, with eight children of\nschool age in the district, is not the ideal for Chicago. Before anyone can\ndecide upon the qualifications which would create the perfect board, it is first\nnecessary to find one's district. Given a country school, properly heated and\nlighted, having ample room for all the pupils (which, unfortunately, is a rare\noccurrence), and the duties of the board are simplified, centering largely around\nthe selection of a teacher. Given the crowded city school and the case is\nentirely altered.\nFor the sake of brevity, let us assume that the board is to have charge of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nIDEAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\n995\n\nschools of a city, since, while one city differeth from another in the glory of its\nschool system, there is a great similarity of problems. Denver, Chicago, and\nNew York children alike suffer from overcrowding and undereducating.\nHaving thus narrowed the field, there remain two ideals of ideal school\nboards: one of these is the conception of the school board as a purely business\nbody, which employs a superintendent capable of running the schools properly, so far as education itself is concerned, and leaves all the technical details\nto him, while it contents itself with looking after the financial interests of the\ndistrict, the buildings, the grounds, and the sanitary conditions.\nThe other ideal brings the board in more vital contact with the schools\nthemselves, the teachers, and the pupils, by no means omitting the weightier\nmatters of the law, such as salaries, bond issues, and insurance. To serve\non this second board, and escape the reputation of being a meddler, would\nrequire the wisdom of Solomon, the subtlety of the original serpent, and the\npatience of Job, and persons of that description are not crying in the streets\nnor from the house-tops for nominations on school boards. In my opinion\nthis second ideal is more nearly the true one, yet it is the first we chiefly attempt\nto realize. If the ''business\" board sees its whole duty and does it, there will\nnot be much cause for complaint in its community, for the business board will\ninsist upon the best returns for its money, and it will have very distinct ideas\nas to what constitute such returns. This board will never cease to remember\nthat it is educational results it is after, not massive buildings. It will ask \"Will\nit pay ?\" — ^not merely as an investment in real estate, but as an investment in\nmind and brain. It will not figure out the per-capita cost alone, but the percapita result. It will ask why it pays so many millions for education each\nyear, only to find that more than 25 per cent, of those educated have to take\nthe same grade again. This is not \"business;\" only in rare cases is it politics;\nit would seem to be either stupidity or bad management, and as teachers do\nnot manage the schools and are not supposed to be eligible if stupid, the onus\ncomes back upon the board, and if a good one, it will straightway set about\nfinding the leak. No business in the world could go on with such a loss as that,\nand the education of children, which is the most vital business in the world,\nwould not go on in that way if it were in charge of men who conducted it according to a business ideal worthy of recognition in the business world.\nThe leak discovered, what will the ideal board do ? It will set about finding\nthe schools where it occurs, and the pupils who are delinquent. It will find,\nas a rule, that disease, poverty, or some of the allied conditions are back of the\ndelinquency. If the child is physically defective, it will endeavor to remedy\nthose defects; if he is mentally lacking, it will place him in an ungraded school\nor, if the conditions warrant it, in a proper special institution.\nIf the delinquency is caused by sickness at home, the employment of trained\nnurses, who go from house to house performing the duties otherwise devolving\nupon the child, leaves him free to go to school. Comparing the cost of such\nnurses with that of the child's repeating a whole year in school, the board will,\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "996\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nas a business proposition, employ the nurses, as is now being done in many\ncities.\nWhen the child is taken out of school because he must become a breadwinner, the board will consider whether or not the present use of public funds\nmay avail to save him from a place in the bread-/^'«e later in life, and if it is as\nconscientious as an ideal board should be, even from the business standpoint,\nsome member who is acquainted with bread-lines will remember that there\nnever was a bread-line three blocks long without at least two college graduates\nin it, not there merely for the experience.\nOf course the graduate is there not because of his college training, but in\nspite of it; but the reflection that will trouble the board will be the\nquestion whether his education has done all that it might have done to make\nhim self-supporting. Not i per cent, of the children with whom they have\nto deal will ever see college, but it seems not improbable that a perceptible\npercentage may see the bread-line unless industrial and economic conditions\nchange. Nothing can be worse, from the business standpoint, than a breadline. Itreflects upon the city that has it, and keeps capital away. It reflects\nupon the whole country, and it would reflect upon the human race if it were not\nthat all of us live in glass houses and are nervous at the mention of stones.\nAt this point the business board will look over its schedule of expenses for\nthe coming year and decide that if economy is necessary it is better to practice\nit in the high schools than in the grades, and if it is a board of quite superhuman\nwisdom, or has a woman member or two, it may even feel that it would be better\nto sacrifice its ''nature studies,\" taught in a way to make it appear that\n''nature faking\" is a part of our regular curriculum, and its questionable\nattempts at reproducing that which never was on sea or land, and put in domestic science or manual training, since it is manifestly right that American popular\neducation should be planned to meet the needs of the majority and it is in the\nmain a plain, hard, workaday world in which our children must play their\npart.\nThe ideal board, given that support which is its due from the citizens, will\nnot keep in disuse for a quarter of the year its entire educational plant, representing an investment of many millions of the people's capital. The long\nmonths of disuse and idleness are a misfortune to the child, meaning so much\nlost time and energy which could be spent on certain phases of industrial work,\nnature study, and the cultural branches, so called, relieving the tension of\nthe schoolroom during the rest of the year, \"and keeping the child from that\nidleness which is demoralizing and which renders his momentum very diflficult\nto regain when he re-enters school. In no other line of work could such a\nwaste be permitted. And thru the efforts of the ideal board will we reach the\nrealization of what it is possible to accomplish thru the full and constant use\nof educational properties. Among such properties we shall reckon playgrounds,\nfor they will be provided by the ideal board just as certainly as teachers are\nprovided.\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n■\n\nTHE\n\nIDEAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\n997\n\nI have always felt that when Robinson Crusoe set down those parallel\ncolumns of troubles and blessings, he did not write them alternately, but first\nmade a list of his afflictions, and when he could think of no more, then began\nto remember his mercies. While Cassandra would doubtless have been a\ntrying person to live with, as a member of a school board she would have been\nbvaluable. She would keep any board so busy trying to prevent disasters\nthat when a new building was to be erected the fire escape would be set up first.\nIn this connection there are a few material changes in the building of schools\nthat the ideal school board would inaugurate just as soon as elected. In so\nfar as possible it would substitute the group school for what might be called\nthe barrack school. In great cities this may not be possible, but in the smaller\nones it is. The ideal school never has more than eight rooms, or two floors,\nor thirty pupils in any room.\nThe advantages of a school of this kind are many and obvious. In case\nof an epidemic, only a small number of children are affected, and this is also\ntrue in case of a moral epidemic, and long ago Dickens made clear the fact that\nwe should go to at least as much pains to prevent ethical as physical contagion.\nWith this number of pupils there need never be more than sixty children on\nthe playground at recess times; this in itself is no small advantage. The\nnumber is still too large for the teacher to get the best possible results, but it\nwould enable her to become acquainted with her pupils. With only fifteen\nboys in a room each boy would possess a personality of his own; with but\nfifteen girls, each girl would emerge from the group with an individuality of\nher own; she would be something more than bright or stupid, dark or fair,\nwell or badly dressed, a joy or a trial to be sent on to the next grade as soon as\npossible.\nAnd just as the smaller number of pupils enables the teacher to get a better\nidea of them, it makes it at least remotely possible for her to know a little about'\ntheir homes, and in schools where there are parents' meetings — and this ought\nto include them all — the small class makes possible a harmony of spirit and\nunity of action among the parents, teachers, and pupils that is utterly out of\nthe question in one of our enormous schools with from twelve hundred to two\nthousand pupils, and two shifts a day, with from eighty to a hundred children\nin a room.\nMerely as a matter of business, the ideal business board, remembering\nthat the teacher is the one absolutely necessary element in every school, will\nfix a salary schedule that we will not desire to keep hidden, even if our buildings\nmust be on a less elaborate scale. Fortunately a majority of our teachers really\nlove their work and find compensation for meager pay and petty annoyances\nin the realization that they are truly builders of the nation in building for the\nchild. But suppose the president of the board is a banker, or an attorney, and\nhe finds that it is the exceptional teacher who receives anything like the salary\nhe expects to pay a competent clerk, who may reasonably hope one day to\nenter the firm and, retiring, be able to live upon his income at about the same\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "998\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\ntime that the teacher is wondering whether upon retiring it will be possible for\nher to live upon her pension, if she is lucky enough to live in a state where\npensions are provided for teachers, and has a faculty for living the simple life.\nIf there is no pension — well, the poor-house we have always with us: this is a\nthought which must have sustained many a school teacher during her declining\nyears. At this point, if the president has any sense of humor — and if he hasn't\nhe isn't fit to serve on a school board — he will recall Mark Twain's story of the\nMississippi pilot who fell from grace, and whereas he had often received one\nhundred and fifty dollars for piloting a boat over one particular part of the river,\nwas glad at last to undertake it at forty dollars. When the boat stuck on a\nsand-bar and the captain berated him, he explained that he was doing the\npiloting just as well as was possible for forty dollars, and better than most\nforty-dollar pilots. There isn't a schoolhouse in this broad land where men\nand women are not expected to pilot the youth of the country over rapids, thru\nnarrows, and past sand-bars at salaries which would be scornfully refused\nby the denionstrator of a new brand of baking powder. Everywhere we exact,\nand what is more remarkable, often receive one-hundred-and-fifty-doUar services for forty-dollar wages.\nPerhaps we may think that if we had the ideal board we would do great\nthings, yet if we have not such a board we have no one to blame for it save\nourselves; there are such men and women, and we can find and elect them to this\nmost arduous and thankless task; but unless we give them intelligent co-operation after we place them there, unless we grant them the right to act as free moral\nagents, unless we are willing to be generous in the financial support we give the\nschools, unless we are willing to meet the teachers' advances half way, unless\nwe feel that while our children may be taught, they never can be educated\nwithout our active and energetic aid — unless we can realize that the publicschool system does not lift the burden of personal responsibility, the best board\nthat ever was heard of will find its labors end in vanity and vexation of spirit.\nIt should be remembered that members of school boards belong to the class\nof officials serving without remuneration and that especial loyalty and gratitude are due to those who unselfishly and earnestly seek to manage affairs\nwholly for the welfare of the schools. And it should not be forgotten that\nbecause this is an unpaid office, dishonesty and greed are an especial menace\nwhen found there.\nThe ideal school board should be composed of ideal men and women each\nof whom should have a hobby and that hobby should be the development of\nideal children. To this end the ideal member of the school board should be\na business man, a teacher, a doctor, a mechanic, a lawyer, a playground\nenthusiast, and he should have his finger, in loving and discretionary sympathy,\non the pulse beat of every phase of child life.\nA woman on the school board ought to be regarded as a matter of course\nand of necessity. Not, dear sister, because she is a woman ; the worst mistake\nwomen make is in clamoring for recognition, not really of themselves as indi-\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nIDEAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\n999\n\nviduals, or the things they stand for, but merely of their sex. In so doing, they\nare accentuating the old idea that women were a separate and inferior class.\nAnd when they persist in ''demanding recognition as women\" for places\nrequiring administrative ability and those qualities of mind which mark the\nefficient public servant, they themselves are perpetuating the class idea.\nRecognition of administrative capacity and fitness for public office as individuals, not as women, is the only recognition they have a right to ask in the\ncitizenship of the world which they are striving to attain. When a woman is\nelected to membership on a school board, it should not be because she is a\nwoman or even because she is a mother or a daughter, but it should be because\nshe is known to be possessed of those personal characteristics which would\n'\nmake her valuable as a member.\nWomen should be equally eligible with men to election on school boards\nbecause they, at least equally with men, are interested in that class for whom\nschools are maintained — the children — and must also help support the schools,\nand because among women are many individuals who possess those qualifications which would make them suitable members of the ideal board. A woman\nwho is a nonentity, or who has no convictions of her own or is not well balanced,\nwill be of no value on a school board. If we must have vapidity, inefficiency,\nor selfishness, let it be of the masculine gender. Place women on your boards,\nbut put them there because their presence means additional strength.\nIn working for the ideal board no one should be selected who has not a\nsingle-hearted devotion to the cause of education. No one should be chosen\nsimply because it will be easy to elect him, or because he will catch the Republican or the Democratic or the Jewish or the Catholic or the Swedish vote. No\none should be elected who believes that he was bom to set the world right, and\nregards it as a cursed spite. Finally, no one should be considered as a candidate who has not the spirit of St. Lawrence — willing to be roasted on both sides\nfor conscience' sake. And having found our St. Lawrence, let us not keep\nhim forever upon the gridiron of our criticism.\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Sarah S. Platt Decker, member of Educational Council, Colorado Teacher's\nAssociation, Denver, Colo. — The issue that I shall take with .he first speaker is in her\nposition that \"if a business board sees its whole duty and does it, there will not be much\ncause for complaint.\" From my observation there is not a city nor a community nor an\nindividual compassed by this great National Education Association which has witnessed\nand realized an ideal school board with this composition. Doubtless in the formative\nperiod of our educational system, it was the only practical solution for the conduct of what\nwas then a most limited and circumscribed condition. But with the growth, the liberty,\nthe enlightenment, have come the weighty problems which demand that we give up this\ninherited tradition, and constitute our boards of education in conformity with the tremendous issues involved.\nThe business board, however, has lingered — has died hard, in fact. I regret to say that\nwe have not yet been invited to its funeral. But it can never have a resurrection in the minds\nof the people, even the the politicians are always alert for its restoration.\nWhy not a\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "looo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n\"business\" board for the care of the city schools ? Let us see.\nwhich enter into this great and important obligation.\n\n[Women's\n\nThere are three elements\n\nFirst and above all else, the city's children; therefore, we should have mothers and\nfathers upon the school board. Think for a moment what would be the effect if tomorrow\nan edict were issued, taking all children between the ages of seven and sixteen years of\nage away from the home and entrusting them to the care of strangers! I need not tel\nyou that there would be a revolution, instant and not bloodless; and yet that is the absolute plan when you elect a business board to have the oversight of your children, because\nyou wholly sever the connection between the home and the school. The child goes to\nan untried teacher; the latter, in place of being^under the supervision of those who wil\nstrive for a systematic and harmonious continuation of the home training and ideals, is\ntoo frequently governed by a board whose fetish is dollars and cents, and who regard\nboth pupil and teacher as the smallest of their concerns.\n•\nThe second element which is to be considered in a board of education is the teaching\nforce; therefore we must place trained educators in the body for their interests.\nLast and least of all, the commercial concerns may be considered. What are these\nmuch-heralded business interests ? Mostly building schoolhouses with a fine bank account,\nprovided by the taxpayers, to draw from. Not so difiScult a problem, and quite within the\ngrasp of the ordinary citizen, woman or man. The obstacle to progress in educational,\nsociological, philanthropic, and many other nation-building lines, is the inherited idea\nthat only the commercial side is of importance.\nAs an illustration of the usual board appointed by the usual governor or mayor or\nelected by the usual people at the bidding of the usual party power, we give the instance\nof a certain board of commissioners, having in charge a hospital for the insane. The conditions ofthe institution were so terrible that an investigation was ordered by the governor.\nThe board of commissioners — \"business\" men, so called — seemed much perturbed,\nas the testimony brought forth the neglect, abuse, and even criminal conduct of the hospital.\nSuddenly the governor turned to the commissioners and angrily demanded, \"Why have\nyou not remedied this ? You have weekly meetings of your board; what have you done\nat these sessions that these conditions are unknown to you?\" The chairman hesitated\nand hemmed, and finally acknowledged, \"Well, I don't know; I guess we generally audit\nthe bills.\" Do you know why in every state in the Union, from teachers, parents, preachers,\nstudent-leaders, and the world at large, there is a demand for a regeneration in the school\nsystem ? Do you know why such a statement as that made by the speaker of the day —\nthat more than 25 per cent, of the grade pupils are ineligible for promotion — is possible ?\nDo you know why such words are possible as those uttered in the council by a prominent\neducator — those words which found an echo in the mind and heart of every thinking\ncitizen ?— \"During the past year the chorus of dissatisfaction with the results of our educational system, from the lay world, as well as from members of our own profession, has\ngrown louder and louder.\" Do you know why this condition exists, and, not being a new\nsituation, is apparently without hope of remedy ? I will tell you. Because the average\nschool board has been made up of business men, who have simply \"audited the bills.\"\nNo, the regeneration cannot come thru the teacher himself, because he is fettered by\nthe problem of daily living, and too often by the old traditions and narrow groove; it\ncannot come thru the pupil, who is helpless under prescribed conditions. It must come\nthru the mothers and fathers, the citizens, who must enforce their demand by the election\nof proper boards of education. My hope is that the creation of this department in the\nNational Education Association is the breaking of the day, because we are the first laymembers ever admitted as a part of the great body. It is our privilege and obligation to\nbegin a training school for ideal boards of education, which shall be composed of highminded, unselfish women and men, who will believe that the commercial side of the work\nis the least of all, and whose purpose will be to fulfill the tremendous and glorious task\nintrusted to them — the building of a nation's people.\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDELINQUENCY\n\nDELINQUENCY\nJOSEPH\n\nA.\n\nBACHE,\n\nAND\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nAND THE RESPONSIBILITY\nSCHOOL TOWARD IT\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF THE\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nJEWISH\n\nlOOl\n\nOF THE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe greatest of all problems in modem education is the problem of elementary education in the great cities of our country. The secondary school\npresents no such problem in any of its phases, while the elementary school in\nthe small city or rural community is simple in its solution when compared with\nthe great problem of the education of the masses in the congested districts of\nour great cities. And of the many phases of this problem, the adaptation of\nthe school to the life of the child and the harmonizing of the one to the other\nin such a way as to secure the greatest benefits to the child are the most serious\nto be considered. It is this lack of ability so to adjust the school as exactly\nto meet the requirements of the growing boy that is in a large degree responsible for delinquency. For the causes which tend toward delinquency, however, we must look to the home and other influencing conditions in the child's\nlife.\nA serious effort to collect statistics bearing on the causes of delinquency\nhas been but partially successful. The difficulty lies in the inability to secure\nthe history of each case, and to ascribe to each influencing condition its proper\nshare of the cause. Sufficient data have been gathered, however, to ascribe\npretty definitely the majority of cases of juvenile delinquency to one or more\nof three general causes. It is difficult to give the exact bearing of each of these\ncauses on any particular case, but it is comparatively easy to trace most cases\nto one or more of these causes, and, generally speaking, each of the three contributes ina greater or less degree to the offense.\nThe three primary causes of delinquency are heredity, environment, and\nassociation. The last two named are largely dependent on the first, and the\nthree are so closely related as to make it difficult to separate them and to assign\nto each its responsibility in any particular case.\nTo the cause of heredity may be traced a large percentage of cases of delinquency found in our foreign population. Heredity is largely responsible for\nthe settlement of certain classes of emigrants in the congested districts of cities.\nAnd it is among this class that the greatest number of cases of delinquency are\nfound. Heredity is also responsible to a great degree for the personal habits\nof children which tend to cause delinquency. Then again, physical deficiencies and mental sluggishness, both of which are directly responsible in many\ninstances, are in the majority of cases directly traceable to heredity. Racial\ntraits, both physical and mental, are very persistent. The delinquent inherits\nfrom his ancestors defects of both body and mind which tend to disqualify\nhim from the observance of both natural and legal laws. These defects must\nbe overcome by both physical and mental training, and to the school belongs\nthe Herculean task. Hereditary tendencies either uphold the child, protecting\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "I002\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nhim against the evil with which he comes in contact, or plunge him deeper than\nhis fellows until he awakens in the hands of the controlling power of the school\nor court. Theodore Roosevelt, in an address before the Young Men's Christian Association, touched upon this vital point. ''The truth is that each one\nof us has in him certain passions and instincts, which, if they gain the upper\nhand in his soul, would mean that the wild beast had come uppermost in him.\"\nHad he pursued this subject farther he would have found that, lying side by\nside with these dormant tendencies toward evil, were just as strong tendencies\ntoward good, which if cultivated and given the opportunity to grow would\nproduce qualities which develop and strengthen manhood. And for these and\nother reasons we must consider heredity as one of the dominant causes of delinquency, and in our efforts to overcome it we must act accordingly.\nIn considering the two remaining causes already stated we will find it\ndifficult to separate them at all times. Neither exists without the other in some\nway exerting an influence. Environment probably is the stronger of the two,\nin a great degree contributing to the association. Home conditions must\nreflect largely on the child's life. Poverty, neglect, parental indifference,\nignorance, and even vice and crime are found in the majority of cases brought\ninto our juvenile courts. Lack of parental control, either thru weakness or\nignorance on the part of the parent, has much to do with child delinquency.\nRecently it has dawned on our juvenile courts that perhaps the parent was in a\nlarge way responsible for the sins of his child and, beginning with the correction\nof the parent, they have found it unnecessary to punish the child. But such\nhome conditions as poverty, illness, congestion of family quarters, poor ventilation, poor food, and a host of similar ills cannot be banished by an order of\nthe court. And there can be no doubt that these are contributing, if not direct,\ncauses in a vast majority of cases that come before the authorities. In education alone can we hope for an improvement along this line. In the home where\nlittle regard is paid to the common habits usually conformed to by the majority\nof citizens, in the home where there is no prescribed time for arising or retiring,\nwhere little attention is paid to the gathering at the family table, where few\nor no responsibilities are felt by either the parent or the child, where the home\nlife is reduced to the primitive life of the savage, little can be done but await\nthe education of the next generation. And sad as it may be, it is nevertheless\ntrue that in the majority of these cases the child at an early age leaves the home\nand seeks refuge in the home of the stranger where the ordinary customs of\nthe family are observed. We find hundreds of young men and women desert\nthe parental roof to board in the cheap boarding-house or the home of a friend,\nand all because of the recognized lack of the common home customs. Nor\nare the parents always entirely responsible for these conditions. Surrounded\nby an environment which offers no solution or help, with the duties of parenthood thrust upon them at an early age, and ground down by the increasing\ncares of providing for the home, many lose interest and abandon hope, leading\nan aimless career, caring only for today with the assurance that somehow\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDELINQUENCY\n\nAND\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\n1003\n\ntomorrow will care for itself. Such parents offer no assistance and much hindrance to the growing offspring, and the great wonder is that he turns out as\nwell as he does.\nAnd now as to association. And right here society and government has\nmuch to answer for. We must consider those barriers to progress which\norganized government has permitted to be thrown across the child's pathway\nwhich make his progress more difficult. While some effort has been made to\nimprove the conditions in some of our great cities by providing public playgrounds, public baths, public lectures, public reading-rooms, and public\noutings, little attention has been given to the suppression of private billboards\nand theatricals, private saloons where even children may catch glimpses into\nthe world of which they should know nothing, private picture shows and,\nprobably worst of all, the public dance-hall. The elimination of the majority\nof these evils, together with the strict supervision of the remaining few, would\ndo much toward assisting in the general uplifting of our child-life.\nOf the personal associates of the child little need be said. The influence\nof evil association is too well understood to demand more than mention.\nAnd now let us consider the responsibility of the school toward delinquency.\nThat there are cases which cannot be controlled by the school and must depend\nupon the juvenile court we must admit. But these are small when compared\nto the number which can be controlled and prevented by proper school conditions. Of punishments and corrective institutions this paper has no concern.\nIt is our duty to discuss and discover, if possible, the remedies lying within our\nown schools, and advocate the establishment of those remedies wherever needed\nin our school system.\nInasmuch as whatever there is in the school which tends to oppose the\nnatural growth and inclinations of the boy will also tend to make his school\nlife irksome, and in this way assist in developing any hereditary tendencies\ntoward truancy, we must study the school; and such of its phases as we find\nnot conducive to the natural development of the child must be eliminated,\ntransformed, or so modified as to retain their value from an educational standpoint and yet remain unobjectionable to the natural instincts of the child.\nNor must we expect these changes will be radical or revolutionary. Any\nchanges which would be in their nature radical or revolutionary would also be\ndoomed to failure, for where have we a master mind capable of solving a problem so great and evolving a system of educational thought which would meet\nthe needs of our modem civilization ? Any change which comes must come\nas a result of evolution, building upon our present educational system a new\nsystem which will retain the good and add such new material as will be found\nhelpful and necessary.\nIn order to have any well-regulated institution it is necessary to have its\nfoundation deeply laid in the homes of our country. It takes a generation or\neven more to uproot a custom, no matter whether it be good or evil, and to\nplant another which will supplant the older, producing better results and with\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "I004\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nless expenditure of energy. For this reason we hear of school boards thruout\nthe country constantly reverting to the three R's and pointing with pride to\nwhat the older system of education did for them and their parents. But they\nforget to take into account the different conditions under which the older generations lived and grew into manhood. The school of today must replace much\nthat the home did for the child a quarter of a century ago. With new conditions inthe home life of today we find new needs in the school training. Reduce\nthe present school term from ten months to three or four, reduce the number of\npupils in a school from a thousand to half a hundred, reduce the number of\ninhabitants from several thousand to the square mile to a score or less, and\nassign to each member of the household certain daily tasks that were once\nknown as \"chores,\" and are now almost unknown, and you may well do away\nwith your manual training and household arts of today, your rooms for defective\nand sub-normal children, and even your steamer rooms of our eastern cities.\nIn reverting to the life of the past and introducing home duties into the\nschool, we are simply permitting the natural expression of the self-activities of\nthe child, and where we now have the child overburdened with academic work\nwe then had him overburdened with the physical, so much so that we find him\nturning to the academic for his recreation. We have but to seek the reason\nfor the old-fashioned spelling school, the lyceums in every country schoolhouse,\nthe mathematical knots untangled on long winter evenings by the fireside,\nand the desire of every family to offer an academic education to at least one\nmember of the household, and we shall recognize the difference between the\nschool of half a century ago and the school of today. In fact, we may have\ngone too far in our academic work in the school, and it may be one of the needs\nof the present school curriculum to dignify work and provide a place for* the\nboy or girl who has little inclination to mental activity, and seeks instead the\nphysical work of the manual training and the physical culture of our modem\ncourses of study.\nThe modem school course of study calls for more than the manual training\nand household arts. While those studies are probably foremost in importance,\nand must in no instance be, neglected, we must by no means neglect other necessary subjects which will assist in making the school life of the child a perfect\nwhole.' His physical life should be carefully looked after. He should be subjected to a careful physical examination by a physician, and not only his schoolmates be protected against contagious or infectious disease, but he should be\nstudied for defects which neither he nor his parents are aware exist. Many\na case of truancy and delinquency may be traced to defective eyesight, or adenoids, or defective hearing, or nervousness. In New York City it was found\nthat 30 per cent, of the children were in need of glasses, and almost 20 per cent,\nof the children were afflicted with defective hearing. And in the majority\nof these cases the parents were unaware of the difficulty until notified by the\nschool authorities. Not alone should the child be examined and the parent\nnotified, but, in case the parent is unable to provide medical attention or is\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDELINQUENCY\n\nAND\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\n1005\n\nindifferent to the suffering of his child, the school should furnish the necessary\ntreatment free of all cost and make the treatment, whether medical or surgical,\ncompulsory. Until this is done many of the most necessary cases, especially\nthose tending to cause delinquency, will be permitted to continue, to the detriment of society and the child.\nAs to the environment, the school may do much to promote a public sentiment which will materially improve the condition of the neighborhood in which\nit is located. By judicial exercise of its functions many evils may be eradicated\nwhich, if left to themselves, may result in harm to the child. Laws which\nwould be dead letters may be enforced. The neighborhood may be kept clean.\nPublic sentiment may be aroused. And a careful watch may be kept over the\nmorals of the neighborhood which will greatly reflect on the child's life.\nThe school itself should be as far as possible a model as to conditions and\nsurroundings. The rooms should be well lighted, comfortably heated, and\nmodels of good taste. Suitable pictures and statuary should adorn the walls.\nGood books, both text and library, should be within easy access of the children,\nwithout red tape and with as little accounting as possible. The child should\nbe encouraged to remain within the school building or grounds after his daily\nlesson periods are over. He should be given the freedom of the gymnasium\nand the playground. He should be made to feel that it is his own and not an\nantagonistic institution for punishment. He should get over the feeling that\nhe is sentenced until he is fourteen years of age to serve so many hours each\nday in a task which is unpleasant. If it is necessary, both books and clothing\nshould be, furnished by the school without publicity or the feeling of poverty.\nThe course of study should be within the comprehension of the child. It\nshould interest, and where it fails to interest it should be studied and the reason\nfound and the remedy applied. Textbooks should be written to interest and\nnot to puzzle. Teachers should be supplied who are in harmony with their\nwork. The child himself should be studied. He is interesting in himself.\nWithout a proper comprehension of the pupil we cannot hope to meet his needs.\nRecently a Chicago judge sentenced a boy to read Bryce's American Commonwealth. Small wonder the boy ran away. The judge should have studied his\nproblem. He should have realized the task he was setting. Had he asked the\nboy to have made for him a table or a chair the result might have been different.\nNor should the school lose sight of the entertainment and the value from an\neducational standpoint of the stereopticon. We are at present passing thru\nthe greatest educational movement in the moving-picture show that has passed\nover our country since the great debates of two generations ago. The world\nhas been ransacked by daring men with the moving-picture machine, and we\nare shown exact reproductions of living action in parts of the world so remote\nthat none but the most daring could hope to witness the scenes enacted. But\nwe are also given pictures so detrimental to the morals of the growing youth that\nthey should be suppressed, and in many cities this is done, but not to the extent\nit should be. Why not make use of these aids to education, and not worry\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nbecause the child is getting some of his knowledge sugar-coated. Even the\nphonograph can be used to a great advantage in our public schools and the\ngreatest of orators and musicians brought before our children. And who will\ndeny that they will enjoy or improve thereby ?\nThe object of all education is good citizenship. The school that fails to\nturn out the highest type of citizen fails in its function, no matter what its\nother virtues may be. The school that solves the problem of good citizenship has solved the problem of delinquency.\nDISCUSSION\nCharles O. Merica, president of University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo; — Three\nprincipal points of the paper will be noted for discussion: first, the school as a neighborhood center; second, the employment of teachers in sympathy with childhood life; third,\nthe creation of courses of study suited to the needs and tastes of individual children.\nLimited space and time in this discussion forbid citation of definite investigation upon any\nof these points. It will be necessary to confine the discussion to opinions based upon\nsuch investigation.\nThe school as a neighborhood center does offer opportunity for creating better standards of living both in the matter of material things such as clothing, food, housing, etc.,\nand in the matter of intellectual tastes and pursuits. In the larger cities some profitable\nwork has been done along this line. Little such work, however, can be done in the smaller\ncities and villages thruout the country. There is no subject upon which people are so sensitive as upon that of receiving public aid, and sometimes the greater the degree of squalor\nand shiftlessness the greater the pride upon this subject. This phase of the subject is\nso mixed up with general charity work as to seem to remove it largely from the present\nsphere of the school. Along intellectual lines teachers are doing much, and they should\nbe urged to do much more in the way of setting a better standard. Literary societies,\ntraveling libraries, including art exhibits, etc., can be greatly multiplied.\nUpon the proposition that the teacher should be in sympathy with the children it\nseems futile to say anything. Teachers of grades covering the years of delinquency are\ngenerally girls. It may be brutal frankness to say so, but most of these girls do not expect to\nteach school very long. It is therefore difficult to create a professional interest on the part\nof the teacher. We have studied school management largely from the standpoint of the\nteacher and the school. Perhaps a remedy would be to study school management from the\nchildren's standpoint. Why look for defects in the school in the conduct of the children\nwhen the children are of course the untrained and the untaught and the weak? It is not\ntheir fault that they have to be in school. Most of them would gladly absent themselves.\nThat they are there at all is the teacher's opportunity and ought to be her gratification.\nGiven a teacher concerned comparatively little about the school system and the discipline\nand order incident to the system, and concerned much about the individual child, and this\nproblem would largely be solved. The best school is not that one so well organized that\nthe teacher might leave it for hours and days and it would continue to run like a clock.\nThe best school is the school in which the individual demand of each member is so insistent\nthat the teacher cannot be spared a single minute. If the grades of the schools could be\ntaught by people interested sufficiently professionally to study each individual boy and\ngirl, and then to become themselves so interested in each boy and girl that they would say\nevery hour, \"The best powers in me I will give to make one boy a man,\" the percentage\nof delinquency would be distinctly decreased.\nAs for the third point, school teachers have often lost sight of the source of interest\nin school work.\nThey complain that children are not interested in their studies.\nThis\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDELINQUENCY\n\nAND\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\n1007\n\ncomplaint is apparently based upon the assumption that a child should come to school\nalready equipped with the element called interest. I insist that this expectation is groundless and unscientific. Just for their own sakes there is no very definite reason why grammar,\narithmetic, and geography should be attractive to a child, and particularly to a boy. They\nare at least not in the same class with fishing, swimming, coasting, and seeing the show.\nThere are two reasons, perhaps, why any subject should be studied in school. One is\nthat it directly concerns one's life; and the other that it is a tool necessary to the comprehension of some other life-touching subject. There is no reason why a child should learn\nany particular subject just because somebody thinks he ought to. He should learn the\nsubject because of this life-relationship, and as far as possible should be made acquainted\nwith the relationship. I do not believe it is necessary greatly to change the course of study;\nbut it is essential to emphasize, at least in spirit and method, this life-touching quality\nof subjects studied.\nMrs. Alice H. Hinman, vice-president of Board of Education, Lincoln, Nebr. —\nThat we have a live issue before us is evident from the number of addresses upon this one\ntopic in the program of this convention. The very able presentation to which we have\nlistened this afternoon is the fifth address, and each address has been followed by several\ndiscussions. I should not attempt to contribute anything to the sum of all this wisdom\nfrom the experts, even if I could. But it is our part in this department to contribute a\n\"point of view.\" We represent the interests of the general public, voiced thru the national\norganizations of women most effectively and inclusively devoted to the interests of education. The official connection of these organizations with the National Education\nAssociation marks, we trust, a new era of a more intelligent co-operation between the\ngeneral public and the profession, the taxpayer and the teacher.\nWhat, then, is the peculiar function of our department in the attack of our entire\nsocial organism upon this problem of provision for the delinquent and defective child ?\nThis is the question I want to answer in the few minutes allowed me.\nLet me assume at the outset that we ourselves are acquainted with the problem to\nsome extent; that we know the need, and know something of how that need is being met\nin Boston, New York, Baltimore, St. Louis, etc. With this information in hand and the\nbest interests of our public at heart, we must be the great advertising agency, educating\npublic opinion and arousing public activity. What we have done for pure-food laws,\nchild labor, and juvenile-court legislation, we may do here for the delinquent and defective\nchildren. And because we are now more experienced, and better organized, we may do\nit all the more skillfully and more swiftly.\nTo inform and persuade our fellow-citizens we must have certain practical suggestions\nto offer directly to each community thruout the country.\nFirst, let the purpose of the special provision for the delinquent and defective children\nbe widely known and clearly stated. As I understand that purpose it is twofold; but\nour foremost object is to free the work of the ordinary graded school from its heaviest incumbrances. The machinery has been clogged by these difficult and incomprehensible cases.\nThey have taken much of the teacher's time and her hardest effort. Such children have\nto repeat their grades three and even four times. If a teacher must give at least twice\nas much time and effort to a defective as to an ordinary child, and repeats this for three\nor four years, then this one child has taken what would have carried six or eight normal\nchildren thru that grade.\nIn another way also the defective and delinquent children clog the school work.\nEvery teacher knows that one or two cases in a room will sometimes affect the entire room.\nInattention, apathy, restlessness, meanness, have their influence on the other pupils.\nThere is a malarial condition in the room. The teacher is unable to cure the source of\ncontagion, and must keep up an active campaign of antidote and of general sanitation.\nAnd so with reference to this first important point of our purpose, let us publish it\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "loo8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nfar and wide thru our communities that the defective and delinquent children, forced into\nour schools by a compulsory-education law, are a terrible incubus there, both on account\nof all they demand directly from the teacher, and also on account of their effect upon the\nother children. In its own interests the public school must make some special provision\nfor them.\nThe secondary purpose we may boldly admit to be the salvation of the delinquent\nchild. And here again \\ye will confine ourselves to the lower motives, if you choose, and,\nsetting aside any statement of the child's right to a fair start in life, we may refer only to\nthe fact that special provision for these children is a saving of public money. For from these\ndefectives, discouraged or made ugly by their failures, the ranks of the criminals and the\npaupers are filled. The unfit either sink into helplessness, or they enter the ranks of the\npowers that prey. They will cost tjie state far more in the end than it would cost to prepare them in childhood, thru special schools, for happy and useful living. It costs, for\ninstance, in St. Louis, $130 per year per child for the redemption of child lives in the\nspecial schools of that city.\nWhen we have convinced our communities of the practical value of our purpose,\nwe must give them some clear and simple information of our method of procedure. \" What\nare you after ?\" \"How are you going to do it ?\" If we can answer these two questions\ndefinitely and forcibly, we can probably carry our public with us.\nA study of the methods already in use in the most successful special schools reveals\nthe necessity for these steps: First, the principal in each building must examine carefully\neach difficult case, and co-operate with the teacher and parent in securing the fullest possible\ninformation on the life-history of the child. Then medical aid must be called in, and the\nphysical ills — adenoids, partial vision or hearing, malnutrition, e c. — be corrected as far\nas possible. Many cases are set right in a few weeks by the co-operation of principal,\nteacher, parent, and physician. But there are cases that are hopeless from the point of\nview of the ordinary teacher. She is not equal to the problem, and she cannot provide\nthe necessary conditions. For these so-called hopeless cases the special school must be\nopened. Here we must place our most expert teachers. If possible let each teacher have\nno more than fifteen in her care. The greater part of the time will be given to physical\ntraining and to manual and industrial training. In New York City two-fifths of the time\nis given to the bookwork, and in some special schools even less time. The child begins to\nlearn at his own pace. When he gains the power to study properly, he is returned (often\nreluctantly on his part) to his own graded school. Other cases never able to return are\ncarried along until trained to some trade, taught how to live with others, and inspired with\nthat self-confidence necessary to even a humble degree of success. Friendly relations with\nothers, confidence in themselves, the power to do a useful thing — these are what save them\nfrom turning into paupers or criminals.\nIt is well known that the home conditions are at fault in the majority of cases where a\nchild is delinquent or defective. The teachers of the special schools co-operate as closely\nas possible with every agency that can influence the parents for good. Like other teachers\nthey work in close touch with the juvenile court. They enter the homes directly in the\nfriendliest possible way. They touch the parents thru neighborhood clubs, church societies,\nor any other influence that may bring the parents to do the best they can for this child.\nSometimes, of course, the children have no parents or guardians, or worse than none.\nThen the special school, under the direction of the superintendent of schools, sets in motion\nthe necessary legal machinery to free the child, and then places him in proper care.\nTake it all in all, the work of the schools for delinquent and defective children is a\nmost beautiful and Christlike work. We may confine our discussions of it to the dollarsand-cents aspect, and make very clear to the taxpayer its economic value. But it is well\nalso to lift our eyes to the full meaning of the work. Every true educator is an idealist,\nwho knows that \"man doth not live by bread alone,\" and every live educator feels keenly\nthe worth of saving these backward and thwarted young lives.\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY\n\nAT\n\nHOME\n\nIOO9\n\nIn conclusion, then, let me hark back to the main points to be made now upon this\ngreat topic:\nFirst, that the National Education Association in general, and this department very\nparticularly, must be a great committee for agitating this subject, informing the public\nand persuading it to take the first steps, at least, in providing for the delinquent and defective children. Second, that well-planned medical inspection be provided in every community. Third, that the best available teachers be secured for special rooms, where the defective child may be known, may be lovingly nurtured and trained, until he is able to be a\nself-sustaining unit in his community. Let him stand where he may catch a little of the\nsunlight, and in the light and joy and strength of it find his hands free, his mind clear,\nand his heart true, to do well his own little task in life.\n\nSTUDY\nMISS\n\nTHEDA\n\nAT HOME\n\nGILDEMEISTER,\nPRINCIPAL\nSTATE NORMAL\nSCHOOL,\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\nWINONA,\nMINN.\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nIn considering this topic, I think of several problems worthy of our attention, and when I have proposed a few, one or more may be elaborated at\nyour pleasure.\nShall we first get our setting ? And will you consider with me the general\nfield of study, of which home study is only one phase ? All I say of the larger\ntopic of study we can readily apply to the more limited phase of study in the\nhome.\nOlder views of education emphasized form instead of content, put symbols above realities, made memory more prominent than original thinking,\nand stated the aim of the educative process as future efficiency for which one\nmust prepare by making the immediate tasks mechanical and formal. Under\nthese . circumstances, home study, consisting largely of mechanical memory\ntasks, was easily assigned; parents found it pleasant to hear the spelling\nlessons, the verbatim recitation of text, or the dates in history; and, best (?)\nof all, both teachers and parents could quickly test the amount of acquisition.\nWith the gradual change in the place of emphasis in the educative process,\nor the recognition of content as more valuable than symbol, of spirit as more\nvital than form, we have said that what we care for at the end of a child's\nschooling — and all along as well, believing that future efficiency is best built\non everyday efficiency — is not the mere mastery of certain chosen facts, but\nis: (i) independence in thinking; and (2) control of one's habits so he can\nthink at will — i. e., use his energies most economically in solving life's problems. Since, however, this power of thinking and of concentrating attention\nat will can only come from practice — ^practice in voluntary concentrated\nattention in solving worth-while problems, the method of doing which has\nbecome, under the teacher's guidance, a conscious process to the child — we\nteachers — with parents to help us — still find the selection of elementaryschool subject-matter a great problem.\nAs teachers have recognized the ''content\" aim of education, methods of\nteaching have materially improved, but methods of studying have not kept\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOio\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\npace. Some of you may know Hinsdale's Art of Study, and Noah Porter's\nReading and How to Read, but you may not know that Dr. Frank McMurry,\nof Teachers College, New York, has devoted several years to this vital question and will soon have a book published that teachers and mothers will\ncertainly welcome. In the meantime, one gets a hint of the feast on p. 102\nof the 1905 National Education Association report; Dr. McMurry has,\nbesides, freely given his ideas to his students, several of whom have already\npublished helpful articles in this field. I refer to (i) Earhart's Study in the\nElementary School, Teachers College Contributions to Education, (2) Strayer's\narticles in the Atlantic Educational Journal, April and May, 1909, and (3)\nthe 1908 Report of the Minnesota Educational Association, Elementary\nSection.\nWhen the study-process of good students is analyzed, it is found that\nsome or all of the following factors are operative:\n1. Having an aim; knowing the problem, finding the question or the\npoint of weakness that needs strengthening. Or, if it be a bit of reading,\nsearching for the big, binding, or central thought.\n2. Selecting material jor the problem's solution, after it is before one, by\nrecognizing what is known, what is not known, what is necessary to find out,\nwhat the strategic positions are; by judging of relative values, sifting out the\nless important details; by learning where to go for material, how to use books\nwhen searching for evidence (value of indices, outlines of chapters, prefaces,\netc.); how to keep notes and how to keep record of information once found\nso it is readily accessible if needed for proof later.\n3. Testing the validity oj the information, when the solution seems found;\nholding tentative judgments; supplementing the text as well as one's own\nthought; being broad or open-minded so as to recognize flaws or defects,\nand appreciate a good point made by an opponent.\n4. From all this grows the power of reflecting, thinking, abstracting,\ngeneralizing, organizing, forming judgments, holding opinions — ending in\nphilosophizing.\nIn other words, one exercises initiative, grows independent\nin thought, not necessarily different from all others, but honest with one's self.\n5. And then comes the final test of worth, when execution is attempted.\nHow do we know when we have learned a lesson — in school or in life ? By\nour ability to express the result; and expression may be in scores of ways:\n\n^\n\na bit of housework, a picture, a clay horse, a doll's bam, a smile on the face,\nor a song on the lips.\nReal study ends with the above-named factors, but life proves that it is\noften of economic value to know some things so well that there is no need\nto study or think. In such cases memorizing, tho a true by-product of good\nthinking, may yet need special attention.\nAnd now, since time presses, let us hasten to our more specific problem\non which our friend from Texas says she can talk all day — ''Home Study.\"\nIf we believe in the rationality of the preceding statements, it is evident that\n\n>/|\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY\n\nAT\n\nHOME\n\nlOII\n\nin making assignments for home and seat work, the teacher's task is much\nmore difficult than formerly. No longer can the child put a bookmark or\npencil check in the text to show just what must be committed to memory.\nInstead, if he is not yet able to concentrate, to think clearly, to carry the\nmain points in mind, he probably has^ the vaguest of notions concerning\nwhat is required, and frets both himself and parents until bedtime. This\nsort of thing causes parents to feel that methods have changed, and, whether\nopposing or agreeing with the change, they find it hard to assist in the lessons, and consequently are beginning to ask for longer school hours where\nstudy is done in the school workshop. At any rate, they want no home study.\nSome men argue that when business hours are over, business should close,\nand school is the child's business. Other parents feel that unless they keep\nin touch with their children's lessons they lose one opportunity for close\nsympathy and vital contact with their children. Some, too, depend upon\ntheir children's schooling for their own broadening, having had in their\nyouth fewer advantages than they thankfully give their children. Thus we\nsee just cause for a radical difference of opinion about home study. Yet\nanother factor enters — our modern civilization makes home conditions less\nconducive to concentrated thinking than formerly. The family circle is too\noften broken by attendance of parents upon business, club, or social functions, or work, in less well-to-do families. The spirit of such a family party\nas Whittier describes in \"Snow Bound\" is gone forever. Would that our\nchildren could live in such an atmosphere of restfulness, content, broadening\ninfluences, and real education in independent thinking! What have we\nin its place? The amusements we have just been discussing. To make\nquiet home study even more difficult, we find children of certain \"social sets\"\nhaving French, German, and dancing lessons, besides music, and, possibly,\n\"art.\"\nIt really is not my province to answer the problems you see growing out\nof this talk, but because you request it, I will say that I think it our bounden\nduty to teach children how to study, and this teaching should be by first\nguiding them in pleasant work; then making them conscious of the process\nthey are employing; noting its value and economy; third, arousing the will\nto do and to persist whenever desired; and fourth, selecting worthy subjectmatter to give practice in the different fields — especially in concentration, persistence, and independent thinking. Home study fitted to advance this plan\nwould in no way be detrimental to a child, nor would it tax a parent unduly.\nIn conclusion, permit me to give a hasty review of my points and a statement of some problems open to us for thought and discussion :\n1. The older view of the aim of education emphasized form over content.\nAssignments were then easily made, easily looked after by parents, and\neasily tested.\n2. With power the aim, rather than facts, methods of teaching changed\nradically, but methods of studying are still poor.\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\n3. Hence we must teach children how to study, if we secure the independence, concentration, organization, and persistence we desire.\n4. The numerous factors in good study cannot all be taught in any one\ngrade, in any one subject, or in any one school year, but the earlier we begin\nto demand independent thinking the sooner we shall get it and the fewer\nmechanical assignments can we make for home study.\n5. The farther away from the formal requirements we get, the harder it\nis for the parent to direct and test the child's work unless he is in close touch\nwith the teacher's plans.\n6. Many conditions of our modem complex life cause a wide difference of\nopinion, hence our questions: •\na) Is studying more than mere memorizing? If so, what shall be the\nplace of memorizing in the study scheme? How much shall mechanical\nmemory of facts be the test of whether one thinks or not ? That is, in other\nwords, shall the old form of examination or test questions continue to prevail ?\nDo they produce undue nervous strain in pupils ?\nh) Is it worth while to make all children approach this ideal method of\nstudy ?\nc) Should children learn to express and substantiate their own opinions\nor should these opinions be summarily suppressed instead of put to a test ?\nd) Can studying better be done in laboratory or schoolroom than at home ?\ne) Should children do any home study or should they drop work at school\nclose ?\n/) If home study is done, should it be more or less than now ? And when\n— morning, afternoon, or evening? (Certainly the children get none too\nmuch sunshine as it is, and, unless we can have out-of-door schools, dare we\nshut them in any more than at present ?) Again, what amount of extra work\nshall be demanded of different ages?\ng) If done satisfactorily, must not parents understand the aim of all\nassignments, and agree with the teacher as to the factors in study on which the\nchild at a given time needs most help ?\nh) What are the relative values of school subjects and parts of subjects in\naiding good studying? What changes and, especially, what eliminations\nshall we make in our crowded curricula to further this view-point ?\n\nTHE\n\nPARENTS'\n\nOBLIGATION\n\nTO THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMRS. HENRY J. HERSEY, PRESIDENT OF STATE CONGRESS OF MOTHERS\nDENVER, COLO.\nMy subject today is the obligation of the parent to the school. If it seems,\nin the few words that I shall say, that I give undue weight to the responsibility\nresting upon parents and homes, leaving too little for the school, the teacher,\nand the community, please remember the limitations of my subject.\nSurely the first obligation of the parent to the school is to know the school.\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPARENTS'\n\nOBLIGATION\n\nTO\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1013\n\nThe most direct way to this end is thru friendship with the teacher. Visits\nto the school made only when \"something is the matter\" will never draw the\nparent and teacher together in mutual respect and sympathy; nor does the\nplan of a certain distressed mother commend itself: The school year was drawing to a close when she discovered that her daughter was facing a failure to\n\"pass.\" She gave an elaborate luncheon party, where the teachers formed\nthe group of uncomfortable guests, and the anxious mother sought at the eleventh hour to atone for the year's indifference. Probably she had no thought\nof bringing undue influence to bear upon the marking system, yet to these\nteachers it seemed little less.\nThere should be visits to the school and an evident interest in the progress\nof the work all thru the year. An intimation that the parent has a glimmering\nof some of the trials of the teacher and appreciates her efforts will do no harm\neven to the most hardened pedagog.\nThe right sort of acquaintance with the teacher was expressed by the mother\nwho said to me after she had been president for two months of one of our mothers' circles: \"Won't you please come to our next meeting? I want you to\nknow our principal.\" \"I do know her; I met her the day you organized. Is\nit anything special?\" I replied. \"Oh, no, only she's such a fine woman.\nWhy, of course, I knew her, or I thought I did. I've had children in her school\nfor years; but I had not the least idea how she really felt about things till we\nbegan our work together. She is a grand woman. She knows all about the\nchildren, hundreds of them, and she's willing to take such a lot of trouble!\nI want you to know about her.\"\nAh, how true it is that we underestimate people when we \"don't know how\nthey really feel about things.\" Perhaps if we knew in what spirit most teachers\nlive and work, we would be able to overlook an occasional mistake. We are\nnot infallible as mothers, and we have the advantage of making our slips and\nblunders in the privacy of home. What must it be like to have forty or fifty\npairs of keen eyes watching one all day long, and to know, beyond perad venture, we are to be reported and quoted — often misquoted — in as many\nhomes before bedtime ?\nIn some schools there are parents' meetings early in the fall for the purpose of\ngiving all the teachers a chance to explain the studies to be taken up during the\nyear, the method of procedure, the value of the subjects, and the psychological\nreasons why they occur at this point in the child's life. You can readily see\nthat when Johnny comes home with the remark that he hates arithmetic and\nsees no value whatever in language work, there is someone there who is able\nto tell him that these studies become very interesting a little later in the term,\nand why he couldn't get along by and by without what seems dry and hard\nnow. Incidentally the child's respect for a mother who knows the teacher's\naims is vastly increased.\nNo parent should trust for his understanding of the rules of discipline of\nthe school to the fragmentary accounts and the childish interpretation of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\npupil. The teachers will give us all the laws and the penalties in a clear statement that we may be in a position to see that our children are true to theip\nobligations to the school. It would be no small service to both child and\nteacher, if the parent at the outset could convince the child that the school\nexists to enrich his life, and that the teacher is his good friend always.\nIt does not take a very wise person to observe that appreciation and encouragement accomplish more in bringing our wishes to pass than fault-finding and\ncondemnation. So parents who approach the school without a sincere consciousnes ofits great value and its many fine points will have no influence to\nimprove it. We must agree that the last word as to schools has not yet been\nsaid, but we have only to look back a few years to have courage for the\nfuture.\nTeachers are not archangels, being made of the same material as parents,\nbut we could hardly do our children a greater injustice than that of condemning\nor criticizing the teacher in the child's presence. This seems too obvious to\nmention, but the mistake is not obsolete.\nA word as to the proper attitude of a person who has a vague sense of\ndissatisfaction. What a blessing it would be if, in that case, instead of mentioning itto other parents, we had the courage to consult with the principal directly.\nWe have all known cases where unnecessary wrath was engendered, where\nentirely unfounded suspicions grew to the proportions of a tempest beyond the\ndimensions of the teapot.\nThe principal or teacher who does not receive a troubled parent with sympathy and cordiality and undertake at once to investigate is rare indeed.\nParents who imagine that the intercourse of the schoolroom alone is sufficient to satisfy the social interests of their boys and girls are mistaken. They\nneed much activity, sport, and recreation together outside of school. But it\nshould all be planned in accordance with the laws of their normal, wholesome\ndevelopment. If we could only keep children's pleasures at the very simplest\nthat they could enjoy at each age, how much sweeter life would be for them\nand for us !\nThe amazing spectacle of hundreds of school children spending weeks\nin the busiest part of the school year preparing for a mammoth theatrical performance for the benefit of an orphan's home is an instance of robbing Peter\nto pay Paul, which must cause the devil to smile.\nThe high-school boy, in order to enjoy the company of the girls of his class,\nfinds himself involved in expenditures for flowers, carriages, and tickets which\nmight stagger the young man on a good salary. It is quite time now for parents\nto use all the intelligence, good sense, and sympathy at their command to understand and settle these questions. It would be to our everlasting credit, if we\nwould devote some weeks and months to the careful investigation of the social\nneeds of the schoolboys and schoolgirls of our community. If it is not my boy\nand your girl who are reduced to meeting on comers and evening promenades\non the street for the gratification of innocent craving for companionship, it\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPARENTS'\n\nOBLIGATION\n\nTO\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1015\n\nis the boy and girl with whom they sit side by side in the schoolroom, and it is\nyour business and mine to help in supplying their needs.\nOur teachers must have had some years of preparation, and to this we\nwould like to have them add a continued advancement in special subjects, and\na general keeping abreast with the profession. We insist that they shall be\nwell dressed, and, to meet the demands of the schoolroom, they must be well\nfed and well slept. How can these requirements be met ? Only by relieving\nour teachers from anxiety and overwork at home. No doubt a few wellinformed and thoroly convinced parents in each community could soon convert the other taxpayers to the belief that **it is economy to buy the best in the\nmarket\" when we engage a teacher. The people who have never dreamed of\nadvancing the salary of the teacher even in proportion to the increasing cost\nof the necessities of life are often those who boast that they always buy \" the\nbest'' in every other line. Growing power and capacity should be recognized\nand rewarded in the teacher, and there is no place in our schools for those who\nare incompetent or worn out. I leave it to those who follow me in this discus ion to express the unanimous approval of teachers' pensions, the sabbatical\nyear, etc.\nWe look forward to the time when the profession of teaching will be paid\nsomewhat in proportion to the ability and devotion required to excel in it,\nand know that when that portion of the millennium arrives, more of the higher\ntype of young men and women will be attracted to it for a life-work instead of\nas now for a mere parenthesis.\nEvery teacher admits the serious error of assigning too large a class to each\nteacher, especially in the lower grades, yet it is one which the teacher cannot\nherself protest against for fear of suggesting her inability to manage and keep\norder in a crowded room. Let those parents who most appreciate the value\nof a real teacher, and know what individual attention means to the undeveloped\nmind, never cease to urge a more sensible and truly economical system until\nwe shall see no more than twenty-five children in the care of one teacher.\nThe nervous strain inevitable in rooms and buildings containing many\nchildren is cruel and unnecessary. Perhaps some day a prophet will arise to\nproclaim an era of small, simple, inexpensive schoolhouses, of which we may\nhave many, and still use most of our money to secure better and better teachers.\nOur schools have made such rich provision for our children that it seems to\nbe the tendency to leave more and more to them. Parents have to be reminded\nthat the teacher is not expected to lay the foundation of the moral character,\nnor, under the present system, to undertake the teaching of sex physiology.\nWhile many parents would object to this latter teaching at the school, it is a\nmelchancholy fact that few are equal to the task at home, and teachers are\noften driven by the dangers they see surrounding their pupils to assume a\nresponsibility which should not rest upon them.\nIt is too much to expect of an ardent Mothers' Congress worker that she\nshould say all this and fail to add finally that the way to do these things and do\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioi6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Women's\n\nthem well is to have a parents* association in every school. These associations,\neven if made up of mothers only, are entirely different from the ordinary clubs\nof women, in that every mother and teacher is entitled to membership and\nalmost no expense is incurred. The basis of union is not social equality or\ncongeniality, not ambition for mental achievements, nor even philanthropic\neffort, but in every case an interest in the welfare of the child and a strong desire\nto fulfil the obligation of the parent to the school. Already the parent-teacher\nassociations under the Congress of Mothers are actively working in thirtytwo states and we shall before long see the home and the school in warmest\nco-operation all over our land.\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL\n\nINDEX\n\n(Names of department presidents and authors of formal papers are set in small capitals.\nmemorial sketch.]\nAbercrombie, John W. — Ethics in civic\nlife, 83; The American peril, 248\nAbnormal children: Their classification\nand instruction (Frank G. Bruner), 350\nAboriginal arts. Preservation of, 947\nAccrediting of high schools, Changes in, 207\nAct of Incorporation, 2\nActive Members, Minutes of Annual Meeting of, 33\nAddicott, James E. — Definitions pertaining to industrial arts, 599\nAdjustment of school system to the changed\nconditions of the twentieth century\n(Edwin G. Cooley), 404; Discussion,\n410\nAdministration\nof public -school systems,\n\nI (Homer H. Seerley), 415; II (Edward T. Fairchild), 423; III (Charles\nH. Keyes), 426; IV (W. O. Thompson),\n430\nAgricultural\neducation for the rural districts\n(Seaman A. Knapp), 954\nAgricultural education in the public schools,\nPresent status of, 976\nAgricultural education, Means of awakening interest in, 959\nAgricultural high schools, 974\nAgriculture for the elementary schools\n(Riley O. Johnson), 987\nAgriculture, Preparation\nof teachers of,\n965\nAim and methods of science education in\nsecondary schools (George A. Cowen),\n799; Discussion, 801\nAley, Robert J.— Articulation of higher\nand secondary education thru teaching\nand teachers, 198; Books and highschool pupils, 844; Discussion, 400;\n758;\nMinutes, National\nCouncil,Secretary's\n336\n\nA t indicates a\n\nApplication of household arts and sciences\nin the elementary schools (Ellen H.\nRichards), 473; Discussion, 476\nArt as related to the industries from standpoint of (a) art; (&) manual training;\n(c) general education. I (Arthur B.\nClark),\n616; II (Ednah A. Rich), 621;\nIII667\n(A. H. Chamberlain), 624\nArt Congress in London, 655\nArt in the home (Smith, Mrs. Gertrude\nR.), 649; Discussion, 654 :\nArt, University entrance examinations in,\nArticulation of higher and secondary education (Robert J. Aley), 198\nArticulation of higher educational institutions with secondary schools, I (StratTON D. Brooks), 192; II (Robert J.\nAley), 198; III (Charles E. Chadsey),\n203; IV (C. P. Gary), 207; V (William\nE. Chancellor), 212\nArts and sciences for home life. Instruction\nin, 628\nArts, The American Federation of, 669\nAthletic competition in college and preparatory school, or competition preparatory\nto entering college (William F. Slocum)„\n765; Discussion, 769\nAthletics in\nschools: how supplemented bypublic\nY. M. C.\nA,, 777; 779\nBache, Joseph A. — Delinquency and the\nresponsibility of the school toward it,\n1 001\n\n.^<j\n\nBaker, James H. — Our educational\nduties to the Indian, 927; Report of\nCommittee on Culture Element and\nEconomy\nTime533 in Education, 373;\nDiscussion, of433;\n\nBalcomb, E. E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Rural and Agricultural\nAlgebra for secondary schools, 511\nEducation, 953; Some means of awakening and maintaining an interest in agriAllport, Frank. — A plea for the examina129\ncultural education, 959; Discussion, 385\ntion of school children's eyes, noses, and\nthroats, 266; Discussion, 271\nBanta, J. Edward. — ^The library and the\nschool, 863\ni\\\nAmerican college: Is it fulfilling its function? 523; 526\nBarnes, Clifford Webster. — Moral\ntraining thru agency of public schools,\nAmerican Federation of Arts, The (Henry\nRead), 669\nBartholomew, William H.— Discussion,\nAmerican peril. The (John W. Abercrombie), 248\nAnnual Meeting of Active Members,\nBartlett,\nEllen ofM.Manual\n— Secretary's\nMinutes,\nDepartment\nTraining,\n597\nMinutes of Meeting of, 33\n372; 802\n435\nAutonomy of the high school. The (J.1017 Bates,\nWilliam C. — ^fFrank A. Fitzpatrick,\nStanley Brown), 480\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioi8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBessey, Charles E. — Discussion, 803\nBethel, Ellsworth. — Discussion, 803\nBetter preparation for the life needs of\nthe great majority who do not reach\nthe high school (Florence E- Ellis),\n646\nBicknell, Thos. W., Letter of greeting from,\nBiNZEL, Alma L. — Modification of kindergarten and elementary handwork to\naccord with modem educational ideals,\n451; Discussion, 368\nBishop, E. C. — How should the athletics of\nboth men's and boys' departments of the\nY. M. C. A. supplement that of the\npublic schools? 779; The present status\nof agricultural education in the public\nschools, 976; Discussion, 497\nBlair, Francis G. — The study and use of\nbooks, 852; Discussion, 567; 568\nBlame for truants and incorrigibles, 222\nBlewett, Ben. — Department of school\nhygiene in the St. Louis Public Schools,\n123; Provision for exceptional children\nin the public schools of St. Louis, 355\nBlind youth. Outlook for the, 889\nBooks and high-school pupils (Robert J.\nAley), 844\nBooks, The study and use of, 852\nBoston PubUc Schools, Hygiene in, 118\nBouton, Rosa. — Discussion, 476\nBradford, Mary D. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment\nof Women's Organizations,\n993\nBrooks, Stratton D. — Provisions for exceptional children in the public schools of\nBoston, 361; The relations of the university to the secondary school, 192\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth. — Co-operation of library of Bureau of Education\nwith pedagogical libraries, 310; Industrial education as a national interest, 288;\nOur national songs, 695; Preparation\nof the kindergarten for institutional life,\n438; Report of Committee on Co-operation with Educational Organizations in\nOther Countries, 388\nBrown, Henry B. — Discussion, 369; 569\nBrown, J. Stanley. — The autonomy of the\nhigh school, 480; Discussion, 411\nBruce, William George. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of School Administration, 829\nBruner, Frank G. — Abnormal children —\ntheir classification and instruction, 350;\nReport of Committee on Books and Tests\nPertaining to the Study of Exceptional\nand Mentally Deficient Children, 901;\nDiscussion, 787\nBurke, J. E. — Hygiene in the IBoston\nPublic Schools, 118\nBurks, Jesse D. — Getting our bearings on\nindustrial education, 291\nBurton, Charles E. — A r^sum^ of Indian work, 917\nButler,\nNicholas\nMurray. — Address\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nin memory of James Hulme Canfield,\n105; The call to citizenship, 75\nBUTTERFIELD,\n\nKenyon\n\nL. — The\n\ndignity\n\nof vocation as a fundamental idea in\nindustrial education, 273\nBy-Laws, adopted July 10, 1907, 5; Art. I,\nMembership, 5; Art. II, OflScers and\nCommittees, 6; Art. Ill, Duties of\nOfficers, 6; Art. IV, Board of Directors,\n7; Art. V, The National Council, 7;\nArt. VI, Departments, 8; Art. VII,\nMeetings, 8; Art. VIII, Amendments, 8\nCabot,ing inMrs.\nElla\nschools,\n239 Lyman. — Moral trainCaldwell, Otis W. — Place and practice\nof nature study in the elementary school,\n471 ; The modern high school and industrial education, 790; Discussion, 803;\nCalendar of Meetings, 10\nCall, Arthur Deerin. — Moral enthusiasm in the making, 232\nButler), 75 The (Nicholas MurCall to raycitizenship,\n972\nCallicotte, William Riley. — Discussion, 743;\nCanfield, James Hulme. — t Nicholas\nMurray Butler, 105\nCare of the deaf and blind in the public\nPearse), of\n343 Milwaukee (Carroll G.\nschools\n971\nCarrington, W. T. — Discussion, 429\nCarter, Charles M. — The International\nCongress of Art in London, 655\nCarver, Professor. — Discussion, 533; 534;\n535\nCary, C. cussion,\np. 535— Proposed changes in the\naccrediting of high schools, 207; DisCauses and cures of truancy, 217\nChadsey, Charles E. — The proper relation of organized sports on public playgrounds and in public schools, 771; The\nrelation of the high school to the community and college, 203; What does\neach, the library and the public school,\ncontribute to the making of the educated\nman? 860\nChamberlain, Arthur Henry.— Art as\nrelated to the industries from a general\neducational standpoint, 624; Discussion,\nChamberlain, James F. — Progress and\nneeds in elementary education, 458; Report of Committee on Secondary-School\n412\nGeography, 820\nChambers, Will Grant. — Modern psychology and music study, 687; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Child\nStudy, 719; Why children play, 720\nChancellor, William Estabrook. —\nSome personal relations of college and\nuniversity in this democracy, 212\nCharacter-building the foundation of education (John H. Phillips), 936\nChase, Professor. — Discussion, 534\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nChild and the community, The (Ben B.\nLindsey), 737; Discussion, 743\nChildhood and morality (Ben B. Lindsey),\n146\nChild in industry, The (Owen R. Love joy),\n),\nChild 6in the group, iaTlhe (J. He.s White ti7o3n3\nChild72 races. Essent\nfeatur in educa\nof, 928\nCitizenship, The call to, 75\nCity training school, Functions of, 296\nCivic life. Ethics in, 83\nClark, Arthur B. — Art as related to the\nindustries, from the standpoint of art,\n616; Report of Committee on University\nEntrance Examinations in Art, 667\nClark, Mrs. Frances E. — 'The status of\nmusic in the United States, 675\nClark,\nMrs.\nIda\nHood.— Open-air\nschools, 894; Discussion, 615\nClass instruction, Reaching the individual\nin, 175\nClififord, Julia B. — Discussion, 815\nClifford, Wesley N. — Report of Committee on United States Government\nMaterials Usable in Secondary Education, 802; Discussion, 711\nCollege and university. Relations of, 212\nCollege movement. The MacDonald, 92\nColleges and universities. Music on an\naccredited basis in, 681\nCommerce, University of, 705\nCommittee\nof Investigation of Manual\nTraining Courses, Report of, 39\nCommittee on Nominations, List of, 29;\nReport of, 33\nCommittee on Resolutions, General Association, Membership of, 29; Report of,\n34\nConnelley, Clifford B. — Discussion, 613\nConservation, Progress in, 803\nConstitution of the ideal school board,\nand the citizen's duty toward it (Mrs.\nHelen L. Grenfell), 994; Discussion,\n999\nCook, John W. — Does the curriculum of\nthe elementary school meet existing\nneeds? 460; Progress of education for\nthe year, 390; Discussion, 568\nCooley, Edwin G. — Adjustment of school\nsystem to the changed conditions of the\ntwentieth century, 404\nCorrelation of high-school science and agriculture (Josiah Main), 983\nCorresponding Members, New, 41\nCourse in elementary-school science and\nits relation to high-school science (Riley\nO. Johnson), 817\nCourse of study in free-hand drawing and\napplied arts (W. H. Elson), 660; Discussion, 664\nCowEN, George A. — The aim and\nmethods of science education in secondary\nschools, 799\nCrabtree, J. W. — Discussion, 413\nCrosby,\nDick J.— How may the rural\n\nschools be more closely related to the\nlife and needs of the people? 969;\nSpecial agricultural high schools, 974\nCross, E. A.\nSecretary's\nMinutes,\nDepartment—ofNormal\nSchools,\n547\nCross, G. W. — Discussion, 945\nCulture element and economy of time in\neducation (William H. Smiley), 377\nDalziel, Ruth S. — Discussion, 665\nDaniels,\nF. — Secretary's\nMinutes,\nLibrary Joseph\nDepartment,\n843\nDavenport, Eugene. — Industrial education a phase of the problem of universal\neducation, 277; preservation of unity in\neducation while meeting the demands\nfor industrial training, 485\nDavis bill in its relation to normal schools\n(Homer H. Seerley), 570\nDeaf, blind, and feeble-minded children.\nIndustrial education of, 885\nDearmont, W. S. — Discussion, 568\nDecker, Mrs. Sarah S. Piatt. — Discussion,\n999\nDefinitions pertaining to industrial arts\n(James E. Addicott), 599\nDelinquency and the responsibiUty of the\nschool toward it (Joseph A. Bache),\nlooi; Discussion, 1006\nDemonstration lessons: (a) wheat; (6)\nbread-making; (c) agriculture, I (Mae\nMcCauley), 925; II (Katherine L.\nKeck), 926; III (Maggie Harper), 940\nDepartment of Art Education, 645; of\nBusiness Education, 701 ; of Child Study,\n719; of Elementary Education, 457; of\nHigher Education, 523; of Indian\nEducation, 915; of Kindergarten Education, 437; of Library, 843; of Manual\nTraining, 597; of Music Education, 673;\nof Normal Schools, 547; of Physical\nEducation, 745; of Rural and Agricultural Education, 953; of School\nAdministration, 829; of Science Instruction, 789; of Secondary Education, 479;\ntions, 993 Education, 871; of Superinof Special\ntendence, 159; of Women's OrganizaDepartment\nScope of, 70 of women's\n\norganizations,\n\nDexter, Edwin G. — Educational progress\nin Porto Rico, 100\nDietrich, John. — How should the athletics\nof both men's and boys' departments of\nthe Y. M. C. A. supplement that of the\npublic schools ? 777\nDignity of vocation as a fimdamental idea\nin\nindustrial education\n(Kenyon L.\nButterfield),\n273\nDoes the curriculum of the elementary\nschool meet the existing needs ? (John\nW. Cook), 460; Discussion, 465\nDowning, Augustus S. — Meaning of\nindustrial education to the elementary\nschools, 380\nDreher, E. S. — Problem of slow pupils in\nthe high school, 330\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": null, "text": "I020\n\nNTAIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDyer, F. B. — Place of the kindergarten in\nthe public school, 439\nDyke,\nCharles\nBartlett. — Essential\nfeatures in the education of the child\nraces, 928\nEducation and the petition to the Third\nHague Conference (Wilbur F. Gordy),\n88\nEducation,\nArticulation of higher and\nsecondary, 198\nEducation, Progress of, for the year, 390\nEducational organizations in other countries. Co-operation with, 388\nEducational progress in Porto Rico (Edwin\nG. Dexter), 100\nElder, E. Waite. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Science Instruction, 789\nElementary course, Simplification of, 165\n169\nElementary\ncurriculum, Fundamentals in,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nExceptional children. Report of Committee\non Books and Tests for, 901\nExperiments in moral education (Frank\nChapman Sharp), 141\nExposition of the Illinois syllabus on algebra for511\nsecondary schools (Henry L.\nRiETz),\nEyes, noses, and throats. Plea for examination of children's, 266\nFairchild, Edward T. — Province of\nstate boards and state superintendents\n423the administration of public education,\nin\nFalkner,\n107 Roland P. — Discussion, 186\nFarnsworth, Charles Hubert. — ^Music\non an accredited basis in colleges and\nuniversities, 681\nFavill, Henry Baird. — Should the public\nschool be the bulwark of public health ?\n\nEleme\neducat\nP\na\nn\nion, rogress nd eeds\ntary\nin, n458\nElementary industrial training in the day\nschool (S. Toledo Sherry), 950\nElementary-school\ncurriculum:\nDoes it\nmeet existing needs ? 460\nElementary-school\ncurriculum,\nHow\nto\nenrich, 466\nElementary school, Nature study in the,\n\nFee, Ira B. — Discussion, 770\nFellows, George E. — Discussion, 533\nFelmley, David. — Discussion, 972\nFiTZPATRiCK, Frank A. — Sketch in memory of William C. Bates, 435\nForbes, George M. — Function of the\nkindergarten in the public school, 440\nFoRDYCE, Charles. — How to develop\nproperly the inner community life of the\ncollege or university, 535\n\n471\nElementary\nschools, Agriculture for, 987\nElementary schools. Household arts and\nsciences in, 473\nElementary schools. Industrial training in,\n\nFoundation\ning the, 936of education, Character-build-\n\nEUmination\nof waste in school work,\n316\nI (Joseph B. Richey), 165; II (Junius\nL. Meriam), 169; III (Walter R.\nSiDERs), 175; IV (James M. Greenwood), 182\nEllis, Florence E. — Better preparation\nfor the life needs of the great majority\nwho do not reach the high school, 646\nElson, W. H. — A course of study in freehand drawing and applied arts, 660\nEssential features in the education of the\nchild races (Charles Bartlett Dyke),\nEthical\n928 value of vocational instruction in\nsecondary schools (Frank H. Hall),\n492; Discussion, 497\nEthics in civic life (John W. AberCROMBIE), 83\n\nEvil influences of school conditions upon\nthe health of school children (Woods\nHutchinson), 262\nExamination of children's eyes, noses, and\nthroats (Frank Allport), 266; Discussion, 271\nExceptional\nchild. Public schools for the,\n873\nExcep\n\nchild. Syste\nc\no t\ntiona\nmatic are f he,\nll\na\nn\nn\n.\no\no\nn\ni\ni\ne\nt\ns\n6\nr\np\ni\nd\n4\ne\nv\nfor, in\nPro\nchil\nExc 3\npublic schools of St. Louis, 355;\nof\nBoston, 361\n\nFree-hand drawing and applied arts.\nCourse of study in, 660\nFrom the standpoint of economic and\nmanufacturing interests, should special\ntrade schools be established? (J. C.\nMoNAGHAN), 606; Discussion, 613\nFrost,\nJoseph 317\nM. — Industrial training in\nhigh schools,\nFroula, V. K. — The scope and value of\nhistory in the high school, 507 ; Function\nof county and city boards and superintendents in school administration\n(Charles H. Keyes), 426; Discussion,\n429\nMark), of839school boards. The (Cecil W.\nFunction\nFunctions of the city training school (John\nW. Withers), 296\nFunctions of the training school (C. B.\nRobertson), 561; Discussion, 567\nFundamentals in the elementary school\ncurriculum (Junius L. Meriam), 169\nnal arts, 947\nFynn, a. J.\n— The preservation of aborigiGarrison, W. E. — The proper balance\nbetween mental and muscular training\nin the school curriculum, 759\nGeometry\nand 519\nalgebra teaching in secondary schools,\nGeometry for secondary instruction, 515\nGetting our bearings on industrial education (Jesse D. Burks), 291\nGibson, Carleton B. — Industrial training in high schools, 319\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": null, "text": "809\n\nINDEX\nGiddings, Margaret. — Discussion, 455\nGideon, A. — Discussion, 711\n1009\nGiLDEMEisTER,\nTheda. — Study at home,\nGill, Laura Drake. — ^The scope of the\ndepartment of women's organizations,\n\n'\n\nGoRDY, Wilbur F. — Education and the\npetition\nto the Third Hague Conference,\n70\n88\nGraff, Ellis U. — Secretary's Minutes, Department ofSecondary Education, 479\nGreat Britain, Teacher-training in, 573\nGreen, James M. — Discussion, 370\nGreenwood, James M. — How to minimize retardation of pupils in their\nstudies, 182; Report of Committee on\nMoral Training in the Public Schools,\n367\nGrenfell, Mrs. Helen L. — The constitution of the ideal school board, and the\ncitizen's duty toward it, 994\nGuinn, A. H. — Discussion, 534\nGuLiCK, Luther H. — Next step in the\ninvestigation, 365\nHall, Bert. — Truancy: A few causes and\na few cures, 217\nHall, Frank H. — ^The ethical value of\nvocational instruction in secondary\nschools, 492\nHarper, Maggie. — Demonstration lesson on\nagriculture, 940\nHarrow, Professor. — Discussion, 535\nHarvey, Lorenzo D., Presidential Address— The Need, Scope, and Character\nof Industrial Education in the Publio^\nSchool System, 49; closing remarks by, 31\nHarwood, Samuel E. — The training\nschool as a school of observation and\npractice, 557\nHas the American college failed to fulfill\nits function? I (Albert Ross Hill),\n523; n (Samuel W. Williston), 526;\nDiscussion, 533\nHastings, William W.— The place of\nphysical education in the field of hygiene,\nHealth\n746 departments in education boards,\n252\n\nHealth of school children. Influence of\nschool conditions upon, 262\nHedrick, Earle R. — The treatment of\ngeometry for secondary instruction, 515\nHeeter, S. L. — The teacher's responsibility to the Indian child, 932\nHersey, Mrs. Henry J.— The parents'\nobligation to the school, 1012\nHigh school. Autonomy of, 480\nHigh school: Its status and relation to\ncolleges and universities, 794\nHigh school of commerce or commercial\ndepartment? (J. J. Sheppard), 712\nHigh school. Relation of, to community\nand college, 203\nHigh-school science and agriculture. Correlation of, 983\n\n207\n\nHigh-school science:\n\nI02I\nWhat for first year?\n\nHigh schools Chang\ni a\no\nes n ccrediting f,\nHigh school\nIndust\ntraini\nin, 317,\ns.\nng\nrial\n319\nHigher tionand\nof, 198secondary education, ArticulaHill, Albert Ross. — Has the American\ncollege failed to fulfill its function ? 523\nHill, Joseph H. — Discussion, 567\nHiLLYER, Thomas A. — Professional training for teachers of secondary schools in\ncolleges and universities, 587\nHinman,\nof, 507 Mrs. Alice H. — Discussion, 1607\nHistory in the high school. Scope and value\nHoliday,\nNeppa. — Secretary's\nMinutes,\n457\nDepartment of Elementary Education,\nHome, Art in the, 649\nHoover, ment,S.702 R. — The next advance moveHotchkiss,\nH. V. — Problem\nof slow\npupils in elementary grades, 326\nHow can the curriculum of the elementary\nschool be enriched ? (Hervey B, Work),\nHow may the rural schools be more closely\nrelated to the life and needs of the people ?\n(Dick J. Crosby),\n969;\nDiscussion,\n466\ns\nc\ni\nd\nof both men's\nHow shoul the athlet\nand boys' departments of the Y. M. C. A.\nsupplement that of the public schools?\nI (John Dietrich),\n7.77; II (E. C.\nBishop), 779; Discussion, 785\nHow 9to71 develop properly the inner community life of the college or university,\nH.\nI (Charles\n535; II (John\nT. Main), Fordyce),\n539\nHow to minimize retardation of pupils in\ntheir studies (James M. Greenwood),\n182; Discussion, 186\nHow to reach the individual in class instruction (Walter R. Siders), 175\nHuchingson, J. E. — Discussion, 710\nHutchinson, Woods. — The evil influences\nof school conditions upon the health of\nschool children, 262\nHygiene\nand\nphysical training:\nTheir\nplace in the school system, 751\nHygiene in the public schools of Boston\n(J. E. Burke),\nBlewett),\n123 118; of St. Louis (Ben\n\nIncorporation, Act of, 2; certificate of, 8-9\nIndian child, Teacher's responsibility to,\n.\nntary ndustrial\nn\nIndia day school Eleme\ni\ntraining in the, 950\nin,\n919\nIndian schools. Prevention of tuberculosis\nIndian work, A resume of, 917\nIndiana932plan for handling truants, indigent\nand pauper children (A. O. Neal), 877;\nDiscussion, 884\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": null, "text": "I022\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIndustrial arts and sciences: Their influence\nupon home life, 636'; 640\nIndustrial arts, Definitions pertaining to,\n599\nIndustrial education a phase of the problem\nof universal education (Eugene Davenport), 277\nIndustrial education as a national interest\n(Elmer Ellsworth Brown), 288\nIndustrial\neducation, Dignity of vocation in,\n273\nIndustrial education, Getting our bearings\non, 291\n\nIndustrial education in the public-school\nsystem, 49\nIndustrial education. Meaning of, to\nelementary schools, 380\nIndustrial education, Modem high school\nand, 790\nIndustrial education of the deaf, blind, and\nfeeble-minded\n(L. E. Milligan), 885\nIndustrial education, I (Kenyon L.\nButterfield), 273; II (Eugene\nDavenport), 277; III (Elmer Ellsworth Brown), 288; IV (Jesse D.\nBurks), 291; V (John W. Withers),\n296\nIndustrial Education, I (O. I. Woodley),\n312: II (A. C. Thompson), 316; III\n(Joseph M. Frost), 317; IV (Carleton\nB. Gibson), 319\nIndustrial training in elementary schools\n(A. C. Thompson), 316\nIndustrial training in high schools (Joseph\nM Frost), 317; (Carleton B. Gibson), 319\nInfluence of industrial arts and sciences\nupon rural and city home life, from standpoint of (a) domestic science; {h)\neconomic interests. 1 (Mrs. Ellen H.\nRichards), 636; II (Albert Salisbury), 640\nImportance of instruction in arts and\nsciences for home life (Cree T. Work),\n628\nInner community life of college or university: How to develop the, 535; 539\nInternational Congress of Art in London,\nThe (Charles M. Carter), 655\nJohnson, D. B. — Discussion, 579\nJohnson, George E. — The playground as\na factor in school hygiene, 257\nJohnson, Riley O. — Agriculture for the\nelementary schools, 987; The course in\nelementary-school science and its relation\nto high-school science, 817\nJones, Edmund A. — Discussion, 385\nJones, Olive. — Systematic care of the\nexceptional\nchild, 346\n27\nJournal of Proceedings of General Sessions,\nJoyner, President-elect James V., Remarks\nof, 32\nKeck, Katherine L. — Demonstration lesson\non bread-making, 926\nKeyes, Charles H. — Function of county\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nand city boards and superintendents in\nschool administration, 426\nKindergarten handwork. Modification of,\n445» 451\nKindergarten\nin the public school. The,\nI (F. B. Dyer),\n439; II (George M.\nForbes),\n440\nKindergarten:\ntional life, 438Its preparation for instituKirk, John R. — Music on an accredited\nbasis, 696; Discussion, 433, 534, 567, 968\nKnapp, Seaman A. — Agricultural education for the rural districts, 954; discussion\n666; 787\nLe Favre, Mrs. Caroline. — Discussion,\nLeiter, Mrs. Frances Waite. — ^Discussion,\n971 Mrs. Lorna Higbee. — Secretary's\nLeland,\nMinutes, Department of Physical Education, 745; The proper relation of organized sports on public playgrounds and\nin public\nschools, 774\n786\nLibraries, Instruction in use of, 848\nLibrary\nand863the school. The (J. Edward\nBant a),\nLibrary: Its contribution to the making of\nthe educated man, 860\nLibrary of Bureau of Education: Its cooperation with pedagogical libraries\n(Elmer Ellsworth Brown), 310\nLiNDSEY, Ben B. — Childhood and moralMoral training,\nand ity,\nthe146;community,\n737 940; The child\nLovejoy, Owen R. — The child in industry,\nLucKEY, G. W. A. — Should school hygiene\nbecome a department of the publicschool system and physical training be\nmade a sub-department under school\nhygiene?\n751\n726\nMacDonald College movement. The (James\nW. Robertson), 92\nMacDonald, John. — Discussion, 401\nMacKay, A. H. — Discussion, 973\nMacLean, James A. — Discussion, 410\nMain, John H. T. — How to develop\nproperlyor the\ninner community\nlife of the\ncollege\nuniversity,\n539\nMain, Josiah. — The correlation of highschool science and agriculture, 983;\nDiscussion, 801, 803\nboards,Cecil\n839 W. — The function of school\nMark,\nMaxwell, Wm. H. — The necessity for departments of health within boards of\neducation, 252\nMcCallie, J. M. — Discussion, 884\nwheat, 925\nMcCauley, Mae. — Demonstration lesson on\nMcGregor, D. — Professional training for\nteachers of secondary schools, 581\nMcNeill, I. C. — Discussion, 365\nMeaning of industrial education to the\nelementary schools (Augustus S. Downing), 380; Discussion, 385\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nMeetings, Calendar of, 10\nMemorial addresses, 435\nMental and muscular training. Proper\nbalance between, 759 ,\nMeriam, Junius L. — Fundamentals in the\nelementary school curriculum, 169\nMerica, Charles O. — Discussion, 1006\nMiLLiGAN, L. E. — The industrial education\nof the deaf, blind, and feeble-minded, 885\nMiLLis, James F, — The real-problem\nmovement in its relation to the teaching\nof geometry and algebra in secondary\nschools, 519\nMinutes of Annual Meeting of Active\nMembers, 2)2>\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors\n1908-9, 38\nMinutes of Meeting of New Board of\nDirectors, 1909-10, 43\nModern high school and industrial education (Otis W. Caldv^^ell), 790\nModern psychology and music study (Will\nGrant Chambers), 687\nModification of kindergarten and elementary handwork to* accord with modern\neducational ideals, I (Mrs. Alma Oliver\nWare), 445; 1.1 ^Alma L. Binzel), 451;\nDiscussion,\n455\nMonaghan, J. C. — From the standpoint\nof economic and manufacturing interests,\nshould special trade schools be established ?606\nMoral education, experiments in, 141\nMoral enthusiasm in the making\n(Arthur Deerin Call), 232\nMoral training (Ben B. Lindsey), 940;\nDiscussion, 945\nMoral training in schools (Mrs. Ella\nLyman Cabot), 239\nMoral\ntraining thru agency of public\n129\nschools (Clifford Webster Barnes),\nMorality, Childhood and, 146\nMorrison, Gilbert B. — Third Report of\nCommittee on Six- Year Course of Study,\n498; Discussion, 801\nMurphy, Joseph F. — The prevention of\ntuberculosis in Indian schools, 919\nMusic as a moral influence (William L.\nTOMT.INS), 245\n\nMusic in the United States, Status of, 675\nMusic on an accredited basis (John R.\nKirk), 696\nMusic on an accredited basis in colleges and\nuniversities (Charles Hubert Farnsworth), 681\nMusic study. Modern psychology and, 687\nMusical terminology, Report of Committee\non, 691\nNational aid in the preparation of teachers\nof agriculture for the public schools\n(Homer H. Seerley), 965; Discussion,\nNational\nCouncil of Education, Constitu968\ntion, 331; Officers for 1901-10, 333;\nMembers, 334; Secretary's Minutes, 336\n\nNature study in the elementary school, 471\nNeal, a.dren,O.\n877 —The Indiana plan for handling truants, indigent and pauper chilNecessity for departments of health within\nboards of education (Wm. H. Maxwell),\n252\n\nNeed, Scope, and Character of Industrial\nEducation in the Public-School System\n(Lorenzo D. Harvey), 49\nNeeds\nof the majority. Better preparation\nfor, 646\nNelson, A. C. — Secretary's Minutes, Decussion,partment402 ofSuperintendence, 159; DisNelson, B. E. — How can the ward-school\nprincipal be of most service ? 324\nNewhall, William B. — Discussion, 785\nNext advance movement. The (S. R.\nHoover), 702\nGulick),\nNext\nstep in 365\nthe investigation (Luther H.\nNormal school, Place of, 548\nNormal schools, Relation of Davis bill to,\n,\nore .\nB — ^G. M. Philips 435\nNoss, Theod\ns f eneral ssociation or 908-9,\nr\ne\nc\ni\nf\nf\nf 1\nA\no G\nO\n894\n12; of Departments for 1908-9, 14; of\nGeneral Association for 1909-10, 16; of\nDepartments,\n1909-10, 18\n570 schools (Mrs. Ida Hood Clark),\nOpen-air\nOur educational\nduties to the Indian\n(James H. Baker), 927\nBrown),\n695songs (Elmer Ellsworth\nOur\nnational\nOutlook for the blind youth. The (Edward\nM. Van Cleve), 889\nParents' obligation to the school, The\n(Mrs. Henry J. Hersey), 1012\nPeairs,\nB. — What\nfor the H.Indian,\n938 education has done\nPeairs, J. E. — Discussion, 756\nPearse, Carroll G. — Care of the deaf and\nblind in the public schools of Milwaukee,\n343; Public schools for the exceptional\nchild, 873; Discussion, 387\nPeet, Charles\nEmerson. — What\nshall\nthe first -year high-school science be ? 809\nPerry,\nCharles\nF.\n—\nTrade\nschools\nand\nschool boards, 833\nPhilips, G. M.— Sketch in memory of\nTheodore B. Noss, 435; Discussion, 403\nPhillips,\nJohn of H.education,\n— Character-building\nthe foundation\n936\nPhysical education and hygiene, 746\nPhysics, The recent movement in, 503\nPlace and practice of nature study in the\nelementary school (Otis W. Caldwell),\nPlace of physical education in the field of\nhygiene, The (William W, Hastings),\na\nPl ce of the normal school in a system of\n471\npublic education (Henry G. Williams),\n\n746\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": null, "text": "I024\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPlan of a course of instruction in the use of\nlibraries (Edith I'obitt), 848\nPlayground as a factor in school hygiene,\nThe (George E. Johnson), 257\nPorto Rico, Educational progress in, 100\nPossibility or desirability of a national, uniform system of stenography (Elizabeth\nVan Sant), 716\nPotter, Milton C. — Qualifications and\nfunctions of the ward-school principal,\n322\nPreparation\nof the kindergarten for institutional life (Elmer Ellsworth Brown),\n\n438 status of agricultural education in\nPresent\nthe public schools (E. C. Bishop), 976\nPreservation of aboriginal arts, The (A. J.\nFynn), 947\nPreservation of unity in education while\nmeeting the demands for industrial\ntraining (Eugene Davenport), 485\nPresident's address. Department of Art\nEducation (Florence E. Ellis), 645;\nof Business Education (S. R. Hoover),\n701; of Elementary Education (James\nF. Chamberlain), 458; of Indian\nEducation (Charles E. Burton), 917;\nof Manual Training (James E. Addicott), 599; of Music Education (Mrs.\nFr.^ces E. Clark), 675; of Normal\nSchools (flENRY G. Williams), 548; of\nPhysical Education (William W. Hastings), 746; of Science Instruction\n(Otis W. Caldwell), 790; of Secondary\nEducation (J. Stanley Brown), 480\nPresident's address, National Council of\nEducation (Joseph Swain), 340\nPrevention of tuberculosis in Indian schools\n(Joseph F. Murphy), 919\nProblem of the delinquent pupil. The, I\n(Bert Hall), 217; II (Julia Richman),\n222\n27\nPro( eedings of General Sessions, Journal of,\nProfessional training for teachers of secondary schools (D. McGregor), 581;\n(Thomas A. Hillyer), 587\nProgress and needs in elementary education\n(James F. Chamberlain), 458\nProgress in conservation (Hugo A. Winken werder), 803\nProgress in school administration (L. E.\nWolfe), 830\nProgress of education for the year (John\nW, Cook), 390\nProper balance between mental and\nmuscular training in the school curriculum (W. E. Garrison), 759; Discussion, 764\nProper relation of organized sports on\npublic playgrounds and in public schools,\nI (Charles E. Chadsey); 771; II (Mrs.\nLORNA HiGBEE LelAND), 774\nProposed\nchanges in the accrediting of\nhigh schools (C. P. Cary), 207\nProvince of state boards and state superin-\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntendents in the administration of public\neducation (Edward T. F.mrchild), 423\nProvince of state educational institutions in\nthe\nadm'inistration of public education\n433\n(W. O. Thompson), 430; Discussion,\nProvince of the common people in the\nadministration\nof\npublic\neducation\n(Homer H. Seerley), 415; Discussion,\nProvision for exceptional children in the\npublic\nschools of St\nIx>uis\n(Ben\nBlewett),\n421\nD. Brooks), 355;\n361 cf Boston (Strati'on\nof, 107\nPublic\nhealth. Should school be the bulwark\nPublic school the bulwark of public health\n(Henry Baird Favill), 107\nPublic schools for the exceptional child\n(Carroll G. Pearse), 873\nPublic schools, Hygiene in, 118; 123\nof, 129\nPublic\nschools. Moral training thru agency\nRandom,\nGilbert.\nin physics,\n503 — The recent movement\nRead,\nHenry.\nof Arts,\n669 — The American Federation\nReal-problem movement in its relation to\nthe teaching of geometry and algebra in\nsecondary schools (James F. Millis),\n519\nRecent movement in physics, The, 503\nReel, Estelle.— Secretary's Minutes, Demarks, partment\n924 ofIndian Education, 915; ReRelation\nscience, of\n817 elementary to high-school\nRelation of high school to community and\ncollege (Charles E. Chadsey), 203\nRelations of college and university (William EsTABROok Chancellor), 212\nRelations of the luiiversity to the secondary\nschool (Stratton D. Brooks), 192\nReorganization\nCommittee on,of43Departments, Report of\nReport\nof Board\nof Trustees, Twenty-third\nAnnual,\n24\nReport of Committee on Books and Tests\nPertaining to the Study of Exceptional\nand Mentally Deficient Children (Frank\nG. Bruner, Chairman), 901\nReport of Committee on Co-operation with\nEducational Organizations in Other\nCountries (Elmer Ellsworth Brown),\nReport of Committee on Investigation of\nManual Training Courses, 39\nReport of Committee on Moral Training in\nthe Public Schools (James M. Green388 wood, Chairman), 367; Discussion, 368\nReport\nof Committee\non Mrs. Leiter's\nQuestions,\n38\nReport of Committee on Provisions for\nExceptional Children in Public Schools,\nI (Carroll G. Pearse), 343; II\nOlive Jones), 346; III (Frank G.\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nBruner), 350; IV (Ben Bi.ewett),\n355; ^^ (Stratton D. Brooks), 361;\nVI (Luther\nH. Gulick), 365; Discussion, 365\nReport of Committee on Reorganization of\nDepartments, 43\nReport of Committee on Resolutions,\nGeneral Association, 34\nReport of the Committee on SecondarySchool Geography (James F. Chamberlain, Chairman), 820\nReport of Committee on Six-year Course of\nStudy (Gilbert B. Morrison, Chairman), 498\nReport of Committee on Terminology\n(Charles I. Rice, Chairman), 691\nReport of the Committee on the Topic:\nThe United States Government Materials\nThat Are Usable iii Secondary Education\n(Wesley N. Clifford, Chairman), 802;\nDiscussion, 803\n'\nReport of Committee on University Entrance Examinations in Art (Arthur B.\nClark, Chairman), 667\nReport of National Committee on Agricultural Education (Homer H. Seerley,\nChairman), 570\nReport of Progress by the Committee on\nthe Culture Element and Economy of\nTime in Education (James H. Baker,\nChairman), 373\nReport of Treasurer, Annual, for 1908-9, 20\nResiune of Indian work, A (Charles E.\nBurton), 917\nRetardation of pupils. How to minimize,\n182\n\nRice, Charles I. — Report of Committee\non Terminology, 691\nRich, Ednah A. — Art as related to the\nindustries from the standpoint of manual\ntraining, 621\nRichards, Mrs. Ellen H. — Application\nof household arts and sciences in the\nelementary schools, '473; Influence of\nindustrial arts and sciences upon rural\nand city home life, from the standpoint of\ndomestic science, 636\nRiCHEY, Joseph B.— What is possible and\ndesirable in the simplification of the\nelementar}' school course? 165\nRichman, Jl^lia. — ^What share of blame\nfor increase in number of truants and\nincorrigibles belongs to the school ? 222\nRiETz, Henry L.— An exposition of the\nIllinois syllabus on algebra for secondary\nschools, 511\nRoberts, W. E. — Discussion, 654\nRobertson, C. B. — The functions of the\ntraining school, 561\nRobertson, James W. — ^The MacDonald\nCollege movement, 92\nRobertson, William. — Discussion, 971\nRound-table: Physics and Chemistry, 503;\nHistory and Music, 507; Mathematics,\n:\n\nRoun51d1 Tables\n\nn-\n\nState and county superi\n\ncities, 312 tendents, 307 ; Superintendents of smaller\nRowE,\n\nH.\n\nM. — The university of commerce: What it should teach and why,\n\n705\nRural districts. Agricultural education for,\nRural\n954 schools and the people, 969\nRural schools. Supervision of, 397\nSabin, Ellen C. — Discussion, 787\nSt. I^uis Public Schools, Hygiene in, 123\nSalisbury, Albert. — Influence of industrial arts and sciences upon rural and\ncity home life, from the standpoint of\neconomic interests, 640;. Teacher-training in Great Britain, 573\nSCHAEFFER,\nNathan\nC. — Supervision of\nrural schools,\n397\nSchenck, Herbert Dana. — Discussion, 271\nSchool administration. Progress in, 830\nSchool Board, The ideal, 994\nSchool boards. Function of, 839\nSchool boards. Trade schools and, 833\nSchool hygiene, Playground as factor in, 257\nSchool hygiene, I (Wm. H. Maxwell),\n252; II (Geo. E. Johnson), 257; III\n(Woods Hutchinson), 262; IV (Frank\nAllport), 266\nSchool,\nObligation\nparents to the, 1012\nSchool sports,\n771; of774\nSchool system: Its adjustment to twentiethcentury conditions, 404.\n809 in relation to character-building,\nSchools\nI (Arthur Deerin Gall), 232; II\n(Mrs. Ella Lyman Cabot), 239; III\n(William L. Tomlins), 245; IV (John\nW. Abercrombie), 248\nScience course for first year in high school,\nschool 799\nin second\nScienc educat\ns,\ne\nio\nar\nScope and valnue of historyy in the high\n,\nschool. The (V. K. Frout.a),\n507\nSecondary-school\nGeography,\nReport of\nCommittee on, 820\nSecondarj'-school\nProfessional\ntraining for, 581, teachers,\n587\n\nSecondary schools. Science education in,\n799\nSecondary\nin, 492 schools. Vocational instruction\nSecretary's Minutes, Department of Art\nEducation, 645; of Business Education,\n701; of Child Study, 719; of Elementary\nEducation, 457; of Higher Education,\n523; of Indian Education, 915; of\nKindergarten Education, 437 ; of Library\nAdministration, 843 ; of Manual Training, 597; of Music Education, 673; of\nNational Council, 336; of Normal\nSchools, 547; of Physical Education, 745;\nof Rural and Agricultural Education,\n953; of School Administration, 829; of\nScience Instruction, 789; of Secondary\nEducation, 479; of Special Education,\n871; of Superintendence, 159; of\nWomen's Organizations, 993\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "I026\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSeerley, Homer H. — ^National aid in the\npreparation of teachers of agriculture for\nthe public schools, 965; Province of the\ncommon people in the administration of\npublic education, 415; The Davis bill in\nits relation to normal schools, 570\nSewall, Caroline. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Kindergarten\nEducation,\n437\nSharp, Frank Chapman. — Some experiments in moral education, 141\nShawan, J. A. — Discussion, 386\nShav/e, Elsie M. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Music Education, 673\nSheppard, J. J.— High school of commerce\nor commercial department? 712\nSherry, S. Toledo. — Elementary industrial training in the day school 950\nShould hygiene l^ecome a department of\nthe public-school system ? (G. W. A.\nLuckey), 751; Discussion, 75O\nSiDERS, Walter R. — In class instruction,\nhow can the individual be reached ? 175;\nDiscussion, 465\nSimplification of elementary course (Joseph\nB. Richey), 165\nSlocum, William F. — Athletic competition\nin college and pieparatory school, or competition preparatory to entering college,\n765\nSlow pupils in (a) elementary schools; (6)\nhigh schools. I (H. V. Hotchkiss), 326;\nII (E. S. Dreher), 330\nSmiley, William H. — Need of investigation of the culture element and economy\nof\n664 time in education, 377; Discussion,\nSmith, Mrs, Gertrude R. — Art in the\nhome, 649; Secretary's Minutes, Department ofArt Education, 645\nSnyder, Z. X. — Discussion, 414; 569\nSome means of awakening and maintaining\nan interest in agricultural education\n(E. E. Balcomb), 959; Discussion, 964\nSongs, Our national, 605\nSpecial agricultural high schools (Dick J.\nCrosby), 974\nSpillman, Harry C. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Business Education, 701\nStandards for training of teachers, 592\nStatus of music in the United States, The\n(Mrs. Frances E. Clark), 675\nStatus of the high school and its relation to\ncolleges and universities (E. J. Townsend), 794\nStenography, Desirability of a uniform\nsystem of, 716\nStudy and use of books (Francis G.\nBlaif), 852; Discussion, 851)\nStudy\n1009 at home (Theda Gildemeister),\nSupervision of rural schools (Nathan C.\nSchaeffer), 397; Discussion, 400\nSutton, William Seneca. — Discussion, 421;\n769; 964\nSwain, Joseph. — President's address. Na-\n\nASSOCIATION\ncussion,Council\n534 of Education, 340; Distional\n\nSystematic care of the exceptional child\n(Olive Jones), 346\nTeacher's\nresponsibility\nchild (S. L.\nHeeter), 932to the Indian\nTeacher-training in Great Britain (Albert\nSalisbury), 573; Discussion, 579\nThird Hague Conference, Education and\nthe petition to the, 88\nThomas, A. O. — Who should determine\nstandards and courses for the training\nof teachers, and how should such standards be determined ? 592 ; Discussion, 764\nThompson, A. C. — Conditions which demand industrial training in elementary\nschools, 316\nThompson, Frank E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Higher Education, 523\nThompson, W. O. — Province of state\neducational institutions in the administration ofpublic education, 430\nTillman, John N. — Discussion, 533\nTobitt, Edith. — Plan of a course of instruction inthe use of libraries, and the\nresults accomplished, 848\nToMLiNS,\nL. — Music as a moral\ninfluence,William\n245\nTowar, J. D. — Discussion, 972\nTownsend, E. J.— The status of the high\nschool\nand its\nuniversities,\n794 relation to colleges and\nTrade\nschools 833\nand school boards (Charles\nF. Perry),\n606 schools from economic standpoint,\nTrade\nTraining of teachers, standards for, 592\nTraining\nas a school of observation\nwood), school\n557\nand practice. The (Samuel E. HarTraining school, Functions of, 561\nTravelingmitteeScholarships,\nReport of Comon, 42\nTreasurer's Annual Report for 1908-9, 20\nTreatment of geometry for secondary instruction (Earle R. Hedrick), 515\nTruancy: A few causes and a few cures\n(Bert Hall), 217\nTruants and incorrigibles: What share of\nblame for increase in number of, belongs\nto the school ? (Julia Richman), 222\nTruants, indigent and pauper children, 877\nTrustees, Board of. Twenty-third Annual\nReport of, 24\nTuberculosis\nin Indian schools. Prevention\nof, Qig\nUnity in education. Preservation of, 485\nUniversity of commerce: What it should\nleach and cussion,why\n710 (H. M. Rowe), 705; DisUniversity, Relation of, to the secondary\nschool, 192\nUntrained teachers: Is their employment\nthe cause or result of low salaries?\nI (David Felmley), 307; II (V. L.\nRoy), 308\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nVan Cleve, Edward M. — The outlook\nfor the blind youth, 889; Secretary's\nMinutes, Department of Special Education, 871\nVan Sant, F^lizabeth. — Possibility or\ndesirability of a national, uniform system\nof stenography, 716\nVocational instruction in secondary schools,\nWard-school\nprincipal, The (Milton C.\n492\nPotter), 322; (B. E. Nelson), 324\nWare, Mrs. Alma Oliver. — Modification\nof kindergarten and elementary handwork to accord with modern educational\nideals, 445\nWhat does each, the iibrar}'' and the public\nschool, contribute to the making of the\neducated man ? (Charles E. Chadsey),\n860\nWhat education has done for the Indian\n(H. B. Peairs), 938\nWhat shall the first-year high-school science\nbe? (Charles . Emerson Peet), S09;\nDiscussion, 815\nWhite, J. H.— The child in the group, 733\nWhiteford, J. A. — Discussion, 859\nWho\nshould determine\nstandards\nand\n\ncourses for the training of teachers, and\nhow should such standards be determined? (A. O. Thomas), 592\nbers), 720 play (Will Grant ChamWhy children\nWilliams, Henry G. — The place of the\nnormal school in a system of public education, 548; Discussion, 567, 568\nWiLLiSTON, Samuel W. — Has the American college failed to fulfill its function?\n526; Discussion, 533\nWinkenwerder,\nconservation, 803Hugo A. — Progress in\nWithers, John W. — The functions of the\ncity training-school, 296\nWolfe, L. E.\nistration,—830 Progress in school adminWomen's organizations, Scope of department of (Laura Drake Gill), 70\nWooDLEY, O. I. — Industrial education,\nWork, Cree T. — The importance of instruction in arts and sciences for home\nlife, 628\nWoRK^ Hervey B. — ^How can the curriculum of the elementary school be\nenriched\n312 ? 466\n\n"}
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{"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "L13\nN3A13\n1909\n\nNational Education Association\nof the United States\nAddresses and proceedings...\n\nPLEASE DO\nCARDS\n\nNOT\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\n"}
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